Datasets:

Protao

/

small-0715_shard6_part0000

like 0

Economics, Sustainability, and Reaction Kinetics of Biomass Torrefaction | IntechOpen Biomass torrefaction is capable of significantly improving the quality and properties of solid biofuels. It is often referred to as complex reactions involving the decomposition of lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose as well as moisture evaporation due to several reactions involved. To evaluate the efficiency of the torrefaction process as well as the reactor performance, considering the economics of biomass torrefaction including the total production cost and capital investment, production capacity, feedstock input, feedstock type, pre-treatment, procurement and transportation costs is of high importance. In this Chapter, the economics of torrefaction process will be discussed. In addition, ways to ensure competitiveness of torrefaction technology will be explained provided factors including the use of plant with larger capacity, integrated system features such as pelletization, and moisture content of the feedstock, are properly considered. Thereafter, the concept of sustainability of biomass torrefaction in relation with the environmental factor (sustainable forest management), social factor (revitalization of rural areas), and economic factor (fossil fuels dependence and renewable energy consumption) will be presented. Submitted: June 4th, 2020 Reviewed: October 9th, 2020 Published: October 28th, 2020 DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.94400 IntechOpen Biotechnological Applications of Biomass Edited by Thalita Peixoto Basso From the Edited Volume Biotechnological Applications of Biomass Edited by Thalita Peixoto Basso, Thiago Olitta Basso and Luiz Carlos Basso Chapter metrics overview Abstract Biomass torrefaction is capable of significantly improving the quality and properties of solid biofuels. It is often referred to as complex reactions involving the decomposition of lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose as well as moisture evaporation due to several reactions involved. To evaluate the efficiency of the torrefaction process as well as the reactor performance, considering the economics of biomass torrefaction including the total production cost and capital investment, production capacity, feedstock input, feedstock type, pre-treatment, procurement and transportation costs is of high importance. In this Chapter, the economics of torrefaction process will be discussed. In addition, ways to ensure competitiveness of torrefaction technology will be explained provided factors including the use of plant with larger capacity, integrated system features such as pelletization, and moisture content of the feedstock, are properly considered. Thereafter, the concept of sustainability of biomass torrefaction in relation with the environmental factor (sustainable forest management), social factor (revitalization of rural areas), and economic factor (fossil fuels dependence and renewable energy consumption) will be presented. Keywords biomass fuels torrefaction renewable energy lignocellulosic lignin 1. Introduction Biomass has been widely recognized as an important source of renewable energy due to its inherent properties such as availability, abundant supply, carbon stability, organic nature, etc. Unlike non-renewable resources such as oil and coal, biomass is a renewable natural resource and organic material mostly derived from animals and plants for the production of fuels at local and commercial scales, which is the dream of many biofuel producers and energy experts over the years. Interest in biomass as a renewable resource is increasing with time thanks to its ability to be burned directly for heat or converted to renewable fuels via several thermal decomposition methods including torrefaction, gasification, hydrotreating, carbonization, and pyrolysis [1,2,3,4]. It is important to know that biomass which can be crops, wood, landfill gas, alcohol fuels, and garbage contribute the largest percentage of energy used in many sectors including the electric power, commercial, residential, commercial, transportation, and industrial. For instance, wastes derived from biomass and woods are used to produce electricity in electric power sector, renewable natural gas derived from municipal solid waste (MSW) are consumed and sold in commercial sector whereas the wood pellets and firewood are mostly consumed in residential sector. In addition, the plant and animal-based biomass are used to generate liquid biofuels including biomass-based diesel and ethanol which finds major application in most transportation and industrial sectors. Biomass can be converted to energy via several methods such as biological conversion for the production of fuels (gaseous and liquid), chemical conversion for producing liquid fuels, thermochemical conversion for the production of liquid, gaseous, and solid fuels; and direct combustion to generate heat. In biological conversion process, biomass can be converted into renewable natural gas or biogas [5] through anaerobic digestion method or ethanol through fermentation process. Meanwhile, in chemical conversion process, greases, animal fats, and plant-based biomass such as vegetable oils can be converted into fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) which are mostly utilized for the production of biodiesel through transesterification method. On the other hand, through thermal decomposition methods including torrefaction, gasification and pyrolysis, biomass can be thermochemically converted to produce bio-oil (hydrotreating), hydrogen, methane, renewable diesel (pyrolysis), or synthesis gas and carbon monoxide (CO) (gasification) [1,2,4]. Furthermore, biomass can be converted to energy in direct combustion method such as the generation of electricity in steam turbines, industrial process heat, and heating buildings. Generally, biomass sources for energy include but not limited to human sewage and animal manure, biogenic materials in MSW (wood wastes, yard, food, wool products, cotton, paper), waste materials and agricultural crops (woody plants, switchgrass, sugar cane, soybeans, corn, etc.), and wood processing wastes (paper mills, sawdust, wood chips, wood pellets, firewood) [6,7,8,9,10,11]. For easy storage and transportation, biomass can be interestingly made or densified into briquettes for producing fuels and biogas [5]. Briquettes are the solid biofuels with compact shape and size for producing renewable energy which can be made with binders [6,8,9,10,11] or without the use of binders [7]. Biomass has been densified into solid briquettes in the past using the same or different materials including corncob, rice bran [8,9,10], mesocarp fiber (MF), fruit fresh bunches (FFB), palm kernel shell (PKS) [8,9,10,11], bagasse, tea waste, cotton stalk, sugarcane bagasse (SCB), empty fruit bunches (EFB), etc. Most of the performance related problems such as low yield and energy content are linked to the effectiveness of the binder materials, type and compositions [6]. As a form of thermal decomposition processes of converting biomass to energy, torrefaction is presently receiving wide attentions for producing high grade solid biofuels with greater energy density/high heating value (HHV). Torrefaction process is capable of significantly improving the quality and properties of solid biofuels. It improves the physicochemical properties of biomass for a long-term storage. In addition, torrefied biomass can serve as a good replacement for coal in the generation of heat and electricity. The three common types of torrefaction types are the dry torrefaction (DT), wet torrefaction (WT), and ionic-liquid assisted torrefaction (ILA) [6]. The DT is usually carried out in a gas-phase environment, while the WT is often performed under pressure of a liquid-phase environment. Meanwhile, the ILA is a combination of a typical torrefaction and a pretreatment process, which is aimed at improving the reaction rate. The ionic-liquid assisted torrefaction (ILA) usually involves the use of ionic liquids which is often referred to as green solvents due to their ability to dissolve lignocellulosic biomass under normal conditions due to their special properties such as recyclability and high thermal stability [4]. However, an in-depth understanding on the economics and sustainability of the torrefaction process is lacking. With the aim of giving new insight into further study, a comprehensive overview on the reactor design for commercialization purposes, reaction kinetics and mechanism, economics, as well as the sustainability of biomass torrefaction is presented in the next section of this chapter. 2. Biomass torrefaction: A general overview Biomass torrefaction is the process of producing high-quality and attractive solid biofuels from several sources of ordinary agro residues or woody biomass, with the sole aim of improving biomass properties and performance for gasification [1,2,3] and combustion applications via thermal decomposition at temperature ranging from 200–300°C [12] under atmospheric pressure. Through torrefaction, a coal-like material can be generated from biomass with superior fuel properties and quality when compared with the parent materials. Torrefaction is a mild pyrolysis process where biomass is thermally treated in a controlled environment (in a non-fluidized bed reactor or fluidized bed) with low or no traces of air or oxygen [13] resulting in the production of torrefied biomass which is water resistant, brittle and stable with less energy intensive and easy grindability. During torrefaction, drying of biomass and partial devolatilization occurs leading to mass reduction without losing or decreasing the energy content. Heating biomass at typical temperatures between 200°C and 300°C often lead to the evaporation of moisture or unbound water (H 2O) through thermo-condensation process (at temperature above 160°C) and the removal of volatiles (low-calorific parts), resulting in the decomposition of hemicellulose in the biomass hence the transformation of biomass from a low-quality fuel into an excellent high-quality fuel. In a bid to improve the biochemical, chemical, and physical properties of biomass, the basic principle behind the biomass torrefaction process can thus be summarized as the removal of volatiles via several decomposition reactions. With torrefaction, there is no biological activity, hydrophobicity and higher durability can be obtained, excellent grindability and higher bulk density can be achieved. In addition, more homogenous product and a fuel comparable to coal can be produced with higher calorific value as compared with original feedstock. It should be noted that the torrefaction processing parameters such as the residence time and torrefaction temperature have significant effects on the overall properties and performance of torrefied biomass. In other words, there is a direct relationship between the torrefaction processing parameters and the physicochemical properties of torrefied biomass. For instance, high torrefaction temperature and short residence time tend to optimize the material flow via the torrefaction reactors thereby producing a cost-efficient torrefied biomass on a large scale. By increasing the torrefaction temperature, the fixed carbon and ash contents in biomass can be markedly increased with a decrease in volatile contents. This can lead to a decrease in atomic ratios of oxygen-carbon (O/C) and hydrogen-Carbon (H/C), as well as decreasing the oxygen content resulting in improved calorific value, which ultimately enhance the overall fuel features and performance of the biomass products. Moreover, the acid content in biomass materials can be significantly reduced with increasing the torrefaction temperature. The decrease in the acidity of the biomass say bio-oil for example [14] can be attributed to the fact that the acetic acid solely originates from the deacetylation reaction and decomposition of hemicellulose component of the biomass. In addition, increasing the torrefaction temperature can reduce the moisture content of the biomass, hence improving the quality of the biomass. By this, it can be said that torrefaction can increase the carbon yield of aromatic hydrocarbon and decrease the number of compounds containing oxygen in the biomass such as furans, sugars, and acids [15]. Furthermore, an increase in the residence time and torrefaction temperature can improve the hydrophobicity and the calorific value and lignin contents can be increased by decreasing the contents of hemicellulose and cellulose [16]. While studying the influence of torrefaction temperature on the production composition, physicochemical properties, structure, and yield of bio-oil [14], an increase in torrefaction temperature reportedly reduce the crystallinity index as a result of recrystallization and degradation, increase the pore volume and the residual carbon contents, decrease the pyrolysis peak temperature and increases the carbon-carbon contents. The residence time during torrefaction process can also directly influences the biomass properties including the energy density, surface area, and grindability. For instance, increasing the residence time tends to increase the energy density and grindability, leading to the production of biomass with fine and small particle sizes thereby resulting in larger surface area. In addition, due to the disintegration of the fiber structure of biomass, increasing the residence time can increase the fixed carbon and volatile matter compositions. In other words, the higher the residence time, the better the properties and compositions of biomass materials. Heating value can also be increased with an increase in residence time and the disintegration of fiber structure continues with increasing the residence time, thereby enhancing the grindability and improving the energy density of the biomass products. Meanwhile, grindability is an important property in biomass torrefaction which is the resistance of biomass materials to be ground. In terms of composition, biomass can be broadly categorized as non-lignocellulosic (mostly rich in fatty acids and protein) with animal manure and fat, and sewage sludge as the main components; or lignocellulosic with hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin as the major components, together with small amounts of minerals, proteins, and pectins [17,18,19,20,21]. As indicated inFigure 1, torrefaction process involve several stages ranging from the initial to the solids cooling [22,23,24,25]. Figure 1. The main stages in the total torrefaction process. Figure 2. Mechanism of the thermal treatment during dry torrefaction. Figure 3. Binderless briquetting technology. As compared with the original biomass, torrefied biomass offers many advantages including homogeneity, increased density in briquettes, reduced grinding energy, hydrophobicity, increased energy density, and lower moisture content. As a source of a power source, with torrefied biomass, low net carbon energy source and renewable fuel for baseload power can be achieved. 3. Economics of biomass torrefaction While ensuring the conversion of biomass into renewable energy for the benefits of mankind, it is necessary to consider the economics aspect of biomass torrefaction. That is, the costs of generating high-grade fuel should be affordable. The economic features of the torrefaction process covers the total production cost, total capital investment, production capacity, feedstock input, feedstock type, procurement costs, transportation costs, pre-treatment, etc. [4]. For effective economy analysis, economic optimization of the system, including the extended fuel supply to application system, and integrated process between torrefaction and gasification as well as torrefaction and gasification should be properly looked into. The cost of the torrefaction process which is higher than that of coal at times can be greatly reduced by improving the empirical cumulation and torrefaction plant equipment size and as well as the utilization of carbon credits market. The total costs during the torrefaction process is often influenced by the important sensitivity parameters including the torrefaction plant CAPEX and torrefaction mass yield, drying technology, biomass moisture content, logistics equipment, biomass premium, and the quantity of the available biomass [2,3]. Meanwhile, the depreciation, biomass delivery costs, energy consumption, labor, capital expenditure, biomass delivered costs are the common influencing factors for production with CAPEX. Biomass torrefaction is widely regarded as a breakthrough technology accounting for the world largest renewable energy which reduces the investment for co-firing application as well as decreasing the storage and handling costs thereby making the process economically viable and serving as a potential way of replacing coal in power plants. 4. Sustainability of biomass torrefaction Biomass torrefaction involves the conversion of biomass into a coal-like material with improved fuel properties as compared with the original biomass. It is presently a vital tool for the sustainable development in many developed and developing countries with the aim of supporting large scale utilization of bioenergy through the reduction of carbon dioxide (CO 2) at source and other emissions which may be harmful to the community. That is, the production of solid sustainable energy can be obtained through biomass torrefaction. It is important to note that biomass torrefaction can pose threats to humanity since some harmful toxins and greenhouse gases are usually generated and released into the atmosphere during biomass combustion resulting into environmental problem. Carbon dioxide (CO 2) remain the greenhouse gas with the largest volume and percentage released into the atmosphere when compared to other greenhouse gases. Biomass as a renewable energy which has some similar features with fossil fuels still have some environmental challenges. It can cause deforestation and it is not entirely clean. Sustainability concept of biomass torrefaction can be properly broadly categorized into three factors; (1) economic factor, (2) environmental factor, and (3) social factor [4]. Generally speaking, the economic factor is majorly related to the fossil fuels dependence and renewable energy consumption whereas the environmental factor is associated with the sustainable forest management. On the other hand, the social factor is linked with the regeneration of rural areas and more jobs. 5. Reaction kinetics of biomass torrefaction To a large extent, torrefaction process can influence the overall kinetics and mechanism [35] as well as the reactivity, reaction behavior, and thermal conversion performance of biomass which is often estimated through thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). Through TGA, the reaction kinetics parameters including the mechanism function, pre-exponential factor, and activation energy [36,37], as well as the thermal features including temperature at peak value, reaction period, peak value, and thermogravimetric (TG) data can be determined. In addition, biomass torrefaction is often regarded as a complex mechanism due to the several reactions involved including the decomposition of the common biomass components including lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose as well as moisture evaporation. The decomposition of the biomass components depends to some extent on the temperature at which the torrefaction process is carried out. For instance, at the temperature range of 160–900°C, lignin slowly decomposes, cellulose decomposes at 315–400°C, while the hemicellulose decomposes at the lowest temperature ranging from 220–315°C [38]. For instance, while the torrefaction of hemicellulose leads to more devolatilization and carbonization, the depolymerization of cellulose plays a vital role in the decomposition mechanism. The study on the kinetics of biomass torrefaction is very important because it represents the torrefaction reaction thereby predicting the optimum thermal degradation conditions which can ultimately enhance the process control for continuous torrefaction reactor [39,40]. Meanwhile, at the temperature range of 230–300°C [41], the kinetics of torrefaction reactions can be best described by a two-step mechanism; cellulose and hemicellulose decomposition. 6. Conclusions Biomass upgrading for the production of high-grade solid fuels with greater energy density, excellent grindability, and enhanced durability can be achieved by subjecting the original raw biomass to thermal mild pretreatment process under inert atmosphere without the presence of air or oxygen. This process is commonly referred to as torrefaction. The major aim is to improve the chemical, thermal, and physical properties of biomass for a long-term storage through the elimination of oxygen, reduction of moisture content and change of chemical compositions. After torrefaction, some challenges pertaining to technological applications of biomass such as difficulty to obtain a small particle size and high oxygen–carbon ratio, can be properly addressed. Upon the mild thermal pyrolysis of raw biomass in oxygen-free or N 2atmosphere at moderate temperatures over a period of time, the biomass fiber structure tends to break down which makes the biomass easy to grind, hence an enhanced energy density. By this process, the properties of raw biomass including low calorific value, grindability, hydrogen-carbon and, hygroscopicity, can be greatly improved. At first, torrefaction process can reduce the weight of the biomass to about 30%, but the final solid biofuel produced can retain about 90% of the original biomass energy content. As compared to the original raw biomass, torrefied biomass can serve as a good replacement for coal in the generation of heat and electricity, as well as input for gasification, densification, and iron making processes, with many positive attributes, like grinding and burning like coal, lower ash and sulfur content, lower transport and shipping costs, lower feedstock costs, and the ability to produce non-intermittent renewable energy. Hence, further studies to understand the mechanism behind the torrefaction process in producing more uniform biomass products and the influence of torrefaction process parameters on the biomass feedstock upgrading is necessary to open the market for the mass production of high-grade solid biofuels with enhanced energy density and hydrophobicity for a long-term storage. Attributed to the several reactions involved, biomass torrefaction is sometimes referred to as the complex reactions including the decomposition of the common biomass components including lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose as well as moisture evaporation. The economic, environmental, and social factors are the three major concepts of sustainability as regards the biomass torrefaction. While the economic factor is majorly related to the renewable energy consumption, the environmental factor focused more on the sustainable forest management while the regeneration of rural areas and more jobs is related to social factor. The economics of biomass torrefaction including the total production cost, total capital investment, production capacity, feedstock input, feedstock type, pre-treatment, and procurement costs, transportation costs are necessary to evaluate the efficiency of the torrefaction process as well as the reactor performance. Nomenclature MSW municipal solid waste FAME fatty acid methyl esters CO carbon monoxide CO 2 carbon dioxide O 2 oxygen H 2 O water HHV high heating value PKS palm kernel shell MF mesocarp fiber FFB fruit fresh bunches EFB empty fruit bunches DT dry torrefaction WT wet torrefaction ILA ionic-liquid assisted torrefaction TGA thermogravimetric analysis SCB sugarcane bagasse CAPEX capital expenditures O/C oxygen–carbon H/C hydrogen-carbon TG thermogravimetric References 1. Xin S, Mi T, Liu X, Huang F. Effect of torrefaction on the pyrolysis characteristics of high moisture herbaceous residues. Energy. 2018;152:586-593 2. Bergman PCA, Kiel JHA. Torrefaction for Biomass Upgrading. In Proceedings of the 14th European Biomass Conference, Paris, France. 2005;17-21 3. Chen Q, Zhou JS, Liu BJ, Mei QF, Luo ZY. Influence of torrefaction pretreatment on biomass gasification technology. Chin. Sci. Bull. 2011;56:1449-1456 4. Olugbade TO, Ojo OT. Biomass torrefaction for the production of high-grade solid biofuels: a review. Bioenerg. Res. DOI: 10.1007/s12155-020-10138-3 5. Akinnuli BO, Olugbade TO. (2014) Development and performance evaluation of piggery and water hyacinth waste digester for biogas production. Int J Engineering and Innovative Tech. 2014;3:271-276 6. Olugbade T, Ojo O, Mohammed T. Influence of binders on combustion properties of biomass briquettes: A recent review. Bioenergy Research. 2019;12:241-259 7. Olugbade TO, Ojo OT. Binderless briquetting technology for lignite briquettes: a review. Energy, Ecology and Environment. DOI: 10.1007/s40974-020-00165-3 8. Olugbade TO, Mohammed TI. Fuel developed from rice bran briquettes and palm kernel shells. Int. Journal of Energy Engineering. 2015;5:9-15 9. Mohammed TI, Olugbade TO. Characterization of briquettes from rice bran and palm kernel shell. Int. Journal of Material Science Innovations.2015;3:60-67 10. Mohammed TI, Olugbade TO. Burning rate of briquettes produced from rice bran and palm kernel shells. Int. Journal of Material Science Innovations.2015;3:68-73 11. Oke PK, Olugbade TO, Olaiya NG. Analysis of the effect of varying palm kernel particle sizes on the calorific value of palm kernel briquette. British Journal of Applied Science and Technology. 2016;14:1-5 12. Pestaño LDB, José WI. Production of solid fuel by torrefaction using coconut leaves as renewable biomass. International Journal of Renewable Energy Development. 2016;5(3):187-197 13. Nunes LJR, Matias JCO, Catalão JPS. A review on torrefied biomass pellets as a sustainable alternative to coal in power generation. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2014;40:153-160 14. Zheng Y, Tao L, Yang X, Huang Y, Liu C, Gu J, Zheng Z. Effect of the torrefaction temperature on the structural properties and pyrolysis behavior of biomass. BioRes. 2017;12(2):3425-3447 15. Chen D, Li Y, Deng M, Wang J, Chen M, Yan B, Yuan Q. Effect of torrefaction pretreatment and catalytic pyrolysis on the pyrolysis poly-generation of pine wood. Bioresource Technol. 2016;214:615-622. DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2016.04.058 16. Li MF, Chen LX, Li X, Chen C Z, Lai YC, Xiao X, Wu YY. Evaluation of the structure and fuel properties of lignocelluloses through carbon dioxide torrefaction. Energ. Convers. Manage. 2016;119:463-472. DOI: 10.1016/j.enconman.2016.04.064 17. Hossain N. Characterization of novel moss biomass, Bryum dichotomum Hedw as solid fuel feedstock. Bioenergy Res. 2020;13:50-60 18. Pathomrotsakun J, Nakason K, Kraithong W, Khemthong P, Panyapinyopol B, Pavasat P. Fuel properties of biochar from torrefaction of ground coffee residue: effect of process temperature, time, and sweeping gas. Biomass Convers Biorefin. DOI: 10.1007/s13399-020-00632-1 19. Grycova B, Pryszcz A, Krzack S, Lestinsky P. Torrefaction of biomass pellets using the thermogravimetric analyser. Biomass Convers Biorefin. DOI: 10.1007/s13399-020-00621-4 20. Manatura K. Inert torrefaction of sugarcane bagasse to improve its fuel properties. Case Stud Therm Eng. 2020;19:100623 21. Azevedo SG, Sequeira T, Santos M, Mendes L. Biomass related sustainability: a review of the literature and interpretive structural modeling. Energy. 2019;171:1107-1125 22. Mochizuki Y, Ma J, Kubota Y, Uebo K, Tsubouchi N. Production of high-strength and low-gasification reactivity coke from low-grade carbonaceous materials by vapor deposition of tar. Fuel Process Technol. 2020;203:106384 23. Puig-Arnavat M, Bruno JC. Alberto Coronas, Review and analysis of biomass gasification models. Renew Sust Energ Rev. 2010;14:2841-2851 24. Taba LE, Irfan MF, Daud WAMW. The effect of temperature on various parameters in coal, biomass and CO-gasification: a review. Renew Sust Energ Rev. 2012;16:5584-5596 25. Pirraglia A, Gonzalez R, Saloni D, Denig J. Technical and economic assessment for the production of torrefied lignocellulosic biomass pellets in the US. Energy Convers Manag. 2013;66:153-164 26. Dubey MK, Pang S, Walker J. Changes in chemistry, color, dimensional stability and fungal resistance of Pinusradiata D. Don wood with oil heat treatment. Holzforschung. 2012;66:49-57 27. Pfriem A, Zauer M, Wagenfuhr A. Alteration of the unsteady sorption behaviour of maple ( Acer pseudoplatanus L.) and spruce (Piceaabies (L.) Karst.) due to thermal modification. Holzforschung 2010;64(2):235-241 28. Ates S, Akyildiz MH, Ozdemir H. Effects of heat treatment on calabrian pine ( Pinus brutia ten.) wood. Bioresources 2009;4(3):1032-1043 29. Borrega M, Karenlampi PP. Mechanical behavior of heat-treated spruce (Piceaabies) wood at constant moisture content and ambient humidity. Holz Roh Werkst 2008;66:63-69. 30. Hakkou M, Petrissans M, Gerardin P, Zoulalian A. Investigations of the reasons for fungal durability of heat-treated beech wood. Polym Degrad Stabil 2006;91:393-7 31. Tjeerdsma BF, Militz H. Chemical changes in hydrothermal treated wood: FTIR analysis of combined hydrothermal and dry heat-treated wood. Holz Roh Werkst. 2005;63:102-11 32. Kamdem DP, Pizzi A, Jermannaud A. Durability of heat-treated wood. Holz Roh Werkst. 2002;60:1-6 33. Pelaez-Samaniego MR, Yadama V, Lowell E, Espinoza-Herrera R. A review of wood thermal pretreatments to improve wood composite properties. Wood Sci Technol. 2013;47(6):1285-319 34. Funke A, Ziegler F. Hydrothermal carbonization of biomass: a summary and discussion of chemical mechanisms for process engineering. Biofuels, Bioprod Biorefin. 2010;4:160-177 35. Vyazovkin S, Burnham AK, Criado JM, Pérez-Maqueda LA, Popescu C, SbirrazzuoliN. ICTAC kinetics committee recommendations for performing kinetic computations on thermal analysis data. Thermochim Acta. 2011;520:1-19. 36. Xu Y, Zhang Y, Zhang G, Guo Y, Zhang J, Li G. Pyrolysis characteristics and kinetics of two Chinese low-rank coals. J Therm Anal Calorim. 2015;122:975-84. 37. Xu Y, Zhang Y, Zhang G, Guo Y. Low temperature pyrolysates distribution and kinetics of Zhaotong lignite. Energy Convers Manage. 2016;114:11-19 38. Chen WH, Peng J, Bi XT. A state-of-art review of biomass torrefaction, densification and applications, RenewSust Energ Rev. 2015;44:847-866 39. Prins MJ, Ptasinski KJ, Janssen FJJG. Torrefaction of wood, Part 1. Weight loss kinetics J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis. 2006;77:28-34 40. Onsree T, Tippayawong N, Williams T, McCullough K, Barrow E, Pogaku R, Lauterbach J. Torrefaction of pelletized corn residues with wet flue gas. Bioresour Technol. 2019;285:1213302 41. Li SX, Chen CZ, Li MF, Xiao X. Torrefaction of corncob to produce charcoal under nitrogen and carbon dioxide atmospheres. Bioresour Technol. 2018;249:348-353

https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/73760

Top Things to Do in Guadeloupe Learn what to see on a visit to the Guadeloupe islands, which offer beautiful beaches, rainforests, forts, colorful markets, and more. (with a map). Caribbean 9 Top Things to Do in Guadeloupe What to see, do, taste, and experience on a visit to the Guadeloupe islands johnmburgess / Flickr / CC BY-SA 2.0 With five main islands—La Désirade, Les Saintes, Grande-Terre, Basse-Terre, and Marie-Galante—and rich history, there are numerous attractions inGuadeloupe, and you're sure to enjoy exploring this gorgeous French Caribbean archipelago. This area located betweenAntiguaand Dominica in the French West Indies offers visitors everything from colorful local markets to white sandy beaches on the Atlantic and Caribbean to tropical forests and an opportunity to hike up a volcano. And food lovers can indulge in some unique tasty cuisine with influences from France, India, and Africa. 01 of 09 Explore Pointe des Châteaux, Saint-Francois, Grande-Terre Jurkos / Getty Images Address Pointe des Châteaux, Saint-François 97118 , Guadeloupe Pointe des Châteaux (Castle Head) is located at the easternmost tip of the island of Grande-Terre and recognized as a unique area for biodiversity and archaeological riches. The site features majestic rock structures naturally carved by the crashing waves of the Atlantic Ocean. A hiking trail leads to the point marked by a giant cross and offers spectacular panoramic views of Grande-Terre and the distant island of La Désirade. 02 of 09 Check out Guadeloupe National Park, Basse-Terre Danita Delimont / Getty Images Address Monteran Saint Claude, Petit-Bourg 97120 , Guadeloupe Phone +590 590 41 55 55 Guadeloupe National Park on Basse-Terre was designated a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve in 1992, along with the nearby Grand Cul-de-Sac Marin Nature Reserve. The park includes the largest rainforest in the Lesser Antilles and is known for its biological diversity, including over 300 tree species, 270 varieties of fern, and 90 types of orchids. Wildlife includes more than 10 species of mammals and almost 30 species of birds (among them the indigenous black woodpecker). Hiking trails lead to the popular Carbet Falls and Cascade aux Ecrevissess (Crayfish Falls); the Route de la Traversée is a scenic drive that runs through the park. More adventurous visitors can try climbing to the summit of the active La Soufrière volcano (the last eruption was 1977) or take a jeep safari. 03 of 09 Climb La Soufriere, Saint-Claude, Basse-Terre BRUSINI Aurlien / hemis.fr / Getty Images Address La Grande Soufrière, Saint-Claude 97120 , Guadeloupe The highest peak in the Lesser Antilles (with a summit reaching 4,812 feet/1,467 meters), the mildly active La Soufriere volcano—the last eruption took place in 1977—is affectionately referred to as La Grande Dame(an elderly woman of great prestige) by Guadeloupeans. It is located on Basse-Terre in the heart of the national park, and many visitors take the vigorous hike to the summit for views of the Guadeloupe archipelago and other nearby islands. Afterward, you can take a relaxing dip in les Bains Jaunes(yellow baths), which are fed by warm (86 degrees F/30 degrees C) sulfurous water that flows from natural hot springs—perfect for revitalizing trail-weary muscles. 04 of 09 Learn About Fort Napoléon, Terre-de-Haut, Les Saintes Atlantide Phototravel / Getty Images Address Rue De Coquelet , Terre-de-Haut 97137 , Guadeloupe Fort Napoléon is located on the island of Terre-de-Haut, the larger of the two inhabited islands comprising Les Saintes. The fort was rebuilt in the mid-1800s following the destruction of its predecessor, Fort Louis, in a battle with the British in 1809. Named for Napoleon III, Fort Napoléon was restored in the 1980s and today is both a historical site and cultural museum, including details on the Battle of the Saintes in 1782. The museum also has a collection of modern art depicting the Saintes' lifestyle. Within the grounds lies the Jardin Exotique du Fort Napoleon, a botanical garden for succulent plants and populated with iguanas. The fort also has one of the best viewpoints in the Caribbean, overlooking Les Saintes Bay and with vistas stretching to the islands of Marie-Galante and La Désirade. Fort Napoleon is open every day except holidays. 05 of 09 See Marine Life at the Grand Cul-de-Sac Marine Nature Reserve BRUSINI Aurlien / hemis.fr / Getty Images Address Grand Cul-de-Sac, St Barthélemy Protected by a 15-mile long coral reef, the Grand Cul-de-Sac Marin Nature Reserve, ranked a "World Biosphere Reserve" by UNESCO, is in the northern half of the two wings (Grande-Terre & Basse-Terre) that make up the Guadeloupe "butterfly." This huge sanctuary is rich in marine life—turtles, coral, reef fish, marine birds, starfish, and coastal mangroves all thrive in these protected waters, making for great bird watching and snorkeling onwhite sand beaches. There are also a few wrecks and four small islands to explore, including îlet Blanc, created by Hurricane Hugo in 1989. 06 of 09 Feed Parrots at Le Jardin Botanique de Deshaies, Basse-Terre hopsalka / Getty Images Address villers Deshaies, Deshaies 97126 , Guadeloupe Phone +590 590 28 43 02 The Botanical Garden of Deshaies in Basse-Terre features 15 gardens, a lily pond, and a manmade waterfall that flows into a brook running under a wooden bridge. In addition to over 1,000 species of tropical flowers and plants, this family-friendly attraction is inhabited by birds and native animals; visitors can take part in the daily feeding of Rainbow Lorikeets, multi-colored parrots that will land on you and nibble right from your hand. Visitors also can dine on French Creole cuisine at the on-site restaurant perched on a slope above the waterfall and the Caribbean. The garden is open daily year-round. 07 of 09 Dive at Cousteau Réserve and Pigeon Islands, Malendure, Basse-Terre Guadeloupe Tourism This spectacular diving site in Basse-Terre received international acclaim when Jacques Cousteau named it one of the world’s top dive sites, and it's where he filmed the cinematic version of his book, "The Silent World." Surrounding the Pigeon Islands, the Cousteau Réserve is a protected underwater park with coral reefs and gardens, colorful marine life, and several wrecks heavily covered in sponges. There are many outfitters at Malendure Beach offering dive packages for beginners and seasoned divers alike. 08 of 09 Taste Some Rum at Local Distilleries HELENE VALENZUELA / Getty Images Address 97115 Chem. de Bellevue , Sainte-Rose 97115 , Guadeloupe Phone +33 5 90 28 70 04 Guadeloupe rum (or rhum, as it is known in the French Caribbean) is beloved by both locals and fans worldwide for its taste and high quality: he local Rhum Agricole is distilled directly from sugar cane juice rather than molasses. There are several distilleries across three of the Guadeloupe islands offering tours and tastings: on Basse-Terre (where you will find theMusée du Rhum); on Grande-Terre (Damoiseau, which is now available in the U.S.); and on Marie-Galante, which is Guadeloupe's largest artisanal producer of traditional rum. No rum tour is complete without enjoying the traditional local aperitif, the Ti-Punch, a simple but powerful cocktail made with rum, lime, and sugar. 09 of 09 Relax at La Désirade and Petite-Terre Islands Droits réservés [email protected] / Getty Images The entire island of La Désirade has been designated as a geological reserve. Accessible by a 45-minute ferry trip from Saint-Francois on Grande-Terre or a 15-minute flight from Pointe-a-Pitre International Airport, this haven of tranquility is skirted by white sand beaches and protected by large coral reefs, making it great for swimming and diving. The two uninhabited Petite-Terre islands of La Désirade are a nature reserve with amazing biodiversity in a small area, with everything from a lush marine environment to forests, salt marshes, lagoon, sandy beaches, cliffs, and coral reefs.

https://www.tripsavvy.com/attractions-in-guadeloupe-1488154

Viruses | Free Full-Text | Phylodynamics and Codon Usage Pattern Analysis of Broad Bean Wilt Virus 2 Broad bean wilt virus 2 (BBWV-2), which belongs to the genus Fabavirus of the family Secoviridae, is an important pathogen that causes damage to broad bean, pepper, yam, spinach and other economically important ornamental and horticultural crops worldwide. Previously, only limited reports have shown the genetic variation of BBWV2. Meanwhile, the detailed evolutionary changes, synonymous codon usage bias and host adaptation of this virus are largely unclear. Here, we performed comprehensive analyses of the phylodynamics, reassortment, composition bias and codon usage pattern of BBWV2 using forty-two complete genome sequences of BBWV-2 isolates together with two other full-length RNA1 sequences and six full-length RNA2 sequences. Both recombination and reassortment had a significant influence on the genomic evolution of BBWV2. Through phylogenetic analysis we detected three and four lineages based on the ORF1 and ORF2 nonrecombinant sequences, respectively. The evolutionary rates of the two BBWV2 ORF coding sequences were 8.895 × 10−4 and 4.560 × 10−4 subs/site/year, respectively. We found a relatively conserved and stable genomic composition with a lower codon usage choice in the two BBWV2 protein coding sequences. ENC-plot and neutrality plot analyses showed that natural selection is the key factor shaping the codon usage pattern of BBWV2. Strong correlations between BBWV2 and broad bean and pepper were observed from similarity index (SiD), codon adaptation index (CAI) and relative codon deoptimization index (RCDI) analyses. Our study is the first to evaluate the phylodynamics, codon usage patterns and adaptive evolution of a fabavirus, and our results may be useful for the understanding of the origin of this virus. Phylodynamics and Codon Usage Pattern Analysis of Broad Bean Wilt Virus 2 by Zhen He 1,2,* , Zhuozhuo Dong 1 , Lang Qin 1 and Haifeng Gan 1 1 School of Horticulture and Plant Protection, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, China Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-Product Safety of Ministry of Education of China, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, China Author to whom correspondence should be addressed. Viruses 2021 , 13 (2), 198; https://doi.org/10.3390/v13020198 Abstract : Broad bean wilt virus 2 (BBWV-2), which belongs to the genus Fabavirus of the family Secoviridae , is an important pathogen that causes damage to broad bean, pepper, yam, spinach and other economically important ornamental and horticultural crops worldwide. Previously, only limited reports have shown the genetic variation of BBWV2. Meanwhile, the detailed evolutionary changes, synonymous codon usage bias and host adaptation of this virus are largely unclear. Here, we performed comprehensive analyses of the phylodynamics, reassortment, composition bias and codon usage pattern of BBWV2 using forty-two complete genome sequences of BBWV-2 isolates together with two other full-length RNA1 sequences and six full-length RNA2 sequences. Both recombination and reassortment had a significant influence on the genomic evolution of BBWV2. Through phylogenetic analysis we detected three and four lineages based on the ORF1 and ORF2 nonrecombinant sequences, respectively. The evolutionary rates of the two BBWV2 ORF coding sequences were 8.895 × 10 −4 and 4.560 × 10 −4 subs/site/year, respectively. We found a relatively conserved and stable genomic composition with a lower codon usage choice in the two BBWV2 protein coding sequences. ENC-plot and neutrality plot analyses showed that natural selection is the key factor shaping the codon usage pattern of BBWV2. Strong correlations between BBWV2 and broad bean and pepper were observed from similarity index (SiD), codon adaptation index (CAI) and relative codon deoptimization index (RCDI) analyses. Our study is the first to evaluate the phylodynamics, codon usage patterns and adaptive evolution of a fabavirus, and our results may be useful for the understanding of the origin of this virus. Keywords: broad bean wilt virus 2 ; codon usage pattern ; host adaptation 1. Introduction Broad bean wilt virus 2 (BBWV-2) belongs to the genus Fabavirus of the Comovirinae subfamily, Secoviridae family. BBWV-2 is an important pathogen causing extensive damage in broad bean, pepper, yam, spinach and other economically important horticultural and ornamental crops worldwide [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 ], and it is transmitted by aphids in a nonpersistent manner. The virions of BBWV-2 contain two proteins (large and small coat proteins) which form an icosahedral particle. BBWV-2 comprises bipartite positive-sense single-stranded RNA molecules with a genome size of approximately 6 and 4 kb. RNA1 encodes a single large polyprotein with functional proteins involved in genome replication and expression that are produced by proteolytic cleavage. Similarly, RNA2 also encodes a single large polyprotein, which is proteolytically processed into three functional proteins, including a movement protein and two coat proteins. Sixty-one triplet codons encode all 20 amino acids, and thus several codons encode the same amino acid. This phenomenon is termed synonymous codons [ 7 , 8 ]. Generally, the unequal preference for specific codons over other synonymous codons by various organisms or even in different gene groups of the same genome creates a bias in codon usage, and this phenomenon is known as codon usage bias (CUB) [ 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 ]. Currently, several factors have been reported to drive codon usage patterns, such as compositional constraints, hydrophobicity, mutation pressure, gene length, replication, natural selection, selective transcription, secondary protein structure, gene function, and the external environment [ 7 , 9 , 10 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 ]. Mainly, two models including mutational/neutral and natural/translational selection, may explain the codon usage bias [ 8 , 9 , 10 ]. CUB in viruses is expected to affect their survival, fitness, evolution, adaption, and avoidance of host cell responses [ 7 , 13 ]. Until now, only several reports have described the influence of codon usage in the evolution of plant viruses, such as begomoviruses [ 18 ], citrus tristeza virus (CTV) [ 19 ], rice black-streaked dwarf virus (RBSDV) [ 20 ], rice strape virus (RSV) [ 21 ], papaya ringspot virus (PRSV) [ 22 ], potato virus M (PVM) [ 23 ], and sugarcane mosaic virus (SCMV) [ 24 ]. The genetic variation of BBWV-2 has been described based on analyses of partial or complete genome sequences [ 2 , 25 ]. To date, 42 complete genome sequences of BBWV-2 isolates from China, Japan, Philippines, Singapore, and South Korea, together with two full-length RNA1 sequences and five full-length RNA2 sequences, have been reported [ 4 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 ]. However, these studies did not clearly report on the synonymous codon usage pattern of BBWV-2. In this study, we performed a detailed analysis of the traditional phylogeny, reassortment and codon usage of BBWV-2 based on 44 full-length RNA1 and 47 full-length RNA2 sequences. The analysis explores the factors shaping the codon usage patterns of BBWV-2 and provides novel insight into the genetic divergence of BBWV-2. To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to evaluate the codon usage patterns of a fabavirus. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Virus Isolates Forty-four full-length RNA1 and 47 full-length RNA2 sequences of BBWV-2 were retrieved from GenBank. The details of those sequences, such as host origins, collection time, locations and geographical, are shown in Supplementary Materials Table S1 . 2.2. Recombination Analysis Forty-four full-length RNA1 and 47 full-length RNA2 sequences of BBWV-2 were aligned using CLUSTAL X2 [ 32 ]. TRANSALIGN software (supplied kindly by Prof. Georg Weiller, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia) was used to support a degapped alignment of the encoded amino acids. Putative recombination events of the aligned BBWV-2 sequences were identified by BOOTSCAN, CHIMAERA, GENECONV, MAXCHI, RDP, SISCAN and 3SEQ programs [ 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 ] in the RDP4 software package [ 40 ]. The phylogenetic approach was used to verify the parent/donor assignments in the RDP4 package. And these analyses were calculated by different detection programs with default settings. The putative recombinants were supported by at least three different methods in the RDP4 package with an associated p -value of <1.0 × 10 −6 . 2.3. Phylogenetic and Evolution Dynamic Analysis The phylogenetic relationships of the two ORF sequences of BBWV-2 were determined using the maximum-likelihood (ML) method in PhyML v3.0 [ 41 ] and the neighbour-joining (NJ) method implemented in MEGA vX [ 42 ]. The best-fitting models of the two datasets for the ML tree were selected by jModeltest v0.1.1 [ 43 ] according to the Akaike Information Criterion score. GTR with a proportion of invariable sites and a gamma distribution (GTR+I+г4) provided the best fit for both ORF coding sequences. For the ML analysis, branch support was calculated by a bootstrap analysis based on 1000 pseudoreplicates; meanwhile, for the NJ analysis, Kimura’s two-parameter [ 44 ] option was used to evaluate 1000 bootstrap replications. The lineages were defined based on bootstrap values. When the node with high bootstrap values on both ML and NJ tree, we consider it as a defined lineage. The ML or NJ trees were displayed with TreeView [ 45 ]. Generally, two segments of the same BBWV-2 isolate should be divided into same lineage based on ORF1 and ORF2 trees. We considered that reassortment occurred when the two segments of BBWV-2 isolate divided into different lineages based on ORF1 and ORF2 trees. The pairwise nucleotide sequence identity scores were represented as a distribution plot using SDT version 1.2 software (available from http://web.cbio.uct.ac.za/SDT ) [ 46 ]. All nonrecombinant sequences obtained were used to estimate the evolutionary rate and timescale by BEAST v1.10.4 software [ 47 ]. Bayes factors were used to select the best-fitting molecular-clock models. The strict molecular clocks, uncorrelated lognormal, and uncorrelated exponential models [ 48 ] were also compared with the exponential growth, logistic growth, constant population size, Bayesian skyline plot, and expansion growth demographic models. A total of 6 × 10 8 -step MCMC chains were explored every 10 4 steps, and the first 10% of samples were removed as burn-in. Tracer v1.7 [ 49 ] was used to check the estimation of the relevant evolutionary parameters. To check the temporal signal, ten data-randomized replicates of the data were produced. The mean estimate from the original data out of 95% CIs of the date-randomized replicates is considered the criterion for clear temporal structure [ 50 , 51 ]. 2.4. Nucleotide Composition Analysis In total, five nonbiased codons, including three termination codons (UAA, UGA, and UAG), AUG (encoding only Met), and UGG (encoding only Trp), were removed, and the component parameters of both BBWV2 ORF sequences were calculated. The total content of AU and GC and the entire nucleotide composition (A, U, G and C %) of the two ORF data sets were calculated by BioEdit [ 52 ]. The nucleotide composition at the third codon position of the two BBWV-2 ORF sequences (A3, U3, G3 and C3%) were determined using the CodonW 1.4.2 package. EMBOSS explorer ( http://www.bioinformatics.nl/emboss-explorer/ ) was used to calculate the GC content at the 1st, 2nd and 3rd codon positions (GC1, GC2, GC3) and GC12 (the mean of GC1 and GC2). 2.5. Effective Number of Codon (ENC) Analysis ENC values ranging from 20 (only one synonymous codon is used, an extreme codon usage bias) to 61 (the synonymous codons are used equally, no bias), indicating the degree of codon usage bias [ 53 ], were calculated by CodonW v1.4.2 software. ENC values were estimated as follows: ENC = 2 + 9 F ¯ 2 + 1 F ¯ 3 + 5 F ¯ 4 (1) where F ¯ k ( k = 2, 3, 4, 6) is the average values for F k , while k is the k-fold degenerate amino acids. Here, F k is calculated as follows: F k = n S − 1 n − 1 (2) where n is the total occurrence number of the codon for the corresponding amino acid; meanwhile, S = ∑ i = 1 k ( n i n ) 2 (3) where n i represents the total number of the i-th codon for that amino acid. Here, the ENC was assessed to compute the absolute codon usage bias of both BBWV-2 ORF sequences regardless of the number of amino acids and the gene lengths. Generally, ENC values ≤ 35 indicate strong codon bias. It is accepted that the smaller the ENC value, the stronger the codon preference. 2.6. ENC-Plot Analysis To investigate the role of mutation pressure in codon usage bias, a ENC-plot (ENC value in the ordinate against GC3s value in the abscissa) analysis was used. When the codon usage bias is only determined by the mutation pressure factor, the points will lie on or around the standard curve. Otherwise, other factors also contribute, for example, natural selection. The expected ENC was calculated using the following formula: ENC expected = 2 + s + ( 29 s 2 + ( 1 − s ) 2 ) (4) where s means the composition of GC3s. 2.7. Relative Synonymous Codon Usage (RSCU) Analysis The ratio between the observed usage frequency and the expected usage frequency is termed as the RSCU value of a codon [ 54 ]. RSCU values were calculated as follows: RSCU ij = g ij ∑ j ni g ij × ni (5) where RSCU ij represents the value of the i -th codon for the j -th amino acid, and g ij means the observed number of i -th codons for the j -th amino acid which has “n i ” kinds of synonymous codons. And the RSCU values of 1 indicate no bias for the codon, whereas codons with RSCU values more than 1.6 and smaller than 0.6 are considered to be “over-represented” and “under-represented”, respectively. The RSCU values of the two BBWV2 ORF sequences were calculated using MEGA X software. 2.8. Principal Component (PCA) Analysis A multivariate statistical method (principal component analysis) was used to identify the correlations between samples and variables. After removing the codons UAA, UAG, UGA, UGG, and AUG, each strain of two ORF data sets was represented as a 59-dimensional vector, where each dimension corresponds to each sense codon’s RSCU value [ 21 , 55 ]. A PCA analysis was performed using Origin 8.0 (OriginLab, Northampton, MA, USA). 2.9. Parity Rule 2 Analysis (PR2) A PR2 plot analysis was performed to calculate the effects of mutation and natural selection on the codon usage of the two BBWV2 ORF sequences. The PR2 plot graphs A3/(A3 + U3) in the ordinate against G3/(G3 + C3) in the abscissa [ 21 , 55 ]. The centre of the plot (the slope is 0.5) indicates no bias between natural selection and mutation pressure. 2.10. Neutrality Analysis The influence of mutation and natural selection bias on codon usage were analysed using a neutrality plot. Neutrality plot graphs GC3 in the abscissa and GC12 in the ordinate. The mutational force was indicated using the slope of the regression line which plotted between the GC12 and GC3 contents [ 21 , 55 ]. A slope of the regression lines on or around 1.0 indicates no or weak selection pressure. However, the codon usage bias was clearly influenced by natural selection when the regression curves deviated from the diagonal line. 2.11. Codon Adaptation Index (CAI) Analysis The CAI value, which ranged from 0 to 1, is calculated by the CAIcal SERVER ( http://genomes.urv.cat/CAIcal/RCDI/ ). It is used to predict the adaptation of the two ORFs of BBWV2 to their host. All above BBWV2 isolates were compared to each host. In general, the higher the CAIs, the stronger the adaptability to the host. 2.12. Relative Codon Deoptimization Index (RCDI) Analysis To determine the trends of the codon deoptimization, RCDI values for the two BBWV2 ORF sequences were computed by the RCDI/eRCDI server ( http://genomes.urv.cat/CAIcal/RCDI/ ). RCDI values equal to 1 indicate that the virus has a host-adapted codon usage pattern. In contrast, RCDI values> 1 indicate less adaptability. 2.13. Similarity Index (SiD) Analysis The SiD analysis was employed to evaluate the influence of the codon usage bias of hosts on the two BBWV2 ORFs. The SiD values was estimated as follows: R ( A , B ) = ∑ i = 1 59 a i b i ∑ i = 1 59 b i 2 ∑ i = 1 59 a i 2 (6) D ( A , B ) = 1 − R ( A , B ) 2 (7) where a i is the RSCU values of 59 synonymous codons of the BBWV2 coding sequences, and b i represents the identical codons’ RSCU values of the host. SiD [D(A, B)] value, which ranged from 0 to 1.0, represents the potential effect of the entire codon usage of hosts on the BBWV-2 genes. Normally, higher SiD values indicate that the viruses’ host plays a significant role in its codon usage. 2.14. Gravy and Aroma Statistics A Gravy value ranging from −2 to 2 indicates the effect of protein hydrophobicity on codon usage bias. It is determined by CodonW (v1.4.2). Meanwhile, aroma value represents the influence of aromatic hydrocarbon proteins on codon usage bias. 2.15. Statistical Analysis The relationships between the GC3s, GC ENC, Aroma, and Gravy and the first two principal component axes were measured using a Spearman’s rank correlation analysis. A p value < 0.01 (**) shows an extremely significant relationship while 0.01 < p < 0.05 (*) represents a significant relationship. All of the above statistical analyses were estimated by Origin 8.0. 3. Results 3.1. Recombination and Phylogenetic Analysis Recombination can influence the topology of a phylogenetic tree and overall codon usage patterns at either the genome or gene level [ 56 , 57 ]. Thus, we first detected the presence of potential recombinants in the 44 full-length RNA1 and 47 full-length RNA2 sequences. Two and six clear recombinants from 44 full-length RNA1 and 47 full-length RNA2 sequences were observed ( Table 1 ), respectively, and these recombinants were excluded from further analysis. The nonrecombinant BBWV-2 coding sequences mainly isolated from broad bean (RNA1 n = 6, RNA2 n = 5), pepper (RNA1 n = 18, RNA2 n = 18), spinach (RNA1 n = 3, RNA2 n = 3), and yam (RNA1 n = 4, RNA2 n = 4) were used in the following phylogenetic and codon usage analyses. The phylogenetic analyses were conducted using ML methods based on the two ORFs’ nonrecombinant sequences ( Figure 1 ), respectively. Three and four lineages were formed based on the ORF1 and ORF2 coding sequences, respectively ( Figure 1 ). Four isolates in lineage I of the ORF1 ML tree were clustered into lineage IV in the ML tree of ORF2 ( Figure 1 ). These lineages did not reflect clear host and geographical origins. The ML trees of the ORF 1 and 2 coding sequences were compared using PATRISTIC software. The distance plots of the ORF1 distances against the ML trees of the ORF2 genes showed distinct lineages ( Figure 2 ). Similar, our time-scaled maximum clade credibility (MCC) tree also indicated three and four lineages based on the ORF1 and ORF2 coding sequences, respectively ( Supplementary Materials Figure S1 ). The pairwise identity of ORF1 and ORF2 were approximately 77.59–100% and 78.17–100%, respectively. 3.2. Reassortment Analysis Generally, reassortment can influence the rapid genomic and phenotypic changes for viruses with segmented genomes by coinfecting different viral strains exchanges entire segments. Our ML and time-scaled phylogenies distinguished three phylogenetic groups for Segment 1 (ORF1) and four groups for Segment 2 (ORF2) with high bootstrap or posterior support ( Figure 1 and Supplementary Materials Figure S1 ). Ten isolates appear to be reassorted (23.8%) ( Figure 1 A) among the 42 full-length BBWV-2 isolates. For example, the AB1 isolate (MH447988) from South Korea was clustered into lineage I in the ORF1 ML tree, whereas it was divided into lineage III in the ORF2 ML tree ( Figure 1 A). All four isolates in lineage IV in the ORF2 ML tree were clustered into Lineage I in the ORF1 ML tree ( Figure 1 A). In addition, five isolates (the RP3, BB5, P3, and P2 isolates from South Korea and the Anhui isolate from China) in lineage III for the segment 1 tree were clustered into lineage I for the segment 2 tree ( Figure 1 A). Furthermore, we performed reassortment analysis by RDP software using 38 BBWV2 artificially concatenated nonrecombinant sequences. This results also supported that ten isolates (IP, BB2, AB1, RP7, RP3, ME, BB5, P3, P2, and AH) appear to be reassorted ( Supplementary Materials Table S2 ). 3.3. Evolutionary Dynamic Analysis A Bayesian phylogenetic method in BEAST v1.10.4 [ 47 ] was used here to estimate the evolutionary rates and node ages of BBWV-2 based on the two ORFs’ nonrecombinant sequences. The expansion growth demographic model was supported as the best model for both ORF sequences based on a comparison of marginal likelihoods that were calculated using the harmonic-mean estimator in Tracer v 1.5.1. The relaxed-clock model provided a better fit than the strict-clock model, indicating the presence of rate variation among groups. Both ORF datasets of BBWV2 passed the date-randomization tests [ 50 , 51 ] and even met the more conservative criterion proposed by Duchêne et al. (2015) ( Supplementary Materials Figure S2 ). These results suggest the presence of an adequate temporal signal in the two datasets. The mean evolutionary rates of the two ORF sequences were 7.828 × 10 −4 subs/site/year (95% HPD 1.620 × 10 −3 –5.669 × 10 −5 ) and 1.840 × 10 −3 subs/site/year (95% HPD 3.267 × 10 −3 –4.517 × 10 −4 ), respectively. The time to the most recent common ancestors (TMRCAs) was 471 years (101–1095) ( Supplementary Materials Figure S1A ) and 172 years (63–493) ( Supplementary Materials Figure S1B ) for the ORF1 and ORF2 coding sequences, with effective sample size (ESS) 957 and 561, respectively. 3.4. Nucleotide Bias Analysis The nucleotide compositions of the two ORF sequences were calculated to assess the influence of compositional constraints on BBWV-2′s codon usage. Nucleotides U and A were most abundant with a mean composition of 28.42 ± 0.29% and 28.27 ± 0.20% ( Supplementary Materials Table S3 ) for the ORF1 sequences, respectively, compared with G (26.21 ± 0.22%) and C (17.10 ± 0.25%). Similarly, nucleotides U (29.06 ± 0.34%) and A (27.94 ± 0.35%) were also most abundant in the ORF2 coding sequences, followed by G (24.28 ± 0.34%) and C (18.71 ± 0.29%) ( Supplementary Materials Table S4 ). In terms of the third position’s nucleotide composition of synonymous codons, U 3S, A 3S , G 3S and C 3S in both ORF sequences were consistent with the nucleotide composition despite the similar value of A 3S (33.13 ± 0.89%) and G 3S (33.64 ± 1.01%) in the ORF1 sequences ( Supplementary Materials Tables S3 and S4 ). In addition, the composition of AU (56.69 ± 0.27% and 57.00 ± 0.42%) was also higher than that of GC (43.31 ± 0.27% and 43.00 ± 0.42%) in both ORF sequences of BBWV-2 ( Supplementary Materials Tables S3 and S4 ). In all, these results suggest an AU-rich composition of BBWV-2 coding sequences. An RSCU analysis was performed to estimate the codon usage pattern of the ORF1 and ORF2 coding sequences of BBWV-2 ( Table 2 ). For the ORF1 coding sequences, 14 of 18 preferred codons were A/U-ended (both A- and U-ended: 7) ( Table 2 ), and 16 of 18 preferred codons were A/U-ended (A-ended: 6; U-ended: 10) in the ORF2 coding sequences ( Table 2 ). These results suggest that A- and U-ended codons were preferred in the BBWV-2 coding sequences. Within these preferred codons, three had a RSCU value > 1.6, with the highest being UUG for both the ORF1 (2.82) and ORF2 (2.66) coding sequences of BBWV-2, indicating extreme over-presentation. The remaining preferred codons of RSCU values were all more than 0.6 and smaller than 1.6. Moreover, no optional synonymous codons were under-represented (RSCU < 0.6) from the BBWV-2 coding sequences. In addition, the RSCU values of the BBWV-2 coding sequences in terms of hosts also indicated that A/U-ended codons were more frequent than G/C-ended codons ( Table 2 ). 3.5. Codon Usage Bias of BBWV-2 ENC values were determined to show the magnitude of the two BBWV-2 ORF codon usage choices. Similar mean ENC values were observed for the two ORF coding sequences (51.48 ± 0.91 and 51.93 ± 0.95) ( Supplementary Materials Tables S3 and S4 ). For ORF1, the highest mean ENC value of BBWV-2 was found in spinach while the lowest was in yam ( Supplementary Materials Figure S3A ). Meanwhile, the highest mean ENC value was found in pepper for ORF2 sequences ( Supplementary Materials Figure S3B ). The mean ENC values of the two ORF coding sequences were more than 35 (Supplementary Materials Tables S3 and S4) (Supplementary Materials Figure S3) , indicating a conserved and stable genomic composition in the BBWV2 coding sequences. 3.5.1. Trends in Codon Usage Variations To investigate the synonymous codon usage variation in the two ORF sequences of BBWV-2, we performed a principal component analysis. The first four principal axes (axes 1–4) for the two ORF sequences of BBWV-2 accounted more than 50% ( Figure 3 A,B). The results also showed that Axis 1 was the major factor affecting codon usage of the two ORF sequences for BBWV-2. We also explored the distribution of the two ORF sequences in different hosts according to the RSCU values on the first two axes. Overlapping among the different hosts for the two BBWV-2 coding sequences was observed from the PCA analysis, indicating distinct codon usage trends ( Figure 3 C,D). However, only three yam and three spinach sequences were included in this analysis, so these results require further confirmation. 3.5.2. ENC-Plot Analysis A ENC-GC3s plot analysis was performed to assess the forces influencing the BBWV2 codon usage pattern. In general, points falling below the expected curve indicate that the codon usage is affected by natural selection rather than mutation. On the other hand, data points falling onto the expected curve which indicate mutational pressure. In the two plots of BBWV-2 sequences, all isolates regardless of host clustered together below the expected ENC curve ( Figure 4 ), indicating that the influence of natural selection dominated that of mutation pressure. 3.5.3. Neutrality Plot The influence of mutation and natural selection on BBWV-2 codon usage was assessed using a neutrality analysis ( Figure 5 ). Generally, nucleotide changes at the third position of the codon do not influence the changes in amino acids, so they are considered only a mutational force. Meanwhile, a nucleotide change causing a change in amino acid is considered a selection force. Among the two ORF sequences, a negative correlation was observed between the GC12 and GC3 values for BBWV-2 ( Figure 5 ). The slopes of the linear regression were −0.0415 and −0.0242 for the ORF1 and ORF2 coding sequences ( Figure 5 ), respectively. These results indicate that mutation pressure accounted for 4.15% and 2.42% of the selection force for the ORF1 and ORF2 coding sequences, whereas natural selection accounted for 95.85% and 97.58%, respectively. Thus, the neutrality analysis indicated that natural selection dominated the forces shaping the codon usage pattern of BBWV-2. 3.5.4. Parity Analysis To assess whether highly biased genes exhibited biased codon selection in the two BBWV2 coding regions, we performed a PR2 bias plot analysis. Generally, the centre of the plot (A = T and G = C) is the place where both coordinates are 0.5, and it is also the place where no bias is present in the selection (substitution rates) or mutation force [ 12 ]. Here, the nucleotides A and C are less commonly used than U and G in the two BBWV-2 coding sequences ( Figure 6 ). These give a novel perspective on the genetic divergence of BBWV-2 and explore factors shaping its codon usage patterns. Furthermore, to calculate the influence of natural selection pressure on BBWV-2 codon usage bias, a linear regression analysis between the ARO and GRAVY values and GC3S, GC, ENC, and the first two principal axes values were also performed here. The correlation analysis based on ORF1 sequences showed that GRAVY is significantly negatively correlated with Axis 1. AROMO showed a significant positive correlation with ENC and a significant negative correlation with Axis 1 ( Table 3 ). For the ORF2 sequences, our correlation analysis indicated that GRAVY is significantly negatively correlated with Axis 1 and Axis 2, and AROMO showed a significant negative correlation with ENC ( Table 3 ). These results indicate that the general average aromaticity and hydropathicity are correlated to the codon usage variation in BBWV-2, indicating the influence of natural selection pressure on the BBWV-2′s codon usage pattern. 3.6. Codon Usage Adaptation in BBWV-2 CAI values were assessed to determine the adaptation and codon usage optimization of BBWV-2 to its hosts. Generally, sequences with higher CAI values are considered to be more adapted to hosts than sequences with low values. Here, the mean CAI values of the ORF1 sequences were 0.749, 0.771, 0.768 and 0.747 for broad bean, pepper, spinach and yam, respectively ( Figure 7 ). The mean CAI values of the ORF2 coding sequences were 0.751, 0.770, 0.766 and 0.745 for the broad bean, pepper, spinach and yam, respectively ( Figure 7 ). These results indicate that the BBWV-2 genes have codon usage preferences that are closer to pepper than to other hosts. Then, to show the cumulative effects of codon biases on a single gene’s expression, we also performed an RCDI analysis. The means of the RCDI values for both ORF sequences were highest for yam, followed by broad bean, spinach and pepper ( Figure 7 ). These results also indicate that the BBWV-2 genes have codon usage preferences that are closer to pepper than to other hosts. Moreover, we performed an SiD analysis to understand how the codon usage patterns of broad bean, pepper, spinach and yam affect the BBWV-2 codon usage pattern ( Figure 8 ). Among the two ORF coding sequences, the highest SiD values were all observed in broad bean ( Figure 8 ) while the lowest values were found in pepper, although these SiD values for broad bean, pepper, spinach and yam were very low. These results indicate that during BBWV-2 evolution broad bean and pepper probably had a greater impact on the virus than spinach and yam. 4. Discussion The evolutionary analysis and genetic variation of BBWV-2 from broad bean or pepper have been described based on analyses of partial or complete genome sequences [ 2 , 25 ]. In this study, our results provide significant insight into the evolutionary patterns of BBWV-2. For segmented viruses, rapid genomic changes were driven by both recombination and reassortment [ 58 , 59 ]. Previously, recombination was proven to be the factors shaping the evolution of BBWV-2 [ 2 ]. Here, our current findings suggest that genetic exchange by reassortment also had a significant influence on the genomic composition of BBWV-2. A phylogenetic analysis of BBWV-2 showed six divergent evolutionary lineages based on partial genomic sequences [ 2 ]. In the present study, our phylogenetic analysis based on ML and MCC found three and four lineages based on the ORF1 and ORF2 protein coding sequences, respectively. The evolutionary rates of the two BBWV-2 ORF coding sequences were 8.895 × 10 −4 and 4.560 × 10 −4 subs/site/year, respectively, similar to tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) [ 60 ] but slightly slower than the previously reported plant RNA viruses such as PVM [ 61 ], turnip mosaic virus [ 62 ], odontoglossum ringspot virus (ORSV) [ 63 ], and potato virus Y [ 64 ]. The codon usage pattern has a significant influence on virus evolution, such as adaption, evolution, evasion from the host’s immune system, and survival [ 55 , 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 ]. Presently, only several reports have described the influence of codon usage in the evolution of plant viruses. Here, we firstly assessed the codon usage pattern and composition of BBWV2 based on the complete genome. Normally, AU-rich genomes tend to contain codons ending with A and U, while genomes with a GC-rich composition tend to contain codons ending with G and C. In this study, our nucleotide composition results show that codons ended with A and U are more frequent in BBWV-2 coding sequences. Generally, the preferred codons have been mostly determined by compositional constraints (A and U in this case in the two BBWV2 ORF coding regions), which also supports the presence of mutation pressure. And, the RSCU analysis also indicated that A/U-ended codons were more frequent than G/C-ended codons. Normally, RNA viruses have low codon usage bias to perform efficient replication in the host by lowering the competition with the host genes [ 55 , 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 ]. Previous reports showed low codon usage bias from several plant viruses such as CTV, PRSV, PVM, RSV and SCMV [ 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 ]. In our study, a lower codon usage pattern of the BBWV2 genome (the ENC values higher than 35) was also found, indicating a low degree of preference. The ENC-plot, PR2, neutrality plot and regression analyses between the ARO and GRAVY values and ENC, GC, GC3S, and the first two principle axes values significantly showed that BBWV-2 is influenced by natural selection and mutation pressure to variable degrees. Consistent with PVM [ 23 ], both the ENC-plot and neutrality plot analyses showed that natural selection is the key factor shaping the codon usage pattern of BBWV-2. The evolution and dynamics of infectious diseases are influenced by host–parasite interactions [ 69 , 70 , 71 ]. For viruses, several reports showed that codon usage patterns have a significant effect on the viruses’ host-specific adaption [ 23 , 55 , 67 , 68 ]. In this study, our CAI analysis showed that both BBWV-2 genes have codon usage preferences that are closer to pepper than to other hosts. In addation, the RCDI analysis showed that the lowest codon usage deoptimization also occurred for the BBWV-2 isolates for pepper followed by spinach. Generally, low RCDI values indicate strong adaptation to a host [ 72 ]. Thus, both CAI and RCDI analyses were consistent supported that BBWV-2 were most strongly adapted to pepper than broad bean, spinach and yam. However, the SiD value for the BBWV-2 isolates from broad bean was higher than those observed for yam, spinach and pepper, indicating that the selection pressure of broad bean on BBWV-2 isolates was greater than that of yam, spinach and pepper, possibly due to BBWV-2 originated from broad bean. In conclusion, the codon usage patterns and host adaptability of BBWV-2 were studied for the first time to investigate its evolutionary changes. Reassortment also had a significant influence on the genomic evolution of BBWV-2. The ENC-plot and neutrality plot analyses showed that natural selection is the key factor shaping the codon usage pattern of BBWV-2. A strong correlation between BBWV-2 and both broad bean and pepper was observed from the CAI, RCDI and SiD analyses. Our study furthers the understanding of the evolutionary changes of BBWV-2, which may provide a better understanding of the origin of BBWV-2. Supplementary Materials The following are available online at https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/13/2/198/s1 , Figure S1. Bayesian maximum-clade-credibility tree inferred from trees calculated from the ORF1 (A) and ORF2 (B) sequences of broad bean wilt virus 2. Horizontal blue bars represent the 95% credibility intervals of the estimates of node ages. The tree topology was chosen to maximize the product of node posterior probabilities. Only posterior probability values above 0.95 are shown. Year before present; 2017. Figure S2. Estimates of nucleotide substitution rates. Mean estimates and the 95% highest posterior density interval (HPD) are shown. They were estimated from the polyprotein sequences of nonrecombinant sugarcane mosaic virus. The first value is based on the original data, whereas the remaining ten values are from date-randomized replicates in each set of estimates. The 95% HPD of the estimates from the date-randomized replicates did not overlap with the mean posterior estimate from the original data set. Moreover, the lower tails of the credibility intervals were long and tended towards zero. These features suggest sufficient temporal structure in the original data sets for rate estimation. Figure S3 ENC values for the ORF1 (A) and ORF2 (B) sequences of broad bean wilt virus 2. Table S1: The BBWV2 isolates using in this study, Table S2. Reassortment analysis by RDP software using 38 BBWV2 artificially concatenated sequences. Table S3. Codon data of broad bean wilt virus 2 ORF1. Table S4. Codon data of broad bean wilt virus 2 ORF2. References [ 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 73 , 74 , 75 , 76 ] are cited in the supplementary materials. Author Contributions Conceptualization, Z.H.; methodology, Z.H.; software, Z.H. and Z.D.; validation, Z.H., Z.D. and L.Q.; formal analysis, Z.H., Z.D. and L.Q.; investigation, Z.H., Z.D. and L.Q.; resources, Z.H., Z.D. and L.Q.; data curation, Z.H., Z.D. and L.Q.; writing—original draft preparation, Z.H., Z.D. and H.G.; writing—review and editing, Z.H., Z.D. and H.G.; visualization, Z.H. and H.G.; supervision, Z.H.; project administration, Z.H.; funding acquisition, Z.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding This research was funded by the Key project at central government level: The ability establishment of sustainable use for valuable Chinese medicine resources, grant number 2060302, China Agriculture Research System, grant number CARS-24 and the Qing Lan Project of Yangzhou University. Institutional Review Board Statement Not applicable. Informed Consent Statement Not applicable. Data Availability Statement All data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding authors. Acknowledgments Not applicable. Conflicts of Interest The authors declare no conflict of interest. References Castrovilli, S.; Savino, V.; Castellano, M.A.; Engelbrecht, D.J. Characterization of a grapevine isolate of Broad bean wilt virus . Phytopathol. Mediterr. 1985 , 24 , 35–40. [ Google Scholar ] Ferrer, R.M.; Ferriol, I.; Moreno, P.; Guerri, J.; Rubio, L. Genetic variation and evolutionary analysis of Broad bean wilt virus 2 . Arch. Virol. 2011 , 156 , 1445–1450. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Fortass, M.; Bos, L. Survey of faba bean ( Vicia faba L.) for viruses in Morocco. Neth. J. Plant. Pathol. 1991 , 97 , 369–380. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Kondo, T.; Fuji, S.; Yamashita, K.; Kang, D.K.; Chang, M.U. Broad bean wilt virus 2 in yams. J. Gen. Plant. Pathol. 2005 , 71 , 441–443. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Sui, C.; Wei, J.H.; Zhan, Q.Q.; Zhang, J. First report of Broad bean wilt virus 2 infecting Bupleurum chinense in China. Plant Dis. 2009 , 93 , 844. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Fuji, S.; Mochizuki, N.; Fujinaga, M.; Ikeda, M.; Shinoda, K.; Uematsu, S.; Furuya, H.; Naito, H.; Fukumoto, F. Incidence of viruses in Alstroemeria plants cultivated in Japan and characterization of Broad bean wilt virus 2 , Cucumber mosaic virus and Youcai mosaic virus . J. Gen. Plant Pathol. 2007 , 73 , 216–221. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Hasegawa, M.; Yasunaga, T.; Miyata, T. Secondary structure of MS2 phage RNA and bias in code word usage. Nucleic Acids Res. 1979 , 7 , 2073–2079. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ][ Green Version ] Sharp, P.M.; Tuohy, T.M.F.; Mosurski, K.R. Codon usage in yeast: Cluster analysis clearly differentiates highly and lowly expressed genes. Nucleic Acids Res. 1986 , 14 , 5125–5143. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] Comeron, J.M.; Aguadé, M. An evaluation of measures of synonymous codon usage bias. J. Mol. Evol. 1998 , 47 , 268–274. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Hershberg, R.; Petrov, D.A. Selection on codon bias. Annu. Rev. Genet. 2008 , 42 , 287–299. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Sharp, P.M.; Cowe, E. Synonymous codon usage in Saccharomyces cerevisiae . Yeast 1991 , 7 , 657–678. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] Sueoka, N. Directional mutation pressure and neutral molecular evolution. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1988 , 85 , 2653–2657. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ][ Green Version ] Coleman, J.R.; Papamichail, D.; Skiena, S.; Futcher, B.; Wimmer, E.; Mueller, S. Virus attenuation by genome-scale changes in codon pair bias. Science 2008 , 320 , 1784–1787. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ][ Green Version ] Duret, L.; Mouchiroud, D. Expression pattern and, surprisingly, gene length shape codon usage in Caenorhabditis , Drosophila , and Arabidopsis . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1999 , 96 , 4482–4487. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Fuglsang, A. Accounting for background nucleotide composition when measuring codon usage bias: Brilliant Idea, difficult in practice. Mol. Biol. Evol. 2006 , 23 , 1345–1347. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Kyte, J.; Doolittle, R.F. A simple method for displaying the hydropathic character of a protein. J. Mol. Biol. 1982 , 157 , 105–132. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Sueoka, N. Translation-coupled violation of Parity Rule 2 in human genes is not the cause of heterogeneity of the DNA G+C content of third codon position. Gene 1999 , 238 , 53–58. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Xu, X.; Liu, Q.; Fan, L.; Cui, X.; Zhou, X. Analysis of synonymous codon usage and evolution of begomoviruses. J. Zhejiang Univ. Sci. B. 2008 , 9 , 667–674. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Biswas, K.; Palchoudhury, S.; Chakraborty, P.; Bhattacharyya, U.; Ghosh, D.; Debnath, P.; Ramadugu, C.; Keremane, M.; Khetarpal, R.; Lee, R. Codon usage bias analysis of Citrus tristeza virus : Higher codon adaptation to Citrus reticulata host. Viruses 2019 , 11 , 331. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] He, Z.; Dong, Z.; Gan, H. Comprehensive codon usage analysis of rice black-streaked dwarf virus based on P8 and P10 protein coding sequences. Infect. Genet. Evol. 2020 , 86 , 104601. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] He, M.; Guan, S.Y.; He, C.Q. Evolution of rice stripe virus. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 2017 , 109 , 343–350. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] Chakraborty, P.; Das, S.; Saha, B.; Sarkar, P.; Karmakar, A.; Saha, A.; Saha, D.; Saha, A. Phylogeny and synonymous codon usage pattern of Papaya ringspot virus coat protein gene in the sub-Himalayan region of north-east India. Can. J. Microbiol. 2015 , 61 , 555–564. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] He, Z.; Gan, H.; Liang, X. Analysis of synonymous codon usage bias in Potato virus M and its adaption to hosts. Viruses 2019 , 11 , 752. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ][ Green Version ] He, Z.; Dong, Z.; Gan, H. Genetic changes and host adaptability in sugarcane mosaic virus based on complete genome sequences. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 2020 , 149 , 106848. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] Kobayashi, Y.O.; Kobayashi, A.; Nakano, M.; Hagiwara, K.; Honda, Y.; Omura, T. Analysis of genetic relations between Broad bean wilt virus 1 and Broad bean wilt virus 2 . J. Gen. Plant. Pathol. 2003 , 69 , 320–326. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Koh, L.H.; Cooper, J.I.; Wong, S.M. Complete sequences and phylogenetic analyses of a Singapore isolate of broad bean wilt fabavirus. Arch. Virol. 2001 , 146 , 135–147. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Kwak, H.A.; Lee, Y.J.; Kim, J.; Kim, M.K.; Kim, J.S.; Choi, H.S.; Seo, J.K. A determinant of disease symptom severity is located in RNA2 of Broad bean wilt virus 2 . Virus Res. 2016 , 211 , 25–28. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Nakamura, S.; Iwai, T.; Honkura, R. Complete nucleotide sequence and genome organization of Broad bean wilt virus 2 . Jpn. J. Phytopathol. 1998 , 64 , 565–568. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Qi, Y.; Zhou, X.; Li, D. Complete nucleotide sequence and infectious cDNA clone of the RNA1 of a Chinese isolate of Broad bean wilt virus 2 . Virus Genes 2000 , 20 , 201–207. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Qi, Y.; Zhou, X.; Xue, C.; Li, D. Nucleotide sequence of RNA2 and polyprotein processing sites of a Chinese isolate of Broad bean wilt virus . Prog. Nat. Sci. 2000 , 10 , 684–686. [ Google Scholar ] Xie, L.; Shang, W.; Liu, C.; Zhang, Q.; Zhou, X.P. Mutual association of Broad bean wilt virus 2 VP37-derived tubules and plasmodesmata obtained from cytological observation. Sci. Rep. 2016 , 6 , 21552. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] Larkin, M.A.; Blackshields, G.; Brown, N.P.; Chenna, R.; McGettigan, P.A.; McWilliam, H.; Valentin, F.; Wallace, I.M.W.; Wilm, A.; Lopez, R. Clustal W and Clustal X version 2.0. Bioinformatics 2007 , 23 , 2947–2948. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ][ Green Version ] Boni, M.F.; Posada, D.; Feldman, M.W. An exact nonparametric method for inferring mosaic structure in sequence triplets. Genetics 2007 , 176 , 1035–1047. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ][ Green Version ] Martin, D.P.; Rybicki, E.P. RDP: Detection of recombination amongst aligned sequences. Bioinformatics 2000 , 16 , 562–563. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Salminen, M.O.; Carr, J.K.; Burke, D.S.; McCutchan, F.E. Identification of breakpoints in intergenotypic recombinants of HIV type 1 by bootscanning. AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 1995 , 11 , 1423–1425. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Sawyer, S.A. GENECONV: A Computer Package for the Statistical Detection of Gene Conversion ; Department of Mathematics, Washington University in St. Louis: St. Louis, MO, USA, 1999; Available online: http://www.math.wustl.edu/sawyer (accessed on 19 January 2021). Smith, J. Analyzing the mosaic structure of genes. J. Mol. Evol. 1992 , 34 , 126–129. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Gibbs, M.J.; Armstrong, J.S.; Gibbs, A.J. Sister-Scanning: A Monte Carlo procedure for assessing signals in recombinant sequences. Bioinformatics 2000 , 16 , 573–582. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Posada, D.; Crandall, K.A. Evaluation of methods for detecting recombination from DNA sequences: Computer simulations. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2001 , 98 , 13757–13762. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Martin, D.P.; Murrell, B.; Golden, M.; Khoosal, A.; Muhire, B. RDP4: Detection and analysis of recombination patterns in virus genomes. Virus Evol. 2015 , 1 . [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Guindon, S.; Dufayard, J.F.; Lefort, V.; Anisimova, M.; Hordijk, W.; Gascuel, O. New algorithms and methods to estimate maximum-likelihood phylogenies: Assessing the performance of PhyML 3.0. Syst. Biol. 2010 , 59 , 307–321. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Kumar, S.; Stecher, G.; Li, M.; Knyaz, C.; Tamura, K. MEGA X: Molecular evolutionary genetics analysis across computing platforms. Mol. Biol. Evol. 2018 , 35 , 1547–1549. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] Posada, D. jModelTest: Phylogenetic model averaging. Mol. Biol. Evol. 2008 , 25 , 1253–1256. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] Kimura, M. A simple method for estimating evolutionary rates of base substitutions through comparative studies of nucleotide sequences. J. Mol. Evol. 1980 , 16 , 111–120. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] Page, R.D.M. Tree View: An application to display phylogenetic trees on personal computers. Bioinformatics 1996 , 12 , 357–358. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ][ Green Version ] Muhire, B.M.; Varsani, A.; Martin, D.P. SDT: A virus classification tool based on pairwise sequence alignment and identity calculation. PLoS ONE 2014 , 9 , e108277. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] Drummond, A.J.; Suchard, M.A.; Xie, D.; Rambaut, A. Bayesian Phylogenetics with BEAUti and the BEAST 1.7. Mol. Biol. Evol. 2012 , 29 , 1969–1973. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ][ Green Version ] Drummond, A.J.; Ho, S.Y.W.; Phillips, M.J.; Rambaut, A. Relaxed phylogenetics and dating with confidence. PLoS Biol. 2006 , 4 , e88. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Rambaut, A.; Drummond, A.J.; Xie, D.; Baele, G.; Suchard, M.A. Posterior summarization in bayesian phylogenetics using Tracer 1.7. Syst. Biol. 2018 , 67 , 901–904. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Ramsden, C.; Holmes, E.C.; Charleston, M.A. Hantavirus evolution in relation to its rodent and insectivore hosts: No evidence for codivergence. Mol. Biol. Evol. 2008 , 26 , 143–153. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Duchêne, S.; Duchêne, D.; Holmes, E.C.; Ho, S.Y.W. The performance of the date-randomization test in phylogenetic analyses of time-structured virus data. Mol. Biol. Evol. 2015 , 32 , 1895–1906. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Hall, T.A. BioEdit: A user-friendly biological sequence alignment editor and analysis program for Windows 95/98/NT. Nucleic Acids Symp. Ser. 1999 , 41 , 95–98. [ Google Scholar ] Wright, F. The ‘effective number of codons’ used in a gene. Gene 1990 , 87 , 23–29. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Sharp, P.M.; Li, W.H. An evolutionary perspective on synonymous codon usage in unicellular organisms. J. Mol. Evol. 1986 , 24 , 28–38. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] Butt, A.M.; Nasrullah, I.; Qamar, R.; Tong, Y. Evolution of codon usage in Zika virus genomes is host and vector specific. Emerg. Microbes Infect. 2016 , 5 , 1–14. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Gerton, J.L.; DeRisi, J.; Shroff, R.; Lichten, M.; Brown, P.O.; Petes, T.D. Global mapping of meiotic recombination hotspots and coldspots in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2000 , 97 , 11383–11390. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ][ Green Version ] Steel, M. The phylogenetic handbook: A practical approach to phylogenetic analysis and hypothesis testing edited by Lemey, P.; Salemi, M. and Vandamme, A.M. Biometrics 2010 , 66 , 324–325. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Jacquot, M.; Rao, P.P.; Yadav, S.; Nomikou, K.; Maan, S.; Jyothi, Y.K.; Reddy, N.; Putty, K.; Hemadri, D.; Singh, K.P. Contrasting selective patterns across the segmented genome of bluetongue virus in a global reassortment hotspot. Virus Evol. 2019 , 5 , 1–14. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] McDonald, S.M.; Nelson, M.I.; Turner, P.E.; Patton, J.T. Reassortment in segmented RNA viruses: Mechanisms and outcomes. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 2016 , 14 , 448–460. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Gao, F.; Liu, X.; Du, Z.; Hou, H.; Wang, X.; Wang, F.; Yang, J. Bayesian phylodynamic analysis reveals the dispersal patterns of Tobacco mosaic virus in China. Virology 2019 , 528 , 110–117. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] He, Z.; Chen, W.; Yasaka, R.; Chen, C.; Chen, X. Temporal analysis and adaptive evolution of the global population of potato virus M. Infect. Genet. Evol. 2019 , 73 , 167–174. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Nguyen, H.D.; Tomitaka, Y.; Ho, S.Y.W.; Duchêne, S.; Vetten, H.J.; Lesemann, D.; Walsh, J.A.; Gibbs, A.J.; Ohshima, K. Turnip mosaic potyvirus probably first spread to Eurasian brassica crops from wild orchids about 1000 years ago. PLoS ONE 2013 , 8 , e55336. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] He, Z.; Dong, T.; Wu, W.; Chen, W.; Liu, X.; Li, L. Evolutionary rates and phylogeographical analysis of Odontoglossum ringspot virus based on the 166 coat protein gene sequences. Plant. Pathol. J. 2019 , 35 , 498–507. [ Google Scholar ] [ PubMed ] Mao, Y.; Sun, X.; Shen, J.; Gao, F.; Qiu, G.; Wang, T.; Nie, X.; Zhang, W.; Gao, Y.; Bai, Y. Molecular evolutionary analysis of Potato virus Y infecting potato based on the VPg gene. Front. Microbiol. 2019 , 10 , 1–11. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] He, W.; Zhao, J.; Xing, G.; Li, G.; Wang, R.; Wang, Z. Genetic analysis and evolutionary changes of Porcine circovirus 2. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 2019 , 139 , 106520. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] Li, G.; Wang, H.; Wang, S.; Xing, G.; Zhang, C.; Zhang, W.; Liu, J.; Zhang, J.; Su, S.; Zhou, J. Insights into the genetic and host adaptability of emerging porcine circovirus 3. Virulence 2018 , 9 , 1301–1313. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Yan, Z.; Wang, R.; Zhang, L.; Shen, B.; Wang, N.; Xu, Q.; He, W.; He, W.; Li, G.; Su, S. Evolutionary changes of the novel Influenza D virus hemagglutinin-esterase fusion gene revealed by the codon usage pattern. Virulence 2019 , 10 , 1–9. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Zhang, W.; Zhang, L.; He, W.; Zhang, X.; Wen, B.; Wang, C.; Xu, Q.; Li, G.; Zhou, J.; Veit, M. Genetic evolution and molecular selection of the HE gene of Influenza C virus. Viruses 2019 , 11 , 167. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Torres-Pérez, F.; Palma, R.E.; Hjelle, B.; Holmes, E.C.; Cook, J.A. Spatial but not temporal co-divergence of a virus and its mammalian host. Mol. Ecol. 2011 , 20 , 4109–4122. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Rodelo-Urrego, M.; Pagán, I.; González-Jara, P.; Betancourt, M.; Moreno-Letelier, A.; Ayllón, M.A.; Fraile, A.; Piñero, D.; García-Arenal, F. Landscape heterogeneity shapes host-parasite interactions and results in apparent plant-virus codivergence. Mol. Ecol. 2013 , 22 , 2325–2340. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Irwin, N.R.; Bayerlová, M.; Missa, O.; Martínková, N. Complex patterns of host switching in new world arenaviruses. Mol. Ecol. 2012 , 21 , 4137–4150. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Puigbò, P.; Aragonès, L.; Garcia-Vallvé, S. RCDI/eRCDI: A web-server to estimate codon usage deoptimization. BMC Res. Notes 2010 , 3 , 87. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ][ Green Version ] Seo, J.K.; Shin, O.J.; Kwak, H.R.; Kim, M.K.; Choi, H.S.; Lee, S.H.; Kim, J.S. First Report of Broad bean wilt virus 2 in Leonurus sibiricus in Korea. Plant Dis. 2014 , 98 , 1748. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] Atsumi, G.; Tomita, R.; Kobayashi, K.; Sekine, K.T. Establishment of an agroinoculation system for Broad bean wilt virus 2. Arch. Virol. 2013 , 158 , 1549–1554. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] Kuroda, T.; Okumura, A.; Takeda, I.; Miura, Y.; Suzuki, K. Nucleotide sequence and synthesis of infectious RNA from cloned cDNA of broad bean wilt virus 2 RNA 2. Arch. Virol. 2000 , 145 , 787–793. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] Kobayashi, Y.O.; Nakano, M.; Kashiwazaki, S.; Naito, T.; Mikoshiba, Y.; Shiota, A.; Kameya-Iwaki, M.; Honda, Y. Sequence analysis of RNA-2 of different isolates of Broad bean wilt virus confirms the existence of two distinct species. Arch. Virol. 1999 , 144 , 1429–1438. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] Figure 1. The maximum-likelihood (ML) trees calculated from the ORF1 ( A ) and ORF2 ( B ) sequences of nonrecombinant broad bean wilt virus 2. Numbers at each node indicate the percentage of bootstrap samples in the NJ and ML trees. The horizontal branch length is drawn to scale with the bar indicating 0.05 nt replacements per site. Figure 1. The maximum-likelihood (ML) trees calculated from the ORF1 ( A ) and ORF2 ( B ) sequences of nonrecombinant broad bean wilt virus 2. Numbers at each node indicate the percentage of bootstrap samples in the NJ and ML trees. The horizontal branch length is drawn to scale with the bar indicating 0.05 nt replacements per site. Figure 2. Graphs comparing patristic distances in pairs of maximum-likelihood trees based on the ORF1 and ORF2 sequences of nonrecombinant broad bean wilt virus 2. ( A ) Graphs comparing patristic distances; ( B ) correlation coefficient of ORF1 and ORF2. Figure 2. Graphs comparing patristic distances in pairs of maximum-likelihood trees based on the ORF1 and ORF2 sequences of nonrecombinant broad bean wilt virus 2. ( A ) Graphs comparing patristic distances; ( B ) correlation coefficient of ORF1 and ORF2. Figure 3. The relative and cumulative inertia of the 35 axes from a COA of the RSCU values based on the ORF1 ( A ) and ORF2 ( B ) sequences of broad bean wilt virus 2. PCA based on the RSCU values of the ORF1 ( C ) and ORF2 ( D ) sequences of broad bean wilt virus 2. The broad bean pepper, spinach and yam hosts are showed in green, blue, purple and red dots, respectively. Figure 3. The relative and cumulative inertia of the 35 axes from a COA of the RSCU values based on the ORF1 ( A ) and ORF2 ( B ) sequences of broad bean wilt virus 2. PCA based on the RSCU values of the ORF1 ( C ) and ORF2 ( D ) sequences of broad bean wilt virus 2. The broad bean pepper, spinach and yam hosts are showed in green, blue, purple and red dots, respectively. Figure 4. ENC-plot analysis of ORF1 ( A ) and ORF2 ( B ) sequences of broad bean wilt virus 2, with ENC against the GC3s of different hosts. The orange dotted line represents the standard curve when the codon usage bias is determined by the GC3s composition only. The broad bean pepper, spinach and yam hosts are showed in green, blue, purple and red dots, respectively. Figure 4. ENC-plot analysis of ORF1 ( A ) and ORF2 ( B ) sequences of broad bean wilt virus 2, with ENC against the GC3s of different hosts. The orange dotted line represents the standard curve when the codon usage bias is determined by the GC3s composition only. The broad bean pepper, spinach and yam hosts are showed in green, blue, purple and red dots, respectively. Figure 5. Neutrality plot analysis of GC3 against GC12 for the ORF1 ( A ) and ORF2 ( B ) sequences of broad bean wilt virus 2. The broad bean, pepper, spinach and yam hosts are represented in green, blue, purple and red dots, respectively. Figure 5. Neutrality plot analysis of GC3 against GC12 for the ORF1 ( A ) and ORF2 ( B ) sequences of broad bean wilt virus 2. The broad bean, pepper, spinach and yam hosts are represented in green, blue, purple and red dots, respectively. Figure 6. Parity plot showing the presence of AT bias [A3%/(A3% + T3%)] and GC bias [G3%/(G3% + C3%)] for the ORF1 ( A ) and ORF2 ( B ) sequences of broad bean wilt virus 2. The center of the plot, where the value of both coordinates is 0.5, indicates the place where there is no bias in mutation or selection rates. The broad bean pepper, spinach and yam hosts are represented in green, blue, purple and red dots, respectively. Figure 6. Parity plot showing the presence of AT bias [A3%/(A3% + T3%)] and GC bias [G3%/(G3% + C3%)] for the ORF1 ( A ) and ORF2 ( B ) sequences of broad bean wilt virus 2. The center of the plot, where the value of both coordinates is 0.5, indicates the place where there is no bias in mutation or selection rates. The broad bean pepper, spinach and yam hosts are represented in green, blue, purple and red dots, respectively. Figure 7. The CAI analysis and RCDI analysis of the ORF1 ( A ) and ORF2 ( B ) sequences of broad bean wilt virus 2 in relation to the natural hosts. The x -axis represents the sequences identified in different hosts. Figure 7. The CAI analysis and RCDI analysis of the ORF1 ( A ) and ORF2 ( B ) sequences of broad bean wilt virus 2 in relation to the natural hosts. The x -axis represents the sequences identified in different hosts. Figure 8. The SiD analysis of the ORF1 ( A ) and ORF2 ( B ) sequences of broad bean wilt virus 2 in relation to the natural hosts. The broad bean pepper, spinach and yam hosts are showed in light orange, green, purple and yellow column, respectively. The x -axis represents the sequences identified in different hosts. Figure 8. The SiD analysis of the ORF1 ( A ) and ORF2 ( B ) sequences of broad bean wilt virus 2 in relation to the natural hosts. The broad bean pepper, spinach and yam hosts are showed in light orange, green, purple and yellow column, respectively. The x -axis represents the sequences identified in different hosts. Table 1. Recombination sites detected in the protein encoding regions of broad bean wilt virus 2. Table 1. Recombination sites detected in the protein encoding regions of broad bean wilt virus 2. Segment Isolate Sequence Used to Infer Major Parent Sequence Used to Infer Minor Parent Recombination Site a Recombination Detecting Program ( p -Value b ) RDP GENECONV BOOTSCAN MAXCHI CHIMAERA SISCAN 3SEQ RNA1 KF498696 UN c FN985164 1311–2836 2.399 × 10 −7 7.723 × 10 −1 4.485 × 10 −8 5.120 × 10 −5 3.670 × 10 −2 2.467 × 10 −11 1.869 × 10 −6 KM076648 KC625492 AB023484 1644–5592 2.711 × 10 −141 9.401 × 10 −134 5.393 × 10 −133 7.798 × 10 −44 1.023 × 10 −30 1.281 × 10 −55 8.626 × 10 −13 RNA2 JQ855708 KJ825857 KC625506 236–1144 2.057 × 10 −26 1.165 × 10 −19 9.826 × 10 −25 1.522 × 10 −16 5.628 × 10 −14 1.524 × 10 −33 1.096 × 10 −12 KM076649 JX183234 KJ825857 148–3166 3.811 × 10 −23 1.442 × 10 −15 6.082 × 10 −20 1.152 × 10 −7 1.394 × 10 −6 1.938 × 10 −9 2.193 × 10 −12 HQ283389 KJ825857 KC625506 236–1132 1.132 × 10 −30 3.734 × 10 −22 8.940 × 10 −29 7.192 × 10 −22 5.962 × 10 −16 2.644 × 10 −26 1.096 × 10 −12 KF498697 KC625506 LC497425 2561–3166 6.698 × 10 −8 - 3.281 × 10 −8 5.828 × 10 −6 1.533 × 10 −2 5.191 × 10 −12 8.114 × 10 −4 GQ202215 KF498697 KX686590 1484–2576 5.190 × 10 −13 1.640 × 10 −8 3.624 × 10 −15 6.479 × 10 −13 4.696 × 10 −6 3.525 × 10 −22 1.096 × 10 −12 HQ283390 AB018698 LC497425 1278–3166 6.174 × 10 −22 9.652 × 10 −18 1.257 × 10 −12 8.796 × 10 −23 5.680 × 10 −12 1.397 × 10 −16 4.858 × 10 −40 a Recombination sites correspond to the two coding sequences of BBWV-2 Zhejiang isolate (GenBank accession number, RNA1, NC_003003; RNA2, NC_003004). b The analyses were done using default settings and a Bonferroni-corrected p -values cut-off of 0.01 in RDP4 software. c UN, Unknown. Table 2. The RSCU value of 59 codons encoding 18 amino acids according to hosts of BBWV-2 ORF1 and ORF2. Table 2. The RSCU value of 59 codons encoding 18 amino acids according to hosts of BBWV-2 ORF1 and ORF2. Codon aa ORF1 ORF2 Broad Bean ( n = 6) Pepper ( n = 18) Spinach ( n = 3) Yam ( n = 4) All ( n = 42) Broad Bean ( n = 5) Pepper ( n = 18) Spinach ( n = 3) Yam ( n = 4) All ( n = 41) TTT F 1.38 * 1.37 1.38 1.35 1.35 1.25 1.35 1.28 1.25 1.32 TTC F 0.62 0.63 0.62 0.65 0.65 0.75 0.65 0.73 0.76 0.68 TTA L 0.76 0.80 0.76 0.71 0.79 0.73 0.72 0.58 0.66 0.72 TTG L 2.97 2.72 2.86 3.02 2.82 2.66 2.50 2.77 2.81 2.66 CTT L 0.95 0.94 0.85 1.13 0.96 1.20 1.30 1.35 1.20 1.21 CTC L 0.42 0.45 0.48 0.44 0.44 0.31 0.27 0.20 0.25 0.31 CTA L 0.29 0.32 0.31 0.22 0.31 0.31 0.33 0.29 0.32 0.33 CTG L 0.61 0.77 0.74 0.47 0.68 0.80 0.79 0.82 0.75 0.77 ATT I 1.50 1.53 1.53 1.60 1.54 1.40 1.35 1.27 1.43 1.36 ATC I 0.64 0.57 0.61 0.54 0.59 0.62 0.69 0.72 0.72 0.68 ATA I 0.86 0.89 0.86 0.86 0.87 0.98 0.96 1.01 0.84 0.96 GTT V 1.33 1.38 1.37 1.22 1.37 1.32 1.19 1.29 1.28 1.29 GTC V 0.58 0.57 0.58 0.70 0.57 0.56 0.67 0.54 0.61 0.63 GTA V 0.38 0.34 0.45 0.40 0.36 0.54 0.55 0.58 0.50 0.51 GTG V 1.71 1.71 1.61 1.69 1.7 1.58 1.59 1.59 1.62 1.57 TCT S 1.07 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.12 1.26 1.27 1.51 1.2 1.28 TCC S 0.54 0.59 0.58 0.41 0.54 0.58 0.62 0.47 0.65 0.6 TCA S 1.70 1.46 1.60 1.66 1.57 1.23 1.23 1.19 1.03 1.19 TCG S 0.55 0.64 0.52 0.63 0.61 0.35 0.30 0.32 0.46 0.35 AGT S 1.18 1.05 1.00 1.36 1.14 1.50 1.53 1.46 1.58 1.53 AGC S 0.96 1.11 1.16 0.79 1.02 1.09 1.05 1.06 1.08 1.05 CCT P 1.38 1.14 1.29 1.57 1.28 1.69 1.71 1.76 1.30 1.66 CCC P 0.77 0.85 0.74 0.66 0.78 0.70 0.67 0.51 1.03 0.72 CCA P 1.43 1.62 1.44 1.51 1.54 1.17 1.23 1.22 0.98 1.18 CCG P 0.42 0.39 0.53 0.26 0.39 0.43 0.38 0.51 0.69 0.44 ACT T 1.27 1.25 1.23 1.33 1.26 1.41 1.43 1.42 1.64 1.44 ACC T 0.53 0.48 0.47 0.51 0.49 0.52 0.49 0.49 0.30 0.47 ACA T 1.57 1.63 1.71 1.49 1.59 1.50 1.42 1.38 1.50 1.43 ACG T 0.64 0.64 0.59 0.66 0.65 0.58 0.66 0.72 0.56 0.65 GCT A 1.32 1.31 1.28 1.59 1.37 1.26 1.32 1.36 1.37 1.32 GCC A 0.70 0.72 0.77 0.57 0.69 0.62 0.62 0.59 0.79 0.64 GCA A 1.47 1.40 1.39 1.34 1.4 1.5 1.45 1.34 1.26 1.45 GCG A 0.51 0.57 0.56 0.50 0.54 0.62 0.61 0.71 0.58 0.58 TAT Y 1.12 1.12 1.18 1.14 1.14 1.09 1.06 1.11 0.99 1.05 TAC Y 0.88 0.88 0.82 0.86 0.86 0.91 0.94 0.89 1.01 0.95 CAT H 1.42 1.40 1.33 1.51 1.46 1.46 1.45 1.52 1.35 1.39 CAC H 0.58 0.60 0.67 0.49 0.54 0.54 0.55 0.49 0.65 0.61 CAA Q 1.10 1.10 1.04 1.11 1.10 1.26 1.20 1.17 1.37 1.23 CAG Q 0.90 0.90 0.96 0.89 0.92 0.74 0.80 0.83 0.63 0.77 AAT N 1.36 1.37 1.40 1.30 1.35 1.37 1.38 1.45 1.48 1.39 AAC N 0.65 0.63 0.60 0.70 0.65 0.63 0.62 0.55 0.52 0.61 AAA K 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.86 0.95 1.09 1.09 1.03 1.01 1.06 AAG K 1.04 1.03 1.02 1.14 1.05 0.91 0.91 0.97 0.99 0.94 GAT D 1.48 1.54 1.53 1.48 1.51 1.53 1.53 1.54 1.54 1.54 GAC D 0.52 0.46 0.47 0.52 0.49 0.47 0.47 0.46 0.46 0.46 GAA E 0.88 0.94 1.02 0.93 0.93 1.00 1.05 1.03 0.73 1.01 GAG E 1.12 1.06 0.99 1.07 1.07 1.01 0.95 0.97 1.27 0.99 TGT C 1.06 1.00 1.04 1.12 1.04 1.38 1.31 1.08 1.69 1.29 TGC C 0.94 1.01 0.96 0.88 0.96 0.62 0.69 0.92 0.31 0.71 CGT R 0.54 0.52 0.56 0.72 0.57 1.30 1.19 1.09 1.13 1.15 CGC R 0.67 0.79 0.82 0.52 0.69 1.14 1.29 1.30 0.99 1.2 CGA R 0.59 0.58 0.70 0.39 0.59 0.29 0.31 0.25 0.35 0.36 CGG R 0.47 0.55 0.42 0.55 0.49 0.21 0.14 0.21 0.12 0.16 AGA R 2.03 2.04 2.03 1.88 1.97 2.16 2.45 2.64 1.91 2.3 AGG R 1.69 1.52 1.47 1.95 1.69 0.90 0.62 0.50 1.51 0.82 GGT G 0.89 1.10 1.11 1.13 1.04 1.08 1.12 1.16 1.52 1.18 GGC G 0.84 0.73 0.79 0.65 0.75 0.78 0.73 0.73 0.64 0.74 GGA G 1.56 1.46 1.45 1.51 1.49 1.29 1.32 1.29 1.20 1.32 GGG G 0.71 0.72 0.65 0.72 0.72 0.84 0.83 0.812 0.65 0.77 * The optimal RSCU values are shown in bold. Table 3. Correlation analysis among GRAVY, ARO, ENC, GC3 S , GC, and the first two principle axes. Table 3. Correlation analysis among GRAVY, ARO, ENC, GC3 S , GC, and the first two principle axes. Gene ENC GC3s GC Axis1 Axis2 r p r p r p r p r p ORF1 Gravy 0.13091 ns 0.40274 0.01371 ns 0.93045 0.05954 ns 0.7045 −0.32221 * 0.0351 −0.25199 ns 0.10307 Aromo 0.47618 ** 0.00125 −0.21277 ns 0.17073 0.26115 ns 0.09074 −0.85596 ** 2.58 × 10 −13 0.03121 ns 0.8425 ORF2 Gravy 0.02381 ns 0.88105 0.25202 ns 0.10738 0.20002 ns 0.20408 −0.43133 ** 0.00435 −0.37632 * 0.01404 Aromo −0.38519 * 0.01177 −0.10812 ns 0.49553 −0.22767 ns 0.14705 −0.27126 ns 0.08227 −0.27379 ns 0.07934 MDPI and ACS Style He, Z.; Dong, Z.; Qin, L.; Gan, H. Phylodynamics and Codon Usage Pattern Analysis of Broad Bean Wilt Virus 2. Viruses 2021, 13, 198. https://doi.org/10.3390/v13020198 AMA Style He Z, Dong Z, Qin L, Gan H. Phylodynamics and Codon Usage Pattern Analysis of Broad Bean Wilt Virus 2. Viruses. 2021; 13(2):198. https://doi.org/10.3390/v13020198 Chicago/Turabian Style He, Zhen, Zhuozhuo Dong, Lang Qin, and Haifeng Gan. 2021. "Phylodynamics and Codon Usage Pattern Analysis of Broad Bean Wilt Virus 2" Viruses13, no. 2: 198. https://doi.org/10.3390/v13020198 Article Metrics

https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/13/2/198/html

Posts Tagged: syrphid fly - University of California Cooperative Extension Ventura University of California Cooperative Extension Ventura - Latest News Posts Tagged: syrphid fly Prescribed fire, cultural burning get liability support to reduce wildfire risks in California A lack of liability insurance for practitioners has been a major barrier to increasing the use of prescribed fire to reduce wildfire fuels. Photo by Lenya Quinn-Davidson The State of California rolled out a first-of-its-kind approach to curbing the state's catastrophic wildfire problem on June 19 by providing new protections for prescribed fire and cultural burning practitioners. The $20 million allocated for the “Prescribed Fire Liability Claims Fund Pilot” will cover losses in the rare instance that a prescribed or cultural burn escapes control. California Senator Bill Dodd authored the 2022 bill (Senate Bill 926) that made this fund possible, continuing his many years of leadership on wildfire and prescribed fire-related legislation. “Prescribed fire is a cost-effective way to minimize the scope and severity of wildfires,” said Sen. Bill Dodd, D-Napa. “It's a tool that has been used for millennia by Native American tribes and one that will continue to play a big role in wildfire prevention. The rollout of this fund is a big step toward keeping California communities safe.” The use of prescribed fire and cultural burning — sometimes collectively called “good” or “beneficial” fire — is a key component of wildfire risk management in California. These projects reduce hazardous fuels, help restore ecological and cultural values, and make our communities safer and our ecosystems more resilient to wildfire. However, lack of liability insurance for practitioners has been a major barrier to increasing the use of prescribed fire, even as firefighters, fire scientists, at-risk communities and state, federal and tribal leaders call for more. The Prescribed Fire Claims Fund pilot project removes a significant barrier to obtaining insurance for potential damages from a prescribed fire or cultural burn conducted by a certified prescribed fire burn boss or a cultural fire practitioner,” said CAL FIRE Director/Chief Joe Tyler. “As we continue to focus on increasing the resiliency of the state's forests, creating a pathway for private burn bosses to have the significant protection this claims fund provides is a critical step toward reaching the goals of the Governor's Wildfire and Forest Resilience Action Plan.” The fund will provide up to $2 million in coverage for prescribed fire projects led by a qualified burn boss or cultural practitioner. The fund is meant to demonstrate that prescribed fire, when carefully planned, resources and implemented, is a low-risk land management tool that mitigates the larger, more damaging risks of high-severity wildfires. The fund is the first of its kind nationally and is the result of several years of collaboration by a diversity of partners working with Senator Dodd's Office, including The Nature Conservancy, CAL FIRE, the University of California Cooperative Extension, the California Department of Insurance, tribal representatives and many others. “Launching this program is a key step in scaling ecologically based forest management to reduce the risk of megafires. We appreciate Senator Dodd's leadership and the expedient work of CAL FIRE and beneficial fire practitioners to develop this fund as the next fire season quickly approaches,” said Dan Porter, The Nature Conservancy's Forest Program director. The fund will also advance cultural burning, helping Indigenous Californians restore their connection to fire. “Cultural burning is an essential practice to meet diverse objectives, including biodiversity stewardship, ecological health and community safety. The availability of this pilot fund provides cultural fire practitioners a safeguard against financial risk in the unlikely event of an escaped burn. This is a significant incentive to support revitalization of burning traditions following the legacy of policies banning such practices,” said Don Hankins, professor of geography and planning at CSU Chico and co-founder of the Indigenous Stewardship Network. This fund is part of a larger vision for restoring beneficial fire across California's fire-adapted ecosystems. Last year, the state released itsStrategic Plan for Expanding the Use of Beneficial Fire, which identified this claims fund as a priority. The state has also rolled out a state-certified burn boss program, changed the liability standard for prescribed fire, and made investments in prescribed burn associations, agency staffing, and other related efforts. “We are using every tool to protect Californians, including using prescribed fire to fight wildfires,” said Insurance Commissioner Ricardo Lara. “The Prescribed Fire Claims fund will be critical to assisting our tribal groups, nonprofits and private landowners who are leading the way. This is an example of government being innovative and leading by example. The data that we get from the claims fund is going to be essential to our on-going education with insurance companies to support insuring this important work.” Lenya Quinn-Davidson, Fire Network director for the University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources, says the recent momentum is unparalleled. “Californians are desperate to have a better relationship with fire, and only with innovative approaches like this claims fund will we be able to unleash the good work that needs to happen,” said Quinn-Davidson. “It's a challenging time to be working on fire in California, but also an incredibly inspiring time.” Tags: policy (0), Prescribed fire (0), wildfire (0) Focus Area Tags: Environment How many of us can trace our childhood interest in insects back to lady beetles,... Lady beetles, aka ladybugs, are among the most recognizable of insects, but most people never see them take flight. (Photo by Kathy Keatley Garvey) Lady beetles, aka ladybugs, are among the most recognizable of insects, but most people never see them take flight. (Photo by Kathy Keatley Garvey) Tags: Citation for Outstanding Performance in Entomology (0), Katie Hostetler (0), Morgan Myhre (0), Outstanding Senior in Entomology (0), UC Davis Department of Entomology and Nematology (0) Focus Area Tags: Agriculture, Environment, Innovation, Natural Resources, Yard & Garden Metallica's James Hetfield Guitar Center Interview - On Stagecraft A fact of extension work is that you do a lot of presentations in front of audiences, and for people who take it seriously it is a challenging yet very rewarding aspect of the work. I think that what (starts at minute 9:26, I've set it to start there for you) James Hetfield of the rock band Metallica is saying here puts very much into words what I feel myself when doing a presentation.  Not to say the audiences to which I present are anything close to what he and his band play to, including probably the largest crowd of people ever assembled in history, some 1.6 million people at a show in Moscow in 1991, I still find his " sense of purpose, sense of being, sense of communication" to really capture the feeling of what it is like to be performing in front of a group of people.  Too, the distinction a bit later on of how one acts in front of a large crowd as compared to being with smaller, more intimate group is spot on, although not that many people in the presentation business really pay attention to that. Also, look at the light in James' eyes when he talks about playing and performing, he truly loves his work. Weed control and cost benefit analysis of automated cultivators and herbicides to control within-row weeds in melons In melons, as with many annual crops, weeds that emerge in the plant row are the most difficult and... Tags: automated cultivators (0), herbicide (0), melons (0), weed conttol (0) Meet Mama and Her Wizard Hat Mortarboards are really "wizard hats." Just ask the very creative Griffin Alberts, 3, whose... Meet Dr. Charlotte Herbert Alberts and her family, her husband George, and their children, Griffin, 3, and Marcy, 7 months. Meet Dr. Charlotte Herbert Alberts and her family, her husband George, and their children, Griffin, 3, and Marcy, 7 months. An assassin or robber fly, the work of Charlotte Herbert Alberts. An assassin or robber fly, the work of Charlotte Herbert Alberts. Tags: assassin bugs (0), Charlotte Herbert Alberts (0), doctorate (0), UC Davis Department of Entomology and Nematology (0), UC Davis Graduate Studies Program (0), wizard hat (0) Focus Area Tags: Economic Development, Innovation, Natural Resources, Yard & Garden

https://ceventura.ucanr.edu/index4.cfm/*file163035*?blogasset=19305&blogtag=syrphid%20fly

The Postal Services Act 2011 (Transfer of Accrued Pension Rights) Order 2012 - Legislation - VLEX 811639573 The Postal Services Act 2011 (Transfer of Accrued Pension Rights) Order 2012 UNITED KINGDOM STATUTORY INSTRUMENT 2012 No. 687 Postal Services The Postal Services Act 2011 (Transfer of Accrued Pension Rights) Order 2012 Made 8th March 2012 Laid before Parliament 9th March 2012 Coming into force in accordance with article 1(2) to (4) The Secretary of State makes the following Order in exercise of the powers conferred by section 17, 18, 19, 20(6), 25, 26and 89(2)of thePostal Services Act 2011 1. The Secretary of State has consulted the parties required by section 25(1), obtained consent of the Treasury in accordance with section 25(2), and makes this Order in compliance with section 20(2) of the Postal Services Act 2011. Citation and commencement S-1 Citation and commencement Citation and commencement 1.—(1) This Order may be cited as the Postal Services Act 2011 (Transfer of Accrued Pension Rights) Order 2012. (2) This Article will come into force on 31 March 2012. (3) Articles 2 to 12 will come into force on a day to be specified by Order made under section 25(4) and (5) of the Act. (4) Articles 13 and 14 will come into force immediately after articles 2 to 12 have come into force. Interpretation S-2 Interpretation Interpretation 2.In this Order— “the Act” means thePostal Services Act 2011; “Assets Order” means thePostal Services Act 2011 (Transfer of Assets) Order 2012 2; “POL” means Post Office Limited (registered number 02154540); “qualifying member of the RMPP” has the meaning given in the RMSPS Rules; “the qualifying time” 3means the time immediately before 1 April 2012; “RMPP Amendments” means the amendments made by article 11 to the trust deed and rules of the RMPP 4, as set out in the Statement of Amendments; “RMPP Rules” has the meaning given in the RMSPS Rules; “RMSPS” means the Royal Mail Statutory Pension Scheme; “RMSPS Rules” means the rules governing the RMSPS (as set out at Schedule 1); “Statement of Amendments” means the document entitled “Statement of Amendments to the Royal Mail Pension Plan to be effected by the Postal Services Act 2011 (Transfer of Accrued Pension Rights) Order 2012 ( S.I. 2012/687)”, authored by Slaughter and May dated 9 March 2012 and placed in the Libraries of the House of Commons and the House of Lords. Establishment of the RMSPS Establishment of the RMSPS S-3 The RMSPS is established and the RMSPS Rules are contained in... 3.The RMSPS is established and the RMSPS Rules are contained in Schedule 1. S-4 Amendments to the RMSPS are subject to the restrictions set out... 4.Amendments to the RMSPS are subject to the restrictions set out in Schedule 2. Transfer of qualifying accrued rights from RMPP to RMSPS Transfer of qualifying accrued rights from RMPP to RMSPS S-5 The following are transferred from the RMPP to the RMSPS— all... 5.The following are transferred from the RMPP to the RMSPS— (a) all the qualifying accrued rights 5; and (b) the additional rights or entitlements to or in respect of benefits or future benefits which are removed from the RMPP by the RMPP Amendments. S-6 Schedule 3 makes provision for the transfer to the RMSPS of... 6.Schedule 3 makes provision for the transfer to the RMSPS of obligations and liabilities under the RMPP relating to pension sharing orders, pension attachment orders, attachment of earnings orders, deductions from earnings orders, earnings arrestment schedules and voluntary deduction from earnings arrangements. Discharge of Trustee Discharge of Trustee S-7 The Trustee of the RMPP is discharged from any liability in... 7.The Trustee of the RMPP is discharged from any liability in respect of the following for or in respect of a qualifying member of the RMPP— (a) all the qualifying accrued rights; and (b) the additional rights or entitlements to or in respect of benefits or future benefits which are removed from the RMPP by the RMPP Amendments. S-8 For the purposes of article 7, the “Trustee of the RMPP”... 8.For the purposes of article 7, the “Trustee of the RMPP” includes— (a) the trustee of the RMPP at the qualifying time; (b) a former or future trustee of the RMPP; (c) where any such trustee is or was a corporate trustee, its past, present and future directors and officers; and (d) any past, present and future agents, delegates, employees or staff of the Trustee. Application of occupational pensions legislation to RMSPS Application of occupational pensions legislation to RMSPS S-9 The RMSPS is to be treated as an occupational pension scheme... 9.The RMSPS is to be treated as an occupational pension scheme for the purposes of the statutory provisions described in Part 1 of Schedule 4. S-10 The RMSPS is to be treated as a salary-related contracted out... 10.The RMSPS is to be treated as a salary-related contracted out scheme for the purposes of Part III of thePension Schemes Act 1993 6, as modified by Part II of Schedule 4. Amendments to the RMPP Amendments to the RMPP S-11 The trust deed and rules of the RMPP are amended in accordance... 11.The trust deed and rules of the RMPP are amended in accordance with the Statement of Amendments so that— (a) the provisions that are crossed out in the Statement of Amendments (other than those in italics) are omitted; and (b) the provisions that are underlined in the Statement of Amendments (other than those in italics) are inserted. The provisions that are either crossed out or underlined but are also in italics are dealt with by article 13. S-12 The Security Agreements, as defined in Schedule 5, which relate... 12.The Security Agreements, as defined in Schedule 5, which relate to the provision of financial support in relation to the RMPP, are amended by that Schedule. Participation of POL in the RMPP and division of the RMPP into different sections Participation of POL in the RMPP and division of the RMPP into different sections S-13 The trust deed and rules of the RMPP (as amended by article 11)... 13.The trust deed and rules of the RMPP (as amended by article 11) are further amended in accordance with the Statement of Amendments so that— (a) the provisions that are in italics and are crossed out in the Statement of Amendments are omitted, and (b) the provisions that are in italics and are underlined in the Statement of Amendments are inserted. S-14 POL is admitted to participation in the RMPP as an employer on... 14.POL is admitted to participation in the RMPP as an employer on the terms set out in the trust deed and rules of the RMPP, as amended by article 11 and article 13, and as from time to time in force thereafter. Norman Lamb Parliamentary Under Secretary of State for Employment Relations, Consumer and Postal Affairs Department for Business, Innovation and Skills 7th March 2012 Michael Fabricant James Duddridge Department for HM Treasury 8th March 2012 SCHEDULE 1 Article 3 The Royal Mail Statutory Pension Scheme Rules 1 CLAUSES PART I CLAUSES SCH-1.1 1.Purpose, definitions and interpretation (1) The Royal Mail Statutory Pension Scheme has been established by the Secretary of State under section 17 of the Postal Services Act 2011 7for the purpose of securing pensions and other benefits for or in respect of qualifying members of the Royal Mail Pension Plan, for and in respect of whom a transfer was made to the Scheme under the provisions of that Act with effect from the Commencement Date. (2) In these Rules the following expressions have the following meanings— “Actuary” means the Government Actuary or any Fellow of the Institute and Faculty of Actuaries or a firm the majority of whose partners are Fellows of the Institute and Faculty of Actuaries, as may be appointed by the Secretary of State to be the Actuary for the purpose of these Rules; “Benefits Order” means the Postal Services Act 2011 (Transfer of Accrued Pension Rights) Order 2012 8; “Clause” means one of the clauses in Part I of the Rules; “Commencement Date” means the date on which this RMSPS commenced, being 1 April 2012; “Contracting-out Laws” means the contracting-out laws of thePension Schemes Act 1993 9(including anti-franking) to the extent that they apply to the RMSPS with any modifications under the Benefits Order; “Cut-Off Date” means 31 March 2012, being the date on which the qualifying time falls; “Cut-Off Date Active” has the meaning given in Clause 4 (Benefits payable in respect of Cut-Off Date Actives); “Cut-Off Date Non-Active” means a person referred to in Clause 3(1)(a) and/or (b) (Benefits payable in respect of Wholly Transferred Beneficiaries); “Employer” means at any time (which may be a time before, on or after the Cut-Off Date) an “Employer” for the purposes of the RMPP as defined in the RMPP Rules; “Family Benefits” means pensions or benefits paid under Section A or Section B to or in respect of the widow, widower or children of a Section A Active or a Section B Active (as the case may be); “Former RMPP Section A Member” means a Cut-Off Date Non-Active who, before the end of the Cut-Off Date, was subject to the Section A Rules of the RMPP; “Former RMPP Section B Member” means a Cut-Off Date Non-Active who, before the end of the Cut-Off Date, was subject to the Section B Rules of the RMPP; “Former RMPP Section C Member” means a Cut-Off Date Non-Active who, before the end of the Cut-Off Date, was subject to the Section C Rules of the RMPP; “Fund” means all monies from time to time held (whether before, on or after the Cut-Off Date) for the purposes of the RMPP by or on account of the RMPP Trustees in pursuance of the RMPP Rules and the investments and securities from time to time representing the same; “General Rules” means— (a) the general rules of the RMSPS set out in Part II (The General Rules of the Scheme) of this Schedule, and a reference to a “General Rule” is a reference to one of the General Rules; or (b) if stated, the general rules of the contributory part of the RMPP, and in that case a reference to a “General Rule” is a reference to one of those General Rules; “GMP” means guaranteed minimum pension as that term is used for the purposes of...

https://vlex.co.uk/vid/the-postal-services-act-811639573

Daniel 5 KJV KJV Parallel KJV Parallel KJV [BSB CSB ESV HCS KJV ISV NAS NET NIV NLT HEB] King James Bible King James Bible 1 Belshazzar the king made a great feast to a thousand of his lords, and drank wine before the thousand. 1 Belshazzar the king made a great feast to a thousand of his lords, and drank wine before the thousand. 2 Belshazzar, whiles he tasted the wine, commanded to bring the golden and silver vessels which his father Nebuchadnezzar had taken out of the temple which was in Jerusalem; that the king, and his princes, his wives, and his concubines, might drink therein. 2 Belshazzar, whiles he tasted the wine, commanded to bring the golden and silver vessels which his father Nebuchadnezzar had taken out of the temple which was in Jerusalem; that the king, and his princes, his wives, and his concubines, might drink therein. 3 Then they brought the golden vessels that were taken out of the temple of the house of God which was at Jerusalem; and the king, and his princes, his wives, and his concubines, drank in them. 3 Then they brought the golden vessels that were taken out of the temple of the house of God which was at Jerusalem; and the king, and his princes, his wives, and his concubines, drank in them. 4 They drank wine, and praised the gods of gold, and of silver, of brass, of iron, of wood, and of stone. 4 They drank wine, and praised the gods of gold, and of silver, of brass, of iron, of wood, and of stone. 5 In the same hour came forth fingers of a man's hand, and wrote over against the candlestick upon the plaister of the wall of the king's palace: and the king saw the part of the hand that wrote. 5 In the same hour came forth fingers of a man's hand, and wrote over against the candlestick upon the plaister of the wall of the king's palace: and the king saw the part of the hand that wrote. 6 Then the king's countenance was changed, and his thoughts troubled him, so that the joints of his loins were loosed, and his knees smote one against another. 6 Then the king's countenance was changed, and his thoughts troubled him, so that the joints of his loins were loosed, and his knees smote one against another. 7 The king cried aloud to bring in the astrologers, the Chaldeans, and the soothsayers. And the king spake, and said to the wise men of Babylon, Whosoever shall read this writing, and shew me the interpretation thereof, shall be clothed with scarlet, and have a chain of gold about his neck, and shall be the third ruler in the kingdom. 7 The king cried aloud to bring in the astrologers, the Chaldeans, and the soothsayers. And the king spake, and said to the wise men of Babylon, Whosoever shall read this writing, and shew me the interpretation thereof, shall be clothed with scarlet, and have a chain of gold about his neck, and shall be the third ruler in the kingdom. 8 Then came in all the king's wise men : but they could not read the writing, nor make known to the king the interpretation thereof. 8 Then came in all the king's wise men : but they could not read the writing, nor make known to the king the interpretation thereof. 9 Then was king Belshazzar greatly troubled, and his countenance was changed in him, and his lords were astonied. 9 Then was king Belshazzar greatly troubled, and his countenance was changed in him, and his lords were astonied. 10 Now the queen, by reason of the words of the king and his lords, came into the banquet house: and the queen spake and said, O king, live for ever: let not thy thoughts trouble thee, nor let thy countenance be changed: 10 Now the queen, by reason of the words of the king and his lords, came into the banquet house: and the queen spake and said, O king, live for ever: let not thy thoughts trouble thee, nor let thy countenance be changed: 11 There is a man in thy kingdom, in whom is the spirit of the holy gods; and in the days of thy father light and understanding and wisdom, like the wisdom of the gods, was found in him; whom the king Nebuchadnezzar thy father, the king, I say , thy father, made master of the magicians, astrologers, Chaldeans, and soothsayers; 11 There is a man in thy kingdom, in whom is the spirit of the holy gods; and in the days of thy father light and understanding and wisdom, like the wisdom of the gods, was found in him; whom the king Nebuchadnezzar thy father, the king, I say , thy father, made master of the magicians, astrologers, Chaldeans, and soothsayers; 12 Forasmuch as an excellent spirit, and knowledge, and understanding, interpreting of dreams, and shewing of hard sentences, and dissolving of doubts, were found in the same Daniel, whom the king named Belteshazzar: now let Daniel be called, and he will shew the interpretation. 12 Forasmuch as an excellent spirit, and knowledge, and understanding, interpreting of dreams, and shewing of hard sentences, and dissolving of doubts, were found in the same Daniel, whom the king named Belteshazzar: now let Daniel be called, and he will shew the interpretation. 13 Then was Daniel brought in before the king. And the king spake and said unto Daniel, Art thou that Daniel, which art of the children of the captivity of Judah, whom the king my father brought out of Jewry? 13 Then was Daniel brought in before the king. And the king spake and said unto Daniel, Art thou that Daniel, which art of the children of the captivity of Judah, whom the king my father brought out of Jewry? 14 I have even heard of thee, that the spirit of the gods is in thee, and that light and understanding and excellent wisdom is found in thee. 14 I have even heard of thee, that the spirit of the gods is in thee, and that light and understanding and excellent wisdom is found in thee. 15 And now the wise men , the astrologers, have been brought in before me, that they should read this writing, and make known unto me the interpretation thereof: but they could not shew the interpretation of the thing: 15 And now the wise men , the astrologers, have been brought in before me, that they should read this writing, and make known unto me the interpretation thereof: but they could not shew the interpretation of the thing: 16 And I have heard of thee, that thou canst make interpretations, and dissolve doubts: now if thou canst read the writing, and make known to me the interpretation thereof, thou shalt be clothed with scarlet, and have a chain of gold about thy neck, and shalt be the third ruler in the kingdom. 16 And I have heard of thee, that thou canst make interpretations, and dissolve doubts: now if thou canst read the writing, and make known to me the interpretation thereof, thou shalt be clothed with scarlet, and have a chain of gold about thy neck, and shalt be the third ruler in the kingdom. 17 Then Daniel answered and said before the king, Let thy gifts be to thyself, and give thy rewards to another; yet I will read the writing unto the king, and make known to him the interpretation. 17 Then Daniel answered and said before the king, Let thy gifts be to thyself, and give thy rewards to another; yet I will read the writing unto the king, and make known to him the interpretation. 18 O thou king, the most high God gave Nebuchadnezzar thy father a kingdom, and majesty, and glory, and honour: 18 O thou king, the most high God gave Nebuchadnezzar thy father a kingdom, and majesty, and glory, and honour: 19 And for the majesty that he gave him, all people, nations, and languages, trembled and feared before him: whom he would he slew; and whom he would he kept alive; and whom he would he set up; and whom he would he put down. 19 And for the majesty that he gave him, all people, nations, and languages, trembled and feared before him: whom he would he slew; and whom he would he kept alive; and whom he would he set up; and whom he would he put down. 20 But when his heart was lifted up, and his mind hardened in pride, he was deposed from his kingly throne, and they took his glory from him: 20 But when his heart was lifted up, and his mind hardened in pride, he was deposed from his kingly throne, and they took his glory from him: 21 And he was driven from the sons of men; and his heart was made like the beasts, and his dwelling was with the wild asses: they fed him with grass like oxen, and his body was wet with the dew of heaven; till he knew that the most high God ruled in the kingdom of men, and that he appointeth over it whomsoever he will. 21 And he was driven from the sons of men; and his heart was made like the beasts, and his dwelling was with the wild asses: they fed him with grass like oxen, and his body was wet with the dew of heaven; till he knew that the most high God ruled in the kingdom of men, and that he appointeth over it whomsoever he will. 22 And thou his son, O Belshazzar, hast not humbled thine heart, though thou knewest all this; 22 And thou his son, O Belshazzar, hast not humbled thine heart, though thou knewest all this; 23 But hast lifted up thyself against the Lord of heaven; and they have brought the vessels of his house before thee, and thou, and thy lords, thy wives, and thy concubines, have drunk wine in them; and thou hast praised the gods of silver, and gold, of brass, iron, wood, and stone, which see not, nor hear, nor know: and the God in whose hand thy breath is , and whose are all thy ways, hast thou not glorified: 23 But hast lifted up thyself against the Lord of heaven; and they have brought the vessels of his house before thee, and thou, and thy lords, thy wives, and thy concubines, have drunk wine in them; and thou hast praised the gods of silver, and gold, of brass, iron, wood, and stone, which see not, nor hear, nor know: and the God in whose hand thy breath is , and whose are all thy ways, hast thou not glorified: 24 Then was the part of the hand sent from him; and this writing was written. 24 Then was the part of the hand sent from him; and this writing was written. 25 And this is the writing that was written, MENE, MENE, TEKEL, UPHARSIN. 25 And this is the writing that was written, MENE, MENE, TEKEL, UPHARSIN. 26 This is the interpretation of the thing: MENE; God hath numbered thy kingdom, and finished it. 26 This is the interpretation of the thing: MENE; God hath numbered thy kingdom, and finished it. 27 TEKEL; Thou art weighed in the balances, and art found wanting. 27 TEKEL; Thou art weighed in the balances, and art found wanting. 28 PERES; Thy kingdom is divided, and given to the Medes and Persians. 28 PERES; Thy kingdom is divided, and given to the Medes and Persians. 29 Then commanded Belshazzar, and they clothed Daniel with scarlet, and put a chain of gold about his neck, and made a proclamation concerning him, that he should be the third ruler in the kingdom. 29 Then commanded Belshazzar, and they clothed Daniel with scarlet, and put a chain of gold about his neck, and made a proclamation concerning him, that he should be the third ruler in the kingdom. 30 In that night was Belshazzar the king of the Chaldeans slain. 30 In that night was Belshazzar the king of the Chaldeans slain. 31 And Darius the Median took the kingdom, being about threescore and two years old. 31 And Darius the Median took the kingdom, being about threescore and two years old.

https://www.biblehub.com/p/kjv/kjv/daniel/5.shtml

Symmetry | Free Full-Text | Direct Power Compensation in AC Distribution Networks with SCES Systems via PI-PBC Approach Here, we explore the possibility of employing proportional-integral passivity-based control (PI-PBC) to support active and reactive power in alternating current (AC) distribution networks by using a supercapacitor energy storage system. A direct power control approach is proposed by taking advantage of the Park’s reference frame transform direct and quadrature currents ( i d and i q ) into active and reactive powers (p and q). Based on the open-loop Hamiltonian model of the system, we propose a closed-loop PI-PBC controller that takes advantage of Lyapunov’s stability to design a global tracking controller. Numerical simulations in MATLAB/Simulink demonstrate the efficiency and robustness of the proposed controller, especially for parametric uncertainties. Direct Power Compensation in AC Distribution Networks with SCES Systems via PI-PBC Approach Walter Gil-González 1,* , Federico Martin Serra 2 , Oscar Danilo Montoya 1,3 , César Orozco-Henao 5 1 Laboratorio Inteligente de Energía, Universidad Tecnológica de Bolívar, km 1 vía Turbaco, Cartagena 131001, Colombia 2 Laboratorio de Control Automático (LCA), Universidad Nacional de San Luis, Villa Mercedes 5730, Argentina 3 Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad Distrital Francisco José de Caldas, Carrera 7 No. 40B - 53, Bogotá D.C 11021, Colombia 4 Facultad de Ciencias Básicas, Universidad Tecnológica de Pereira. AA: 97, Pereira 660003, Colombia 5 Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department, Universidad del Norte, Barranquilla 080001, Colombia * Author to whom correspondence should be addressed. Symmetry 2020 , 12 (4), 666; https://doi.org/10.3390/sym12040666 Received: 18 February 2020 / Revised: 22 March 2020 / Accepted: 3 April 2020 / Published: 23 April 2020 (This article belongs to the Special Issue Symmetry in Renewable Energy and Power Systems ) Abstract : i d and i q ) into active and reactive powers ( p and q ). Based on the open-loop Hamiltonian model of the system, we propose a closed-loop PI-PBC controller that takes advantage of Lyapunov’s stability to design a global tracking controller. Numerical simulations in MATLAB/Simulink demonstrate the efficiency and robustness of the proposed controller, especially for parametric uncertainties. Keywords: distribution networks ; direct power control ; global tracking controller ; passivity-based control ; supercapacitor energy storage system 1. Introduction Supercapacitors are promising energy storage technologies with high energy density and high charging/discharging capabilities [ 1 ]. They allow for the storage of electrical energy in electric fields, increasing their efficiency in comparison with mechanical or chemical devices [ 2 ]. Supercapacitor energy storage (SCES) and superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) are the only two devices that store energy in the form of electromagnetic fields [ 3 ]. Nevertheless, SCES systems are preferred because they work with voltage source converters [ 1 ], which are common and represent the cheapest option when compared with the current source converters in SMES applications [ 4 ]. Additionally, another advantage of using SCES over SMES systems is that the former does not require special thermal covers, such as those needed for cooling systems based on liquid hydrogen, helium, or nitrogen [ 3 ]. This increases the acquisition, installation, and maintenance of SMES systems. The integration of SCES systems via voltage source converters allows controlling the active and reactive power independently by formulating a dynamic model in any reference frame (i.e., time domain or a b c , Clark’s or α β , and Park’s or d q reference frames, respectively) [ 5 ]. In addition, the dynamical model of the SCES system exhibits a nonlinear structure that makes it necessary to propose nonlinear controllers to deal with its operational goals. Multiple controllers for SCES systems integration in electrical networks have been proposed such as feedback linearization methods [ 6 ], interconnection and damping PBC approaches [ 3 , 5 ], linear matrix inequalities [ 7 ], classical proportional-integral controls [ 8 ], adaptive predictive control [ 9 ], or proportional-integral passivity-based control (PI-PBC) methods [ 2 ], that typically control active and reactive power in an indirect form by controlling the currents on the AC side of the converter. Two interesting approaches based on IDA-PBC and PI-PBC approaches have been reported by [ 10 , 11 ] to control SMES and SCES systems in autonomous applications of single-phase microgrids; these PBC approaches take the advantages of the port-Hamiltonian modeling to propose asymptotically stable controllers of Lyapunov. Authors confirm that single-phase converters allow the control of active and reactive power independently; nevertheless, the main disadvantage is the dependence on the parameters of the control laws, which complicates their application over systems with parametric uncertainties. Note that PBC approaches are preferred to operate SCES systems because their dynamic models exhibit a port-Hamiltonian (pH) structure in open-loop, which is a suitable structure that is employed in PBC designs. Because it allows proposing closed-loop control structures that can guarantee stable operation in the sense of Lyapunov [ 12 ]. Even though the PI-PBC method has been previously presented for SCES systems by [ 2 ], who presented a direct power control structure, we proposed a robust parametric approach that avoids prior knowledge on the system parameters (inductance, resistance, and supercapacitor values) and does not require the solution of additional differential equations. This is a gap that is yet to be solved in specialized literature for SCES applications in AC distribution networks. In addition, the main advantage of using direct power control is that the state variables to design the controller are directly active and reactive power. Making more suitable the assignation of the references to control these variables in generation or load compensation applications, while classical approaches work with currents as state variables requiring additional steps regarding active and reactive power control. The remainder of this paper is organized as follows: Section 2 presents a complete dynamical formulation of the SCES system interconnected to AC grids with a series resistive-inductive filter. In addition, we present its pH intrinsic formulation and its transformation from the current structure to the power ones. Section 3 presents the structure of the proposed PI-PBC approach, highlighting its independence regarding the filter parameters and provides a general proof to guarantee asymptotic convergence. Section 4 reports the general control structure as a function of active and reactive power measures as well as the physical constraints related to the integration of SCES in distribution networks. Section 5 presents the test system, simulating conditions, and numerical results with their corresponding analysis and discussion. Section 6 details the main conclusions derived from this research. 2. Dynamical Modeling To obtain the dynamical representation of the SCES system integrated with VSC, only Kirchhoff’s laws and the first Tellegen’s theorem is required. Here, we suppose that all the variables were transformed from the a b c reference frame into Park’s reference frame [ 5 ]. d t i d = − r i d + ω l i q + v s c u d − d , (1) l d d t i q = − r i q − ω l i d + v s c u q − v q , (2) c s c d d t v s c = − i d u d − i q u q , (3) where l and r are the series inductance and resistance of the AC filter (transformer), respectively; c s c is the capacitance value of the SCES system; i d and i q represent the direct- and quadrature-axis currents, respectively, while v d and v q are their corresponding voltages; v s c is the voltage in the terminals of the supercapacitor and, u d and u q are the modulation indexes of the converter that work as control inputs. Note that dynamical Model ( 1 )–( 3 ) is a sub-actuate control system because there are m = 2 control variables and n = 3 states. Remark 1. The dynamical Model ( 1 )–( 3 ) exhibits a non-affine port-Hamiltonian structure as follows: D x ˙ = [ J u − R ] x + ζ , (4) where D ∈ R n × n is the inertia matrix, which is diagonal and positive definite, J ∈ R n × n and R ∈ R n × n are the interconnection and damping matrices, such that J is skew-symmetric and R is diagonal and positive semidefinite; x ∈ R n and u ∈ R m are the state and control vectors; and ζ ∈ R n corresponds to the external input vector. Lemma 1. The dynamical Model ( 1 )–( 3 ) can be transformed into a direct-power control (DPC) model preserving its non-affine port-Hamiltonian structure by defining the following variables as recommended in [ 2 ]: p = v d i d , q = − v d i q , and v = v d v s c , where v q = 0 because the PLL is referred to the direct-axis. Proof. To obtain a DPC model, let us suppose that the v d and v q signals are obtained by implementing a phase-looked loop (PLL), such that they (i.e., v d and v q ) are constants and well known. Now, if we derive the active and reactive power components, then, d d t p = v d d d t i d , (5a) d d t q = − v d d d t i q , (5b) where, if we substitute Equation ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) considering that v = v d v s c , the following result is obtained l d d t p = − r p − ω l q + v u d − v d 2 , (6a) l d d t q = − r q + ω l p − v u q . (6b) Note that if we multiply Equation ( 3 ) by v d and rearrange some terms, then c s c d d t v = − p u d + q u q . (7) Finally, when expressions Equations ( 5 ) to ( 7 ) are rearranged in the form of Equation ( 4 ), the proof is completed with D = l 0 0 0 l 0 0 0 c s c , J u − R = − r − ω l u d ω l − r − u q − u d u q 0 x = p q v T , ζ = − v d 2 0 0 T . □ Remark 2. Considering the advantages of the pH formulation exhibited by the DPC controller, an appropriate controller to alleviate the active and reactive power oscillations with the SCES systems is the passivity-based control approach because it takes advantage of the pH model to design an asymptotically stable controller in the sense of Lyapunov. 3. Passivity-Based Control Design PBC control is a powerful nonlinear control technique that allows designing stable controllers by taking advantage of pH modeling. The main objective of the PBC is to find a set of control laws that help to preserve the pH structure of the dynamical model in closed-loop to guarantee stability in the sense of Lyapunov, using energetic modeling [ 12 ]. There are different approaches based on the PBC theory; the most known approach corresponds to the interconnection and damping assignment (IDA-PBC) because it allows working with linear, nonlinear, and non-affine dynamical systems [ 13 ]. Nevertheless, there is also an interesting alternative that includes the well-known advantages of the PI actions in the PBC design, which produces a stable PI-PBC approach that guarantees stability in closed-loop operation; however, this approach is only applicable in nonlinear systems with a bilinear structure such as the case of the dynamical models of the power electronic converters [ 2 ]. In the next subsection, we will present the general PI-PBC design for bilinear systems. 3.1. Bilinear Representation To develop a controller based on the PI-PBC approach, let us make the following definition. Definition 1. An admissible equilibrium point ( x ★ ) exists for non-linear dynamical Model ( 4 ) if its variables are represented in Park’s reference frame (direct- and quadrature-axis), such that 0 = [ J u ★ − R ] x ★ + ζ , (8) for some constant control input u ★ . Considering the definition of the equilibrium point, now we use some auxiliary variables to develop a PI-PBC controller as follows: u ˜ = u − u ★ and x ˜ = x − x ★ , where x ˜ and u ˜ represent the error of the state variables and control inputs. Note that if we subtract Equation ( 8 ) from ( 4 ), the following result is obtained D x ˜ ˙ = [ J u x − J u ★ x ★ ] − R x ˜ . To simplify Equation ( 9 ), let us define the property related to bilinear systems as follows: Definition 2. The matrix product J u x has a bilinear structure if it can be separated as a sum as follows J u x = J 0 + ∑ i = 1 m J i x u i , (10) where J 0 and J i are constant matrices with skew-symmetric structure. Now, if we consider the Definition 2 in Equation ( 9 ) and make some algebraic manipulations, then the below result is obtained: D x ˜ ˙ = [ J 0 − R ] x ˜ + ∑ i = 1 m J i x ˜ u i + ∑ i = 1 m J i x ★ u ˜ i . Remark 3. Expression ( 11 ) is the essential structure to design PI-PBC controllers for bilinear systems, as demonstrated in [ 14 ]. 3.2. Lyapunov’s Requirements for Stability Analysis To guarantee that the dynamical System ( 11 ) is stable in the sense of Lyapunov for the equilibrium point x ˜ = 0 , i.e., x = x ★ , let us define a candidate Lyapunov function V ( x ˜ ) with hyperboloid structure as presented below V ( x ˜ ) = 1 ˜ T D x ˜ . (12) Observe that V ( x ˜ ) meets the first two conditions of the Lyaponov’s stability theorem, i.e., V ( 0 ) = 0 , and ) , ∀ ≠ 0 . In addition, if we take the temporal derivative of Equation ( 12 ) and substitute Equation ( 11 ), the following result is obtained: V x ˜ T D x ˜ ˙ = − x ˜ T R x ˜ + ∑ i = 1 m T J i x ★ u ˜ i , (13) which implies guarantee in stability, if the second term on the right hand side of Equation ( 13 ) is negative definite or at least negative semidefinite. To simplify this expression, let us use the input–output relation u ˜ → y ˜ being y ˜ the passive output as follows V ˙ ( x ˜ ) ≤ y ˜ T u ˜ , (14) where y ˜ i = x ˜ T J i x ★ . Note that Expression ( 14 ) can help us to design a stable controller if and only if the set of control inputs u ˜ is selected such that this expression is always negative semidefinite. These characteristics are presented in the next section using a PI controller. 3.3. PI-PBC Design To obtain a general control law to guarantee closed-loop stability in the sense of Lyapunov, let us employ the following PI control structure (15a) u ˜ = − K p y ˜ + K i z , (15b) z ˙ = − y ˜ , where K p ≻ 0 and K i ≻ 0 are the proportional and integral gain matrices and z is an auxiliary vector of variables related to the integral action. To prove stability with the control law defined by Equation ( 15 ), let us modify the candidate Lyapunov function in Equation ( 12 ) as follows W ( x ˜ , z ) = V ( x ˜ ) + 1 2 z − z o T K i z − z o , (16) with z o = K i − 1 u ★ and its derivative is W ˙ ( x ˜ , y ˜ ) = − x ˜ T R x ˜ − y ˜ T K p y ˜ ≤ 0 , (17) which proves that the control input in Equation ( 15 ) guarantees stability in the sense of Lyapunov for closed-loop operation. Observe that in Equation ( 16 ), we consider that K i = K i T . Remark 4. The control input Equation ( 15 ) can guarantee asymptotic stability in the sense of Lyapunov as proved in [ 15 ] by referring to Barbalat’s lemma [ 14 ]. 4. Control Structure and Physical Constraint This section presents the mathematical structure of the control laws for active and reactive power support with SCES systems, as well as the physical constraint that imposes the interconnection of a supercapacitor for energy storage applications. 4.1. Control Law The presented PI-PBC approach can deal with parametric uncertainties in the SCES system when it is modeled using a direct power formulation (see Model ( 7 ) and ( 8 )). For its analysis, let us present the general control inputs obtained from Equation ( 15 ) as follows u d = u d ★ + k p 1 v ★ p − − p ★ v − v ★ + k i 1 ∫ v ★ p − p ★ − p ★ v ★ d t , (18a) u q = u q ★ + k p 2 q ★ v − v v ★ q − q ★ + k i 2 ∫ q ★ v − v ★ − v ★ q ★ d t , (18b) where k p 1 and k p 2 are the proportional gains, and k i 1 and k i 2 are the integral gains, respectively. Remark 5. The components u d ★ and u q ★ in Equation ( 18 ) can be neglected as recommended in [ 16 ] because they can be considered as constant values to calculate integral actions. It is important to mention that the control inputs of Equation ( 18 ) can remain robust to parametric uncertainties because they do not depend on any parameter of the system. This implies that small variations in these values (e.g., l , r , and c s c ) will not compromise the dynamical performance of the SCES system. Note that in Equation ( 18 ), the value of v ★ = v d v s c ★ needs to control the active and reactive power interchange between the SCES system and the grid (the values of p ★ and q ★ are defined by the designer because the main interest in SCES applications corresponds to control active and reactive power independently). Therefore, it is necessary to know v s c ★ to apply the controller. We start from the energy function of the SCES to compute v s c ★ , as follows: W s c ★ = 1 2 C s c v s c ★ 2 → W ˙ s c ★ = p s c ★ = C s c v ˙ s c ★ 2 , (19) and the relation between the active power of SCES and VSC can be approximated to p s c ★ = − p ★ . Hence, v s c ★ can be given by v s c ★ 2 = 1 C s c ∫ − p ★ d t → v s c ★ = K i ∫ 0 t − p ★ d t , (20) with K i > 0 . It is important to mention that the stability proof shown in Section 3.3 may be compromised by replacing Equation ( 20 ) into ( 18 ), which is only valid when v s c ★ is constant. Therefore, we adopted the time-scale separation assumption between the outer-loop ( v s c ★ ) and the inner PI-PBC described in [ 17 , 18 ]. Interestingly, the assumption deals with the possible lost stability by only adjusting the integral gain in Equation ( 20 ). 4.2. Physical Operative Constraint The energy storage capability of a SCES system is limited by the energy capabilities of the supercapacitor as well as for the admissible voltages in its terminals. Figure 1 presents the dynamic behavior of the total energy stored in the SCES. In this figure, there are three critical points called O, P, and Q. Point O presents the minimum voltage value permissible in the supercapacitor terminals ( v s c min ) that produce the value of the admissible minimum energy stored ( E min ); this voltage value is the lower bound in the SCES operation to guarantee the controllability of the closed-loop system. Additionally, point Q is the upper bound of the energy storage variable, which reaches the maximum permissible energy stored in the supercapacitor device ( v s c max ↔ E max ), whereas point P represents some operating points between extreme points of O and Q. Observe that point P allows positive or negative active power references. In the case in which p is positive, the energy stored decreases from point P to point O. In the case in which p is negative, the energy stored increases from point P to point Q. When point P is at the extreme points, we can conclude that if it is at point O, the reference for p can only be negative or zero, and if it is at point Q, it must be positive or zero. These are necessary conditions to preserve the useful life in the SCES. 5. Test System and Simulation Scenarios 5.1. The System Under Study A low-voltage microgrid is used to test the DPC model of the SCES system. The test system is depicted in Figure 2 , which contains two SCES systems. Additionally, it has a wind power generator and unbalanced loads to generate power oscillations in the system, thus allowing SCES to compensate for oscillations. The test system data can be consulted in [ 2 ]. To assess the capability and robustness of the proposed controller, the controller is compared with interconnection and damping assignment IDA-PBC presented in [ 19 ]. The IDA-PBC was performed under the α β reference frame. This implies that a PLL does not need to be implemented. However, it requires the derivatives of the desired values and the parameters of the system to be employed. This entails that the implementation of the IDA-PBC is more complicated than the proposed controller. 5.2. Simulation Scenarios The SCES system can be used in various forms as support of active and reactive power oscillations in distributed generation applications with the wind turbine generator or can compensate for power oscillations provided by unbalanced loads [ 19 ]. According to this, in this study, two scenarios are designed to assess the performance and robustness of the SCES system using the DPC model and the proposed controller. The scenarios are as follows: Scenario 1 ( S1 ): Check the proposed controller to manage the active and reactive power independently in the SCES system. Scenario 2 ( S2 ): Evaluate the performance of the proposed controller applied to the SUCCESS system using the DPC model to relieve the oscillations of active and reactive power in the microgrid. This scenario employs a wind power generator located at bus 2, which provides active power and absorbs the reactive power shown in Figure 3 . Additionally, the test system has two demands (see DL1 and DL2 loads in Figure 2 ), which draw active and reactive power, as depicted in Figure 4 . It is important to mention that these scenarios have been designed arbitrarily to validate the accuracy and robustness of the DPC model and the proposed controller. 6. Results The test system (see Figure 2 ) was implemented in MATLAB/Simulink and was executed on a desk-computer INTEL(R) Core(TM) i7–7700 CPU, 3.60 GHz, 8 GB RAM with 64-bits Windows 10 Professional by using MATLAB2019b. The switching frequency for the VSCs was fixed at 5 kHz. The parameters for the PI-PBC approach were tuned using the diagonal method developed in [ 20 ], which is suitable when the connection between the internal control of the model and the PI controller is lost, as presented with the proposed controller in this paper. The PI controller is computed, as follows: k p 12 = ln ( 9 ) L t s , k i 12 = ln ( 9 ) R t s , (21) where L and R are values of the inductance and resistance of the AC filter and t s = 10 − 4 is the desired settling time. 6.1. Scenario 1 This scenario analyzes the performance of the PI-PBC to control the active and reactive power regardless of the SCES system applied to the DPC model. Here, we select arbitrary values for active and reactive power references to demonstrate the ability of the proposed controller. Figure 5 shows the dynamic behavior at the DC side of the SCES system and their active and reactive power outputs. Figure 5 shows that both controllers present a similar dynamic behavior. Nevertheless, PI–PBC presents a better performance compared with the IDA-PBC because it shows lower active and reactive power ripples. The ripples for the proposed controller are approximately 80 W and 85 var for the active and reactive power, respectively. In contrast, the ripples are about 100 W and 115 var when the IDA-PBC is implemented, respectively. 6.2. Scenario 2 This scenario investigates the ability of the SCES system using the DPC model to compensate for the power oscillations in the test system. Therefore, two SCES systems are considered, located at buses 1 and 5 (see Figure 2 ). The first SCES system relieves the power oscillation introduced by the wind power generator at bus 2. Here, we assume that the SCES system must keep active power at 28 kW and supply all the requirements of the reactive power of the generator. In contrast, the second SCES system compensates for the power oscillations provided by DL2 demands at bus 4, maintaining its active and reactive power at 30 kW and zero, respectively. Figure 6 and Figure 7 illustrate the dynamic behaviors at the DC side of the first and second SCES systems, respectively. In addition, their respective active and reactive powers are also plotted. Observe in Figure 6 that both controllers maintain the control objectives ( p = 30 kW and q = 0 kvar). However, the PI-PBC method continues presenting a better performance with lower ripples for the active and reactive power. Moreover, IDA-PBC has a steady-state error for active power of around 25 kW. Note in Figure 7 that the proposed controller continues to show an enhanced response of active power, without steady-state error, as presented with the IDA-PBC. This behavior occurs because the IDA-PBC works as a proportional control. In contrast, the proposed controller includes an integral action that removes this error. Complementary Analysis Mean absolute error (MAE) and integral of time multiply absolute error (ITAE) (for the active and reactive power), and total harmonic distortion (THD) (for the AC currents) are used to quantify the performance of the controllers. Table 1 depicts these indexes for each scenario analyzed. In Table 1 , both controllers have a notable low MAE and ITAE. Nevertheless, the PI-PBC approach performs better for tracking power references than the IDA-PBC approach. This finding is supported by the reduction of MAE p and MAE q by 12.1% and 21.8% in the worst-case scenario (see first and the second column in Table 1 ), respectively. While ITAE p and ITAE q were reduced by 16.9% and 21.25% in the worst-case scenario, respectively. In Table 1 , it can be observed that both controllers meet the THD limits for power electronic converters established in Standard IEEE-1547 [ 21 ] even though the proposed controller has lower THD than the IDA-PBC approach. This entails that the PI-PBC approach presents better wave quality and lower losses. The robustness of the proposed controller is investigated by applying a sensitive analysis for filter parameters. We assume that there are RL-filter mismatches with a variation of ± 50 % and ± 40 % for R and L parameters, respectively, when active power must be kept in 10 kW. For this test, we generate 100 random mismatches with uniform distribution. Figure 8 depicts the error mean value of the active power Δ P m e a n against plant-model mismatches. Observe in this figure, that the IDA-PBC approach has a greater variation for Δ P m e a n than the PI-PBC approach. This demonstrates that the proposed controller presents a better performance when there is a plant-model mismatch. In Figure 8 , it can also be noted that the resistance variations do not influence over the controllers performance, while inductance variations do affect the performance of the controllers. This effect tends to be linear and is greater when the IDA-PBC approach is implemented. Remark 6. The proposed controller does not show a remarkable difference in performance according to the IDA-PBC approach, which is easy to implement. This is because it only needs proportional-integral action and does not depend on the system parameters, while the IDA-PBC approach requires the system parameters and derivative calculation from the references to be applied. 7. Conclusions A direct power model developed from Park’s reference frame for the SCES systems has been presented in this study. The direct power model controls instantaneous active and reactive powers regardless of the SCES system without employing typical phase-Locked-Loop. A PI-PBC approach was used to control the SCES system because it takes advantage of the pH structure of the SCES system to propose a control law that guarantees the stability of the system and exploits proportional-integral actions. The proposed controller demonstrates better performance in relieving the active and reactive power oscillations generated by wind generation considering imbalance when compared to the IDA-PBC approach. Author Contributions Conceptualization and writing—review and editing, W.G.-G. and O.D.M.; and supervision, writing—review and editing, F.M.S., C.A.R. and C.O.-H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Acknowledgments This work was partially supported by the National Scholarship Program Doctorates of the Administrative Department of Science, Technology and Innovation of Colombia (COLCIENCIAS), by calling contest 727-2015. Conflicts of Interest The authors declare no conflict of interest. References Mensah-Darkwa, K.; Zequine, C.; Kahol, P.K.; Gupta, R.K. Supercapacitor energy storage device using biowastes: A sustainable approach to green energy. Sustainability 2019 , 11 , 414. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Gil, W.; Montoya, O.D.; Garces, A. Direct power control of electrical energy storage systems: A passivity-based PI approach. Electr. Power Syst. Res. 2019 , 175 , 105885. [ Google Scholar ] Montoya, O.D.; Garces, A.; Espinosa-Perez, G. A generalized passivity-based control approach for power compensation in distribution systems using electrical energy storage systems. J. Energy Storage 2018 , 16 , 259–268. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Aly, M.M.; Abdel-Akher, M.; Said, S.M.; Senjyu, T. A developed control strategy for mitigating wind power generation transients using superconducting magnetic energy storage with reactive power support. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 2016 , 83 , 485–494. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Montoya, O.D.; Gil-González, W.; Garces, A. SCES Integration in Power Grids: A PBC Approach under abc, αβ 0 and dq0 Reference Frames. In Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE PES Transmission & Distribution Conference and Exhibition-Latin America (T&D-LA), Lima, Peru, 18–21 September 2018; pp. 1–5. [ Google Scholar ] Haihua, Z.; Khambadkone, A.M. Hybrid modulation for dual active bridge bi-directional converter with extended power range for ultracapacitor application. In Proceedings of the 2008 IEEE Industry Applications Society Annual Meeting, Edmonton, AB, Canada, 5–9 October 2008; pp. 1–8. [ Google Scholar ] Gil-González, W.J.; Garcés, A.; Escobar, A. A generalized model and control for supermagnetic and supercapacitor energy storage. Ing. Cienc. 2017 , 13 , 147–171. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Thounthong, P.; Luksanasakul, A.; Koseeyaporn, P.; Davat, B. Intelligent model-based control of a standalone photovoltaic/fuel cell power plant with supercapacitor energy storage. IEEE Trans. Sustain. Energy 2012 , 4 , 240–249. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Mufti, M.D.; Iqbal, S.J.; Lone, S.A.; Ain, Q. Supervisory Adaptive Predictive Control Scheme for Supercapacitor Energy Storage System. IEEE Syst. J. 2015 , 9 , 1020–1030. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Montoya, O.D.; Gil-González, W.; Garces, A. Distributed energy resources integration in single-phase microgrids: An application of IDA-PBC and PI-PBC approaches. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 2019 , 112 , 221–231. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Montoya, O.D.; Gil-González, W.; Avila-Becerril, S.; Garces, A.; Espinosa-Pérez, G. Distributed Energy Resources Integration in AC Grids: A Family of Passivity-Based Controll, (in Spanish). Rev. Iberoam. Autom. Inform. Ind. 2019 , 16 , 212–221. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Ortega, R.; Perez, J.A.L.; Nicklasson, P.J.; Sira-Ramirez, H.J. Passivity-Based Control of Euler-Lagrange Systems: Mechanical, Electrical and Electromechanical Applications ; Springer Science & Business Media: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2013. [ Google Scholar ] van der Schaft, A. L2-Gain and Passivity Techniques in Nonlinear Control ; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2017. [ Google Scholar ] Cisneros, R.; Pirro, M.; Bergna, G.; Ortega, R.; Ippoliti, G.; Molinas, M. Global tracking passivity-based PI control of bilinear systems: Application to the interleaved boost and modular multilevel converters. Control Eng. Pract. 2015 , 43 , 109–119. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Zonetti, D. Energy-Based Modelling and Control of Electric Power Systems with Guaranteed Stability Properties. Ph.D. Thesis, Université Paris-Saclay, Saint-Aubin, France, 2016. [ Google Scholar ] Zonetti, D.; Ortega, R.; Benchaib, A. A globally asymptotically stable decentralized PI controller for multi-terminal high-voltage DC transmission systems. In Proceedings of the 2014 European control conference (ECC), Strasbourg, France, 24–27 June 2014; pp. 1397–1403. [ Google Scholar ] Zonetti, D.; Ortega, R.; Benchaib, A. Modeling and control of HVDC transmission systems from theory to practice and back. Control. Eng. Pract. 2015 , 45 , 133–146. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Gil-González, W.; Montoya, O.D.; Garces, A. Direct power control for VSC-HVDC systems: An application of the global tracking passivity-based PI approach. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 2019 , 110 , 588–597. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Montoya, O.D.; Gil-González, W.; Serra, F.M. PBC Approach for SMES Devices in Electric Distribution Networks. IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. II Exp. Briefs 2018 , 65 , 2003–2007. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Harnefors, L.; Nee, H.P. Model-based current control of AC machines using the internal model control method. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 1998 , 34 , 133–141. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] IEEE Standard for Interconnecting Distributed Resources with Electric Power Systems—Amendment 1. In IEEE Std 1547a-2014 (Amendment to IEEE Std 1547-2003) ; IEEE: Piscataway, NJ, USA, 2014; pp. 1–16. [ CrossRef ] Figure 1. Behavior of the energy stored in the Supercapacitor energy storage (SCES). Figure 1. Behavior of the energy stored in the Supercapacitor energy storage (SCES). Figure 2. Test system configuration. Figure 2. Test system configuration. Figure 3. Wind generator: ( a ) wind profile and ( b ) active power provided and reactive power absorbed. Figure 3. Wind generator: ( a ) wind profile and ( b ) active power provided and reactive power absorbed. Figure 4. DL1 and DL2 loads: ( a ) active power demanded and ( b ) reactive power demanded. Figure 4. DL1 and DL2 loads: ( a ) active power demanded and ( b ) reactive power demanded. Figure 5. Dynamic behavior of the SCES system for S1: ( a ) supercapacitor voltage; ( b ) active power provided; and ( c ) reactive power absorbed. Figure 5. Dynamic behavior of the SCES system for S1: ( a ) supercapacitor voltage; ( b ) active power provided; and ( c ) reactive power absorbed. Figure 6. Dynamic behavior of the first SCES system for S2: ( a ) supercapacitor voltage; ( b ) active power provided; and ( c ) reactive power absorbed. Figure 6. Dynamic behavior of the first SCES system for S2: ( a ) supercapacitor voltage; ( b ) active power provided; and ( c ) reactive power absorbed. Figure 7. Dynamic behavior of the second SCES system for S2: ( a ) supercapacitor voltage; ( b ) active power provided; and ( c ) reactive power absorbed. Figure 7. Dynamic behavior of the second SCES system for S2: ( a ) supercapacitor voltage; ( b ) active power provided; and ( c ) reactive power absorbed. Figure 8. Sensitive analysis. Figure 8. Sensitive analysis. Table 1. Performance Indexes. Table 1. Performance Indexes. Scenario 1 MAE p [W] MAE q [var] ITAE p ITAE q THD [%] IDA-PBC 43.39 30.93 10.69 7.72 1.57 PI-PBC 23.71 20.65 5.94 5.35 1.55 Scenario 2 with SCES 1 MAE p [W] MAE q [var] ITAE p ITAE q THD [%] IDA-PBC 28.26 23.79 7.01 5.98 0.99 PI-PBC 24.68 18.59 5.82 4.64 0.98 Scenario 2 with SCES 2 MAE p [W] MAE q [var] ITAE p ITAE q THD [%] IDA-PBC 21.39 18.76 5.28 4.66 1.82 PI-PBC 18.38 14.60 4.36 3.63 1.80 Gil-González W, Martin Serra F, Montoya OD, Ramírez CA, Orozco-Henao C. Direct Power Compensation in AC Distribution Networks with SCES Systems via PI-PBC Approach. Symmetry. 2020; 12(4):666. https://doi.org/10.3390/sym12040666 Chicago/Turabian Style Gil-González, Walter, Federico Martin Serra, Oscar Danilo Montoya, Carlos Alberto Ramírez, and César Orozco-Henao. 2020. "Direct Power Compensation in AC Distribution Networks with SCES Systems via PI-PBC Approach" Symmetry12, no. 4: 666. https://doi.org/10.3390/sym12040666 Article Metrics Export citation file: BibTeX | EndNote | RIS MDPI and ACS Style Gil-González, W.; Martin Serra, F.; Montoya, O.D.; Ramírez, C.A.; Orozco-Henao, C. Direct Power Compensation in AC Distribution Networks with SCES Systems via PI-PBC Approach. Symmetry 2020, 12, 666. https://doi.org/10.3390/sym12040666 AMA Style Gil-González W, Martin Serra F, Montoya OD, Ramírez CA, Orozco-Henao C. Direct Power Compensation in AC Distribution Networks with SCES Systems via PI-PBC Approach. Symmetry. 2020; 12(4):666. https://doi.org/10.3390/sym12040666 Chicago/Turabian Style Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here . Symmetry , EISSN 2073-8994, Published by MDPI

https://www.mdpi.com/2073-8994/12/4/666/xml

Evaluation of Changes in Quality Improvement Knowledge Following a Formal Educational Curriculum Within a Statewide Learning Collaborative — Research Profiles at Washington University School of Medicine Evaluation of Changes in Quality Improvement Knowledge Following a Formal Educational Curriculum Within a Statewide Learning Collaborative ISQIC Advisory Committee Department of Medicine Division of Hospital Medicine Abstract Objective: Our objectives were to (1) develop a curriculum based upon participants’ needs, (2) evaluate baseline QI knowledge of the Illinois Surgical Quality Improvement Collaborative (ISQIC) members, and (3) evaluate the effectiveness of the educational curriculum. Design: The Surgeon Champion (SC), Surgical Clinical Reviewer (SCR), and QI Designee at each ISQIC hospital completed a QI curriculum containing online modules and in-person trainings. A surgical adaptation of QI-KAT, a validated QI knowledge assessment with multiple-choice and free-response sections, was administered pre- and postcurriculum. Three blinded educators scored each exam using a rubric-based scoring tool (54 total points). Setting: The ISQIC is a 52-hospital learning collaborative. Generally, ISQIC participants had little prior formal training or experience with quality improvement. Results: Among 52 hospitals, 144 pretests and 112 post-tests were collected. Mean scores increased from 66% (35.6 points) to 77% (41.6 points; p < 0.001). Across all hospitals, all participant groups scored higher on the post-test (SCs 15%, SCRs 21%, QI Designees 17%). There was no significant difference in post-test mean scores among different team members: SCs 44 points, SCRs 42 points, QI Designees 44 points, (p = 0.76). When the post-test scores were aggregated at the hospital level, hospitals with new surgical QI programs improved more than hospitals with established programs (new 18%, established 11%, p < 0.05). Conclusions: QI knowledge significantly improved after completion of the ISQIC curriculum. These data support the value of formalized curricula to rapidly advance QI knowledge and application skills as a foundation for implementing QI initiatives. Original language English Pages (from-to) 1534-1541 Number of pages 8 Journal Journal of Surgical Education Volume 77 Issue number 6 DOIs https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsurg.2020.04.018 State Published - Nov 1 2020 Keywords curriculum education process improvement quality improvement Quality Improvement Collaborative (QIC) surgery Access to Document 10.1016/j.jsurg.2020.04.018 Other files and links Fingerprint Dive into the research topics of 'Evaluation of Changes in Quality Improvement Knowledge Following a Formal Educational Curriculum Within a Statewide Learning Collaborative'. Together they form a unique fingerprint. Interdisciplinary Placement Medicine & Life Sciences 100% Curriculum Medicine & Life Sciences 63% Quality Improvement Medicine & Life Sciences 63% curriculum Social Sciences 35% evaluation Social Sciences 29% learning Social Sciences 22% Surgeons Medicine & Life Sciences 6% educator Social Sciences 5% Cite this APA Harvard Standard RIS Vancouver ISQIC Advisory Committee (2020). Evaluation of Changes in Quality Improvement Knowledge Following a Formal Educational Curriculum Within a Statewide Learning Collaborative . Journal of Surgical Education , 77 (6), 1534-1541. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsurg.2020.04.018 ISQIC Advisory Committee. / Evaluation of Changes in Quality Improvement Knowledge Following a Formal Educational Curriculum Within a Statewide Learning Collaborative . In: Journal of Surgical Education . 2020 ; Vol. 77, No. 6. pp. 1534-1541. @article{b6164239e6fe40fd8e98615390f3013d, title = "Evaluation of Changes in Quality Improvement Knowledge Following a Formal Educational Curriculum Within a Statewide Learning Collaborative", abstract = "Objective: Our objectives were to (1) develop a curriculum based upon participants{\textquoteright} needs, (2) evaluate baseline QI knowledge of the Illinois Surgical Quality Improvement Collaborative (ISQIC) members, and (3) evaluate the effectiveness of the educational curriculum. Design: The Surgeon Champion (SC), Surgical Clinical Reviewer (SCR), and QI Designee at each ISQIC hospital completed a QI curriculum containing online modules and in-person trainings. A surgical adaptation of QI-KAT, a validated QI knowledge assessment with multiple-choice and free-response sections, was administered pre- and postcurriculum. Three blinded educators scored each exam using a rubric-based scoring tool (54 total points). Setting: The ISQIC is a 52-hospital learning collaborative. Generally, ISQIC participants had little prior formal training or experience with quality improvement. Results: Among 52 hospitals, 144 pretests and 112 post-tests were collected. Mean scores increased from 66% (35.6 points) to 77% (41.6 points; p < 0.001). Across all hospitals, all participant groups scored higher on the post-test (SCs 15%, SCRs 21%, QI Designees 17%). There was no significant difference in post-test mean scores among different team members: SCs 44 points, SCRs 42 points, QI Designees 44 points, (p = 0.76). When the post-test scores were aggregated at the hospital level, hospitals with new surgical QI programs improved more than hospitals with established programs (new 18%, established 11%, p < 0.05). Conclusions: QI knowledge significantly improved after completion of the ISQIC curriculum. These data support the value of formalized curricula to rapidly advance QI knowledge and application skills as a foundation for implementing QI initiatives.", keywords = "curriculum, education, process improvement, quality improvement, Quality Improvement Collaborative (QIC), surgery", author = "{ISQIC Advisory Committee} and Berger, {Elizabeth R.} and Lindsey Kreutzer and Amy Halverson and Yang, {Anthony D.} and Stephen Reinhart and Leary, {Kevin J.O{\textquoteright}} and Williams, {Mark V.} and Bilimoria, {Karl Y.} and Johnson, {Julie K.}", note = "Funding Information: This work is supported by the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality ( R01HS024516 [PI: K.Y.B.]) and the Health Care Services Corporation/Blue Cross Blue Shield of Illinois (PI: K.Y.B.). Publisher Copyright: {\textcopyright} 2020 Association of Program Directors in Surgery", year = "2020", month = nov, day = "1", doi = "10.1016/j.jsurg.2020.04.018", language = "English", volume = "77", pages = "1534--1541", journal = "Journal of Surgical Education", issn = "1931-7204", number = "6", } ISQIC Advisory Committee 2020, ' Evaluation of Changes in Quality Improvement Knowledge Following a Formal Educational Curriculum Within a Statewide Learning Collaborative ', Journal of Surgical Education , vol. 77, no. 6, pp. 1534-1541. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsurg.2020.04.018 Evaluation of Changes in Quality Improvement Knowledge Following a Formal Educational Curriculum Within a Statewide Learning Collaborative. / ISQIC Advisory Committee. In: Journal of Surgical Education , Vol. 77, No. 6, 01.11.2020, p. 1534-1541. Research output : Contribution to journal › Article › peer-review TY - JOUR T1 - Evaluation of Changes in Quality Improvement Knowledge Following a Formal Educational Curriculum Within a Statewide Learning Collaborative AU - ISQIC Advisory Committee AU - Berger, Elizabeth R. AU - Kreutzer, Lindsey AU - Halverson, Amy AU - Yang, Anthony D. AU - Reinhart, Stephen AU - Leary, Kevin J.O’ AU - Williams, Mark V. AU - Bilimoria, Karl Y. AU - Johnson, Julie K. N1 - Funding Information: This work is supported by the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality ( R01HS024516 [PI: K.Y.B.]) and the Health Care Services Corporation/Blue Cross Blue Shield of Illinois (PI: K.Y.B.). Publisher Copyright: © 2020 Association of Program Directors in Surgery PY - 2020/11/1 Y1 - 2020/11/1 N2 - Objective: Our objectives were to (1) develop a curriculum based upon participants’ needs, (2) evaluate baseline QI knowledge of the Illinois Surgical Quality Improvement Collaborative (ISQIC) members, and (3) evaluate the effectiveness of the educational curriculum. Design: The Surgeon Champion (SC), Surgical Clinical Reviewer (SCR), and QI Designee at each ISQIC hospital completed a QI curriculum containing online modules and in-person trainings. A surgical adaptation of QI-KAT, a validated QI knowledge assessment with multiple-choice and free-response sections, was administered pre- and postcurriculum. Three blinded educators scored each exam using a rubric-based scoring tool (54 total points). Setting: The ISQIC is a 52-hospital learning collaborative. Generally, ISQIC participants had little prior formal training or experience with quality improvement. Results: Among 52 hospitals, 144 pretests and 112 post-tests were collected. Mean scores increased from 66% (35.6 points) to 77% (41.6 points; p < 0.001). Across all hospitals, all participant groups scored higher on the post-test (SCs 15%, SCRs 21%, QI Designees 17%). There was no significant difference in post-test mean scores among different team members: SCs 44 points, SCRs 42 points, QI Designees 44 points, (p = 0.76). When the post-test scores were aggregated at the hospital level, hospitals with new surgical QI programs improved more than hospitals with established programs (new 18%, established 11%, p < 0.05). Conclusions: QI knowledge significantly improved after completion of the ISQIC curriculum. These data support the value of formalized curricula to rapidly advance QI knowledge and application skills as a foundation for implementing QI initiatives. AB - Objective: Our objectives were to (1) develop a curriculum based upon participants’ needs, (2) evaluate baseline QI knowledge of the Illinois Surgical Quality Improvement Collaborative (ISQIC) members, and (3) evaluate the effectiveness of the educational curriculum. Design: The Surgeon Champion (SC), Surgical Clinical Reviewer (SCR), and QI Designee at each ISQIC hospital completed a QI curriculum containing online modules and in-person trainings. A surgical adaptation of QI-KAT, a validated QI knowledge assessment with multiple-choice and free-response sections, was administered pre- and postcurriculum. Three blinded educators scored each exam using a rubric-based scoring tool (54 total points). Setting: The ISQIC is a 52-hospital learning collaborative. Generally, ISQIC participants had little prior formal training or experience with quality improvement. Results: Among 52 hospitals, 144 pretests and 112 post-tests were collected. Mean scores increased from 66% (35.6 points) to 77% (41.6 points; p < 0.001). Across all hospitals, all participant groups scored higher on the post-test (SCs 15%, SCRs 21%, QI Designees 17%). There was no significant difference in post-test mean scores among different team members: SCs 44 points, SCRs 42 points, QI Designees 44 points, (p = 0.76). When the post-test scores were aggregated at the hospital level, hospitals with new surgical QI programs improved more than hospitals with established programs (new 18%, established 11%, p < 0.05). Conclusions: QI knowledge significantly improved after completion of the ISQIC curriculum. These data support the value of formalized curricula to rapidly advance QI knowledge and application skills as a foundation for implementing QI initiatives. KW - curriculum KW - education KW - process improvement KW - quality improvement KW - Quality Improvement Collaborative (QIC) KW - surgery UR - http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?scp=85086471101&partnerID=8YFLogxK U2 - 10.1016/j.jsurg.2020.04.018 DO - 10.1016/j.jsurg.2020.04.018 M3 - Article C2 - 32553540 AN - SCOPUS:85086471101 SN - 1931-7204 VL - 77 SP - 1534 EP - 1541 JO - Journal of Surgical Education JF - Journal of Surgical Education IS - 6 ER - ISQIC Advisory Committee. Evaluation of Changes in Quality Improvement Knowledge Following a Formal Educational Curriculum Within a Statewide Learning Collaborative . Journal of Surgical Education . 2020 Nov 1;77(6):1534-1541. doi: 10.1016/j.jsurg.2020.04.018

https://profiles.wustl.edu/en/publications/evaluation-of-changes-in-quality-improvement-knowledge-following-

Mexico Nuclear Imaging Market - Growth, Trends, COVID-19 Impact, and Forecasts (2022 - 2027) Mexico Nuclear Imaging Market - Growth, Trends, COVID-19 Impact, and Forecasts (2022 - 2027) Mexico Nuclear Imaging Market - Growth, Trends, COVID-19 Impact, and Forecasts - Market research report and industry analysis - 32576851 Mexico Nuclear Imaging Market - Growth, Trends, COVID-19 Impact, and Forecasts (2022 - 2027) Best Price Guarantee Price from $4,750 Length 94 Pages Publisher Mordor Intelligence Inc Published Date October, 2022 SKU MOI17486507 Table of Contents Description Mexico Nuclear Imaging Market - Growth, Trends, COVID-19 Impact, and Forecasts (2022 - 2027) Mexico's nuclear imaging market was valued at USD 172.95 million in 2021 and is projected to register a CAGR of 3.47% during the forecast period (2022-2027). COVID-19 has a significant impact on the market studied in Mexico. As stated by the report from the National Institute of Health published in January 2022, the past two years i.e. 2020 and 2021 have witnessed a considerable decrease in the overall number of nuclear medicine procedures. For instance, during the year 2020, Latin American countries including Mexico witnessed a decrease of around 79% in PET scan procedures. Hence, it is observed that the utilization of PET and SPECT in the country was reduced drastically during the pandemic which affected the market studied significantly. However, after the COVID-19 pandemic came into control, the market is gaining pace rapidly as people who had planned their diagnostic or therapeutic procedures are visiting hospitals which are augmenting the demand for imaging procedures. Major factors contributing to the market growth include the rising prevalence of chronic diseases along with the increasing adoption of nuclear imaging techniques in the country. Several chronic conditions such as cancer, neurological diseases, and cardiovascular issues, along with geriatric population suffering from these chronic conditions are on the rise in Mexico which is accelerating the demand for nuclear imaging procedures across the country. For instance, According to the World Population Ageing 2021 report, the Mexican population aged 65 years and older is projected to reach 9.31 million by 2030. As for various chronic disorders, nuclear maging is highly preferred, and it is a beneficial factor for the Mexican nuclear imaging market. Therefore, with the above-mentioned factors, it is expected that the market studied will be witnessing a steady growth in Mexico over the forecast period. Key Market Trends Cardiology is Expected to Witness a Steady Growth There has been an increasing burden of cardiac diseases in Mexico which is one of the major fueling factors for the market studied. Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD), a buildup of fats, cholesterol, and other substances inside the arteries and on their walls, can narrow the arteries and obstruct blood flow. As per the data from the American Heart Association 2022, in Mexico, 56.1% of adults have high levels of LDL-C, or bad cholesterol, which is thought to be the primary risk factor for cardiovascular disease. With financing from Novartis, the American Heart Association has implemented a new science program in Mexico aimed at enhancing care for patients with ASCVD, often known as atherosclerosis. With such initiative, cardiology care in the country will increase in terms of prevention as well as treatment which will ultimately boost the demand for imaging equipment in the country as diagnosis is an integral part of cardiac care. Additionally, Mexico has several cardiology-related associations that work for the betterment of cardiac care. For instance, the Mexican Society of Cardiology is dedicated to creating awareness about the risk factors associated with cardiac diseases and the treatments for heart failure. With such awareness, the general population can understand the importance of diagnostic imaging in cardiovascular diseases which is ultimately increasing the number of people going for diagnostic imaging procedures in the country. Additionally, smoking is one of the leading risk factors for cardiovascular diseases. As per the World Population Review Report 2022, around 13.9% of the Mexican population smokes tobacco. This considerable number of smokers in the country is adding up to the overall burden of cardiovascular diseases. Therefore, owing to the above-mentioned factors, it is believed that the segment will witness steady growth in Mexico's nuclear imaging market. Competitive Landscape The market estimate (ME) sheet in Excel format 3 months of analyst support 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Study Assumptions and Market Definition 1.2 Scope of the Study 2 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 4 MARKET DYNAMICS 4.1 Market Overview 4.2 Market Drivers 4.2.1 Increasing Prevalence of Cancer and Cardiac Disorders 4.2.2 Technological Advancements in Nuclear Imaging 4.3 Market Restraints 4.3.1 Stringent Regulations 4.4 Porter's Five Forces Analysis 4.4.1 Threat of New Entrants 4.4.2 Bargaining Power of Buyers/Consumers 4.4.3 Bargaining Power of Suppliers 4.4.4 Threat of Substitute Products 4.4.5 Intensity of Competitive Rivalry 5.1 By Product 5.1.1 Equipment 5.1.2 Diagnostic Radioisotope 5.1.2.1 SPECT Radioisotopes 5.1.2.2 PET Radioisotopes 5.2 By Application 5.2.1 SPECT Applications 5.2.1.1 Cardiology 5.2.1.2 Neurology 5.2.1.3 Thyroid 5.2.1.4 Other SPECT Applications 5.2.2 PET Applications 5.2.2.1 Oncology 5.2.2.2 Cardiology 5.2.2.3 Neurology 5.2.2.4 Other PET Applications 6 COMPETITIVE LANDSCAPE 6.1 Company Profiles 6.1.1 Canon Medical Systems Corporation 6.1.2 Fujifilm Holdings Corporation 6.1.3 GE Healthcare 6.1.4 Koninklijke Philips NV 6.1.6 Curium 6.1.7 Mediso Ltd 6.1.8 Bracco Group 6.1.9 NOVARTIS AG (ADVANCED ACCELERATOR APPLICATIONS) 6.1.10 Bayer AG 7 MARKET OPPORTUNITIES AND FUTURE TRENDS Nuclear Imaging Market - Growth, Trends, COVID-19 Impact, and Forecasts (2022 - 2027) Australia Nuclear Imaging Market - Growth, Trends, COVID-19 Impact, and Forecasts (2022 - 2027) Canada Nuclear Imaging Market - Growth, Trends, COVID-19 Impact, and Forecasts (2022 - 2027) Argentina Nuclear Imaging Market - Growth, Trends, COVID-19 Impact, and Forecasts (2022 - 2027) India Nuclear Imaging Market - Growth, Trends, COVID-19 Impact, and Forecasts (2022 - 2027) Spain Nuclear Imaging Market - Growth, Trends, COVID-19 Impact, and Forecasts (2022 - 2027) 32576852 PDF E-mail From Publisher: $4,750 Multi User License (2-5 Users) Fulfilled by Publisher: $5,250 Site License Fulfilled by Publisher: $6,500 Global Site License Fulfilled by Publisher: $8,750

https://www.marketresearch.com/Mordor-Intelligence-LLP-v4018/Mexico-Nuclear-Imaging-Growth-Trends-32576851/

Crucial questions for November 4: Presidential pick, California's Proposition 14 | The Christian Century Crucial questions for November 4: Presidential pick, California's Proposition 14 When "the tumult and the shouting dies" and the votes are counted on November 4, we shall first want to know who won the presidential election. The choice before the American people is not, in Dean Francis B. Sayre's notorious phrase, a sterile one; on the contrary, it is a crucial one. The election of Senator Barry Goldwater would cause a radical and disastrous change in the character and destiny of the nation. If the people elect Goldwater they choose a fantasy which has never existed in the American past and cannot be actualized in the future. However incredible such a choice seems to us and however strong our confidence that the American people's good sense will repudiate Senator Goldwater, we shall eagerly await official assurance of Johnson's election. Second, we shall want to know—if Johnson sweeps the country—whether any moderate or liberal Republican politicians survive the landslide and retain enough power and position to challenge Goldwater's leadership of the Republican party. We share the belief that a strong two-party political system is essential to the nation's political health. The danger is that a badly defeated Republican party, if still controlled by Senator Goldwater and his rightist supporters, will shrink to a carping minority and lose all credibility as a national influence. The political health of the nation depends in part on a possible but unlikely combination of election results: a massive repudiation of Senator Goldwater's view of the nation's domestic and international character and the survival of those Republican politicians who have in varying degrees repudiated Senator Goldwater. Such a combination of events, however, requires ticket-splitting votes, and ticket-splitting votes require more thorough analysis of issues and candidates than most voters are used to making. Third, we shall want to know what voters in California did to Proposition 14. Although Proposition 14 is technically a local matter, it is nevertheless the third most important issue facing the American people at the polls on November. In his "Spotlight on California" published in the September 30 Century, Robert McAfee Brown explained the national significance of California's vote on Proposition 14 and argued convincingly for the defeat of this proposed amendment to the California state constitution. The proposed amendment, sponsored by the California Real Estate Association (CREA), seeks to cancel the Rumford act which, adopted by the California legislature last year, prohibits discrimination on grounds of "race, color, religion, national origin or ancestry" in renting or selling a house. If adopted, Proposition 14 will amend the California constitution to read: "Neither the state nor any subdivision or agency thereof shall deny, limit or abridge, directly or indirectly, the right of any person, who is willing or desires to sell, lease or rent any part or all of his real property, to decline to sell, lease or rent such property to such person or persons as he, in his absolute discretion, chooses." The amendment would thus not only invalidate the Rumford act but would also prohibit any further attempts in California to deal with the ghettoization of Negroes by legislation. Moreover, like various interposition movements in the south, Proposition 14 is California's own peculiar attack on the 14th amendment to the U.S. Constitution. Although there is reason to hope that Proposition 14 would for this reason be declared unconstitutional by the California supreme court or, if not, by the U.S. Supreme Court, many California organizations opposed to the amendment are not depending on that possibility. Churches and other religious organizations, labor unions, educational and bar associations and various other social and civic groups are vigorously opposing the adoption of Proposition 14. Against them and for the amendment are the California Real Estate Association, the right-wing California Republican Assembly, Young Republicans, southern California segregationists and many Californians who naively conclude that the Rumford act not only compels them to lease, rent or sell on a nondiscriminatory basis but also compels them to lease, rent or sell whether they want to or not. Strong forces have locked horns in this contest and the outcome remains unpredictable. Proposition 14 threatens racial justice in California and racial progress throughout the nation. If adopted by the people of California and not speedily struck down by the courts, Proposition 14 will generate similar attacks on the rights of Negroes in many parts of the United States. Furthermore, its adoption will jeopardize fair housing laws similar to the Rumford act in other parts of the country, increasing the vulnerability of such laws to the attacks of segregationists and weakening the support some moderates now give to freedom of residence.

https://www.christiancentury.org/article/crucial-questions-november-4

Anemia in Dogs - Pet forum for dogs cats and humans - Pets.ca Anemia in Dogs General Forum for cats and dogs # 1 February 23rd, 2004, 09:57 PM Murph's Mom Senior Member Join Date: Nov 2003 Location: Ontario Posts: 104 Anemia in Dogs Well, hello ladies (and gents), I have question about anemia in dogs. A friend of mine's 9yr old GSD was just diagnosed as anemic. The vet of course wants to put her on steroids. I am wondering if there is another way to treat this. She also has a heart murmur. Any suggestions? __________________ ,-._,-. \/)"(\/ (_o_) Murph's Mom # 2 February 24th, 2004, 05:13 AM Carina Senior Contributor Join Date: May 2003 Location: Michigan Posts: 1,244 Is it autoimmune haemolytic anaemia? Steroids is a standard treatment for this. Steroids are amazing drugs - they manage so many conditions wonderfully! They do have significant side effects, but many dogs (& people) take them for years & the benefits usually greatly outweigh risks. My S/other has an auto-immune disease & would be immobilised without his prednisone. They shouldn't impact the heart - depending on the type of murmur. Heart murmurs are not uncommon in older dogs, my old was d/xed with one at about 11 yo & lived to be 15. She was also on & off steroids for the last couple of years of her life. NB: The Merck manual (medical database) lists about thirty drugs that have been at least tentatively linked to AIHA. Several of these are annual vaccines given to dogs & cats; yet another reason not to do annual vaccinations. Yes I realise I have an agenda against over-vaccinating. But now that each of the 27 vet schools in the USA are suggesting vacs every three years instead of annually, it really seems people ought to pay attention! Annual vaccinations have been linked to so many chronic conditions - anemia, cancer, auto-immune illnesses & allergies...and a 9 year old dog needs no more vaccinations. If she's looking for alternative ways to treat this, have her consult a good homeopathic vet; I don't know if there are other treatment modalities but that would be a place to start. __________________ Carina Cooper The WonderDog Daphne The Destructo-Rott # 3 February 24th, 2004, 12:43 PM Murph's Mom Senior Member Join Date: Nov 2003 Location: Ontario Posts: 104 Thanks Carina!! Great insight as usual. (tell me, are you typing with your clothers on (he he)? Do you happen to know if there is a good website to check out about homeopathic treatments for dogs? My friend did find a homeopathic vet nearby and she's hopefully going to be able to get Zara in there but in the meantime we're doing as much research as we can. I'm not certain what type of anemia. I suggested this site to her so hopefully she'll join and can discuss this herself, since I'm not much help! __________________ ,-._,-. \/)"(\/ (_o_) Murph's Mom # 4 February 24th, 2004, 01:00 PM Carina Senior Contributor Join Date: May 2003 Location: Michigan Posts: 1,244 Interestingly enough, here's an article from the altvedmed site about vaccines; including this quote: "We suspect a connection between vaccines and autoimmune hemolytic anemia." http://www.altvetmed.com/pages/articles.html There's a directory of "alternative" vets on this site, but I think they're mostly in the US. I can't think of any particular site; but if you can stand another message board, check here: http://groups.yahoo.com/group/K9Nutr...yguid=45685679 It's one of the Yahoo groups. The list owner did her PhD dissertation on canine health & nutrition, and there are many extremely knowlegable people who post to this list. The bias is holistic, I'm sure someone can point you in the direction of some good articles & treatments if you ask your question there! PS, I have all my clothes on right now. __________________ Carina Cooper The WonderDog Daphne The Destructo-Rott

http://www.pets.ca/forum/showthread.php?t=3218

Lucy Mack Smith, History, 1845, Page 268 val at IndependanceLocated twelve miles from western Missouri border. Permanently settled, platted, ... Interim Content Lucy Mack Smith, History, 1845 Source Note Lucy Mack Smith, History, 1845; handwriting of Howard Coray6 May 1817–16 Jan. 1908. Bookkeeper, clerk, teacher, farmer. Born in Dansville, Steuben Co., New York. Son of Silas Coray and Mary Stephens. Moved to Providence, Luzerne Co., Pennsylvania, ca. 1827; to Williams, Northampton Co., Pennsylvania, by 1830; and... View Full Bio and Martha Jane Knowlton Coray; 337 pages; CHL. Note: Lucy Mack Smith 8 July 1775–14 May 1856. Oilcloth painter, nurse, fund-raiser, author. Born at Gilsum, Cheshire Co., New Hampshire. Daughter of Solomon Mack Sr. and Lydia Gates. Moved to Montague, Franklin Co., Massachusetts, 1779; to Tunbridge, Orange Co., Vermont, 1788... , the mother of Joseph Smith, dictated a rough draft version of her history to Martha Jane Knowlton Coray (with some additional scribal help from Martha’s husband, Howard 6 May 1817–16 Jan. 1908. Bookkeeper, clerk, teacher, farmer. Born in Dansville, Steuben Co., New York. Son of Silas Coray and Mary Stephens. Moved to Providence, Luzerne Co., Pennsylvania, ca. 1827; to Williams, Northampton Co., Pennsylvania, by 1830; and... ) beginning in 1844 and concluding in 1845. In 1845, the Corays inscribed this fair copy of the history under Lucy’s direction. Historical Introduction In June 1844, the church suffered the loss of its president and prophet, JS, and his brother, church patriarch Hyrum Smith 9 Feb. 1800–27 June 1844. Farmer, cooper. Born at Tunbridge, Orange Co., Vermont. Son of Joseph Smith Sr. and Lucy Mack. Moved to Randolph, Orange Co., 1802; back to Tunbridge, before May 1803; to Royalton, Windsor Co., Vermont, 1804; to Sharon, Windsor Co... . The Smith family, already devastated, endured another heartbreak a few weeks later with the death of JS’s brother Samuel 13 Mar. 1808–30 July 1844. Farmer, logger, scribe, builder, tavern operator. Born at Tunbridge, Orange Co., Vermont. Son of Joseph Smith Sr. and Lucy Mack. Moved to Royalton, Windsor Co., Vermont, by Mar. 1810; to Lebanon, Grafton Co., New Hampshire, 1811... . That fall their widowed mother, Lucy Mack Smith 8 July 1775–14 May 1856. Oilcloth painter, nurse, fund-raiser, author. Born at Gilsum, Cheshire Co., New Hampshire. Daughter of Solomon Mack Sr. and Lydia Gates. Moved to Montague, Franklin Co., Massachusetts, 1779; to Tunbridge, Orange Co., Vermont, 1788... , perhaps in part as a salve to her grief, began recording her family’s story. Writing to her only surviving son, William 13 Mar. 1811–13 Nov. 1893. Farmer, newspaper editor. Born at Royalton, Windsor Co., Vermont. Son of Joseph Smith Sr. and Lucy Mack. Moved to Lebanon, Grafton Co., New Hampshire, 1811; to Norwich, Windsor Co., 1813; and to Palmyra, Ontario Co., New York, 1816... , on 23 January 1845, Smith informed him, “I have by the council of the 12 [Apostles] undertaken a history of the family, that is my Fathers Family and my own.” She added: People are often enquiring of me the particulars of Joseph’s getting the plates seeing the angels at first and many other thing which Joseph never wrote or published I have told over many things pertaining to these matters to different persons to gratify their curiosity indeed have almost destroyed my lungs giving these recitals to those who felt anxious to hear them I have now concluded to write down every particular as far as possible and if those who wish to read them will help me a little they can have it all in one piece to read at their leasure— To help defray the cost of publication she asked William to start a subscription to raise about $100 to buy paper to print her history (Lucy Mack Smith, Nauvoo, IL, to William Smith, 23 Jan. 1845, CHL). Later that year on 8 October, at a general conference of the church being held in the Nauvoo Principal gathering place for Saints following expulsion from Missouri. Beginning in 1839, Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints purchased lands in earlier settlement of Commerce and planned settlement of Commerce City, as well as surrounding areas.... temple Located in portion of Nauvoo known as the bluff. JS revelation dated Jan. 1841 commanded Saints to build temple and hotel (Nauvoo House). Cornerstone laid, 6 Apr. 1841. Saints volunteered labor, money, and other resources for temple construction. Construction... Smith 8 July 1775–14 May 1856. Oilcloth painter, nurse, fund-raiser, author. Born at Gilsum, Cheshire Co., New Hampshire. Daughter of Solomon Mack Sr. and Lydia Gates. Moved to Montague, Franklin Co., Massachusetts, 1779; to Tunbridge, Orange Co., Vermont, 1788... spoke of the completion of her project. According to the conference minutes she “gave notice that she had written her history, and wished it printed before we leave this place” (“Conference Minutes,” Times and Seasons, 1 Nov. 1845, 6:1014). However, arrangements could not be made for its publication prior to the Saints’ departure from Nauvoo. It was eventually printed by Orson Pratt 19 Sept. 1811–3 Oct. 1881. Farmer, writer, teacher, merchant, surveyor, editor, publisher. Born at Hartford, Washington Co., New York. Son of Jared Pratt and Charity Dickinson. Moved to New Lebanon, Columbia Co., New York, 1814; to Canaan, Columbia Co., fall... in 1853 in Liverpool Seaport, city, county borough, and market-town in northwestern England. Experienced exponential growth during nineteenth century. Population in 1830 about 120,000. Population in 1841 about 290,000. First Latter-day Saint missionaries to England arrived in... , England. Years later, Martha Jane Knowlton Coray, writing from Provo, Utah, in June 1865, responded to a request from Brigham Young 1 June 1801–29 Aug. 1877. Carpenter, painter, glazier, colonizer. Born at Whitingham, Windham Co., Vermont. Son of John Young and Abigail (Nabby) Howe. Brought up in Methodist household; later joined Methodist church. Moved to Sherburne, Chenango Co., New... View Full Bio for information regarding her role in the drafting and publication of Mother Smith 8 July 1775–14 May 1856. Oilcloth painter, nurse, fund-raiser, author. Born at Gilsum, Cheshire Co., New Hampshire. Daughter of Solomon Mack Sr. and Lydia Gates. Moved to Montague, Franklin Co., Massachusetts, 1779; to Tunbridge, Orange Co., Vermont, 1788... ’s history. Regarding Smith, Coray wrote, “I was her amanuensis at the time the Book was written.” She then cited her own practice of “noting down everything, I heard and read which possessed any peculiar interest to me. . . . I was occupied, from time to time as occasion offered, in making notes of sermons, and other things which I thought reliable such as: discourses by yourself, the twelve, and other responsible men.” She then related that this practice “made it an easy task for me to transmit to paper” what Smith dictated to her. She added, “ Hyrum 9 Feb. 1800–27 June 1844. Farmer, cooper. Born at Tunbridge, Orange Co., Vermont. Son of Joseph Smith Sr. and Lucy Mack. Moved to Randolph, Orange Co., 1802; back to Tunbridge, before May 1803; to Royalton, Windsor Co., Vermont, 1804; to Sharon, Windsor Co... and Joseph were dead, and thus without their aid, she [Lucy] attempted to prosecute the work, relying chiefly upon her memory. . . . There were two Manuscripts prepared, one copy was given to Mother Smith, and the other retained in the Church” (Martha Jane Knowlton Coray, Provo, UT, to Brigham Young, 13 June 1865, Brigham Young Office Files, CHL). The two completed manuscripts Coray referenced in her letter to Young 1 June 1801–29 Aug. 1877. Carpenter, painter, glazier, colonizer. Born at Whitingham, Windham Co., Vermont. Son of John Young and Abigail (Nabby) Howe. Brought up in Methodist household; later joined Methodist church. Moved to Sherburne, Chenango Co., New... were preceded by a draft, sometimes referred to as the “ rough draft manuscript .” Martha Jane Coray and her husband, Howard 6 May 1817–16 Jan. 1908. Bookkeeper, clerk, teacher, farmer. Born in Dansville, Steuben Co., New York. Son of Silas Coray and Mary Stephens. Moved to Providence, Luzerne Co., Pennsylvania, ca. 1827; to Williams, Northampton Co., Pennsylvania, by 1830; and... , composed this draft as they met with Smith 8 July 1775–14 May 1856. Oilcloth painter, nurse, fund-raiser, author. Born at Gilsum, Cheshire Co., New Hampshire. Daughter of Solomon Mack Sr. and Lydia Gates. Moved to Montague, Franklin Co., Massachusetts, 1779; to Tunbridge, Orange Co., Vermont, 1788... View Full Bio during the fall and winter 1844–1845. Then, in early 1845, utilizing the rough draft and other notes and sources, the Corays apparently penned two revised, or “fair,” copies. The sole extant fair version is titled “The History of Lucy Smith Mother of the Prophet.” Miscellaneous fragments included with the rough draft copy suggest that the Corays may also have produced an intermediate draft prior to transcribing the two fair copies. Assuming an intermediate draft once existed in some form, most of it has been lost. Smith 8 July 1775–14 May 1856. Oilcloth painter, nurse, fund-raiser, author. Born at Gilsum, Cheshire Co., New Hampshire. Daughter of Solomon Mack Sr. and Lydia Gates. Moved to Montague, Franklin Co., Massachusetts, 1779; to Tunbridge, Orange Co., Vermont, 1788... obtained a U.S. copyright for her manuscript on 18 July 1845. (Copyright for Lucy Mack Smith, “The History of Lucy Smith,” 18 July 1845, Robert Harris, Copyright Registry Records for Works Concerning the Mormons to 1870, CHL). According to the “History of Brigham Young,” on 10 November of that same year, Young 1 June 1801–29 Aug. 1877. Carpenter, painter, glazier, colonizer. Born at Whitingham, Windham Co., Vermont. Son of John Young and Abigail (Nabby) Howe. Brought up in Methodist household; later joined Methodist church. Moved to Sherburne, Chenango Co., New... and several members of the Twelve “consulted on the subject of purchasing the copy right of Mother Smith’s History; and concluded to settle with Brother Howard Coray 6 May 1817–16 Jan. 1908. Bookkeeper, clerk, teacher, farmer. Born in Dansville, Steuben Co., New York. Son of Silas Coray and Mary Stephens. Moved to Providence, Luzerne Co., Pennsylvania, ca. 1827; to Williams, Northampton Co., Pennsylvania, by 1830; and... for his labor in compiling the same” (History of the Church, 7:519). No currently extant record indicates whether Smith was actually approached about selling her copyright to the church, nor is it known if the Corays were compensated as indicated above. As previously noted, one of the two prepared fair copies was given to Smith 8 July 1775–14 May 1856. Oilcloth painter, nurse, fund-raiser, author. Born at Gilsum, Cheshire Co., New Hampshire. Daughter of Solomon Mack Sr. and Lydia Gates. Moved to Montague, Franklin Co., Massachusetts, 1779; to Tunbridge, Orange Co., Vermont, 1788... by the Corays. There are varying accounts regarding what happened next, but by March 1853, Smith’s copy was in the possession of Orson Pratt 19 Sept. 1811–3 Oct. 1881. Farmer, writer, teacher, merchant, surveyor, editor, publisher. Born at Hartford, Washington Co., New York. Son of Jared Pratt and Charity Dickinson. Moved to New Lebanon, Columbia Co., New York, 1814; to Canaan, Columbia Co., fall... View Full Bio in Washington DC Created as district for seat of U.S. federal government by act of Congress, 1790, and named Washington DC, 1791. Named in honor of George Washington. Headquarters of executive, legislative, and judicial branches of U.S. government relocated to Washington ... . Pratt took it to England where he had it printed by the end of that summer under the title Biographical Sketches of Joseph Smith, the Prophet, and His Progenitors for Many Generations, by Lucy Smith, Mother of the Prophet. The fair copy adapted for the Liverpool Seaport, city, county borough, and market-town in northwestern England. Experienced exponential growth during nineteenth century. Population in 1830 about 120,000. Population in 1841 about 290,000. First Latter-day Saint missionaries to England arrived in... , England, publication by Pratt apparently is no longer extant. The second fair copy was apparently given to the church before the Saints departed from Nauvoo Principal gathering place for Saints following expulsion from Missouri. Beginning in 1839, Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints purchased lands in earlier settlement of Commerce and planned settlement of Commerce City, as well as surrounding areas.... and was taken west by them. An entry for “Mother Smith’s History” is listed in the first extant Historian’s Office inventory, compiled in Nauvoo in 1846 by clerk Thomas Bullock 23 Dec. 1816–10 Feb. 1885. Farmer, excise officer, secretary, clerk. Born in Leek, Staffordshire, England. Son of Thomas Bullock and Mary Hall. Married Henrietta Rushton, 25 June 1838. Moved to Ardee, Co. Louth, Ireland, Nov. 1839; to Isle of Anglesey, Aug... . Records of a 4 April 1855 inventory of the Historian’s Office included an entry for “Mother Smiths Mss History” (Schedule of Church Records. Nauvoo 1846,” [1]; “Inventory, Historian’s Office, 4th April 1855,” [2], Historian’s Office, Catalogs and Inventories, 1846–1904, CHL). It seems that the Corays retained the rough draft and transported it to Utah. Orson Pratt 19 Sept. 1811–3 Oct. 1881. Farmer, writer, teacher, merchant, surveyor, editor, publisher. Born at Hartford, Washington Co., New York. Son of Jared Pratt and Charity Dickinson. Moved to New Lebanon, Columbia Co., New York, 1814; to Canaan, Columbia Co., fall... View Full Bio had not consulted with Brigham Young 1 June 1801–29 Aug. 1877. Carpenter, painter, glazier, colonizer. Born at Whitingham, Windham Co., Vermont. Son of John Young and Abigail (Nabby) Howe. Brought up in Methodist household; later joined Methodist church. Moved to Sherburne, Chenango Co., New... or other church leaders before publishing the 1853 Liverpool Seaport, city, county borough, and market-town in northwestern England. Experienced exponential growth during nineteenth century. Population in 1830 about 120,000. Population in 1841 about 290,000. First Latter-day Saint missionaries to England arrived in... edition of Lucy Mack Smith 8 July 1775–14 May 1856. Oilcloth painter, nurse, fund-raiser, author. Born at Gilsum, Cheshire Co., New Hampshire. Daughter of Solomon Mack Sr. and Lydia Gates. Moved to Montague, Franklin Co., Massachusetts, 1779; to Tunbridge, Orange Co., Vermont, 1788... ’s history. Young had not authorized its publication and believed it contained historical errors. In 1865, Young and his counselors in the First Presidency of the church formally recalled the Liverpool edition. According to Wilford Woodruff 1 Mar. 1807–2 Sept. 1898. Farmer, miller. Born at Farmington, Hartford Co., Connecticut. Son of Aphek Woodruff and Beulah Thompson. Moved to Richland, Oswego Co., New York, 1832. Baptized into Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints by Zera Pulsipher,... ’s journal for 22 April 1866, Young asked Woodruff to request church historian George A. Smith 26 June 1817–1 Sept. 1875. Born at Potsdam, St. Lawrence Co., New York. Son of John Smith and Clarissa Lyman. Baptized into Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints by Joseph H. Wakefield, 10 Sept. 1832, at Potsdam. Moved to Kirtland, Geauga Co., Ohio,... and JS’s uncle, Elias Smith 6 Sept. 1804–24 June 1888. Teacher, printer, postmaster, bookkeeper, probate judge, newspaper editor. Born in Royalton, Windsor Co., Vermont. Son of Asahel Smith and Elizabeth Schellenger. Moved to Stockholm, St. Lawrence Co., New York, 1809. Baptized into... , to revise the text so that it could be reissued in a corrected edition. However, despite expectations, a revised version was not issued during Young’s lifetime. It was not until 1901 that the church released an authorized edition, in serial form in the Improvement Era . The serial began in the November 1901 issue under the title “History of the Prophet Joseph Smith” and concluded in the January 1903 issue. When published in book form in 1902, it bore the title History of the Prophet Joseph Smith by His Mother Lucy Smith as Revised by George A. Smith and Elias Smith. Subsequently, other popular editions have appeared. Much of the value of Lucy Mack Smith 8 July 1775–14 May 1856. Oilcloth painter, nurse, fund-raiser, author. Born at Gilsum, Cheshire Co., New Hampshire. Daughter of Solomon Mack Sr. and Lydia Gates. Moved to Montague, Franklin Co., Massachusetts, 1779; to Tunbridge, Orange Co., Vermont, 1788... ’s account lies in her offering a wife and mother’s perspective on her family’s role in the early church. She illuminates the family setting that fostered the birth of Mormonism and retells incidents and interactions recounted nowhere else. Though there are errors in the dating of some events and occasionally in place and individual names, overall her account is of inestimable value, providing a rarely heard woman’s voice as it traces JS’s life from beginning to end. She was present at many seminal events and offered insights no one else could provide. Beginning with details of her New England ancestors, Smith 8 July 1775–14 May 1856. Oilcloth painter, nurse, fund-raiser, author. Born at Gilsum, Cheshire Co., New Hampshire. Daughter of Solomon Mack Sr. and Lydia Gates. Moved to Montague, Franklin Co., Massachusetts, 1779; to Tunbridge, Orange Co., Vermont, 1788... related an account of her family’s early experiences and support of JS during the founding era of the church. Adversity and persecution are vividly evident, as are hard work, faith, love, and testimony. Many details that we know about early church history can be attributed to Lucy, such as JS’s leg operation when he was a child; the death of JS’s oldest brother, Alvin 11 Feb. 1798–19 Nov. 1823. Farmer, carpenter. Born at Tunbridge, Orange Co., Vermont. Son of Joseph Smith Sr. and Lucy Mack. Moved to Randolph, Orange Co., 1802; returned to Tunbridge, before May 1803. Moved to Royalton, Windsor Co., Vermont, 1804, and to... ; the dreams, visions, and blessings of Joseph Smith Sr. 12 July 1771–14 Sept. 1840. Cooper, farmer, teacher, merchant. Born at Topsfield, Essex Co., Massachusetts. Son of Asael Smith and Mary Duty. Nominal member of Congregationalist church at Topsfield. Married to Lucy Mack by Seth Austin, 24 Jan. 1796, at Tunbridge... View Full Bio ; and a wife and mother’s grief as she buries her “beloved husband” and many of her children. She also provided details and perspective about missions, moves, travels, mobbings, and arrests that are not available elsewhere. Published here is the the Corays’ 1845 fair copy retained by the church. (The 1844–1845 rough draft is also available on this website.) Page 268 val at IndependanceLocated twelve miles from western Missouri border. Permanently settled, platted, and designated county seat, 1827. Hub for steamboat travel on Missouri River. Point of departure for Santa Fe Trail. Population in 1831 about 300. Latter-day Saint population... More Info , and we were driven all through the tow nLocated twelve miles from western Missouri border. Permanently settled, platted, and designated county seat, 1827. Hub for steamboat travel on Missouri River. Point of departure for Santa Fe Trail. Population in 1831 about 300. Latter-day Saint population... More Info for inspection, and then we were ordered into an old log house, and there kept under guard as usual, until supper, which was served up to us as we sat on the floor, or on billets of wood, and we were compelled to stay in that house all that night and the next day. They continued to exhibit us to the public, by letting the people come in and examine us, and then go away and give place for others alternately all that day and the next night; but on the morning of the following day we were all permitted to go into the tavern to eat and to sleep; but afterwards they made us pay our own expenses for board, lodging and attend ance; and for which they made a most exhorbitant charge. We remained in the tavern about two days and two nights when an officer arrived with authority from Gen Clark17 Apr. 1802–29 Oct. 1885. Lawyer, politician. Born at Madison Co., Kentucky. Moved to Howard Co., Missouri Territory, 1818. Practiced law in Fayette, Howard Co., beginning 1824. Clerk of Howard Co. courts, 1824–1834. Appointed brigadier general in Missouri... View Full Bio to take us ba ck to RichmondArea settled, ca. 1814. Officially platted as Ray Co. seat, 1827. Population in 1840 about 500. Seat of Fifth Judicial Circuit Court of Missouri; also location of courthouse and jails. JS and about sixty other Latter-day Saint men were incarcerated here while... More Info , Ray County, where the Gen17 Apr. 1802–29 Oct. 1885. Lawyer, politician. Born at Madison Co., Kentucky. Moved to Howard Co., Missouri Territory, 1818. Practiced law in Fayette, Howard Co., beginning 1824. Clerk of Howard Co. courts, 1824–1834. Appointed brigadier general in Missouri... View Full Bio , had arrived with his army to await our arrival there; but on the morning of our start for RichmondArea settled, ca. 1814. Officially platted as Ray Co. seat, 1827. Population in 1840 about 500. Seat of Fifth Judicial Circuit Court of Missouri; also location of courthouse and jails. JS and about sixty other Latter-day Saint men were incarcerated here while... More Info we were informed by Gen. Wilson1795–ca. 1868. Farmer, merchant, land developer, postmaster. Born in Virginia. Moved to Greene Co., Tennessee, by Dec. 1818. Married first Margaret Guin, 23 Dec. 1829, in Greene Co. Moved to Pike Co., Illinois, by Apr. 1832. Served in Black Hawk War, 1832... View Full Bio , that it was expected by the soldiers that we would be hung up by the necks on the road, while on the march to that place, and that it was prevented by a demand made for us by Gen. Clark17 Apr. 1802–29 Oct. 1885. Lawyer, politician. Born at Madison Co., Kentucky. Moved to Howard Co., Missouri Territory, 1818. Practiced law in Fayette, Howard Co., beginning 1824. Clerk of Howard Co. courts, 1824–1834. Appointed brigadier general in Missouri... View Full Bio , who had the command in consequence of seniority, and, that it was his preogative to execute us himself; and he should give us up I into the hands of the officers who would take us to Gen. Cl ark17 Apr. 1802–29 Oct. 1885. Lawyer, politician. Born at Madison Co., Kentucky. Moved to Howard Co., Missouri Territory, 1818. Practiced law in Fayette, Howard Co., beginning 1824. Clerk of Howard Co. courts, 1824–1834. Appointed brigadier general in Missouri... View Full Bio and he might do with us as he pleased. During our stay at IndependanceLocated twelve miles from western Missouri border. Permanently settled, platted, and designated county seat, 1827. Hub for steamboat travel on Missouri River. Point of departure for Santa Fe Trail. Population in 1831 about 300. Latter-day Saint population... More Info , the officers informed us that there were 8 or 10 horses in that place belonging to the Mormon s people, which had been stolen by the soldiers, and that we might have two of them to ride upon if we would cause them to be sent back to the owners after our arrival at RichmondArea settled, ca. 1814. Officially platted as Ray Co. seat, 1827. Population in 1840 about 500. Seat of Fifth Judicial Circuit Court of Missouri; also location of courthouse and jails. JS and about sixty other Latter-day Saint men were incarcerated here while... More Info . We accepted of them, and they were rode to RichmondArea settled, ca. 1814. Officially platted as Ray Co. seat, 1827. Population in 1840 about 500. Seat of Fifth Judicial Circuit Court of Missouri; also location of courthouse and jails. JS and about sixty other Latter-day Saint men were incarcerated here while... More Info and the owners came there and got them. We started in the morning under our new officer Col. [Sterling] PriceCa. Sept. 1809–29 Sept. 1867. Farmer, merchant, military officer. Born near Farmville, Prince Edward Co., Virginia. Son of Pugh Williamson Price and Elizabeth Marshall Williamson. Moved to Missouri, 1831. Married Martha Head, 14 May 1833, in Randolph Co.,... View Full Bio , of Keytsville chariton County, several other men to guard us over. We arrived there on friday evening. The 9 th day of Nov, and [p. 268] Document Information Related Case Documents Editorial Title Lucy Mack Smith, History, 1845 ID # 7897 Total Pages

https://www.josephsmithpapers.org/paper-summary/lucy-mack-smith-history-1845/276

A New Hope | BIRDS in BACKYARDS A New Hope A New Hope Hello, my apologies for pinching an old Star Wars title but after watching Chasing Ice by Jeff Orlwski last night, I feel the sun is setting on humanity and nature regarding global warming. Still as the title suggest there is always hope and humans are good at 11th hour fixes. I have found myself in a unique position after buying a house with a pool for the kids initially, on a park with a bike track, with only one neighbour. More on the importance of that later.  However I also have a creek, established large trees and much more if I take the opportunity. I have a large bat population in the hood somewhere that flies past as the sun sets. Bird wise there is a large population of Rainbow Lorikeets my distant neighbour feeds, but also flock to the Melaleucas’ that run along the creek.  I listen to the beautiful song of the Currawong every afternoon as he or she settle into the Eucalypts just outside my house. Magpies, Butcher Birds, and Peewee’s are all common visitors.  Crested Pigeons sit on the fence in pairs busily courting.  They also sit in the yard and were nesting in an exotic in the yard.  I have also seen Pale Headed Rosellas getting around, and Galars feed on my neighbours foot path in the afternoon light.  A family of Kookaburras are around but not by sight.  And of course, the usual gang of Noisy Mynas that dive bomb my pool for drinks when I’ve been slack with the bird bath. I have noticed however a distinct lack of small birds, maybe one Willy Wag tail.  Hardly surprising when there is no understory or small bushy shrubs around to hide in.  My house has established natives which are large open types, of which I have yet to define if they are local native or just native, or even what they are. Melaleuca is one though.  Many of these have been cut off at 1m height from the ground by the local cash only weekend tree lopper that grace the neighbourhoods.  All of this was the handy work work of the previous owners. My immediate neighbour has indicated to me the best tree is a felled one.  He has a big grass yard he spends time mowing it weekly for the pleasure of it all, a Mchedge fence, a couple dogs and a cat. So this is where I come in.  I’m no plant expert, gardner, or hard core tree hugger.  But I appreciate my natural surrounding and the animals that grace the world I live in.  Especially the Australian kind as its my home too. I plan to make my home, and eventually the park a bird haven as well supporting various wildlife especially lizards and frogs.   I have made mistakes already reading various forum pages, but I have also had wins.  I guess life is like this. Initially I cut out all the Mchedge yellowy things that have small orange seeds, purple flowers,  and spikes on the branches.  Also utilised that cash only tree lopper to bring down the three Chinese Elms in the yard. Then went on a drilling and round up mission to send them on their way good and proper. One mistake I have made was take out all the exotics to make way for native planting.  However it was hard to leave them there as that is where the new trees and shrubs are going. I started off planting Aus natives Grevillea and Callistemon which came from my local council nursery, so hopefully they are local.  But reading forum pages I think I’m now going to follow Woko's harder line of sticking to just local natives. Plunket Malle, Banksia Robour, and Native Frangipani are nice examplesand have made their way into the garden already.  I do have a dilemma however,  I simply love my Evodia, Swamp Bloodwood, and Golden Panda which have gone in for just the flowers and before I found the forum.  So time will tell how I feel if they stay or go. I utilised a shady part of the yard to make a frog garden using all the plants suggested by the Frog Society.  And have placed many grasses, Matt Rush, Common Rush, Kangaroo Grass around the place initially for them to shelter in, and ferns and plants in the garden like Native Ginger, Bat’s Wing Fern are a few.  I also discovered I have two small water dragons taking refuge in some gear we have not found a home for just yet, as we are still in the process of building a garage.  So this led to one of my stumpy cut off Callistemons in the way of the proposed garage being transplanted.  I made a rock pile next to the tree with more grasses and perhaps a good littering of old branches soon to come.  Would love to have a resident Blue Tongue somewhere, but its mostly for the water dragons which could be bearded dragons as well So it’s early days, but the ultimate goal is to first turn the house into a bird haven and little century for various reptiles and amphibian.  With a big breath and a leap of faith then perhaps use it as a show case to encourage the neighbourhood to giddy up on the park.  Hopefully the traffic on the bike path will produce some helpers when the time comes. I have to say reading the forum has increased my interest in birds immensely. How they interact with each other, what plants they prefere and so on.  Will get some images up soon I guess. All the very best with your long term project, Jason. Apart from the idea of using indigenous plants I particularly like the idea of a rock pile to provide shelter for lizards. Maybe for frogs, too. A few flat rocks near the pile will give lizards places for sunning themselves in warm weather. Those exotic plants you're mulling over will be OK for the time being provided they're non-invasive. Otherwise the natural environment will be much better off without them, I suggest. And let's hope your neighbour's cat doesn't inflict its presence anywhere within a million kilometers of your project while your other neighbours stand in awe of your increasing biodiversity. Log in or register to post comments Thanks Woko,  I'm pretty excited about it all. I have 5 garden beds in the back yard, some long and skinny, a triangular one, and some odd look squares. All separated by open space of perhaps 3 to 4 meters, and the main yard in the middle. The front yard is dedicated to garden.   All of these gardens have rock piles to some degree.  I was lucky the previous owner left/ had many many bush rocks, so I use them for garden edging and rock shelters. Actually both neighbours have cats.  I have herd the tinker of the bell in my yard only one night, but its enough to indicated someone is not being fair. I have a trap and experiance.  A zip tied note suggesting they just spent the night trapped and got away using all thier nine lives, it would be good to keep me in at night or I may never come home again should work.  If it doesnt work than I see it one for nature.  They will know who it is, so hopefully some mutual respect will be recognised.  Odly enough I don't mind cats, just not out side roaming, and particularly at night. I also have a fully fenced yard. We are replacing a large proportion with a matal one, and using the old wooden fence to sharpen up the remaining wooden. I will endeavour to make it toad proof if possible, this however restricts movement of animals I'd prefere, see how I go.  It should also give cats a hurdle I hope.  Shrubs will be planted all around the park side of the fence, for birds, for grafitie deterent, and for athetics. The down side it becomes a good hiding place for cats.  They are a formidible serious conern to birds and lizards the ol cat.  I have already found the tufts of feathers from a cat bird kill on the footpath.  I guess humans are also a serious formidable concen as well. Well its 6am and the Kookas are stiring.  Might be time for a coffee and a spot on a milk create to watch my little part of the world wake up. Ipswich Shire Eastern flanks Here is something intereting, well for me anyway.  All plants were planted late January, so 4 months growth.  All same water and similar position. Seems I cant get the discription to go with the picks. Top is Plunket Malle, local native andeasily trebbiled maybe more it's size. Second is Swamp Bloodwood from Nth Qld.  Maybe 6 inches. Third Golden Penda native to Nth Qld, maybe doubled. Fourth Swamp Banksia, local native to within 50km, put on 1/3 I just love your note tied around the neck of the cat! What a creative idea! Unfortunately, I doubt that your wooden fence will be a deterrent for any cats. Looks like you've had a good growing season. Yes we have had our fair share of rain over summer, and just a few weeks ago some incredible amount in a day. The creek behind me rose higher than the 2011 floods apparently. I feel the pics are real evidence that growth rates related to plants local to my area is far quicker than just Australian natives.  Which means one could establish a garden much quicker using locals.  Kind of like fast tracked developement for bird housing.   I have you woko for educating me on this, thank you. One has to be diligent though, I see reading through Brisbane City Council's info on local natives the Golden Panda is listed.  They like to plant them as well as Buckinghamia Celsissmia (ivery curl) a lot.  But neither are local, and have heard the Ivery Curl is not even native to Aus. I'll probably get most my plants from the now defunct Greening Australia nursery.  It has taken a beating last time I was there, and a lot of its tube stock were pot bound. But a dedicated bunch of folk are getting it in order again.  Nothing like coming home with 60 or 70 tube stock on a Saturday morning, my wife thinks I'm odd and cant see the excitement of it at all. Ipswich Shire Eastern flanks That's a great story, it's lovely to see someone getting a passion for natives - I certainly share that passion and grow a lot of my own stuff both for myself and for sale. While any increase of cover and native vegetation should be good in providing for birds, I think isolated suburban properties are going to struggle to bring back small birds. You probably have an advantage being near a creek, but connectivity and protection from Noisy Miners and other aggressive species will probably be the key. I am in the same boat, trying to plant local natives with a bit of density to provide for small birds, but they just aren't in the area generally, except if you go 500m or so to Toohey Forest. If you can encourage your neighbours to plant natives and some areas of density (and keep their cats inside...) that may help. The "McHedge" you mentioned (purple flowers, orange berries) sounds like Duranta (or Sheena's Gold), which is one of those boring things everyone was planting here 15-20 years ago, like Mock Orange (Murraya paniculata). Well done on choosing something else! Golden penda (Xanthostemon chrysanthus) and Buckinghamia are both endemic to NE Qld, north of Townsville, but are commonly planted as street trees in Brissie. Personally, I don't think they'd be a big issue to plant here, but I applaud your commitment to endemic natives. If you're interested in native plants there are a number of community nurseries around the Brisbane area that can provide locally endemic plants. These will often be targeted at revegetation, and hence provide a limited range of common species. These include: Paten Park Nursery (former Greening Aus nursery), is one of the biggest. They are lifting their propagation rates (and hopefully species range) back to that of GA at it's peak. http://www.thegapnativenursery.org.au/ SOWN (next to Paten Park provides free plants to members for membership of $10 I think) http://www.saveourwaterwaysnow.com.au/01_cms/details.asp?ID=59 B4C nursery at Carindale has a smaller range but is also good http://www.bulimbacreek.org.au/native-plant-nursery/4542522736 Moggill Creek Catchment has a nursery giving away free plants to members ( http://www.moggillcreek.org/the-nursery ) Kumbartcho on the northside - Albany creek? I'm not too sure what there is out Ipswich way. I am a member of the Society for Growing Australian Plants (now Native Plants qld) and we have regular plant sales - 3 to 4 a year - where you can often get a wide range from classic flowering plants like Grevilleas and Callistemons through to locally endemic species, bush tucker plants and a wide range of rainforest trees. The next major sale is our spring flower show at Mt Coottha August 15-16. Details can be found athttp://www.sgapqld.org.au Anyway, that's more than enough info for an unsolicited reply, but I hope it's useful. Enjoy the birds and the gardening Jason. Hi again, Jason. That's an interesting observation you  make about the superior growth rate of local plant species. However, I suspect that this might apply on an average basis. There might be fast-growing non local species which would grow really quickly if conditions (e.g., rainfall in a particular season) closely approximated conditions in their native localities. Nevertheless, it seems rational that a species in conditions to which it has adapted over millions of years would have an overall advantage compared with a non local species. It certainly pays to do your homework on whether something is local or non local, native or non native. An extreme case is the bunches of Proteas often labelled "natives" in florist shops. Check the distribution maps if you're unsure of a species' origin. Even then the issue of provenance comes into play because a species with a broad distribution may thrive better & be better suited ecologically if its seed comes from the location or as close as possible to the location into which it's being planted. This may sound rather technical but it's important if we're trying to establish the conditions which once existed for our birds & other animals. However, the knowledge on this is still being gathered & uncovered so it's important not to beat ourselves over the head if we make mistakes. We can only do our best based on the information available. Far better, I believe, to be establishing indigenous habitats as best we can rather than knocking them down. By the way, if you have any naturally occuring vegetation nearby or even on your own patch you could try some minimum disturbance bush care to enable local plants to regenerate. This applies particularly to native grasses & smaller native plants. Timmo, by the time I finish my shed, fences, and other bits and bobs enough so the garden wont get trashed, I think August might just be the right time.  Plus just in time for Spring too, so its a great dead line to go for.  Thanks for the heads up. You better tell me your store so I can say gday. I find myself checking distribution of plants on the SGAP web sight, but would be great to go to a trusted place and bring home a ute full of local tubestock to get it all going.  I am aware of SOWN nursery and was thinking of using them for the creek project if and when. And have used a Ipswich based SGAP member already.  I just cant fathom or could ever afford to use a main a stream nursery. At $10 to $15 a plant when you need hundreds, just takes the fun or affordabilty from gardning.  But I guess you are very aware of this, so thanks for the suggestd others. I'm about 1km from Greenbank military reserve.  My neighbourhood has a few bushy corrodores that follow the creeks. Google maps paints a sad story but on the ground its a reasonabily native treed and bushy part of the world.  As for the neighbours, well who knows. The knock on effect often happens, I see it a fair bit in my trade. Woko, you are a wealth of info and new bench marks. Could also be seen as a pain, but only joking.  You remind me a bit of my old english teacher, always had something for me to get my head around. I will take my lad for a bush walk and see what I find in the older corrodors we have near by.  Trouble is on the large, thay are just trees to me.  Perhaps I better start looking for a few good books.  All suggestions welcomeed. And by all. The minimum disturbance gardning you mention, I know at my old place if I stopped mowing the far back yard 50 wattles would pop up. So I stopped mowing.  I think those days have passed for where I am now.  My space is too encroaching, most of my existing garden beds have been raised and made, the pool has a sizable concrete apron around it.  Plus the wife won't cope with me letting the grass part of the back yeard grow to 1 foot, to see what seedling emerges.  Kids will find it interesting though.  The front yard has bob cats, cement trucks, steel deliveries, loads of dirt, fences, and whetever else arrives. Something may happen but also likely to get squashed the moment it does.  My front yard is an embarrisement at the moment. Looks like you have your hands full for the time being, jason. No sense in wearing your self out. Yes it does seem a bit like that, but better to be bust than not.  Do you mind me asking are you in plants as a profession, or is your knowledge come about from interest.  It's clear to see you have a deep ubderstanding and passion for nature and how it all fits together.  Hope I didnt offen with my poor humour. No worries at all, jason. What little I know about plants comes largely from my interest although I did obtain an Advanced Certificate in Natural Resources Management from the local TAFE college many years ago. I do have a range of books on plants. Originally, I became interested in birds following a trip to Queensland last century. I then became aware of the horrific damage humans were/are doing to the environment & simultaneously began to see the relationships between birds & plants. So I thought I'd do my best to re-establish some habitat. Ms Woko & I were lucky enough to be able to buy a block of degraded land which we revegetated for some years before doing minimum disturbance bush care to restore native grasses & other understorey species. The bush care continues. While all this was going on I was working for a government department which was as functional as a severely injured goat so our enterprise kept my mind on more savoury things. Well Woko if you know a little, I recon you have a better understanding than many.  And your depth of understanding filters through various threads on this forum. Well from what I have read.  There are a few very knolagable people here which makes this place a good place to be I think. I applor you for your continual push to plant local species. I certinally can see the value in it, even if I have to drop some plants I like. Ok need some direction here Hope you are around Timmo,  Would it be fair to say the plant sale list from the Native Plants (Qld) sale, would be similar to the up coming Botanic gardens sale. I have been cross referencing sale plants to the Australian Native Plants Society net listing and very little matches.  I have used the ANPS site as they have a map of distribution along with description of habitat.  I found a site Atlas of Living Australia to cross match which uses ANPS description mostly, but often has a different distribution map.  Thirdly I use a Google search for look and description.  Its pretty slow.  I’m not saying sale plants should be local, but can you offer any tips on whittling down what possibly could be. Also, I’ve been looking at trying to pick winter, spring, and summer flowering plants to spread the available food over the year.  I’m thinking dependent of size, I should try for 2 to 4 of each plant.  Grasses are by the dozen of course.  Is that the basics? To me it makes more sense for the birds, but limits what maybe seen as fantastical visual garden oozing variety.  I’m sure as long as what’s in there flowers and looks heathy, than I’ll be happy even if it’s only 5 species. The issue of compost in the soil is an interesting one. I strongly suspect there's an unconscious, even conscious, view at large in Australia that compost is good for the soil & good for plants. That may well be the case for many plants, exotics particularly, but from what I've observed & read the level & type of compost is important when considering soil conditions for Australian natives. In WA where, generally, the most beautiful of Australia's vegetation is found the soils on which the beatiful flowering plants grow is quite sandy & relatively low in nutrients. That flies in the face of the general notion that if you pour in the compost you'll get great plants. If I was revegetating a suburban block which had previously harboured exotics I'd be inclined to clear the exotics & then wait for a year or two for the high levels of nutrients to be leached from the soil before planting indigenous vegetation. It would undoubtedly upset any exotic-loving neighbours to see a barren "wasteland" for a couple of years but I would hope that my strategy would be for the environment, not my neighbours. The other consideration is that, having adapted to Australia's low phosphorous soils, many Australian natives dislike phosphorous & many of the fertilizers & composts used are high in phosphorous to suit exotics. This is all probably getting a little away from your point about leaf litter, Hyperbirds, but I think it depends on what leaf litter. The litter from many Eucalypts contains toxins which suppress the germination of &, therefore, competition from, new Eucalypts. The toxins also suppress weeds in gardens where there are weeds. The litter breaks down very slowly so that the soil contains slow-release nutrients, an environment more suited to many Australian plants than to exotics. Litter from exotics decomposes faster providing a quick nutrient hit to the soil which would disadvantage many natives. So, I believe it's important to consider carefully which natives you're growing where before thinking about nutrient levels. Generally, however, I avoid compost & fertilizers (as well as water unless the season has been extremely dry & I judge that recent plantings are in danger of dying) like the plague. Looks like you're proceeding in leaps & bounds, Jason. Very satisfying, I imagine, particularly when you can shed development into the bargain! Jason, it's difficult for most people, including myself, to get rid of plants that we're fond of. A bit like discarding a favourite, but holey, jacket. The other consideration is the circumstances in which you're living. E.g., I live in a high fire danger area where, to the north of us, there have been several bushfires lit by arsonists. So I'm conscious of the need to protect Ms Woko & our house (not to mention myself). To do this I've planted a row of Old Man Saltbush Atriplex nummulariaon the north western side of our house as a relatively tall, non-invasive, fire-resistant screen. There's also a number of indigenous, fire-resistant groundcovers which have regenerated aided by minimum disturbance bushcare. So I've consciously &, I hope, carefully compromised on the total indigenous vegetation principle. But a little thought & planning can give our indigenous landscapes a big boost. jason wrote: Hey I'm looking for some design input if you don't mind. I have a few ideas but it's usually good to get others. I'm looking at a max plant  height of 4 meters as the garden is 600mm aready above house level, and power, phone, and the neighbours winter sunlight has to be considered.   The sun comes from top of page in summer. There will be a 5ft (1200mm) high steel fence on the top of page as the front boundry. We have a bedroom window in the lower right of page, so it would be nice to see possible action from there.  The window is also a bit lower than the garden, so probably look more at trunks and lower branches than the tops of plants. Initally I thought some 3-4m shrubs down the right of page, 2-3m along the rock wall in the lower of page; then infront of these plants  have 1m shrubs.  Grasses along the rock wall, and more grasses around the rock pile and small bush rocks.  Just struggling what to put in the middle.  I am have been thinking a hollow log with ground cover, grasses, more little shrubs. What would you do.  Thanks Hmm... I'd first decide what I want to attract to the garden then go from there. Without an actual picture of your backyard, Jason, it is a bit difficult to imagine things but I'll do my best with what you've given us to go by. Starting with the rock pile retaining wall by the bottom right window, I'd go with a spot for lizards to sunbake. If you don't have any rocks larger than 30cm in size to use, find broken concrete slabs, or anything really that absorbs heat. Ceramic pots (broken) are also good for this purpose too. Now considering the sun comes from the top of the page, I'd plant shrubs just to the right and behind the laid out concrete slabs for the lizards to sunbake on, so the rocks don't overheat and the lizards can stay there longer sunbaking. I'd create a sort of open sunny spot along probably half that retaining wall area just for lizards, with plants with big leaves (perhaps ferns?) or tall (say a few 1-2 metre erect shrubs); something lizards can retreat into if they overheat. I'd make the area a combination of hot and dry and cool and moist. Hot and dry in one area, cool and moist in the other. Going backward away from the rockwall and bottom right side window, I'd start planting things in the middle that create dappled light, especially in winter. But that's just me. I'd actually create, in the large open area, winding dirt paths that lead to a garden seat or picnic table, or something, surrounded by (in built up garden beds either sides of the dirt paths) local natives of various sizes. Kind of like creating a maze sort of thing. You could have all kinds of plants in those beds, from bottlebrushes, banksias, native lillies, to kangaroo grass. It'd create habitats for small birds, open areas for even more lizards, to even frogs residing there. You could add rocks, logs, statues, etc, or even add more (but buried) mini water features like you done for your son - which is brilliant by the way! But as I said, it depends upon what you want to attract to your garden. The most important thing you want to attract to your garden are bees and insects - to pollinate everything and to build up a decent insect population which will attract insect eating birds. So, initially, you'd want to attract bees using flowers that may not be native locals, just to get the bees interested in your garden and to keep them coming back. I'd also take note of the colour of local native flowers in the area, or what coloured flowers the birds and bees are attracted to in your area. (In my area, red grevillea flowers, red coloured gum tree flowers, and yellow flowers from wattles and other flowers are the colours that attract the most bird and bee activity.) Also, on your rock wall, considering it has a height of 600mm, you could easily grow prostrate plants that hang over and down the wall. Prostrate grevilleas are good for this, especially red flowering ones (if red is a dominant bird/bee attractor colour in your area), as you'll attract nectar loving birds to it once it flowers. Now here's a thing to take into consideration - ANTS.  A lot of ants come inside looking for food. Why? Because there's no food for them outside where they live. The solution: plant several bushes that produce a LOT of nectar, escpecially in winter, and the ants will swarm to it. They'll choose the nectar over your house every time. And if you attract the insects into your soil to help break down the soil, the ants will eat those insects too. Ants are carnivores who also happen to like nectar if nothing else is available. I'm at Tenterfield, NSW. (Formerly known as "Hyperbirds".)

https://www.birdsinbackyards.net/comment/105926

Publications - Global Disability Innovation Hub The GDI Hub brings together academic excellence, innovative practice and co-creation; harnessing the power of technology for good. Type Journal Paper Themes Assistive & Accessible Technology Seeking information about assistive technology: Exploring current practices, challenges, and the need for smarter systems Jamie Danemayer,Cathy Holloway,Youngjun Cho, Nadia Berthouze, Aneesha Singh, William Bhot, Ollie Dixon, Marko Grobelnik, John Shawe-Taylor Paper highlights: Assistive technology (AT) information networks are insular among stakeholder groups, causing unequal access to information. Participants often cited fragmented international marketplaces as a barrier and valued info-sharing across industries. Current searches produce biased results in marketplaces influenced by commercial interests and high-income contexts. Smart features could facilitate searching, update centralised data sources, and disseminate information more inclusively. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies; 2023 Abstract Seeking information about assistive technology: Exploring current practices, challenges, and the need for smarter systems Ninety percent of the 1.2 billion people who need assistive technology (AT) do not have access. Information seeking practices directly impact the ability of AT producers, procurers, and providers (AT professionals) to match a user's needs with appropriate AT, yet the AT marketplace is interdisciplinary and fragmented, complicating information seeking. We explored common limitations experienced by AT professionals when searching information to develop solutions for a diversity of users with multi-faceted needs. Through Template Analysis of 22 expert interviews, we find current search engines do not yield the necessary information, or appropriately tailor search results, impacting individuals’ awareness of products and subsequently their availability and the overall effectiveness of AT provision. We present value-based design implications to improve functionality of future AT-information seeking platforms, through incorporating smarter systems to support decision-making and need-matching whilst ensuring ethical standards for disability fairness remain. Seeking information about assistive technology: Exploring current practices, challenges, and the need for smarter systems Type Journal Paper Themes Assistive & Accessible Technology Evaluating the use of a thermoplastic socket in Kenya: A pilot study Giulia Barbareschi, Wesley Teerlink, Josepg Gakunga Njuguna, Purity Musungu, Mary Dama Kirino, andCatherine Holloway According to estimates from the World Health Organization, in 2010, there were more than 30 million people in need of prosthetic and orthotic devices across Africa, Asia, and Latin America. 1This number is likely to have grown significantly in the past decade, in line with trends recorded for the general need of assistive technology. 2For many people who undergo a lower limb amputation, access to an appropriate prosthesis is essential to restore functional mobility and ensure good quality of life. 3Ultimately, an appropriate lower-limb prosthesis (LLP) can enable people with amputation to fulfill their desired role in their family, work, and community life. 4 Prosthetic and Orthotics International; 2022 Abstract Evaluating the use of a thermoplastic socket in Kenya: A pilot study Background: Many people with amputations who live in low-resourced settings struggle to access the workshops where qualified prosthetists provide appropriate care. Novel technologies such as the thermoplastic Confidence Socket are emerging, which could help facilitate easier access to prosthetic services. Objectives: The objective of this study was to evaluate the satisfaction and the performance of transtibial prosthesis featuring the Confidence Socket. Study design: This is a longitudinal repeated-measures design study. Methods: A convenience sample of 26 participants who underwent transtibial amputation were fitted with the Confidence Socket. The performance of the socket was evaluated after a follow-up period between 1 month and 6 months using the L test of functional mobility and the amputee mobility predictor. Satisfaction with the prosthesis was measured using the Trinity Amputation and Prosthetic Experience Scales and purposefully designed 7-point Likert scales. Results: Ten of the 26 participants returned for follow-up. Perceived activity restriction and L test times improved significantly at follow-up, but the self-reported satisfaction with the Confidence Socket was lower at follow-up compared with that after fitting. Conclusions: The Amparo Confidence Socket represents a potentially viable alternative to improve access to appropriate prosthesis in Kenya, but some aspects of users’ self-reported satisfaction should be further investigated. Barbareschi G, Teerlink W, Njuguna JG, Musungu P, Kirino MD, Holloway C. Evaluating the use of a thermoplastic socket in Kenya: A pilot study. Prosthet Orthot Int. 2022 Oct 1;46(5):532-537. doi: 10.1097/PXR.0000000000000130. Epub 2022 Mar 25. PMID: 35333813; PMCID: PMC9554758. Type Journal Paper Themes Assistive & Accessible Technology Responding to the coronavirus disease-2019 pandemic with innovative data use: The role of data challenges Jamie Danemayer, Andrew Young, Siobhan Green, Lydia Ezenwa, Michael Klein This study synthesizes learnings from three distinct datasets: innovator applications to the COVIDaction data challenges, surveys from organizers from similarly-aimed data challenges, and a focus group discussion with professionals who work with COVID-19 data. Thematic and topic analyses were used to analyze these datasets with the aim to identify gaps and barriers to effective data use in responding to the pandemic. Data & Policy; 2023 Abstract Responding to the coronavirus disease-2019 pandemic with innovative data use: The role of data challenges Innovative, responsible data use is a critical need in the global response to the coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Yet potentially impactful data are often unavailable to those who could utilize it, particularly in data-poor settings, posing a serious barrier to effective pandemic mitigation. Data challenges, a public call-to-action for innovative data use projects, can identify and address these specific barriers. To understand gaps and progress relevant to effective data use in this context, this study thematically analyses three sets of qualitative data focused on/based in low/middle-income countries: (a) a survey of innovators responding to a data challenge, (b) a survey of organizers of data challenges, and (c) a focus group discussion with professionals using COVID-19 data for evidence-based decision-making. Data quality and accessibility and human resources/institutional capacity were frequently reported limitations to effective data use among innovators. New fit-for-purpose tools and the expansion of partnerships were the most frequently noted areas of progress. Discussion participants identified building capacity for external/national actors to understand the needs of local communities can address a lack of partnerships while de-siloing information. A synthesis of themes demonstrated that gaps, progress, and needs commonly identified by these groups are relevant beyond COVID-19, highlighting the importance of a healthy data ecosystem to address emerging threats. This is supported by data holders prioritizing the availability and accessibility of their data without causing harm; funders and policymakers committed to integrating innovations with existing physical, data, and policy infrastructure; and innovators designing sustainable, multi-use solutions based on principles of good data governance. Danemayer, J., Young, A., Green, S., Ezenwa, L., & Klein, M. (2023). Responding to the coronavirus disease-2019 pandemic with innovative data use: The role of data challenges. Data & Policy, 5, E11. doi:10.1017/dap.2023.6 Type Editorial Themes Culture and Participation COVID-19 as social disability: the opportunity of social empathy for empowerment Ikenna D Ebueny, Emma M Smith,Catherine Holloway, Rune Jensen, Lucía D'Arino, Malcolm MacLachlan Social empathy is ‘the ability to more deeply understand people by perceiving or experiencing their life situations and as a result gain insight into structural inequalities and disparities’. Social empathy comprises three elements: individual empathy, contextual understanding and social responsibility. COVID-19 has created a population-wide experience of exclusion that is only usually experienced by subgroups of the general population. Notably, persons with disability, in their everyday lives, commonly experience many of the phenomena that have only recently been experienced by members of the general population. COVID-19 has conferred new experiential knowledgeon all of us. We have a rare opportunity to understand and better the lives of persons with disabilities for whom some aspects of the COVID- 19 experience are enduring. This allows us greater understanding of the importance of implementing in full a social and human rights model of disability, as outlined in the UNCRPD. BMJ Global Health; 2020 Abstract COVID-19 as social disability: the opportunity of social empathy for empowerment COVID-19 has conferred new experiential knowledge on society and a rare opportunity to better understand the social model of disability and to improve the lives of persons with disabilities. The COVID-19 experience may offer contextual knowledge of the prepandemic lives of persons with disabilities and foster greater social awareness, responsibility and opportunities for change towards a more inclusive society. Information, family and social relationships, health protection and healthcare, education, transport and employment should be accessible for all groups of the population. The means must be developed and deployed to ensure equity – the deployment of resources so that people with different types of needs have the same opportunities for living good lives in inclusive communities. We have learnt from COVID-19 that inclusive healthcare and universal access should be the new normal, that its provision as a social good is both unifying and empowering for society as a whole. Ebuenyi ID, Smith EM, Holloway C , et alCOVID-19 as social disability: the opportunity of social empathy for empowerment BMJ Global Health2020;5:e003039. Type Editorial Themes Assistive & Accessible Technology Research Group Social Justice Developing inclusive and resilient systems: COVID-19 and assistive technology Emma M. Smith, Malcolm MacLachlan, Ikenna D. Ebuenyi,Catherine Holloway&Victoria Austin While the inadequacies of our existing assistive technology systems, policies, and services have been highlighted by the acute and rapidly changing nature of the COVID-19 pandemic, these failures are also present and important during non-crisis times. Each of these actions, taken together, will not only address needs for more robust and resilient systems for future crises, but also the day-to-day needs of all assistive technology users. We have a responsibility as a global community, and within our respective countries, to address these inadequacies now to ensure an inclusive future. Disability & Society; 2020 Abstract Assistive technology is a critical component of maintaining health, wellbeing, and the realization of rights for persons with disabilities. Assistive technologies, and their associated services, are also paramount to ensuring individuals with functional limitations have access to important health and social service information, particularly during a pandemic where they may be at higher risk than the general population. Social isolation and physical distancing have further marginalized many within this population. We have an opportunity to learn from the COVID-19response to develop more inclusive and resilient systems that will serve people with disabilities more effectively in the future. In this Current Issues piece, we present a starting point for discussion, based on our experiences working to promote access to assistive technologies through inclusive and sustainable systems and policies. Emma M. Smith, Malcolm MacLachlan, Ikenna D. Ebuenyi, Catherine Holloway & Victoria Austin (2021) Developing inclusive and resilient systems: COVID-19 and assistive technology, Disability & Society, 36:1, 151-154, DOI:10.1080/09687599.2020.1829558 Type Journal Paper Themes Assistive & Accessible Technology Assistive Technology Use and Provision During COVID19: Results From a Rapid Global Survey Emma M Smith, Maria Luisa Toro Hernandez, Ikenna D Ebuenyi, Elena V Syurina,Giulia Barbareschi, Krista L Best,Jamie Danemayer,Ben Oldfrey, Nuha Ibrahim,Catherine Holloway, Malcolm MacLachlan The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has impacted all segments of society, but it has posed particular challenges for the inclusion of persons with disabilities, those with chronic illness and older people regarding their participation in daily life. These groups often benefit from assistive technology (AT) and so it is important to understand how use of AT may be affected by or may help to mitigate the impacts of COVID-19.Objective:The objectives of this study were to explore the how AT use and provision have been affected during the initial stages of the COVID-19 pandemic, and how AT policies and systems may be made more resilient based on lessons learned during this global crisis. International Journal of Health Policy and Management; 2020 Abstract Assistive Technology Use and Provision During COVID19: Results From a Rapid Global Survey Abstract Background:The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has impacted all segments of society, but it has posed particular challenges for the inclusion of persons with disabilities, those with chronic illness and older people regarding their participation in daily life. These groups often benefit from assistive technology (AT) and so it is important to understand how use of AT may be affected by or may help to mitigate the impacts of COVID-19.Objective:The objectives of this study were to explore the how AT use and provision have been affected during the initial stages of the COVID-19 pandemic, and how AT policies and systems may be made more resilient based on lessons learned during this global crisis. Methods:This study was a rapid, international online qualitative survey in the 6 United Nations (UN) languages (English, French, Spanish, Russian, Arabic, Mandarin Chinese) facilitated by extant World Health Organization (WHO) and International Disability Alliance networks. Themes and subthemes of the qualitative responses were identified using Braun and Clarke's 6-phase analysis. Results:Four primary themes were identified in in the data: Disruption of Services, Insufficient Emergency Preparedness, Limitations in Existing Technology, and Inadequate Policies and Systems. Subthemes were identified within each theme, including subthemes related to developing resilience in AT systems, based on learning from the pandemic. Conclusion:COVID-19 has disrupted the delivery of AT services, primarily due to infection control measures resulting in lack of provider availability and diminished one-to-one services. This study identified a need for stronger user-centred development of funding policies and infrastructures that are more sustainable and resilient, best practices for remote service delivery, robust and accessible tools and systems, and increased capacity of clients, caregivers, and clinicians to respond to pandemic and other crisis situations. Assistive Technology Use and Provision During COVID19: Results From a Rapid Global Survey Smith EM, Toro Hernandez ML, Ebuenyi ID, Syurina EV, Barbareschi G, Best KL, Danemayer J, Oldfrey B, Ibrahim N, Holloway C, MacLachlan M. Assistive Technology Use and Provision During COVID-19: Results From a Rapid Global Survey. Int J Health Policy Manag. 2022 Jun 1;11(6):747-756. doi: 10.34172/ijhpm.2020.210. PMID: 33201656;

https://www.disabilityinnovation.com/publications?order=author&type=journal-paper+phd+toolkit+editorial+article

Immunization with a Myelin-Derived Antigen Activates the Brain's Choroid Plexus for Recruitment of Immunoregulatory Cells to the CNS and Attenuates Disease Progression in a Mouse Model of ALS | Journal of Neuroscience Articles, Neurobiology of Disease Immunization with a Myelin-Derived Antigen Activates the Brain's Choroid Plexus for Recruitment of Immunoregulatory Cells to the CNS and Attenuates Disease Progression in a Mouse Model of ALS Abstract Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a devastating fatal motor neuron disease, for which there is currently no cure or effective treatment. In this disease, local neuroinflammation develops along the disease course and contributes to its rapid progression. In several models of CNS pathologies, circulating immune cells were shown to display an indispensable role in the resolution of the neuroinflammatory response. The recruitment of such cells to the CNS involves activation of the choroid plexus (CP) of the brain for leukocyte trafficking, through a mechanism that requires IFN-γ signaling. Here, we found that in the mutant SOD1 G93A(mSOD1) mouse model of ALS, the CP does not support leukocyte trafficking during disease progression, due to a local reduction in IFN-γ levels. Therapeutic immunization of mSOD1 mice with a myelin-derived peptide led to CP activation, and was followed by the accumulation of immunoregulatory cells, including IL-10-producing monocyte-derived macrophages and Foxp3 +regulatory T cells, and elevation of the neurotrophic factors IGF-1 and GDNF in the diseased spinal cord parenchyma. The immunization resulted in the attenuation of disease progression and an increased life expectancy of the mSOD1 mice. Collectively, our results demonstrate that recruitment of immunoregulatory cells to the diseased spinal cord in ALS, needed for fighting off the pathology, can be enhanced by transiently boosting peripheral immunity to myelin antigens. autoimmunity choroid plexus neurodegeneration T cells Introduction Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a devastating motor neuron disease, which is characterized by the selective death of motor neurons in the spinal cord. Similar to other neurodegenerative diseases and acute CNS insults, ALS pathology is associated with a local innate inflammatory response, in which the resident microglia become chronically activated and contribute to disease progression, rather than to its resolution (Nguyen et al., 2002;Beers et al., 2006;Hanisch and Kettenmann, 2007;Frank-Cannon et al., 2009;Appel et al., 2010). Accumulated data have shown that circulating immune cells, including monocyte-derived macrophages (mo-MΦs) and autoimmune CD4 +T cells, are active players in recovery from acute CNS injuries (Rapalino et al., 1998;Moalem et al., 1999;Hauben et al., 2000;Hofstetter et al., 2003;Olsson et al., 2003;Hendrix and Nitsch, 2007;Shechter et al., 2009). Specifically, the beneficial autoimmune response that supports CNS repair involves both CD4 +effector and regulatory T cell (Treg) populations (Kipnis et al., 2002;Raposo et al., 2014;Walsh et al., 2014), and is amenable to boosting by passive or active immunization with a myelin-derived peptide (Moalem et al., 1999;Hauben et al., 2000;Shechter et al., 2009). In mutant SOD1 G93A(mSOD1) mice, an animal model of ALS, circulating immune cells were shown to play a role in fighting chronic neuroinflammation; life expectancy is shorter and disease emerges earlier in mSOD1 mice lacking T cells (Beers et al., 2008;Chiu et al., 2008). Likewise, the increased survival of these mice is associated with the enhanced infiltration of CD4 +T cells to the spinal cord (Beers et al., 2008;Finkelstein et al., 2011). Boosting CD4 +T-cell levels, including those of effector T cells and Tregs, was shown to delay disease progression (Banerjee et al., 2008;Beers et al., 2011;Zhao et al., 2012). Our group recently showed that the recruitment of inflammation-resolving mo-MΦs and T cells to the CNS following spinal cord injury involves selective leukocyte entry through the choroid plexus (CP) of the brain to the CNS (Kunis et al., 2013;Shechter et al., 2013;Raposo et al., 2014). The activation of the CP for such leukocyte entry was shown to be IFN-γ dependent (Kunis et al., 2013) and was suggested to involve CNS-specific T cells, the levels of which are elevated at the CP following immunization with CNS-related antigens (Baruch et al., 2013); such activation can augment the recruitment of inflammation-resolving mo-MΦs to the CNS parenchyma following acute spinal cord injury (Shechter et al., 2009). Here, we found that in mSOD1 mice the CP is not spontaneously activated along with disease progression to enable leukocyte trafficking. We demonstrated that this limitation is associated with reduced levels of IFN-γ in this compartment, and functionally linked it to reduced leukocyte numbers in the CSF and limited recruitment of immunoregulatory cells to the spinal cord parenchyma. Evoking a transient immune response to a myelin-derived peptide activated the CP to support leukocyte recruitment to the CNS, and led to the accumulation of IL-10-producing mo-MΦs and Tregs in the spinal cord ventral horn, and to a significant increase in life expectancy of the mSOD1 mice. Materials and Methods Animals. Adult male and female wild-type (WT), mSOD1, CX 3CR1 GFP/+(Jung et al., 2000), and EGFP transgenic mice (Okabe et al., 1997) on a C57BL/6J background were supplied by The Jackson Laboratory, Harlan Biotech, and the Animal Breeding Center of the Weizmann Institute of Science. All experiments conformed to the regulations formulated by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of the Weizmann Institute of Science. Preparation of bone marrow chimeras. Bone marrow (BM) chimeras were prepared by subjecting recipient WT or mSOD1 mice to lethal whole-body γ-irradiation (950 rad) while shielding the head. The mice were then reconstituted with 5 × 10 6BM cells of CX 3CR1 GFP/+donor mice. Using this method, 70% chimerism is achieved. To attain full chimerism (∼99%), mice were subjected to a split-dose irradiation, with sublethal whole-body γ-irradiation (300 rad) without head shielding, 3 d before the lethal (950 rad) irradiation. Chimeric mice were used 6–10 weeks after BM transplantation. Grip strength test. Forelimb grip strength was measured using a grip strength meter (TSE Systems). The mice were allowed to hold a bar with their forelimbs and then gently pulled backward, and the maximum strength of the grip before release was recorded. For each mouse, the maximal grip strength result of three trials was used for analysis. Active immunizations and evaluation of clinical signs of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. For immunizations, 200 μg of either MOG 35-55or OVA 323–339peptide (GL Biochem Ltd.) was emulsified in incomplete Freund's adjuvant containing 0.5 mg/ml Mycobacterium tuberculosis(strain H37Ra; Difco), and 200 μl was injected subcutaneously into the mice. Clinical signs were evaluated in a blinded fashion by at least two investigators and recorded daily (0, healthy; 1, tail paralysis; 2, ataxia and/or paresis of hind limbs; 3, paralysis of hind limbs and/or paresis of forelimbs; 4, tetraparalysis; 5, moribund state or death). CSF collection. CSF was collected by the cisterna magna puncture technique. In brief, mice were anesthetized and placed in a stereotactic instrument so that the head formed a 135° angle with the body. A sagittal incision of the skin was made inferior to the occiput, the subcutaneous tissue and muscle were separated, and a capillary was inserted into the cisterna magna through the dura mater lateral to the arteria dorsalis spinalis. Approximately 15 μl of CSF could be aspirated from an individual mouse. The collected CSF was taken for analysis by flow cytometry. Adoptive transfer of isolated monocytes. CD115 +monocytes were isolated as previously reported (Shechter et al., 2009). Briefly, BM cells were harvested from the femur and tibia of naive GFP +mice, and enriched for mononuclear cells on a Ficoll density gradient. The CD115 +BM monocyte population was magnetically separated using biotinylated anti-CD115 antibodies (eBioscience) and streptavidin-conjugated MACS beads (Miltenyi Biotec) according to the protocols of the manufacturer. Monocyte purity was routinely checked by flow cytometry based on CD115 reactivity (purity of 85–90% was routinely observed). For injection, mice were anesthetized and placed in a stereotactic instrument so that the head formed a 135° angle with the body. A sagittal incision of the skin was made inferior to the occiput, the subcutaneous tissue and muscle were separated, and 1 × 10 6cells in 10 μl of growth factor reduced Matrigel (BD Bioscience) were injected into the fourth ventricle through the dura mater of the cisterna magna. Primary culture of choroid plexus cells. After intracardial perfusion with PBS, the CPs of either WT or mSOD1 mice were removed under a dissecting microscope (Stemi DV4; Zeiss) in PBS into tubes containing 0.25% trypsin, and kept on ice. After all the CPs were collected, the tubes were shaken for 20 min at 37°C, and the tissue was dissociated by pipetting. The cell suspension was washed in culture medium for epithelial cells (DMEM/Ham's F12 mixture; Invitrogen) supplemented with 10% FCS (Sigma-Aldrich), 1 m m l-glutamine, 1 m msodium pyruvate, 100 U/ml penicillin, 100 mg/ml streptomycin, 5 μg/ml insulin, 20 μ mAra-C, 5 ng/ml sodium selenite, and 10 ng/ml EGF; and cultured (2.5 × 10 5cells/well) at 37°C, with 5% CO 2in 24-well plates (Corning) coated with poly- l-lysine (Sigma-Aldrich). After 24 h, the medium was changed, and the cells were either left untreated or were treated with the cytokines IFN-γ (100 ng/ml) or IL-4 (10 ng/ml) (Peprotech). RNA was isolated using the ZR RNA MicroPrep Kit (Zymo Research) according to the protocol of the manufacturer. RNA purification, cDNA synthesis, and real-time quantitative PCR. Total RNA from the choroid plexus was extracted using the ZR RNA MicroPrep kit (Zymo Research), and from the spinal cord using the RNeasy Mini Kit (Qiagen). mRNA (1 μg) was converted to cDNA using the High Capacity cDNA Reverse Transcription Kit (Applied Biosystems). The expression of specific mRNAs was assayed using fluorescence-based real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR). qPCR reactions were performed using the Power SYBR Green PCR Master Mix (Applied Biosystems). Quantification reactions were performed in triplicate for each sample using the standard curve method. Peptidylprolyl isomerase A (PPIA) was chosen as a reference gene based on its stability in the target tissue. The amplification cycles were 95°C for 5 s, 60°C for 20 s, and 72°C for 15 s. At the end of the assay, a melting curve was constructed to evaluate the specificity of the reaction. For some genes, the cDNA was preamplified for 14 PCR cycles with nonrandom PCR primers, thus increasing the sensitivity of the subsequent real-time PCR analysis (PreAmp Master Mix Kit; Applied Biosystems). For these genes, expression was determined using TaqMan Real-Time PCR, according to the instructions of the manufacturer (Applied Biosystems). All quantitative real-time PCR reactions were performed and analyzed using a 7500 Real-Time PCR System (Applied Biosystems). The following TaqMan probes were used: Mm02342430_g1 (ppia); Mm00446968_m1 (hprt); Mm00445260_m1 (il-4); Mm01168134_m1 (ifn-γ); and Mm00439614_m1 (il-10). In addition, the following primers were used: PPIA, forward, 5′-AGCATACAGGTCCTGGCATCTTGT-3′ and reverse 5′-CAAAGACCACATGCTTGCCATCCA-3′; intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1), forward 5′-AGATCACATTCACGGTGCTGGCTA-3′ and reverse 5′-AGCTTTGGGATGGTAGCTGGAAGA-3′; vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1), forward 5′-TGTGAAGGGATTAACGAGGCTGGA-3′ and reverse 5′-CCATGTTTCGGGCACATTTCCACA-3′; chemokine ligand 2 (CCL2), forward 5′-CATCCACGTGTTGGCTCA-3′ and reverse 5′-GATCATCTTGCTGGTGAATGAGT-3′; macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF), forward 5′-CCACATGATTGGGAATGGAC-3′ and reverse 5′-GTAGCAAACAGGATCATCCA-3′; fractalkine, forward 5′-ATGTGCGACAAGATGACCTCACGA-3′ and reverse 5′-TTTCTCCTTCGGGTCAGCACAGAA-3′; CCL5, forward 5′-GTGCTCCAATCTTGCAGTCGTGTT-3′ and reverse 5′-ACTTCTTCTCTGGGTTGGCACACA-3′; C-X-C ligand 9 (CXCL9), forward 5′-GAGTTCGAGGAACCCTAGTG-3′ and reverse 5′-AACTGTTTGAGGTCTTTGAGG-3′; CXCL10, forward 5′-AACTGCATCCATATCGATGAC-3′ and reverse 5′-GTGGCAATGATCTCAACAC-3′; CXCL12, forward 5′-CATCAGTGACGGTAAACCAG-3′ and reverse 5′- TTTCAGATGCTTGACGTTGG-3′; TGF-β1, forward 5′-TACCATGCCAACTTCTGTCTGGG-3′ and reverse 5′-TGTGTTGGTTGTAGAGGGCAAGG-3′; IGF-1, forward 5′-CCGGACCAGAGACCCTTTG-3′ and reverse 5′-CCTGTGGGCTTGTTGAAGTAAAA-3′; GDNF, forward 5′-AGATGAAGTTATGGGATGTCGT-3′ and reverse 5′-AGGCATATTGGAGTCACTGG-3; TNF-α, forward 5′-ACAAGGCTGCCCCGACTAT-3′ and reverse 5′- CTCCTGGTATGAAGTGGCAAATC-3′; and IL-1β, forward 5′-CCAAAAGATGAAGGGCTGCTT-3′ and reverse 5′- TGCTGCTGCGAGATTTGAAG-3′. Multiplex cytokine analysis system. CPs were isolated from the lateral, third, and fourth ventricles of each mouse, and pooled in groups of three, due to the limited amount of protein extracted from a single CP. Spinal cord samples were used from individual mice. The excised tissues were homogenized in PBS containing protease inhibitors (1:100; P8340; Sigma-Aldrich). Four freeze–thaw cycles (3 min each) were performed to break the cell membranes. Homogenates were then centrifuged for 10 min at 500 × g, and the total protein amount in each supernatant was determined by Bradford reagent. Frozen supernatants were assayed in duplicate using a Multiplex bead-based Luminex assay (MILLIPLEX Mouse Cytokine/Chemokine Panel; Millipore), performed by outsourcing (American Medical Laboratories) according to the instructions of the manufacturer. The results are expressed as picograms of protein per milligram of total tissue protein. Histology. After perfusion of the mice with PBS, the spinal cords were excised and fixed in 2.5% paraformaldehyde (PFA) for 48 h, and then placed in 70% EtOH. The tissue was dehydrated sequentially in EtOH:xylene:paraffin over a gradient of 70–95-100% and then embedded in paraffin. Sections (6 μm thick) were cut and stained with Nissl reagent. For motor neuron size evaluation, 10 cross sections of the lumbar segment of the spinal cord were collected from predetermined depths along the segment and were analyzed for each tested animal. The sizes were determined automatically with Image-Pro Plus version 4.5 software (Media Cybernetics) by an operator who was blinded to the identity (treatment group) of the sections; data are represented in square micrometers. Immunohistochemistry. After intracardial perfusion with PBS, brain or spinal cord tissues were fixed with 2.5% PFA for 24 h and subsequently transferred to 30% sucrose in PBS solution. Coronal sections (30 μm) were blocked with an M.O.M. Immunodetection Kit reagent (Vector Laboratories) containing 0.1% Triton X-100 (Sigma-Aldrich) and stained with the following primary antibodies: mouse anti-cytokeratin (1:100; Covance); rat anti-ICAM-1 (1:100; Abcam); rat anti-CD11b (1:50; BD PharMingen; BD Biosciences); rat anti-Foxp3 (1:20; eBioscience); rabbit anti-CD3 (1:500; Dako); chicken anti-vimentin (1:500; Millipore); rabbit anti-GFP (1:100; Invitrogen); rabbit anti-laminin (1:100; Abcam); rabbit anti-Iba1 (1:200; Wako); mouse anti-E-cadherin (1:100; Invitrogen); biotin-conjugated goat anti-GFP (1:100; Abcam); and goat anti-IL-10 (1:20; R&D Systems). Secondary antibodies were Cy2-conjugated donkey anti-mouse, Cy2-conjugated donkey anti-rabbit, Cy2-conjugated streptavidin, Cy3-conjugated donkey anti-rat, Cy3-conjugated donkey anti-rabbit, Cy3-conjugated donkey anti-chicken, and Cy3-conjugated donkey anti-goat (1:200; Jackson ImmunoResearch). Each step was followed by three washes in PBS. The tissue samples were mounted onto slides using Immu-mount (Fisher Scientific) and sealed with coverslips. For nuclear staining, Hoechst 33342 fluorochrome was used (Invitrogen). The following two negative controls were routinely used in immunostaining procedures: staining with isotype control antibody followed by secondary antibody; and staining with secondary antibody alone. For microscopic analysis, a fluorescence microscope (Eclipse 80i; Nikon) or a laser-scanning confocal microscope (Carl Zeiss) was used. The fluorescence microscope was equipped with a digital camera (DXM 1200F; Nikon) and with either a 20× numerical aperture (NA) 0.50 or a 40× NA 0.75 objective lens (Plan Fluor; Nikon). The confocal microscope was equipped with LSM 510 laser scanning (three lasers: Ar 488, HeNe 543, and HeNe 633) and with a 20× NA 0.5 Plan-Neofluar objective lens and a 40× water-immersion, NA 1.2, C-Apochromat objective lens. Recordings were made on postfixed tissues at 24°C using acquisition software (NIS-Elements, F3; [Nikon) or LSM (Carl Zeiss). Images were cropped, merged, and optimized using Photoshop version 9.0 (Adobe Systems) to make minor adjustments to contrast; and were arranged using Canvas X (ACD Systems of America). Flow cytometry, sample preparation, and analysis. Before tissue collection, mice were intracardially perfused with PBS. CP tissues were isolated from the lateral, third, and fourth ventricles of the brain, incubated at 37°C for 45 min in PBS (with Ca 2+/Mg 2+) containing 400u/ml collagenase type IV (Worthington Biochemical Corporation), and then manually homogenized using a pipette. Spinal cords were homogenized using a software-controlled, sealed homogenization system (Dispomix;http://www.biocellisolation.com) followed by separation on a 40% Percoll (GE Healthcare) gradient to eliminate residual fat tissue. For intracellular staining of IFN-γ, the cells were incubated with PMA (10 ng/ml; Sigma-Aldrich) and ionomycin (250 ng/ml; Sigma-Aldrich) for 6 h, and Brefeldin-A (10 μg/ml; Sigma-Aldrich) was added for the last 4 h. For intracellular staining of IL-10, the cells were incubated with protein transport inhibitor, containing monensin (BD Biosciences) for 3 h. Intracellular labeling of cytokines was performed with the Cytofix/Cytoperm Plus Fixation/Permeabilization Kit (BD Biosciences) according to the protocol of the manufacturer. Intracellular staining of Foxp3 was performed using the Foxp3 staining kit (eBioscience) according to the protocol of the manufacturer. The following fluorochrome-labeled mAbs were used according to the protocols of the manufacturers: FITC-conjugated anti-CD45.2, phycoerythrin (PE)-conjugated anti-CD4, allophycocyanin (APC)-conjugated anti-IFN-γ, Percp-Cy5.5-conjugated anti-T-cell antigen receptor β, and Pacific Blue-conjugated anti-CD45.2 (all from BioLegend); PE-conjugated anti-IL-10 (BD Biosciences); and APC-conjugated anti-CD11b and APC-conjugated anti-Foxp3 (eBioscience). Cells were analyzed on an LSRII Cytometer (BD Biosciences) using FACSDiva (BD Biosciences) and FlowJo software (Tree Star). In each experiment, relevant negative-control groups and single-stained samples for each tissue were used to identify the populations of interest and to exclude others. Statistical analysis. Data were analyzed using the Student's ttest to make comparisons between two groups. One-way ANOVA was used to compare several groups. Fisher's LSD or Tukey–Kramer procedure was used for follow-up pairwise comparison of groups after the null hypothesis had been rejected ( p< 0.05). Kaplan–Meier survival curves were analyzed by log rank test to generate a χ 2value for significance. A repeated-measures ANOVA was used for the grip strength test and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) scoring, with follow-up using the Student's ttest. Results are presented as the mean ± SEM. In the graphs, y-axis error bars represent the SEM. Statistical calculations were performed using standard functions of Microsoft Excel, JMP software, and Prism version 5.0 software (GraphPad Software). Results The choroid plexus of mSOD1 mice is not spontaneously activated to enable leukocyte trafficking to the CNS We first examined whether mo-MΦs are spontaneously recruited to the spinal cord of mSOD1 mice over the course of disease progression. To allow the detection of infiltrating mo-MΦs, we created BM-chimeric mice using BM cells from CX 3CR1 GFP/+mSOD1 donor mice. We found that despite the massive microglial activation, starting from age 100 d (Fig. 1 A), mo-MΦs were barely detected in the lumbar segment of the spinal cord in the CX 3CR1 GFP/+chimeric mSOD1 mice, up until late progressive stages of the disease (Fig. 1 A, B). Figure 1. The choroid plexus of mSOD1 mice is not spontaneously activated to enable leukocyte trafficking to the CNS. A, Representative microscopic images of the spinal cord (SC) of CX 3CR1 GFP/+BM-chimeric WT and mSOD1 mice at different time points immunostained for CD11b [scale bar, 100 μm; dashed line demarcates the white matter (WM) and gray matter (GM)]. B, Quantitative analysis of the CX 3CR1 GFP/+mo-MΦs in the ventral horn of the spinal cord of the chimeric mice ( n= 3–4 per group; bars represent the mean ± SEM; ** p< 0.01, vs WT by ANOVA, followed by Student's ttest post hocanalysis). C, Protein levels of the inflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 in the spinal cord of WT and mSOD1 mice, were measured by Multiplex ELISA at different stages of the disease ( n= 2 per group; bars represent the mean ± SD; * p< 0.05, ** p< 0.01, vs WT by ANOVA, followed by Student's ttest post hocanalysis). D, The forelimb grip strength of mSOD1 mice was measured weekly and compared with the grip strength of WT mice ( n= 3–9 per group; mean ± SEM; *** p< 0.001; F= 226.45, p< 0.0001, by repeated-measures ANOVA, followed by Bonferroni post hocanalysis). E, mRNA levels of ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 in the CP of mSOD1 mice were measured by qPCR at different stages of the disease ( n= 6–7 per group; bars represent the mean ± SEM; * p< 0.05, vs WT littermates by Student's ttest). F, Representative confocal images of the CP of 130-d-old WT and mSOD1 mice stained for the epithelial marker cytokeratin and for ICAM-1 (scale bar, 50 μm). 3V, Third ventricle. G, mRNA levels of the chemokines CCL2, M-CSF, and fractalkine in the CPs of mSOD1 mice, measured by qPCR at different stages of the disease ( n= 5–7 per group; bars represent the mean ± SEM; * p< 0.05, vs WT littermates by Student's ttest). H, Protein levels of the chemokines CCL2 and M-CSF in the CPs of WT and mSOD1 mice, measured by Multiplex ELISA at different stages of the disease ( n= 2–4 per group; bars represent the mean ± SD). Upregulation of leukocyte-trafficking molecules by the CP epithelium is triggered by proinflammatory cytokines, which are elevated following acute spinal cord injury (Kunis et al., 2013;Shechter et al., 2013). We therefore examined the levels of proinflammatory cytokines in the spinal cord of mSOD1 mice during the course of disease progression, and found that the proinflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-6 were significantly elevated, relative to WT mice, as early as age 70 d, the first time point tested (Fig. 1 C). Notably, muscle weakness, as measured by the forelimb grip strength test, was already observed at the age of 56 d in mSOD1 mice (Fig. 1 D). The early elevation of the local inflammatory response within the spinal cord parenchyma, together with the delayed appearance of mo-MΦs, led us to consider that the CPs of mSOD1 mice might not be activated to facilitate trafficking of leukocytes to the CNS. We therefore tested, by real-time qPCR, the expression levels of leukocyte-trafficking molecules at the CPs of mSOD1 mice. The mRNA levels of ICAM-1 and VCAM-1, which are elevated in the CP following acute spinal cord injury (Kunis et al., 2013;Shechter et al., 2013), were not elevated in the CPs of mSOD1 mice relative to age-matched WT mice (Fig. 1 E). Notably, the expression of ICAM-1 was even downregulated over the disease course (Fig. 1 E). Immunohistochemical staining of the CPs showed that ICAM-1 was colocalized with the apical surface of the CP epithelium, as previously reported (Steffen et al., 1996;Kunis et al., 2013), and confirmed its reduction at the CP during the progressive stage of the disease (day 130) in mSOD1 mice (Fig. 1 F). In addition, the levels of chemokines that are involved in leukocyte recruitment to the CNS following injury (Szmydynger-Chodobska et al., 2009,2012;Kunis et al., 2013;Shechter et al., 2013), such as CCL2, M-CSF, and fractalkine (CX 3CL1), were not elevated, as determined by either their mRNA (Fig. 1 G) or protein (Fig. 1 H) levels, in the CPs of mSOD1 mice. Thus, although the spinal cord parenchyma of mSOD1 mice shared similar proinflammatory signals with those elevated following acute spinal cord injury, their CP was not activated to enable leukocyte trafficking. IFN-γ-dependent activation of the choroid plexus is impaired in mSOD1 mice The CP of WT mice is populated by effector memory CD4 +T cells (Baruch et al., 2013;Kunis et al., 2013). Of the cytokines produced by these T cells, IFN-γ was found to be essential for inducing the expression of immune cell-trafficking molecules by the CP epithelium (Kunis et al., 2013). We therefore measured the expression levels of T-cell-derived cytokines at the CPs of mSOD1 mice. We found a general decrease, relative to WT mice, in the expression levels of both IL-4 and IFN-γ; specifically, IFN-γ expression levels showed a decline from 70 d of age onward (Fig. 2 A). The examination of the CPs of mSOD1 mice at different stages of disease progression by flow cytometry confirmed a reduction in T-cell numbers, including CD4 +T cells, and, specifically, of IFN-γ-producing CD4 +T cells, as early as 70 d of age (Fig. 2 B, C). Moreover, the numbers of both total T cells and of CD4 +T cells were lower in the CSF of 70-d-old mSOD1 mice (Fig. 2 D) relative to WT mice, indicating a general reduction in CNS immune surveillance. Figure 2. IFN-γ-dependent activation of the choroid plexus is impaired in mSOD1 mice. A, mRNA levels of IFN-γ and IL-4 in the CPs of mSOD1 mice were measured by qPCR at different stages of the disease ( n= 6–7 per group; bars represent the mean ± SEM; * p< 0.05, vs WT littermates by Student's ttest). B, Representative flow cytometry dot plots showing the reduction in IFN-γ-producing CD4 +T cells at the CPs of 70-d-old mSOD1 mice relative to WT mice ( n= 6–7 per group; the percentage ± SEM of IFN-γ +cells is indicated above the gate; p= 0.008 by Student's ttest). C, Quantitative analysis by flow cytometry of the numbers of total T cells and CD4 +T cells (presented as the fold change relative to WT littermates) in the CPs of mSOD1 mice at different stages of the disease ( n= 4–6 per group; bars represent the mean ± SEM; * p< 0.05, vs WT littermates by Student's ttest). D, Quantitative analysis by flow cytometry of the number of total T cells and CD4 +T cells in the CSF of 70-d-old WT and mSOD1 mice ( n= 10 per group; graphs show the number of cells in individual mice and the mean ± SEM; ** p< 0.01, *** p< 0.001, by Student's ttest). E, CP epithelial cells from 70-d-old WT and mSOD1 mice were cultured in vitroand were treated with IFN-γ (100 ng/ml) or IL-4 (10 ng/ml), or were left untreated (UT). After 24 h in culture, mRNA levels of ICAM-1 and VCAM-1, and the chemokines CCL5 and CXCL10 in the cultured cells were measured by qPCR ( n= 3 per group; bars represent mean ± SEM; ** p< 0.01, *** p< 0.001, vs untreated cells by one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's HSD post hocanalysis). To test whether the CP of mSOD1 mice have an inherent inability to respond to effector T-cell cytokines, we cultured CP epithelial cells from WT and mSOD1 mice, and treated them with either IFN-γ or IL-4. mRNA levels of various trafficking molecules were measured 24 h following the addition of the tested cytokines. IFN-γ treatment significantly elevated the expression of trafficking molecules in CP cultures of both WT and mSOD1 mice (Fig. 2 E), demonstrating that the CPs of mSOD1 mice could respond to effector T-cell-derived cytokines. These results further supported our contention that the lack of activation of the CP in mSOD1 mice could be an outcome of the observed IFN-γ insufficiency. Immunization with a myelin-derived peptide activates the choroid plexus to support recruitment of leukocytes to the spinal cord The above observations in mSOD1 mice that the CP was suppressed with respect to its ability to support leukocyte trafficking, coupled with the findings that the activation of the CP for immune cell trafficking requires IFN-γ signaling (Kunis et al., 2013), and that the healthy CP is enriched with CNS-specific T cells (Baruch et al., 2013), prompted us to test whether augmenting the levels of IFN-γ-producing autoimmune T cells in the periphery would be sufficient for activation of the CP to enable leukocyte trafficking in mSOD1 mice. To this end, we used an immunization approach that was previously found to evoke an immune response in rats that benefits recovery following spinal cord injury (Hauben et al., 2001). Thus, we immunized mSOD1 mice with a peptide derived from myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG), emulsified in incomplete Freund's adjuvant containing 0.5 mg/ml M. tuberculosis, without injections of pertussis toxin, which is routinely used to induce EAE. The immunization of mSOD1 mice resulted in a significant increase in the expression of adhesion molecules (Fig. 3 A) and chemokines (Fig. 3 B) by the CP, compared with PBS-injected mice, 14 d postimmunization; the increase was similar to that observed in WT mice following MOG immunization and was verified by immunohistochemical analysis, which showed an elevated expression of ICAM-1 by the CP epithelium (Fig. 3 C). An elevation in the major histocompatibility complex II (MHC-II) molecule H2-Aα was also observed in the CP of the immunized mice (Fig. 3 D), suggesting that antigen presentation in the CP could have a role in mediating leukocyte trafficking. The activation of the CP following MOG immunization was accompanied by a marked increase in total leukocyte numbers in the CSF, including T cells, which were composed mostly of CD4 +T cells (Fig. 3 E, F). Notably, under the same experimental conditions, immunization of WT mice with ovalbumin (OVA), failed to induce T-cell recruitment to the CSF (Fig. 3 F), thereby demonstrating that a CNS-specific antigen response is required to induce leukocyte trafficking through the CP. Figure 3. Immunization with a myelin-derived peptide activates the choroid plexus to support the recruitment of leukocytes to the spinal cord. A, B, mRNA levels of ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 ( A); and the chemokines CCL2, M-CSF, CCL5, CXCL9, and CXCL10 ( B) in the CPs of MOG-immunized WT and mSOD1 mice, 14 d postimmunization, were measured by qPCR, and were compared with levels in PBS-injected WT and mSOD1 mice ( n= 6–13 per group; bars represent the mean ± SEM; * p< 0.05, ** p< 0.01, *** p< 0.001, vs WT mice by one-way ANOVA followed by Student's ttest post hocanalysis). C, Representative confocal images of CPs from MOG-immunized or PBS-injected WT mice, stained for the epithelial marker cytokeratin and for ICAM-1 (scale bar, 20 μm). 3V, Third ventricle. D, mRNA levels of MHC-II were measured by qPCR in the samples from Aand B. E, Representative flow cytometry dot plots showing elevation of leukocyte populations in the CSF of MOG-immunized WT mice. F, Numbers of total T cells (black bars) and CD4 +T cells (gray bars) in the CSF of MOG-immunized WT and mSOD1 mice were quantified by flow cytometry, 14 d postimmunization, and were compared with the numbers in PBS-injected WT and mSOD1 mice and to the levels in OVA-immunized WT mice (bars represent the mean ± SEM; ** p< 0.01, *** p< 0.001, vs PBS-injected WT mice by one-way ANOVA followed by Student's ttest post hocanalysis). G, Representative microscopic images of the spinal cord central canal of MOG-immunized mSOD1 mice, 14 d postimmunization, stained for CD3 and vimentin (scale bar, 100 μm). H, Number of CD4 +T cells was quantified by flow cytometry in the spinal cords of MOG-immunized mSOD1 mice, 28 d postimmunization ( n= 6 per group; bars represent the mean ± SEM; ** p< 0.01, vs PBS-injected mSOD1 mice, Student's ttest). I, Representative microscopic images of the spinal cord ventral horn of PBS-injected and MOG-immunized mSOD1 mice, 28 d postimmunization, stained for CD3 (scale bar, 100 μm). Dashed line demarcates the regions of gray matter (GM) vs white matter (WM). A higher-magnification image of the boxed area is shown (scale bar, 50 μm). J, mSOD1 mice were immunized with MOG, and their EAE scores were compared with those of MOG-immunized WT mice ( n= 6 per group; mean ± SEM; F= 0.41, p= 0.535, by repeated-measures ANOVA). Examination of the spatial distribution of the infiltrating cells in the CNS revealed the presence of T cells along the CP–CSF migratory pathway, including the spinal cord central canal, and along the central canal ependymal layer (Fig. 3 G). Within the spinal cord parenchyma, MOG immunization resulted in a general increase in CD4 +T-cell levels (Fig. 3 H); these cells homed to the spinal cord ventral horn, the area at which motor neurons reside (Fig. 3 I). Notably, although we adopted a protocol that is not used to induce EAE, mild and transient symptoms of encephalomyelitis were observed in both WT and mSOD1 mice; these symptoms were spontaneously resolved by 28 d after the immunization (Fig. 3 J). Boosting an immune response to a myelin-derived peptide leads to accumulation of inflammation-resolving cells in the spinal cord parenchyma of mSOD1 mice Resolution of an autoimmune response evoked against myelin antigens is associated with the accumulation of immunoregulatory Foxp3 +Treg cells in the CNS parenchyma (O'Connor et al., 2007). Therefore, we tested Treg levels in the spinal cord parenchyma of the mSOD1 mice following MOG immunization. At 28 d after the immunization, we found a significant elevation of Foxp3 +Tregs in both the spinal cord (Fig. 4 A) and the CSF (Fig. 4 B), but not in the blood (Fig. 4 C). Notably, in the absence of immunization, Tregs were hardly detectable in the spinal cord of the mSOD1 mice (Fig. 4 D). Analysis of the lumbar section of the spinal cord of the MOG-immunized mSOD1 mice by immunohistochemistry showed that Foxp3 +Tregs were localized in the ventral horn gray matter in close proximity to the motor neurons (Fig. 4 E). In accordance with the increased levels of Tregs, qPCR analysis revealed a >10-fold increase in the expression of IL-10, and an increase in TGF-β1 expression, in the spinal cord of the MOG-immunized mSOD1 mice, relative to PBS-injected WT or mSOD1 mice (Fig. 4 F); the proinflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-1β were elevated to a lesser extent (Fig. 4 G). Overall, a shift in favor of an anti-inflammatory milieu was observed as a result of the immunization (Fig. 4 H). Analysis by immunohistochemistry further revealed that IL-10 immunoreactivity was not solely restricted to T cells (Fig. 4 I), a finding that led us to consider that other inflammation-resolving cells, such as mo-MΦs, might be involved. qPCR analysis of the lumbar spinal cord of the immunized mice further supported this notion by showing elevation in the expression levels of chemokines that are involved in the recruitment of mo-MΦs (Fig. 4 J). Download figure Figure 4. Boosting an immune response to a myelin-derived peptide leads to the accumulation of inflammation-resolving cells in the spinal cord parenchyma of mSOD1 mice. A–D, Quantitative flow cytometry analyses of Foxp3 +Tregs in different tissues isolated from either MOG-immunized mSOD1 mice or PBS-injected WT and mSOD1 mice. A, Percentage of Foxp3 +Tregs in the spinal cord at 14 and 28 d postimmunization. B, C, Percentage of Foxp3 +Tregs in the CSF ( B) and blood ( C), 28 d postimmunization. D, Number of Foxp3 +Tregs in the spinal cord, 28 d postimmunization ( n= 5–7 per group; bars represent the mean ± SEM; * p< 0.05, ** p< 0.01, *** p< 0.001, by one-way ANOVA followed by Student's ttest post hocanalysis). E, Representative microscopic images of the gray matter of the spinal cord ventral horn of MOG-immunized mSOD1 mice, 28 d postimmunization, stained for CD3 +T cells and Foxp3 (scale bar, 50 μm). Separate channels are presented. White arrowheads indicate the location of Foxp3 +T cells, and gray arrowheads indicate the location of Foxp3 −T cells. F, G, mRNA levels of IL-10 and TGF-β1 ( F), and of TNF-α and IL-1β ( G) in the spinal cords of MOG-immunized mSOD1 mice, 28 d postimmunization, were measured by qPCR and compared with the levels in PBS-injected WT and mSOD1 mice. H, The ratio between expression levels of the different genes ( n= 4–9 per group; bars represent the mean ± SEM; * p< 0.05, ** p< 0.01, *** p< 0.001, vs WT mice by one-way ANOVA followed by Student's ttest post hocanalysis). I, Representative microscopic images of the spinal cord ventral horn of MOG-immunized mSOD1 mice, 28 d postimmunization, stained for CD3 +T cells and for IL-10 (scale bar, 100 μm). Dashed line demarcates the regions of gray matter (GM) vs white matter (WM). Higher-magnification images of the boxed area and separate channels are presented (scale bar, 25 μm). White arrowheads indicate the location of IL-10 +T cells, and gray arrowheads indicate the location of CD3 −IL-10 +cells. J, mRNA levels of the chemokines CCL5, CXCL9, CXCL10, CCL2, M-CSF, and CXCL12 in the spinal cords of MOG-immunized mSOD1 mice, 28 d postimmunization, were measured by qPCR and compared with levels in PBS-injected WT and mSOD1 mice ( n= 4–6 per group; bars represent the mean ± SEM; * p< 0.05, ** p< 0.01, *** p< 0.001, vs WT mice by one-way ANOVA followed by Student's ttest post hocanalysis). Immunization with a myelin-derived peptide recruits inflammation-resolving mo-MΦs to the spinal cord of mSOD1 mice The above results prompted us to examine whether IL-10-expressing mo-MΦs are also recruited to the spinal cord parenchyma of MOG-immunized mSOD1 mice. To address this question, we first used WT BM-chimeric mice, in which head-protected irradiated recipients were reconstituted with CX 3CR1 GFP/+BM cells and were subsequently immunized with MOG. As a result of the immunization, increased numbers of CX 3CR1 GFP/+monocytes were found along the CP–CSF migratory pathway (Shechter et al., 2013), including the CP (Fig. 5 A, B), CSF (Fig. 5 C), central canal (Fig. 5 D), and spinal cord parenchyma (Fig. 5 E). Moreover, analysis by intracellular staining for IL-10-producing mo-MΦs by flow cytometry (Fig. 5 F) revealed a significantly higher frequency of IL-10-producing cells among the CD11b +GFP +infiltrating mo-MΦs, relative to their frequency among the CD11b +GFP −cells in the spinal cord (Fig. 5 G). A similar effect on the recruitment of GFP +monocytes to the CSF was observed in CX 3CR1 GFP/+BM-chimeric mSOD1 mice (Fig. 5 H). Immunohistochemical examination of the lumbar section of the spinal cord, 28 d following immunization, revealed the preferential accumulation of mo-MΦs in the gray matter of mSOD1 mice, relative to WT mice (Fig. 5 I, J); IL-10-producing cells were found among these GFP +cells (Fig. 5 K). To rule out the possibility that monocyte infiltration to the spinal cord of the MOG-immunized mSOD1 mice reflected an outcome of the irradiation used to prepare the chimeric mice (Mildner et al., 2007), we also immunized nonchimeric mSOD1 mice with MOG and examined their spinal cords after 28 d by flow cytometry for CD11b HighCD45.2 Highinfiltrating mo-MΦs (Fig. 5 L). We found a significant elevation in these cells in the immunized mice, relative to PBS-injected mSOD1 mice (Fig. 5 M). A higher percentage of IL-10-producing cells was found among the infiltrating CD11b HighCD45.2 Highmo-MΦ population, compared with the CD11b LowCD45.2 Lowmicroglia (Fig. 5 N). To substantiate the relevance of the CP–CSF as a migratory route for the recruitment of mo-MΦs to the spinal cord, we injected GFP-expressing BM-derived monocytes through the cisterna magna directly into the CSF of MOG-immunized mSOD1 mice (Fig. 5 O) 14 d following the immunization. Immunohistochemical analysis of the lumbar spinal cord 7 d later showed that the injected GFP +cells homed to both the white matter and gray matter of the ventral horn and expressed the myeloid marker Iba1 (Fig. 5 P). Notably, the cells were not seen in association with parenchymal blood vessels (Fig. 5 Q). Together, these results showed that, as a result of the immunization, inflammation-resolving mo-MΦs homed to the CNS in mSOD1 mice, at least in part via the CP–CSF entry route. Figure 5. Immunization with a myelin-derived peptide recruits inflammation-resolving mo-MΦs to the spinal cords of mSOD1 mice. A–G, BM-chimeric WT mice were reconstituted with CX 3CR1 GFP/+donor BM and were immunized with MOG. A, The percentages of mo-MΦs at the CPs of the mice were analyzed by flow cytometry at 28 d postimmunization ( n= 4–5 per group; bars represent the mean ± SEM; ** p< 0.01, Student's ttest). B, Representative microscopic images of the CPs of MOG-immunized CX 3CR1 GFP/+BM-chimeric mice, immunostained for the epithelial tight-junction molecule E-cadherin and for GFP (scale bar, 100 μm). 3V, Third ventricle. Higher-magnification image of the boxed area is shown (scale bar, 50 μm). C, Numbers of total monocytes in the CSF of MOG-immunized CX 3CR1 GFP/+BM-chimeric mice were quantified by flow cytometry, 28 d postimmunization ( n= 4–5 per group; bars represent the mean ± SEM; * p< 0.05, Student's ttest). D, Representative microscopic images of the spinal cord central canal of MOG-immunized CX 3CR1 GFP/+BM-chimeric WT mice, 28 d postimmunization, stained for GFP and vimentin (scale bar, 25 μm). E, Quantitative analysis by flow cytometry of CX 3CR1 GFP/+mo-MΦs in the spinal cords of the chimeric mice at 28 d postimmunization ( n= 4–5 per group; bars represent the mean ± SEM; * p< 0.05, vs PBS, Student's ttest). F, Representative flow cytometry dot plots showing IL-10 expression in the CD11b +GFP +mo-MΦ and CD11b +GFP −populations in the spinal cord of MOG-immunized chimeric mice, 28 d postimmunization. G, Quantitative analysis of the percentages of IL-10 +cells of the CD11b +GFP +mo-MΦ and CD11b +GFP −populations ( n= 5 per group; bars represent the mean ± SEM; ** p< 0.01, Student's ttest). H, Numbers of total monocytes in the CSF of MOG-immunized CX 3CR1 GFP/+BM-chimeric mSOD1 mice were quantified by flow cytometry, 28 d postimmunization ( n= 4–5 per group; bars represent the mean ± SEM). I, Representative microscopic images of the spinal cord ventral horn of PBS-injected and MOG-immunized CX 3CR1 GFP/+BM-chimeric WT and mSOD1 mice, 28 d postimmunization, stained for GFP to label the CX 3CR1 GFP/+-infiltrating mo-MΦs (scale bar, 100 μm). Dashed line demarcates the regions of gray matter (GM) vs white matter (WM). J, Quantitative analysis of the CX 3CR1 GFP/+mo-MΦs in the ventral horn gray matter of the chimeric mice ( n= 2–5 per group; bars represent the mean ± SD; *** p< 0.001, vs PBS-injected WT mice by ANOVA, followed by Student's ttest post hocanalysis). K, Representative microscopic images of the spinal cord ventral horn gray matter of MOG-immunized mSOD1 mice, 28 d postimmunization, stained for GFP +mo-MΦs and for IL-10 (scale bar, 25 μm). Separate channels are presented. Arrowheads indicate the location of IL-10 +mo-MΦs. L, Representative flow cytometry dot plots showing the CD11b lowCD45.2 lowmicroglia and CD11b HighCD45.2 Highmo-MΦ populations in the spinal cord of PBS-injected and MOG-immunized mSOD1 mice, 28 d postimmunization. M, Quantitative analysis of the number of mo-MΦ ( n= 4–5 per group; bars represent mean ± SEM; ** p< 0.01, Student's ttest). N, Representative flow cytometry dot plots and quantitative analysis of the percentage of IL-10-producing microglia or mo-MΦs in the spinal cord of MOG-immunized mSOD1 mice, 28 d postimmunization ( n= 5 per group; bars represent the mean ± SEM; * p< 0.05, Student's ttest). O–Q, GFP +monocytes were injected into the fourth ventricle of MOG-immunized mSOD1 mice via the cisterna magna, 14 d postimmunization. O, Photograph of a posterior view of a mouse brain following the injection of Matrigel mixed with ink. 4V, Fourth ventricle. P, Q, Representative microscopic images of the spinal cord ventral horn of the monocyte-injected mice, 7 d following the injection, stained for GFP to label the injected cells and for Iba1 ( P), and for GFP and laminin ( Q; scale bars, 100 μm). Dashed line demarcates the regions of gray matter (GM) vs white matter (WM). Higher magnification images of the boxed area in separate channels are presented. Boosting an immune response to a myelin-derived peptide slows down disease progression and results in increased survival of mSOD1 mice We next examined the effect of MOG immunization on disease pathology in mSOD1 mice. We immunized the mice at 70 d of age, shortly following the appearance of clinical signs of ALS (Fig. 1 D). We found an elevation in the expression levels of the growth factors IGF-1 and GDNF in the spinal cords of the immunized mice 28 d postimmunization (Fig. 6 A), the time point at which immunoregulatory cells are found adjacent to the motor neurons. These growth factors were previously identified as neuroprotective in mSOD1 mice and were reported to have a beneficial effect on motor neuron soma size (Klein et al., 2005) and survival (Kaspar et al., 2003;Henriques et al., 2010). We therefore examined whether, at this time point, motor neuron fate was affected by the MOG immunization. Since Nissl staining was performed soon after the time that inflammation-resolving cells were seen in the spinal cord (day 100), motor neuron numbers were not altered (Fig. 6 B, C); however, the surviving motor neurons in MOG-immunized mSOD1 mice maintained significantly larger soma size, compared with the PBS-injected group, which showed disease-associated reduction in cell size (Fig. 6 D). Figure 6. Boosting an immune response to a myelin-derived peptide slows down disease progression and results in increased survival of mSOD1 mice. A, mRNA levels of IGF-1 and GDNF in the spinal cords of MOG-immunized mSOD1 mice, 28 d postimmunization, were measured by qPCR and compared with their levels in PBS-injected WT and mSOD1 mice ( n= 4–6 per group; bars represent the mean ± SEM; * p< 0.05, *** p< 0.001, vs WT mice by one-way ANOVA followed by Student's ttest post hocanalysis). B, Representative microscopic images of motor neurons (MN) in the spinal cord ventral horn of MOG-immunized mSOD1 mice, 28 d postimmunization, and PBS-injected WT and mSOD1 mice, stained by Nissl (scale bar, 25 μm). C, Quantitative analysis of the MN in the spinal cords of 100-d-old PBS-injected and MOG-immunized mSOD1 mice, 28 d postimmunization, as measured by the Nissl staining, compared with the numbers in PBS-injected WT mice ( n= 3–6 per group; bars represent the mean ± SEM; * p< 0.05, ** p< 0.01, vs WT by ANOVA, followed by Student's ttest post hocanalysis). D, Measurements of MN soma size in Nissl-stained spinal cord sections ( n= 3–6 per group; graphs show the area of individual cells in each group, and the mean ± SEM; * p< 0.05, vs WT mice by one-way ANOVA followed by Student's ttest post hocanalysis). E, Forelimb grip strength of MOG-immunized mSOD1 mice was measured weekly and was compared with the grip strength of PBS-injected mSOD1 mice ( n= 7 per group; mean ± SEM; ** p< 0.01, *** p< 0.001; F= 4.05, p< 0.05, by repeated-measures ANOVA, followed by Bonferroni post hocanalysis). F, G, MOG-immunized mSOD1 mice ( n= 19) had significantly longer life span, compared with PBS-injected mSOD1 mice ( n= 23) as assessed by average survival age ( F; bars represent the mean ± SEM; *** p< 0.001, Student's ttest), and by Kaplan–Meier survival curves ( G; log rank test, χ 2= 10.25, p= 0.0014). To determine the effect of MOG immunization on motor function, we immunized a new cohort of mSOD1 mice, and followed their forelimb grip strength over the course of disease progression. MOG-immunized mice showed a slower decline in grip strength during the progressive stage of disease, relative to their PBS-injected littermates (Fig. 6 E). Notably, although the immunized mice displayed a transient phase of muscle weakness, which was correlated with the mild EAE symptoms, it did not mask the overall beneficial effect on motor neuron disease attenuation (Fig. 6 E). Finally, we determined whether MOG immunization affected the life span of the mSOD1 mice. We found a significant increase in life span as a result of the immunization, from 146.5 ± 2.3 to 160 ± 2.3 d, an average increase of ∼14 d (Fig. 6 F). The effect was most strongly apparent at 155 d of age, when 78.9% of the immunized mice were still alive, compared with only 17.4% of the PBS-injected animals (Fig. 6 G). Discussion In the present study, we found that in the mSOD1 mouse model of ALS, recruitment of immunoregulatory cells to the diseased spinal cord parenchyma is limited due to the suppression of leukocyte trafficking through the CP. Activation of the CP to enable leukocyte trafficking, by active immunization with a myelin-derived peptide, resulted in the recruitment of IL-10-producing mo-MΦs and Tregs to the spinal cord gray matter, slower disease progression, and increased life expectancy of the mSOD1 mice. Local inflammation within the CNS parenchyma is one of the hallmarks of neurodegenerative diseases and contributes to disease progression (Sargsyan et al., 2005;Beers et al., 2006). In both acute and chronic CNS pathologies, infiltration of T cells and monocytes is essential for controlling the resident microglia (Butovsky et al., 2006,2007;Simard et al., 2006;Trivedi et al., 2006;Shechter et al., 2009;Shechter and Schwartz, 2013), which in neurodegenerative diseases become chronically activated and cytotoxic, and thereby actively reinforce the chronic nature of the inflammatory process (Liu et al., 2002). A recent report (Butovsky et al., 2012) suggested that inflammatory monocytes are recruited to the spinal cord in mSOD1 mice and contribute to disease progression; those findings are in apparent disagreement with our results and those of other studies. Here, we found that in mSOD1 mice, mo-MΦs barely accumulate in the spinal cord parenchyma up to progressive stages of the disease, before the end stage. These results are in line with those of other reported studies, which examined mo-MΦ recruitment to the spinal cord of mSOD1 mice and reported either undetectable levels of mo-MΦs in the spinal cord (Ajami et al., 2007) or found them confined to the perivascular spaces of the blood–brain barrier (Lewis et al., 2009). In addition, a recent systematic deep RNA sequencing analysis of myeloid cell populations isolated from the spinal cord of mSOD1 mice revealed that only a negligible population of infiltrating myeloid cells is recruited during disease progression (Chiu et al., 2013). The observed limited and delayed recruitment of immunoregulatory cells to the spinal cord of mSOD1 mice was attributed here, at least in part, to the immunological suppression of the CP, as a result of a reduction in the numbers of IFN-γ-producing cells in this compartment that occurred in parallel with disease progression. IFN-γ signaling at the CP epithelium is needed for physiological CNS immune surveillance (Kunis et al., 2013), and a decrease in this signaling pathway was found at the CP during aging, affecting brain function (Baruch et al., 2013;Baruch et al., 2014). As such, a reduction in IFN-γ production by peripheral blood mononuclear cells, and a general immune deficiency was previously reported in ALS patients (Banerjee et al., 2008;Seksenyan et al., 2010;Vaknin et al., 2011). Consistent with our present results is the reported observation that the CP epithelium of patients experiencing sporadic ALS does not express the MHC-II antigen human leukocyte antigen-DR (Vercellino et al., 2008). The expression of MHC-II in the mouse CP is IFN-γ dependent (Steffen et al., 1996;Kunis et al., 2013) and was found here to be elevated following MOG immunization. Notably, we did not find any inherent defect in the ability of mSOD1 CP epithelial cells to respond to IFN-γ in vitro. Autoimmunity to CNS antigens, and specifically to myelin-derived peptides, has been suggested by our group to be part of the physiological response in CNS repair following damage (Moalem et al., 1999;Yoles et al., 2001). This benign autoimmune response (“protective autoimmunity”;Moalem et al., 1999) can contribute to the maintenance and protection of neurons (Ziv et al., 2006) and the promotion of recovery after traumatic injury to the CNS (Hauben et al., 2001;Schwartz and Baruch, 2014a). The ability to mount such a response is amenable to boosting by passive or active immunization (Moalem et al., 1999;Hauben et al., 2001;Shechter et al., 2009;Raposo et al., 2014). In the present study, we adopted an approach that was shown to induce beneficial autoimmunity (Hauben et al., 2001). Such an approach might lead to mild and transient symptoms of encephalomyelitis, which do not mask the overall potential benefit of the evoked protective autoimmune response (Moalem et al., 1999;Hauben et al., 2001). In the present study, MOG immunization was found to activate the CP for immune cell trafficking. Specifically, levels of ICAM-1, which was previously shown to be essential for leukocyte epithelial transmigration (Porter and Hall, 2009), were found here to be reduced in the CP epithelium of mSOD1 mice and were elevated following MOG immunization. Moreover, CP expression of the chemokines CCL5, CXCL9, and CXCL10 was induced; these trafficking determinants were previously shown by us to be upregulated at the CP by IFN-γ, but not by encephalitogenic cytokines, such as GM-CSF and IL-17 (Kunis et al., 2013). In addition, the immunization elevated the expression levels of chemokines in the spinal cord, including CXCL12 (stromal cell-derived factor-1), which were found to be elevated in the CP–CSF migratory pathway following spinal cord injury (Shechter et al., 2013). Thereby, the allostatic immunological niche within the CNS parenchyma of the immunized mice could attract inflammation-resolving cells. In line with these results, it was previously shown that IFN-γ signaling is needed for leukocyte recruitment to the spinal cord and for induction of classic EAE following passive transfer of MOG-specific T-helper type 1 cells (Lees et al., 2008). The activation of the CP by MOG immunization was accompanied by the homing of CD4 +T cells and mo-MΦs to the CNS of mSOD1 mice. These cells were found within the CP–CSF migratory pathway, which includes the CSF and spinal cord central canal, which were previously characterized as the path for leukocyte homing to the injured spinal cord (Kunis et al., 2013;Shechter et al., 2013). Within the spinal cord parenchyma of the immunized mSOD1 mice, recruited cells were found in the gray matter of the ventral horn, where motor neurons reside, possibly due to the chemotactic signals expressed in these parenchymal regions in mSOD1 mice (Henkel et al., 2006). In ALS murine models, Tregs were shown to attenuate the cytotoxic activity of microglia (Beers et al., 2006;Zhao et al., 2012). Our immunization approach resulted in a marked elevation in inflammation-resolving cells, including IL-10-producing Foxp3 +Tregs and mo-MΦs, in the spinal cords of the immunized mice. IL-10-expressing mo-MΦs were previously shown to locally contribute to the repair process within the spinal cord parenchyma following injury (Shechter et al., 2009). In addition to IL-10, we found a local elevation of TGF-β1, IGF-1, and GDNF expression. TGF-β1 is known to be involved in the conversion of encephalitogenic CD4 +T cells to Tregs (Liu et al., 2006) and in the induction of IL-10 production by monocytes (Maeda et al., 1995); and IGF-1 and GDNF are neurotrophic factors that were shown to support motor neuron survival and to be beneficial in ALS (Kaspar et al., 2003;Henriques et al., 2010). Specifically, GDNF levels were shown to correlate with the preservation of motor neuron soma size in a rat model of ALS (Klein et al., 2005). The increased expression of neurotrophic factors, found here in the spinal cord of the immunized mSOD1 mice, together with the greater increase in IL-10 than in TNF-α and IL-1β, was part of an overall shift toward an anti-inflammatory milieu. Importantly, the overall neuroprotective effect of MOG immunization was manifested in slower motor function decline at the progressive stage of disease pathology and prolonged survival of the immunized mSOD1 mice. Our current experiments were performed using mSOD1 mice that express a high copy number of the mutant SOD1 protein, and thus exhibit a rapid decline in motor function accompanied by a short life expectancy. Therefore, the increased survival time of 14 d that was observed here is of strong biological significance. This effect may be more robust in disease models in which a slower rate of disease progression may allow the infiltrating immunoregulatory cells to counteract microglial toxicity and maintain homeostasis for a longer period. Our findings, which demonstrate that an autoimmune response facilitates a neuroprotective effect in the CNS under chronic neurodegenerative conditions, suggest that this response is either suppressed or is not spontaneously evoked in mSOD1 mice, or is not activated in a timely manner to counteract the microglial toxicity associated with motor neuron death (Appel et al., 2010;Schwartz and Baruch, 2014a). These findings also emphasize that although ALS and the autoimmune disease remitting-relapsing multiple sclerosis (RRMS) share a chronic local neuroinflammatory component, they differ with respect to the adaptive immune response that is involved in these two diseases, reflecting a common outcome of two opposite types of peripheral immune imbalance (Schwartz and Baruch, 2014b). Accordingly, while RRMS, and its murine model EAE, are characterized in patients by an increased effector response in the periphery and massive infiltration of T cells to the CNS, mSOD1 mice exhibit a reduced adaptive immune response in the periphery, and negligible T-cell and monocyte infiltration into the CNS (Ajami et al., 2007;Banerjee et al., 2008;Lewis et al., 2009;Finkelstein et al., 2011;Kawamura et al., 2012;Chiu et al., 2013). These results might also explain why treatments aimed at suppressing systemic immunity, such as those used to treat RRMS, were not effective in ALS patients. Thus, for example, treatment of RRMS by the daily administration of glatiramer acetate, which results in Treg elevation in the periphery (Haas et al., 2009), can lead to an adverse outcome in mSOD1 mice (Schwartz et al., 2008); similarly, the systemic injection of suppressive M2 macrophages, which is beneficial in EAE, is harmful in mSOD1 mice (Vaknin et al., 2011). The clinical failure of the immunosuppressive drug minocycline in ALS patients, which showed either no beneficial effect or even disease exacerbation in some cases (Gordon et al., 2007), is in line with our findings that boosting a reparative peripheral immune response is required to mitigate the pathological process in ALS. Our present approach does not directly target the mutant SOD1 protein or any other disease-specific factor, but rather introduces a more general concept regarding the need to facilitate the recruitment of immunoregulatory cells to the diseased CNS to mitigate the chronic neuroinflammation associated with neurodegenerative diseases. Importantly, however, while the identity of endogenous proteins that evoke a physiological neuroprotective immune response is not known, searching for the appropriate therapeutic antigen should be focused on identifying an antigen and immunization protocol that will boost the beneficial arm of the autoimmune response without evoking symptoms of autoimmune disease. Nonencephalitogenic peptides, such as altered peptide ligands (Conlon and Steinman, 2002), derived from CNS proteins seem to be promising candidates (Hauben et al., 2001;Shechter et al., 2009;Raposo et al., 2014). Footnotes Received August 21, 2014. Revision received March 8, 2015. Accepted March 11, 2015. This research was supported by European Research Council Grant 232835, given to M.S., and European Union Seventh Framework Programme Grant 279017, which was given to M.S. through the TargetBrain Consortium. M.S. holds The Maurice and Ilse Katz Professorial Chair in Neuroimmunology. We thank Dr. Shelley Schwarzbaum and Inbal Benhar for proofreading the manuscript, Dr. Tamara Berkutzki for histological processing, and Margalit Azoulay for animal handling. The authors declare no competing financial interests. Correspondence should be addressed to Michal Schwartz, Professor of Neuroimmunology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel. Michal.Schwartz{at}weizmann.ac.il Copyright © 2015 the authors 0270-6474/15/356381-13$15.00/0 References Ajami B , Bennett JL , Krieger C , Tetzlaff W , Rossi FM ( 2007 ) Local self-renewal can sustain CNS microglia maintenance and function throughout adult life . Nat Neurosci 10 : 1538 – 1543 , doi: 10.1038/nn2014 , pmid: 18026097 . Appel SH , Beers DR , Henkel JS ( 2010 ) T cell-microglial dialogue in Parkinson's disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: are we listening? Trends Immunol 31 : 7 – 17 , doi: 10.1016/j.it.2009.09.003 , pmid: 19879804 . Banerjee R , Mosley RL , Reynolds AD , Dhar A , Jackson-Lewis V , Gordon PH , Przedborski S , Gendelman HE ( 2008 ) Adaptive immune neuroprotection in G93A-SOD1 amyotrophic lateral sclerosis mice . PLoS One 3 : e2740 , doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0002740 , pmid: 18648532 . Baruch K , Ron-Harel N , Gal H , Deczkowska A , Shifrut E , Ndifon W , Mirlas-Neisberg N , Cardon M , Vaknin I , Cahalon L , Berkutzki T , Mattson MP , Gomez-Pinilla F , Friedman N , Schwartz M ( 2013 ) CNS-specific immunity at the choroid plexus shifts toward destructive Th2 inflammation in brain aging . Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 110 : 2264 – 2269 , doi: 10.1073/pnas.1211270110 , pmid: 23335631 . Baruch K , Deczkowska A , David E , Castellano JM , Miller O , Kertser A , Berkutzki T , Barnett-Itzhaki Z , Bezalel D , Wyss-Coray T , Amit I , Schwartz M ( 2014 ) Aging. Aging-induced type I interferon response at the choroid plexus negatively affects brain function . Science 346 : 89 – 93 , doi: 10.1126/science.1252945 , pmid: 25147279 . Beers DR , Henkel JS , Xiao Q , Zhao W , Wang J , Yen AA , Siklos L , McKercher SR , Appel SH ( 2006 ) Wild-type microglia extend survival in PU.1 knockout mice with familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis . Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 103 : 16021 – 16026 , doi: 10.1073/pnas.0607423103 , pmid: 17043238 . Beers DR , Henkel JS , Zhao W , Wang J , Appel SH ( 2008 ) CD4+ T cells support glial neuroprotection, slow disease progression, and modify glial morphology in an animal model of inherited ALS . Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 105 : 15558 – 15563 , doi: 10.1073/pnas.0807419105 , pmid: 18809917 . Beers DR , Henkel JS , Zhao W , Wang J , Huang A , Wen S , Liao B , Appel SH ( 2011 ) Endogenous regulatory T lymphocytes ameliorate amyotrophic lateral sclerosis in mice and correlate with disease progression in patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis . Brain 134 : 1293 – 1314 , doi: 10.1093/brain/awr074 , pmid: 21596768 . Butovsky O , Fritzsching B , Schwarz A , Wildemann B ( 2009 ) Glatiramer acetate improves regulatory T-cell function by expansion of naive CD4(+)CD25(+)FOXP3(+)CD31(+) T-cells in patients with multiple sclerosis . J Neuroimmunol 216 : 113 – 117 , doi: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2009.06.011 , pmid: 19646767 . Hanisch UK , Kettenmann H ( 2007 ) Microglia: active sensor and versatile effector cells in the normal and pathologic brain . Nat Neurosci 10 : 1387 – 1394 , doi: 10.1038/nn1997 , pmid: 17965659 . Hauben E , Butovsky O , Nevo U , Yoles E , Moalem G , Agranov E , Mor F , Leibowitz-Amit R , Pevsner E , Akselrod S , Neeman M , Cohen IR , Schwartz M ( 2000 ) Passive or active immunization with myelin basic protein promotes recovery from spinal cord contusion . J Neurosci 20 : 6421 – 6430 , pmid: 10964948 . Hauben E , Gothilf A , Nevo U , Cohen A , Smirnov I , Steinman L , Schwartz M ( 2001 ) Posttraumatic therapeutic vaccination with modified myelin self-antigen prevents complete paralysis while avoiding autoimmune disease . J Clin Invest 108 : 591 – 599 , doi: 10.1172/JCI200112837 , pmid: 11518733 . Hendrix S , Nitsch R ( 2007 ) The role of T helper cells in neuroprotection and regeneration . J Neuroimmunol 184 : 100 – 112 , doi: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2006.11.019 , pmid: 17198734 . Henkel JS , Beers DR , Siklós L , Appel SH ( 2006 ) The chemokine MCP-1 and the dendritic and myeloid cells it attracts are increased in the mSOD1 mouse model of ALS . Mol Cell Neurosci 31 : 427 – 437 , doi: 10.1016/j.mcn.2005.10.016 , pmid: 16337133 . Henriques A , Pitzer C , Schneider A ( 2010 ) Neurotrophic growth factors for the treatment of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: where do we stand? Front Neurosci 4 : 32 , doi: 10.3389/fnins.2010.00032 , pmid: 20592948 . Hofstetter HH , Sewell DL , Liu F , Forsthuber T , Lehmann PV , Fabry Z ( 2003 ) Autoreactive T cells promote post-traumatic healing in the central nervous system . J Neuroimmunol 134 : 25 – 34 , doi: 10.1016/S0165-5728(02)00358-2 , pmid: 12507769 . Jung S , Aliberti J , Graemmel P , Sunshine MJ , Kreutzberg GW , Sher A , Littman DR ( 2000 ) Analysis of fractalkine receptor CX(3)CR1 function by targeted deletion and green fluorescent protein reporter gene insertion . Mol Cell Biol 20 : 4106 – 4114 , doi: 10.1128/MCB.20.11.4106-4114.2000 , pmid: 10805752 . Kaspar BK , Lladó J , Sherkat N , Rothstein JD , Gage FH ( 2003 ) Retrograde viral delivery of IGF-1 prolongs survival in a mouse ALS model . Science 301 : 839 – 842 , doi: 10.1126/science.1086137 , pmid: 12907804 . Kawamura MF , Yamasaki R , Kawamura N , Tateishi T , Matsushita T , Ohyagi Y , Kira J ( 2012 ) Impaired recruitment of neuroprotective microglia and T cells during acute neuronal injury coincides with increased neuronal vulnerability in an amyotrophic lateral sclerosis model . Exp Neurol 234 : 437 – 445 , doi: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2012.01.015 , pmid: 22293437 . Kipnis J , Mizrahi T , Yoles E , Ben-Nun A , Schwartz M , Ben-Nur A ( 2002 ) Myelin specific Th1 cells are necessary for post-traumatic protective autoimmunity . J Neuroimmunol 130 : 78 – 85 , doi: 10.1016/S0165-5728(02)00219-9 , pmid: 12225890 . Klein SM , Behrstock S , McHugh J , Hoffmann K , Wallace K , Suzuki M , Aebischer P , Svendsen CN ( 2005 ) GDNF delivery using human neural progenitor cells in a rat model of ALS . Hum Gene Ther 16 : 509 – 521 , doi: 10.1089/hum.2005.16.509 , pmid: 15871682 . Kunis G , Baruch K , Kertser A , Miller O , Berkutzki T , Schwartz M ( 2013 ) IFN-gamma-dependent activation of the brain's choroid plexus for CNS immune surveillance and repair . Brain 136 : 3427 – 3440 , doi: 10.1093/brain/awt259 , pmid: 24088808 . Lees JR , Golumbek PT , Sim J , Dorsey D , Russell JH ( 2008 ) Regional CNS responses to IFN-gamma determine lesion localization patterns during EAE pathogenesis . J Exp Med 205 : 2633 – 2642 , doi: 10.1084/jem.20080155 , pmid: 18852291 . Lewis CA , Solomon JN , Rossi FM , Krieger C ( 2009 ) Bone marrow-derived cells in the central nervous system of a mouse model of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis are associated with blood vessels and express CX(3)CR1 . Glia 57 : 1410 – 1419 , doi: 10.1002/glia.20859 , pmid: 19243075 . Liu B , Gao HM , Wang JY , Jeohn GH , Cooper CL , Hong JS Liu Y , Teige I , Birnir B , Issazadeh-Navikas S ( 2006 ) Neuron-mediated generation of regulatory T cells from encephalitogenic T cells suppresses EAE . Nat Med 12 : 518 – 525 , doi: 10.1038/nm1402 , pmid: 16633347 . Maeda H , Kuwahara H , Ichimura Y , Ohtsuki M , Kurakata S , Shiraishi A ( 1995 ) TGF-beta enhances macrophage ability to produce IL-10 in normal and tumor-bearing mice . J Immunol 155 : 4926 – 4932 , pmid: 7594497 . Mildner A , Schmidt H , Nitsche M , Merkler D , Hanisch UK , Mack M , Heikenwalder M , Brück W , Priller J , Prinz M Moalem G , Leibowitz-Amit R , Yoles E , Mor F , Cohen IR , Schwartz M ( 1999 ) Autoimmune T cells protect neurons from secondary degeneration after central nervous system axotomy . Nat Med 5 : 49 – 55 , doi: 10.1038/4734 , pmid: 9883839 . Nguyen MD , Julien JP , Rivest S ( 2002 ) Innate immunity: the missing link in neuroprotection and neurodegeneration? Nat Rev Neurosci 3 : 216 – 227 , doi: 10.1038/nrn752 , pmid: 11994753 . O'Connor RA , Malpass KH , Anderton SM ( 2007 ) The inflamed central nervous system drives the activation and rapid proliferation of Foxp3+ regulatory T cells . J Immunol 179 : 958 – 966 , doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.179.2.958 , pmid: 17617587 . Okabe M , Ikawa M , Kominami K , Nakanishi T , Nishimune Y ( 1997 ) ”Green mice” as a source of ubiquitous green cells . FEBS Lett 407 : 313 – 319 , doi: 10.1016/S0014-5793(97)00313-X , pmid: 9175875 . Olsson T , Piehl F ( 2003 ) Harm or heal—divergent effects of autoimmune neuroinflammation? Trends Immunol 24 : 5 – 6 , doi: 10.1016/S1471-4906(02)00003-0 , pmid: 12495713 . Porter JC , Hall A ( 2009 ) Epithelial ICAM-1 and ICAM-2 regulate the egression of human T cells across the bronchial epithelium . FASEB J 23 : 492 – 502 , doi: 10.1096/fj.08-115899 , pmid: 18842965 . Rapalino O , Lazarov-Spiegler O , Agranov E , Velan GJ , Yoles E , Fraidakis M , Solomon A , Gepstein R , Katz A , Belkin M , Hadani M , Schwartz M ( 1998 ) Implantation of stimulated homologous macrophages results in partial recovery of paraplegic rats . Nat Med 4 : 814 – 821 , doi: 10.1038/nm0798-814 , pmid: 9662373 . Raposo C , Graubardt N , Cohen M , Berkutzki T , Schwartz M ( 2014 ) CNS repair requires both effector and regulatory T cells with distinct temporal and spatial profiles . J Neurosci 34 : 10141 – 10155 , doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0076-14.2014 , pmid: 25080578 . Sargsyan SA , Monk PN , Shaw PJ ( 2005 ) Microglia as potential contributors to motor neuron injury in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis . Glia 51 : 241 – 253 , doi: 10.1002/glia.20210 , pmid: 15846792 . Schwartz M , Baruch K ( 2014a ) The resolution of neuroinflammation in neurodegeneration: leukocyte recruitment via the choroid plexus . EMBO J 33 : 7 – 22 , doi: 10.1002/embj.201386609 , pmid: 24357543 . Schwartz M , Baruch K ( 2014b ) Breaking peripheral immune tolerance to CNS antigens in neurodegenerative diseases: boosting autoimmunity to fight-off chronic neuroinflammation . J Autoimmun 54 : 8 – 14 , doi: 10.1016/j.jaut.2014.08.002 , pmid: 25199710 . Schwartz M , Bukshpan S , Kunis G ( 2008 ) Application of glatiramer acetate to neurodegenerative diseases beyond multiple sclerosis: the need for disease-specific approaches . BioDrugs 22 : 293 – 299 , doi: 10.2165/00063030-200822050-00002 , pmid: 18778111 . Seksenyan A , Ron-Harel N , Azoulay D , Cahalon L , Cardon M , Ko MK , Weil M , Bulvik S , Rechavi G , Amariglio N , Konen E , Koronyo-Hamaoui M , Somech R , Schwartz M ( 2010 ) Thymic involution, a co-morbidity factor in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis . J Cell Mol Med 14 : 2470 – 2482 , doi: 10.1111/j.1582-4934.2009.00863.x , pmid: 19650830 . Shechter R , Schwartz M ( 2013 ) Harnessing monocyte-derived macrophages to control central nervous system pathologies: no longer “if” but “how.” J Pathol 229 : 332 – 346 , doi: 10.1002/path.4106 , pmid: 23007711 . Shechter R , London A , Varol C , Raposo C , Cusimano M , Yovel G , Rolls A , Mack M , Pluchino S , Jung S , Schwartz M ( 2009 ) Infiltrating blood-derived macrophages are vital cells playing an anti-inflammatory role in recovery from spinal cord injury in mice . PLoS Med 6 : e1000113 , doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1000113 , pmid: 19636355 . Shechter R , Miller O , Yovel G , Rosenzweig N , London A , Ruckh J , Kim KW , Klein E , Kalchenko V , Bendel P , Lira SA , Jung S , Schwartz M ( 2013 ) Recruitment of beneficial M2 macrophages to injured spinal cord is orchestrated by remote brain choroid plexus . Immunity 38 : 555 – 569 , doi: 10.1016/j.immuni.2013.02.012 , pmid: 23477737 . Simard AR , Soulet D , Gowing G , Julien JP , Rivest S Steffen BJ , Breier G , Butcher EC , Schulz M , Engelhardt B ( 1996 ) ICAM-1, VCAM-1, and MAdCAM-1 are expressed on choroid plexus epithelium but not endothelium and mediate binding of lymphocytes in vitro . Am J Pathol 148 : 1819 – 1838 , pmid: 8669469 . Szmydynger-Chodobska J , Strazielle N , Zink BJ , Ghersi-Egea JF , Chodobski A ( 2009 ) The role of the choroid plexus in neutrophil invasion after traumatic brain injury . J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 29 : 1503 – 1516 , doi: 10.1038/jcbfm.2009.71 , pmid: 19471279 . Szmydynger-Chodobska J , Strazielle N , Gandy JR , Keefe TH , Zink BJ , Ghersi-Egea JF , Chodobski A ( 2012 ) Posttraumatic invasion of monocytes across the blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier . J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 32 : 93 – 104 , doi: 10.1038/jcbfm.2011.111 , pmid: 21829211 . Trivedi A , Olivas AD ,

https://www.jneurosci.org/node/382841.full.print

State v. Wykert, WD 84272 - Missouri - Case Law - VLEX 902718792 0: [object Object]. 1: [object Object]. 2: [object Object]. 3: [object Object]. 4: [object Object]. 5: [object Object] State v. Wykert, WD 84272 Court Court of Appeal of Missouri (US) Writing for the Court Gary D. Witt, Judge Citation 639 S.W.3d 547 Parties STATE of Missouri, Respondent, v. Kenneth L. WYKERT, Appellant. Docket Number WD 84272 Decision Date 18 January 2022 639 S.W.3d 547 STATE of Missouri, Respondent, v. Kenneth L. WYKERT, Appellant. WD 84272 Missouri Court of Appeals, Western District. OPINION FILED: January 18, 2022 Nathan Jeremy Aquino, Jefferson City, MO, for respondent. Before Division Three: Lisa White Hardwick, Presiding Judge, Gary D. Witt, Judge and Edward R. Ardini, Jr., Judge Gary D. Witt, Judge Kenneth Wykert ("Wykert") was charged with felony possession of a controlled substance, section 579.015 1 , and misdemeanor unlawful possession of drug paraphernalia, section 579.074. Following a bench trial, the Circuit Court of Clinton County ("trial court") found Wykert guilty on both counts and sentenced him as a persistent offender to ten years’ imprisonment on the felony offense and to a fine on the misdemeanor offense. Prior to trial, Wykert filed a motion to suppress, and the parties stipulated it could be taken with the case and ruled on after the trial court heard the evidence at the bench trial. On appeal, Wykert argues: (1) the trial court erred in admitting at trial statements and evidence obtained during the pat-down of Wykert because Officer Ward ("Officer Ward") lacked consent or reasonable suspicion to pat-down Wykert; and (2) the trial court erred in admitting statements and evidence obtained following Wykert's interview with Officer Ward in his patrol car because Wykert was subjected to custodial interrogation without first being warned of his Miranda 2 rights. Finding no error, we affirm. Factual Background 3 Officer Ward was dispatched to 506 South Chestnut in Clinton County, Missouri as part of an effort to locate a missing person, L.D. Officer Ward went to the location to speak to Wykert and gather information that could be useful in the search effort. When Officer Ward arrived, he found Wykert in the parking lot with his hands and pockets full of various items. Wykert was speaking with L.D.’s mother and grandmother in the parking lot, and Officer Ward observed that they were visibly upset with Wykert. Officer Ward asked Wykert if he would be willing to speak with him about L.D., and Wykert agreed. To separate Wykert from L.D.’s mother and grandmother, Officer Ward asked Wykert if he would like to speak in Officer Ward's patrol car instead of the parking lot, and Wykert agreed. Before getting into the patrol car, Officer Ward asked Wykert if he could pat him down to ensure he did not have any weapons on him because Wykert had his hands full of items and was wearing cargo shorts with bulky items in the pockets. Wykert agreed that Officer Ward could pat him down. During the pat-down, Officer Ward placed his hand over the left pocket of Wykert's cargo shorts and felt a bulge in his pocket that Officer Ward believed could be a gun in a holster. Officer Ward asked Wykert if he had a gun in his pocket. Wykert reached his hand toward the pocket and 639 S.W.3d 551 "wrenched" his hand into the pocket. Officer Ward grabbed Wykert's wrist and removed it from the pocket, which exposed a digital scale and a black zipper bag located in the pocket. Officer Ward did not confiscate the items or ask Wykert about them at the time. Officer Ward and Wykert then sat in Officer Ward's patrol car to discuss L.D.’s possible whereabouts. Wykert entered the car willingly and sat in the front seat next to Officer Ward. The vehicle remained unlocked as they spoke. By this point, another officer, Officer White, had arrived at the scene and was conversing with L.D.’s family members in the parking lot. During the conversation in the patrol vehicle, Officer Ward asked Wykert about the scale he saw in his pocket. Wykert initially responded by saying the scale was used to measure jewelry or coins, but Officer Ward indicated he did not believe Wykert. Officer Ward asked Wykert if he had any drugs on him. Wykert acknowledged he "had a quarter gram of meth." Officer Ward asked Wykert to hand it to him, and Wykert pulled out a zippered bag from his pocket and handed it to Officer Ward. The zippered bag contained a broken pipe and clear plastic baggies containing a substance resembling methamphetamine. Officer Ward confiscated the items and later transported them to Missouri State Highway Patrol lab for analysis, which revealed the substance in the baggies to be methamphetamine. A short time later, Deputy Patterson of Dekalb County arrived and continued questioning Wykert about L.D. in the parking lot of the residence. Officer Ward then arrested Wykert for the controlled substances and transported him to the Cameron Police Department for further questioning. In the interview room, Officer Ward read Wykert his Miranda rights and spoke to Wykert about L.D. and the confiscated items from Wykert's pocket. Wykert again admitted to having possessed methamphetamine and smoking it earlier that day. The trial court overruled the motion to suppress and found Wykert guilty of one count of felony possession of a controlled substance and one misdemeanor count of unlawful possession of drug paraphernalia. Wykert was sentenced as a prior and persistent offender to ten years’ imprisonment on the felony offense, and a fine was assessed on the misdemeanor offense. This appeal follows. Wykert raises two points on appeal. Point I alleges error in the admission of all statements and evidence obtained as a result of the pat-down search as lacking consent or articulable suspicion. Point II alleges error in the admission of all statements and evidence obtained following the interview in the patrol car as a custodial interrogation without proper Miranda warnings. Discussion Standard of Review Appellate courts review the trial court's ruling on a motion to suppress in the light most favorable to the trial court's ruling and defer to the trial court's determinations of credibility. State v. Schroeder , 330 S.W.3d 468 , 472 (Mo. banc 2011). Review is limited to determining if the ruling is supported by substantial evidence. Id.Analysis of whether law enforcement conduct violates the Fourth Amendment is a legal issue that is reviewed de novo. Id. "In reviewing the trial court's denial of a motion to suppress, we consider the evidence presented at both the suppression hearing and at trial to determine whether sufficient evidence exists in the record to support the trial court's ruling." 639 S.W.3d 552 State v. Woodrome , 407 S.W.3d 702 , 706 (Mo.App. W.D. 2013). "The facts and inferences therefrom are reviewed in the light most favorable to the trial court's ruling, and all contrary inferences are disregarded." Id. "Our review is limited to a determination of whether there was sufficient evidence to support the trial court's findings." Id. "We defer to the trial court's superior opportunity to judge the credibility of the witnesses at the suppression motion hearing." Id. Point One; Pat-down search Wykert argues the trial court's ruling to admit evidence obtained as a result of Wykert's pat-down search was error because Officer Ward did not have consent or reasonable articulable suspicion to pat-down Wykert, and all evidence obtained therefrom was fruit of the poisonous tree. "The Fourth Amendment of the United States Constitution protects individuals’ right to be free from ‘unreasonable searches and seizures.’ " State v. Ledbetter , 599 S.W.3d 540 , 544 (Mo.App. W.D. 2020) (quoting U.S. Const.amend. IV ). The protections of the Fourth Amendment have been extended via the Fourteenth Amendment to defendants in state court prosecutions. Id. "There are three categories of police-citizen encounters: (1) an arrest requiring probable cause, (2) an investigative detention requiring only reasonable suspicion based upon specific articulable facts, and (3) a consensual encounter." State v. Johnson , 427 S.W.3d 867 , 872 (Mo.App. E.D. 2014). "A consensual encounter does not implicate the Fourth Amendment until the officer restrains the individual's liberty to the extent that a reasonable person would feel that he or she was not free to... 1 practice notes State v. Barnum, SD 36859 United States Court of Appeal of Missouri (US) March 30, 2022 ...Pike , 162 S.W.3d at 472. Another exception to the warrant requirement is an arrest based upon probable cause. See State v. Wykert , 639 S.W.3d 547 (Mo. App. 2022) ; State v. Ganaway , 624 S.W.3d 361, 366 (Mo. App. 2021). On appeal, "determinations of reasonable suspicion and probable cause...... 1 cases State v. Barnum, SD 36859 United States Court of Appeal of Missouri (US) March 30, 2022 ...Pike , 162 S.W.3d at 472. Another exception to the warrant requirement is an arrest based upon probable cause. See State v. Wykert , 639 S.W.3d 547 (Mo. App. 2022) ; State v. Ganaway , 624 S.W.3d 361, 366 (Mo. App. 2021). On appeal, "determinations of reasonable suspicion and probable cause......

https://case-law.vlex.com/vid/state-v-wykert-wd-902718792

Perez v. Rodriguez Bou, Nos. 77-1101 and 77-1102 - Federal Cases - Case Law - VLEX 888036942 0: [object Object]. 1: [object Object]. 2: [object Object]. 3: [object Object]. 4: [object Object]. 5: [object Object] Perez v. Rodriguez Bou, Nos. 77-1101 and 77-1102 Court United States Courts of Appeals. United States Court of Appeals (1st Circuit) Writing for the Court Before COFFIN; COFFIN Citation 575 F.2d 21 Parties Miguel PEREZ et al., Plaintiffs, Appellees, v. Dr. Ismael RODRIGUEZ BOU, Defendant, Appellant. Miguel PEREZ et al., Plaintiffs, Appellants, v. UNIVERSITY OF PUERTO RICO et al., Defendants, Appellees. Docket Number Nos. 77-1101 and 77-1102 Decision Date 05 May 1978 Page 21 575 F.2d 21 Miguel PEREZ et al., Plaintiffs, Appellees, v. Dr. Ismael RODRIGUEZ BOU, Defendant, Appellant. Miguel PEREZ et al., Plaintiffs, Appellants, v. UNIVERSITY OF PUERTO RICO et al., Defendants, Appellees. Nos. 77-1101 and 77-1102. United States Court of Appeals, First Circuit. Eli B. Arroyo, Old San Juan, P. R., with whom Geigel, Silva, Soler Favale & Arroyo, Old San Juan, P. R., was on briefs, for Dr. Ismael Rodriguez Bou and University of Puerto Rico. Luis A. Suarez Zayas, Hato Rey, P. R., with whom Pedro J. Varela, Maria Dolores Fernos, Hato Rey, P. R., Lirio C. Torres Sepulveda, Jose E. Colon Santana, and Elba Canales, Santurce, P. R., were on briefs, for Miguel Perez et al. Before COFFIN, Chief Judge, MOORE * , Senior Circuit Judge, CAMPBELL, Circuit Judge. COFFIN, Chief Judge. On the morning of January 29, 1975 approximately 100 University of Puerto Rico students marched to the office of the University's chancellor, Dr. Ismael Rodriguez Bou, to protest the University's refusal to suspend classes so that students might be free to attend certain departmental meetings. Unidentified students participating in the march banged on the doors and windows of the chancellor's office and made loud remarks. The march dispersed at Page 23 noon. During the period before and after the march the University campus was calm and tranquil. The brief period of banging on doors and shouting was the sole disruption. Two days later, several students, plaintiffs in this lawsuit were suspended from the University by Dr. Rodriguez Bou because of their allegedly disruptive activities while in the march. None of the students received any form of hearing or were given any opportunity to defend themselves prior to the suspensions. Two of the students had not even participated in the march and their suspensions were lifted within a week. A hearing was held to investigate the basis for the suspensions of the other students on February 6. The hearing examiner concluded that the suspensions were unwarranted and a short time later they were revoked. Most of the plaintiffs suffered suspension for the period of twelve days. Plaintiffs brought this suit against the University, Dr. Rodriguez Bou, and two other University officials 1 under 42 U.S.C. § 1983 alleging that their constitutional right to due process had been impaired by the summary suspensions. The district court found that the suspensions were unconstitutional, ordered them expunged from plaintiffs' academic records and ordered Dr. Rodriguez Bou and another University official jointly to pay each plaintiff one dollar damages. The court refused to award fees to the plaintiffs' attorneys because the defendants had not acted in bad faith in defending themselves against the claims against them. Both plaintiffs and defendant, Dr. Rodriguez Bou, appeal various aspects of the district court's judgment. We shall examine each one in turn. Dr. Rodriguez Bou challenges the award of damages against him on the ground that he is protected by the qualified immunity doctrine detailed in Wood v. Strickland, 420 U.S. 308 , 95 S.Ct. 992 , 43 L.Ed.2d 214 (1975). We cannot accept this analysis. The Wood v. Strickland test involves both an objective and subjective component. Subjective good faith in one's conduct is not sufficient to protect an official from civil rights liability. See Schiff v. Williams, 519 F.2d 257 , 261 (5th Cir.1975). Courts must also evaluate whether an official reasonably should have known that his actions would violate plaintiffs' rights. See Procunier v. Navarette, --- U.S. ----, ----, 98 S.Ct. 855 , 55 L.Ed.2d 24 (1978). Although the question is close, we believe it could properly be found that Dr. Rodriguez Bou should have known his action was unconstitutional. One week before he ordered the suspension of these students, the Supreme Court had ruled in Goss v. Lopez, 419 U.S. 565 , 95 S.Ct. 729 , 42 L.Ed.2d 725 (1975) (regarding suspensions) that " . . . as a general rule notice and hearing should precede removal of the student from school" , and that only those " (s)tudents whose presence poses a continuing danger to persons or property or an ongoing threat of disrupting the academic process may be immediately removed from school."Id. at 582, 95 S.Ct. at 740. Nor was this teaching unanticipated by prior federal court holdings in Puerto Rico. In Marin v. University of Puerto Rico, 377 F.Supp. 613 , 623 (D.C.P.R.), a three-judge court held that in cases "when the university has reasonable cause to believe that imminent danger to persons or property will exist if the student is permitted to remain on campus pending the full hearing" , temporary suspension in advance of the required full hearing would be permitted. That case signalled even more stringent hearing requirements than the Supreme Court later required in Goss. In the present case the district court specifically found that none of the defendants participated in any disruptive behavior, that the University campus was calm and tranquil on the day of the march, and that Dr. Rodriguez Bou did not receive any information which would indicate that plaintiffs posed a threat to property, persons, or the orderly carrying out of academic Page 24 and... 78 practice notes Rogers v. Okin, CA 75-1610-T. United States United States District Courts. 1st Circuit. United States District Courts. 1st Circuit. District of Massachusetts October 29, 1979 ...or "subjective good faith in one's conduct is not sufficient to protect an official from civil rights liability." Perez v. Rodrigues Bou, 575 F.2d 21 , 23 (1st Cir. 1978). The test is whether defendants "knew or should have known" that their actions would violate plaintiffs' constitutional r...... Serrano v. Unruh United States United States State Supreme Court (California) October 28, 1982 ...(1980) 447 U.S. 54, 100 S.Ct. 2024, 64 L.Ed.2d 723; Dennis v. Chang, supra, 611 F.2d 1302, 1309; Perez v. Rodriguez Bou (1st Cir.1978) 575 F.2d 21 , 24; Reynolds v. Coomey (1st Cir.1978) 567 F.2d 1166, 1167; Torres v. Sachs (2d Cir.1976) 538 F.2d 10, 12-14; Fairley v. Patterson, supra, 493 F...... Pearson v. Pearson, No. 23679 United States Supreme Court of West Virginia July 21, 1997 ...891 (1984); Martin v. Heckler, 773 F.2d 1145 (11th Cir.1985); Cornella v. Schweiker, 728 F.2d 978 (8th Cir.1984); Perez v. Rodriguez Bou, 575 F.2d 21 (1st Cir.1978); Miller v. Amusement Enterprises, 426 F.2d 534 (5th Cir.1970); Brandenburger v. Thompson, 494 F.2d 885 (9th Cir.1974); Lea v. ...... Vaughn v. Regents of University of California, Civ. No. S-75-733 RAR. United States United States District Courts. 9th Circuit. United States District Courts. 9th Circuit. Eastern District of California January 16, 1981 ...that a suit against the university is a suit against the state for purposes of the Eleventh Amendment. See, e. g., Perez v. Rodriguez, 575 F.2d 21 (1st Cir. 1978); Jagnandan v. Giles, 538 F.2d 1166 (5th Cir. 1976), cert. denied, 432 U.S. 910, 97 S.Ct. 2959, 53 L.Ed.2d 1083 (1977); Prebble v...... 76 cases Rogers v. Okin, CA 75-1610-T. United States United States District Courts. 1st Circuit. United States District Courts. 1st Circuit. District of Massachusetts October 29, 1979 ...or "subjective good faith in one's conduct is not sufficient to protect an official from civil rights liability." Perez v. Rodrigues Bou, 575 F.2d 21 , 23 (1st Cir. 1978). The test is whether defendants "knew or should have known" that their actions would violate plaintiffs' constitutional r...... Serrano v. Unruh United States United States State Supreme Court (California) October 28, 1982 ...(1980) 447 U.S. 54, 100 S.Ct. 2024, 64 L.Ed.2d 723; Dennis v. Chang, supra, 611 F.2d 1302, 1309; Perez v. Rodriguez Bou (1st Cir.1978) 575 F.2d 21 , 24; Reynolds v. Coomey (1st Cir.1978) 567 F.2d 1166, 1167; Torres v. Sachs (2d Cir.1976) 538 F.2d 10, 12-14; Fairley v. Patterson, supra, 493 F...... Pearson v. Pearson, No. 23679 United States Supreme Court of West Virginia July 21, 1997 ...891 (1984); Martin v. Heckler, 773 F.2d 1145 (11th Cir.1985); Cornella v. Schweiker, 728 F.2d 978 (8th Cir.1984); Perez v. Rodriguez Bou, 575 F.2d 21 (1st Cir.1978); Miller v. Amusement Enterprises, 426 F.2d 534 (5th Cir.1970); Brandenburger v. Thompson, 494 F.2d 885 (9th Cir.1974); Lea v. ...... Vaughn v. Regents of University of California, Civ. No. S-75-733 RAR. United States United States District Courts. 9th Circuit. United States District Courts. 9th Circuit. Eastern District of California January 16, 1981 ...that a suit against the university is a suit against the state for purposes of the Eleventh Amendment. See, e. g., Perez v. Rodriguez, 575 F.2d 21 (1st Cir. 1978); Jagnandan v. Giles, 538 F.2d 1166 (5th Cir. 1976), cert. denied, 432 U.S. 910, 97 S.Ct. 2959, 53 L.Ed.2d 1083 (1977); Prebble v......

https://case-law.vlex.com/vid/perez-v-rodriguez-bou-888036942

Levobupivacaine and Spinal anesthesia and Peripheral vein canulation in Pain, Postoperative - Clinical Trials Registry - ICH GCP Transversus abdominis plane (TAP) block provides effective analgesia and is now a standard of care for analgesia after cesarean section. There is no information... Pharmacokinetics of Levobupivacaine After Cesarean Section Pharmacokinetics of Levobupivacaine and Epinephrine for Transversus Abdominis Plane (TAP) Block for Cesarean Section Postoperative Analgesia Transversus abdominis plane (TAP) block provides effective analgesia and is now a standard of care for analgesia after cesarean section. There is no information on levobupivacaine pharmacokinetics post TAP after pregnancy. Objective: Generate a pharmacokinetic levobupivacaine model and its effect on the electrocardiogram (ECG). Method: The investigators will study 12 healthy term pregnant patients, scheduled for elective cesarean section under spinal anesthesia. A bilateral TAP block is performed with 20 ml 0.25% levobupivacaine with epinephrine 5 ug/ml. Sensory block will be assessed at 1-2-6 and 12 hours post puncture. 2 ml of venous blood will be obtained at 2-5-10-30-45-60-90 and 180 minutes. With a Holter machine we will study the effect of levobupivacaine plasma levels and the QTc changes. Expected results: 1) Plasma levobupivacaine levels; 2) Changes in QTc . Study Overview Status Completed Conditions Pain, Postoperative Intervention / Treatment Drug: Levobupivacaine Procedure: Spinal anesthesia Procedure: Peripheral vein canulation Procedure: Ultrasonography Device: Holter Detailed Description Introduction. Post cesarean section pain control is a challenging task since it is one of the ten most painful surgeries. Multiple strategies have been proposed for pain control, including neuraxial analgesia, systemic opioids, non-opioid drugs and peripheral nerve blocks, among others. Transversus abdominal plane (TAP) blocks have been proven to provide effective analgesia when used as part of a multimodal analgesic regimen after abdominal surgery and is becoming a popular technique for post cesarean section analgesia, although recent reports of local anesthesia toxicity have raised concerns about its safety in this population. Currently there is no information on the pharmacokinetics of levobupivacaine of the technique in pregnant patients to guide dosing in a safer way. Our objective is to generate a pharmacokinetic model to characterize the plasmatic levels of levobupivacaine co-administered with epinephrine and its effect on the ECG, for TAP block in post cesarean section patients. Methods. After institutional ethics committee approval and written informed consent, 12 term pregnant patients American Society of Anesthesiologists physical status I or II, scheduled for elective cesarean section were recruited in this prospective, single-blind pharmacokinetic study. Patients were excluded if they had any allergy/sensitivity to local anaesthetic, significant renal or liver dysfunction. An intravenous (18-gauge) catheter was placed under local anesthesia for co hydration. After the initiation of standard monitoring (continuous electrocardiogram, noninvasive arterial blood pressure, and pulse oximetry), all patients received a spinal anesthesia in the L3-L4 or L4-L5 interspace with hyperbaric bupivacaine 0,75% 1,4 ml plus 20 ug fentanyl to achieve a bilateral anesthetic level of T4 determined by pinprick. After surgery, a TAP block was performed with 20 mL of 0.25% levobupivacaine, with epinephrine 1:200.000 (5 ug/ml) on each side, under ultrasound (US) guidance. One anesthesiologist experienced in the technique performed all of the TAP blocks using a US Sonosite M-Turbo US machine (Sonosite Inc, Washington) with an L38x 10-5 megahertz (MHz), 38-mm broadband linear array probe. A second anesthesiologist evaluated and approved the US images before administration of the mixture. Blocks were performed with a 21 gauge (G), 110-mm spinal Quincke needle (N. Medical Industries Ltd., Japan) using an in-plane approach. The extent of sensory blockade of the TAP block to temperature, light touch, and sharp touch was determined using ice, cotton wool, and pinprick, respectively at 1, 2, 6 and 12 hrs post block and the metameric extent of the blockade was recorded. 2 mL venous blood samples were obtained at 2, 5, 10, 30, 45, 60, 90 and 180 minutes after the block. The duration of the blockade was also recorded and symptoms of local anesthetic systemic toxicity were assessed on every control. Concomitantly we studied the effects of the local anesthetic on myocardial electrical conduction to characterize the pharmacodynamics of TAP block. Briefly, a portable 12-lead Holter (NorthEast Monitoring®, Boston, USA) will record continuously the electrocardiogram (ECG). The information will be stored in an external flash memory card to be analyzed retrospectively with ad hoc software (NorthEast Monitoring®, Boston, USA). We will correlate the eventual changes in the QTc segment with levobupivacaine free plasma levels, which translates the effect of local anesthetics on the heart. Levobupivacaine Assay. Levobupivacaine was extracted from plasma using liquid-liquid extraction according to the methods described by Adams et al. The internal standard solution (10 mL of mepivacaine, 30 ug/mL) was added to 0.2 mL of plasma, 100 micro(u)L of sodium hydroxide (2 mol/L solution), and 0.6 mL diethyl ether. The mixture was stirred for 1 minute and centrifuged for 5 minutes at 3000 revolutions/min. Subsequently; the organic phase was transferred to another tube to which 0.25 mL of 0.05 N sulfuric acid was added. The mixture was stirred again for another minute and centrifuged for 5 minutes at 3000 revolutions/min. The aqueous phase was transferred to another tube for subsequent injection. An aliquot of 100 micro(u)L was injected into the high-performance liquid chromatography system. The linearity of the method was evaluated in the range of 0.125 to 10 ug/mL, and 3 concentrations (0.75, 3, and 7.5 ug/mL) were extracted during each protocol as controls. Knudsen have recently reported the unbound bupivacaine plasma levels thresholds for neurologic symptoms in volunteers of 0,11 ug/ml (SD 0,1 ug/ml). Ikeda et al. found that although there were no differences between the concentrations of bupivacaine and levobupivacaine in plasma, levels of unbound bupivacaine in the cerebral extracellular fluid were significantly higher than levobupivacaine. Consequently, we opted to guide our analysis using bupivacaine pharmacokinetic (PK) data. Statistical analysis. Based on the design of relatively frequent sampling planned for each patient and assuming a interindividual variability of 50%, similar to that found in a previous study, which allowed the investigators to characterize the pharmacokinetics of levobupivacaine in 11 healthy volunteers with good accuracy, an estimated number of 12 patients is suitable for the purposes of this study. Pharmacokinetic Analysis Population parameter estimations A one-compartment model with first-order input and elimination was used to describe the time profile of serum levobupivacaine concentrations. Population parameter estimates were calculated using nonlinear mixed effects modelling implemented in the program NONMEM (NONMEM 7.3, Icon Development Solutions, USA). The population parameter variability was modeled in terms of random effect (η) variables. Each variable was assumed to have a mean = 0, and a variance, denoted by ω2, was estimated. Study Type Interventional Enrollment (Actual) 12 Phase Phase 4 Contacts and Locations This section provides the contact details for those conducting the study, and information on where this study is being conducted. Study Locations Chile RM Santiago, RM, Chile, 8330024 Hospital Clínico Universidad Católica de Chile Participation Criteria Researchers look for people who fit a certain description, called eligibility criteria. Some examples of these criteria are a person's general health condition or prior treatments. Eligibility Criteria Ages Eligible for Study 18 years and older (Adult, Older Adult) Accepts Healthy Volunteers No Genders Eligible for Study Female Description Inclusion Criteria: Term pregnant patients American Society of Anesthesiologists physical status I or II, scheduled for elective cesarean section. Exclusion Criteria: Allergy/sensitivity to the local anaesthetic Significant renal or liver dysfunction. Study Plan This section provides details of the study plan, including how the study is designed and what the study is measuring. How is the study designed? Design Details Primary Purpose: Basic Science Allocation: N/A Interventional Model: Single Group Assignment Masking: None (Open Label) 1 Arms and Interventions <table><tr><th> Participant Group / Arm</th><th> Intervention / Treatment</th></tr><tbody><tr><td> Experimental: Pharmacokinetics A bilateral TAP block will be performed with 20 ml levobupivacaine 0,25% and epinephrine (5ug/ml). After the blockade, venous blood samples will be taken on predefined times.</td><td> Drug: Levobupivacaine After the block procedure, 2 ml blood samples will be taken in defined times to determine the plasma blood levels of levobupivacaine. Other Names: Chirocaine Procedure: Spinal anesthesia Spinal anesthesia in the L3-L4 or L4-L5 interspace with hyperbaric bupivacaine 0,75% 1,4 ml plus 20 ug fentanyl to achieve a bilateral anesthetic level of T4 determined by pinprick. Other Names: Subarachnoid anesthesia Procedure: Peripheral vein canulation An intravenous (18-gauge) catheter will be placed under local anesthesia for co hydration and a second IV catheter for venous sampling Other Names: Intravenous catheter Procedure: Ultrasonography TAP blocks will be performed using a ultrasound Sonosite M-Turbo US machine (Sonosite Inc, Washington) with an L38x 10-5 megahertz (MHz), 38-mm broadband linear array probe. Other Names: Ultrasound Device: Holter A portable 12-lead Holter (NorthEast Monitoring®, Boston, USA) will record continuously the electrocardiogram (ECG) after the TAP block, for 24 hrs. Other Names: Continuous electrocardiogram</td></tr></tbody></table> What is the study measuring? Primary Outcome Measures <table><tr><th> Outcome Measure</th><th> Measure Description</th><th> Time Frame</th></tr><tbody><tr><td> Levobupivacaine free plasma levels Time Frame: 180 minutes</td><td> Plasma levobupivacaine will be assessed at defined timepoints after TAP block</td><td> 180 minutes</td></tr></tbody></table> Secondary Outcome Measures <table><tr><th> Outcome Measure</th><th> Measure Description</th><th> Time Frame</th></tr><tbody><tr><td> EKG Time Frame: 12 hours</td><td> Continuous portable EKG monitoring to detect possible EKG changes (QTc segment changes) after TAP block</td><td> 12 hours</td></tr></tbody></table> Collaborators and Investigators This is where you will find people and organizations involved with this study. Sponsor Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile Investigators Principal Investigator: Hector J Lacassie, MD, Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile Publications and helpful links The person responsible for entering information about the study voluntarily provides these publications. These may be about anything related to the study. General Publications McDonnell JG, Curley G, Carney J, Benton A, Costello J, Maharaj CH, Laffey JG. The analgesic efficacy of transversus abdominis plane block after cesarean delivery: a randomized controlled trial. Anesth Analg. 2008 Jan;106(1):186-91, table of contents. doi: 10.1213/01.ane.0000290294.64090.f3. Gerbershagen HJ, Aduckathil S, van Wijck AJ, Peelen LM, Kalkman CJ, Meissner W. Pain intensity on the first day after surgery: a prospective cohort study comparing 179 surgical procedures. Anesthesiology. 2013 Apr;118(4):934-44. doi: 10.1097/ALN.0b013e31828866b3. Bardsley H, Gristwood R, Baker H, Watson N, Nimmo W. A comparison of the cardiovascular effects of levobupivacaine and rac-bupivacaine following intravenous administration to healthy volunteers. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1998 Sep;46(3):245-9. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2125.1998.00775.x. Weiss E, Jolly C, Dumoulin JL, Meftah RB, Blanie P, Laloe PA, Tabary N, Fischler M, Le Guen M. Convulsions in 2 patients after bilateral ultrasound-guided transversus abdominis plane blocks for cesarean analgesia. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2014 May-Jun;39(3):248-51. doi: 10.1097/AAP.0000000000000088. Corvetto MA, Echevarria GC, De La Fuente N, Mosqueira L, Solari S, Altermatt FR. Comparison of plasma concentrations of levobupivacaine with and without epinephrine for transversus abdominis plane block. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2012 Nov-Dec;37(6):633-7. doi: 10.1097/AAP.0b013e31826c330a. Karlsson MO, Sheiner LB. The importance of modeling interoccasion variability in population pharmacokinetic analyses. J Pharmacokinet Biopharm. 1993 Dec;21(6):735-50. doi: 10.1007/BF01113502. Ikeda Y, Oda Y, Nakamura T, Takahashi R, Miyake W, Hase I, Asada A. Pharmacokinetics of lidocaine, bupivacaine, and levobupivacaine in plasma and brain in awake rats. Anesthesiology. 2010 Jun;112(6):1396-403. doi: 10.1097/ALN.0b013e3181d9cc54. Lacassie HJ, Rolle A, Cortinez LI, Solari S, Corvetto MA, Altermatt FR. Pharmacokinetics of levobupivacaine with epinephrine in transversus abdominis plane block for postoperative analgesia after Caesarean section. Br J Anaesth. 2018 Aug;121(2):469-475. doi: 10.1016/j.bja.2018.02.070. Study record dates These dates track the progress of study record and summary results submissions to ClinicalTrials.gov. Study records and reported results are reviewed by the National Library of Medicine (NLM) to make sure they meet specific quality control standards before being posted on the public website. Study Major Dates Study Start (Actual) December 15, 2016 Primary Completion (Actual) February 15, 2017 Study Completion (Actual) February 15, 2017 Study Registration Dates First Submitted July 27, 2016 First Submitted That Met QC Criteria August 1, 2016 First Posted (Estimate) August 2, 2016 Study Record Updates Last Update Posted (Actual) February 16, 2017 Last Update Submitted That Met QC Criteria February 15, 2017 Last Verified February 1, 2017 More Information Terms related to this study Keywords Pregnancy Pharmacokinetics Cesarean section Electrocardiography levobupivacaine Additional Relevant MeSH Terms Pathologic Processes Postoperative Complications Pain Neurologic Manifestations Pain, Postoperative Physiological Effects of Drugs Central Nervous System Depressants Peripheral Nervous System Agents Sensory System Agents Anesthetics, Local Anesthetics Levobupivacaine Other Study ID Numbers 160605003 Plan for Individual participant data (IPD) Plan to Share Individual Participant Data (IPD)? No Clinical Trials on Pain, Postoperative NCT05936190 Recruiting NCT05929755 NCT05928520 NCT05924412 NCT05877131 NCT05848375

https://ichgcp.net/clinical-trials-registry/NCT02852720

Energies | Free Full-Text | Review of the Data-Driven Methods for Electricity Fraud Detection in Smart Metering Systems In smart grids, homes are equipped with smart meters (SMs) to monitor electricity consumption and report fine-grained readings to electric utility companies for billing and energy management. However, malicious consumers tamper with their SMs to report low readings to reduce their bills. This problem, known as electricity fraud, causes tremendous financial losses to electric utility companies worldwide and threatens the power grid’s stability. To detect electricity fraud, several methods have been proposed in the literature. Among the existing methods, the data-driven methods achieve state-of-art performance. Therefore, in this paper, we study the main existing data-driven electricity fraud detection methods, with emphasis on their pros and cons. We study supervised methods, including wide and deep neural networks and multi-data-source deep learning models, and unsupervised methods, including clustering. Then, we investigate how to preserve the consumers’ privacy, using encryption and federated learning, while enabling electricity fraud detection because it has been shown that fine-grained readings can reveal sensitive information about the consumers’ activities. After that, we investigate how to design robust electricity fraud detectors against adversarial attacks using ensemble learning and model distillation because they enable malicious consumers to evade detection while stealing electricity. Finally, we provide a comprehensive comparison of the existing works, followed by our recommendations for future research directions to enhance electricity fraud detection. Review of the Data-Driven Methods for Electricity Fraud Detection in Smart Metering Systems by Mahmoud M. Badr 1,2 , Mohamed I. Ibrahem 2,3 , Hisham A. Kholidy 1 , Mostafa M. Fouda 4,5 and Muhammad Ismail 6,* Department of Network and Computer Security, College of Engineering, SUNY Polytechnic Institute, Utica, NY 13502, USA Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering at Shoubra, Benha University, Cairo 11672, Egypt 4 Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, College of Science and Engineering, Idaho State University, Pocatello, ID 83209, USA 5 Center for Advanced Energy Studies (CAES), Idaho Falls, ID 83401, USA 6 Department of Computer Science, Tennessee Technological University, Cookeville, TN 38501, USA * Author to whom correspondence should be addressed. Energies 2023 , 16 (6), 2852; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16062852 Received: 31 December 2022 / Revised: 10 February 2023 / Accepted: 17 March 2023 / Published: 19 March 2023 (This article belongs to the Special Issue Secure and Efficient Communication in Smart Grids ) Abstract In smart grids, homes are equipped with smart meters (SMs) to monitor electricity consumption and report fine-grained readings to electric utility companies for billing and energy management. However, malicious consumers tamper with their SMs to report low readings to reduce their bills. This problem, known as electricity fraud, causes tremendous financial losses to electric utility companies worldwide and threatens the power grid’s stability. To detect electricity fraud, several methods have been proposed in the literature. Among the existing methods, the data-driven methods achieve state-of-art performance. Therefore, in this paper, we study the main existing data-driven electricity fraud detection methods, with emphasis on their pros and cons. We study supervised methods, including wide and deep neural networks and multi-data-source deep learning models, and unsupervised methods, including clustering. Then, we investigate how to preserve the consumers’ privacy, using encryption and federated learning, while enabling electricity fraud detection because it has been shown that fine-grained readings can reveal sensitive information about the consumers’ activities. After that, we investigate how to design robust electricity fraud detectors against adversarial attacks using ensemble learning and model distillation because they enable malicious consumers to evade detection while stealing electricity. Finally, we provide a comprehensive comparison of the existing works, followed by our recommendations for future research directions to enhance electricity fraud detection. Keywords: smart grid ; false data injection ; electricity fraud ; deep learning ; clustering ; privacy preservation ; adversarial attacks ; ensemble learning 1. Introduction The smart grid is the current upgrade of the traditional power grid. A typical smart grid architecture is shown in Figure 1 . The figure shows that the smart grid architecture comprises five main components, including an electricity generation system, transmission and distribution systems to deliver electricity to consumers, an advanced metering infrastructure (AMI) network, and a system operator [ 1 , 2 ]. The AMI allows two-way transmission of data between the consumers and the electric utility company system operator [ 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 ]. In the AMI, homes, buildings, and factories are equipped with smart meters (SMs) to monitor the consumers electricity consumption and report fine-grained readings, either through wireless communication networks [ 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 ] or wired communication alternatives, e.g., power line communication (PLC) [ 19 , 20 ], to the electric utility company system operator for billing and energy management [ 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 ]. Also, in the smart grid, renewable energy resources such as solar panels and wind turbines are used for generating environmentally-friendly electricity [ 32 , 33 , 34 ]. Despite the benefits brought by the smart grid, it suffers from security and privacy issues [ 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 ]. Figure 1. Smart grid architecture. In this paper, we investigate the electricity fraud problem. Malicious smart grid consumers can compromise their SMs to report low readings to the electric utility company to reduce their bills. SMs can be hacked as follows. Given that passwords used to secure the ANSI optical ports of SMs are not strong enough [ 32 , 34 ], malicious consumers can get access to their SMs by launching a brute force attack against the ANSI optical port using tools, such as Terminator [ 32 , 51 , 52 , 53 ]. After that, the malicious consumer can write a malicious script and install it to get control of the SM [ 32 ]. Furthermore, it has been shown recently how malicious consumers can exploit the vulnerabilities of the AMI wireless networks to commit electricity fraud [ 54 ]. The electricity fraud problem has devastating consequences. On the one hand, electric utility companies worldwide lose billions of dollars every year. As an example, the annual loss in India due to electricity fraud is $ 17 billion [ 2 ]. In a similar case, the annual losses in Brazil and China are about 16% and 6% of their gross electricity generation, respectively [ 55 , 56 ]. This is not only the case in developing countries, but developed countries also have the problem of electricity fraud. For instance, the annual losses in the United States, United Kingdom, and Canada are $ 6 billion, $ 173 million, and $ 100 million, respectively [ 2 , 56 , 57 ]. On the other hand, electricity fraud affects the power grid stability and may result in complete blackouts [ 1 , 58 , 59 ]. To detect electricity fraud, various methods have been proposed in the literature. These methods can be classified as hardware-based methods and data-driven methods. The hardware-based methods require special hardware, i.e., additional devices, for detecting electricity fraud. There are many limitations to the hardware-based methods [ 60 ]. First, how expensive it is to deploy special devices. Second, how vulnerable they are. Last, is the issue of maintenance, where it is difficult and burdensome to keep the devices’ functionality. One common issue is the failure of batteries in smart devices and the necessity to replace them. On the other hand, there are data-driven electricity fraud detection methods that work on data gathered from the SMs, sensors, and infrastructure [ 60 ]. Moreover, by looking into the literature on electricity fraud detection, we find that machine learning (ML)-based detectors offer superiority over the other methods, such as state-estimation-based and game-theory-based detectors [ 61 ]. The ML-based detectors employ either unsupervised techniques, e.g., clustering [ 62 ], or supervised techniques, including shallow architectures, such as decision tree (DT) [ 63 ], random forest (RF), extreme gradient boosted trees (XGBoost) [ 64 ], and support vector machine (SVM) [ 58 ], and deep architectures, such as feed-forward neural networks (FFNNs) [ 2 ], convolutional neural networks (CNNs) [ 1 ], and recurrent neural networks (RNNs) [ 61 ]. However, it has been proved in the literature that deep learning (DL) architectures outperform shallow learning architectures in the area of electricity fraud detection [ 65 ]. In this paper, we review the main existing data-driven electricity fraud-detecting methods. In addition, we discuss how to perform electricity fraud detection without violating the privacy of smart grid consumers. Also, we clarify that it is not enough to design an accurate electricity fraud detector without considering robustness against adversarial attacks because malicious consumers can simply evade the detectors and continue stealing electricity. Given the severity of electricity fraud, we recommend a set of future research directions to benefit the research community in enhancing electricity fraud detection. Our major contributions in this paper are highlighted as follows. We address the electricity fraud problem in smart grid metering systems and review the main existing data-driven approaches for electricity fraud detection with emphasis on the pros and cons of each approach. We investigate the new trends and challenges in electricity fraud detection, including efficient and privacy-preserving electricity fraud detection and robust electricity fraud detectors against adversarial attacks. We provide a comprehensive comparison of the existing works in terms of the type of metering system, the dataset used, data analysis, data-driven approach, privacy preservation, robustness against adversarial attacks, and special hardware requirement. We recommend a set of future research directions for interested researchers in investigating electricity fraud detection. The rest of this paper is organized as follows. In Section 2 , we study the existing data-driven methods for electricity fraud detection, how to preserve the consumers’ privacy while enabling electricity fraud detection, and how to secure the electricity fraud detectors against adversarial attacks. Section 3 compares the existing works. In Section 4 , we list some future research directions for interested scholars. Finally, Section 5 concludes our paper. 2. Data-Driven Electricity Fraud Detection Methods 2.1. Wide and Deep Convolutional Neural Networks 2.1.1. Existing Research Issues Electricity fraud detection has recently become easier with the introduction of smart grids. Although it has made it easier, there are still multiple obstacles to overcome. To look for anomalies in electricity usage, the algorithm has to sift through tons and tons of data. Parts of the data can be noisy and inaccurate. The algorithm has to determine which data points qualify and which need to be discarded. The data is also in one-dimensional time-series format and with the extensive amount, it is difficult to read and look for patterns. Electricity fraud data is also different in the sense that traditional machine learning and neural network methods do not work on it. SVM and AI neural networks are not able to be applied to the dataset due to their complex nature [ 60 ]. There are several limitation factors in the research and the methods as well. Data collection and monitoring require specific devices that are able to include artificial intelligence features to have the correct data points. This leads to a further limitation as not all traditional machine learning methods work correctly on the dataset. In smart grids, hardware devices such as SMs and sensors need to be installed in all areas to get accurate readings. Smart devices, just like any other cyber-physical system, are susceptible to cyber-attacks and data leaks. There are also physical limitations such as weather conditions and security issues depending on locations. These devices also require maintenance such as protection against vandalism and regular updates such as replacing batteries. The limitations make the task harder to solve with a traditional solution. 2.1.2. Electricity Fraud Problem Analysis To demonstrate the electricity fraud problem, Zheng et al. have used the dataset provided by the State Grid Corporation of China (SGCC) [ 60 ]. The dataset is from a reported duration of 1035 days, which totals around three years. The number of consumers from whom the data was collected is 42,372 individuals. In [ 60 ], the authors depict the energy consumption within one month (4-week duration) for two randomly selected consumers from the SGCC dataset, a regular consumer and an electricity thief. For each consumer, they first showed the consumption by the dates, and then showed the consumption by the weeks. The representation of consumption by dates does not give any distinction between regular consumers and thieves. On the other hand, the representation of consumption by dates enables us to distinguish between regular consumers and thieves as follows. For regular consumers, there is periodicity in energy consumption. The periodicity demonstrates that peak energy usage is typically on the third day of each week and the low point of consumption is typically on the fifth day of each week. This was the case for the whole three years of the SGCC dataset. This is vital to understand electricity fraud because it reflects what a normal periodicity of usage from regular consumers would look like. For electricity thieves, it has been shown in [ 60 ] that electricity fraud has an effect on periodicity. In particular, the electricity consumption of the investigated electricity thief throughout the whole month was not constant in terms of patterns, unlike how it was for the investigated regular consumer, where the periodicity of consumption matched a pattern for the whole month. This inequality in periodicity is one form of detecting electricity fraud anomalies. In other words, electricity fraud shows lesser periodic data when compared to normal consumption from legitimate consumers. Although the presence/absence of periodicity can enable a distinction between legitimate consumers and thieves, analyzing the periodicity in energy consumption is not easy for many reasons. These reasons include the enormous size and noisy nature of the electricity consumption data. In addition to that, conventional machine learning models, such as SVM, cannot capture the data periodicity due to their limited generalization capabilities. This makes it challenging to figure out if electricity fraud is occurring. A solution to this is to use the wide and deep convolutional neural networks framework proposed by Zheng et al. in [ 60 ]. 2.1.3. Proposed Solution In the proposed wide and deep convolutional neural networks framework, there are two components; wide component and deep CNN component. The Wide component is represented in the framework through a layer of a fully connected neural network. The wide component extracts global knowledge from the one-dimensional electricity consumption date. On the other hand, the deep CNN component is meant to identify the periodicity/non-periodicity of the electricity consumption data. When taking a glance at the CNN detection method, it is hard to figure out the periodicity/non-periodicity with one-dimensional data due to the consumption of electricity fluctuating every day in a relatively independent way. A solution to this is to transform the one-dimensional electricity consumption data into two-dimensional data and feed it to the deep CNN component. The deep CNN component analyzes the anomalies by looking at several weeks, instead of several days. 2.2. Novel Combined Data-Driven Approach In [ 66 ], Zheng et al. proposed a novel combined data-driven approach for electricity fraud detection. In particular, they combine two novel data mining techniques to detect electricity fraud. Many of the existing electricity fraud detection techniques require the usage of labeled datasets or additional system information, which causes issues in detection accuracy. The combination of two techniques used in this paper, maximum information coefficient (MIC) and clustering technique by fast search and find of density peaks (CFSFDP), allows for better electricity fraud detection. MIC finds the correlation between non-technical loss (NTL) and certain electricity behavior of the consumer whereas CFSFDP finds abnormal consumers amongst thousands of load profiles by using different arbitrary shapes. Both methods utilize ML to automate the process of analyzing the data and detecting anomalies to detect electricity fraud. For both MIC and CFSFDP methods to be applied properly to successfully detect electricity fraud, observer meters are required to be installed for every area that contains a group of consumers. For every area, an observer meter measures the sum of all consumers’ electricity consumption within that area. Observer meters are more secure than regular SMs, making it harder for malicious users to tamper with the meter data. The data in these observer meters is required by both the MIC and the CFSFDP methods to be implemented properly. 2.2.1. Maximum Information Coefficient (MIC) This method quantifies the association between tampered load profiles and the NTLs. NTLs are things such as electricity theft, unbilled accounts, billing errors, or systematic errors. To calculate the number of NTLs, the following equation is used: e t = E t − ∑ i ∈ A x ˜ i , t , (1) where e t is the amount of NTLs at time t , E t is the observer meter recorded data at time t , and x ˜ i , t is the reported electricity consumption data by the SM of consumer i at time t . Thus, the amount of NTLs at any time is calculated as the difference between the observer meter data and the sum of all consumer’s SMs data. Once this is calculated, it is compared to the actual SM data using MIC to detect any electricity fraud. The calculations are done automatically, and the comparisons are done by an ML algorithm to analyze anomalies to detect electricity fraud. This method is set up by installing observer meters in addition to the SMs to get accurate information about electricity fraud. However, if the observer meters are tampered with by false data injection (FDI), the information will be highly inaccurate, and this method fails to work. 2.2.2. Clustering Technique by Fast Search and Find of Density Peaks (CFSFDP) This method clusters the data by finding density peaks and comparing them to other clusters of data nearby. CFSFDP is able to detect outliers in energy fraud based on data points gathered through SM data. It detects anomalies and finds outliers in load profiles in energy fraud that cannot be detected using MIC. This method tackles the issue of FDI by using algorithms to deter FDI and correct the data. There are six FDI types that this method tackles and they are mathematically defined in Table 1 [ 66 ]. In the table, x t is the original electricity consumption data at time t , and x ˜ t is the tampered data. In FD11, the reported data is generated by multiplying the original consumption data by a constant small fraction all the time. FD12 shows that consumption data above a threshold are clipped and in FD13, a constant value is subtracted from all the reported data so that the reported data cannot be less than zero. FD14 uses a random period defined each day during which the original consumption data are replaced by zeros before being reported. In FD15, all reports are modified by scaling down the original consumption data by different percentages. Lastly, in FD16, synthetic reports are created by multiplying the average consumption of the previous month by a random percentage defined in each of the reports. Table 1. Six types of FDI. 2.2.3. Combining MIC and CFSFDP Finally, to improve both methods, Zheng et al. [ 66 ] proposed to combine both MIC and CFSFDP to resolve the issues around electricity fraud. Figure 2 shows the framework of how to combine MIC and CFSFFDP in order to detect electricity fraud and how the results of the proposed methods are used in the next steps of the detection technique [ 66 ]. For an area with k consumers and z -day recorded data series, a time series of NTL is first calculated using SMs data and observer meter data according to Equation ( 1 ). The next step is the normalization of each load profile, x ˜ p , by dividing it with m a x t x ˜ p , and then the SM dataset is reconstructed into a normalized load profile dataset of k × z vectors. A correlation calculation is then performed with the normalized load profiles and NTL using the MIC. Normalized load profiles are also used as input to the CFSFDP method for calculating the degree of abnormality β i , j . The MIC and degree of abnormality β i , j are then used to calculate suspicion R a n k 1 and suspicion R a n k 2 , respectively. The two ranks are combined using one of two ways, either ( R a n k 1 + R a n k 2 2 ) or ( R a n k 1 × R a n k 2 ) . After calculating the combined rank for each consumer, if it turns out to be too high for a certain consumer, then the consumer is flagged for potential electricity fraud. This combination of both the MIC and CFSFDP methods complements each other as CFSFDP allows for the detection of abnormal profiles and MIC allows for the correction of those profiles to the NTLs. Figure 2. Combined framework. 2.3. Detecting Electricity Fraud in Net-Metering Systems 2.3.1. Existing Research Issues In smart grids, there are three types of metering systems, including consumption-metering, feed-in-tariff, and net-metering systems [ 32 , 33 , 34 , 67 , 68 ]. In the consumption-metering systems, homes are not equipped with renewable energy sources and satisfy their electricity consumption needs from the power grid. In these systems, homes are only equipped with SMs reporting fine-grained electricity consumption readings to the electric utility company. On the other hand, in feed-in-tariff and net-metering systems, homes are equipped with renewable energy resources so that they can generate electricity to satisfy their consumption needs and sell the excess generated electricity to electric utility companies. Apart from [ 34 , 68 ], the existing works only investigated electricity fraud in either consumption-metering [ 60 ] or feed-in-tariff systems [ 32 , 33 ]. However, the electricity fraud problem is different and more challenging in the net-metering systems, where homes are equipped with net meters that report net readings accounting for the difference between the consumed energy by homes and generated energy from renewable resources. This is because the net readings depend on both the consumers’ consumption patterns and renewable energy resources generation patterns. Moreover, there is no publicly available dataset for the net-metering systems to be used for investigating the electricity fraud problem in these systems. 2.3.2. Data Analysis To investigate the electricity fraud problem in net-metering systems, Badr et al. [ 34 ] have prepared a dataset depending on the Ausgrid dataset [ 69 ] and the SOLCAST website [ 70 ]. The Ausgrid dataset is a real dataset released by Ausgrid, the largest distributor of electricity on Australia’s east coast. This dataset contains real electricity consumption and generation readings recorded every 30 min by a group of customers from Sydney and New South Wales, whose homes are equipped with rooftop solar panels. The recorded readings are from 1 July 2010 to 30 June 2013. SOLCAST is a website providing weather information for any place in the world during a specified time range. By processing the Ausgrid dataset, Badr et al. [ 34 ] obtained net readings of 31 customers. By exploiting the SOLCAST website and the available location information about the participating customers from the Ausgrid dataset, Badr et al. [ 34 ] obtained weather information, including the solar irradiance and temperature, in the same locations of the customers and in the same time range of the Ausgrid dataset. Finally, for each customer, the prepared dataset contains the customer net readings, the corresponding solar irradiance and temperature values, the day of the week, the season of the year, and C M a x , which is the maximum generation capacity from the customer installed solar panels. Furthermore, because the Ausgrid dataset contains only true readings from benign customers, i.e., it does not contain any electricity fraud examples, Badr et al. [ 34 ] proposed a set of realistic attacks that emulate the electricity fraud behavior of malicious customers. they used these attacks to synthesize electricity fraud examples. To understand the electricity fraud problem in net-metering systems, Badr et al. [ 34 ] analyzed the prepared dataset. In particular, they found time correlations among the net readings reported by benign customers. Moreover, they found correlations between the reported net readings reported by benign customers and the corresponding solar irradiance and temperature values. 2.3.3. Proposed Solution Building upon the above data analysis, Badr et al. [ 34 ] designed a multi-stage, multi-data-source DL model for detecting electricity fraud in net-metering system. The idea behind their design is that although a malicious customer is capable of reporting false net readings to deceive the electric utility company to achieve higher profit, he/she has no control over the data collected from trustworthy sources, including the solar irradiance, temperature, day, week, and C M a x . Badr et al. [ 34 ], designed their detector in three stages. The first stage is a hybrid CNN and GRU model that takes the net readings of a particular customer on a certain day. The second stage is a stack of GRU layers whose input is a concatenation of the output from the first stage and the corresponding solar irradiance and temperature values. The final stage is a stack of dense layers whose input is a concatenation of the output from the second stage and the corresponding day, season, and C M a x . The results in [ 34 ] demonstrate that depending on some auxiliary data from trustworthy sources in addition to the reported net readings from the customers enhances electricity fraud detection. 2.4. Privacy-Preserving Electricity Fraud Detection Most of the existing data-driven approaches depend on the reported fine-grained electricity consumption readings for detecting electricity fraud. However, the fine-grained readings may reveal sensitive information about the smart grid consumers, including the appliances being used and whether they are on travel [ 1 , 2 ]. This sensitive information threatens the consumers’ privacy and may be misused for criminal activities, such as burglary. To enable electricity fraud detection while preserving the consumers’ privacy, several solutions have been proposed in the literature [ 1 , 2 , 71 , 72 , 73 , 74 , 75 ]. In [ 71 , 72 ], Salinas et al. proposed a set of distributed peer-to-peer (P2P) algorithms to preserve the consumers privacy. These algorithms are used for exchanging messages among the SMs for solving a linear system of equations (LSE) for calculating SMs honesty coefficients. Instead of depending on the fine-grained readings, the calculated coefficients are used by the electric utility company for detecting electricity fraud. However, the schemes in [ 71 , 72 ] suffer from the following limitations [ 1 , 2 ]. First, [ 71 , 72 ] assume that the SMs apply the schemes honestly but they fail if the SMs manipulate the messages sent to their peers. Second, these schemes require the availability of power line losses beforehand, which is practically hard. Third, these schemes only considered one type of electricity fraud cyber-attacks but attackers can steal electricity in different ways as illustrated in Table 1 . In [ 73 ], Salinas et al. proposed a privacy-preserving electricity fraud detection scheme based on the Kalman filter. In particular, a P2P state estimation approach based on the Kalman filter is executed for detecting electricity fraud. In this scheme, the SMs collaborate to calculate the line currents and voltages for each SM. Then, instead of reporting their fine-grained readings, the SMs report the calculated currents and voltages to the electric utility company to be compared with predefined thresholds for detecting electricity fraud. However, this scheme suffers from the following limitations [ 1 , 2 , 51 ]. First, it depends on state estimation for detecting electricity fraud, which is less accurate than using ML [ 58 ]. Second, like [ 71 , 72 ], the scheme in [ 73 ] assumes that the SMs apply the state estimation protocol honestly, which means that it fails if the SMs manipulate the messages sent to their peers. In [ 75 ], Yao et al. proposed a privacy-preserving electricity fraud scheme based on encrypting the fine-grained reading before sending them to the electric utility company. In particular, the SMs report their encrypted readings to two entities. The first entity called the server gateway, is assumed to be fully trusted. Therefore, it is allowed to decrypt the reported fine-grained readings and run a CNN-based electricity fraud detector that reports the results to the electric utility company. The second entity, called gateway, is not trusted and is allowed only to aggregate the individual encrypted readings for a group of consumers in a certain area and report the plain-text aggregated reading to the electric utility company for energy management without being able to access the individual plain-text readings. However, in reality, the entity, which is assumed trusted, could misuse the data itself [ 1 , 2 ]. To resolve the research issues identified in [ 71 , 72 , 73 , 74 , 75 ], Nabil et al. [ 1 ] proposed a privacy-preserving electricity fraud detection scheme based on secure multi-party computation (SMC). To preserve the consumers’ privacy, the proposed scheme allows them to report masked fine-grained readings to the electric utility company. This scheme depends on secret sharing for allowing electric utility companies to perform billing and load monitoring from the received masked readings. Moreover, this scheme depends on an interactive SMC protocol between the electric utility company and each consumer SMs using arithmetic and binary circuits for detecting electricity fraud. By executing this protocol, a CNN-based electricity fraud detector is evaluated on the fine-grained readings reported by each consumer per day for detecting electricity fraud in a privacy-preserving manner. However, this scheme suffers from the following limitations [ 2 ]. First, it suffers from large computation and communication overheads, which is not suitable for SMs because these devices have limited resources. Second, the CNN-based detector involves nonlinearities that have to be approximated by linear functions for allowing privacy-preserving evaluation. These approximations affect the accuracy of the detector. Third, the prediction results of the CNN-based detector are known to both the electric utility company and consumers, which allows malicious consumers to conceal any signs of electricity fraud before on-site inspections. To resolve the research issues identified in [ 1 ], Ibrahem et al. [ 2 ] proposed an efficient privacy-preserving electricity fraud detection based on lightweight functional encryption (FE). In particular, FE allows the consumers to send encrypted fine-grained readings to the electric utility company to preserve their privacy while allowing the electric utility company to perform billing, monitoring, and electricity fraud detection without accessing the individual plain-text readings. Using FE, each consumer SM is assigned a unique secret key for encrypting the readings and the electric utility company is given a decryption key for privacy-preserving electricity fraud detection. The electric utility company has an FFNN-based detector with its first layer encrypted using FE. Then, using the decryption key, the electric utility company implements an inner product between the encrypted readings and the encrypted model to detect electricity fraud. Federated Learning-Based Electricity Fraud Detection Unlike the previous works [ 1 , 2 , 71 , 72 , 73 , 74 , 75 ], Mi et al. [ 76 ] proposed a privacy-preserving electricity fraud detection framework based on federated learning (FL). FL allows multiple data owners to train a global ML model in a privacy-preserving way [ 77 , 78 , 79 , 80 , 81 ]. Instead of sharing their data with a central server for training a global model, the data owners train local ML models on their private data and only share the parameters of their models with the server to be aggregated for building the global model [ 77 , 78 ]. In [ 76 ], for detecting electricity fraud two servers and a number of detection stations are required. In particular, the consumers use differential privacy (DP) to preserve the privacy of their readings before sending them to the detection stations. The detection stations train local ML models on the received data. Then, the servers and detection stations collaboratively build a global electricity fraud detection model using FL. However, using DP for preserving privacy comes at the cost of the electricity fraud detection accuracy, i.e., there is a trade-off between privacy and accuracy [ 82 , 83 ]. 2.5. Robust Electricity Fraud Detection against Adversarial Attacks 2.5.1. Existing Research Issues Although most of the existing ML-based detectors achieve acceptable performance in detecting electricity fraud cyber-attacks, they are not reliable due to their vulnerability to adversarial attacks targeting ML. It has been shown in [ 84 , 85 , 86 , 87 ] that the existing ML-based electricity fraud detectors are vulnerable to poisoning and evasion attacks. In poisoning attacks, the attackers attack the ML models during the training phase. In particular, if an attacker has access to the training dataset, he/she can either modify the existing samples or insert newly crafted samples. In [ 84 ], Takiddin et al. have launched a poisoning attack by assuming attackers have the ability to do label flipping, i.e., mislabel some malicious samples as legitimate and some benign samples as electricity fraud. Takiddin et al. have run some experiments with different percentages of the adversarial samples, i.e., mislabeled samples, and the results demonstrated the effectiveness of the attack. Moreover, the results showed that the higher the percentage of adversarial samples, the more the performance of the detector deteriorates. Takiddin et al. [ 84 ] proved that poisoning attacks can lead to up to a 17% reduction in electricity fraud detection performance of the existing ML-based detectors. On the other hand, in evasion attacks, the attackers attack the ML models during the run-time phase. In particular, given a properly trained ML model, an attacker tries to push the ML model for providing wrong outputs. In [ 86 ], Li et al. have launched evasion attacks against the existing ML-based electricity fraud detectors. They used popular algorithms, including the fast gradient sign method (FGSM) [ 88 ], the fast gradient value (FGV) [ 89 ], and DeepFool [ 90 ], to create adversarial samples that can bypass the existing detectors. Using the previous algorithms, they can calculate slight perturbations to be added to electricity fraud samples so that they remain malicious while seen by the detectors as benign. Moreover, Li et al. [ 85 , 86 ] have proposed a new algorithm, called SearchFromFree, that is capable of generating adversarial samples evading the existing detectors while maximizing the attacker’s achievable profit. In [ 87 ], Takiddin et al., have shown the seriousness of evasion attacks on the performance of the existing ML-based detectors by proposing a more powerful evasion attack that does not only depend on the attacker’s SM readings but also on its neighboring readings. Moreover, Badr et al. [ 91 ] have shown that the existing global electricity fraud detectors are prone to a new kind of evasion attack, which can be launched by using a generative adversarial network (GAN). The idea of this attack is to exploit the variance in the electricity consumption levels of the different consumers. In particular, the global electricity fraud detection approach employs one detector for detecting electricity fraud from all consumers. Some consumers are characterized by low electricity consumption levels, while other consumers are characterized by high electricity consumption levels. For a malicious high-consumption consumer to commit electricity fraud without being detected, he/she can train a GAN to generate fake low-consumption readings and report them instead of his/her real consumption readings as shown in Figure 3 [ 91 ]. Badr et al. [ 91 ] have proved the seriousness of this attack by training a GAN to generate fake electricity consumption samples and using the generated samples for evading various global detectors of different architectures with high success rates. Figure 3. Evasion attack based on GAN. 2.5.2. Proposed Solutions Although adversarial attacks against ML models cannot be completely avoided, there are some defense strategies that can be used to alleviate them or make it harder for the attacker to find adversarial samples. Three popular defense strategies are adversarial training [ 92 ], model distillation [ 93 ], and ensemble learning [ 94 ]. To defend against the existing adversarial attacks and produce robust electricity fraud detectors, several solutions have been proposed in the literature [ 84 , 86 , 87 , 91 , 95 ]. To defend against poisoning attacks, Takiddin et al. [ 84 ] proposed a robust detector based on ensemble learning. The proposed detector is a combination of a deep auto-encoder with attention (AEA), GRU, and feed-forward neural networks (FFNNs). Takiddin et al. provided two variations of the proposed detector. The first one is based on ensemble averaging, where three different models, including AEA, GRU, and FFNN, are trained, and then the detector’s final decision is based on the average of the outputs of the three. The second detector is based on a sequential ensemble, where there is a sequence of three models so that the output of each model is processed by the following model and the detector’s final decision is taken from the last model in the sequence. The results in [ 84 ] indicate that the second detector is more robust than the first detector and provides at least a 10% increase in robustness against poisoning attacks compared to the existing electricity fraud detectors. To defend against evasion attacks, Li et al. [ 86 ] proposed a robust electricity fraud detector based on the model distillation method. Their proposed detector makes it hard for the attacker to find an adversarial sample with high profit. In other words, their detector forces the attacker to significantly minimize his/her achievable profit to be able to evade detection. The idea of the proposed detector is shown in Figure 4 [ 86 ]. The detector is built in two steps. In the first step, a training dataset { X , Y } is used to train an ML model M 1 . Then, M 1 is used for giving new labels M 1 ( X ) for the training samples X , where the new label for each sample is the vector of output probabilities from the softmax layer of M 1 . In the second step, the new dataset { X , M 1 ( X ) } is used for training a distilled model M 2 that has a similar structure to M 1 . Papernot et al. [ 93 ] have proved that the distilled model is less sensitive to the changes in the input sample, and thus more robust against evasion attacks. Also, to defend against evasion attacks, Takiddin et al. [ 87 ] proposed a robust detector that is based on sequential ensemble learning. The proposed detector involves an attentive auto-encoder, convolutional-recurrent, and FFNNs. The detector is also an anomaly detector that is trained only on benign samples of true readings aiming at identifying both traditional electricity fraud cyber-attacks and evasion attacks. The results in [ 87 ] indicate that the proposed detector is far more robust than the existing electricity fraud detectors. Figure 4. Model distillation. To defend against the GAN-based evasion attacks, Badr et al. [ 91 ] proposed a clustering-based electricity fraud detection approach. Instead of building one global detector to detect electricity fraud from all consumers, multiple detectors can be employed. In particular, an electric utility company can cluster its consumers based on some trustworthy factors affecting their electricity consumption level, including but not limited to geographical location, house size, and contracted power. After that, it builds a specific electricity fraud detector for each cluster. As a result, launching the GAN-based evasion attack against the cluster-specific detector is not gainful because all the consumers of the same cluster have similar electricity consumption levels. On the other hand, faking the readings of the low-consumption consumers in the other clusters is not successful because the fake-generated samples can easily be detected by the cluster-specific detectors as indicated by the results in [ 91 ]. 2.6. Blockchain-Based Electricity Fraud Detection In [ 96 ], Casado-Vara et al. investigated how blockchain could improve electricity fraud detection. Blockchain is the underlying technology behind cryptocurrencies. It has gained popularity since the appearance of Bitcoin and is currently used in various applications beyond cryptocurrencies, including smart transportation systems [ 97 , 98 ], smart healthcare systems [ 99 , 100 ], and smart grids [ 96 ]. Blockchain removed the need for a trusted third party by replacing the central architecture model with a decentralized architecture avoiding the single point of failure and transparency issues. Blockchain is a distributed ledger that is shared among multiple network entities to store transactions in a secure and immutable way. Given the blockchain advantages, Casado-Vara et al. [ 96 ] proposed a blockchain-based electricity fraud detection system. In their system, a wireless sensor network (WSN) of nodes is used to monitor the power distribution grid, and the WSN nodes form a private blockchain. The consumers’ SMs act as blockchain users that can only transmit their reading transactions to the blockchain nodes. On the other hand, the WSN nodes act as blockchain miners who can record data on the ledger and also send their sensed data to the blockchain. Through the difference between the WSN nodes transmitted data and the SMs transmitted readings, NTLs can be calculated and localized. Then, a clustering algorithm is used for detecting electricity fraud. 3. Comparison of the Existing Works In this section, we discuss the limitations of the existing works in the literature and provide a comparison of them in terms of the type of metering system, the dataset used, data analysis, data-driven approach, privacy preservation, robustness against adversarial attacks, and special hardware requirement. Table 2 summarizes our comparison. First, we can observe from the table that most of the existing works focus on detecting electricity fraud in consumption-metering systems, few works [ 32 , 33 ] investigated the problem in fit-in-tariff systems, and [ 34 ] is the only existing work investigating the problem in net-metering systems. Second, we can observe that although different datasets have been used in the literature, the Irish dataset [ 101 ] is the most used one. Third, we can observe that few works [ 34 , 60 , 66 ] did data analysis in order to design a suitable detector. Fourth, we can observe that unlike most of the existing works, the works [ 1 , 2 , 76 ] investigated practical privacy-preserving electricity fraud detection. However, privacy in [ 1 ] comes at the cost of high computation and communication overheads and privacy in [ 76 ] comes at the cost of reduced model accuracy. Fifth, unlike most of the existing works that focus on designing accurate detectors without considering the vulnerability to adversarial attacks, the works [ 84 , 86 , 87 , 91 ] investigated robust electricity fraud detectors. Finally, unlike most of the existing works that do not need special hardware for detecting electricity fraud, the works [ 66 ], [ 76 ] and [ 96 ] require observer meters, detection stations, and WSN nodes, respectively. Table 2. Comparison of the existing works. 4. Recommendations for Future Directions As we have seen electricity fraud is a big problem that causes huge financial losses and threatens the power grid stability. Given that, work in electricity fraud detection should continue until reaching accurate, practical, lightweight, privacy-preserving, and robust electricity fraud detection methods that remain effective against zero-day attacks [ 103 ]. Therefore, we recommend the following research directions for interested scholars. Lightweight Privacy-Preserving Detectors. SMs are usually cost-effective devices and do not have too much computational power and communication resources. Thus, privacy-preserving electricity fraud detection methods should be continuously upgraded for improved efficiency. Integrating Relevant Data. We have seen some reach efforts to integrate data from relevant sources to enhance electricity fraud detection [ 33 , 104 , 105 , 106 , 107 ]. Investigating more relevant data sources beyond the control of malicious consumers should continue. Moreover, researchers are encouraged to seek integration between hardware-based and data-driven-based methods for accurate detection. Security against Adversarial Attacks. We have seen some reach efforts to secure electricity fraud detectors against adversarial attacks. However, the existing works only consider one attack in designing their detector. Different defense strategies are required for thwarting different attacks. Therefore, seeking an electricity fraud detector robust against multiple attacks is still required. Continuous Learning Detectors. Along with implementing methods to help detect electricity fraud, these methods should be continuously monitored and upgraded. This is because they will eventually be discovered by malicious consumers and they will try new ways to circumvent them. Smart grid security personnel should monitor these methods for any discrepancies and errors that could come up. A discovered discrepancy or problem should be flagged and patched to maintain availability and reliability. In light of the existing limitations, we recommend an electricity fraud detection model with the following properties. It will employ more advanced DL architecture and combine data from different sources to provide high detection accuracy. It will adopt continuous learning to be ready for the zero-day attacks the detector is not trained on. It will employ a lightweight cryptosystem to efficiently preserve the consumers’ privacy. It will combine ensemble learning with model distillation to be robust against various adversarial attacks. 5. Conclusions To combat the rise of electricity fraud, many different approaches have been tried. Among the existing approaches, the data-driven approaches have proved to provide the state-of-art-performance. Therefore, in this paper, we studied the main existing works and analyzed the advantages and disadvantages of each work. Then, we have compared the existing privacy-preserving electricity fraud methods in terms of computation and communication overheads and degradation in the detection accuracy. Also, we have discussed the vulnerability of the electricity fraud detectors to adversarial attacks, including poisoning and evasion attacks. Then, we discussed some defense strategies to make the detectors robust against adversarial attacks. Moreover, we have provided a comprehensive comparison between the existing electricity fraud detection works in terms of the type of metering system, the dataset used, data analysis, data-driven approach, privacy preservation, robustness against adversarial attacks, and special hardware requirement. In the end, we have recommended future research directions, including lightweight privacy-preserving detectors, Integrating relevant data for accurate detection, security against various attacks simultaneously, and continuous learning detectors. Author Contributions Conceptualization, M.M.B., M.I.I., H.A.K., M.M.F. and M.I.; methodology, M.M.B., M.M.F. and M.I.I.; investigation, M.M.B., M.I.I., H.A.K., M.M.F. and M.I.; writing—original draft preparation, M.M.B., M.I.I. and M.M.F.; writing—review and editing, H.A.K., M.M.F. and M.I.; supervision, H.A.K., M.M.F. and M.I.; resources, M.M.B., M.I.I., H.A.K., M.M.F. and M.I.; data curation, M.M.B., M.I.I., H.A.K., M.M.F. and M.I.; visualization, M.M.B. and M.I.I. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding This research received no external funding. Data Availability Statement Not applicable. Conflicts of Interest The authors declare no conflict of interest. References Nabil, M.; Ismail, M.; Mahmoud, M.M.E.A.; Alasmary, W.; Serpedin, E. PPETD: Privacy-Preserving Electricity Theft Detection Scheme With Load Monitoring and Billing for AMI Networks. IEEE Access 2019 , 7 , 96334–96348. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Ibrahem, M.I.; Nabil, M.; Fouda, M.M.; Mahmoud, M.M.E.A.; Alasmary, W.; Alsolami, F. Efficient Privacy-Preserving Electricity Theft Detection With Dynamic Billing and Load Monitoring for AMI Networks. IEEE Internet Things J. 2021 , 8 , 1243–1258. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Fadlullah, Z.M.; Fouda, M.M.; Kato, N.; Takeuchi, A.; Iwasaki, N.; Nozaki, Y. Toward intelligent machine-to-machine communications in smart grid. IEEE Commun. Mag. 2011 , 49 , 60–65. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Ibrahem, M.I.; Badr, M.M.; Fouda, M.M.; Mahmoud, M.; Alasmary, W.; Fadlullah, Z.M. PMBFE: Efficient and Privacy-Preserving Monitoring and Billing Using Functional Encryption for AMI Networks. In Proceedings of the 2020 International Symposium on Networks, Computers and Communications (ISNCC), Montreal, QC, Canada, 20–22 October 2020; pp. 1–7. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Ibrahem, M.I.; Badr, M.M.; Mahmoud, M.; Fouda, M.M.; Alasmary, W. Countering Presence Privacy Attack in Efficient AMI Networks Using Interactive Deep-Learning. In Proceedings of the 2021 International Symposium on Networks, Computers and Communications (ISNCC), Dubai, United Arab Emirates, 31 October–2 November 2021; pp. 1–7. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Ibrahem, M.I.; Abdelfattah, S.; Mahmoud, M.; Alasmary, W. Detecting Electricity Theft Cyber-attacks in CAT AMI System Using Machine Learning. In Proceedings of the 2021 International Symposium on Networks, Computers and Communications (ISNCC), Dubai, United Arab Emirates, 31 October–2 November 2021; pp. 1–6. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Badr, M.M.; Fouda, M.M.; Eldien, A.S.T. A novel vision to mitigate pilot contamination in massive MIMO-based 5G networks. In Proceedings of the 2016 11th International Conference on Computer Engineering & Systems (ICCES), Cairo, Egypt, 20–21 December 2016; pp. 366–371. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Badr, M.M.; Fouda, M.M.; Tag Eldien, A.S. A spatiotemporal scenario to mitigate pilot contamination in 5G massive MIMO systems. In Proceedings of the 2017 12th International Conference on Computer Engineering and Systems (ICCES), Cairo, Egypt, 19–20 December 2017; pp. 95–100. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Badr, M.; Fouda, M.; El-dien, A. Enhanced FFR Scenario for Pilot Contamination Mitigation in 5G Systems with Massive Mimo. Benha J. Appl. Sci. 2017 , 2 , 99–104. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Abdulaal, M.J.; Ibrahem, M.I.; Mahmoud, M.M.E.A.; Khalid, J.; Aljohani, A.J.; Milyani, A.H.; Abusorrah, A.M. Real-Time Detection of False Readings in Smart Grid AMI Using Deep and Ensemble Learning. IEEE Access 2022 , 10 , 47541–47556. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Ibrahem, M.I.; Mahmoud, M.; Fouda, M.M.; Alsolami, F.; Alasmary, W.; Shen, X. Privacy Preserving and Efficient Data Collection Scheme for AMI Networks Using Deep Learning. IEEE Internet Things J. 2021 , 8 , 17131–17146. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Alsharif, A.; Nabil, M.; Mahmoud, M.; Abdallah, M. Privacy-preserving collection of power consumption data for enhanced AMI networks. In Proceedings of the 2018 25th International Conference on Telecommunications (ICT), Saint-Malo, France, 26–28 June 2018; pp. 196–201. [ Google Scholar ] Sherifl, A.; Alsharif, A.; Mahmoud, M.; Abdallah, M.; Song, M. Efficient privacy-preserving aggregation scheme for data sets. In Proceedings of the 2018 25th International Conference on Telecommunications (ICT), Saint-Malo, France, 26–28 June 2018; pp. 191–195. [ Google Scholar ] Kholidy, H.A. Multi-layer attack graph analysis in the 5G edge network using a dynamic hexagonal fuzzy method. Sensors 2021 , 22 , 9. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] Kholidy, H.A.; Karam, A.; Sidoran, J.L.; Rahman, M.A. 5G Core Security in Edge Networks: A Vulnerability Assessment Approach. In Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE Symposium on Computers and Communications (ISCC), Athens, Greece, 5–8 September 2021; pp. 1–6. [ Google Scholar ] Kholidy, H.A. A Triangular Fuzzy based Multicriteria Decision Making Approach for Assessing Security Risks in 5G Networks. arXiv 2021 , arXiv:2112.13072. [ Google Scholar ] Abuzamak, M.; Kholidy, H. UAV Based 5G Network: A Practical Survey Study. arXiv 2022 , arXiv:2212.13329. [ Google Scholar ] Kholidy, H.A.; Karam, A.; Sidoran, J.; Rahman, M.A.; Mahmoud, M.; Badr, M.; Mahmud, M.; Sayed, A.F. Toward Zero Trust Security IN 5G Open Architecture Network Slices. In Proceedings of the MILCOM 2022—2022 IEEE Military Communications Conference (MILCOM), Rockville, MD, USA, 28 November–2 December 2022; pp. 577–582. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Yigit, M.; Gungor, V.C.; Tuna, G.; Rangoussi, M.; Fadel, E. Power line communication technologies for smart grid applications: A review of advances and challenges. Comput. Netw. 2014 , 70 , 366–383. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Galli, S.; Scaglione, A.; Wang, Z. For the grid and through the grid: The role of power line communications in the smart grid. Proc. IEEE 2011 , 99 , 998–1027. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Aladdin, S.; El-Tantawy, S.; Fouda, M.M.; Tag Eldien, A.S. MARLA-SG: Multi-Agent Reinforcement Learning Algorithm for Efficient Demand Response in Smart Grid. IEEE Access 2020 , 8 , 210626–210639. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Fouda, M.M.; Fadlullah, Z.M.; Kato, N.; Takeuchi, A.; Nozaki, Y. A novel demand control policy for improving quality of power usage in smart grid. In Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE Global Communications Conference (GLOBECOM), Anaheim, CA, USA, 3–7 December 2012; pp. 5154–5159. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Rajagopalan, A.; Swaminathan, D.; Alharbi, M.; Sengan, S.; Montoya, O.D.; El-Shafai, W.; Fouda, M.M.; Aly, M.H. Modernized Planning of Smart Grid Based on Distributed Power Generations and Energy Storage Systems Using Soft Computing Methods. Energies 2022 , 15 , 8889. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Abdulkader, R.; Ghanimi, H.M.A.; Dadheech, P.; Alharbi, M.; El-Shafai, W.; Fouda, M.M.; Aly, M.H.; Swaminathan, D.; Sengan, S. Soft Computing in Smart Grid with Decentralized Generation and Renewable Energy Storage System Planning. Energies 2023 , 16 , 2655. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Ibrahem, M.I.; Mahmoud, M.M.E.A.; Alsolami, F.; Alasmary, W.; AL-Ghamdi, A.S.A.M.; Shen, X. Electricity-Theft Detection for Change-and-Transmit Advanced Metering Infrastructure. IEEE Internet Things J. 2022 , 9 , 25565–25580. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Alsharif, A.; Nabil, M.; Mahmoud, M.M.; Abdallah, M. EPDA: Efficient and privacy-preserving data collection and access control scheme for multi-recipient AMI networks. IEEE Access 2019 , 7 , 27829–27845. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Alsharif, A.; Shafee, A.; Nabil, M.; Mahmoud, M.; Alasmary, W. A multi-authority attribute-based signcryption scheme with efficient revocation for smart grid downlink communication. In Proceedings of the 2019 International Conference on Internet of Things (iThings) and IEEE Green Computing and Communications (GreenCom) and IEEE Cyber, Physical and Social Computing (CPSCom) and IEEE Smart Data (SmartData), Atlanta, GA, USA, 14–17 July 2019; pp. 1025–1032. [ Google Scholar ] Alsharif, A.; Nabil, M.; Sherif, A.; Mahmoud, M.; Song, M. MDMS: Efficient and privacy-preserving multidimension and multisubset data collection for AMI networks. IEEE Internet Things J. 2019 , 6 , 10363–10374. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Hamed, M.; ElHalawany, B.; Fouda, M.; Tag Eldien, A. Performance analysis of applying load balancing strategies on different SDN environments. Benha J. Appl. Sci. 2017 , 2 , 91–97. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Hamed, M.I.; ElHalawany, B.M.; Fouda, M.M.; Eldien, A.S.T. A novel approach for resource utilization and management in SDN. In Proceedings of the 2017 13th International Computer Engineering Conference (ICENCO), Cairo, Egypt, 27–28 December 2017; pp. 337–342. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Hamed, M.I.; ElHalawany, B.M.; Fouda, M.M.; Tag Eldien, A.S. A new approach for server-based load balancing using software-defined networking. In Proceedings of the 2017 Eighth International Conference on Intelligent Computing and Information Systems (ICICIS), Cairo, Egypt, 5–7 December 2017; pp. 30–35. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Krishna, V.B.; Gunter, C.A.; Sanders, W.H. Evaluating Detectors on Optimal Attack Vectors That Enable Electricity Theft and DER Fraud. IEEE J. Sel. Top. Signal Process. 2018 , 12 , 790–805. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Ismail, M.; Shaaban, M.F.; Naidu, M.; Serpedin, E. Deep Learning Detection of Electricity Theft Cyber-Attacks in Renewable Distributed Generation. IEEE Trans. Smart Grid 2020 , 11 , 3428–3437. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Badr, M.M.; Ibrahem, M.I.; Mahmoud, M.; Fouda, M.M.; Alsolami, F.; Alasmary, W. Detection of False-Reading Attacks in Smart Grid Net-Metering System. IEEE Internet Things J. 2022 , 9 , 1386–1401. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Abdalzaher, M.S.; Fouda, M.M.; Ibrahem, M.I. Data Privacy Preservation and Security in Smart Metering Systems. Energies 2022 , 15 , 7419. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Hegazy, H.I.; Tag Eldien, A.S.; Tantawy, M.M.; Fouda, M.M.; TagElDien, H.A. Real-Time Locational Detection of Stealthy False Data Injection Attack in Smart Grid: Using Multivariate-Based Multi-Label Classification Approach. Energies 2022 , 15 , 5312. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Fouda, M.M.; Fadlullah, Z.M.; Kato, N.; Lu, R.; Shen, X.S. A Lightweight Message Authentication Scheme for Smart Grid Communications. IEEE Trans. Smart Grid 2011 , 2 , 675–685. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Fadlullah, Z.M.; Fouda, M.M.; Kato, N.; Shen, X.; Nozaki, Y. An early warning system against malicious activities for smart grid communications. IEEE Netw. 2011 , 25 , 50–55. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Fouda, M.M.; Fadlullah, Z.M.; Kato, N.; Lu, R.; Shen, X. Towards a light-weight message authentication mechanism tailored for Smart Grid communications. In Proceedings of the 2011 IEEE Conference on Computer Communications Workshops (INFOCOM WKSHPS), Shanghai, China, 10–15 April 2011; pp. 1018–1023. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Fouda, M.M.; Fadlullah, Z.M.; Kato, N. Assessing attack threat against ZigBee-based home area network for Smart Grid communications. In Proceedings of the 2010 International Conference on Computer Engineering & Systems, Cairo, Egypt, 30 November–2 December 2010; pp. 245–250. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Hegazy, H.I.; Eldien, A.S.T.; Tantawy, M.M.; Fouda, M.M.; TagElDien, H.A. Online Location-based Detection of False Data Injection Attacks in Smart Grid Using Deep Learning. In Proceedings of the 2022 IEEE International Conference on Internet of Things and Intelligence Systems (IoTaIS), Bali, Indonesia, 24–26 November 2022; pp. 153–159. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Abdelfattah, S.; Baza, M.; Badr, M.M.; Mahmoud, M.M.E.A.; Srivastava, G.; Alsolami, F.; Ali, A.M. Efficient Search Over Encrypted Medical Data With Known-Plaintext/Background Models and Unlinkability. IEEE Access 2021 , 9 , 151129–151141. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Alotaibi, M.; Ibrahem, M.I.; Alasmary, W.; Al-Abri, D.; Mahmoud, M. UBLS: User-Based Location Selection Scheme for Preserving Location Privacy. In Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE International Conference on Communications Workshops (ICC Workshops), Montreal, QC, Canada, 14–23 June 2021; pp. 1–6. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Habbak, H.; Mahmoud, M.; Metwally, K.; Fouda, M.M.; Ibrahem, M.I. Load Forecasting Techniques and Their Applications in Smart Grids. Energies 2023 , 16 , 1480. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Badr, M.M. Security and Privacy Preservation for Smart Grid AMI Using Machine Learning and Cryptography. Ph.D. Thesis, Tennessee Technological University, Cookeville, TN, USA, 2022. [ Google Scholar ] Baza, M.I.; Fouda, M.M.; Tag Eldien, A.S.; Mansour, H.A. An efficient distributed approach for key management in microgrids. In Proceedings of the 2015 11th International Computer Engineering Conference (ICENCO), Cairo, Egypt, 29–30 December 2015; pp. 19–24. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Kholidy, H.A. Autonomous mitigation of cyber risks in the Cyber–Physical Systems. Future Gener. Comput. Syst. 2021 , 115 , 171–187. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Kholidy, H.A. Detecting impersonation attacks in cloud computing environments using a centric user profiling approach. Future Gener. Comput. Syst. 2021 , 117 , 299–320. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Haque, N.I.; Ashiqur Rahman, M.; Chen, D.; Kholidy, H. BIoTA: Control-Aware Attack Analytics for Building Internet of Things. In Proceedings of the 2021 18th Annual IEEE International Conference on Sensing, Communication, and Networking (SECON), Rome, Italy, 6–9 July 2021. [ Google Scholar ] Kholidy, H.A. Correlation-based sequence alignment models for detecting masquerades in cloud computing. IET Inf. Secur. 2020 , 14 , 39–50. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Ibrahem, M.I. Privacy-Preserving and Efficient Electricity Theft Detection and Data Collection for AMI Using Machine Learning. Ph.D. Thesis, Tennessee Technological University, Cookeville, TN, USA, 2021. [ Google Scholar ] Abdalzaher, M.S.; Fouda, M.M.; Emran, A.; Fadlullah, Z.M.; Ibrahem, M.I. A Survey on Key Management and Authentication Approaches in Smart Metering Systems. Energies 2023 , 16 , 2355. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Alsharif, A.; Nabil, M.; Tonyali, S.; Mohammed, H.; Mahmoud, M.; Akkaya, K. EPIC: Efficient privacy-preserving scheme with EtoE data integrity and authenticity for AMI networks. IEEE Internet Things J. 2018 , 6 , 3309–3321. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Zanetti, M.; Jamhour, E.; Pellenz, M.; Penna, M.; Zambenedetti, V.; Chueiri, I. A Tunable Fraud Detection System for Advanced Metering Infrastructure Using Short-Lived Patterns. IEEE Trans. Smart Grid 2019 , 10 , 830–840. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Antmann, P. Reducing Technical and Non-Technical Losses in the Power Sector ; World Bank: Washington, DC, USA, 2009. [ Google Scholar ] Javaid, N. A PLSTM, AlexNet and ESNN Based Ensemble Learning Model for Detecting Electricity Theft in Smart Grids. IEEE Access 2021 , 9 , 162935–162950. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Takiddin, A.; Ismail, M.; Nabil, M.; Mahmoud, M.M.E.A.; Serpedin, E. Detecting Electricity Theft Cyber-Attacks in AMI Networks Using Deep Vector Embeddings. IEEE Syst. J. 2021 , 15 , 4189–4198. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Jokar, P.; Arianpoo, N.; Leung, V.C.M. Electricity Theft Detection in AMI Using Customers’ Consumption Patterns. IEEE Trans. Smart Grid 2016 , 7 , 216–226. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Abdulaal, M.J.; Ibrahem, M.I.; Mahmoud, M.; Bello, S.A.; Aljohani, A.J.; Milyani, A.H.; Abusorrah, A.M. DRFD: Deep Learning-Based Real-time and Fast Detection of False Readings in AMI. In Proceedings of the SoutheastCon 2022, Mobile, AL, USA, 26 March–3 April 2022; pp. 682–689. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Zheng, Z.; Yang, Y.; Niu, X.; Dai, H.N.; Zhou, Y. Wide and Deep Convolutional Neural Networks for Electricity-Theft Detection to Secure Smart Grids. IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform. 2018 , 14 , 1606–1615. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Nabil, M.; Ismail, M.; Mahmoud, M.; Shahin, M.; Qaraqe, K.; Serpedin, E. Deep Recurrent Electricity Theft Detection in AMI Networks with Random Tuning of Hyper-parameters. In Proceedings of the 2018 24th International Conference on Pattern Recognition (ICPR), Beijing, China, 20–24 August 2018; pp. 740–745. [ Google Scholar ] Peng, Y.; Yang, Y.; Xu, Y.; Xue, Y.; Song, R.; Kang, J.; Zhao, H. Electricity theft detection in AMI based on clustering and local outlier factor. IEEE Access 2021 , 9 , 107250–107259. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Tehrani, S.O.; Moghaddam, M.H.Y.; Asadi, M. Decision Tree based Electricity Theft Detection in Smart Grid. In Proceedings of the 2020 4th International Conference on Smart City, Internet of Things and Applications (SCIOT), Mashhad, Iran, 16–17 September 2020; pp. 46–51. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Buzau, M.M.; Tejedor-Aguilera, J.; Cruz-Romero, P.; Gómez-Expósito, A. Detection of Non-Technical Losses Using Smart Meter Data and Supervised Learning. IEEE Trans. Smart Grid 2019 , 10 , 2661–2670. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Bhat, R.R.; Trevizan, R.D.; Sengupta, R.; Li, X.; Bretas, A. Identifying Nontechnical Power Loss via Spatial and Temporal Deep Learning. In Proceedings of the 2016 15th IEEE International Conference on Machine Learning and Applications (ICMLA), Anaheim, CA, USA, 18–20 December 2016; pp. 272–279. [ Google Scholar ] Zheng, K.; Chen, Q.; Wang, Y.; Kang, C.; Xia, Q. A Novel Combined Data-Driven Approach for Electricity Theft Detection. IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform. 2019 , 15 , 1809–1819. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Badr, M.M.; Ibrahem, M.I.; Baza, M.; Mahmoud, M.; Alasmary, W. Detecting Electricity Fraud in the Net-Metering System Using Deep Learning. In Proceedings of the 2021 International Symposium on Networks, Computers and Communications (ISNCC), Dubai, United Arab Emirates, 31 October–2 November 2021. [ Google Scholar ] Badr, M.M.; Ibrahem, M.I.; Mahmoud, M.; Fouda, M.M.; Alasmary, W. Detection of false-reading attacks in the AMI net-metering system. arXiv 2020 , arXiv:2012.01983. [ Google Scholar ] Ausgrid’s Solar Home Electricity Data. Available online: https://www.ausgrid.com.au/Industry/Our-Research/Data-to-share/Solar-home-electricity-data (accessed on 1 September 2020). SOLCAST. Available online: https://solcast.com/historical-and-tmy/ (accessed on 1 September 2020). Salinas, S.; Li, M.; Li, P. Privacy-preserving energy theft detection in smart grids. In Proceedings of the 2012 9th Annual IEEE Communications Society Conference on Sensor, Mesh and Ad Hoc Communications and Networks (SECON), Seoul, Republic of Korea, 18–21 June 2012; pp. 605–613. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Salinas, S.; Li, M.; Li, P. Privacy-preserving energy theft detection in smart grids: A P2P computing approach. IEEE J. Sel. Areas Commun. 2013 , 31 , 257–267. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Salinas, S.A.; Li, P. Privacy-preserving energy theft detection in microgrids: A state estimation approach. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 2015 , 31 , 883–894. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Richardson, C.; Race, N.; Smith, P. A privacy preserving approach to energy theft detection in smart grids. In Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE International Smart Cities Conference (ISC2), Trento, Italy, 12–15 September 2016; pp. 1–4. [ Google Scholar ] Yao, D.; Wen, M.; Liang, X.; Fu, Z.; Zhang, K.; Yang, B. Energy theft detection with energy privacy preservation in the smart grid. IEEE Internet Things J. 2019 , 6 , 7659–7669. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Wen, M.; Xie, R.; Lu, K.; Wang, L.; Zhang, K. Feddetect: A novel privacy-preserving federated learning framework for energy theft detection in smart grid. IEEE Internet Things J. 2021 , 9 , 6069–6080. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Badr, M.M.; Ibrahem, M.I.; Mahmoud, M.; Alasmary, W.; Fouda, M.M.; Almotairi, K.H.; Fadlullah, Z.M. Privacy-Preserving Federated-Learning-Based Net-Energy Forecasting. In Proceedings of the SoutheastCon 2022, Mobile, AL, USA, 26 March–3 April 2022; pp. 133–139. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Badr, M.M.; Mahmoud, M.; Fang, Y.; Abdulaal, M.; Aljohani, A.J.; Alasmary, W.; Ibrahem, M.I. Privacy-Preserving and Communication-Efficient Energy Prediction Scheme Based on Federated Learning for Smart Grids. IEEE Internet Things J. 2023 . [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Kamaludeen, H.A.K.R. An Innovative Hashgraph-based Federated Learning Approach for Multi Domain 5G Network Protection. In Proceedings of the IEEE Future Networks (5G World Forum), Montreal, QC, Canada, 10–14 October 2022. [ Google Scholar ] Kholidy, H.A.; Hariri, S. Toward An Experimental Federated 6G Testbed: A Federated Leaning Approach. In Proceedings of the 2022 IEEE/ACS 19th International Conference on Computer Systems and Applications (AICCSA), Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, 5–8 December 2022. [ Google Scholar ] Ibrahem, M.I.; Mahmoud, M.; Fouda, M.M.; ElHalawany, B.M.; Alasmary, W. Privacy-preserving and Efficient Decentralized Federated Learning-based Energy Theft Detector. In Proceedings of the GLOBECOM 2022—2022 IEEE Global Communications Conference, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 4–8 December 2022; pp. 287–292. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Jayaraman, B.; Evans, D. Evaluating differentially private machine learning in practice. In Proceedings of the 28th USENIX Security Symposium (USENIX Security 19), Santa Clara, CA, USA, 14–16 August 2019; pp. 1895–1912. [ Google Scholar ] Hitaj, B.; Ateniese, G.; Perez-Cruz, F. Deep models under the GAN: Information leakage from collaborative deep learning. In Proceedings of the 2017 ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security, Dallas, TX, USA, 30 October–3 November 2017; pp. 603–618. [ Google Scholar ] Takiddin, A.; Ismail, M.; Zafar, U.; Serpedin, E. Robust Electricity Theft Detection Against Data Poisoning Attacks in Smart Grids. IEEE Trans. Smart Grid 2021 , 12 , 2675–2684. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Li, J.; Yang, Y.; Sun, J.S. SearchFromFree: Adversarial Measurements for Machine Learning-based Energy Theft Detection. In Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE International Conference on Communications, Control, and Computing Technologies for Smart Grids (SmartGridComm), Tempe, AZ, USA, 11–13 November 2020; pp. 1–6. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Li, J.; Yang, Y.; Sun, J.S. Exploiting vulnerabilities of deep learning-based energy theft detection in AMI through adversarial attacks. arXiv 2020 , arXiv:2010.09212. [ Google Scholar ] Takiddin, A.; Ismail, M.; Serpedin, E. Robust Data-Driven Detection of Electricity Theft Adversarial Evasion Attacks in Smart Grids. IEEE Trans. Smart Grid 2023 , 14 , 663–676. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Goodfellow, I.J.; Shlens, J.; Szegedy, C. Explaining and harnessing adversarial examples. arXiv 2014 , arXiv:1412.6572. [ Google Scholar ] Rozsa, A.; Rudd, E.M.; Boult, T.E. Adversarial diversity and hard positive generation. In Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition Workshops, Las Vegas, NV, USA, 26 June–1 July 2016; pp. 25–32. [ Google Scholar ] Moosavi-Dezfooli, S.M.; Fawzi, A.; Frossard, P. Deepfool: A simple and accurate method to fool deep neural networks. In Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, Las Vegas, NV, USA, 26 June–1 July 2016; pp. 2574–2582. [ Google Scholar ] Badr, M.M.; Mahmoud, M.; Abdulaal, M.; Aljohani, A.J.; Alsolami, F.; Balamsh, A. A Novel Evasion Attack Against Global Electricity Theft Detectors and a Countermeasure. IEEE Internet Things J. 2023 . [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Szegedy, C.; Zaremba, W.; Sutskever, I.; Bruna, J.; Erhan, D.; Goodfellow, I.; Fergus, R. Intriguing properties of neural networks. arXiv 2013 , arXiv:1312.6199. [ Google Scholar ] Papernot, N.; McDaniel, P.; Wu, X.; Jha, S.; Swami, A. Distillation as a defense to adversarial perturbations against deep neural networks. In Proceedings of the IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy (SP), San Jose, CA, USA, 22–26 May 2016; pp. 582–597. [ Google Scholar ] Strauss, T.; Hanselmann, M.; Junginger, A.; Ulmer, H. Ensemble methods as a defense to adversarial perturbations against deep neural networks. arXiv 2017 , arXiv:1709.03423. [ Google Scholar ] Takiddin, A.; Ismail, M.; Serpedin, E. Robust Detection of Electricity Theft Against Evasion Attacks in Smart Grids. In Proceedings of the ICC 2021—IEEE International Conference on Communications, Montreal, QC, Canada, 14–23 June 2021; pp. 1–6. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Casado-Vara, R.; Prieto, J.; Corchado, J.M. How blockchain could improve fraud detection in power distribution grid. In Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Soft Computing Models in Industrial and Environmental Applications, San Sebastian, Spain, 6–8 June 2018; pp. 67–76. [ Google Scholar ] Badr, M.M.; Amiri, W.A.; Fouda, M.M.; Mahmoud, M.M.E.A.; Aljohani, A.J.; Alasmary, W. Smart Parking System with Privacy Preservation and Reputation Management Using Blockchain. IEEE Access 2020 , 8 , 150823–150843. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Badr, M.M.; Baza, M.; Abdelfattah, S.; Mahmoud, M.; Alasmary, W. Blockchain-Based Ride-Sharing System with Accurate Matching and Privacy-Preservation. In Proceedings of the 2021 International Symposium on Networks, Computers and Communications (ISNCC), Dubai, United Arab Emirates, 31 October–2 November 2021; pp. 1–8. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Alansari, S.A.; Badr, M.M.; Mahmoud, M.M.E.A.; Alasmary, W.; Alsolami, F.; Ali, A.M. Efficient and Privacy-Preserving Infection Control System for COVID-19-Like Pandemics Using Blockchain. IEEE Internet Things J. 2022 , 9 , 2744–2760. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Alansari, S.A.; Badr, M.M.; Mahmoud, M.; Alasmary, W. Efficient and Privacy-Preserving Contact Tracing System for COVID-19 using Blockchain. In Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE International Conference on Communications Workshops (ICC Workshops), Montreal, QC, Canada, 14–23 June 2021; pp. 1–6. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Irish Social Science Data Archive. Available online: https://www.ucd.ie/issda/data/commissionforenergyregulationcer/ (accessed on 1 December 2022). State Grid Corporation of China. Available online: http://www.sgcc.com.cn/ (accessed on 1 September 2020). Takiddin, A.; Ismail, M.; Zafar, U.; Serpedin, E. Deep autoencoder-based anomaly detection of electricity theft cyberattacks in smart grids. IEEE Syst. J. 2022 , 16 , 4106–4117. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Takiddin, A.; Rath, S.; Ismail, M.; Sahoo, S. Data-Driven Detection of Stealth Cyber-Attacks in DC Microgrids. IEEE Syst. J. 2022 , 16 , 6097–6106. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Takiddin, A.; Atat, R.; Ismail, M.; Boyaci, O.; Davis, K.R.; Serpedin, E. Generalized Graph Neural Network-Based Detection of False Data Injection Attacks in Smart Grids. IEEE Trans. Emerg. Top. Comput. Intell. 2023 . [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Boyaci, O.; Umunnakwe, A.; Sahu, A.; Narimani, M.R.; Ismail, M.; Davis, K.R.; Serpedin, E. Graph neural networks based detection of stealth false data injection attacks in smart grids. IEEE Syst. J. 2021 , 16 , 2946–2957. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Boyaci, O.; Narimani, M.R.; Davis, K.R.; Ismail, M.; Overbye, T.J.; Serpedin, E. Joint detection and localization of stealth false data injection attacks in smart grids using graph neural networks. IEEE Trans. Smart Grid 2021 , 13 , 807–819. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Figure 1. Smart grid architecture. Figure 2. Combined framework. Figure 3. Evasion attack based on GAN. Figure 4. Model distillation. Table 1. Six types of FDI. Types Mathematical Representation FDI1 x ˜ t ← α x t where 0.2 < α < 0.8 is randomly generated FDI2 x ˜ t ← x t , if x t ≤ γ γ , if x t > γ where γ is a randomly defined cut-off point, and γ < max x FDI3 x ˜ t ← max x t − γ , 0 where γ is a randomly defined cut-off point, and γ < max x FDI4 x ˜ t ← f ( t ) · x t where f ( t ) = 0 , if t 1 < t < t 2 1 , otherwise t 1 − t 2 is a randomly defined time period longer than 4 h FDI5 x ˜ t ← α t x t where 0.2 < α t < 0.8 is randomly generated FDI6 x ˜ t ← α t x ¯ where 0.2 < α t < 0.8 is randomly generated, x ¯ is the average consumption of the load profile Table 2. Comparison of the existing works. Work [ 60 ] [ 66 ] [ 32 ] [ 33 ] [ 34 ] [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 84 ] [ 86 ] [ 87 ] [ 91 ] [ 76 ] [ 96 ] Features Metering System C C F F N C C C C C C C C Dataset S I A * A I I I I I I I * Data-Driven Approach I II III IV IV CNN FFNN V VI V GAN & Clustering VII Clustering Data Analysis √ √ × × √ × × × × × × × × Privacy Preservation × × × × × √ − √ + + × × × × √ + × Robustness against Adversarial Attacks × × × × × × × √ P √ E √ E √ E × × Special Hardware Requirement × √ O × × × × × × × × × √ D √ W Note: C → Consumption, F → Fit-in-tariff, and N → Net-metering; S → SGCC [ 102 ], I → Irish [ 101 ], A → Ausgrid [ 69 ], and * → Synthetic dataset; I → Wide and deep CNN, II → Combined MIC and CFSFDP, III → Auto-regressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) and the Kullback-Leibler divergence (KLD), IV → Multi-data-source hybrid DL model, V → Sequential ensemble model, VI → Distilled FFNN/CNN/RNN, and VII → Temporal convolutional network (TCN); √ → Feature is achieved and × → Feature is not achieved or considered; − → With high computation and communication overheads, ++ → With low computation and communication overheads, and + → With reduction in the model accuracy; P → Robust against poisoning attacks and E → Robust against evasion attacks; O → Requires observer meters, D → Requires detection stations, and W → Requires WSN nodes. Chicago/Turabian Style Badr, Mahmoud M., Mohamed I. Ibrahem, Hisham A. Kholidy, Mostafa M. Fouda, and Muhammad Ismail. 2023. "Review of the Data-Driven Methods for Electricity Fraud Detection in Smart Metering Systems" Energies16, no. 6: 2852. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16062852 Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here . Article Metrics

https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/16/6/2852/htm

Lymphatic Mapping and Sentinel Node Biopsy in High-Grade Uterine Cancers | Request PDF Request PDF | Lymphatic Mapping and Sentinel Node Biopsy in High-Grade Uterine Cancers | Purpose of Review Sentinel lymph node (SLN) mapping has been adopted as an acceptable method of lymph node evaluation in the surgical staging for... | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate Lymphatic Mapping and Sentinel Node Biopsy in High-Grade Uterine Cancers Current Oncology Reports 24(11):1-9 DOI: 10.1007/s11912-022-01294-0 Authors: Jeffrey A. How Jeffrey A. How Michael Frumovitz Michael Frumovitz Katherine I. Stewart Katherine I. Stewart Tamador Soliman King Abdulaziz University Abstract and Figures Purpose of Review Sentinel lymph node (SLN) mapping has been adopted as an acceptable method of lymph node evaluation in the surgical staging for low-grade endometrial cancer. In this review, we analyze the literature on the utility of SLN mapping in high-grade endometrial cancer. Recent Findings SLN mapping in high-grade endometrial cancer demonstrates similar high detection rates and diagnostic accuracy as seen in low-grade endometrial cancers. However, obtaining sufficient operator experience (at least 30 cases) and following SLN mapping algorithm continues to be essential to preserving diagnostic accuracy. Although limited in retrospective study design and short-term follow-up, current studies have not demonstrated inferior survival outcomes of SLN mapping compared to traditional lymphadenectomy. Summary SLN mapping is an acceptable and accurate method of lymph node evaluation in high-grade endometrial cancer. Future prospective studies are needed to evaluate long-term oncologic outcomes between SLN mapping and systematic lymphadenectomy in this patient population. SLN mapping with primary echelon and secondary echelon lymph nodes. This figure demonstrates primary (right obturator) and secondary (right external iliac) sentinel lymph nodes … Figures - available from: Current Oncology Reports Vol.:(0123456789) 1 3 h ttps://doi.org/10.1007/s11912-022-01294-0 GYNECOLOGIC CANCERS (J BROWN ANDRW NA UMANN, SECTION EDITORS) Lymphatic Mapping andSentinel Node Biopsy inHigh‑Grade Uterine Cancers JereyA.How 1 · MichaelFrumovitz 1 · KatherineI.Stewart 2 · Pamela T .Soliman 1 Accepted: 3 May 2022 © The Author(s), under exclusive lic ence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2022 Abstract Purpose of Review Sentinel lymph node (SLN) mapping has been adopted as an acceptable method of lymph node evalua - tion in the surgical staging for low -grade endometrial cancer. In this review , we analyze the literature on the utility of SLN mapping in high-grade endometrial cancer. Recent Findings SLN mapping in high-gr ade endometrial cancer demonstrates similar high detection rates and diagnostic accuracy as seen in low-grade endometrial cancers. Howe ver, obtaining sufficient operator experience (at least 30 cases) and following SLN mapping algorithm continues to be essential to preserving diagnostic accuracy . Although limited in retrospective study design and short-term follow -up, current studies have not demonstrated inf erior survival outcomes of SLN mapping compared to traditional lymphadenectomy . Summary SLN mapping is an accept able and accurate method of lymph node evaluation in high-grade endometrial cancer . Future prospective studies are needed to ev aluate long-term oncologic outcomes between SLN mapping and systematic lymphadenectomy in this patient population. Keywords Sentinel lym ph node mapping· Endometrial cancer· High grade· Lymph node· Sur gical staging· Diagnostic accuracy Introduction Until the publication of the landmark Gynecologic Oncology Group (GOG) Cooperative Trial 33 in 1987, surgical staging for endometrial cancer was not routinel y performed. GOG 33 demonstrated a significant proportion (22%) of clinical stage I endometrial cancers had extra-uterine spread and this played a piv otal role in the adoption of pelvic and para- aortic lymph node evaluation in the International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) staging criteria [ 1 ]. Although surgical management has been the cornerstone of frontline treatment of endometrial cancer, the extent of lymph node dissection has been controversial [ 2 ]. Giv en the risk of lymph node metastases is variable and that two rand - omized control trials did not demonstrate a therapeutic ben - efit of lymphadenectomy , surgical practices hav e varied on a wide spectrum from routine lymphadenectomy to no lymph node evaluation [ 3 , 4 ]. How ever , knowledge of l ymph node invol vement provides valuable prognos tic information and helps to triage appropriate adjuvant therapy . Thus, sentinel lymph node (SLN) mapping has gained popularity as alter - native lymph node sampling strategy to balance the benefits of lymph node biopsy while minimizing risk of complica - tions associated with systematic lymphadenectomy . The sentinel lymph node is the first lymph node in a chain of lymph nodes that drains the tumor site and is the most likely site of nodal metastases [ 5 ]. SLN mapping has been utilized in both gynecologic (cervix and vulvar) and non- gynecologic cancers (e.g., breast and melanoma) [ 6 – 10 ]. In uterine cancer, SLN mapping was first described by Burke and colleagues in 1996 where the authors utilized a subse - rosal myometrial injection with isosulfan blue and visually This article is part of the Topical Collection on Gynecologic Cancers . * Pamela T . Soliman [email protected] g 1 Department ofGynecologic Oncology andReproductive Medicine, Division ofSurgery, The U niversity ofTe xas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Boulevard, U nit 1362, Houston, TX77030, USA 2 The Kelly Gynecologic Oncology Service, Department ofGynecology andObstetrics, Johns Hopkins School ofMedicine, Baltimore, MD, USA / Published online: 4 July 2022 Current Oncology Reports (2022) 24:1521–1529 Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved. ... In high-risk cancers, the use of SLNB is more discussed [45]. Nevertheless, a multi-institutional retrospective study showed similar disease-free survival and overall survival for patients undergoing SLNB with and without back-up lymphadenectomy [46], and a review identified only retrospective studies, but suggested the non-inferiority of SLNB compared to lymphadenectomy [47] . Thanks to these good performances, SLNB could guide the indication of adjuvant radiotherapy. ... The Sentinel Lymph Node in Treatment Planning: A Narrative Review of Lymph-Flow-Guided Radiotherapy Article Full-text available May 2023 Loic Ah-Thiane Caroline Rousseau Maud Aumont Stephane Supiot Simple Summary The sentinel lymph node is a surgical technique developed in oncological surgery to identify and analyze fewer lymph nodes than a conventional lymph node dissection in order to limit the morbidity and mortality of such an extensive procedure without compromising the patients’ outcomes. This concept seems to also be useful in radiation oncology that treats lymph node areas. This may help radiation oncologists to treat their patients more precisely by targeting more accurately pathological sites and sparing healthy tissues. The aim of this review is to highlight the feasibility and level of proof regarding the use of this technique for treatment planning in radiation oncology. Abstract The sentinel lymph node technique is minimally invasive and used routinely by surgeons, reducing the need for morbid extensive lymph node dissections, which is a significant advantage for cancer staging and treatment decisions. The sentinel lymph node could also help radiation oncologists to identify tumor drainage for each of their patients, leading to a more personalized radiotherapy, instead of a probabilistic irradiation based on delineation atlases. The aim is both to avoid recurrence in unexpected areas and to limit the volume of irradiated healthy tissues. The aim of our study is to evaluate the impact of sentinel lymph node mapping for radiation oncologists. This concept, relying on sentinel lymph node mapping for treatment planning, is known as lymph-flow-guided radiotherapy. We present an up-to-date narrative literature review showing the potential applications of the sentinel lymph node technique for radiotherapy, as well as the limits that need to be addressed before its routine usage. ... Sentinel node mapping has been adopted and accepted worldwide for nodal evaluation in women with low-grade endometrial cancer [12]. However, a recent review of the literature conducted by How et al. [22] , they reported that SLN biopsy generated similar detection rates and accuracy as seen in low-grade disease. Although limited in retrospective study design and short-term follow-up, the studies included in that review have not demonstrated inferior survival outcomes of SLN mapping compared to traditional lymphadenectomy in high-grade endometrial cancer. ... The Risk of Recurrence in Endometrial Cancer Patients with Low-Volume Metastasis in the Sentinel Lymph Nodes: A Retrospective Multi-Institutional Study Article Full-text available Mar 2023 Alessandro Buda Cristiana Paniga Salih Taşkin Robert Fruscio The aim of this study was to assess the impact of low-volume metastasis (LVM) on disease-free survival (DFS) in women with apparent early-stage endometrial cancer (EC) who underwent sentinel lymph node (SLN) mapping. Patients with pre-operative early-stage EC were retrospectively collected from an international collaboration including 13 referring institutions. A total of 1428 patients were included in this analysis. One hundred and eighty-six patients (13%) had lymph node involvement. Fifty-nine percent of positive SLN exhibited micrometastases, 26.9% micrometastases, and 14% isolated tumor cells. Seventeen patients with positive lymph nodes did not receive any adjuvant therapy. At a median follow-up of 33.3 months, the disease had recurred in 114 women (8%). Patients with micrometastases in the lymph nodes had a worse prognosis of disease-free survival compared to patients with negative nodes or LVM. The rate of recurrence was significantly higher for women with micrometastases than those with low-volume metastases (HR = 2.61; p = 0.01). The administration of adjuvant treatment in patients with LVM, without uterine risk factors, remains a matter of debate and requires further evaluation. ... Sentinel lymph node localization technology can improve the detection rate of lymph node metastasis, reduce the false negative rate, and, to some extent, positively impact the prognosis of high-risk endometrial cancer patients (8). Recently, many studies have demonstrated the importance of sentinel lymph node detection in various malignant tumors, which may significantly improve patients' survival rate and quality of life (12) . ... Analysis of prognostic factors of metastatic endometrial cancer based on surveillance, epidemiology, and end results database Article Full-text available Jan 2023 Meng Zhang Ruiping Li Shan Zhang Yuzhen Guo Objective To explore the risk factors for survival and prognosis of patients with metastatic endometrial cancer and to build and verify a reliable prediction model. Methods We retrospectively analyzed patients diagnosed with metastatic endometrial cancer in the US Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) database between January 2010 and December 2015. Univariate and multivariate Cox regression analyses were used to assess clinical variables impact on survival and to construct nomograms. The results of the consistency index (C-index), subject operating characteristic (ROC) curve, and calibration curve were used to evaluate the predictive ability of the nomogram. Results This study included 3,878 patients with metastatic endometrial cancer. In the univariate analysis, variables associated with overall survival (OS) and cancer-specific survival (CSS) included age, race, marital status, pathological type, pathological grade, T-stage, N-stage, surgery, radiotherapy, chemotherapy, bone metastasis, brain metastasis, liver metastasis, and lung metastasis. In the multivariate analysis, age, race, pathological type, pathological grade, T-stage, N-stage, surgery, radiotherapy, chemotherapy, brain metastasis, liver metastasis, and lung metastasis were independent risk factors for OS and CSS (all P < 0.05). Combined with the results of the multiple factors, the 1-, 3-, 5-, and 8-year nomograms were constructed. For OS and CSS, T-stage had the greatest impact on the adverse prognosis of patients with metastatic endometrial cancer. The C-indexes of the OS and CSS nomograms in the training cohort were 0.749 (95% CI, 0.739–0.760) and 0.746 (95% CI, 0.736–0.756), respectively. The C-indices of OS and CSS in the validation cohort were 0.730 (95% CI, 0.714–0.746) and 0.728 (95% CI, 0.712–0.744), respectively. The ROC curve revealed our model's good prediction accuracy and clinical practicability. The calibration curve also confirmed the consistency between the model and actual existence. The Kaplan-Meier curves revealed statistically significant differences between the risk subgroups ( P < 0.05). Conclusion Our SEER-based nomograms for predicting survival in patients with metastatic endometrial cancer were helpful for the clinical evaluation of patient prognosis. Sentinel lymph Node mapping versus systematic pelvic lymphadenectomy on the prognosis for patients with intermediate-high-risk Endometrial Cancer confined to the uterus before surgery: trial protocol for a non-inferiority randomized controlled trial (SNEC trial) Article Full-text available Jul 2021 Jun Guan Yu Xue Background: Sentinel lymph node (SLN) mapping has been recommended as an alternative staging approach to lymphadenectomy for apparent uterine-confined endometrial cancer (EC). However, the prognostic value of SLN mapping alone instead of systematic lymphadenectomy on EC patients remains unclear. Methods: A multi-center, open label, non-inferiority randomized controlled trial has been designed to identify if SLN mapping alone is not inferior to pelvic lymphadenectomy on prognosis of patients with intermediate-high-risk EC clinically confined to uterus. Eligible patients will be 1:1 randomly assigned to accept SLN mapping or pelvic lymphadenectomy. The primary endpoint is the 2-year progression-free survival (PFS). The second points are the 5-year PFS, 5-year overall survival, surgery-related adverse events and life quality. A total of 780 patients will be enrolled from 6 hospitals in China within 3-year period and followed up for 5 years. Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT04276532. Diagnostic accuracy of sentinel node biopsy in non-endometrioid, high-grade and/or deep myoinvasive endometrial cancer: A Turkish gynecologic oncology group study (TRSGO-SLN-006) Introduction This study aimed to evaluate the diagnostic accuracy of the sentinel lymph node (SLN) mapping algorithm in high-risk endometrial cancer patients. Methods Two hundred forty-four patients with non-endometrioid histology, grade 3 endometrioid tumors and/or tumors with deep myometrial invasion were enrolled in this retrospective, multicentric study. After removal of SLNs, all patients underwent pelvic ± paraaortic lymphadenectomy. Operations were performed via laparotomy, laparoscopy or robotic surgery. Indocyanine green (ICG) and methylene blue (MB) were used as tracers. SLN detection rate, sensitivity, negative predictive value (NPV) and false-negative rate (FNR) were calculated. Results Surgeries were performed via laparotomy in 132 (54.1%) patients and 152 (62.3%) underwent both bilateral pelvic and paraaortic lymphadenectomy. At least 1 SLN was detected in 222 (91%) patients. Fifty-five (22.5%) patients had lymphatic metastasis and 45 patients had at least 1 metastatic SLN. Lymphatic metastases were detected by side-specific lymphadenectomy in 8 patients and 2 patients had isolated paraaortic metastasis. Overall sensitivity, NPV and FNR of SLN biopsy were 81.8%, 95% and 18.2%, respectively. By applying SLN algorithm steps, sensitivity and NPV improved to 96.4% and 98.9%, respectively. For grade 3 tumors, sensitivity, NPV and FNR of the SLN algorithm were 97.1%, 98.9% and 2.9%. Conclusion SLN algorithm had high diagnostic accuracy in high-risk endometrial cancer. All pelvic metastases were detected by the SLN algorithm and the isolated paraaortic metastasis rate was ignorable. But long-term survival studies are necessary before this approach becomes standard of care. A phase III randomized clinical trial comparing sentinel node biopsy with no retroperitoneal node dissection in apparent early-stage endometrial cancer – ENDO-3: ANZGOG trial 1911/2020 Background Sentinel node biopsy is a surgical technique to explore lymph nodes for surgical staging of endometrial cancer, which has replaced full retroperitoneal lymph node dissection. However, the effectiveness of sentinel node biopsy, its value to patients, and potential harms compared with no-node dissection have never been shown in a randomized trial. Primary Objectives Stage 1 will test recovery from surgery. Stage 2 will compare disease-free survival at 4.5 years between patients randomized to sentinel node biopsy versus no retroperitoneal node dissection. Study Hypothesis The primary hypothesis for stage 1 is that treatment with sentinel node biopsy will not cause detriment to patient outcomes (lymphedema, morbidity, loss of quality of life) and will not increase treatment-related morbidity or health services costs compared with patients treated without a retroperitoneal node dissection at 12 months after surgery. The primary hypothesis for stage 2 is that disease-free survival at 4.5 years after surgery in patients without retroperitoneal node dissection is not inferior to those receiving sentinel node biopsy. Trial Design This phase III, open-label, two-arm, multistage, randomized non-inferiority trial (ENDO-3) will determine the value of sentinel node biopsy for surgical management of endometrial cancer. Patients with endometrial cancer are randomized to receive: (1) laparoscopic/robotic hysterectomy, bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy with sentinel node biopsy or (2) laparoscopic/robotic hysterectomy, bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy without retroperitoneal node dissection. In stage 1, 444 patients will be enrolled to demonstrate feasibility and quality of life. If this is demonstrated, we will enroll another 316 patients in stage 2. Major Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria Inclusion criteria include women aged 18 years or older with histologically confirmed endometrial cancer; clinical stage 1, who meet the criteria for laparoscopic or robotic total hysterectomy and bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy. Patients with uterine mesenchymal tumors are excluded. Primary Endpoints The endpoint for stage 1 is surgical recovery, with the proportion of patients returning to usual daily activities at 3 months post-surgery as measured with the EQ-5D. Stage 2 is disease-free survival at 4.5 years. Sample Size 760 participants (both stages). Estimated Dates for Completing Accrual and Presenting Results Stage 1 commenced in January 2021 and is planned to be completed in December 2024 when 444 participants have completed 12 months' follow-up. Stage 2 will enroll a further 316 participants for a total of 760 patients. Trial Registration NCT04073706 . Sentinel node biopsy for diagnosis of lymph node involvement in endometrial cancer Background: Pelvic lymphadenectomy provides prognostic information for those diagnosed with endometrial (womb) cancer and provides information that may influence decisions regarding adjuvant treatment. However, studies have not shown a therapeutic benefit, and lymphadenectomy causes significant morbidity. The technique of sentinel lymph node biopsy (SLNB), allows the first draining node from a cancer to be identified and examined histologically for involvement with cancer cells. SLNB is commonly used in other cancers, including breast and vulval cancer. Different tracers, including colloid labelled with radioactive technetium-99, blue dyes, e.g. patent or methylene blue, and near infra-red fluorescent dyes, e.g. indocyanine green (ICG), have been used singly or in combination for detection of sentinel lymph nodes (SLN). Objectives: To assess the diagnostic accuracy of sentinel lymph node biopsy (SLNB) in the identification of pelvic lymph node involvement in women with endometrial cancer, presumed to be at an early stage prior to surgery, including consideration of the detection rate. Search methods: We searched MEDLINE (1946 to July 2019), Embase (1974 to July 2019) and the relevant Cochrane trial registers. Selection criteria: We included studies that evaluated the diagnostic accuracy of tracers for SLN assessment (involving the identification of a SLN plus histological examination) against a reference standard of histological examination of removed pelvic +/- para-aortic lymph nodes following systematic pelvic +/- para-aortic lymphadenectomy (PLND/PPALND) in women with endometrial cancer, where there were sufficient data for the construction of two-by-two tables. Data collection and analysis: Two review authors (a combination of HN, JM, NW, RG, and WH) independently screened titles and abstracts for relevance, classified studies for inclusion/exclusion and extracted data. We assessed the methodological quality of studies using the QUADAS-2 tool. We calculated the detection rate as the arithmetic mean of the total number of SLNs detected out of the total number of women included in the included studies with the woman as the unit of analysis, used univariate meta-analytical methods to estimate pooled sensitivity estimates, and summarised the results using GRADE. Main results: The search revealed 6259 unique records after removal of duplicates. After screening 232 studies in full text, we found 73 potentially includable records (for 52 studies), although we were only able to extract 2x2 table data for 33 studies, including 2237 women (46 records) for inclusion in the review, despite writing to trial authors for additional information. We found 11 studies that analysed results for blue dye alone, four studies for technetium-99m alone, 12 studies that used a combination of blue dye and technetium-99m, nine studies that used indocyanine green (ICG) and near infra-red immunofluorescence, and one study that used a combination of ICG and technetium-99m. Overall, the methodological reporting in most of the studies was poor, which resulted in a very large proportion of 'unclear risk of bias' ratings. Overall, the mean SLN detection rate was 86.9% (95% CI 82.9% to 90.8%; 2237 women; 33 studies; moderate-certainty evidence). In studies that reported bilateral detection the mean rate was 65.4% (95% CI 57.8% to 73.0%) . When considered according to which tracer was used, the SLN detection rate ranged from 77.8% (95% CI 70.0% to 85.6%) for blue dye alone (559 women; 11 studies; low-certainty evidence) to 100% for ICG and technetium-99m (32 women; 1 study; very low-certainty evidence). The rates of positive lymph nodes ranged from 5.2% to 34.4% with a mean of 20.1% (95% CI 17.7% to 22.3%). The pooled sensitivity of SLNB was 91.8% (95% CI 86.5% to 95.1%; total 2237 women, of whom 409 had SLN involvement; moderate-certainty evidence). The sensitivity for of SLNB for the different tracers were: blue dye alone 95.2% (95% CI 77.2% to 99.2%; 559 women; 11 studies; low-certainty evidence); Technetium-99m alone 90.5% (95% CI 67.7% to 97.7%; 257 women; 4 studies; low-certainty evidence); technetium-99m and blue dye 91.9% (95% CI 74.4% to 97.8%; 548 women; 12 studies; low-certainty evidence); ICG alone 92.5% (95% CI 81.8% to 97.1%; 953 women; 9 studies; moderate-certainty evidence); ICG and blue dye 90.5% (95% CI 63.2.6% to 98.1%; 215 women; 2 studies; low-certainty evidence); and ICG and technetium-99m 100% (95% CI 63% to 100%; 32 women; 1 study; very low-certainty evidence). Meta-regression analyses found that the sensitivities did not differ between the different tracers used, between studies with a majority of women with FIGO stage 1A versus 1B or above; between studies assessing the pelvic lymph node basin alone versus the pelvic and para-aortic lymph node basin; or between studies that used subserosal alone versus subserosal and cervical injection. It should be noted that a false-positive result cannot occur, as the histological examination of the SLN is unchanged by the results from any additional nodes removed at systematic lymphadenectomy. Authors' conclusions: The diagnostic test accuracy for SLNB using either ICG alone or a combination of a dye (blue or ICG) and technetium-99m is probably good, with high sensitivity, where a SLN could be detected. Detection rates with ICG or a combination of dye (ICG or blue) and technetium-99m may be higher. The value of a SLNB approach in a treatment pathway, over adjuvant treatment decisions based on uterine factors and molecular profiling, requires examination in a high-quality intervention study. Cervical re-injection of indocyanine green to improve sentinel lymph node detection in endometrial cancer GYNECOL ONCOL Mattia Maramai Controversies in Sentinel Lymph Node Biopsy for Gynecologic Malignancies Objective: Sentinel lymph node (SLN) biopsy represents an evolution in the advancement of minimally invasive surgical techniques for gynecologic cancers. Prospective and retrospective studies have consistently shown its accuracy in the detection of lymph node metastases for endometrial and cervical cancers. However, consistent with any emerging surgical technique in the early phases of adoption, new questions have arisen regarding its application and impact. This paper served as a scoping review to identify the key controversies that have arisen in the field of SLN biopsy for endometrial and cervical cancer. Data sources: Several key controversies were identified and Pubmed®, the Cochrane Database and the NCCN guidelines® were searched for supporting evidence. These included search terms such as "the accuracy of SLN biopsy for high grade endometrial cancer or cervical cancers >2cm", the "cost effectiveness of SLN biopsy for gynecologic cancers", the "clinical significance of low volume metastases in endometrial cancer", the "morbidity of SLN biopsy for endometrial and cervical cancer", and the "impact on cancer survival of SLN biopsy for endometrial and cervical cancer". Methods of study selection: Studies were selected for review if they included significant numbers of patients, were level I evidence or prospective trials. Where this level of evidence failed to exist, seminal observational series which were published in high quality journals were included. Tabulation, integration and results: Similar studies were listed and subcategorized and cross compared excluding those that included repeated analyses of the same patient populations. The relevant clinical trials or observational studies were clustered and reviewed for each chosen controversy. Adequate evidence supports the accuracy of SLN biopsy in the staging of high grade endometrial cancer and cervical cancers, it appears to be a cost effective strategy for invasive endometrial cancer. Conclusive evidence was lacking with respect to the oncologic outcomes related to SLN biopsy, the impact on patient morbidity and whether clinicians should treat isolated tumor cells in SLNs with adjuvant therapy. Conclusion: SLN biopsy is an accepted staging strategy for cervical and endometrial cancer surgery, however, controversies remain in how it can be applied with the most safety and efficacy. These ultimately need to be answered with further clinical trials and observations of larger series of patients. Endometrial Cancer Endometrial carcinoma is diagnosed in about 58,500 women in the United States per year. It is linked with obesity, excess estrogen, and the Lynch syndrome. Oral contraceptives lower the risk by 30 to 40%. Most patients undergo surgery with or without radiation therapy. 7 Sentinel lymph node biopsy versus lymphadenectomy for intermediate and high grade endometrial cancer staging (SENTOR trial): a prospective multicenter cohort study Background It is unclear whether sentinel lymph node biopsy (SLNB) can replace lymphadenectomy in women with high grade endometrial cancer (EC). We performed a prospective multicenter cohort study (the SENTOR trial) to evaluate the diagnostic accuracy of SLNB using indocyanine green in intermediate and high grade EC (NCT01886066). Methods Patients with clinical stage I grade 2 endometrioid or high grade EC scheduled for minimally invasive hysterectomy at three academic centers in Toronto, Canada, were prospectively enrolled for SLNB followed by pelvic (PLND) and para-aortic lymphadenectomy (PALND) as the reference standard. The study was powered to determine sensitivity of the SLNB algorithm as the primary endpoint. Results We enrolled 156 patients (126 high grade); all underwent SLNB and PLND, and 106 (84%) with high grade EC underwent PALND. Sentinel lymph node detection rates were 97% per patient (95% CI 94–99), 88% per hemipelvis (95% CI 83–91), and 78% bilaterally (95% CI 70–84). Of 27 patients (17%) with nodal metastases, 26 were correctly identified by the SLNB algorithm, yielding a sensitivity of 96% (95% CI 81–100), false negative rate of 4% (95% CI 0–19), and negative predictive value of 99% (95% CI 96–100). Only one patient (0.6%) was misclassified by the SLNB algorithm. Two of 27 node-positive patients (7.5%) were identified outside traditional PLND boundaries, and five of 27 (18.5%) required immunohistochemistry for diagnosis. Conclusion SLNB has comparable, if not superior, diagnostic accuracy relative to lymphadenectomy in high grade EC patients. SLNB is a viable option for the surgical staging of EC. Patterns of use and outcomes of sentinel lymph node mapping for patients with high-grade endometrial cancer GYNECOL ONCOL Allison Grace Roy A prospective multicenter international single-arm observational study on the oncological safety of the sentinel lymph node algorithm in stage I intermediate-risk endometrial cancer (SELECT, SEntinel Lymph node Endometrial Cancer Trial) Andrea Mariani David Cibula

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/361753600_Lymphatic_Mapping_and_Sentinel_Node_Biopsy_in_High-Grade_Uterine_Cancers

Lamentations 3 CSB NIV Parallel CSB Parallel NIV [BSB CSB ESV HCS KJV ISV NAS NET NIV NLT HEB] Christian Standard Bible New International Version 1 I am the man who has seen affliction under the rod of God's wrath. 1 I am the man who has seen affliction by the rod of the LORD's wrath. 2 He has driven me away and forced me to walk in darkness instead of light. 2 He has driven me away and made me walk in darkness rather than light; 3 Yes, he repeatedly turns his hand against me all day long. 3 indeed, he has turned his hand against me again and again, all day long. 4 He has worn away my flesh and skin; he has broken my bones. 4 He has made my skin and my flesh grow old and has broken my bones. 5 He has laid siege against me, encircling me with bitterness and hardship. 5 He has besieged me and surrounded me with bitterness and hardship. 6 He has made me dwell in darkness like those who have been dead for ages. 6 He has made me dwell in darkness like those long dead. 7 He has walled me in so I cannot get out; he has weighed me down with chains. 7 He has walled me in so I cannot escape; he has weighed me down with chains. 8 Even when I cry out and plead for help, he blocks out my prayer. 8 Even when I call out or cry for help, he shuts out my prayer. 9 He has walled in my ways with blocks of stone; he has made my paths crooked. 9 He has barred my way with blocks of stone; he has made my paths crooked. 10 He is a bear waiting in ambush, a lion in hiding. 10 Like a bear lying in wait, like a lion in hiding, 11 He forced me off my way and tore me to pieces; he left me desolate. 11 he dragged me from the path and mangled me and left me without help. 12 He strung his bow and set me as the target for his arrow. 12 He drew his bow and made me the target for his arrows. 13 He pierced my kidneys with shafts from his quiver. 13 He pierced my heart with arrows from his quiver. 14 I am a laughingstock to all my people, mocked by their songs all day long. 14 I became the laughingstock of all my people; they mock me in song all day long. 15 He filled me with bitterness, satiated me with wormwood. 15 He has filled me with bitter herbs and given me gall to drink. 16 He ground my teeth with gravel and made me cower in the dust. 16 He has broken my teeth with gravel; he has trampled me in the dust. 17 I have been deprived of peace; I have forgotten what prosperity is. 17 I have been deprived of peace; I have forgotten what prosperity is. 18 Then I thought, "My future is lost, as well as my hope from the LORD." 18 So I say, "My splendor is gone and all that I had hoped from the LORD." 19 Remember my affliction and my homelessness, the wormwood and the poison. 19 I remember my affliction and my wandering, the bitterness and the gall. 20 I continually remember them and have become depressed. 20 I well remember them, and my soul is downcast within me. 21 Yet I call this to mind, and therefore I have hope: 21 Yet this I call to mind and therefore I have hope: 22 Because of the LORD's faithful love we do not perish, for his mercies never end. 22 Because of the LORD's great love we are not consumed, for his compassions never fail. 23 They are new every morning; great is your faithfulness! 23 They are new every morning; great is your faithfulness. 24 I say, "The LORD is my portion, therefore I will put my hope in him." 24 I say to myself, "The LORD is my portion; therefore I will wait for him." 25 The LORD is good to those who wait for him, to the person who seeks him. 25 The LORD is good to those whose hope is in him, to the one who seeks him; 26 It is good to wait quietly for salvation from the LORD. 26 it is good to wait quietly for the salvation of the LORD. 27 It is good for a man to bear the yoke while he is still young. 27 It is good for a man to bear the yoke while he is young. 28 Let him sit alone and be silent, for God has disciplined him. 28 Let him sit alone in silence, for the LORD has laid it on him. 29 Let him put his mouth in the dust--perhaps there is still hope. 29 Let him bury his face in the dust-- there may yet be hope. 30 Let him offer his cheek to the one who would strike him; let him be filled with disgrace. 30 Let him offer his cheek to one who would strike him, and let him be filled with disgrace. 31 For the Lord will not reject us forever. 31 For no one is cast off by the Lord forever. 32 Even if he causes suffering, he will show compassion according to the abundance of his faithful love. 32 Though he brings grief, he will show compassion, so great is his unfailing love. 33 For he does not enjoy bringing affliction or suffering on mankind. 33 For he does not willingly bring affliction or grief to anyone. 34 Crushing all the prisoners of the land beneath one's feet, 34 To crush underfoot all prisoners in the land, 35 denying justice to a man in the presence of the Most High, 35 to deny people their rights before the Most High, 36 or subverting a person in his lawsuit--the Lord does not approve of these things. 36 to deprive them of justice-- would not the Lord see such things? 37 Who is there who speaks and it happens, unless the Lord has ordained it? 37 Who can speak and have it happen if the Lord has not decreed it? 38 Do not both adversity and good come from the mouth of the Most High? 38 Is it not from the mouth of the Most High that both calamities and good things come? 39 Why should any living person complain, any man, because of the punishment for his sins? 39 Why should the living complain when punished for their sins? 40 Let us examine and probe our ways, and turn back to the LORD. 40 Let us examine our ways and test them, and let us return to the LORD. 41 Let us lift up our hearts and our hands to God in heaven: 41 Let us lift up our hearts and our hands to God in heaven, and say: 42 "We have sinned and rebelled; you have not forgiven. 42 "We have sinned and rebelled and you have not forgiven. 43 "You have covered yourself in anger and pursued us; you have killed without compassion. 43 "You have covered yourself with anger and pursued us; you have slain without pity. 44 You have covered yourself with a cloud so that no prayer can get through. 44 You have covered yourself with a cloud so that no prayer can get through. 45 You have made us disgusting filth among the peoples. 45 You have made us scum and refuse among the nations. 46 "All our enemies open their mouths against us. 46 "All our enemies have opened their mouths wide against us. 47 We have experienced panic and pitfall, devastation and destruction." 47 We have suffered terror and pitfalls, ruin and destruction." 48 My eyes flow with streams of tears because of the destruction of my dear people. 48 Streams of tears flow from my eyes because my people are destroyed. 49 My eyes overflow unceasingly, without end, 49 My eyes will flow unceasingly, without relief, 50 until the LORD looks down from heaven and sees. 50 until the LORD looks down from heaven and sees. 51 My eyes bring me grief because of the fate of all the women in my city. 51 What I see brings grief to my soul because of all the women of my city. 52 For no reason, my enemies hunted me like a bird. 52 Those who were my enemies without cause hunted me like a bird. 53 They smothered my life in a pit and threw stones on me. 53 They tried to end my life in a pit and threw stones at me; 54 Water flooded over my head, and I thought, "I'm going to die!" 54 the waters closed over my head, and I thought I was about to perish. 55 I called on your name, LORD, from the depths of the pit. 55 I called on your name, LORD, from the depths of the pit. 56 You heard my plea: Do not ignore my cry for relief. 56 You heard my plea: "Do not close your ears to my cry for relief." 57 You came near whenever I called you; you said, "Do not be afraid." 57 You came near when I called you, and you said, "Do not fear." 58 You championed my cause, Lord; you redeemed my life. 58 You, Lord, took up my case; you redeemed my life. 59 LORD, you saw the wrong done to me; judge my case. 59 LORD, you have seen the wrong done to me. Uphold my cause! 60 You saw all their vengefulness, all their plots against me. 60 You have seen the depth of their vengeance, all their plots against me. 61 LORD, you heard their insults, all their plots against me. 61 LORD, you have heard their insults, all their plots against me-- 62 The slander and murmuring of my opponents attack me all day long. 62 what my enemies whisper and mutter against me all day long. 63 When they sit and when they rise, look, I am mocked by their songs. 63 Look at them! Sitting or standing, they mock me in their songs. 64 You will pay them back what they deserve, LORD, according to the work of their hands. 64 Pay them back what they deserve, LORD, for what their hands have done. 65 You will give them a heart filled with anguish. May your curse be on them! 65 Put a veil over their hearts, and may your curse be on them! 66 You will pursue them in anger and destroy them under your heavens. 66 Pursue them in anger and destroy them from under the heavens of the LORD.

https://www.biblehub.com/p/csb/niv/lamentations/3.shtml

Volume 35 Issue 5 | Journal of Mathematical Physics | AIP Publishing Read Volume 35 Issue 5 of Journal of Mathematical Physics. On the regular Hilbert space representation of a Moyal quantization G. Braunss J. Math. Phys. 35, 2045–2056 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530537 Abstract View article titled, On the regular Hilbert space representation of a Moyal quantization Asymptotic level state density for parabosonic strings A. A. Bytsenko ; S. D. Odintsov ; S. Zerbini J. Math. Phys. 35, 2057–2063 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530538 Abstract View article titled, Asymptotic level state density for parabosonic strings Eigenvalues and eigenfunctions of the Dirac operator on spheres and pseudospheres Eric Clarkson J. Math. Phys. 35, 2064–2073 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530539 Abstract View article titled, Eigenvalues and eigenfunctions of the Dirac operator on spheres and pseudospheres Generalized supersymmetric quantum mechanics on Riemann surfaces with meromorphic superpotentials A. D. Dolgallo ; K. N. Ilinski J. Math. Phys. 35, 2074–2082 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530540 Abstract View article titled, Generalized supersymmetric quantum mechanics on Riemann surfaces with meromorphic superpotentials Controlling quantum motion David J. Fernández C. ; Bogdan Mielnik J. Math. Phys. 35, 2083–2104 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530541 Abstract View article titled, Controlling quantum motion Wigner function and quantum kinetic theory in curved space–time and external fields Oleg A. Fonarev J. Math. Phys. 35, 2105–2129 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530542 Abstract View article titled, Wigner function and quantum kinetic theory in curved space–time and external fields Exchange relations and correlation functions for a quantum particle on the SU 2 group manifold Paolo Furlan ; Yassen S. Stanev ; Ivan T. Todorov J. Math. Phys. 35, 2130–2141 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530871 Abstract View article titled, Exchange relations and correlation functions for a quantum particle on the SU₂ group manifold Supersymmetric quantum mechanics and the Korteweg–de Vries hierarchy Aaron K. Grant ; Jonathan L. Rosner J. Math. Phys. 35, 2142–2156 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530543 Abstract View article titled, Supersymmetric quantum mechanics and the Korteweg–de Vries hierarchy Quantum logic and the histories approach to quantum theory C. J. Isham J. Math. Phys. 35, 2157–2185 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530544 Abstract View article titled, Quantum logic and the histories approach to quantum theory U(2) as the electroweak gauge group J. LaChapelle J. Math. Phys. 35, 2186–2198 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530545 Abstract View article titled, U(2) as the electroweak gauge group Generating mass without the Higgs particle J. LaChapelle J. Math. Phys. 35, 2199–2209 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530546 Abstract View article titled, Generating mass without the Higgs particle A nonprincipal value prescription for the temporal gauge Kuo‐Cheng Lee ; Su‐Long Nyeo J. Math. Phys. 35, 2210–2217 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530884 Abstract View article titled, A nonprincipal value prescription for the temporal gauge Circular‐sector quantum‐billiard and allied configurations Richard L. Liboff J. Math. Phys. 35, 2218–2228 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530547 Abstract View article titled, Circular‐sector quantum‐billiard and allied configurations Nonperturbative treatment of singular potentials H. G. Miller J. Math. Phys. 35, 2229–2232 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530548 Abstract View article titled, Nonperturbative treatment of singular potentials On the possibility of localized wave propagation using a classical two‐fluid model of superconductors P. L. Overfelt J. Math. Phys. 35, 2233–2258 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530549 Abstract View article titled, On the possibility of localized wave propagation using a classical two‐fluid model of superconductors Symplectic manifolds, coherent states, and semiclassical approximation S. G. Rajeev ; S. Kalyana Rama ; Siddhartha Sen J. Math. Phys. 35, 2259–2269 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530550 Abstract View article titled, Symplectic manifolds, coherent states, and semiclassical approximation A geometrical formulation of Abelian gauge structure in non‐Abelian gauge theories and disconnected gauge group Krishna Sen ; Pratul Bandyopadhyay J. Math. Phys. 35, 2270–2281 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530551 Abstract View article titled, A geometrical formulation of Abelian gauge structure in non‐Abelian gauge theories and disconnected gauge group Eigenstates of Calogero–Sutherland–Moser model and generalized Schur functions Kiyoshi Sogo J. Math. Phys. 35, 2282–2296 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530552 Abstract View article titled, Eigenstates of Calogero–Sutherland–Moser model and generalized Schur functions Generalized intelligent states and squeezing D. A. Trifonov J. Math. Phys. 35, 2297–2308 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530553 Abstract View article titled, Generalized intelligent states and squeezing Dirac equation and Clifford algebra Jan Vrbik J. Math. Phys. 35, 2309–2314 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530554 Abstract View article titled, Dirac equation and Clifford algebra Analysis of the Green’s function approach to one‐dimensional inverse problems. II. Simultaneous reconstruction of two parameters Sailing He ; Vladimir G. Romanov ; Staffan Ström J. Math. Phys. 35, 2315–2335 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530555 Abstract View article titled, Analysis of the Green’s function approach to one‐dimensional inverse problems. II. Simultaneous reconstruction of two parameters Abundant symmetries for the 1+1 dimensional classical Liouville field theory Sen‐yue Lou J. Math. Phys. 35, 2336–2348 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530556 Abstract View article titled, Abundant symmetries for the 1+1 dimensional classical Liouville field theory Click here to open pdf in another window PDF for Compressional oscillation frequency of an anharmonic oscillator: The spherical non‐neutral plasma Leaf Turner ; T. N. Tiouririne ; A. W. C. Lau J. Math. Phys. 35, 2349–2356 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530557 Abstract View article titled, Compressional oscillation frequency of an anharmonic oscillator: The spherical non‐neutral plasma Critical exponents in the imperfect and the free Bose gas M. Broidioi J. Math. Phys. 35, 2357–2370 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530558 Abstract View article titled, Critical exponents in the imperfect and the free Bose gas Differential equations for the entropy density, energy density, and number density of statistical mechanics M. D. Kostin J. Math. Phys. 35, 2371–2377 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530507 Abstract View article titled, Differential equations for the entropy density, energy density, and number density of statistical mechanics Group theoretical symmetries and generalized Bäcklund transformations for integrable systems Guido Haak J. Math. Phys. 35, 2378–2389 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530508 Abstract View article titled, Group theoretical symmetries and generalized Bäcklund transformations for integrable systems Symmetries of the KdV equation and four hierarchies of the integrodifferential KdV equations Sen‐yue Lou J. Math. Phys. 35, 2390–2396 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530509 Abstract View article titled, Symmetries of the KdV equation and four hierarchies of the integrodifferential KdV equations On the equivalence of two super Korteweg–deVries theories: A bi‐Hamiltonian viewpoint Carlo Morosi ; Livio Pizzocchero J. Math. Phys. 35, 2397–2407 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530510 Abstract View article titled, On the equivalence of two super Korteweg–deVries theories: A bi‐Hamiltonian viewpoint Stable and unstable manifolds in a zone of instability Kiyotaka Tanikawa ; Yoshihiro Yamaguchi J. Math. Phys. 35, 2408–2412 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530511 Abstract View article titled, Stable and unstable manifolds in a zone of instability Orbital stability of solitary waves of Zakharov system Yaping Wu J. Math. Phys. 35, 2413–2422 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530512 Abstract View article titled, Orbital stability of solitary waves of Zakharov system Motion of particles in five‐dimensional Kaluza–Klein space–time A. Banerjee ; A. Sil ; S. Chatterjee J. Math. Phys. 35, 2423–2429 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530513 Abstract View article titled, Motion of particles in five‐dimensional Kaluza–Klein space–time Exact solutions to the Dirac equation for neutrinos propagating in a particular Vaidya background T. Christodoulakis ; T. Grammenos ; E. Korfiatis ; V. C. Spanos J. Math. Phys. 35, 2430–2437 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530514 Abstract View article titled, Exact solutions to the Dirac equation for neutrinos propagating in a particular Vaidya background Kerr–Schild metrics revisited. I. The ground state László Á. Gergely ; Zoltán Perjés J. Math. Phys. 35, 2438–2447 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530515 Abstract View article titled, Kerr–Schild metrics revisited. I. The ground state Kerr–Schild metrics revisited. II. The complete vacuum solution László Á. Gergely ; Zoltán Perjés J. Math. Phys. 35, 2448–2462 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530516 Abstract View article titled, Kerr–Schild metrics revisited. II. The complete vacuum solution Bäcklund transformations and zero‐curvature representations of systems of partial differential equations Friedemann Brandt J. Math. Phys. 35, 2463–2484 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530517 Abstract View article titled, Bäcklund transformations and zero‐curvature representations of systems of partial differential equations Comment on the solutions of the graded Yang–Baxter equation Won‐Sang Chung J. Math. Phys. 35, 2485–2489 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530870 Abstract View article titled, Comment on the solutions of the graded Yang–Baxter equation Two parameter deformation of Virasoro algebra Won‐Sang Chung J. Math. Phys. 35, 2490–2496 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530518 Abstract View article titled, Two parameter deformation of Virasoro algebra Quantum Z 3 ‐graded space Won‐Sang Chung J. Math. Phys. 35, 2497–2504 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530519 Abstract View article titled, Quantum <em>Z</em>₃‐graded space Reducible Boson fermion realizations for osp(1‖2) and osp(3‖2) superalgebras Michel Daumens J. Math. Phys. 35, 2505–2515 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530520 Abstract View article titled, Reducible Boson fermion realizations for osp(1‖2) and osp(3‖2) superalgebras On Schrödinger superalgebras C. Duval ; P. A. Horváthy J. Math. Phys. 35, 2516–2538 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530521 Abstract View article titled, On Schrödinger superalgebras Exact results and universal asymptotics in the Laguerre random matrix ensemble P. J. Forrester J. Math. Phys. 35, 2539–2551 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530883 Abstract View article titled, Exact results and universal asymptotics in the Laguerre random matrix ensemble Universal R matrix of U q sl( n , m ) quantum superalgebras T. S. Hakobyan ; A. G. Sedrakyan J. Math. Phys. 35, 2552–2559 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530522 Abstract View article titled, Universal <em>R</em> matrix of U_<em>q</em>sl(<em>n</em>,<em>m</em>) quantum superalgebras Quantized braided groups Ladislav Hlavatý J. Math. Phys. 35, 2560–2569 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530523 Abstract View article titled, Quantized braided groups Superconformal covariantization of superdifferential operator on (1‖1) superspace and classical N =2 W superalgebras Wen‐Jui Huang J. Math. Phys. 35, 2570–2582 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530524 Abstract View article titled, Superconformal covariantization of superdifferential operator on (1‖1) superspace and classical <em>N</em>=2 <em>W</em> superalgebras Finite‐dimensional representations of the quantum superalgebra U q [gl(2/2)]. I. Typical representations at generic q Nguyen Anh Ky J. Math. Phys. 35, 2583–2606 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530525 Abstract View article titled, Finite‐dimensional representations of the quantum superalgebra <em>U</em>_<em>q</em>[gl(2/2)]. I. Typical representations at generic <em>q</em> Click here to open pdf in another window PDF for Quantum deformations of nonsemisimple algebras: The example of D =4 inhomogeneous rotations Jerzy Lukierski ; Henri Ruegg ; Anatol Nowicki J. Math. Phys. 35, 2607–2616 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530526 Abstract View article titled, Quantum deformations of nonsemisimple algebras: The example of <em>D</em>=4 inhomogeneous rotations On the addition of quantum matrices S. Majid J. Math. Phys. 35, 2617–2632 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530527 Abstract View article titled, On the addition of quantum matrices Noncommutative geometry for arbitrary braidings Wl/adysl/aw Marcinek J. Math. Phys. 35, 2633–2647 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530528 Abstract View article titled, Noncommutative geometry for arbitrary braidings The half‐Hartley and the half‐Hilbert transform Stefano L. Paveri‐Fontana ; Paul F. Zweifel J. Math. Phys. 35, 2648–2656 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530529 Abstract View article titled, The half‐Hartley and the half‐Hilbert transform De Rham complexes of q ‐analog of general linear group GL q ( N ) Xiaodong Sun ; Shikun Wang J. Math. Phys. 35, 2657–2686 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530530 Abstract View article titled, De Rham complexes of <em>q</em>‐analog of general linear group GL_<em>q</em>(<em>N</em>) Coherent states on the m ‐sheeted complex plane A. Vourdas J. Math. Phys. 35, 2687–2697 (1994) doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.530531 Abstract View article titled, Coherent states on the <em>m</em>‐sheeted complex plane

https://pubs.aip.org/aip/jmp/issue/35/5

SAE MOBILUS Analysis of Detection Distances and Road Safety of Modern Headlamps Under Variation of Aim and Performance Technical Paper 2022-01-0796 ISSN: 0148-7191 , e-ISSN: 2688-3627 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4271/2022-01-0796 Published March 29, 2022 by SAE International View list of content related to the publisher(s) in United States Sector: Automotive Content related to Automotive Event: WCX SAE World Congress Experience Technical Paper presented at WCX SAE World Congress Experience Language: English Abstract In addition to the low and high beam functions, some modern headlamps also have the option of switching on only section of the high beam. The so-called adaptive high beam is intended to increase the detection distance of objects and through that drastically improve the road safety. At the same time, this function does not increase the glare for oncoming or preceding traffic. This is enabled through switching the different segments of the high beam on or off, depending on which and where other road users are recognized by the front camera. This massively increases the use of the high beam, thus increasing road safety. In this study, the increase in the detection distance of objects on a straight line is statically investigated with a test person study. Furthermore, the glare of each of these three light functions is observed. A vehicle with adaptive high beam and an oncoming vehicle are statically positioned on the test track and the detection distances and glare sensitivity are determined subjectively and metrologically by test persons. Already published studies have also shown that the headlamp aiming is subject to the natural tolerances of the vehicle and the environment. Therefore, the influence of the headlamp aiming on glare and detection distances is also investigated for all three light functions to draw conclusions about headlamp evaluation methods. The investigation shows a minimum increase of the detection distance of over 44% when an adaptive high beam system with 24 segments is used. A greater detection distance of 28m brings a safety gain of over 1.27s on a country road drive at 80 km/h. An increase in the glare of oncoming traffic could not be detected. Moreover, it could be shown that a change in the headlamp aiming mainly has an influence on the detection distance of the low beam and not on high or adaptive driving beam. Authors Christian Hinterwaelder Works by Christian Hinterwaelder - Audi AG Content by authors affiliated with Audi AG Michael Hamm Works by Michael Hamm - Audi AG Content by authors affiliated with Audi AG Jonas Kobbert Works by Jonas Kobbert - Audi AG Content by authors affiliated with Audi AG Topic Headlamps Content related to Headlamps Test facilities Content related to Test facilities Switches Content related to Switches Citation Hinterwaelder, C., Hamm, M., and Kobbert, J., "Analysis of Detection Distances and Road Safety of Modern Headlamps Under Variation of Aim and Performance," SAE Technical Paper 2022-01-0796, 2022, https://doi.org/10.4271/2022-01-0796 . Also In References Schaebe , H. 13.3.2007 Åkerstedt , T. , Kecklund , G. , and Hörte , L.-G. Night Driving, Season, and the Risk of Highway Accidents Sleep 24 4 2001 401 406 Hamm , M. and Hinterwaelder , C. Investigations on Headlamp and Car Body Tolerances in Real Life SAE Technical Paper 2020-01-0635 2020 https://doi.org/10.4271/2020-01-0635 Hinterwaelder , C. and Hamm , M. Analysis of Human Intra- and Interpersonal Aiming Accuracy of Cutoff Lines Using Different Adjustment Methods SAE Technical Paper 2021-01-0849 2021 https://doi.org/10.4271/2021-01-0849 Citation Download RefMan (MAC / WIN) Download RefWorks (MAC / WIN) Download EndNote (MAC / WIN) Download BibTeX (MAC / WIN) File Format: .xlsx .csv Text Number of Results: Selected 25 50 100 All(upto 1000) Select Fields to Export Item Number Content Type Title Author(s) Affiliation(s) Publisher Publish Date Abstract/scope Citation DOI Submit

https://saemobilus.sae.org/content/2022-01-0796/

Effect of the Critical Solution Temperature of a Partial Miscible Phenol-Water Solution with Addition of Potassium Chloride - DocsLib Int. J. Pharm. Sci. Rev. Res., 54(1), January - February 2019; Article No. 19, Pages: 109-112 ISSN 0976 – 044X Research Article Effect of the Int. J. Pharm. Sci. Rev. Res., 54(1), January - February 2019; Article No. 19, Pages: 109-112 ISSN 0976 – 044X Research Article Effect of the CriticalSolutionTemperatureof a Partial Miscible Phenol-WaterSolution with Addition ofPotassiumChloride Chinmaya Keshari Sahoo*1, Hemanta Kumar Khatua2, Jimidi Bhaskar3, D. Venkata Ramana4 1Department of Pharmaceutics, Malla Reddy College of Pharmacy (Affiliated to Osmania University), Maisammaguda, Hyderabad, Telangana-500014, India. 2Department of Pharmaceutics, Princeton College of Pharmacy (Affiliated to JNTUH), Korremula, Hyderabad, Telangana-500088, India. 3Department of Pharmacy, Avanthi Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Gunthapally (V), Near Ramoji Film City, Hyderabad, Telangana-501505, India. 4Department of pharmaceutical Technology, Netaji Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Toopranpet, Yadadri Bhongir, Telangana-508252, India. *Corresponding author’s E-mail:[email protected] Received: 05-12-2018; Revised: 25-12-2018; Accepted: 08-01-2019. ABSTRACT Partially miscibleliquidsbecome more soluble with the increase in temperature and at a certain temperature they are completely miscible. This temperature is known as the critical solution temperature (CST) or consolute temperature. The temperature above thephasegets affected by the addition of impurities. To observe themiscibilitytemperature, themixturewas heated in a boiling tube until theturbiditydisappeared and the final temperature was noted. Then, the mixture was cooled down and the temperature noted when the turbidity reappeared.Solutionsof impurities of differentconcentrationswere formed and their effect on the phase was analyzed. It was found that addition ofionic compoundKCl, in phenol- water system show lesser increase in CST as they decrease the miscibility to a lesser extent. Keywords: Critical Solution Temperature, KCl, Phenol-Water System. INTRODUCTION To phenol–water system if impurities of ionic and covalent substances are added, a ternary system is homogenous mixture of a solute and asolventis formed. For a ternary system, there are three called as a true solution. Theliquid-liquid are of components co-existing in a system. The addition of a three types such as completely miscible liquid A third substance to a partially miscible system to increase pairs - E.g. Water-Alcohol, Water-Sulphuricacid. Partially its miscibility is known as blending. This is also called as miscible liquid pairs - E.g. Ether-Water, Phenol-Water and the ‘salting-out’ in pharmaceuticals and is used to select liquid pairs that are practically immiscible - E.g.Mercury- the best solvent for thedrugs. In this process, asaltis Water, Nitrobenzene-water1. added to separate the aqueous phase from the organic When phenol and water are mixed, a certain amount of phase. If the added salt dissolves in one of the phases the two dissolves with the other due tohydrogenbonding only, it results in an increase in the UCST, and a decrease and two conjugate layers of liquids are obtained. The in the LCST, thus decreasing the miscibility of the system 3, upper layer of this system is water dissolved in phenol 4. Further, if the added salt is soluble in both the phases, and the lower layer is phenol dissolved in water. The then the UCST is lowered and the LCST is raised, thus composition of these layers depends only on the increasing the miscibility of the system. This increase or temperature of the system and is independent of the decrease in the CST depends on the nature and the mass quantities of the liquids mixed. For every temperature of the added substance and the composition of the twosolubilitiescan be obtained, one for phenol dissolved system. in water and the other for water dissolved in phenol. MATERIALS AND METHODS Generally, for partially miscible liquidssolubilityincreases Materials with increasing temperature and the temperature at which they are completely miscible 2 is termed as thePotassium chloridewas obtained from Qualigens Fine critical solution temperature (CST) or consolute Chemicals, India. Phenol was purchased from standard temperature. The temperature above which the phases of chemicals, Hyderabad, India and distilled water was a system are completely miscible is known as the upper collected from distillation unit from college. consolute temperature (UCT) or upper uritical solution Methods5 temperature (UCST). Similarly, the temperature below which the phases of a system are completely miscible is Step I: Procedure for Calculating the CST of a Phenol- known as the lower critical solution temperature (LCST). Water System (without added impurity)- The phenol water system exhibits an upper critical 1. Phenolconcentrationscales of 8%, 15%, 40%, 55% and solution temperature and this critical solution 80% were set in the experiment. temperature can be used for testing the purity of the 2. Five 20 mL of the mixture of phenol and water with the mixture. concentration scales were prepared in the test tubes. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences Review and Research . International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences Review and Research Available online at www.globalresearchonline.net 109 . Available online at www.globalresearchonline.net © Copyright protected. Unauthorised republication, reproduction, distribution, dissemination and copying of this document in whole or in part is strictly prohibited. . Int. J. Pharm. Sci. Rev. Res., 54(1), January - February 2019; Article No. 19, Pages: 109-112 ISSN 0976 – 044X 3. The volume of phenol and water required were thedispersionof two liquids until a clear mixture was calculated by using the formula:- obtained. Let X be the concentration scale of phenol: 8. The temperature at which the turbid liquid becomes clear (T ) was observed and recorded. Volume of phenol = 20 mL × X/100 1 9. The test tube was removed from the hot water and it Volume of water = 20 mL× (100-X)/100 was cooled by applying ice bath until the liquid became 4. The measured amount of water and phenol were turbid and the temperature at this point was transferred into a test tube. immediately recorded(T2). 5. The phenol transfer process must be done in the fume 10. Similarly15%, 40%, 55% and 80% of phenol cupboard as the phenol is very toxic. concentration scales in the experiment were prepared. 6. A thermometer was placed into the test tube and sealed by using parafilm followed by aluminium foil and it 11. The average miscibility temperature for each test tube was to make sure that the thermometer did not touch the at which two phases were no longer seen or at which two bottom surface of the test tube. phases existed were determined. 7. During the process of heating, the test tube was shaken gently in the water bath to increase the rate of speed of Average miscibility of temperature of solution (T) 12. The graph of temperature against percentage of 3. Similarly 0.2 %, 0.4 %, 0.6 %, and 0.8 % w/v of KCl phenol was plotted to produce aphase diagramand the solutions were prepared by adding 0.2, 0.4, 0.6 and 0.8 critical solution temperature was determined. grams of KCl to 100 ml of distilled water respectively in 4 different 100 ml beakers, with the help of measuring Step II: Finding the Effect of KCl on the CST of the cylinders. Phenol-Water system- 4. From the prepared solution 5 ml of various w/v% KCl Preparation of KCl solution solutions were taken and added in the boiling tube 1. One gram of potassium chloride (KCl) salt was weighed containing different % phenol-water composition solution by an electronic weighing machine. respectively. 2. This was dissolved in 100 ml distilled water in a beaker 5. The miscibilitytemperaturesfor the mixture prepared to get 1% w/v KCl solution. at different concentrations of phenol were found by repeating steps. Calculation Average temperature when clear (T ) 1 Average temperature when turbid (T ) 2 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION temperature decreased. Hence plotting graph temperature vs composition of phenol nearly parabolic From the observed tables it was found that when the graph is obtained. The highest miscibility temperature is concentration of phenol was increased from 8 % to 40% known as CST. The CST obtained from pure phenol-water the miscibility increased and consequently the miscibility system was 67.5⁰C. All the observed values were reported temperature increased from 51 0C to 710C.But further in table 1 to 5. increased concentration of phenol 55% to 80% the miscibility decreased and consequently the miscibility Table 1: Phenol-Water System Temperature when Temperature when Average Test Phenol Water 0 0 CST clear,(T1), C turbid,(T2) C miscibility Tube 0 % ml % ml I II Average I II Average temperature(T), C A 8 1.6 92 18.4 54 50 52 49 47 48 50 B 15 3.0 85 17.0 56 54 55 55 51 53 54 67.5 C 40 8.0 60 12.0 73 67 70 68 62 65 67.5 D 55 11.0 45 9.0 70 66 68 62 58 60 64 E 80 16.0 20 4.0 58 54 56 50 46 48 52 Int. J. Pharm. Sci. Rev. Res., 54(1), January - February 2019; Article No. 19, Pages: 109-112 ISSN 0976 – 044X Table 2: Effect of 0.2% KCl on the miscibility of Phenol-Water System Temperature when Temperature when Test Phenol Water 0 0 Average CST clear,(T1), C turbid,(T2) C miscibility Tube temperature, 0C % ml % ml I II Average I II Average A 8 1.6 92 18.4 54 52 53 51 47 49 51 B 15 3.0 85 17.0 58 54 56 54 50 52 54 68 C 40 8.0 60 12.0 75 67 71 68 62 65 68 D 55 11.0 45 9.0 69 63 66 64 56 60 63 E 80 16.0 20 4.0 59 54 56 52 48 50 53 Table 3: Effect of 0.4 % KCl on the miscibility of Phenol-Water System Temperature when Temperature when Test Phenol Water 0 0 Average CST clear,(T1), C turbid,(T2) C miscibility Tube temperature, 0C % ml % ml I II Average I II Average A 8 1.6 92 18.4 57 53 55 51 47 49 52 B 15 3.0 85 17.0 61 55 58 56 52 54 56 69 C 40 8.0 60 12.0 76 66 71 72 62 67 69 D 55 11.0 45 9.0 71 65 68 67 57 62 65 E 80 16.0 20 4.0 60 52 56 54 50 52 54 Table 4: Effect of 0.6% KCl on the miscibility of Phenol-Water System Temperature when Temperature when Test Phenol Water 0 0 Average CST clear,(T1) C turbid,(T2), C miscibility Tube temperature, 0C % ml % ml I II Average I II Average A 8 1.6 92 18.4 57 51 54 52 48 50 52 B 15 3.0 85 17.0 60 54 57 55 51 53 55 70 C 40 8.0 60 12.0 77 69 73 73 61 67 70 D 55 11.0 45 9.0 70 64 67 65 57 61 64 E 80 16.0 20 4.0 62 52 57 55 51 53 55 Table 5: Effect of 0.8 % KCl on the miscibility of Phenol-Water System Temperature when Temperature when Test Phenol Water 0 0 CST clear,(T1), C turbid,(T2), C Average miscibility 0 Tube temperature C % ml % ml I II Average I II Average A 8 1.6 92 18.4 58 54 56 54 50 52 54 B 15 3.0 85 17.0 62 56 59 58 52 55 57 71 C 40 8.0 60 12.0 76 70 73 72 66 69 71 D 55 11.0 45 9.0 73 63 68 65 57 62 65 E 80 16.0 20 4.0 61 51 56 57 51 54 55 International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences Review and Research . International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences Review and Research Available online at www.globalresearchonline.net 111 . Available online at www.globalresearchonline.net © Copyright protected. Unauthorised republication, reproduction, distribution, dissemination and copying of this document in whole or in part is strictly prohibited. . Int. J. Pharm. Sci. Rev. Res., 54(1), January - February 2019; Article No. 19, Pages: 109-112 ISSN 0976 – 044X Comparison quantities of the liquids mixed. Due to addition of potassium chloride there was increase in the critical From the data comparison it was found that CST was solution temperature. It was observed that the UCST of affected by the concentration of potassium chloride. All phenol-water system increases with increase in the observed values were depicted in table 6. concentrations of impurities irrespective of their nature. Table 6: Comparison of CST with different concentration Acknowledgements: Authors wish to thanks their of KCl addition respective authorities of Institutions for providing Concentration of KCl added laboratory facilities to complete this research article. Sl. No. CST, 0C (% w/v) REFERENCES 1 0 67.5 1. Clugston, MJ, Flemming R.Chemical Equilibrium. Advanced 2 0.2 68Chemistry. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2000, 182-84. 3 0.4 69 2. Howard DV. Phase Diagrams: Ternary Systems. UC Davis 4 0.6 70 ChemiWiki. UC Davis ChemiWiki, Web. 16 Oct. 2015. 5 0.8 71 3. Singh D. Water-Phenol Miscibility Diagram. Academia.org. Academia.org, Web. 18 Oct. 2015. CONCLUSION 4. Turtinen, Lloyd W., and Brian D. Juran. Protein Salting-Out When phenol and water are mixed, a certain amount of Method Applied to Genomic DNA Isolation from Fish Whole the two dissolves with the other due to hydrogen bonding Blood. Protein Salting-Out Method Applied to Genomic DNA and two conjugate layers of liquids are obtained. The Isolation from Fish Whole Blood. BioTechniques 1998; 24(2): upper layer of this system is water dissolved in phenol 238-39. and the lower layer is phenol dissolved in water. The 5. Retrieved from: Patrick J. Sinko, Lippincott Williams and composition of these layers depends only on the Wilkins. Martin’s Physical Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical temperature of the system and is independent of the Sciences, 5th Edition. Source of Support: Nil, Conflict of Interest: None. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences Review and Research . International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences Review and Research Available online at www.globalresearchonline.net 112 . Available online at www.globalresearchonline.net © Copyright protected. Unauthorised republication, reproduction, distribution, dissemination and copying of this document in whole or in part is strictly prohibited. .

https://docslib.org/doc/1811201/effect-of-the-critical-solution-temperature-of-a-partial-miscible-phenol-water-solution-with-addition-of-potassium-chloride

(PDF) Relationship between haemodynamics and morphology in pulmonary hypertension PDF | On Dec 1, 1997, A. C. Borges and others published Relationship between haemodynamics and morphology in pulmonary hypertension | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate Relationship between haemodynamics and morphology in pulmonary hypertension December 1997 European Heart Journal18(12) Authors: <here is a image 103b88e2d06204bd-8352f4f90ec711e5> Adrian C Borges Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin <here is a image 274766e3520d4ac6-321c76cd592e9c5a> Roland Wensel Imperial College London <here is a image fcadac11551f7808-7fc17c9408c9746c> Christian F Opitz DRK Kliniken Berlin <here is a image cf940449b175c353-0c5d8a1dc20a5c2a> Ulrike Bauer Competence Network for Congenital Heart Defects European Heart Journal (1997 ) 18, 1988-1994 Relationshi p between haemodynamics and morpholog y in pulmonary hypertension A quantitative intravascular ultrasound study* A . C. Borges, R. Wensel, C. Opitz, U. Bauer, G. Baumann and F. X. Kleber Medical Department I, Humboldt-University Berlin (Charite), Berlin, Germany Backgroun d Intravascula r ultrasound imaging of the pulmonar y arteries has been demonstrated to be a reliable metho d of quantifyin g vesse l diameter , lumina l are a an d pulsatility . Simultaneous measurement of flow velocity and it s response to vasodilators allows the relationship between morpholog y and functional compromise to be studied, especiall y endothelial dysfunction. Method s I n 51 patients (mean age=49-8 ± 12-6 years, 1 7 female) we performed right heart catheterization and simultaneou s intravascular ultrasound of pulmonar y arter y branches . The patients were divided in two groups: group 1 wit h normal pulmonary artery pressure and pulmonary vascula r resistance, and group 2 with pulmonary hyperten- sio n (peak pulmonary artery pressure >30mmHg and/or mea n pulmonary artery pressure >20 mmHg). Vessel wall an d lumen were studied using a 2-9 F intravascular ultra- soun d catheter with a 30 MHz phased array transducer. Measuremen t of blood flow velocity was accomplished by a Dopple r flow wire (0-018 inch). The maximal flow change durin g acetylcholine infusion (adjusted to 1 0 ~ 6 ; 1 0 ~ 5 , and 10~ 4 M concentratio n in the blood vessel) was measured. Result s Ther e were no significant differences between group s 1 and 2 with respect to age (48-5 ± 14- 3 years vs 50- 3 ± 12-3 years; P-ns), gende r (4 female/8 male vs 13 female/2 6 male; P=ns), luminal area of the vessel segment i n which the intravascular ultrasound measurements were obtaine d (11-8 ± 61 mm 2 v s 16-7 ± 14- 3 mm 2 ; P=m), inter- na l diameter (3-9 ±1-2 mm vs 4-2 ±1-7 mm; P=ns), and externa l diameter (61 ±1-3 mm vs 69 ±21 mm; P=ns). Cross-sectiona l images of the pulmonary artery wall dem- onstrate d a single ring with high echodensity with a thin inne r layer regarded as intima in group 1. In contrast, the majorit y of patients ( n = 35/39) i n group 2 demonstrated a thickening of the intimal layer and/or a disturbance o f layering o f th e echogeni c arteria l wall . Th e relativ e wal l thickness was higher in group 2 than in group 1 (22- 5 ±10-4% vs 15-3 ±6-5% ; P<0-05) . There were no significan t correlations between pulmonary artery pressure an d wall thickness pulmonary artery pressure and area chang e in the cardiac cycle, acetylcholine-dependent increas e in pulmonary flow and morphological changes in th e vessel wall. Conclusio n W e conclude that intravascular ultrasound is capabl e of detecting morphological changes in the pulmon- ar y vessel wall in pulmonary hypertension and that vessel wal l hypertroph y of small pulmonary segment arteries, as detecte d by intravascular ultrasound, is not predictive of functiona l vasodilatory response of resistance vessels of the sam e vessel area. (Eu r Heart J 1997; 18: 1988-1994) Ke y Words : Pulmonar y hypertension, endothelial dysfunc- tion , heart failure, intravascular ultrasound imaging, acetylcholine . Introductio n Histologica l studies have documented pulmonary artery abnormalitie s in primary and secondary pulmonary Revisio n submitted 13 March 1997, and accepted 21 March 1997. •Supporte d by grant (No 0 1 Z Z 9101) of the Ministry of Research o f the Federal Government o f Germany . Correspondence: Adria n C. Borges, MD, Medical Department I. Charite , Humboldt-University Berlin, Schumannstrasse 20-21 , 1011 7 Berlin, Germany. hypertension' 11 . High-frequency, intravascular ultra- soun d imaging has been shown to yield circumferential image s of peripheral and coronary arteries, demonstrat- in g atherosclerotic lesions, intimal tears, dissections and intravascula r thrombi. It can directly monitor changes in th e cross-sectional area of the vessel and demonstrate abnormalitie s in the vessel wall. Intravascula r ultrasound of pulmonary arteries provide s useful information for assessing the degree o f vascular disease. Imaging o f proxima l an d dista l pulmonar y arteries in both animals and normal 0195-668X/97/121988+0 7 S18.00/ 0 © 199 7 The European Society of Cardiology by guest on February 11, 2013 http://eurheartj.oxfordjournals.org/ Downloaded from Haemodynamics and morphology in pulmonary hypertension 1989 huma n subjects has been performed using different intravascula r ultrasound transducers' 2 " 41 . Recently, intravascula r ultrasound of the pulmonary arteries has bee n validated as a reliable method of quantifying lumina l area, pulsatility, and in describing vessel wal l characteristics' 21 . Several investigations delineated th e potential value of intravascular ultrasound in pul- monar y vessels in determining morphology in chronic thromboemboli c disease' 561 , peripheral pulmonary stenosis' 71 , primary pulmonary hypertension' 81, and in chroni c heart failure' 9101 . Th e aim of this study was to correlate mor- phologica l changes in pulmonary conductance vessels assesse d by intravascular ultrasound with reversibility o f pulmonary vascular resistance in patients with pulmonar y hypertension. Method s I n patients ( n = 51 ; 1 7 female; mean age 49-8 ±12-6 years ) undergoing cardiac catheterization, intravascular ultrasoun d images of the pulmonary arterial circulation wer e obtained. The patients wer e divide d i n tw o groups : grou p 1 with normal pulmonary artery pressure and pulmonar y vascular resistance, and group 2 with pul- monar y hypertension (peak pulmonary artery pressure >30mmH g and/or mean pulmonary artery pressure >2 0 mmHg). Grou p 1 (n=12; mean age 48-5 ±14-3 years; fou r female) included eight patients without any objec- tiv e evidence of cardiovascular disease or metabolic or systemi c disorders affecting the cardiovascular system. The y had been catheterized because of atypical ches t pain , and four patients had coronary artery disease with norma l systolic and diastolic left ventricular function. Grou p 2 (n = 39 ; 1 3 female; mean ag e = 50- 3 ± 12-3 years) included patients with primary pul- monar y hypertension (n = 3) , secondar y pulmonary hypertensio n due to dilative cardiomyopathy (n=16), hear t failure due to coronary artery disease (n=12), pulmonar y embolism (n = 3) , ventricula r septal defect ( n = 2) , atria l septal defect (n=l), chronic heart failure du e to aortic regurgitation (n=l) and systemic arterial hypertensio n (n=l). Cardiac catheterization Al l catheter procedures were performed via right femora l arterial and venous access sites. Right and left hear t pressures were measured with standard catheters vi a femoral access and pulmonary vascular resistance wa s calculated. Intravascular ultrasound imaging Th e ultrasound probe and flow wire were advanced throug h an 8F multipurpose guiding catheter into a pulmonary segment artery using fluoroscopic guidance . Ultrasound and Doppler probes were alter- natel y advanced to the tip of the catheter. We used a 2- 9 F/30 MHz phased array intravascular ultrasound prob e (CVIS, Cardiovascular Imaging Systems, Inc.). Intravascula r ultrasound imaging was performed before exposur e to contrast medium. Blood flow velocity wa s measured by a Doppler flow wire (0.018 inch, Cardiometric s Inc.). Real-time, dynamic, cross-sectional image s of the pulmonary artery branches could be obtaine d in all patients. Al l images were recorded on videotape , from which quantitative analyses were performed . The analysis and measurements of the intravascula r ultrasound recordings were obtained by tw o independent observers, who were blinded to the haemodynami c results. Th e following parameters were analysed and compare d with haemodynamic findings: appearance of vesse l wall layering, thickening of the intimal layer, interna l and external diameter, wall thickness, end- diastoli c and end-systolic external and internal vessel lumina l areas. The vessel pulsatility was calculated as: end-diastoli c minus end-systolic vessel area divided by end-systoli c area; and the relative wall thickness was define d as the thickness of the wall divided by the interna l vascular diameter in percent. Acetylcholin e infusion was adjusted to the local bloo d flow, as calculated from vessel area and bloo d flow velocity, in order to achiev e 10~ 6 M , 10~5 M , an d 10~ 4 M concentration s of acetylcholine in the vessel investigated . Acetylcholine was infused through the ultrasoun d catheter flush lumen for a minimum of 3 min intervals. The internal vessel area was measured befor e and during acetylcholine infusion and remained unchanged . The maximal change in flow velocity during acetylcholin e infusion as a percentage of baseline flow velocity was used for the comparison between vasodilato r capacity and morphology. Arteria l and pulmonary arterial pressures were recorde d continuously during the procedure. Pulmonary capillar y wedge pressure was measured only prior to intravascula r ultrasound measurements. Flow velocity wa s determined by averaging the average peak velocity o f 10 consecutive cardiac cycles. Statistical analysis Al l values were expressed as mean ± standard deviation; a P value less than 005 was considered significant. Fo r nominally scaled parameters, independence and homogeneit y of distribution were tested by the chi- squar e test with Yates' correction. For comparison of th e groups th e paire d Student' s t-tes t wa s used ; i f normalit y test failed, we used the Mann-Whitney sum test . Baseline flow and flow in response to acetyl- cholin e were analysed using the Wilcoxon matched pairs test . Th e intra-observer reproducibility of the two- dimensiona l measurements was assessed by one Eu r Heart J, Vol. 18, December 1997 by guest on February 11, 2013 http://eurheartj.oxfordjournals.org/ Downloaded from 1990 A. C. Borges e t al. Table 1 Haemodynamic and intravascular ultrasound data n Ag e Gende r PA P peak (mmHg) PA P mean (mmHg) PV R (wu) Ac h (%) Wt h (%) Interna l area (mm 2 ) Interna l area change (%)f Interna l diameter (mm) Externa l diameter (mm) Grou p 1 1 2 48- 5 ±14- 3 4f/8 m 19- 7 ±3- 9 11- 7 ±2 9 1- 1 ±0-2 36- 6 ± 52-4 15- 3 ±6- 5 1 1 - 8 ± 6-1 7- 5 ±46 3- 9 ±1-2 6- 1 ± 1-3 Grou p 2 3 9 50- 3 ±12- 3 13f/26 m 58- 3 ± 26-5* * 37- 8 ±16-1* * 4- 7 ±3-9** 40- 5 ±41-3 22- 5 ±10-4* 16- 7 ± 1 4 3 12- 3 ± 10-9 4- 2 ±1- 7 6- 9 ±21 PAP=pulmonar y artery pressure; PVR = pulmonar y vascular re- sistance ; Wth = relativ e wall thickness; Ach = flo w increase after acetylcholine-application ; f=female; m=male; fthe internal area chang e was denned as the change of the internal vessel wall during th e cardiac cycle (see Methods). */><005 ; **/><001 . observe r wh o analyse d al l videotape s twice. T o evaluat e inter-observe r variability, th e measurement s an d semi - quantitativ e description o f the vesse l wall architecture wer e carried ou t by a secon d observer, wh o was blinde d t o th e result s o f the first. Th e averag e differences were calculated . Th e study protocol wa s approve d b y the Huma n Researc h Committee a t our institution , an d all subject s provide d informed consent. define d a s follows : (1 ) intima l thickening (>0- 2 mm) and/o r (2 ) increase d relative vessel wall thickness (>15% ) and/or (3 ) change s i n layerin g (> 2 layer s and/or disturbance s o f clea r delineation o f the layers) . Intravascular ultrasound in patients with normal pulmonary artery pressure I n patients with normal pulmonary haemodynamics, th e wal l o f the pulmonar y arteries demonstrated a singl e rin g with high echogeneity, differentiation o f a smal l inne r layer o f lowe r echogeneity with maximal 0 1 up to 0- 2 m m thicknes s (Fig . 1). The relativ e wall thickness wa s 15-3 ±6-5% an d range d from 1 0 to 32% (othe r parameter s se e Tabl e 1) . Intravascular ultrasound in patients with pulmonary hypertension Onl y four o f 39 patient s with pulmonary hypertension ha d a vesse l wall architecture similar t o thos e with norma l pulmonary artery pressures. I n the majorit y o f patient s there wa s thickenin g o f th e intimal layer ( n = 35 ; thicknes s o f th e internal layer >0- 2 mm) an d disturbanc e o f th e vesse l wall architecture ( n = 32 ; Fig . 2). The relativ e vessel wall thickness wa s 22- 5 ±10-4% an d range d from 1 0 to 42% (for othe r parameters se e Tabl e 1) . Ther e were n o difference s between pre - and post-capillary hypertension forms. Result s Th e patients' characteristics an d haemodynami c findings o f th e two group s ar e give n i n Tabl e 1 . Intravascula r ultrasoun d imaging wa s successfu l i n all 51 patients . Cross-sectiona l images obtained from different branches displaye d similar shapes, which were generally circular excep t fo r bifurcatio n o r branchin g sites. Pulsation o f th e artery could b e recognise d i n the images . Luminal are a an d interna l diameter could b e delineate d clearly. Th e signals caused b y adjacen t air-filled alveolar struc- ture s made i t difficul t t o determin e th e externa l diameter an d th e vesse l wall thickness a t dista l an d smal l branches . A clea r delineation o f the externa l wall struc- tur e wa s possibl e only i n 45/51 cases . I n the othe r patient s th e definitio n o f vesse l wall thickness wa s suboptimal . These data were no t include d i n the calculations . Ther e were n o significan t differences with respect t o age, gender, external an d interna l vessel diameter, an d interna l vessel area (Table 1). Th e relativ e wall thickness wa s higher i n grou p 2 tha n i n grou p 1 (/ ><005) , an d the appearanc e o f layerin g o f the vesse l wall i n grou p 2 was abnormal . Abnormal layering o f the vesse l wall wa s Relationship between haemodynamics and morphology Ther e i s a clea r relationship between morphology o f the pulmonar y artery vessel wall an d haemodynamic s i n patient s with secondary pulmonary hypertension. W e demonstrate d a significan t difference regarding pul - monar y artery pressure mean an d pulmonar y vascular resistanc e i n patient s with normal an d pathologica l intravascula r ultrasound findings (Fig . 3), but no differ - ence s i n acetylcholin e dependent flow change between patient s with normal an d pathologica l intravascular ultrasoun d findings (Fig . 4). In patient s with primary pulmonar y hypertension, th e numbe r o f patient s an d the rang e o f abnormalitie s wa s too smal l (mean pulmonary arter y pressure o f 45/54/5 3 mmHg corresponding t o highe r values o f relativ e wall thickness o f 22/28/36 % an d acetylcholine-dependen t flow increase ranging from 3 2 t o 89% ) to dra w definitive conclusions. There were n o significan t correlations between mean pulmonary artery pressur e an d wal l thickness, mean pulmonary artery pressur e an d vesse l area change, acetylcholine dependent increas e i n pulmonar y flow velocity an d wal l thickness. Furthermore , i n patient s with secondary pulmonary Eu r Heart J, Vol. 18, December 1997 by guest on February 11, 2013 http://eurheartj.oxfordjournals.org/ Downloaded from Haemodynamics and morphology in pulmonary hypertension 1991 Figure 1 Real-tim e cross-sectional ultrasound image from a patient wit h normal pulmonary arterial pressure. The pulmonary arterial wall appear s as a single echogenic ring with no differentiation of separate layers . Figure 2 Cross-sectiona l ultrasound image from a patient with sever e pulmonary hypertension with intimal thickenin g and distur- banc e of the vessel wall architecture. hypertensio n due to heart failure (n = 30) ther e were no significan t correlations between haemodynamic (mean pulmonar y artery pressure, pulmonary artery pressure pea k and pulmonary vascular resistance and morpho- logica l parameters (wall thickness, internal vessel area, pulsatility) . Eu r Heart J, Vol. 18, December 1997 by guest on February 11, 2013 http://eurheartj.oxfordjournals.org/ Downloaded from 799 2 A. C. Borges et al. 6 0 b o e, a c d 4 0 - 2 0 - 0 (a ) p<0.0 1 T 1 18. 4 38. 7 Norma l Pathological u 8 6 4 2 n (b ) — — _ j p<0.0 1 T 1. 3 4. 1 Norma l Pathological Figure 3 Pulmonar y artery pressure mean (a) pulmonary vascular resist- anc e (b) in patients with normal and pathological intravascular ultrasound findings . 10 0 8 0 - S 60-

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277799535_Relationship_between_haemodynamics_and_morphology_in_pulmonary_hypertension

Refworld | 2007 Report on International Religious Freedom - Turkmenistan Refworld is the leading source of information necessary for taking quality decisions on refugee status. Refworld contains a vast collection of reports relating to situations in countries of origin, policy documents and positions, and documents relating to international and national legal frameworks. The information has been carefully selected and compiled from UNHCR's global network of field offices, Governments, international, regional and non-governmental organizations, academic institutions and judicial bodies. 2007 Report on International Religious Freedom - Turkmenistan Publisher United States Department of State Author Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor Publication Date 14 September 2007 Cite as United States Department of State, 2007 Report on International Religious Freedom - Turkmenistan , 14 September 2007, available at: https://www.refworld.org/docid/46ee67a3c.html [accessed 9 June 2023] Disclaimer This is not a UNHCR publication. UNHCR is not responsible for, nor does it necessarily endorse, its content. Any views expressed are solely those of the author or publisher and do not necessarily reflect those of UNHCR, the United Nations or its Member States. Released by the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor The Constitution provides for freedom of religion and does not establish a state religion; however, in practice the Government continued to restrict all forms of religious expression. All groups must register in order to gain legal status; unregistered religious activity is illegal and may be punished by administrative fines. While the 2003 law on religion and subsequent 2004 amendments had effectively restricted registration to only the two largest groups, Sunni Muslim and Russian Orthodox, and criminalized unregistered religious activity, presidential decrees issued in 2004 dramatically reduced the numerical thresholds for registration and abolished criminal penalties for unregistered religious activity; civil penalties remain. As a result, nine minority religious groups were able to register, and the Government allowed some other groups to meet quietly with reduced harassment. There was no improvement in the status of respect for religious freedom by the Government during the period covered by this report, and there were troubling developments in the treatment of some unregistered groups. Following a sharp decrease in harassment of both registered and unregistered groups in late 2006, mistreatment of some registered and many unregistered religious minority group members, similar to that in previous reporting periods, resumed in February 2007. On December 21, 2006, President Saparmurat Niyazov died. The State Security Council appointed Deputy Chairman of the Cabinet of Ministers and Minister of Health Gurbanguly Berdimuhammedov Acting President; Berdimuhammedov was elected President in February, 2007. During the reporting period there were no indications the Government planned to rescind or modify previous policies regarding religious freedom. The Government threatened members of minority religious groups with fines, loss of employment and housing, and imprisonment because of their beliefs. There were also reports of raids. There were no reports of societal abuses or violence based on religious beliefs or practice. The overwhelming majority of citizens identify themselves as Sunni Muslim; ethnic Turkmen identity is linked to Islam. Ethnic Turkmen who choose to convert to other religious groups, especially the lesser-known Protestant groups, are viewed with suspicion and sometimes ostracized, but society historically has been tolerant and inclusive of different religious beliefs. The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the Government as part of its overall policy to promote human rights. During the period covered by this report, U.S. Embassy representatives and U.S. State Department officials raised religious freedom issues in meetings with government officials and urged greater support for religious freedom. The Embassy hosted three roundtables for registered and unregistered minority religious groups during the reporting period. Improving registration for nongovernmental groups, including religious organizations, and permitting them to meet regularly were top U.S. Government priorities. Section I. Religious Demography Since independence there has been a tightly controlled revival of Islam. During the Soviet era, there were only four mosques operating; now there are 398. Ethnic Turkmen, Uzbeks, Kazakhs, and Baloch living in Mary province are predominantly Sunni Muslim. There are small pockets of Shi'a Muslims, many of whom are ethnic Iranians, Azeris, or Kurds living along the border with Iran and in Turkmenbashy (Krasnovodsk). Restrictive government control, indigenous Islamic culture, and 70 years of Soviet rule have meant that traditional mosque-based Islam does not play a dominant role in society. Local interpretations of Islam place a heavy premium on rituals associated with birth, marriage, and death ("sadakas"), featuring music and dancing that more traditional Muslims view as unorthodox. Together with shrine pilgrimage, such rituals play a greater role in local Muslims' expression of Islam than regular prayer at mosques. While the 1995 census indicated that ethnic Russians comprised almost 7 percent of the population, subsequent emigration to Russia and elsewhere has reduced considerably this proportion. Most ethnic Russians and Armenians are Christian. Practicing Russian Christians are generally members of the Russian Orthodox Church (ROC). There are 13 Russian Orthodox churches, 3 of which are in Ashgabat. A priest resident in Ashgabat leads the ROC within the country, serving under the religious jurisdiction of the Russian Orthodox Archbishop in Tashkent, Uzbekistan. There are no Russian Orthodox seminaries. Ethnic Russians and Armenians also comprise a significant percentage of members of unregistered religious congregations; ethnic Turkmen appear to be increasingly represented among these groups as well. There are small communities of the following unregistered denominations: the Roman Catholic Church, Jehovah's Witnesses, Jews, and several evangelical Christian groups including "Separate" Baptists, charismatic groups, and an unaffiliated, nondenominational group. Small communities of Baha'is, Baptists, Seventh-day Adventists, and the Society for Krishna Consciousness were registered with the Government. In May 2005 the Greater Grace Church of Turkmenistan, the International Church of Christ, the New Apostolic Church of Turkmenistan, and two groups of Pentecostal Christians were able to register. A very small community of ethnic Germans, most of whom live in and around the city of Saragt, reportedly included practicing Lutherans. Approximately one thousand ethnic Poles live in the country; they have been largely absorbed into the Russian community and consider themselves Russian Orthodox. The Catholic community in Ashgabat, which included both citizens and foreigners, met in the chapel of the Vatican Nunciature. There were some foreign missionaries, although the extent of their activities was unknown. An estimated one thousand Jews live in the country. Most are members of families who came from Ukraine during World War II. There are some Jewish families living in Turkmenabat, on the border with Uzbekistan, who are known as Bukharan Jews, referring to the Uzbek city of Bukhara. There were no synagogues or rabbis, and Jews continued to emigrate to Israel, Russia, and Germany; however, the Jewish population remained relatively constant. The community gathered for religious observances but did not opt to register as a religious group; nor were there reports of harassment. Section II. Status of Religious Freedom Legal/Policy Framework The Constitution provides for freedom of religion; however, in practice the Government restricts these rights. The criminal code outlaws violations of religious freedom or persecution by private actors; in practice it is not enforced. In 2004 the Government published amendments to the 2003 law on religion that reduced numerical thresholds for registration from 500 members to 5, and made all minority groups eligible to register. The amendments established two categories of religious assemblies: religious groups (comprising at least 5 and fewer than 50 members of legal age) and religious organizations (comprising at least 50 members). The amendments leave significant gray areas in the law. The 2003 law requires all religious organizations to register, made operation of unregistered religious organizations a criminal offense, further restricted religious education, and monitored financial and material assistance to religious groups from foreign sources. In response to international pressure, a 2004 presidential decree lifted criminal penalties. The remaining civil law continues to allow the Government to control religious life and to restrict the activities of all religious groups. The 2003 law did not codify religious activities in localities other than where a group was registered. In October 2005 the Government announced a temporary procedure for the registration of religious groups' regional branches by issuing powers of attorney. Ministry of Justice (MOJ) representatives also stated that amendments would be made to the 2003 law on religion that would codify the branch registration issue, but this did not happen during the reporting period. Former President Niyazov signed a decree in 2004 that strengthened the 2003 law on religious practice and religious organizations and increased registration fees for religious organizations to $100 (2.5 million manat at the unofficial rate). In addition the decree relieved the MOJ of the obligation to publish in the local media a list of registered religious organizations for transparency. Without a published list, legally registered groups were more isolated and the public was less able to respond when authorities harassed registered groups. The law also gave the MOJ the right to cancel a group's registration based on vaguely defined charges. The government-appointed Council on Religious Affairs (CRA) reports to the president and ostensibly acts as an intermediary between the government bureaucracy and registered religious organizations. It includes Sunni Muslim imams and the head of the Russian Orthodox Church, as well as government representatives, but no representatives of minority religious groups. In practice the CRA acts as an arm of the state, exercising direct control over the hiring, promotion, and firing of both Sunni Muslim and Russian Orthodox clergy as well as helping to control all religious publications and activities. Its writ is enforced by security forces, specifically the Sixth Department of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, and it has no role in promoting interfaith dialogue. Although the Government does not officially favor any religion, it has provided financial and other support to the CRA for the construction of new mosques. The Government also pays most Muslim clerics' salaries, approves all senior cleric appointments, and requires the latter to report regularly to the CRA. Until June 2004 government entities at all levels, including the courts, had interpreted the laws in such a way as to discriminate against those practicing any faith other than Sunni Islam or Russian Orthodox Christianity, whose congregations represented the only two registered religious groups. A 2004 decree reduced the minimum required number of adherents for registration, however, and in the year following the decree, nine additional religious groups registered: the Evangelical Christian Baptist Church of Turkmenistan, Seventh-day Adventist Church of Turkmenistan, Baha'i Community of Turkmenistan, Society for Krishna Consciousness (Hare Krishnas), Full Gospel Christian Church of Turkmenistan (Pentecostals), Light of the East Church (Dashoguz Pentecostal Church), Greater Grace Church of Turkmenistan, International Church of Christ, and the New Apostolic Church of Turkmenistan. Each of these groups comprised fewer than 50 members. Shi'a Muslims remained unregistered, and there were no reports that they tried to register since the March 2004 decree, although they remained in contact with the CRA. In practice government policies, including those at the city level such as zoning regulations on the use of private residences, have created difficulties for some groups in finding places to hold worship services. According to the national residential code, no religious activity is allowed in private homes or in public halls located in residential areas. However, two registered religious groups, the Baha'i community and the Krishna Consciousness Society, were permitted to conduct worship meetings in homes. Unregistered religious groups and unregistered branches of religious groups are forbidden to conduct religious activities, including gathering, disseminating religious materials, and proselytizing. Government authorities have disrupted meetings of unregistered religious groups. Participants in those groups are subject to fines and administrative (not criminal) arrest under the administrative code. The Government prohibits foreign missionary activity and foreign religious organizations; however, the law does not restrict the worship choices of foreigners. The Government has incorporated some aspects of Islamic tradition in its effort to redefine a national identity. For example the Government has built large, monumental mosques, such as the ones in Ashgabat, Gokdepe, and Gypjak. Despite its embrace of certain aspects of Islamic culture, the Government is concerned about foreign Islamic influence and the interpretation of Islam by local believers. The Government promotes a moderate understanding of Islam based on Turkmen religious and national traditions. In April 2007, President Berdimuhammedov visited Saudi Arabia and performed umrah (minor pilgrimage) rituals in Mecca, recalling former President Niyazov's 1992 umrah. The CRA has urged imams to accord greater attention to President Niyazov's spiritual-social books on culture and heritage, Ruhnama and Ruhnama II, by teaching them as holy texts and placing them next to the Qur'an in some mosques. Although the country elected a new president in February 2007, this policy did not change. Phrases from the Ruhnama are inscribed on the large mosque in former President Niyazov's home village of Gypjak. In 2003 the widely respected former mufti of the country, Nasrullah Ibn Ibadullah, was replaced, secretly tried, and sentenced in 2004 to 22 years in prison. Ibn Ibadullah's replacement, Kakageldi Wepayev, was subsequently placed under house arrest for "misbehavior"-allegedly including drinking and womanizing-and replaced in 2004 by then 27-year-old recent seminary graduate Rowshen Allaberdiyev. Mosques and Muslim clergy are state-sponsored and financed. The Russian Orthodox Church and other religious groups are independently financed. The Government recognizes only Sunni Muslim holy days as national holidays. These include Gurban Bairam (Eid al-Adha), a 3-day holiday commemorating the end of the Hajj, and Oraza-Bairam (Eid al-Fitr), commemorating the end of Ramadan, the Muslim month of fasting. The Government does not offer alternative civilian service for conscientious objectors; individuals who want to refuse military service for religious reasons are offered noncombatant roles within the military. Until June 2007, conscripted members of the Jehovah's Witnesses were returned home unharmed several days after being called up, although they were not given papers excusing them from military service, which are needed for employment. This policy changed in June 2007, however, when three Jehovah's Witnesses were arrested and charged with avoiding military service. Article Six of the November 2004 law allows mosques to provide religious education to children after school for 4 hours a week with the approval of parents. Persons who graduate from institutions of higher religious education (the law does not specify domestic or international institutions) and who obtain CRA approval may provide religious education. Citizens have the right to receive religious education individually or with other persons; however, the law prohibits providing religious education in private, and those who do so are subject to punitive legal action. Although some independent religious education exists, the Government has done nothing to promote religious education beyond the official version incorporating the Ruhnama. Some Sunni mosques have regularly scheduled classes on the Qur'an. The 2003 law prohibits the ROC from conducting religious education programs without CRA and presidential approval, and there were no reports that either the CRA or the President approved such programs. Homeschooling usually is allowed only in cases of severe illness or disability and not for religious reasons. The Government, through the CRA, does little to promote interfaith understanding or dialogue beyond that between Muslims and Russian Orthodox Christians. Restrictions on Religious Freedom The Government officially has banned only extremist groups advocating violence, but it also categorized Islamic groups advocating stricter interpretation of Islamic religious doctrine as "extremist." The activities of unregistered religious groups remained illegal, with violators subject to fines and administrative arrest under the administrative code. During the reporting period, at least four religious groups, all of which sought several times to register, continued to be denied legal status; as in previous years, the Government delayed or denied applications, citing technical reasons, including the requirement that the head of the group have "higher education. The Roman Catholic Church remained unregistered because of a conflict with local law requiring that the head of the Church be a citizen of the country. Other groups either remained fearful of registering, citing the amount and type of information the Government required, or refused on principle to do so. Registered religious minority groups reported few instances of harassment. However, in two cases regional affiliates of registered groups experienced harassment by provincial and district law enforcement agencies. Some of these groups found that by routinely notifying the Government of their gatherings and events and inviting government representatives to attend, they experienced decreased government harassment. The Government restricted unregistered religious groups from establishing places of worship, and violations constituted an administrative offense. Registered groups also experienced difficulties establishing and maintaining places of worship; several groups stated that their largest obstacle was a lack of funds to rent a public hall. Several groups said they would prefer to buy a worship center or land to establish a permanent one, but municipal authorities raised insurmountable bureaucratic hurdles. Five registered minority religious groups have established public places of worship; three were rented and two were private residential homes of group members. The Government did not restrict some worship services in private homes, and the CRA assisted several registered minority groups to locate suitable worship locations. The Government forbids unregistered religious groups or unregistered branches of registered religious groups from gathering publicly or privately and can punish individuals or groups who violate these prohibitions. Some unregistered congregations continued to practice quietly, largely in private homes. The Government also controls access to Islamic education. The theology faculty at Turkmen State University in Ashgabat had been the only academic faculty to conduct Islamic education. In July 2005 the President dissolved the theology faculty and incorporated the theology students and curriculum into the university's history department, leaving no official Islamic academic faculty. The Government does not officially restrict persons from changing their religious beliefs and affiliation, but ethnic Turkmen members of unregistered religious groups accused of proselytizing and disseminating religious material generally receive harsher treatment than nonethnic Turkmen. During this reporting period, there was one report of local government officials attempting to force an ethnic Turkmen Christian convert to renounce his faith. There were three high-level officials in the Government with a Russian Jewish heritage, and at least one deputy minister who is Russian Orthodox. No representatives of other minority religious groups were known to be working at senior or mid-level government positions during the reporting period. Some minority religious group adherents remained members of the only political party but feared openly acknowledging their faith out of concern for political reprisal. The Government monitored minority religious groups, particularly those perceived to have connections with or support from a supranational hierarchy. The law prohibits foreign missionary activity, although in practice both Christians and Muslims working in the country in other capacities engaged in religious outreach. The 2003 law on religion stipulated that religious groups must report any financial or material assistance received from foreign sources. The Government denies visas to foreigners suspected of conducting or intending to conduct missionary activity. By decree, publishing religious literature was prohibited, limiting the availability of Qur'ans, Bibles and other religious literature. Sacred religious books were rarely available for purchase. In practice the CRA must approve imported religious literature. Since all members of the CRA are either government officials, Sunni Muslims or members of the ROC, minority religious groups were disadvantaged regarding importing of religious materials. When the CRA approves the importation of a publication, the number of imported copies cannot exceed the number of registered group members. The Dashoguz office of the CRA required that its officers stamp religious literature, including Bibles and Qur'ans, in order to authorize it. During the reporting period, a leader of an unregistered church in Dashoguz reported that officials confiscated religious literature from him on a train and intercepted religious literature that had been mailed to him. The Government enforced the use of former President Niyazov's books, Ruhnama and Ruhnama II, in educational institutions, government offices, and mosques. Copies of the book were kept in most mosques, and authorities have pressured religious leaders to place it alongside the Qur'an and to preach Ruhnama in their services. In 2004 the Government formally lifted the exit visa requirement, theoretically permitting travel by all those who wished to participate in the Hajj or other travel for religious purposes; however, the Government maintained a "black list" of individuals and continued to limit freedom of movement, including in cases where individuals wanted to travel outside the country in order to conduct religious study. The Government continued to limit participation in the annual pilgrimage to Mecca (the Hajj), specifying that only 188 pilgrims (one plane load) personally approved by the President, out of the country's quota of 4,600, would be allowed to travel to Mecca. The national airline provided transportation free of charge. According to Forum 18, the Government on January 6, 2007 refused to grant permission to Merdan Shirmedov, a Protestant from an ethnic Turkmen fellowship in Dashoguz, to leave the country to join his pregnant wife, Wendy Lucas in the United States. Lucas said that on April 10, 2007, Shirmedov tried to cross the border to Uzbekistan, but was prevented from leaving after Turkmenistan border guards found his name on a computerized exit blacklist. Officials refused to tell him why he was barred from leaving. Foreign members of registered and unregistered religious groups continued to be denied entry visas. Several registered religious minority groups reported that the Government monitored them by attending their gatherings; nonetheless, communities continued to engage in regular activities. Officers from the Sixth Department in Ashgabat, the division charged with fighting organized crime and terrorism, were still charged with monitoring members of religious minorities. The Government continued to discriminate against members of religious groups with respect to employment. Abuses of Religious Freedom Following a sharp decrease in harassment of both registered and unregistered groups in late 2006, mistreatment of some registered and many unregistered religious minority group members resumed following the inauguration of President Berdimuhammedov in February 2007. The Government threatened members of minority religious groups with fines, loss of employment and housing, and imprisonment because of their beliefs. There were also reports of raids. Forum 18 also reported the arrest on May 19 of the leader of a Council of Churches Baptist congregation in Turkmenbashy City, Yevgeny Potolov. The report speculated that Potolov, a Russian citizen, had also been arrested for entering the country illegally. In 2001 authorities had deported Potolov to Kazakhstan, but he had returned to Turkmenistan to rejoin his wife and children. During incidents involving police detaining and questioning members of unregistered minority religious groups, authorities took a range of actions including: filming those present; recording the names, addresses, and places of work of the congregants; threatening fines and imprisonment; and confiscating religious literature. With the exception of the Kalataevsky and Potolov cases, there were fewer reports of prolonged detention or physical abuse. The fate of an estimated 30 suspected "Wahhabis" reportedly detained in Ashgabat in August 2005 remains unknown. The country's former mufti, Nasrullah ibn Ibadullah, remained in prison serving a 22-year sentence. Ibadullah had been dismissed as mufti in 2003, reportedly in part for his refusal to teach the Ruhnama as a sacred text and in March 2004 was secretly tried and convicted, reportedly for his alleged role in a failed 2002 assassination attempt on Niyazov. Little was known about the whereabouts or the condition of Ibadullah, despite calls from the international community for access to him and for his release. Amnesty International reported in early 2007 that his family was increasingly concerned for his safety. On April 29, 2007, an unidentified official – possibly from the Sixth Department of the Ministry of Internal Affairs – demanded and then fled with the travel documents of three members of an unregistered Mary-based group who were traveling by train to Dashoguz province to meet with a religious leader. A transportation official, finding the three group members without documents, returned them by train to Ashgabat the same day. On April 19, 2007, officials from the Ministry of Internal Affairs' Sixth Department raided a branch of the registered Evangelical Baptist Church of Turkmenistan in Turkmenbashy. The authorities came to a worship service, and took Bibles and hymnals from the congregation. That evening, police summoned two women to a local official's office and fined them approximately $90 (2.5 million manat), threatening further harassment if the women did not pay. The police gave no specific reason for the harassment, but suggested that the women ought to be attending a Russian Orthodox Church. In early 2007 law enforcement officials reportedly raided a meeting of the registered group Svet Vostoka (Light of the East) Pentecostal church in Dashoguz. On March 18, 2007, authorities raided a meeting of an unregistered religious group in Abadan and fined home owners. On February 4, 2007, a group of law enforcement officers, who refused to show identification or a search warrant, raided the private house of the leader of an unregistered Christian group, where a wide circle of relatives and family friends were gathered. The inhabitants of the house were not conducting any religious activities. For five hours, the group of officers videotaped the people and belongings inside the house. In June 2007, three Jehovah's Witnesses were arrested and charged with avoiding military service. Their trials were expected to take place in July 2007. Jehovah's Witnesses also reported numerous cases of harassment, detention, and abuse. The group, which had not sought to register, reported in April, 2007 that tensions with the government were high, and cited seven specific cases of harassment that occurred in March and April, including two in which members lost their jobs. According to their report, on April 17, 2007, Dashoguz police took a Bible and religious literature from the room of Jehovah's Witness member Rinat Babajanov and took him to the city hall, where he was fined $55 (1,250,000 manat). On April 13, 2007, three officers forcibly took ethnic Turkmen member Muhammed Annayev from his home in Ashgabat and questioned him about his religious beliefs, asking why he did not adhere to the Muslim faith. On April 11, 2007, in Turkmenabat, two police officers entered an apartment shared by three Jehovah's Witnesses, searched the apartment in the residents' absence, and took their passports. All three Jehovah's Witnesses were detained for several hours and one, a woman, was sexually molested by the police officers. Upon appeal, the prosecutor initially declared the passport seizure illegal, but then threatened to fine the Jehovah's Witnesses after talking to the police. On April 9, 2007, Jehovah's Witness Anna Karayeva was called to the Ashgabat city hall, where five people questioned her for two hours about her religious beliefs, and fined her $55 (1,250,000 manat), which she refused to pay. Following this incident, Karayeva lost her job, reportedly on the orders of the MNB. Jehovah's Witnesses reported that on April 2, 2007, police officers in Ashgabat interrupted their holiday celebration. They took several members to the police station and demanded that they write an explanation in front of police, representatives of the local mayor's office, and representatives of the CRA and MNB. Also on April 2, 2007 in Turkmenabat eight police officers and eight officials in civilian clothing raided the apartment of Jehovah's Witness Maral Jorayeva during a holiday celebration involving nine adults and six children. The officials took Bibles, religious literature, and passports from Jorayeva and threatened her. On March 17, 2007, two police officers entered the Ashgabat home of Jehovah's Witnesses Mahrigozel Saparova and Vitali Hojayev without a proper warrant. A regional court fined the couple approximately $55 (1,250,000 manat) for violating several articles of Turkmenistan's law, and Saparova – a doctor – lost her job shortly afterwards. On October 28, 2006, Ashgabat police detained two Jehovah's Witnesses, Andrey Pomerantsev and his spouse, Orungul Umirova, for proselytizing. They were held at a temporary detention facility in Ashgabat for two days during an extended national holiday without any proceedings, but were released unharmed after the case was brought to the notice of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Jehovah's Witnesses reported several similar cases of harassment, in which Jehovah's Witnesses were detained, searched, fined and occasionally beaten, during previous reporting periods as well. A Hare Krishna representative reported that harassment from officials had decreased since her group's registration; there were no reports of authorities beating Hare Krishnas during this reporting period. In October 2006, as part of a general annual prison amnesty, former President Niyazov released imprisoned Hare Krishna follower Ceper Annaniyazova, who had been sentenced to seven years in prison in November 2005 for having illegally crossed the border in 2002. The Government did not destroy any mosques during the reporting period and, in fact, resumed renovation of a mosque in Mary City and on a mosque in the new president's home village. One mosque in Turkmenbashy was destroyed in 2006. In 2004 at least six mosques were destroyed, some for no stated reason, others ostensibly for Ashgabat city "beautification" plans. In 2004 a Sunni cemetery north of the capital was leveled. Another cemetery in Ashgabat was being encroached upon by a high-rise development. In 2004 Muslims in Bagyr, a predominantly Kurdish suburb of Ashgabat, reported they could no longer bury their family members in traditional cemeteries but instead were obliged to use a centralized location. The Government restricts the number of mosques by requiring permission for construction. Government policy is that every community should have one mosque; however, in 2004 President Niyazov ordered that no more mosques were to be built without CRA approval and stated mosques would henceforth be led by state-appointed imams. Forced Religious Conversion There were no reports of forced religious conversion, including of minor U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the United States, or of the refusal to allow such citizens to be returned to the United States. Improvements and Positive Developments in Respect for Religious Freedom In a May 2007 meeting with embassy officers, the Deputy Chairman of the CRA agreed in principle to hold another minority religious group roundtable to discuss pressing concerns, similar to the one held on October 20, 2005. The CRA intervened on one occasion during the reporting period to release religious literature that had been embargoed by the Customs Department. Section III. Societal Abuses and Discrimination There were no reports of general societal abuses based on religious belief or practice during the period covered by this report. Many Muslims do not regularly attend mosques; however, the overwhelming majority of the population identify themselves as "Muslim," and national identity is linked to Islam. (Turkmen society considers an individual to be born into an ethno-religious group.) Departures from the pattern are rare and either receive little support or are criticized. Ethnic Turkmen who choose to convert from Islam to other religious groups are viewed with suspicion and sometimes ostracized. Despite strong ties between Islam and national identity, the society historically has been tolerant and inclusive of different religious beliefs. For example, in the early part of the 20th century Ashgabat was a refuge for Baha'is escaping persecution in Iran, and a Baha'i temple was built in the city at that time. Government repression of minority religious groups does not reflect doctrinal or societal friction between the Muslim majority and minority religious groups. Rather, it reportedly reflects the Government's concern that the proliferation of nontraditional religious groups could undermine state control, promote civil unrest, facilitate undue influence by foreign interests, and destabilize the Government. There is also a societal distrust of foreign-based religious groups and the belief that Islam from outside the country is "Wahhabist" – extremist. Section IV. U.S. Government Policy The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the Government as part of its overall policy to promote human rights and raises specific cases of detention or harassment with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and CRA. During the period covered by this report, U.S. Embassy representatives and visiting U.S. Government officials raised cases of religious freedom abuse in meetings with government officials and urged greater support for religious freedom. Embassy officers met with officials from the CRA in May 2007 and urged the CRA to host regular roundtable meetings with minority religious groups, similar to the roundtable held in October 2005. The Embassy hosted three roundtables for representatives of religious minority groups during the reporting period. On May 1, the Government sent the Embassy a diplomatic note protesting the last of these roundtables and requesting the embassy to "coordinate with the Turkmen side in the established manner when it plans events related to the religious sphere." Embassy officers met regularly with the staff of the OSCE center in Ashgabat, the U.K. Embassy, and other diplomatic missions in order to maximize cooperation in monitoring abuses of and promoting greater respect for religious freedom. Embassy officers regularly met with representatives of registered and unregistered religious groups to monitor their status, receive reports of abuse, and discuss measures to raise their cases with the Government. These representatives have been much more willing to meet with Embassy officials due to the reduced registration requirements and elimination of criminal penalties for religious activities.

https://www.refworld.org/country,,USDOS,ANNUALREPORT,TKM,4562d8cf2,46ee67a3c,0.html

(PDF) An integrated SPH method for cardiac electromechanics PDF | Mathematical modeling of cardiac function can provide augmented simulation-based diagnosis tools for complementing and extending human... | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate An integrated SPH method for cardiac electromechanics June 2021 Conference: SPHERIC 2021 At: New Jersey Institute of Technology, US (visual meeting) Abstract Mathematical modeling of cardiac function can provide augmented simulation-based diagnosis tools for complementing and extending human understanding of cardiac diseases, which represent the most common cause of worldwide death. As the realistic starting-point for developing an unified meshless approach for total heart modeling, in this paper we propose an integrative smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH) method for addressing the simulation of the principle aspects of cardiac function, including cardiac electrophysiology, passive mechanical response and electromechanical coupling. To that end, several algorithms, e.g. splitting reaction-by-reaction method combined with a quasi-steady-state (QSS) solver, as well as anisotropic SPH-diffusion discretization and total Lagrangian SPH formulation, are introduced for dealing with the fundamental challenges of developing an integrative SPH method for simulating cardiac function, including, (i) the correct capture of the stiff dynamics of the transmembrane potential and the gating variables , (ii) the stable prediction of the large deformations and the strongly anisotropic behavior of the myocardium, and (iii) a proper coupling between the electrophysiology and tissue mechanics for the electromechanical feedback. A set of numerical examples demonstrate the effectiveness and robustness of the present SPH method, An integrated SPH method for cardiac electromechanics Chi Zhang, Jianhang W ang, Massoud Rezavand, Dong W u and Xiangyu Hu Department of Mechanical Engineering, Technical Uni versity of Munich, 85748 Garching, Germany Email: [email protected] Abstract —Mathematical modeling of cardiac function can provide augmented simulation-based diagnosis tools for comple- menting and extending human understanding of cardiac diseases, which represent the most common cause of worldwide death. As the realistic starting-point for developing an unified meshless approach for total heart modeling, in this paper we propose an integrative smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH) method for addressing the simulation of the principle aspects of cardiac function, including cardiac electrophysiology , passive mechanical response and electromechanical coupling. T o that end, several algorithms, e.g. splitting reaction-by-reaction method combined with a quasi-steady-state (QSS) solver , as well as anisotropic SPH- diffusion discretization and total Lagrangian SPH formulation, are introduced for dealing with the fundamental challenges of developing an integrative SPH method for simulating cardiac function, including, (i) the correct capture of the stiff dynamics of the transmembrane potential and the gating variables , (ii) the stable prediction of the large deformations and the strongly anisotropic behavior of the myocardium, and (iii) a pr oper coupling between the electrophysiology and tissue mechanics for the electromechanical feedback. A set of numerical examples demonstrate the effectiveness and robustness of the present SPH method, I. I NTRODUCTION The heart is one of our not only most vital, but also most complex organs. The four chambers and four valv es act precisely in concert to regulate the heart’s filling, ejecting and overall pump function, by the interplay of electrical and mechanical (including solid and fluid) dynamics. Cardiac diseases which effect the heart through complex mechanisms represent one of the most important category of problems in public health, effecting millions of people each year according to the reports of W orld Health Organization (WHO) [1]. Mathematical modeling of the heart and its function can complement and expand our understanding of cardiac diseases and the clinical practice of cardiology [2]. In cardiac re- search, computational modeling and simulation have received tremendous efforts and are recognized as the community’ s next microscope, only better [3]. Howe ver, the integrati ve model capable of simulating the fully coupled cardiac function is still in its infancy . While the state-of-art computational models are able to simulate the coupled electromechanics or the coupled fluid-solid dynamics, they face serious difficulties on integrating all the three dynamics due to the conflicts between their limited modeling flexibility with respect to the complex physical processes involv ed. T o date, there are mainly two computational approaches [4] that developed for integrati ve cardiac modeling, viz. the finite-element method (FEM) [5] and the immersed-boundary method (IBM) [6]. However , the ability of FEM is hindered by the coupling between the solid and fluid mechanics. T ypical difficulties include the treatment of the conv ective terms, the incompressibility constraint and the updating of the mesh; especially when the opening and closing of valves are taken into account. The IBM has been developed to compute fluid- structure interaction (FSI) problems, which are the main difficulty for the FEM modeling. Howev er, the fairly weak coupling formulation of distributing the forces computed on the deformable Lagrangian mesh to the Eulerian mesh using a kernel function in IBM can lead to the Lagrangian-Eulerian mismatches on the kinematics. Such difficulty becomes very serious when the material properties and active stress are complex as the ones in cardiac myocardium. Compared to the traditional mesh-based approaches, the meshless methods, e.g. smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH) [7], [8], have shown peculiar adv antages in handling multi-physics and multi-scale problems [9]. The SPH method was originally proposed by Lucy [7] and Gingold and Mon- aghan [8] for astrophysical applications. Since its inception, SPH has been successfully applied in a broad variety of applications ranging from fluid dynamics [10], [11] to solid mechanics [12]–[14] and FSI [9], [15]. As a realistic starting-point for developing an integrati ve meshless approach for cardiac modeling, the main objective of this work is to present a SPH method for simulating the fundamental and indispensable components, e. g. the cardiac electrophysiology, passi ve mechanical response and electromechanical coupling (active mechanical response), of cardiac function. The cardiac electrophysiology describes the myocardial electrical activation sequence, based on the ion currents and tissue conductivity [2]. The cardiac fibers contract due to the propagation of electrical stimuli initiated in the sinoatrial node. This electrical stimuli produces a sharp rise (depolarization) followed by a sudden fall (repolarization) of the transmembrane potential. This phenomenon can be mathematically modeled by means of a reaction-diffusion equation where the source term encapsulates the cellular ion exchange. In this paper, we consider the simple monodomain approach derived with the assumption of equal anisotropic conductivities in the intra- and extra-cellular compartments. 2021 international SPHERIC workshop Virtual Meeting, June 7-11, 2021 The monodomain approach has been widely used for three- dimensional simulations considering ionic models ranging from simple FitzHugh-Nagumo variants [16], [17] to the more complex Luo-Rudy model [18]. Regarding the cardiac passiv e mechanical response, finite elasticity models are needed to describe cardiac contraction and relaxation due to the fact that the cardiac cells change in length by up to 20 − 30% during a physiological contraction. Furthermore, the suitable elasticity model should replicate the anisotropic passive be- havior determined via a set of collagen fibers and sheets due to the extremely complex and heterogeneous material property of cardiac myocardium. In this work, we consider the classic invariant-based presentation of the strain ener gy proposed by Holzapfel and Ogden [19] for the characterization of the passive mechanical response of the cardiac myocardium. The Holzapfel-Ogden model in which the cardiac myocardium is treated as a non-homogeneous, thick-walled and nonlinearly elastic material is a structural based model that accounts for the muscle fiber direction and the myocyte sheet structure. The electromechanical coupling can be phenomenologically described by means of activation models. In general, two approaches, namely, acti ve stress [20] and active strain [21], can be followed for the definition of activ ation models. Here, we consider the active stress [20] approach with an ev olution equation for active cardiomyocite concentration stress [22]. As the first attempt towards an integrati ve meshless model for cardiac modeling, the proposed SPH method should ac- curately characterize its interesting critical aspects, including electrophysiology, passi ve and active mechanical responses. At first, we adopt an operator splitting method for the reaction- diffusion equation to split reaction and diffusion to ensure numerical stability and accuracy . This consideration also leads to a much larger time step size compared to the simple forward Euler method [2]. Then, we introduce a splitting reaction-by- reaction method [23] combined with quasi-steady-state (QSS) solver to capture the stiff dynamics of the transmembrane potential and the gating variables of the ionic model governed by nonlinear ordinary differential equations (ODEs). Further- more, an anisotropic SPH discretization for diffusion equation derived by Tran-Duc et al. [24] is modified by introducing a linear operator to improve the computational efficiency and using a correction kernel matrix to improve the numerical accuracy . The total Lagrangian SPH formulation is employed to predict the large deformations and the strongly anisotropic behavior of the myocardium. Ultimately , the proposed SPH discretization for monodomain equation is integrated to predict the active response of myocardium by implementing the active stress approach [20]. A comprehensiv e set of numerical examples, viz. benchmarks on iso- and anisotropic diffusion, the transmembrane potential propagation in the manner of free-pulse and spiral wave, passiv e and active responses of myocardium, and electrophysiology and electromechanics in a generic biventricular heart, are computed to demonstrate the accuracy , robustness and feasibility of the proposed SPH method. Based on the present developments and the previous achievements of the SPH method [25]–[27], the proposed method will shed light on the multi-physics and multi-scale total heart modeling, in particular with regards to the fluid- electro-structure interactions. For a better comparison and future openings for in-depth studies, all the computational codes and data-sets accompanying this work are available from SPHinXsys [28]. II . K INEMATICS AND GO VERNING EQUA TIONS Following the con vention in continuum mechanics, a mate- rial point’s initial position r 0 is defined in the initial reference configuration, and its current position r in the deformed configurations. In this work, we will use superscript ( • ) 0 to denote the quantities in the initial reference configuration. The deformation tensor F can then be defined by the gradient of current position with respect to the initial reference configu- ration as F = ∂ r ∂ r 0 = ∇ 0 u + I , (1) where u = r − r 0 is the displacement, ∇ 0 the spatial gradient operator with respect to the initial reference configuration and I represents the unit matrix. Associated with F , the left Cauchy-Green deformation tensors is defined by C = F T · F , (2) which has the principle invariants, I 1 = tr C , I 2 = 1 2  I 2 1 − tr( C 2 )  , I 3 = det( C ) = J 2 , (3) where J = det( F ) , and 3 other independent invariants due to the directional preferences I f f = C : f 0 ⊗ f 0 , I ss = C : s 0 ⊗ s 0 , I fs = C : f 0 ⊗ s 0 , (4) where f 0 and s 0 are the undeformed myocardial fiber and sheet unit direction, respectively . Here, the structure-based inv ariants I f f and I ss are the isochoric fiber and sheet stretch squared as the squared lengths of the deformed fiber and sheet vectors, i.e. f = F f 0 and s = F s 0 , and I f s indicates the fiber-sheet shear [19]. W e consider a coupled system of partial differential equa- tions (PDEs) governing cardiac electrophysiolgoy and elec- tromechanics following the total Lagrangian formulation. The governing equation here for cardiac electrophysiolgoy is the evolution of the transmembrane potential V m , i.e. the normal- ized monodomain equation [2] C m d V m d t = ∇ 0 ·  D ∇ 0 V m  + I ion , (5) where d d t is the material derivativ e, C m the capacitance of the cell membrane and I ion the ionic current. Note that the con- ductivity tensor is defined with respect to the initial reference configuration by D = d iso I + d ani f 0 ⊗ f 0 with d iso denoting the isotropic contribution and d ani the anisotropic contribution to account for faster conductivity along fiber direction f 0 . 2021 international SPHERIC workshop Virtual Meeting, June 7-11, 2021 The governing (momentum conservation) equation for cardiac electromechanics can be expressed as ρ 0 d v d t = ∇ 0 · P T , (6) where ρ 0 is the density with respect to the initial reference configuration and P the first Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor . Note that the body force is neglected in Eq. (6). III. C ON ST IT UT IV E EQ UATIO NS T o close the systems of Eqs. (5) and (6), we specify herein the constitutive laws for the ionic current I ion and the first Piola-Kirchhoff stress P . A. Cardiac electr ophysiolgoy: ionic current model T o close the monodomain equation Eq. (5), a model for the ionic current is required. Following Refs. [16], [18], we consider the so-called reduced-ionic model in which I ion ( V m , w ) is a function of the trasnmembrane potential V m and the gating variable w represents the percentage of the open channels per unit area of the membrane. The most widely used reduced-ionic model is the Fitzhugh-Nagumo model [16] and the variant Aliev-Panfilo w model [17] which only have two currents, viz. inward and outward, one gating variable and no explicit ionic concentration variables. The Fitzhugh-Nagumo model reads [16] ( I ion ( V m , w ) = − V m ( V m − a )( V m − 1) − w d w d t = g ( V m , w ) =  0 ( β V m − γw − σ ) , (7) where  0 , β , γ and σ are suitable constant parameters will be given specifically . As a variant of Fitzhugh-Nagumo model, the Aliev-Panfilow model [17] has been successfully im- plemented in previous simulations of ventricular fibrillation in real geometries [29] and it is particularly suitable for applications where electrical activity of the heart is the main interest. The Aliev-Panfilow model reads ( I ion ( V m , w ) = − kV m ( V m − a )( V m − 1) − wV m d w d t = g ( V m , w ) =  ( V m , w )( − k V m ( V m − b − 1) − w ) , (8) where  ( V m , w ) =  0 + µ 1 w/ ( µ 2 + V m ) and k , a , b ,  0 , µ 1 and µ 2 are suitable constant parameters to be fixed later. Note that both Fitzhugh-Nagumo and Aliev-Panfilow mod- els involve dimensionless variable V m , w and t . The actual transmembrane potential ˜ V m in dimension mV and time ˜ t in dimension ms can be obtained through [17] ˜ V m = 100 V m − 80 and ˜ t = 12 . 9 t. (9) B. Cardiac electr omechanics: passive and active mechanical response Following the work of Nash and Panfilo v [20], we couple the stress tensor with the transmembrane potential V m through the active stress approach which decomposes the first Piola- Kirchhoff stress P into passive and acti ve parts P = P passive + P active . (10) Here, the passive component P passive describes the stress required to obtain a given deformation of the passiv e my- ocardium, and an active component P active denotes the tension generated by the depolarization of the propagating transmem- brane potential. For the passive mechanical response, we consider the Holzapfel-Odgen model which proposed the following strain energy function, considering different contributions and taking the anisotropic nature of the myocardium into account. T o ensure that the stress vanishes in the reference configuration and encompasses the finite extensibility , we modify the strain- energy function as W = a 2 b exp [ b ( I 1 − 3)] − a ln J + λ 2 (ln J ) 2 + X i = f,s a i 2 b i { exp h b i ( I ii − 1) 2 i − 1 } + a f s 2 b f s { exp  b fs I 2 f s  − 1 } , (11) where a , b , a f , b f , a s , b s , a f s and b fs are eight positive material constants, with the a parameters having dimension of stress and b parameters being dimensionless. Subsequently, the passive first Piola-Kirchhoff stress P passive is computed as P passive = FS . (12) Following the activ e stress approach proposed by Nash and Panfilov [20], the active component pro vides the internal active contraction stress by P active = T a F f 0 ⊗ f 0 , (13) where T a represents the active cardiomyocite contraction stress and its evolution is giv en by an ODE as d T a d t =  ( V m ) [ k a ( V m − V r ) − T a ] , (14) where parameters k a and V r control the maximum active force, the resting transmembrane potential and the activation function [22]  ( V m ) =  0 + (  ∞ −  −∞ ) exp {− exp  − ξ  V m − V m  } . (15) Here, the limiting values  −∞ at V m → −∞ and  ∞ at V m → ∞ , the phase shift V m and the transition slope ξ will ensure a smooth activation of the muscle traction. IV. SP H METHOD FOR CARDIAC ELETROPHYSIOLOGY AND ELECTROMECHANICS In this section, the proposed SPH method for cardiac eletrophysiology, passi ve mechanical response and the elec- tromemchanical coupling is presented. 2021 international SPHERIC workshop Virtual Meeting, June 7-11, 2021 A. SPH discretization of monodomain equation As mentioned in Section III-A, the monodomain equation consists of a coupled system of PDEs and ODEs. The former governs the diffusion of the transmembrane potential and the latter the reactive kinetics of the gating variable. In this paper , we employ the operator splitting method [2] to decouple the monodomain equation into a PDE of anisotropic diffusion S d : C m d V m d t = ∇ 0 · ( D ∇ 0 V m ) , (16) and two ODEs S r : ( C m d V m d t = I ion ( V m , w ) d w d t = g ( V m , w ) , (17) where I ion ( V m , w ) and g ( V m , w ) are defined by FitzHugh- Nagumo Eq. (7) or Aliev-Panfilow model Eq. (8). Here, we introduce the operators S d which corresponds to the diffusion step and S r the reaction step. Subsequently, the 2nd-order Strang splitting [30] can be employed to approximate the solution of the monodomain equation from time t to t + ∆ t as V m ( t + ∆ t ) = S r ( ∆ t 2 ) ◦ S d (∆ t ) ◦ S r ( ∆ t 2 ) V m ( t ) , (18) where the ◦ symbol separates each operator and indicates that an operator is applied to the following arguments. More precisely, we apply operator S r ( ∆ t 2 ) to V m ( t ) first. Then, the operator S d (∆ t ) is applied to the results of the first step S r ( ∆ t 2 ) V m ( t ) . Finally, the operator S r ( ∆ t 2 ) is applied to the results of the second step S d (∆ t )  S r ( ∆ t 2 ) V m ( t )  . In the present work, an anisotropic SPH dicretization and a reaction- by-reaction splitting method are applied for the operators S d and S r , respectively . 1) Discr etization of anisotropic diffusion equation: Dif- ferent from the previous strategies for the discretization of diffusion equation [31], [32], we employ and modify the anisotropic SPH dicretization proposed by Tran-Duc et al. [24]. Following Ref. [24], the diffusion tensor D is consid- ered to be a symmetric positive-definite matrix and can be decomposed by Cholesky decomposition as D = LL T , (19) where L is a lower triangular matrix with real and positive diagonal entries and L T denotes the transpose of L . The diffusion operator in Eq. (16) can be rewritten to isotropic form by ∇ 0 · ( D ∇ 0 ) = ∇ 0 · ( LL T ∇ 0 )=( L T ∇ 0 ) T · ( L T ∇ 0 ) = f ∇ 0 2 , (20) where f ∇ 0 = L T ∇ 0 . Then, the new isotropic diffusion op- erator is approximated by the following kernel integral with neglecting the high-order terms ] ∇ 0 · ( ] ∇ 0 )Φ ( e r )=2 Z Ω  Φ( e r ) − Φ( f r 0 )  1 | f r 0 − ] r 0 0 | ∂W  | f r 0 − ] r 0 0 | , e h  ∂  | f r 0 − ] r 0 0 |  d f r 0 , (21) where e r = L − 1 r and e h = L − 1 h denotes a second-order tensor so that the smoothing length will be h under the inverse transformation. Upon the coordinate transformation, the kernel gradient can be rewritten as ∂W  | e r 0 − f r 0 0 | , e h  ∂ | e r 0 − f r 0 0 | = 1 | L − 1 || L − 1 e 0 rr 0 | ∂W  | r 0 − r 0 0 | , h  ∂  | r 0 − r 0 0 |  . (22) At this stage, Eq. (20) can be discretized in strong SPH form as f ∇ 0 2 Φ i ≈ 2 X j V 0 j  Φ i − Φ j  1 ( L − 1 ij e 0 ij ) 2 1 | r 0 ij | ∂W  | r 0 ij | , h  ∂  | r 0 ij |  , (23) where D ij = L ij L T ij and D ij = D i D j D i + D j , which ensure the antisymmetric for conservation property . Note that Eq. (23) is excessive computational expensi ve due to the fact that one time of Cholesky decomposition and the corresponding matrix inverse is required for each pair of particle interaction. T o optimize the computational efficiency , we modify Eq. (23) by replacing the term L − 1 ij with its linear approximation e L ij given by e L ij = e L i e L j e L i + e L j , (24) where e L i is defined as e L i =  L − 1 i   L − 1 i  T . (25) In this case, the Cholesky decomposition and the corre- sponding matrix inverse are computed once for each particle before the simulation. Also note that Eq. (23) can be further improved by introducing a kernel correction matrix to improve the numerical accuracy which will be detailed in the following section. 2) Reaction-by-reaction splitting: Since the system of ODEs defined by Eq. (17) are generally stiff, numerical instability might occur when the integration time step is not sufficiently small. In this work, we employ a reaction-by- reaction splitting method proposed by W ang et al. [23], and the multi-reaction system can be decoupled, e.g. by the Strang splitting [30] as S r : R ( t + ∆ t ) = R v ( ∆ t 2 ) ◦ R w ( ∆ t 2 ) ◦ R w ( ∆ t 2 ) ◦ R v ( ∆ t 2 ) R ( t ) , (26) where operator R v corresponds to the reaction step of the transmembrane potential R v : C m d V m d t = I ion ( V m , w ) , (27) and R v corresponds to the kinetics of the gating variable R w : d w d t = g ( V m , w ) . (28) Note that the idea of operator splitting in the reaction-by- reaction manner is straightforwardly extensible to more com- plex ionic models, e.g. the Tusscher -Panfilov model [33]. 2021 international SPHERIC workshop Virtual Meeting, June 7-11, 2021 By applying the reaction-by-reaction splitting, each elemen- tary reaction is decoupled from others and we can rewrite a single reaction equation in a general form as d y d t = q ( y, t ) − p ( y, t ) y , (29) where q ( y, t ) is the production rate and p ( y, t ) y denotes the loss rate of the reactant [23]. Using the QSS method [23], a linearly approximate exact solution of Eq. (29) can be given by y ( t + ∆ t ) = y ( t ) e − p ( y ( t ) ,t )∆ t + q ( y ( t ) , t ) p ( y ( t ) , t )  1 − e − p ( y ( t ) ,t )∆ t  , (30) in a finite time step of ∆ t . It is worth noticing that the QSS- based solution is unconditionally stable due to the analytical form, and thus a larger time step of ∆ t is allowed, leading to higher computational efficiency . B. SPH discretization of momentum conservation equation The elastic response of the soft myocardium is highly nonlinear and its deformation under working load is intrin- sically large, therefore a robust numerical method is required. The kernel correction or normalization technique [13], [34], [35] has demonstrated its effects to improve the accuracy and consistency of SPH method. For the total Lagrangian formulations, a correction matrix B 0 is introduced as [36] B 0 i =   X j V 0 j  r 0 j − r 0 i  ⊗ ∇ 0 i W ij   − 1 . (31) Again, the correction matrix is computed in the initial con- figuration and therefore, it is calculated only once before the simulation. Using Eq. (31), the linear momentum conservation equation, Eq.(6), can be discretized in the following form d v i d t = 2 m i X j V 0 i V 0 j ˜ P ij ∇ 0 i W ij , (32) where m is the particle mass and the inter-particle averaged first Piola-Kirchhoff stress ˜ P ij is given as ˜ P ij = 1 2  P i B 0 i + P j B 0 j  . (33) Here, the first Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor is computed with the constitutive law where the deformation tensor F is com- puted by F i =   X j V 0 j ( u j − u i ) ⊗ ∇ 0 i W ij   B 0 i + I . (34) Also, the rate of change for deformation gradient d F d t is evaluated through d F i d t =   X j V 0 j ( v j − v i ) ⊗ ∇ 0 i W ij   B 0 i , (35) in the total Lagrangian SPH framework. V . G ENERIC BIVENTRICULAR HEART T o demonstrate the abilities of the present SPH method in total cardiac simulation, we consider the transmembrane potential propagation as free pulses together with scroll waves and the corresponding excitation-contraction in three- dimensional generic biventricular heart. Following the work of [37], the inner surface of the left and right ventricles of the generic biventricular heart are described by two ellipsoids x 2 a lv + y 2 b lv + z 2 c lv = 1 , x 2 a rv + y 2 b rv + z 2 c rv = 1 (36) where a lv = 45 mm, b lv = 54 mm, c lv = 24 mm and a rv = 18 mm, b rv = 58 mm, c rv = 18 mm. The ellipsoids are truncated from apex-to-centroid as shown in Figure 1 (a). W e impose a wall thickness of 6 mm and 12 mm on the left and right ventricle, respectively . T o discretize the generic biventricular , particles are initialized through a relaxation- based algorithm, and the fiber and sheet directions are com- puted approximately by a coupling level-set and rule-based algorithm. 1) P article initialization: Before moving onto the simula- tion of biventricular heart, we introduce a relaxation-based technique to generate isotropic initial particle distribution. A coupled level-set and rule-based algorithm is also introduced for fiber and sheet reconstruction. For solid dynamics, two approaches, viz, direct particle generation based on a lattice structure [38] and particle gen- eration based on a volume element mesh [39], are commonly used in the SPH community. In the former approach, particles are positioned directly on a cubic lattice and equispaced particle distribution is obtained. Accurate surface description, in particular complex geometries, requires a fine resolution in this approach thereby rendering it limited to rather simple geometries [40]. The second approach convertes each volume element of a tetra or hexahedral mesh into a particle. This approach shows advantages in describing complex geometries, however , yields significantly non-uniform particle distributions regarding the particles spacing and size. In this work, we intro- duce an approach initialized from standard triangle language (STL) input files, which uses the relaxation-based algorithm, proposed by Fu et al. [41] for mesh generation, to generate the initial particle distribution of the biventricular heart. Follo wing is required for particle relaxation. In the present work, the geometry is described in the STL format as shown in Figure 1. Then the geometry surface is represented by the zero level- set of a signed-distance function, Γ = { ( x, y, z ) | φ ( x, y, z )=0 } . (37) Here, the distance from a mesh point to the geometry surface is determined by finding the nearest point on all vertices and a positive phase is defined if the mesh point is located inside the object, otherwise a negative phase is marked. Then, the particle evolution is conducted for a number of steps following the 2021 international SPHERIC workshop Virtual Meeting, June 7-11, 2021 strategy proposed by Fu et al. [41] (see Section 5.2 in their work). Note that in this work a constant particle smoothing length and constant background pressure and density are used. Figure 1 (b) shows the particle distribution for a biv entricular heart after 5000 steps of relaxation with a background pressure of p = 2 . 0 and a density of ρ = 1 . 0 . As expected, an isotropic particle configuration is obtained and the geometry surface is reasonably well prescribed. Following the particle initialization, the fiber and sheet reconstructions are conducted. Assuming that the sheets are aligned with the transmural direction, the sheet direction can s 0 = sign( N , e y ) N , (38) where N is the normal direction obtained from N = ∇ φ |∇ φ | , (39) and e y is the normal vector parallel to the ventricular center- line, pointing from apex to base. For each particle, the sheet direction is interpolated from the level-set field by using the trilinear interpolation. Following the work of Quarterioni et al. [42], the initial flat fiber direction of each particle can be defined by e f = s 0 × e y . (40) Then, the fiber direction f 0 can be defined by rotating e f with respect to the s 0 axis according to the following rotation formula f 0 = e f cos ( θ )+ s 0 × e f sin ( θ )+ s 0  s 0 · e f  [1 − cos ( θ )] , (41) where the rotation angle θ is computed from θ = ( θ epi − θ endo ) ψ + θ endo . (42) Here, θ epi = − 70 o and θ endo = 80 o are the rotation angles distance ψ is given by solving a diffusion equation of ψ to steady state by imposing the boundary condition ψ | epi = 1 and ψ | endo = 0 [42]. Figure 1 shows the fiber direction of plane located at y = − 10 mm and y = − 30 mm in epicardium (c) and endocardium (d), respectively . 2) Electromechanics: In this section, The Aliev-Panfilow model is applied for monodomain equation with the constant parameters given in T able I and the diffusion coef ficients are set as d iso = 1 . 0 mm 2 · ms − 1 and d ani = 0 . 1 mm 2 · ms − 1 . W e TABLE I P ARA MET ER S FOR T HE A L IEV -P A NFIL OW MO DE L . k a b  0 µ 1 µ 2 8.0 0.01 0.15 0.002 0.2 0.3 consider excitation-contraction under the transmembrane po- tential propagation as a free-pulse. Figure 2 shows the resulting excitation-contraction of the heart with the transmembrane potential and von Mises contours. It can be observed that excitation-contraction gives rise to the upward motion of the apex as the depolarization front traveling through the heart. Also, the apex’s upw ard motion is accompanied by the physiologically observed wall thickening and the overall torsional motion of the heart as shown in the cross sections non-uniform contraction of myofibers is due to the inhomoge- neous myocyte orientation distribution incorporated with the anisotropic material model. At the end of the depolarization process, the reference configuration is recovered. VI . A CK NO WL ED GE ME NT The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support by German Research Fundation (Deutsche Forschungsgemein- schaft) DFG HU1527/10-1 and HU1527/12-1 for the present work. R EFERENCES [1] W. H. Or ganization, The top 10 causes of death, [Online; accessed 7- Jan-2020] (2018). [2] A. Quarteroni, A. Manzoni, C. V ergara, The cardiovascular system: mathematical modelling, numerical algorithms and clinical applications, Acta Numerica 26 (2017) 365–590. [3] N. A. Trayanova, Whole-heart modeling: applications to cardiac electro- physiology and electromechanics, Circulation research 108 (1) (2011) 113–128. [4] P . J. Hunter, A. J. Pullan, B. H. Smaill, Modeling total heart function, Annual review of biomedical engineering 5 (1) (2003) 147–177. [5] O. C. Zienkiewicz, R. L. T aylor, P . Nithiarasu, J. Zhu, The finite element method, V ol. 3, McGraw-hill London, 1977. [6] C. S. Peskin, The immersed boundary method, Acta numerica 11 (2002) 479–517. [7] L. B. Lucy, A numerical approach to the testing of the fission hypothesis, The Astronomical Journal 82 (1977) 1013–1024. [8] R. A. Gingold, J. J. Monaghan, Smoothed particle hydrodynamics: theory and application to non-spherical stars, Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 181 (3) (1977) 375–389. [9] M. Liu, Z. Zhang, Smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH) for modeling fluid-structure interactions, SCIENCE CHINA Physics, Mechanics & Astronomy 62 (8) (2019) 984701. [10] J. J. Monaghan, Smoothed particle hydrodynamics, Annual review of astronomy and astrophysics 30 (1) (1992) 543–574. [11] J. J. Monaghan, Simulating free surface flows with SPH, J. Comput. Phys. 110 (2) (1994) 399–406. [12] L. D. Libersky, A. G. Petschek, Smooth particle hydrodynamics with strength of materials, in: Advances in the free-Lagrange method in- cluding contributions on adaptive gridding and the smooth particle hydrodynamics method, Springer, 1991, pp. 248–257. [13] P . Randles, L. D. Libersky, Smoothed particle hydrodynamics: some recent improvements and applications, Computer methods in applied mechanics and engineering 139 (1-4) (1996) 375–408. [14] J. J. Monaghan, SPH without a tensile instability, J. Comput. Phys. 159 (2) (2000) 290–311. [15] C. Antoci, M. Gallati, S. Sibilla, Numerical simulation of fluid–structure interaction by SPH, Computers & Structures 85 (11-14) (2007) 879–890. [16] R. FitzHugh, Impulses and physiological states in theoretical models of nerve membrane, Biophysical journal 1 (6) (1961) 445–466. [17] R. R. Aliev, A. V . Panfilov, A simple tw o-variable model of cardiac excitation, Chaos, Solitons & Fractals 7 (3) (1996) 293–301. [18] P . C. Franzone, L. F. P avarino, S. Scacchi, Mathematical cardiac electrophysiology, V ol. 13, Springer, 2014. [19] G. A. Holzapfel, R. W. Ogden, Constituti ve modelling of passive myocardium: a structurally based framework for material characteriza- tion, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 367 (1902) (2009) 3445–3475. [20] M. P. Nash, A. V . Panfilov, Electromechanical model of excitable tissue to study reentrant cardiac arrhythmias, Progress in biophysics and molecular biology 85 (2-3) (2004) 501–522. 2021 international SPHERIC workshop Virtual Meeting, June 7-11, 2021 Fig. 1. Generic biventricluar heart: (a) V isualization of an STL file, (b) particle distribution, (c) fibre orientations of epicardium and (d) endocardium at cross sections located at y = − 10 mm and y = − 30 mm. [21] L. A. Taber , R. Perucchio, Modeling heart development, Journal of elasticity and the physical science of solids 61 (1-3) (2000) 165–197. [22] J. Wong, S. G ¨ oktepe, E. Kuhl, Computational modeling of electrochem- ical coupling: a novel finite element approach towards ionic models for cardiac electrophysiology, Computer methods in applied mechanics and engineering 200 (45-46) (2011) 3139–3158. [23] J.-H. Wang, S. P an, X. Y . Hu, N. A. Adams, A split random time- stepping method for stiff and nonstiff detonation capturing, Combustion and Flame 204 (2019) 397–413. [24] T. Tran-Duc, E. Bertev as, N. Phan-Thien, B. C. Khoo, Simulation of anisotropic diffusion processes in fluids with smoothed particle hydrodynamics, International Journal for Numerical Methods in Fluids 82 (11) (2016) 730–747. [25] C. Zhang, M. Rezavand, X. Hu, A multi-resolution SPH method for fluid-structure interactions, Journal of Computational Physics (2020) 110028. [26] C. Zhang, X. Hu, N. A. Adams, A weakly compressible SPH method based on a low-dissipation riemann solver, J. Comput. Phys. 335 (2017) 605–620. [27] M. Rezavand, C. Zhang, X. Hu, A weakly compressible SPH method for violent multi-phase flows with high density ratio, Journal of Com- putational Physics 402 (2020) 109092. [28] C. Zhang, M. Rezavand, Y . Zhu, Y. Y u, D. Wu, W . Zhang, S. Zhang, J. Wang, X. Hu, Sphinxsys: An open-source meshless, multi-resolution and multi-physics library, Software Impacts 6 (2020) 100033. [29] A. Panfilov , Three-dimensional organization of electrical turbulence in the heart, Physical Review E 59 (6) (1999) R6251. [30] G. Strang, On the construction and comparison of difference schemes, SIAM journal on numerical analysis 5 (3) (1968) 506–517. [31] S. Biriukov, D. J. Price, Stable anisotropic heat conduction in smoothed particle hydrodynamics, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 483 (4) (2018) 4901–4909. [32] M. Rezavand, D. Winkler , J. Sappl, L. Seiler, M. Meister, W. Rauch, A fully Lagrangian computational model for the integration of mixing and biochemical reactions in anaerobic digestion, Computers & Fluids 181 (2019) 224–235. [33] K. Ten T usscher, D. Noble, P .-J. Noble, A. V. Panfilov , A model for human ventricular tissue, American Journal of Physiology-Heart and Circulatory Physiology 286 (4) (2004) H1573–H1589. [34] R. Vignjevic, J. Campbell, L. Libersk y, A treatment of zero-energy 2021 international SPHERIC workshop Virtual Meeting, June 7-11, 2021 Fig. 2. Generic biventricular heart: Coupled excitation-contraction induced by the transmembrane potential as a free pulse. Snapshots of the deformed body depict the transmembrane potential and von Mises stress contours at different stages of the depolarization and the corresponding cross sections. modes in the smoothed particle hydrodynamics method, Computer methods in Applied mechanics and Engineering 184 (1) (2000) 67–85. [35] J. Bonet, S. Kulasegaram, A simplified approach to enhance the perfor- mance of smooth particle hydrodynamics methods, Applied Mathematics and Computation 126 (2-3) (2002) 133–155. [36] R. Vignjevic, J. R. Re veles, J. Campbell, SPH in a total lagrangian formalism, CMC-Tech Science Press- 4 (3) (2006) 181. [37] M. Sermesant, K. Rhode, G. I. Sanchez-Ortiz, O. Camara, R. An- driantsimiavona, S. Hegde, D. Rueckert, P . Lambiase, C. Bucknall, E. Rosenthal, et al., Simulation of cardiac pathologies using an elec- tromechanical biventricular model and XMR interventional imaging, Medical image analysis 9 (5) (2005) 467–480. [38] J. L. Lacome, Smoothed particle hydrodynamics method in LS-DYN A, in: 3rd German LS-DYNA forum, Bamber g, Germany, 2004. [39] A. F. Johnson, M. Holzapfel, Modelling soft body impact on composite structures, Composite Structures 61 (1-2) (2003) 103–113. [40] R. Hedayati, S. Ziaei-Rad, A new bird model and the effect of bird geometry in impacts from various orientations, Aerospace Science and Technology 28 (1) (2013) 9–20. [41] L. Fu, L. Han, X. Y . Hu, N. A. Adams, An isotropic unstructured mesh generation method based on a fluid relaxation analogy, Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering 350 (2019) 396–431. [42] A. Quarteroni, T. Lassila, S. Rossi, R. Ruiz-Baier , Integrated heart— coupling multiscale and multiphysics models for the simulation of the cardiac function, Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering 314 (2017) 345–407. Optimal assist strategy exploration for a direct assist device under stress‒strain dynamics May 2023 BIOMED TECH Li Zijian Wang Fangqun Zhu Fenglian Wang Shaojun Objectives: The aim of this paper is to introduce a new assist strategy for a direct assist device that can enhance the heart's pumping efficiency and decrease the chances of myocardial injury in contrast to the conventional assist strategy. Methods: We established a finite element model of a biventricular heart, divided the ventricles into several regions, and applied pressure to each region separately in order to identify the primary and secondary assist areas. Then combined and tested these areas to obtain the optimal assist strategy. Results: The results indicate that our method exhibits an assist efficiency approximately ten times higher than that of the traditional assist method. Additionally, the stress distribution in the ventricles is more uniform after assistance. Conclusions: In summary, this approach can result in a more homogenous stress distribution within the heart while also minimizing the contact area with it, which can reduce the incidence of allergic reactions and the likelihood of myocardial injury. A multi-resolution SPH method for fluid-structure interactions Article Full-text available Dec 2020 J COMPUT PHYS Chi Zhang Massoud Rezavand Xiangyu Hu In this paper, we present a multi-resolution smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH) method for modeling fluid-structure interaction (FSI) problems. By introducing different smoothing lengths and time steps, the spatial-temporal discretization is applied with different resolutions for fluid and structure. To ensure momentum conservation at the fluid-structure coupling, a position-based Verlet time integration scheme is introduced. Furthermore, the time-averaged velocity and acceleration of solid particles are introduced to enhance force matching in the fluid and solid equations. A set of numerical examples including several bio-mechanical problems are considered to demonstrate the efficiency, accuracy and robustness of the present method. An open-source code for all the examples is also provided. SPHinXsys: An open-source meshless, multi-resolution and multi-physics library Article Sep 2020 Chi Zhang Massoud Rezavand Yujie Zhu Xiangyu Hu In this paper, we present an open-source meshless, multi-resolution and multi-physics library: SPHinXsys (pronunciation: s’finksis) which is an acronym for Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) for industrial compleX systems. It aims at modeling coupled multi-physics industrial dynamic systems including fluids, solids, multi-body dynamics and beyond in a multi-resolution unified SPH framework. The code presently (Version: 0.2.0) includes fluid dynamics, solid dynamics, thermal and mass diffusion, electro-chemical reaction, fluid–structure interactions (FSI), and their coupling to rigid-body dynamics. A fully Lagrangian computational model for the integration of mixing and biochemical reactions in anaerobic digestion Article Full-text available Mar 2019 COMPUT FLUIDS Massoud Rezavand Daniel Winkler Johannes Sappl Wolfgang Rauch The impact of mixing on biochemical reactions is of high importance in anaerobic digestion (AD). In this paper, a novel 2D fully Lagrangian computational model for the integration of mixing and biochemical reactions in AD is developed and presented. The mixing-induced fluid flow is modeled by smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH). The computational domain is discretized by SPH particles, each of which carries the information of biologically active compounds and follows the flow field. In this natural way, advection is reproduced, which is the main advantage of SPH for this type of problems. A mathematical model that governs the biochemical reactions is integrated in time for each particle, which allows to spatially resolve the biological concentrations. Mass transfer interactions between particles are reproduced by the diffusion equation to directly link mixing to biochemical reactions. The total biogas production is obtained by integrating over all the particles. Both SPH and biochemical models are verified against existing data in the literature and the integrated model is then applied to a real world anaerobic digester. The application of a novel fully Lagrangian method to AD is a stepping stone to future possible developments. However, in the simulation of such problems, SPH is still uncompetitive if compared to other mainstream methods and industrial application of the model depends on the computational efficiency of future SPH solvers. An isotropic unstructured mesh generation method based on a fluid relaxation analogy Article Full-text available Mar 2019

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/351659252_An_integrated_SPH_method_for_cardiac_electromechanics

Individual preference-based values and environmental decision making: Should valuation have its day in court? - An Introduction to the Law and Economics of Environmental Policy: Issues in Institutional Design - Books and Journals - VLEX 846697448 The paper focuses on the question of the extent to which individual preference-based values are suitable in guiding environmental policy and damage assessm.. Individual preference-based values and environmental decision making: Should valuation have its day in court? DOI https://doi.org/10.1016/S0193-5895(02)20009-3 Pages 177-214 Published date 15 August 2002 Date 15 August 2002 Author Andreas Kontoleon,Richard Macrory,Timothy Swanson INDIVIDUAL PREFERENCE-BASED VALUES AND ENVIRONMENTAL DECISION MAKING: SHOULD VALUATION HAVE ITS DAY IN COURT? Andreas Kontoleon, Richard Macrory and Timothy Swanson ABSTRACT The paper focuses on the question of the extent to which individual preference-based values are suitable in guiding environmental policy and damage assessment decisions. Three criteria for "suitableness" are reviewed: conceptual, moral and legal Their discussion suggests that." (i) the concept of economic value as applied to environmental resources is a meaningful concept based on the notion of trade-off," (ii) the limitations of the moral foundations of cost-benefit analysis do not invalidate its use as a procedure for guiding environmental decision making; (iii) the input of individual preferences into damage assessment is compatible with the basic foundations of tort law; (iv) using individual preference-based methods provides incentives for efficient levels of due care; (v) determining standing is still very contentious for various categories of users as well as for An Introduction to the Law and Economies of Environmental Policy: Issues in Institutional Design, Volume 20, pages 177-214. Copyright © 2002 by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights of reproduction in any form reserved. ISBN: 0-7623-0888-5 177 178 A. KONTOLEON, R. MACRORY AND T. SWANSON aggregating non-use values. Overall, the discussion suggests that the use of preference-based approaches in both the policy and legal arenas is warranted provided that they are accurately applied, their limitations are openly acknowledged and they assume an information-providing rather than a determinative role. 1. INTRODUCTION The role of individual preferences and cost-benefit analysis (CBA) in environ- mental decision making has been extensively debated by economists (e.g. Kopp, 1991, 1992; Freeman, 1993), lawyers (e.g. Daum, 1993; Shavell, 1993; Boudreaux et al., 1999; Posner, 1980, 1983; Kennedy, 1981) and philosophers (e.g. Hubin, 1994; Sagoff, 1994; Dworkin, 1980; Kelman, 1981). Yet, despite the voluminous literature, the discussion remains disordered and confused. Further, though CBA has been widely used in practise (primarily in the U.S. but now increasingly in the EU as well) its actual influence on policy has been relatively limited. 1 Despite this limited acceptance and checkered history, the European Union is now considering a new Directive on Civil Liability that might imply bringing valuation into European courtrooms. Does this make sense? Should valuation have its day in court? One of the reasons for the ongoing controversy over valuation and CBA within academic circles, and for the hesitancy in using CBA in the policy and legal arenas, can be traced to an entanglement of distinct issues. 2 For example, commentators typically confuse issues of measurement (e.g. 'Are estimates of individual values valid?') with conceptual issues - (e.g. 'Is the economic concept of value coherent?') or with moral issues (e.g. 'Are decision makers and the courts morally obligated to consider individual preferences?' or legal issues (e.g. 'Do economic values adhere to the current legal framework of damages?'). It is far beyond the limits and scope of this paper to comprehensively present and review all the various aspects of the debate, and all the forms of confusion that exit. Instead the aim of this paper is to provide an eclectic survey of the issues concerning this debate. More specifically we focus on the question of the extent to which individual preference-based values are suitable in guiding policy and damage assessment decisions related to environmental resources. Three criteria for "suitableness" are reviewed here: (1) the conceptual; (2) the moral; and (3) the legal. 3 The conceptual issues that are most relevant to this discussion have to do with the notion of 'value' as understood in economics. Within an economic context individual preferences over environmental goods and services are manifested through individual choices which in turn are used by the economist Individual Preference-Based Values and Environmental Decision Making 179 to infer individual economic values. Further, most economists agree that individuals make choices from which we can infer both so-called 'use' and 'non-use values' for environmental resources. 4 Here we will focus on the conceptual debate relating to non-use values (see for example Quiggin, 1998, 1993). That is, is the economic concept of non-use value sufficiently coherent to be used in environmental policy and damage assessment or is it fundamen- tally flawed and unsuitable? Beyond conceptual considerations the role of individual preferences in environmental decision making will be discussed on moral and legal grounds. The main question under discussion concerns whether the concept of economic value is compatible with the moral basis of environmental decision making or with the legal framework for damage assessment decisions. That is, if the concept is coherent and consistent, is it also socially acceptable and/or legally viable? One last note on the organisation of the issues. We have intentionally left out of the discussion the issues on measurement. These refer to the general question on whether individual economic values (as expressions of the intensity of individual preference) can be validly and adequately measured. No doubt these issues are very important. 5 Yet, they are not the most fundamental ones. For the sake of argument the discussion that follows accepts that economic values are readily and validly measurable. Instead, we proceed with the more fundamental issues of the debate which concern the conceptual, moral and legal validity of using preferences in environmental decision making. The organisation of the paper is as follows: The following section briefly classifies and reviews types of decision making processes in accordance with the manner and degree to which they rely on individual preferences or expert opinion. Section 3 deals with various objections that have been raised with respect to the adequacy of the concept of economic value as applied to environmental policy decisions. Section 4 turns to the fundamental moral information from individual preference-based values. Finally Section 5 reviews some key legal issues surrounding the debate on the use of individual prefer- ence-based techniques for environmental policy and liability decisions. 2. CLASSIFICATION OF APPROACHES TO ENVIRONMENTAL DECISION MAKING One way of classifying different approaches to environmental decision making is in accordance with their degree of reliance upon individual preference-based values. All forms of decision making rely on individual preference to some extent. The major difference lies in the manner in which society (or the policy

https://vlex.co.uk/vid/individual-preference-based-values-846697448

Gauging ASCVD Risk, Does Race Matter?∗ | JACC: Asia Corresponding Author Gauging ASCVD Risk, Does Race Matter? ∗ Open Access Topic(s): Health Promotion & Preventive Cardiology Original Research: Evaluation of Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Risk Prediction Models in China: Results From the CHERRY Study Introduction Figures Details Corresponding Author Introduction Despite a declining incidence in many developed countries, atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) remains the leading global cause of premature death. In China, with the rapid urbanization and associated lifestyle change, ASCVD including coronary artery disease and stroke accounts for more than 40% of all deaths. From 1990 to 2013, the cardiovascular mortality in China increased by 67% from 174 per 100,000 population to 294 per 100,000 population. Yet, ASCVD is highly preventable; approximately 80% of cardiovascular events and deaths can been prevented through cardiovascular risk factor control. Thus, identifying patients at risk of ASCVD and controlling their cardiovascular risk factors is the principal strategy to combat ASCVD. In fact, the updated 2019 American College of Cardiology (ACC)/American Heart Association (AHA) guideline recommends the use of lipid-lowering therapy including a statin for primary prevention in adults with a 10-year ASCVD risk between ≥7.5% and <20%. 1 While conceptually sound and relatively straightforward to implement, the prerequisite of such a strategy relies heavily on an accurate absolute ASCVD risk estimation guiding the aggressiveness of primary prevention strategy. However, commonly used ASCVD risk estimation schemes to guide long-term clinical decisions are nonetheless derived and validated primarily in Caucasian and African American populations, and their relevance to other ethnic groups has been questioned. For instance, the ACC/AHA ASCVD score tends to underestimate the risk in certain race-ethnic groups such as American Indians and some Hispanics, and overestimates the risk in Asian populations. 2Such imprecision of absolute ASCVD risk estimation in these ethnic groups may result in a mismatch between ASCVD risk and treatment intensity, which may hamper the formulation of a public health strategy to combat ASCVD. In this issue of JACC: Asia, Liu et al 3evaluated the prediction performance of the ACC/AHA Pooled Cohort Equations and a more recently derived ASCVD risk stratification scheme in China (the China-PAR model) 4using a modern-day, real-world cohort of 226,406 Chinese patients without prior ASCVD. They showed that while both ACC/AHA Pooled Cohort Equations and China-PAR model appear to have reasonable discriminating performance for ASCVD events with sex-specific C-statistics between 0.758 and 0.820, underestimation and overestimation of ASCVD risk remain substantial. For instance, the ACC/AHA Pooled Cohort Equations overestimated the 5-year risk of ASCVD event rate by 63% in men, and underestimated such risk in women by 34% in women. Even after recalibration to the CHERRY cohort (CHinese Electronic health Records Research in Yinzhou study), the ACC/AHA Pooled Cohort Equations underestimated the 5-year risk of an ASCVD event by 19% in men and by 20% in women. Likewise, the China-PAR model underestimated the risk of an ASCVD event by 20% in men and 40% in women. Notwithstanding, the burning question is whether clinicians should still rely on these ASCVD risk estimation schemes to assess and guide the aggressiveness of primary prevent strategy. As the discordance between the predicted and observed risk of ASCVD events in Chinese patients is mainly observed in individuals with a predicted 5-year risk of an ASCVD event of 5% or above, this does not appear to affect the applicability of these schemes in routine clinical practice, at least regarding the decision to initiate lipid-lowering therapy such as a statin. Notwithstanding, the work by Liu et al 3raises a burning question that why these schemes underestimate the risk of ASCVD in Chinese patients. While it is intuitive to attribute the underestimation of risk of ASCVD events in Chinese patients, as assessed with the ACC/AHA Pooled Cohort Equations to ethnicity alone, this may likely be an oversimplification. For instance, the difference in risk of an ASCVD event between Chinese and previous Caucasian cohorts, as stratified by the ACC/AHA Pooled Cohort Equations, may reflect the differences in prevalence of individual cardiovascular risk factors as well as their contributory effects to ASCVD in Chinese and Caucasian patients. A detailed analysis of the contributory effects of individual cardiovascular risk factors and possible synergism among these risk factors using the CHERRY cohort may inform the formulation of a more targeted public health strategy to combat ASCVD in China. On the other hand, the discordance in the observed and predicted risks of an ASCVD event in Chinese patients may in fact indicate the presence of a missing component risk factor(s) in the score that contributes to ASCVD events, which is prevalent in Chinese patients but not in Caucasian patients. Examples may include factors such as undiagnosed or suboptimally treated hypertension, and intracranial atherosclerosis, which accounts for one-third to one-half of strokes and 45% of transient ischemic strokes in Chinese patients, as well as environmental factors such as air population. The identification of previously unidentified or overlooked cardiovascular risk factors is an important next step to prevent ASCVD. Liu et al 3are to be congratulated for having delivered imperative information that informs the primary preventive strategy for ASCVD in Chinese. Further analysis is vital to develop ASCVD risk models that accurately stratify such risks and guide formulation of public health measures specific to the Chinese population. Footnotes The authors attest they are in compliance with human studies committees and animal welfare regulations of the authors’ institutions and Food and Drug Administration guidelines, including patient consent where appropriate. For more information, visit theAuthor Center.

https://www.jacc.org/doi/full/10.1016/j.jacasi.2021.12.006

Results and submissions : REF 2021 Impact case study database The impact case study database allows you to browse and search for impact case studies submitted to the REF 2021. Use the search and filters below to find the impact case studies you are looking for. Impact case study database FAQs Drafting and Supporting Implementation of the 2015 UNESCO Policy on World Heritage ... Submitting institution The University of Kent Unit of assessment 29 - Classics Summary impact type Societal Is this case study continued from a case study submitted in 2014? No 1. Summary of the impact In 2015, UNESCO adopted the Policy on the integration of a sustainable development perspective into the processes of the World Heritage Conventionwhich ensured (for the first time) that the conservation and management of UNESCO’s World Heritage Sites aligns with broader sustainable development goals. Professor Labadi, drawing on her research on heritage and social justice, gender equality and sustainable development, was part of the small team responsible for the drafting of this new policy. By integrating environmental sustainability, economic sustainability and inclusive social development into the conservation, management and interpretation of more than 1,000 sites of outstanding and universal value, the policy has significantly impacted on a broad range of stakeholders including: governments; local communities (young people, women, ethnic and religious minorities); professionals and practitioners (heritage professionals, tourist guides, site managers); and NGOs and other third-sector organisations. Since the adoption of the policy, Professor Labadi has worked with intergovernmental organisations, NGOs, governments, and civil society organisations to translate the policy into pragmatic action in varied international contexts. 2. Underpinning research Labadi’s research, which underpins this case study, focuses on the ways that heritage sites can address some of the most pressing global challenges, including social justice, gender equality and sustainable development. Since 2013, she has explored the development problems associated with sites protected by the 1972 World Heritage Convention (World Heritage Sites), including gentrification, exclusion and relocation of local populations, and the environmental degradation of urban settlements. The research was based on in-depth analyses of documents on World Heritage Sites in Asia, Europe, and Latin America; first-hand experience of working for UNESCO and ICOMOS (International Council on Monuments and Sites); and in-depth ethnographic research at sites in Africa and Asia (e.g. the Island of Mozambique and at Angkor in Cambodia (see, in particular,R1,R2, andR3). Labadi has argued that the conservation, management and interpretation of heritage sites too often occur separately from other sustainable development concerns, and that conservation, management and interpretation plans and activities should thoroughly integrate sustainable development approaches so that sites can contribute to inclusive social and economic development and the quality of life of communities. Sustainable development should tackle issues of peace and security, as well as poverty reduction, gender equality and environmental sustainability. The research has also highlighted a number of possible solutions to these problems, for example, through inclusive economic development, enhancing the quality of life and the wellbeing of locals, and protecting biological and cultural diversity[R1]. InR2andR3, Labadi described how ambiguous the official documents for the implementation of the World Heritage Convention had been in the past. In particular, inR2she identified how the documents often omitted key principles of sustainable development, thereby overlooking the importance of inclusivity (both in economic and in social terms) and intergenerational equity; the requirement for the benefits from World Heritage to be shared equitably; and the need for a rights-based approach to heritage. InR3, she explained the different, and at times conflicting, understandings of heritage and sustainability by key local stakeholders, and revealed the need for a newly designed policy on the topic.R4considers issues with the concepts of World Heritage and gender. Gender equality is a core priority of UNESCO, yet Labadi identifies the invisibility of women in World Heritage documentation, and in the Convention’s processes, as well as their lack of influence in decision-making. Throughout the period when she was undertaking the underpinning research, Labadi was in close contact with Giovanni Bocardi of UNESCO (who was responsible for the WHSD Policy), sharing her data and findings. As a result, the new 2015 WHSD Policy integrates the key ideas from Labadi’s publications on World Heritage and sustainable development. 3. References to the research [R1]Labadi, Sophia, and Logan, William, eds. (2015). Urban Heritage, Development and Sustainability. London: Routledge, 314pp. ISBN 9781138845732. http://kar.kent.ac.uk/42427/ [R2]Labadi, Sophia, and Gould, Peter (2015). ‘Sustainable Development: Heritage, Community, Economics’. In: Meskell, Lynn, ed. Global Heritage. Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 196-216. http://kar.kent.ac.uk/42441/ 10.1007/978-3-319-44515-1.https://kar.kent.ac.uk/57759/ [R4]Labadi, Sophia (2018). ‘World Heritage and Gender Equality’. In: Larsen, Peter, and Logan, William, eds. World Heritage and Sustainable Development: New Directions in World Heritage Management. London: Routledge, pp. 87-100. ISBN 978-1-138-09139-9.https://kar.kent.ac.uk/59117/ Grants [G1]Drafting and Implementing the 2015 UNESCO Policy on World Heritage and Sustainable Development, 9 January 2014-6 June 2016. Funders: GCRF (Kent); European Cultural Foundation; African World Heritage Fund; Robben Island Museum. Value: £40,000. 4. Details of the impact Contributing to a ground-breaking policy on sustainable development World Heritage (WH) Sites, designated by UNESCO for their outstanding and universal significance are protected by the 1972 World Heritage Convention. Labadi’s research on heritage and sustainable development informed a significant shift in the implementation of the Convention, when the landmark 2015 Policy on the integration of a sustainable development perspective into the processes of the World Heritage Convention(WH-SDP), which she helped draft, was adopted. As a result of her research on heritage and development, and in particular her focus on issues relating to gender equality and social and economic inclusion, Labadi was approached by Giovanni Boccardi (then Senior Programme Specialist at UNESCO) to contribute to the drafting of the WH-SDP policy document[a]. She presented a first draft of the section on ‘Achieving Gender Equality’ at the first workshop on WH and Sustainable Development (held at Cottbus University, Germany, in October 2014). During the second workshop on World Heritage and Sustainable Development (held in Vietnam, 22-24 January 2015), she presented a second draft of the text on ‘Inclusive Social Development’. With Boccardi and Jane Thompson (an independent consultant), and drawing on background papers and comments received, in February-March 2015, she finalised the draft policy. She then worked with Boccardi to integrate comments received from government stakeholders after the draft policy was presented to the World Heritage Committee in June 2015. In total, 191 governments were invited to submit feedback on the draft policy[a]. The WH-SDP was presented on 19 November 2015 to the 20th General Assembly of the States Parties to the WH Convention and was fully adopted[b]. The policy represented an historic change to the WH programme, as it identified, for the first time, specific mechanisms to ensure that WH sites comply with, and are managed and interpreted according to principles of inclusive economic development, social responsibility, environmental protection, and peace and security. The policy aligned the WH Convention with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) adopted by the United Nations in September 2015, and its adoption was described in a UNESCO press release (November 2015) as representing ‘a significant shift in the implementation of the Convention and an important step in its history’[b]. At a meeting in Baku, Azerbaijan, in July 2019, the UNESCO WH Committee noted the significant progress that had been made towards implementation of the WH-SDP. The Committee reviewed a progress report which described how community-based conservation projects, in Benin, Lesotho and Botswana, had strengthened the capacity of local communities to safeguard their heritage by integrating the principles of WH-SDP[c]. Labadi had, in particular, contributed to the drafting of the policy section on gender equality in the WH-SDP, and the progress report noted that in response to the WH-SDP, the ‘World Heritage Centre [the coordinator within UNESCO for all matters related to World Heritage] has made structured efforts to ensure a gender-sensitive and gender-balanced approach to the implementation of its activities’[c]. The progress report also provided examples of specific projects with a strong focus on gender equality. At Lake Ohrid (on the North Macedonia-Albania border), women were clearly represented in leadership positions in an EU-UNESCO funded project to protect natural and cultural heritage, with female participation in workshops and meetings reaching 56%. In Madagascar, a UNESCO-led project had provided education, training and opportunities for women in the sustainable tourism sector, thereby improving livelihoods and helping them become more financially independent. In Makli, Thatta (Pakistan), women from local villages were being trained in ceramics production and tile making. It was noted that ‘these outreach and income generation activities have improved the lives of local women, who now play a crucial role in the conservation of the property, thereby gaining a sense of ownership, pride and identity, in addition to the material benefits they derive from the production and sale of the ceramics’[c]. In addition, the 2019 Operational Guidelines – the key document for the implementation of the Convention – requests States to comply with the principles of the 2015 Policy, including on gender equality (paragraph 15); ensuring benefits for heritage and society (paragraph 112); and using research for conflict prevention and resolution (paragraph 215). In addition, the Third Cycle of the Periodic Reporting Exercise (2018-2024) requests States to detail how the principles from the 2015 Policy have been implemented at property level. Periodic reporting is the key official monitoring mechanism of the Convention, undertaken by governments every six years. Before 2015, states did not have to integrate sustainable development principles in site management, now this must happen and be reported upon[c]. Implementing sustainable development policy: practical, real-world management and interpretation of World Heritage Sites UNESCO has recognised the need for improved knowledge, planning and guidance to enable stakeholders to harness the potential of World Heritage properties to contribute to sustainable development. UNESCO also recognises the importance of stakeholders having the opportunity to share good practice and experiences of implementing WH-SDP into operational activities and processes in different regions of the world[b, c]. Labadi has responded to both these drivers in her work with stakeholders in Europe, Africa and, as of August 2020, Korea[d, f, g]. Throughout this work, as detailed below, Labadi has developed opportunities for knowledge sharing; provided tools to enhance community engagement; created detailed guidance for broad audiences; and ensured sustained engagement with governments, practitioners, advisory bodies, civil society organisations and other stakeholders. In 2018, Labadi organised a workshop which brought together representatives from 40 civil society organisations involved in the implementation of the WH-SDP. The event was part of the official programme of the European Year of Cultural Heritage (29 March 2018, Brussels) and was organised in cooperation with Europa Nostra (the leading citizens movement on heritage in Europe) and the European Cultural Foundation[g]. The aim was to find innovative ways for civil society actors, who often play a key role in the management of World Heritage sites, to implement WH-SDP. The workshop was attended by the ICOMOS (International Council on Monuments and Sites) Focal Point for the UN Sustainable Development Goals. ICOMOS is responsible for evaluating cultural and mixed properties for inclusion on the UNESCO WH List and their state of conservation once on the list. Globally, it is the largest NGO on cultural heritage. The workshop made several recommendations which were published in an Action Plan that was widely disseminated to civil society organisations worldwide[h]. Subsequently, the ICOMOS Focal Point reported that the Action Plan was included as part of ICOMOS’ Advocacy Kit and was distributed at the 2019 Session of the WH Committee in Baku, as well as at the 2019 UN High Level Political Forum in New York. She further noted that ‘The activities undertaken by Prof. Sophia Labadi at the University of Kent, related to the implementation of the Policy [WH-SDP], have been a catalyst for the heightened prominence of the Policy in my advocacy work connecting cultural heritage and sustainable development’[i]. Building on her 2018 workshop, in August 2019, Labadi organised a workshop in conjunction with the African World Heritage Fund (AWHF) and Robben Island Museum, Cape Town[d]. The AWHF is the inter-governmental organisation which, as a UNESCO entity, works on the conservation and management of World Heritage sites in 39 African countries. The workshop was attended by WH site managers, heritage practitioners, national authorities and researchers from 18 African countries. It was also attended by the Africa Business Group, ICOMOS, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN, responsible for assessing natural and mixed properties nominated for inclusion on the WH List and their state of conservation once on the List), and the UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Participants exchanged experiences and identified local-level best practices and approaches for integrating the 2015 WH-SDP. A draft Action Plan was initiated, and a follow-up workshop planned for Cameroon in 2021. Following the workshop, Labadi worked with the African World Heritage Fund and the Robben Island Museum to publish a 109-page policy report, sharing experiences of balancing conservation and sustainable development at World Heritage sites in Africa. The report, which has been widely disseminated, included case studies from seven African countries, highlighted issues and solutions to implementation of the WH-SDP in the context of Africa, and advocated for a pragmatic approach to the integration of sustainable development perspectives into the conservation and management of World Heritage sites[e]. Six months after the workshop, a follow-up survey was conducted, in order to understand the practical impacts of the workshop and whether participants had gone on to integrate principles of the 2015 WH-SDP into the operation of heritage sites in Africa. The results clearly indicated ‘that a number of the participants have integrated the principles of the 2015 UNESCO Policy on World Heritage and Sustainable Development into their work’[e]. The AWHF noted examples where the outcomes from the workshop had directly influenced the practice of site management. At the Okavango Delta World Heritage Site in Botswana, the principles of the policy had been used to review their management plan. At Lake Malawi, socio-economic initiatives were being developed to benefit local communities. At Victoria Falls/Mosi-oa-Tunya (Zambia and Zimbabwe) the Lwande Mixed Farming project was helping local communities to grow and market agricultural produce, thereby creating better food security. The site manager at Victoria Falls/Mosi-oa-Tunya indicated that, as a direct result of the knowledge acquired at the workshop, he had evaluated a number of tourism project proposals and activities to better align them with the principles of sustainable development articulated in the WH-SDP[e]. As a result of her research and publication with Professor Logan[R1], in 2020 Labadi was commissioned by the Korean Government to write a paper on ‘Integrating Heritage Interpretation into a Sustainable Development Perspective’ (August 2020)[f]. This paper is now informing the Korean Government’s discussions on interpretative approaches and plans at World Heritage sites, and their efforts to fully integrate the principles of the WH-SDP into this important work. 5. Sources to corroborate the impact [a]Letter from UNESCO Cultural Sector Division for Culture and Emergencies, on Labadi’s role in drafting the 2015 World Heritage Sustainable Development (WHSD) Policy. [b]20th General Assembly of the World Heritage Convention adopts new policy on sustainable development. [c]UNESCO World Heritage Committee 43rd Session, Baku: Integrating the principles of the 2015 WHSD Policy into the official implementation of the World Heritage Convention. [d]Media coverage of the workshop (Robben Island, South Africa), 22 August 2019. [e]Letter confirming implementation of the WHSD Policy in the African region by the African World Heritage Fund, 13 November 2020. [f]Position paper commissioned by the Korean Government, August 2020. [g]Media report of Workshop on World Heritage, Sustainable Development and Civil Society held in Brussels, 5 April 2018. [h]Action Plan: World Heritage, Sustainable Development and Civil Society Workshop, 29 March 2018 [i]Letter from ICOMOS Focal Point for the Sustainable Development Goals, 2 December 2020. Making Heritage Sustainable: Changing Professional Practice, Building Capacity and ... Submitting institution The University of Kent Unit of assessment 29 - Classics Summary impact type Cultural Is this case study continued from a case study submitted in 2014? No 1. Summary of the impact Research by Kyriakidis, undertaken at the University of Kent, has been a key driver for the implementation of UN Sustainable Development Goals (notably goals 4, 8, and 11) to improve heritage management around the world. Kyriakidis’ research on community engagement for sustainable heritage management is a key pillar of the University’s CPD- accredited MA in Heritage Management , taught in collaboration with Athens Univer sity of Economics and Business at the University’s Athens Centre . Through his teaching , Kyriakidis’ research findings ha ve influenced professional practice and informed different heritage projects around the world , such as the Cultural Division of the Maya Train in Mexico and the new national strategy for the management of heritage in Ghana . This has benefited heritage sites , individuals , and communities. In addition, Kyriakidis’ research forms the backbone o f his n on- g overnmental o rganisation (NGO) for h erita ge m anagement , the Heritage Management Organisation , or HERITΛGE (formerly known as the Initiative for Heritage Conservation). In this context, Kyriakidis has run additional workshops and summer schools, and maintained a HERITΛGE network. Through HERITΛGE, Kyriakidis enabled capacity-building of partner and government organisations; for instance, through joint funding bids and consultancy. Kyriakidis’ work also addresses UN Sustainable Development Goal 13, on climate action. He influenced policy debate and brought cultural heritage preservation to the agenda of the Climate Action Summit in 2019. 2. Underpinning research Since 2010, Kyriakidis has been undertaking fieldwork on his Peak Sanctuary Project, which has included ethnographic research at the village of Gonies (Greece). Through this project, Kyriakidis identified the need for a step change in how heritage was managed – from a focus on the conservation of the physical fabric of archaeological sites, to active site management that would increase efficiency, value, quality of care for heritage, and sustainability. A key finding was that there was an urgent need for consideration of the value of heritage (i.e. what heritage stands for), and ongoing values-related management. The relevant research publications document his work at Gonies as an example of best practice in how to identify and meet challenges, and find a sustainable approach to heritage management[R1, R2]. His work argues that local communities should be primary stakeholders both in establishing the cultural value of heritage sites, and in the ongoing management of sites, and that this should be a meaningful process rather than a box-ticking exercise. A key finding of the research was that empowering local communities to manage their own heritage was an effective and sustainable way of managing heritage sites. Furthermore, it found that awarding external grants (resulting in large one-off payments) still leaves heritage sites at risk after the end of a grant-funded period. Kyriakidis’ research further identified the importance of intangible heritage (such as knowledge, cultural practice, and traditions) and the tendency for this type of heritage to be overlooked in assessments of heritage risk. Threats to intangible heritage include environmental factors such as climate change, which can accelerate the loss of intangible heritage knowledge. When environments change, relevant knowledge (for instance in relation to pastoral farming) can become obsolete, and thus is at risk of being lost[R1, R2, especially chapters 3-4]. From this research, Kyriakidis concluded that community engagement, value assessment, and heritage interpretation were key to developing a sustainable heritage management strategy for Greece. These conclusions were also identified as relevant for other countries with rich heritage assets. Concurrently with the work at Gonies, Kyriakidis undertook a survey project, ‘Discovering the Archaeologists of Greece’[R3], as a case study on archaeological employment in a single country with rich heritage assets. The project set out to gather and quantify data on employment in archaeology, providing up-to-date information that can be used by heritage organisations to build capacity in the future. The survey was part of a larger European project that gathered this information in various countries. This research complements the research mentioned above, and has enabled Kyriakidis to address human resources management in his heritage training. 3. References to the research [ R 1 ] Kyriakidis, Evangelos , and Anagnostopoulos, Aris (2017) . ‘ Engaging Local Communities in Heritage Decision-Making: T he Case of Gonies, Crete, Greece ’, Journal of Eastern Mediterranean Archaeology and Heritage Studies , 5. ISSN 2166-3548. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.5325/jeasmedarcherstu.5.3-4.0334 [ R 2 ] Kyriakidis, Evangelos (2019) . A Community Empowerment Approach to Heritage Management: From Values Assessment to Local Engagement . London: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-36830-9. doi: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429429361 [R3]Kyriakidis, Evangelos, and Alexopoulos, Georgios (2014). Discovering the Archaeologists of Greece 2012-14. Project report. Initiative for Heritage Conservancy. https://kar.kent.ac.uk/64804/ Grants [G1]Kyriakidis, Evangelos (2008-10). ‘The Heritage Management Organisation’, Lloyd Cotsen. Value: €300,000. [G2]Kyriakidis, Evangelos (2012-15). Award from the Leventis Foundation. Value: €250,000. 4. Details of the impact Changing Professional Practice and Contributing to Professional Development Kyriakidis’ work contributes to UN Sustainab le Development Goal 11, Target 11.4 ; that is, to ‘strengthen efforts to protect and safeguard the world’s cultural […] heritage’ . His work improves heritage preservation through training of individuals and the subsequent chang e to professional practice. Ky r iakidis ’ research-led teaching focuses on the key aspects required for sustainable heritage management, including the importance of intangible heritage and community engagement (as identified in his research), and the digi t isation of heritage sites . From 2014 , the voca tional and CPD- accredited MA in Heritage Management offered by the University of Kent at its Athens Centre, and the associated summer schools and workshops ( offered by HERITΛGE ) , had 683 attend ees (125 for the MA, 558 for summer schools and workshops). Training has been taken up by individuals from 73 countries , at all levels of professional experience , ranging from new graduates to g overnment ministers and policy officials [ a ] . Kyriakidis’ research- led teaching thus created a diverse global impact. The following e xamples from four countries further i llustrate the impact of Kyriakidis’ research between 2014 and 2020 : Trainee 1 , who became the Senior Museums and Monuments Officer at Ghana Museums and Monuments Board, contributed to a new national strategy for the management of heritage in Ghana. ‘We already see benefits in how locals are eager to take up suggestions and actively proffer indigenous solutions and others to ensure the success of how heritage sites in and around their communities are being managed. This positive shift is due to my Heritage management training, where stakeholders were identified and brought together to share ideas and solutions, instead of the usual top to bottom approach’ [ b ] . Another example is the Cultural Division of the Maya Train, an infrastructure and social development project. The Maya Train is a 1,500km intercity railway that will connect six UNESCO-designated World Heritage s ites, two Biosphere Reserves, and other important Mayan archaeological sites in Mex ico. In her testimony , Trainee 2 credited th e training she received from HERITΛGE for her having ‘ learned that heritage values and local communities must have priority in any cultural-heritage-related project. As a result of this training, I am able to positively influence the development of the project and the relations with stakeholders at all levels accordingly, placing both values and community engagement to a central position in the project’ [ b ] . T rainee 2’s assessment w as echoed by Trainee 3, who became the co-founder of the Tuklas Inc. Society in the Philippines, which works with local communities near archaeological and heritage sites. He stated that the training he received in 2017 and 2018 from Kyriakidis and his team ‘has truly made a difference in the way I both understand the importance of heritage values but also of the skills needed for a more effective engagement with the local community. The Heritage Management trainings have given me new tools to present and discuss heritage values with the communities, which has not only enabled the communities I work with to have a greater awareness and appreciation of their own heritage, but also improved the community’s ability to contribute to authentic, sustainable tourism in the area’ [ b ] . Fifteen Christian monuments, l ess than 10km away from the border with war-torn Syria in South - East Anatolia (Turkey) , have been digitised by Trainee 4 . This happened just a few weeks before the creation of the ‘safe zone’ by the Turkish Army in Syria . The permission from the army g eneral to fly a drone in this area for this purpose w ould not have been obtained if it were not for the community engagement training T rainee 4 received from Kyriakidis [ b ] . In addition to various heritage sites benefit ing from the training provided by Kyriakidis , individuals have also been equipped and empowered to start and/ or develop their careers through his work with them . The NGO HERITΛGE , directed by Kyriakidis, addresses UN Sustainable Development Goal 4, Target 4.4 ; that is, to ’substantially increase the number of youth and adults who have relevant skills [...] for employment, dec ent jobs and entrepreneurship’ . Trainee 5 , for example, directly credits the skill set he acquired from the MA in Heritage Management for his becoming the Deputy Program Director responsible for the Management of Culture and Heritage at the National Commission for UNESCO in Kenya [ b ] . On account of its wide -ranging networks, HERITΛGE addresses UN Sustainable Development Goal 8 ; that is, to ‘create the conditions that allow people to have quality jobs that stimulate the economy while not harming the environ ment’ . The benefit to heritage sites and individuals has been widely noted. For example, i n 2020 , Kyriakidis wa s approached by the British C ouncil, which subsequently reached an agreement with HERITΛGE to train heritage professionals with the ambition to lead in heritage preservation [c] . Building Capacity for Heritage Sites and Heritage Organisations Kyriakidis’ NGO HERITΛGE plays a crucial training role when it comes to building capacity for heritage sites, heritage organisations , and countries ' heritage preservation capabilities . Several Memoranda of Understanding ( MoUs ) have been signed by HERITΛGE , notably with the International Institute for Central Asian Studies in Uzbekistan [ d ] and the Institute of Tourism Development in Uzbekistan (2019) [ e ] . A similar agreement exists with the Arts Council of Gambia. HERITΛGE also signed a n MoU with the Iranian Cultural Heritage, Handicrafts and Tourism Organisation (ICCHTO) ( in 2019) , making it the world’s first organisation that has such an agreement with an Iranian institution [ f ] . As a result of this MoU, Trainee 6 , who works for ICCHTO and disseminates Kyriakidis’ knowledge in Iran , has initiated a number of community engagement plans and estimates that 32,000 Iranian heritage sites will eventually benefit from improved heritage management practice [ b ] . Similarly, Trainee 4 supported the MoU signed in 2019 between HERITΛGE and the Association for the Protection of Cultural Heritage in Turkey (KMKD) [ b ] . Through these MoUs , and its extensive networks (of which trainees are also a part) , HERITΛGE has become the capac ity - building partner for multiple organisations. HERITΛGE is supporting the development of national strategies of organisations, collaborating on training , and joining forces with various institutions in funding applications by pan-national organisations such as the European Union. Through successful lobbying, HERITΛGE has become part of Europe AID , which has funded heritage training and capacity - building in Iran. I n 2020 , Kyriakidis was also approached by the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, wh ich wishes to work with HERITΛGE to train ‘key heritage managers to empower them to independently transform their heritage assets from decaying objects of study to dynamic sources of learning, community identity and economic development’ [g] . B eyond the immediate partner organisations, Kyriakidis’ advice is also frequently sought in heritage circles . For instance, Kyriakidis was appointed to the Senior Advisory Board of the Global Heritage Fund, the second - largest private organisation for heritage preservation in the US , with community engagement at the heart of its mission [ h ] . In 2020 , Kyriakidis also advised the Greek G overnment and their US-based legal representatives in a dispute on illicit antiquities in which the Greek G overnment was sued after a transaction did not take place in ‘good faith’ . Community engagement and the bringing together of different stakeholders was crucial in enabling the Greek G overnment to protect their national heritage and in preventi ng the sale from proceeding . T he significance of this decision was covered extensively in the mainstream press. At a time when heritage organisations and those who support them around the world have seen their funding cut drastically (e.g. UNESCO, DFID, USAID, WMF), HERITΛGE has effectively demonstrated the economic, cultural , and heritage value - added associated with its knowledge transfer and capacity - building activities . Reflecting this, as well as the uniqueness of the activities delivered, t he organisation’s total revenue has more than doubled between 2015 and 201 7, reaching an annual total of $ 1 .4 million in 2017 [ i ] . Policy Debate on Climate Change Kyriakidis also advised the Greek G overnment in develop ing policy proposals that aimed to mitigate the impact of climate change on heritage. Kyriakidis’ proposals to the G overnment, which he submitted in spring / summer 2019, were based on his research insight that the physical change s to heritage sites caused by climate change can have a strongly negative impact on their local communities [ R 1 , R 2 ] . Importantly, his research had identified that the damage resulting from climate change can profoundly affect intangible heritage , in particular. In the policy proposals, h e pointed out the diverse negative cultural and economic impacts that climate change has for communities. He argued that these would disrupt the lives of communities across the globe, limiting their ability to access and benefit from their cultural resources , and that traditional knowledge and practices would be lost [ j ] . His proposals stated that it was a significant omission that cultural heritage is not systematically integrated in to global climate change mitigation processes – including the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the Paris Agreement . Kyriakidis argue d that although t he latter does mention ' traditional knowledge, knowledge of indigenous peoples and local knowledge systems ' (Article 7.5) , this does not go far enough in acknowledging the profound disruption to cultural heritage that can occur. T his omission is a reflection of a persistent institutional gap between the cultural heritage and climate change communities, which must be urgently addressed [ j ] . Kyriakidis wrote the initial proposal [j] and approved the final text for the Athens S ummit. The proposals led to a conferen c e (21-22 June 2019) ‘and formed the basis for the final text signed and sent to Abu Dhabi [in June 2019], where HERIT ΛGE represented Greece’ [ k ] . ‘ Following the recommendations of Dr Kyriakidis and HERIT Λ GE, the Greek government organised a parallel session to the UN summit in New York that paved the way for heritage to be included in the main discussion in that summit and then to be included in to the minutes of COP25.’ [k, l] This success at the 2019 Climate Action Summit means that heritage organisations are now able to lobby their governments for funding in the context of climate change. 5. Sources to corroborate the impact [ a ] Alumni Overview 2014-19 . Overview o f MA alumni and attendees of HERIT Λ GE workshops for S ummer S chools. [ b ] Testimonies for Heritage Management Skill s Training , 2014-19 . Testimonies from trainees who completed their training between 2014 and 2019 , testify ing to the impact of their training. [ c ] Agreement to Deliver Training Funded by the British Council . C onfidential . HERITΛGE reached an agreement with the British Council to train heritage professionals . [ d ] M emorandum of U nderstanding with Heritage IICAS Uzbekistan . C onfidential . This MoU evidences capacity - building. [ e ] M emorandum o f U nderstanding with the Institute of Tourism Development , Uzbekistan . C onfidential . This MoU evidences capacity - building. [ f ] M emorandum o f U nderstanding with ICHHCO , Iran . C onfidential . This MoU evidences capacity - building. [ g ] C oncept Note on the Intended Collaboration between HERITAGE and UN ECA Africa. Confidential . This demonstrates that the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa w ishes to work with HERITΛGE to train heritage managers. [ h ] Testimony from the CEO of Global Heritage Fund US . This confirm s that Kyriakidis was appointed as a member of the Senior Advisory Board of the Global Heritage Fund . [ i ] Pro Publia website page, Heritage Management Organiza ti on , Inc . This evidences the increased annual revenue of HERIT Λ GE between 2015 and 2017. [j]Initial Proposal for the Athens Summit and final text sent to Abu Dhabi. The initial proposal was written and approved by Kyriakidis. It formed the basis of the final text sent to Abu Dhabi, which is also included in the evidence. [ k ] Testimony to Certify that Heritage was i ncluded in d iscussions of the Climate Summit in 2019 and COP25 . A Professor at the Academy of Athens confirm s that HERIT Λ GE represented Greece (with the MFA) at the pre-summit in Abu Dhabi and that HERIT Λ GE successfully lobbied for inclusion of the Greek Initiative Recommendations to the UN summit . [ l ] Final Proposal of the Greek Government for the Coalition Parallel Meeting in N ew Y ork . This proposal was de veloped from Kyriakidis ’ Showing impact case studies 1 to 2 of 2

https://results2021.ref.ac.uk/impact/submissions/d8f8ac74-8e09-4fc2-abdb-b4365e31401e/impact

(PDF) An Empirical Evaluation of Alternative Methods of Estimation for Confirmatory Factor Analysis With Ordinal Data PDF | Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) is widely used for examining hypothesized relations among ordinal variables (e.g., Likert-type items). A... | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate January 2005 Psychological Methods 9(4):466-91 DOI: 10.1037/1082-989X.9.4.466 Source PubMed Authors: David B Flora York University Patrick J Curran Patrick J Curran This person is not on ResearchGate, or hasn't claimed this research yet. Download full-text PDF Read full-text Download citation Copy link Link copied Read full-text Download citation Copy link Link copied Citations (2,467) References (67) Figures (8) Abstract and Figures Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) is widely used for examining hypothesized relations among ordinal variables (e.g., Likert-type items). A theoretically appropriate method fits the CFA model to polychoric correlations using either weighted least squares (WLS) or robust WLS. Importantly, this approach assumes that a continuous, normal latent process determines each observed variable. The extent to which violations of this assumption undermine CFA estimation is not well-known. In this article, the authors empirically study this issue using a computer simulation study. The results suggest that estimation of polychoric correlations is robust to modest violations of underlying normality. Further, WLS performed adequately only at the largest sample size but led to substantial estimation difficulties with smaller samples. Finally, robust WLS performed well across all conditions. Model 1. … Model 2. … Model 3. … Model 4. … +3 Distribution of polychoric correlation estimates obtained with N 1,000 (horizontal line represents population correlation value). s skewness; k kurtosis. … Figures - uploaded by David B Flora Author content All figure content in this area was uploaded by David B Flora Content may be subject to copyright. Discover the world's research 25+ million members 160+ million publication pages 2.3+ billion citations Join for free Public Full-text 1 Content uploaded by David B Flora Author content All content in this area was uploaded by David B Flora Content may be subject to copyright. An Empirical Evaluation of Alternative Methods of Estimation for Confirmatory Factor Analysis With Ordinal Data David B. Flora Arizona State University Patrick J. Curran University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) is widely used for examining hypothesized relations among ordinal variables (e.g., Likert-type items). A theoretically appropriate method fits the CFA model to polychoric correlations using either weighted least squares (WLS) or robust WLS. Importantly, this approach assumes that a continuous, normal latent process determines each observed variable. The extent to which violations of this assumption undermine CFA estimation is not well-known. In this article, the authors empirically study this issue using a computer simulation study. The results suggest that estimation of polychoric correlations is robust to modest violations of underlying normality. Further, WLS performed adequately only at the largest sample size but led to substantial estimation difficulties with smaller samples. Finally, robust WLS performed well across all conditions. Variables characterized by an ordinal level of measure- ment are common in many empirical investigations within the social and behavioral sciences. A typical situation in- volves the development or refinement of a psychometric test or survey in which a set of ordinally scaled items (e.g., 0 ⫽ strongly disagree, 1 ⫽ neither agree nor disagree, 2 ⫽ strongly agree ) is used to assess one or more psychological constructs. Although the individual items are designed to measure a theoretically continuous construct, the observed responses are discrete realizations of a small number of categories. Statistical methods that assume continuous dis- tributions are often applied to observed measures that are ordinally scaled. In circumstances such as these, there is the potential for a critical mismatch between the assumptions underlying the statistical model and the empirical charac- teristics of the data to be analyzed. This mismatch in turn undermines confidence in the validity of the conclusions that are drawn from empirical data with respect to a theo- retical model of interest (e.g., Shadish, Cook, & Campbell, 2002). This problem often arises in confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), a statistical modeling method commonly used in many social science disciplines. CFA is a member of the more general family of structural equation models (SEMs) and provides a powerful method for testing a variety of hypotheses about a set of measured variables. By far the most common method of estimation within CFA is maxi- mum likelihood (ML), a technique which assumes that the observed variables are continuous and normally distributed (e.g., Bollen, 1989, pp. 131–134). These assumptions are not met when the observed data are discrete (as occurs when using ordinal scales), thus significant problems can result when fitting CFA models for ordinal scales using ML esti- mation (e.g., B. Muthe ´ n & Kaplan, 1985). Although several alternative methods of estimation have been available for some time, these have only recently become more accessi- ble to applied researchers through the continued develop- ment of SEM software. Despite this increased availability, key unanswered questions remain about the accuracy, va- lidity, and empirically informed guidelines for the optimal use of these methods, particularly with respect to conditions commonly encountered in behavioral research. The goal of our article was to systematically and empirically address several of these important questions. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) SEM is a powerful and flexible analytic method that plays a critically important role in many empirical applications in social science research. Because the general linear model is David B. Flora, Department of Psychology, Arizona State Uni- versity; Patrick J. Curran, Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Additional materials are on the web at http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ 1082-989X.9.4.466.supp. Portions of this research were presented at the annual meeting of the Psychometric Society in Chapel Hill, North Carolina, June 2002. We are grateful for valuable input from Dan Bauer, Ken Bollen, Andrea Hussong, Abigail Panter, and Jack Vevea. This work was supported in part by a dissertation award presented by the Society of Multivariate Experimental Psychology to David B. Flora and Grant DA13148 awarded to Patrick J. Curran. Correspondence should be addressed to Patrick J. Curran, De- partment of Psychology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-3270. E-mail: [email protected] Psychological Methods 2004, Vol. 9, No. 4, 466 – 491 Copyright 2004 by the American Psychological Association 1082-989X/04/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/1082-989X.9.4.466 466 embedded within SEM, this modeling framework can be used in a wide variety of applications. The general goal of SEM is to test the hypothesis that the observed covariance matrix for a set of measured variables is equal to the covariance matrix implied by an hypothesized model. This relationship can be formally stated as ⌺ ⫽ ⌺ 共 ␪ 兲 , (1) where ⌺ represents the population covariance matrix of a set of observed variables and ⌺ ( ␪ ) represents the population covariance matrix implied by ␪ , a vector of model param- eters. The vector ␪ thus defines the form of a particular SEM through the specification of means and intercepts, variances and covariances, regression parameters, and factor loadings. A particular parameterization of ␪ leads to the well- known CFA model (Jo ¨ reskog, 1969). In CFA, the covari- ance matrix implied by ␪ is a function of ⌿ , a matrix of variances and covariances among latent factors; ⌳ , a matrix of factor loadings; and ⌰ ␧ , a matrix of measurement errors (i.e., uniqueness). The model-implied covariance structure is ⌺ 共 ␪ 兲 ⫽ ⌳⌿⌳ ⴕ ⫹ ⌰ ␧ . (2) Usual assumptions for CFA are that the model is properly specified (i.e., the model hypothesized in Equation 2 corre- sponds directly to the model that exists in the population), that ⌰ ␧ is independent of the vector ␩ of latent factors, and that the measurement errors themselves are uncorrelated (i.e., ⌰ ␧ is a diagonal matrix), although this latter condition is to some degree testable. ML is the most commonly applied method for estimating the model parameters in ␪ . In addition to the usual CFA assumptions named above, ML assumes that the sample covariance matrix is computed on the basis of continuous, normally distributed variables. 1 Given adequate sample size, proper model specification, and multivariately nor- mally distributed data (or more specifically, no multivariate kurtosis; Browne, 1984), ML provides consistent, efficient, and unbiased parameter estimates and asymptotic standard errors as well as an omnibus test of model fit (Bollen, 1989; Browne, 1984). However, in many applications in the behavioral sci- ences, the observed variables are not continuously distrib- uted. 2 Instead, variables are often observed on a dichoto- mous or ordinal scale of measurement. It is well-known from both statistical theory and prior simulation studies that ML based on the sample product–moment correlation or covariance matrix among ordinal observed variables does not perform well, especially when the number of observed categories is small (e.g., five or fewer). In particular, the chi-square model fit statistic is inflated (Babakus, Ferguson, &J o ¨ reskog, 1987; Green, Akey, Fleming, Hershberger, & Marquis, 1997; Hutchinson & Olmos, 1998; B. Muthe ´n & Kaplan, 1992), parameters are underestimated (Babakus et al., 1987; B. Muthe ´ n & Kaplan, 1992), and standard error estimates tend to be downwardly biased (B. Muthe ´n & Kaplan, 1985, 1992). An alternative approach to estimating CFA models for ordinal observed data involves the estima- tion and analysis of polychoric and polyserial correlations. Polychoric Correlations There is a long history of theory and research with poly- choric and polyserial correlations dating back to Pearson (1901). The polychoric correlation estimates the linear re- lationship between two unobserved continuous variables given only observed ordinal data, whereas the polyserial correlation measures the linear relationship between two continuous variables when only one of the observed distri- butions is ordinal and the other is continuous. Thus, calcu- lation of a polychoric correlation is based on the premise that the observed discrete values are due to an unobserved underlying continuous distribution. We adopt the terminol- ogy of B. Muthe ´ n (1983, 1984) to refer to an unobserved univariate continuous distribution that generates an ob- served ordinal distribution as a latent response distribution. The relationship between a latent response distribution, y*, and an observed ordinal distribution, y, is formalized as y ⫽ c, if ␶ c ⬍ y * ⬍ ␶ c ⫹ 1 , (3) with thresholds ␶ as parameters defining the categories c ⫽ 0 ,1 ,2 ,..., C ⫺ 1, where ␶ 0 ⫽⫺ ⬁ and ␶ C ⫽⬁ . Hence, the observed ordinal value for y changes when a threshold ␶ is exceeded on the latent response variable y*. The primary reason that ML based on sample product–moment relation- ships does not perform well with ordinal observed data is that the covariance structure hypothesis (see Equation 1) holds for the latent response variables but does not generally hold for the observed ordinal variables (Bollen, 1989, p. 434). Polychoric correlations are typically calculated using the two-stage procedure described by Olsson (1979). In the first stage, the proportions of observations in each category of a univariate ordinal variable are used to estimate the threshold parameters for each univariate latent response variable sep- arately. Formally, for an observed ordinal variable y 1 , with thresholds denoted by a i ,i ⫽ 0 ,..., s, and y 2 , with thresh - olds denoted by b j ,j ⫽ 0 ,..., r, the first step is to estimate a i ⫽ ⌽ 1 ⫺ 1 共 P i 䡠 兲 (4) 1 This assumption specifically applies to endogenous variables, or residuals (see Bollen, 1989, pp. 126 –127). Given our focus on the CFA model, all observed variables are endogenous here. 2 Strictly speaking, all observed measurements are discrete, but here we are talking about coarse categorization of a theoretically continuous distribution resulting in a small number of discrete levels. 467 ORDINAL CFA and b j ⫽ ⌽ 1 ⫺ 1 共 P 䡠 j 兲 , (5) where P ij is the observed proportion in cell ( i, j ), P i 䡠 and P 䡠 j are observed cumulative marginal proportions of the con- tingency table of y 1 and y 2 , and ⌽ 1 ⫺ 1 represents the inverse of the univariate standard normal cumulative distribution function. In the second stage, these estimated threshold parameters are used in combination with the observed bi- variate contingency table to estimate, via maximum likeli- hood, the correlation that would have been obtained had the two latent response variables been directly observed. The log-likelihood of the bivariate sample is ᐉ ⫽ ln K ⫹ 冘 i ⫽ 1 s 冘 j ⫽ 1 r n i, j ln ␲ i, j , (6) where K is a constant, n i,j denotes the frequency of obser - vations in cell ( i, j ), and ␲ i,j denotes the probability that a given observation falls into cell ( i, j ) (Olsson, 1979). Critically important in the calculation of a polychoric correlation is the assumption that the pair of latent response variables has a bivariate normal distribution. This assump- tion becomes evident in the reference to the univariate standard normal distribution in the calculation of the thresh- olds (see Equations 4 and 5). Under the assumption of bivariate normality for y * 1 and y * 2 , Olsson (1979) gave the probability ␲ i,j (see Equation 6) that an observation falls into a given cell of the contingency table for y 1 and y 2 as ␲ i,j ⫽ ⌽ 2 共 a i ,b j 兲 ⫺ ⌽ 2 共 a i ⫺ 1 , b j 兲 ⫺ ⌽ 2 共 a i ,b j ⫺ 1 兲 ⫹ ⌽ 2 共 a i ⫺ 1 , b j ⫺ 1 兲 , (7) where ⌽ 2 is the bivariate normal cumulative density func - tion with correlation ␳ . The ML estimate of ␳ yields the polychoric correlation between the observed ordinal vari- ables y 1 and y 2 . Olsson reported limited simulation results showing that this two-stage method for calculating a poly- choric correlation between two ordinal variables gives an unbiased estimate of the correlation between a pair of bi- variate normal latent response variables. Although the assumption of bivariate normality for latent response variables has been criticized as unrealistic in prac- tice (e.g., Lord & Novick, 1968; Yule, 1912), other re- searchers have advocated the practical convenience of this assumption (e.g., B. Muthe ´ n & Hofacker, 1988; Pearson & Heron, 1913). Specifically, regardless of whether a pair of observed ordinal variables represents the realization of a categorized bivariate normal distribution or some other bi- variate continuous distribution, if the continuous distribu- tions are correlated, one would expect to see evidence for this correlation in the observed contingency table for the two ordinal variables. That is, for a positive correlation, inspection of the relative frequencies in the individual cells of the contingency table for the two ordinal variables would be expected to reflect that lower values on one ordinal variable would be associated with lower values on the other ordinal variable, whereas higher values on one variable would be associated with higher values on the other. Given that the contingency table supplies the only observed data for estimation of the correlation between the latent contin- uous variables, it is necessary to specify some (albeit un- known) distribution for the underlying continuous variables to allow estimation of their correlation. Because of its well-known mathematical properties, the assumption of a bivariate normal distribution considerably facilitates estima- tion of the correlation, as shown in Equations 4 –7. Al- though two correlated nonnormal y* variables would be expected to generate a contingency table with similar pat- terns to that observed for two normal y* variables with the same correlation, the extent to which calculation of the polychoric correlation is robust to this nonnormality re- mains a matter of empirical investigation. Our goal in this article was to pursue such an empirical examination. To our knowledge, Quiroga (1992) represents the only simulation study that has empirically evaluated the accuracy of polychoric correlations under violations of the latent normality assumption. Quiroga manipulated the skewness and kurtosis of two continuous variables (i.e., y* variables) to examine the effects of nonnormality on polychoric cor- relation estimates between two variables, each with four observed ordinal categories. The polychoric correlation val- ues consistently overestimated the true correlation between the nonnormal latent response variables. However, the ex- tent of the overestimation was small, with bias typically less than 2% of the true correlation. Although the findings of Quiroga suggest that polychoric correlations are typically robust to violation of the underlying y* normality assump- tion, to our knowledge no prior studies have examined the effect of violating this assumption on fitting CFAs to poly- choric correlations. That is, demonstrating lack of bias in the estimation of polychoric correlations is necessary but not sufficient for inferring the robustness of CFAs fitted to these correlations more generally. This is particularly sa- lient when considering alternative methods for fitting these models in practice. Two important methods of interest to us in this article are fully weighted least squares (WLS) and robust WLS. WLS Estimation Both analytical and empirical work have demonstrated that simply substituting a matrix of polychoric correlations for the sample product–moment covariance matrix in the usual ML estimation function for SEM is inappropriate. Although this approach will generally yield consistent pa- rameter estimates, it is known to produce incorrect test statistics and standard errors (Babakus et al., 1987; Dolan, 1994; Rigdon & Ferguson, 1991). Over the past several 468 FLORA AND CURRAN decades, a WLS approach has been developed for estimat- ing a weight matrix based on the asymptotic variances and covariances of polychoric correlations that can be used in conjunction with a matrix of polychoric correlations in the estimation of SEM models (e.g., Browne, 1982, 1984; Jo ¨ reskog, 1994; B. Muthe ´ n, 1984; B. O. Muthe ´ n & Satorra, 1995). WLS applies the fitting function F WLS ⫽ 关 s ⫺ ␴ 共 ␪ 兲兴⬘ W ⫺ 1 关 s ⫺ ␴ 共 ␪ 兲兴 , (8) where s is a vector of sample statistics (i.e., polychoric corre- lations), ␴ ( ␪ ) is the model-implied vector of population ele- ments in ⌺ ( ␪ ), and W is a positive-definite weight matrix. Browne (1982, 1984) showed that if a consistent estimator of the asymptotic covariance matrix of s is chosen for W , then F WLS leads to asymptotically efficient parameter estimates and correct standard errors as well as a chi-square-distributed model test statistic. Furthermore, Browne (1982, 1984) pre- sented formulae for estimating the correct asymptotic covari- ance matrix in the context of continuously distributed observed data using observed fourth-order moments. Because these for- mulae hold without specifying a particular distribution for the observed variables, F WLS is often called the asymptotically distribution free (ADF) estimator when used with a correct asymptotic covariance matrix. Browne (1982, 1984) primarily focused on WLS as ap- plied to continuous but nonnormal distributions, whereas B. Muthe ´ n (1983, 1984) presented a “continuous/categorical variable methodology” (CVM) for estimating SEMs that allows any combination of dichotomous, ordered categori- cal, or continuous observed variables. With CVM, bivariate relationships among ordinal observed variables are esti- mated with polychoric correlations, and the SEM is fit using WLS estimation. The key contribution of CVM is that it essentially generalizes Browne’s work with F WLS beyond the case of continuous observed data, as Muthe ´ n described the estimation of the correct asymptotic covariance matrix among polychoric correlation estimates (B. Muthe ´ n, 1984; B. O. Muthe ´ n & Satorra, 1995). Thus, unlike normal-theory estimation, CVM provides asymptotically unbiased, consis- tent, and efficient parameter estimates as well as a correct chi-square test of fit with dichotomous or ordinal observed variables. Parallel but independent research by Jo ¨ reskog (Jo ¨ reskog, 1994; Jo ¨ reskog & So ¨ rbom, 1988) similarly gen- eralized Browne’s work to the estimation of the correct as- ymptotic covariance matrix among polychoric correlations. 3 Despite its asymptotic elegance, there are two potential limitations of full WLS estimation in research applications of CFA with ordinal data. First, although limited prior simulation evidence suggests that the computation of poly- choric correlations is generally robust to violations of the latent normality assumption (Quiroga, 1992), to our knowl- edge the ramifications of these violations for the estimation of asymptotic covariances among polychoric correlations have yet to be considered. Thus, although polychoric cor- relations may be generally unbiased, CFA model test sta- tistics and standard errors might be adversely affected be- cause of biases in the asymptotic covariance matrix introduced by nonnormality among latent response vari- ables. Second, a frequent criticism against full WLS esti- mation is that the dimensions of the optimal weight matrix W are typically exceedingly large and increase rapidly as a function of the number of indicators in a model. By virtue of its size in the context of a large model (i.e., a model with many observed variables), W is often nonpositive definite and cannot be inverted when applying the WLS fitting function (e.g., Bentler, 1995; West, Finch, & Curran, 1995). Furthermore, calculation of these asymptotic values re- quires a large sample size to produce stable estimates. Specifically, Jo ¨ reskog and So ¨ rbom (1996) suggested that a minimum sample size of ( k ⫹ 1)( k ⫹ 2)/2, where k is the number of indicators in a model, should be available for estimation of W . As the elements of W have substantial sampling variability when based on small sample sizes, this instability has an accumulating effect as the number of indicators in the model increases (Browne, 1984). Thus, it is well-known that significant problems arise when using full WLS estimation in conditions commonly encountered in social science research. Simulation studies have shown that chi-square test statistics are consistently inflated when ADF estimation is applied to sample product– moment covariance or correlation matrices of continuous observed data (e.g., Chou & Bentler, 1995; Curran, West, & Finch, 1996; Hu, Bentler, & Kano, 1992). Similarly, simu- lation studies applying WLS estimation to the analysis of polychoric correlation matrices have also reported inflated chi-square test statistics (Dolan, 1994; Hutchinson & Ol- mos, 1998; Potthast, 1993) and negatively biased standard error estimates (Potthast, 1993). In particular, both Dolan and Potthast reported that these problems worsen as a func- tion of increasing model size (i.e., number of indicators) and decreasing sample size. Thus, full WLS is often of limited usefulness in many applied research settings. Robust WLS To address the problems encountered when using full WLS with small to moderate sample sizes, B. Muthe ´n , d u Toit, and Spisic (1997; see also L. K. Muthe ´ n & Muthe ´n , 1998, pp. 357–358) presented a robust WLS approach that 3 Although the methods of B. Muthe ´ n and Jo ¨ reskog for estimat - ing the asymptotic covariance matrix are highly similar, they differ in their treatment of the threshold parameters categorizing latent response distributions into observed ordinal distributions. The simulation study by Dolan (1994) suggested that the Jo ¨ reskog approach to estimating the asymptotic covariance matrix elicits virtually identical results as the Muthe ´ n approach with respect to the estimation of CFA models. 469 ORDINAL CFA is based on the work of Satorra and colleagues (Chou, Bentler, & Satorra, 1991; Satorra, 1992; Satorra & Bentler, 1990). 4 With this method, parameter estimates are obtained by substituting a diagonal matrix, V , for W in Equation 8, the elements of which are the asymptotic variances of the thresholds and polychoric correlation estimates (i.e., the diagonal elements of the original weight matrix). Once a vector of parameter estimates is obtained, a robust asymp- totic covariance matrix is used to obtain parameter standard errors. Calculation of this matrix involves the full weight matrix W ; however, it need not be inverted. Next, Muthe ´n et al. described a robust goodness-of-fit test via calculation of a mean- and variance-adjusted chi-square test statistic. Calculation of this test statistic also involves the full weight matrix W but similarly avoids inversion. An interesting aspect of this robust WLS method is that the value for the model degrees of freedom is estimated from the empirical data, in a manner inspired by Satterthwaite (1941; cited in Satorra, 1992), rather than being determined directly from the specification of the model. The robust goodness-of-fit test presented by Muthe ´ n et al. essentially involves the usual chi-square test statistic multiplied by an adjustment akin to the Satorra and Bentler (1986, 1988) robust chi-square test statistic, with model degrees of freedom estimated from the data. 5 Detailed formulae describing estimation of standard errors and model fit statistics with robust WLS were given by B. Muthe ´ n et al. as well as by L. K. Muthe ´ n and Muthe ´n (1998, pp. 357–358). The Current Study Our motivating goal was to provide an empirical evalu- ation of a set of specific hypotheses derived from the sta- tistical theory underlying the calculation of polychoric cor- relations and their use in estimating CFAs in applied research. A small number of simulation studies, most nota- bly by Potthast (1993; see also Babakus et al., 1987; Dolan, 1994; Hutchinson & Olmos, 1998), have previously evalu- ated the use of polychoric correlations with full WLS esti- mation for CFA. In each of these studies, researchers gen- erated y* variables from continuous, multivariate normal data with known factor structures. Different sets of thresh- old values were then applied to these normal y* variables to create ordinal y variables with varying observed distribu- tions. These studies generally found that as the skewness or positive kurtosis of the observed (ordinal) variables de- parted from zero, the estimation of the known factor struc- ture among the unobserved normal y* variables deteriorated despite that the statistical theory underlying CFA with poly- choric correlations makes no explicit assumption about the skewness and kurtosis of the observed ordinal variables. This finding likely occurred in part because highly kurtotic ordinal distributions produce contingency tables with low expected cell frequencies, which Olsson (1979) speculated would lead to poor polychoric correlation estimates and which Brown and Bendetti (1977) showed would lead to biased tetrachoric correlations. 6 In the present study, rather than manipulating the thresh- old values along normal y* distributions to generate y vari- ables of varying observed skewness and kurtosis, we instead manipulated the unobserved skewness and kurtosis of the y* variables. In this way, we directly evaluated robustness of CFA with polychoric correlations under violation of the explicit, theoretical assumption that y* variables underlying polychoric correlations be normally distributed. Further- more, if there is little practical consequence to violation of the latent normality assumption, we will have partially demonstrated that this assumption merely provides a math- ematical convenience facilitating the calculation of correla- tions among latent response variables, as implied by Pear- son and Heron (1913) and B. Muthe ´ n and Hofacker (1988). 7 Thus, our study focused on the systematic variation of the unobserved distribution of y* rather than on the observed distribution of y. This is an important distinction given that manipulation of the latter has been the sole focus of prior research (e.g., Potthast, 1993). Statistical theory and prior empirical findings have high- lighted three issues of critical importance when considering the estimation of CFA models (and SEMs in general) using polychoric correlations. First, although limited evidence suggests that polychoric correlations are robust to violations of bivariate normality for continuous latent response vari- ables eliciting observed ordinal variables, we are aware of no prior research examining whether this robustness extends to the estimation of CFA model parameters, test statistics, and standard errors using WLS estimation with a correct asymptotic covariance matrix. Second, we are aware of no prior research examining the stability and accuracy of ro- bust WLS under either bivariate normality or bivariate nonnormality for latent response variables. This is a prom- ising method for use in social science research, and the finite sample performance of robust WLS is an issue of key 4 Jo ¨ reskog and So ¨ rbom (1996) described a similar approach, termed diagonally weighted least squares. 5 A drawback of this robust WLS method is that the robust chi-square values cannot be used to compare nested models be- cause the degrees of freedom may vary within a given model specification. 6 The tetrachoric correlation is a special case of the polychoric correlation where both observed variables are dichotomous. 7 It is possible to create any ordinal distribution from a normal distribution given the correct set of threshold values. Likewise, given an observed ordinal distribution in a practical setting (i.e., not an artificially simulated distribution), it is impossible to know whether it was generated from a normal or nonnormal continuous variable. However, applied researchers may be highly skeptical of whether it is realistic to assume that the latent response variable is in fact normal (e.g., it may represent propensity toward an abnor- mal behavior, such as illegal drug use). 470 FLORA AND CURRAN interest. Finally, we are not aware of any existing systematic study that explores these questions with respect to the specific number of discrete levels observed in the ordinal scale; this has significant implications in the design of item response scales in anticipation of using these techniques in practice. We explore all three of these issues in detail in this article. We drew on statistical theory and prior empirical research to generate several hypotheses that we empirically exam- ined using a comprehensive computer simulation study. First, consistent with Quiroga (1992), we predicted that the estimates of polychoric correlations would be relatively unbiased as a function of minor to modest violations of normality of the latent response distributions. Next, we had several hypotheses pertaining to full WLS estimation of CFA models using polychoric correlations. Consistent with Dolan (1994) and Potthast (1993), we predicted that full WLS would lead to inflated test statistics and underesti- mated parameter standard errors and that these biases would worsen substantially as a function of increasing model size (i.e., number of indicators) and decreasing sample size. Although we focused on the chi-square test statistics as a primary outcome, this was essentially an examination of the discrepancy function upon which all commonly used fit indices for SEM are based. Thus, conditions that contribute to inflated chi-square values were also expected to contrib- ute to bias in other fit indices, causing them also to suggest poorer fit. A polychoric correlation matrix is a consistent estimator of the population correlation matrix for continuous latent response variables. Thus, like Rigdon and Ferguson (1991) and Potthast (1993), we expected to find unbiased parameter estimates independently of sample size and model complex- ity. However, because nonnormality in latent response dis- tributions may introduce small positive biases in polychoric correlations (Quiroga, 1992), we predicted that nonnormal- ity in latent response distributions would create modestly positively biased parameter estimates. Further, because cal- culation of the asymptotic covariance matrix among poly- choric correlations takes into account fourth-moment infor- mation based on the distribution-free technique of Browne (1984), we did not predict that underlying nonnormality would have a substantial effect on full WLS chi-square test statistics or standard errors at larger sample sizes for less complex models. Finally, like full WLS estimation, we expected that robust WLS would result in unbiased parameter estimates with normal latent response distributions and modestly overesti- mated parameters with nonnormal latent response distribu- tions. Drawing from the results of Curran et al. (1996) relating to the Satorra–Bentler corrections applied to non- normal but continuous measures, we predicted that robust WLS would generally produce unbiased parameter standard errors and test statistics across a wider range of sample sizes and model complexity than would full WLS. However, it is not known to what degree robust WLS would provide accurate estimates at the smallest sample sizes for the most complex models. Taken together, we believe that our results make unique contributions both to the understanding of the finite sampling properties of these asymptotic estimators and to the provision of recommendations for applied re- searchers using these methods in practice. Method We used Monte Carlo computer simulation methodology to empirically study the effects of varying latent response distribution, sample size, and model size on the computation of chi-square model test statistics, parameter estimates, and associated standard errors pertaining to CFAs fitted to or- dinal data. For each simulated sample of ordinal data, we calculated the corresponding polychoric correlation matrix and fit the relevant population model using both full and robust WLS estimation. Continuous Latent Response Distributions We generated random samples from five different contin- uous y* distributions. The first was multivariate normal, whereas the remaining four represented increasing levels of nonnormality. We carefully chose the nonnormal distribu- tions according to two criteria. First, the distributions were selected to allow examination of the separate effects of skewness and kurtosis on the outcomes of interest. Second, the distributions were selected to be representative of levels of nonnormality commonly encountered in applied psycho- logical research as reported by Micceri (1989). 8 Table 1 presents specific population characteristics of each y* dis- tribution. Each sample of multivariate data was generated to be consistent with a given population correlation structure (see Model Specifications below). Ordinal Observed Distributions After sampling continuous data from the distributions described above, we transformed these samples into two- category and five-category ordinal data by applying a set of thresholds that remained constant across all y* distributions. 8 Our motivating goal for this study was not to determine what extreme level of nonnormality for y* would guarantee a poorly estimated CFA model; that is, we had no interest in “breaking” the estimator. Instead, we sought to assess the performance of the methods used herein under conditions of nonnormality commonly encountered in practice. Although this decision potentially limits the generalizability of our findings, it also increases our ability to more closely examine realistic distributions that might commonly occur in practice. 471 ORDINAL CFA For the two-category condition, a single threshold was used to transform the continuous response distributions into the observed dichotomy. For the five-category condition, a set of four thresholds was used to transform the data. 9 For the four nonnormal conditions, although these sets of thresholds resulted in observed ordinal distributions with nonzero lev- els of skewness and kurtosis, categorization resulted in y variables that were much less skewed and kurtotic than the y* population distributions used to generate them. See Table 1 for population characteristics of each y distribution. Model Specifications Each sample of multivariate data we generated had a population correlation matrix conforming to one of four factor model specifications that hold for the y* latent re- sponse variables. We selected these models to be represen- tative of CFA model specifications that might be encoun- tered in practice (e.g., models showing the relationships among a set of Likert-type variables). Model 1 (see Figure 1) consisted of a single factor measured by five ordinal indicators (i.e., observed y variables), each of which was determined by a latent response variable (i.e., an unobserved y* variable), as described above. Model 2 (see Figure 2) consisted of a single factor measured by 10 indicators. Model 3 (see Figure 3) consisted of two correlated factors each measured by five indicators. Finally, Model 4 (see Figure 4) was identical to Model 3, except each factor was measured by 10 indicators. As with Model 1, each of the ordinal indicators for Models 2, 3, and 4 was determined by its own y* variable. To facilitate interpretation, we defined the values of the population parameters to be homogeneous across all four model specifications. That is, within and across the models, all factor loadings were equal ( ␭ s ⫽ .70), and all unique- nesses were equal ( ⌰ ␧ s ⫽ .51). Importantly, these loadings represent the regression of the latent response variables (i.e., the y* variables), and not the ordinal indicators, on the factor. Models 3 and 4 included an interfactor correlation, which was set to ⌿ 21 ⫽ .30 for both. All y* distributions were standardized to have a mean of zero and standard deviation equal to one, such that ␭ i 2 ⫹⌰ ␧ i ⫽ 1 for y * i . The variances of the factors and of the uniquenesses were all set to equal one. Thus, the proposed models for the latent response variables were scale invariant (Cudeck, 1989, p. 326), and it was valid to define the implied population covariance matrices for data simulation in terms of correlations. Data Generation and Analysis For each combination of y* distribution and model spec- ification described above, we generated random samples of four different sizes: 100, 200, 500, and 1,000. We replicated the 5 (distributions) ⫻ 4 (model specifications) ⫻ 4 (sample sizes) ⫻ 2 (number of categories) ⫽ 160 independent cells of the study 500 times each, using EQS (Version 5.7b; Bentler, 1995) to generate all data for the study. 10 For each replication, we fit the relevant population factor model using both full and robust WLS estimation as implemented 9 In the five-category condition, we used the Case 1 threshold set from B. Muthe ´ n and Kaplan (1985), such that that categoriza- tion of a normal y* population distribution would result in an ordinal y distribution with zero skewness and kurtosis. This same threshold set was also applied to each nonnormal y* distribution. 10 We generated the raw data with the EQS implementation of the methods of Fleishman (1978), who presented formulae for simulating univariate data with nonzero skewness and kurtosis, and Vale and Maurelli (1983), who extended Fleishman’s method to allow simulation of multivariate data with known levels of univariate skewness and kurtosis and a known correlational struc- ture. To ensure that EQS properly created the data according to the desired levels of skewness and kurtosis for the y* variables, we generated a set of continuous data conforming to Model 1 with N ⫽ 50,000 for each level of our manipulation of the y* distribu- tions. The values of univariate skewness and kurtosis calculated from these large-sample data closely reflected the nominal popu- lation values. Previous studies have also successfully implemented this method of data generation (e.g., Chou et al., 1991; Curran et al., 1996; Hu et al., 1992). Table 1 Skewness and Kurtosis of Univariate Latent Response (y*) Distributions and Five-Category Ordinal (y) Distributions Condition y* distribution y distribution Skewness Kurtosis Skewness Kurtosis Normal 0.00 0.00 0.02 ⫺ 0.00 Low skewness vs. low kurtosis 0.75 1.75 0.30 0.22 Low skewness vs. moderate kurtosis 0.75 3.75 0.22 0.60 Moderate skewness vs. low kurtosis 1.25 1.75 0.49 ⫺ 0.06 Moderate skewness vs. moderate kurtosis 1.25 3.75 0.47 0.39 Note. Skewness and kurtosis for y* distribution are nominal population values. Skewness and kurtosis for y distribution are approximate population values estimated from simulated samples of size N ⫽ 50,000. 472 FLORA AND CURRAN with Mplus (Version 2.01; L. K. Muthe ´ n & Muthe ´n , 1998). 11 Study Outcomes We began by examining rates of improper solutions across all study conditions. An improper solution was de- fined as a nonconverged solution or a solution that con- verged but resulted in one or more out-of-bound parameters (e.g., Heywood cases). Because the underlying purpose of our study was to explicitly evaluate our proposed research hypotheses under conditions commonly encountered in ap- plied research settings, we defined improper solutions to be invalid empirical observations. To maximize the external validity of our findings, we removed improper solutions from subsequent analyses (see Chen, Bollen, Paxton, Cur- ran, & Kirby, 2001, for further discussion of this strategy). 12 We considered three major outcomes of interest: the chi- square test statistics, parameter estimates (i.e., factor load- ings and factor correlations), and standard errors. We examined the mean relative bias (RB; or percentage bias) of each outcome across all study conditions. The general form of this statistic is RB ⫽ 冉 ␪ ˆ ⫺ ␪ ␪ 册 ⴱ 100, (9) where ␪ ˆ is the estimated statistic (i.e., chi-square test statis- tic, CFA parameter estimate, or standard error) from a given replication, and ␪ is the relevant population parameter. For each outcome, we calculated the mean RB across replica- tions within a given condition. Consistent with prior simu- lation studies (e.g., Curran et al., 1996; Kaplan, 1989), we considered RB values less than 5% indicative of trivial bias, values between 5% and 10% indicative of moderate bias, and values greater than 10% indicative of substantial bias. For the chi-square test statistics from full WLS estima- tion, we calculated relative bias with respect to the degrees of freedom for each model specification, given that this value reflects the expected value of a chi-square distribu- tion. With robust WLS estimation, the degrees of freedom for the chi-square test statistic are estimated from the data and, therefore, the expected value of the chi-square statistic varies across samples within the same model specification. Thus, for each replication within a given condition, we used the estimated degrees of freedom to calculate the relative bias of the chi-square statistic elicited from the robust method. We then calculated the mean RB across samples within a given study condition. Because of the large number of factor loadings estimated both within and across replications, we examined the mean factor loading values to summarize our results more effi- ciently. This strategy was appropriate given the homoge- neous values of factor loadings within each model specifi- cation. Specifically, within a given cell of the study, we first calculated the mean across replications of each individual loading parameter separately (e.g., for Model 1, we obtained ␭ ˆ 11 , ␭ ˆ 21 , ␭ ˆ 31 , ␭ ˆ 41 , and ␭ ˆ 51 ). In addition, we calculated the 11 Although we estimated our models using the commercial software package, Mplus (L. K. Muthe ´ n & Muthe ´ n, 1998), equiv- alent results would be expected using any software package with the capability for estimating polychoric correlations and their asymptotic variances and covariances (e.g., PRELIS/LISREL: Jo ¨ reskog & So ¨ rbom, 1988, 1996; Mx: Neale, Boker, Xie, & Maes, 2002). 12 Additional analyses reflected that the simultaneous inclusion of both proper and improper solutions resulted in modest changes in the summary statistics of the outcomes under study; however, the overall conclusions based only on the proper solutions remain substantively unchanged. Thus, there is no evidence suggesting that the omission of the improper solutions poses a threat to either the internal or the external validity of our study. Figure 1. Model 1. 473 ORDINAL CFA sample variance of each factor loading across replications. Because the population value of each loading parameter was homogeneous (i.e., .70) across and within all replications, we calculated the mean of these factor loadings within each cell of the study. Thus, for each cell of the experimental design we present Pooled Mean ⫽ P ⫺ 1 冘 i ⫽ 1 P ␭ ˆ i , (10) where P is the number of indicators in the model. Also, to provide a statistic analogous to the standard deviation of the mean factor loading, we calculated the square root of the mean of the factor loading variances. Thus, for each cell, we present Pooled SD ⫽ 冑 P ⫺ 1 冘 i ⫽ 1 P VAR 共 ␭ ˆ i 兲 . (11) Finally, we evaluated standard error estimation by com- paring the mean value of the estimated standard error for the parameter of interest to the empirical estimate of the stan- dard error as measured by the standard deviation of the parameter estimates across the replications of a given cell. Results Polychoric Correlation Estimates Our first hypothesis related to the accuracy of polychoric correlation estimates resulting from the various latent re- sponse distribution (i.e., y* ) manipulations we used to gen- erate the data conforming to population-level CFA models. Because there were only two possible correlation values implied by our CFA model specifications of interest, ␳ ⫽ .49 (the correlation between two indicators loading on the same factor) and ␳ ⫽ .147 (the correlation between two indicators loading on separate factors), we considered the effect of varying y* distribution on these two population correlation values. Because polychoric correlations are cal- culated from bivariate distributions and because we wanted to focus on the robustness of polychoric correlations across varying y* distributions prior to fitting CFA models, we began by generating 500 replications of bivariate data for each of two population correlation values (.49 and .147) within each combination of the y* distribution, y* catego- rization (two or five categories), and sample size conditions described above. Although this portion of our study ana- lyzed only bivariate data, our results regarding the accuracy of polychoric correlations may be generalized across all fully multivariate distributions implied by all four of our CFA model specifications. Figure 2. Model 2. 474 FLORA AND CURRAN Table 2 summarizes results for the polychoric correlations in the different study conditions. When the data were gen- erated from a bivariate normal y* distribution, the mean polychoric correlation across replications was essentially equal to its population value (mean RB was less than 1% in nearly every cell with underlying skewness ⫽ 0 and under- lying kurtosis ⫽ 0). The polychoric correlation estimates tended to become positively biased as a function of increas- ing nonnormality in the y* distributions; however, mean RB remained under 10% in almost all cells. For example, Figure 5 presents box plots illustrating the distributions of poly- choric correlation estimates of ␳ ⫽ .49 obtained with N ⫽ 1,000 for the five-category condition. The figure reveals that although the correlation estimates were frequently posi- tively biased, the center of these distributions did not depart substantially from the population correlation value, even with y* nonnormality. Overall, correlation estimates of ␳ ⫽ .147 rarely exceeded .16, and correlation estimates ␳ ⫽ .49 rarely exceeded .52. Finally, sample size did not have any apparent effect on the accuracy of the polychoric correla- tions, although there was a tendency for correlations calcu- lated from two-category data to be slightly more biased than those calculated from five-category data. Theory would not predict that varying the thresholds across observed variables would influence our findings de- scribed above. However, to examine this possibility empir- ically, we generated additional bivariate y* data from the condition with skewness ⫽ 1.25 and kurtosis ⫽ 3.75. We applied the threshold values to y * 1 to create a five-category y 1 distribution with the same skewness and kurtosis values as given in the moderate versus moderate case in Table 1, but different threshold values were applied to y * 2 resulting in a five-category population distribution for y 2 with skew - ness ⫽⫺ 2.36 and kurtosis ⫽ 5.15. When samples of size N ⫽ 1,000 (again with 500 replications) were generated from this bivariate population distribution with true corre- lation ␳ ⫽ .49, the mean polychoric correlation estimate was 0.51 ( SD ⫽ 0.04), with mean RB of 3.21%. Thus, this result shows that polychoric correlations remain only slightly bi- ased when markedly different sets of threshold values are applied to the two correlated y* variables generating the observed ordinal variables. Finally, to evaluate the effect of extremely nonnormal distributions, we generated data from correlated y* vari- ables defined by drastically nonnormal distributions (skew- ness ⫽ 5, kurtosis ⫽ 50) and applied the same sets of thresholds as above to create five-category ordinal variables (resulting in skewness ⫽ 1.68 and kurtosis ⫽ 7.01 for y 1 and y 2 when the same set of thresholds was applied to both y * 1 and y * 2 and skewness ⫽⫺ 7.86 and kurtosis ⫽ 64.63 for y 2 when different thresholds were applied to y * 2 ). We again generated 500 replications with N ⫽ 1,000 from each of these bivariate population distributions. With a true corre- lation of ␳ ⫽ .49, the mean polychoric correlation estimate was 0.65 ( SD ⫽ 0.04), with mean RB of 31.43% when thresholds were equal across y * 1 and y * 2 . When the set of Figure 3. Model 3. 475 ORDINAL CFA thresholds varied across y * 1 and y * 2 , the mean polychoric correlation was 0.64 ( SD ⫽ 0.09), with mean RB of 32.21%. Thus, polychoric correlations do not appear to be robust to extreme violations of the latent normality assumption, and this result does not seem to vary substantially when differ- ent sets of thresholds are applied to y* variables. In sum, consistent with Quiroga (1992), our empirical results suggest that polychoric correlations provide unbi- Figure 4. Model 4. 476 FLORA AND CURRAN ased estimates of the correlations among normal and mod- erately nonnormal latent response variables. We did find evidence that severely nonnormal distributions led to sub- stantial distortions in the estimation of the polychoric cor- relation structure and, given this distortion, we did not pursue the fitting of subsequent CFAs further. However, the robustness of polychoric correlations to minor-to-moderate violations of normality is a necessary but, quite importantly, not a sufficient condition to establish whether CFA models for latent response variables can be accurately fitted with polychoric correlation matrices. Thus, we next turn to the estimation of our CFA models using polychoric correlations estimating the relationships among latent response variables of varying distribution. Estimation of CFA Models Rates of improper solutions. The rates of improper and nonconverged solutions obtained with full WLS estimation are given in Table 3. With N ⫽ 100, full WLS did not produce any solutions for Model 4, the 20-indicator model (due to noninvertible weight matrices). In general, the rates of improper solutions were greater in the two-category versus five-category condition. For the two 10-indicator models (Models 2 and 3), two-category data produced high rates of improper solutions with N ⫽ 100, whereas the rates were near zero in the five-category condition. Also, nearly 100% of replications of Model 4 (the 20-indicator model) were improper in the two-category condition where N ⫽ 200, whereas the corresponding rates in the five-category condition were only around 30%. Although the rates of improper solution obtained with full WLS varied somewhat across different y* distributions, this variation did not ap- pear to be systematically associated with degree of nonnor- mality in y*. At the two largest sample sizes ( N ⫽ 500 and N ⫽ 1,000), full WLS estimation converged to proper solutions of all four models across 100% of replications. In sum, there were modest differences evident in the convergence rates for the two-category and five-category conditions. However, extensive analyses (not fully reported here) revealed that the empirical results for the chi-square test statistics, parameter estimates, and standard errors were nearly identical for these two conditions across all experi- mental conditions. Given this equivalence, we present the findings related to the five-category condition to retain scope and maximize focus. 13 Chi-square test statistics. Tables 4 –7 present findings for the chi-square test statistics from Models 1 through 4, 13 A technical appendix containing all results from the two- category condition can be obtained from either David B. Flora or Patrick J. Curran or can be directly downloaded from www .unc.edu/ ⬃ curran or from http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.9 .4.466.supp. This appendix also includes example EQS code for data generation and Mplus code for model estimation. Table 2 Means, Standard Deviations, and Relative Bias of Polychoric Correlation Estimates N y* distribution 2 categories ␳ ⫽ .147 5 categories ␳ ⫽ .147 2 categories ␳ ⫽ .49 5 categories ␳ ⫽ .49 sk M S D RB MS D RB MS D RB MS D RB 100 0.00 0.00 .158 .15 7.46 .147 .11 0.26 .49 .12 ⫺ 0.03 .49 .10 ⫺ 0.55 0.75 1.75 .144 .16 ⫺ 1.95 .161 .11 9.62 .48 .13 ⫺ 1.29 .51 .09 3.23 0.75 3.75 .148 .15 0.43 .158 .12 7.43 .50 .13 1.27 .52 .09 5.53 1.25 1.75 .161 .16 9.19 .153 .11 3.98 .52 .13 4.49 .50 .09 1.47 1.25 3.75 .157 .15 6.89 .159 .11 8.18 .50 .14 2.03 .52 .09 4.44 200 0.00 0.00 .148 .10 0.47 .148 .08 0.76 .49 .10 ⫺ 0.97 .49 .06 0.32 0.75 1.75 .157 .11 6.66 .149 .08 1.34 .50 .09 1.33 .50 .06 1.55 0.75 3.75 .153 .11 4.27 .156 .08 6.13 .50 .09 1.94 .51 .07 3.22 1.25 1.75 .161 .12 9.31 .150 .08 2.03 .52 .09 6.99 .50 .06 1.29 1.25 3.75 .163 .11 10.82 .150 .08 1.84 .51 .09 3.80 .51 .06 3.20 500 0.00 0.00 .151 .07 3.05 .147 .05 ⫺ 0.13 .49 .06 0.78 .49 .04 0.35 0.75 1.75 .152 .07 3.31 .150 .05 2.08 .50 .06 1.20 .50 .04 1.60 0.75 3.75 .158 .07 7.61 .151 .05 2.48 .51 .06 3.17 .50 .04 2.99 1.25 1.75 .160 .07 8.75 .155 .05 5.31 .52 .06 5.84 .50 .04 1.29 1.25 3.75 .153 .07 4.20 .158 .05 7.35 .51 .06 3.51 .51 .04 4.55 1,000 0.00 0.00 .147 .05 ⫺ 0.05 .147 .04 0.12 .49 .04 ⫺ 0.81 .49 .03 0.61 0.75 1.75 .153 .05 3.83 .151 .04 2.77 .50 .04 1.77 .50 .03 1.99 0.75 3.75 .155 .05 5.77 .154 .04 4.67 .50 .04 2.73 .50 .03 2.73 1.25 1.75 .162 .05 10.11 .153 .03 4.16 .52 .04 5.39 .49 .03 0.54 1.25 3.75 .156 .05 5.82 .157 .04 7.18 .51 .04 3.58 .51 .03 3.94 Note. s ⫽ skewness; k ⫽ kurtosis; ␳ ⫽ population correlation value; RB ⫽ mean relative bias across replications. 477 ORDINAL CFA respectively. Recall that with full WLS, the model degrees of freedom, and hence the expected value of the chi-square test statistic, is determined directly from model specifica- tion, whereas with robust WLS, the model degrees of free- dom is estimated in part from characteristics of the data and varies across samples. Thus, although we present the across- replication mean and standard deviation of chi-square sta- tistics obtained with full WLS, we do not present the across- replication mean and standard deviation of chi-square values obtained with robust WLS because the expected value of these statistics varies across replications within a given cell. For both methods of estimation, we present the mean RB of the chi-square test statistics and the observed Type I error rate (using ␣ ⫽ .05) for each cell. With robust WLS, we calculated chi-square percentage bias for each replication relative to its observed degrees of freedom and then computed the mean percentages across replications to estimate RB. Both the chi-square test statistics and their standard de- viations tend to be positively biased across all cells of the study, particularly with full WLS estimation. This bias increases as a function of increasing model complexity. For example, full WLS chi-square statistics from Model 1 have RB values ranging from 0.02% to 7.63% with N ⫽ 500, whereas full WLS chi-square values from Model 4 show much greater inflation, as RB is approximately 65% with N ⫽ 500. Comparison of the findings for Model 2 with those for Model 3 reveals that the bias in chi-square statistics is affected not only by the number of indicators for a model but also by model complexity. Model 2 and Model 3 both have 10 indicators, but in Model 3 the indicators measure two correlated factors, whereas the indicators for Model 2 measure a single dimension. Because of this added model complexity, the chi-square statistics for Model 3 are slightly more inflated than those for Model 2. The effect of sample size on the inflation in chi-square test values varies substantially with model specification. Within each of the four models, the chi-square RB de- creases as sample size increases, but this effect is more pronounced for larger models. In addition, there appears Figure 5. Distribution of polychoric correlation estimates obtained with N ⫽ 1,000 (horizontal line represents population correlation value). s ⫽ skewness; k ⫽ kurtosis. 478 FLORA AND CURRAN to be some indication that the chi-square statistics are affected by nonnormality in y*. Within any given level of model specification and sample size, chi-square statistics tend to be slightly more inflated in the conditions of nonnormal y* distribution. Although there is often sub- stantial variability in the distribution of chi-square sta- tistics across the four nonnormal y* distributions, the pattern of differences does not reflect any consistent pattern across the other study conditions. Importantly, the effect of nonnormality on chi-square statistics is much Table 3 Rates of Improper Solutions Obtained With Full WLS Estimation N y* distribution 2 categories Model 5 categories Model sk 1 2 3 4 123 4 100 0.00 0.00 2.2 30.4 40.2 — 0.0 0.0 1.2 — 0.75 1.75 0.6 31.6 40.6 — 0.0 0.4 1.4 — 0.75 3.75 2.0 34.0 43.6 — 0.0 0.4 1.2 — 1.25 1.75 1.6 36.4 52.0 — 0.0 0.0 1.2 — 1.25 3.75 1.4 31.2 50.6 (0.2) — 0.0 0.6 1.8 — 200 0.00 0.00 0.0 0.0 0.6 94.02 (5.77) 0.0 0.0 0.0 28.8 0.75 1.75 0.0 0.0 0.2 86.00 (13.54) 0.0 0.0 0.0 27.8 0.75 3.75 0.0 0.0 0.8 83.46 (16.54) 0.0 0.0 0.0 33.2 1.25 1.75 0.0 0.2 0.4 66.51 (33.49) 0.0 0.0 0.0 21.6 1.25 3.75 0.0 0.0 0.8 76.95 (23.05) 0.0 0.0 0.0 29.4 Note. Tabled values are proportions of improper solutions for each cell. Values in parentheses are proportions of nonconverged solutions. Dashes indicate that no solutions were obtained for any replications of these cells. For N ⫽ 500 and N ⫽ 1,000, all replications converged to proper solutions (rates of improper solutions equaled 0.0% for all cells with these sample sizes). s ⫽ skewness; k ⫽ kurtosis. Table 4 Chi-Square Test Statistics for Model 1 (Five Indicators, One Factor) N y* distribution Full WLS Robust WLS sk M S D RB % reject RB % reject 100 0.00 0.00 5.81 3.87 16.22 10.40 8.66 5.60 0.75 1.75 5.78 4.13 15.67 8.80 8.05 6.40 0.75 3.75 5.82 4.03 16.34 10.20 7.78 6.20 1.25 1.75 6.03 4.27 20.56 10.00 10.65 7.20 1.25 3.75 5.88 3.82 17.68 9.40 8.12 4.60 200 0.00 0.00 4.99 3.21 ⫺ 0.28 5.40 ⫺ 4.32 3.60 0.75 1.75 5.27 3.51 5.30 7.20 ⫺ 1.06 3.80 0.75 3.75 5.55 3.91 10.99 8.40 4.23 6.00 1.25 1.75 5.47 3.53 9.50 6.60 6.41 5.60 1.25 3.75 5.56 3.55 11.13 8.00 7.60 7.60 500 0.00 0.00 5.06 3.32 1.28 5.80 ⫺ 1.22 5.40 0.75 1.75 5.00 3.00 0.02 5.20 ⫺ 1.92 4.00 0.75 3.75 5.38 3.45 7.63 7.60 4.98 6.00 1.25 1.75 5.26 3.30 5.23 6.60 3.13 5.60 1.25 3.75 5.02 2.95 0.43 4.40 ⫺ 1.74 3.60 1,000 0.00 0.00 4.78 3.20 ⫺ 4.44 5.00 ⫺ 5.21 4.60 0.75 1.75 4.89 2.99 ⫺ 2.16 4.20 ⫺ 3.55 4.40 0.75 3.75 5.16 3.26 3.13 4.60 2.27 4.20 1.25 1.75 5.50 3.53 10.00 6.80 9.47 7.00 1.25 3.75 4.83 2.95 ⫺ 3.49 4.00 ⫺ 3.88 3.20 Note. For full weighted least squares (WLS), expected value of the chi-square statistic is 5; expected standard deviation is 3.16. For robust WLS, expected value of the chi-square statistic varies within each cell, thus it is not appropriate to calculate the mean and standard deviation of chi-square statistics across replications within a given cell. s ⫽ skewness; k ⫽ kurtosis; RB ⫽ mean relative bias across replications; % reject values are Type I error rates at ␣ ⫽ .05. 479 ORDINAL CFA less pronounced than are the effects of model specifica- tion and sample size. In general, the robust WLS chi-square statistics are in- flated across most cells of the study, although typically by less than 10% of their population values (except with N ⫽ 100, where RB values tend to be between 10% and 20%). This positive bias is drastically smaller with robust WLS estimation relative to full WLS estimation, especially for the larger models. Furthermore, the influence of sample size on the chi-square test statistics appears to be much greater with full WLS than it does with robust WLS. Figure 6 illustrates Type I error rates for the model chi-square test by sample size for Models 1 and 3, as estimated with both full WLS and robust WLS. The figure reflects that for small models (i.e., the five-indicator Model 1), both methods of estimation lead to Type I error rates close to the nominal alpha level of .05 across all four sample sizes. The figure also shows that for a more complex model (i.e., Model 3, where 10 indicators represent two factors), full WLS esti- mation produces vastly inflated Type I error rates with samples of size less than N ⫽ 1,000, whereas the robust WLS method continues to produce Type I error rates close to the nominal alpha level across all sample sizes. Finally, there does not appear to be any consistent tendency for robust WLS chi-square values to be more biased under nonnormal y*. Parameter estimates. Tables 8 –11 present findings per- taining to the parameter estimates (i.e., factor loadings and interfactor correlations) obtained for Models 1, 2, 3, and 4, respectively. On average, the parameters are overestimated across all conditions, and this positive bias increases with increasing model size. However, the overall bias in param- eter estimation is notably smaller with robust WLS than it is with full WLS, especially for larger models and smaller sample sizes. In general, the bias in parameter estimates obtained with robust WLS is consistently trivial (i.e., less than 5%, with the exception of estimates of factor correla- tions with N ⫽ 100 and 200, where RB is trivial to mod- erate, or less than 10%). Even with full WLS estimation, the parameter overestimation is typically small, rarely leading to parameter estimates greater than the corresponding pop- ulation value by more than .1 in the correlation metric. Whereas the overestimation of parameters with full WLS increases as a function of increasing number of indicators for the model, there is no such effect of model size on parameter estimation with robust WLS. Furthermore, pa- rameter overestimation with full WLS improves as a func- tion of increasing sample size, particularly with larger mod- Table 5 Chi-Square Test Statistics for Model 2 (10 Indicators, One Factor) N y* distribution Full WLS Robust WLS sk M S D RB % reject RB % reject 100 0.00 0.00 59.68 19.94 70.50 63.80 8.42 6.40 0.75 1.75 61.33 20.39 75.21 66.06 8.65 7.40 0.75 3.75 63.14 21.49 80.41 70.68 10.17 8.00 1.25 1.75 64.51 19.28 84.32 77.60 16.10 12.40 1.25 3.75 60.19 18.69 71.99 70.42 7.68 5.00 200 0.00 0.00 44.55 12.88 27.28 28.60 4.25 5.60 0.75 1.75 45.14 12.73 28.98 32.00 4.05 3.80 0.75 3.75 45.40 12.19 29.70 33.60 4.46 6.40 1.25 1.75 47.88 13.86 36.81 38.80 9.15 10.20 1.25 3.75 45.37 12.52 29.64 33.20 5.34 4.00 500 0.00 0.00 38.53 10.11 10.08 13.80 1.85 6.00 0.75 1.75 38.13 9.68 8.95 12.80 0.11 3.60 0.75 3.75 38.61 9.79 10.31 13.00 1.02 3.80 1.25 1.75 41.01 10.23 17.23 18.60 6.19 7.80 1.25 3.75 38.30 9.90 9.42 11.40 1.62 6.20 1,000 0.00 0.00 36.52 9.31 4.35 8.40 ⫺ 0.15 5.00 0.75 1.75 36.54 9.51 4.39 9.40 ⫺ 0.22 6.00 0.75 3.75 36.77 9.46 5.06 9.40 0.13 5.80 1.25 1.75 39.00 9.78 11.42 14.00 6.44 9.20 1.25 3.75 36.98 9.38 5.67 8.60 1.59 6.00 Note. For full weighted least squares (WLS), expected value of the chi-square statistic is 35; expected standard deviation is 8.37. For robust WLS, expected value of the chi-square statistic varies within each cell, thus it is not appropriate to calculate the mean and standard deviation of chi-square statistics across replications within a given cell. s ⫽ skewness; k ⫽ kurtosis; RB ⫽ mean relative bias across replications; % reject values are Type I error rates at ␣ ⫽ .05. 480 FLORA AND CURRAN els. But with robust WLS, the effect of sample size on parameter estimation is quite small. Parameter estimates (both factor loadings and factor cor- relations) seem to be affected by nonnormality in the y* variables, although this effect is small. Across all cells, the parameter estimates are positively biased, even with normal y*, and this parameter overestimation increases with greater nonnormality in y*. For example, using full WLS estima- tion, the mean RB of factor loadings when Model 1 is estimated from normally distributed y* variables is 2.57% with N ⫽ 100 and 0.29% with N ⫽ 1,000, yet when the same model is estimated from y* variables with univariate skewness ⫽ 1.25 and univariate kurtosis ⫽ 3.75, the mean RB of factor loadings is 4.86% with N ⫽ 100 and 2.29% with N ⫽ 1,000. Overall, this small effect of y* nonnormal- ity on parameter estimation was found with both full and robust WLS estimation. Standard errors. The conditions leading to greater bias in the standard errors were nearly identical to those that led to greater bias in chi-square test statistics, thus we do not present detailed results pertaining to standard error estima- tion. 14 Across all study conditions, the standard errors were consistently negatively biased relative to the standard devi- ation of the relevant parameter sampling distribution ob- tained empirically across replications. Specifically, standard errors were more biased as a function of increasing model size and decreasing sample size but were not systematically affected by y* nonnormality. Under full WLS estimation at N ⫽ 1,000, the mean factor loading standard error RB ranges from around ⫺ 2.5% to ⫺ 1% across replications of Model 1, from around ⫺ 9% to ⫺ 5% across replications of Models 2 and 3, and from around ⫺ 25% to ⫺ 22% across replications of Model 4. Although the robust WLS approach also frequently produced negatively biased standard errors, these biases were much smaller than the standard error bias produced with full WLS estimation. Using the robust WLS method with N ⫽ 1,000, the mean factor loading standard error RB ranges from around ⫺ 1% to 1% across replica- tions of Model 1, from around ⫺ 3% to 1% across replica- tions of Models 2 and 3, and from around ⫺ 3% to ⫺ 1% across replications of Model 4. 14 Complete results pertaining to standard error estimates are also included in the technical appendix that can be obtained from either David B. Flora or Patrick J. Curran or downloaded from www.unc.edu/ ⬃ curran or from http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1082- 989X.9.4.466.supp. Table 6 Chi-Square Test Statistics for Model 3 (10 Indicators, Two Correlated Factors) N y* distribution Full WLS Robust WLS sk M S D RB % reject RB % reject 100 0.00 0.00 65.25 22.94 91.90 74.29 15.03 12.20 0.75 1.75 65.95 23.71 93.96 73.63 16.85 12.40 0.75 3.75 67.49 22.22 98.51 81.38 14.46 12.00 1.25 1.75 65.78 22.92 93.48 75.51 16.76 12.20 1.25 3.75 65.44 22.54 92.46 77.80 15.10 10.80 200 0.00 0.00 45.98 13.59 35.23 37.80 5.47 6.60 0.75 1.75 46.34 15.03 36.29 39.40 6.53 7.60 0.75 3.75 46.90 13.79 37.94 40.40 5.49 7.80 1.25 1.75 47.73 14.19 40.38 42.40 10.20 8.60 1.25 3.75 46.09 14.06 35.55 38.80 6.51 8.60 500 0.00 0.00 38.14 10.17 12.19 15.60 1.40 5.00 0.75 1.75 38.97 10.06 14.62 16.60 3.33 6.60 0.75 3.75 38.46 9.79 13.10 15.60 3.10 7.80 1.25 1.75 40.16 11.12 18.13 19.00 6.93 8.20 1.25 3.75 38.77 10.65 14.04 15.20 3.65 7.20 1,000 0.00 0.00 36.04 8.88 6.00 9.60 1.36 5.60 0.75 1.75 36.29 9.28 6.74 10.20 1.65 5.80 0.75 3.75 36.11 8.80 6.21 8.20 ⫺ 0.19 3.80 1.25 1.75 37.24 9.00 9.54 10.60 2.75 5.60 1.25 3.75 35.69 9.38 4.97 8.60 ⫺ 1.68 3.60 Note. For full weighted least squares (WLS), expected value of the chi-square statistic is 34; expected standard deviation is 8.25. For robust WLS, expected value of the chi-square statistic varies within each cell, thus it is not appropriate to calculate the mean and standard deviation of chi-square statistics across replications within a given cell. s ⫽ skewness; k ⫽ kurtosis; RB ⫽ mean relative bias across replications; % reject values are Type I error rates at ␣ ⫽ .05. 481 ORDINAL CFA Discussion We used a comprehensive simulation study to empirically test our set of theoretically generated research hypotheses pertaining to the performance of CFA for ordinal data with polychoric correlations using both full WLS (as per Browne, 1984, and B. Muthe ´ n, 1983, 1984) and robust WLS (as per Muthe ´ n et al., 1997) estimation. The results of our study provided support for each of our proposed hypotheses. First, as predicted, we replicated Quiroga’s (1992) find- ings that polychoric correlations among ordinal variables accurately estimated the bivariate relations among normally distributed latent response variables and that modest viola- tion of normality for latent response variables of a degree that might be expected in applied research leads to only slightly biased estimates of polychoric correlations. Both our results and Quiroga’s suggest that this finding occurs regardless of whether the same set of threshold values is applied to both latent response variables leading to the observed ordinal variables. A thorough examination of the effects of differing thresholds and level of skewness across the two variables on polychoric correlation estimates is beyond the scope of our study. However, we note that Quiroga found that polychoric correlation estimates re- mained accurate when the ordinal variables had differing thresholds or skewness of opposite sign. Specifically, al- though increasing levels of nonnormality tended to produce increasingly positively biased correlation estimates, these biases remained quite small and were typically less than .03 in the correlation metric. Furthermore, we found that vari- ability in polychoric correlations was not affected by non- normality and that sample size had no effect on the mean polychoric correlation estimates across cells. These results likely occurred because nonnormality in the latent response variables, in combination with the threshold values used to categorize the data, did not produce contin- gency tables with low expected cell frequencies (see Brown & Bendetti, 1977; Olsson, 1979). Because our results indi- cated that the polychoric correlations accurately recovered the correlations among the unobserved y* variables even under modest violation of the normality assumption, we proceeded to examine the adequacy of fitting CFA models to these correlation structures. As we described earlier, it has been analytically demon- strated that when CFA models are fitted using observed Table 7 Chi-Square Test Statistics for Model 4 (20 Indicators, Two Correlated Factors) N y* distribution Full WLS Robust WLS sk M S D RB % reject RB % reject 100 0.00 0.00 — — — — 17.13 15.00 0.75 1.75 — — — — 15.46 14.40 0.75 3.75 — — — — 16.19 12.80 1.25 1.75 — — — — 19.45 17.60 1.25 3.75 — — — — 17.03 13.80 200 0.00 0.00 1235.67 317.21 631.16 100.00 8.21 8.20 0.75 1.75 1271.38 327.99 652.29 100.00 7.93 7.80 0.75 3.75 1388.40 404.18 721.54 100.00 7.73 7.60 1.25 1.75 1279.96 322.21 657.37 100.00 10.97 11.00 1.25 3.75 1292.71 369.64 664.92 100.00 9.07 10.00 500 0.00 0.00 272.76 37.90 61.39 97.80 3.94 7.80 0.75 1.75 275.02 40.44 62.73 97.40 3.58 6.80 0.75 3.75 279.43 42.22 65.34 97.80 2.92 6.20 1.25 1.75 285.95 42.51 69.20 99.20 5.91 7.80 1.25 3.75 273.99 38.48 62.13 99.00 3.58 6.80 1,000 0.00 0.00 210.55 26.49 24.59 63.80 1.53 6.40 0.75 1.75 211.90 25.21 25.38 66.60 2.30 7.00 0.75 3.75 211.82 25.63 25.34 65.00 1.98 5.80 1.25 1.75 219.15 26.87 29.68 74.00 3.92 6.80 1.25 3.75 211.43 24.62 25.11 67.40 2.96 7.20 Note. For full weighted least squares (WLS), expected value of the chi-square statistic is 169; expected standard deviation is 18.38. For robust WLS, expected value of the chi-square statistic varies within each cell, thus it is not appropriate to calculate the mean and standard deviation of chi-square statistics across replications within a given cell. Dashes indicate values that are not available because of noninvertible weight matrices. s ⫽ skewness; k ⫽ kurtosis; RB ⫽ mean relative bias across replications; % reject values are Type I error rates at ␣ ⫽ .05. 482 FLORA AND CURRAN polychoric correlation matrices, full WLS estimation pro- duces asymptotically correct chi-square tests of model fit and parameter standard errors (e.g., B. Muthe ´ n, 1983, 1984; B. O. Muthe ´ n & Satorra, 1995). However, in practice, the use of full WLS is often problematic, especially when models with a large number of indicators are estimated with sample sizes typically encountered in social science re- search. In our study, we found that when the 20-indicator model (Model 4) was estimated using N ⫽ 100, the esti- mated asymptotic covariance matrix W was consistently nonpositive definite and could not be inverted for any of the replications. Thus, not a single solution across all replica- tions was obtained in this situation using full WLS estima- tion. This finding is consistent with Browne’s (1984) obser- vation that this method of estimation “will tend to become infeasible” as the number of variables approaches p ⫽ 20 (p. 73) and Jo ¨ reskog & So ¨ rbom’s (1996) recommendation that a minimum sample size be attained for estimation of W . When Model 4 was estimated with samples of size N ⫽ 200, W was usually invertible, but the full WLS fitting function frequently failed to converge to a proper CFA solution. However, the overall rates of nonconvergence and im- proper solutions obtained with full WLS in the present study are less than those found in simulation studies applying full WLS to continuously distributed data (e.g., Curran et al., 1996). Nonetheless, other studies applying full WLS esti- mation to the analysis of polychoric correlations have found rates of nonconvergence and improper solutions similar to those reported here: Neither Dolan (1994) nor Potthast (1993) obtained nonpositive definite weight matrices or improper solutions for any replications of their respective studies, which analyzed samples of size 200 and greater, whereas Babakus et al. (1987) obtained high rates of non- convergence and improper solutions only with samples of 100. One advantage of the robust WLS method relative to full WLS is that sample solutions for the CFA model can still be obtained with robust WLS estimation even when the weight matrix is nonpositive definite. Thus, robust WLS estimation successfully obtained solutions to Model 4 with N ⫽ 100, whereas full WLS did not. Furthermore, our findings show that the likelihood of obtaining an improper solution or encountering convergence difficulty is near zero with robust Figure 6. Type I error rates with nominal alpha level ⫽ .05 for chi-square test of model fit by sample size for Model 1 (5 indicators of one factor) and Model 3 (10 indicators of two factors). WLS ⫽ weighted least squares. 483 ORDINAL CFA WLS estimation, even when the model is large and the sample is small. Next, we hypothesized that full WLS estimation of CFA models for ordinal data using polychoric correlations would lead to inflated test statistics and underestimated standard errors. Our findings supported this prediction in that, on average, the chi-square test statistics were positively biased and parameter standard errors were negatively biased in nearly every cell of the study. The results also supported our more specific predictions that these biases would increase as a function of decreasing sample size and increasing model complexity. Specifically, the effect of sample size was larger for more complex models. With the five-indicator model, chi-square statistics were substantially biased at N ⫽ 100, whereas sample sizes of 200 and even 500 led to substantially biased chi-square statistics for the two 10- indicator models. Sample sizes as large as N ⫽ 1,000 still led to heavily inflated chi-square values for the 20-indicator model. However, with the two 10-indicator models, chi- square values showed substantial inflation with sample sizes below 1,000. For the 20-indicator model, full WLS estima- tion produced vastly inflated chi-square values across all sample sizes, virtually guaranteeing rejection of a properly specified CFA model with N ⫽ 200 or N ⫽ 500. Thus, our findings are similar to those of Dolan (1994), who con- cluded that a sample size of 200 is not sufficient to estimate an eight-indicator model with full WLS using polychoric correlations, and to those of Potthast (1993), who reported significant problems when nine-parameter and larger mod- els are estimated with a sample size as large as 1,000. The model test statistics produced with robust WLS also tended to be positively biased relative to their expected values; however, these biases were substantially less than those observed with the test statistics produced by full WLS. For the 10- and 20-indicator models, the mean RB of the robust WLS test statistics was typically less than 10% for all cells with sample size 200 or greater. Whereas full WLS estimation led to high Type I error rates for the 10- and 20-indicator models, robust WLS model rejection rates were much closer to the nominal .05 level. Thus, our pre- diction that robust WLS estimation might produce test sta- tistics accurately distributed as chi-square, with degrees of freedom estimated from the data as per B. Muthe ´ n et al. (1997), was supported across all four model specifications estimated with samples of size 200 or greater. Because of its reliance on the complete asymptotic vari- ance– covariance matrix, it is not surprising that full WLS estimation produced increasingly biased test statistics as a function of decreasing sample size combined with increas- ing model size. In contrast, robust WLS estimation is pri- Table 8 Mean Factor Loadings for Model 1 (Five Indicators, One Factor) N y* distribution Full WLS Robust WLS sk Pooled M Pooled SD RB Pooled M Pooled SD RB 100 0.00 0.00 .718 .080 2.57 .702 .078 0.29 0.75 1.75 .726 .081 3.71 .711 .078 1.57 0.75 3.75 .731 .082 4.43 .717 .078 2.43 1.25 1.75 .717 .081 2.43 .703 .078 0.43 1.25 3.75 .734 .079 4.86 .719 .076 2.71 200 0.00 0.00 .710 .056 1.43 .701 .055 0.14 0.75 1.75 .716 .055 2.29 .707 .054 1.00 0.75 3.75 .722 .056 3.14 .713 .054 1.86 1.25 1.75 .713 .055 1.86 .705 .054 0.71 1.25 3.75 .724 .056 3.43 .715 .055 2.14 500 0.00 0.00 .705 .035 0.71 .701 .034 0.14 0.75 1.75 .711 .034 1.57 .707 .034 1.00 0.75 3.75 .717 .035 2.43 .713 .034 1.86 1.25 1.75 .707 .033 1.00 .703 .033 0.43 1.25 3.75 .717 .033 2.43 .713 .033 1.86 1,000 0.00 0.00 .702 .024 0.29 .700 .024 0.00 0.75 1.75 .709 .024 1.29 .707 .023 1.00 0.75 3.75 .713 .024 1.86 .711 .024 1.57 1.25 1.75 .706 .023 0.86 .704 .023 0.57 1.25 3.75 .716 .024 2.29 .714 .024 2.00 Note. Factor loading population value ⫽ .7. s ⫽ skewness; k ⫽ kurtosis; WLS ⫽ weighted least squares; Pooled M is the mean within-cell factor loadings; Pooled SD is the square root of within-cell factor loading variances; RB ⫽ mean relative bias across replications. 484 FLORA AND CURRAN marily a function of only the asymptotic variances, and not the covariances, among the sample correlation estimates. Therefore, solutions obtained with robust WLS estimation are not affected by inaccuracies in the full weight matrix nearly to the same extent that full WLS solutions are affected. Because polychoric correlations provide consistent esti- mates of the relationships among latent response variables, we predicted that CFA parameter estimates would be unbi- ased. Our findings suggest that, for normally distributed latent response variables, parameter estimates obtained with full WLS estimation tended to be somewhat positively biased with overestimation increasing as a function of in- creasing model size and decreasing sample size. However, these biases were relatively small across all cells of the simulation: Even when the 20-indicator model was esti- mated with N ⫽ 200, estimates of the population factor loading .70 were consistently less than .80, and estimates of the population factor correlation .30 were typically less than .40. Dolan (1994) found that parameters tended to be slightly overestimated with N ⫽ 400 and less, whereas Potthast (1993) concluded that parameter estimate bias was trivial across all cells of her simulation study, which only had two conditions of sample size, N ⫽ 500 and N ⫽ 1,000. Our results essentially replicated these findings. With robust WLS estimation, parameter estimates were mostly unbiased with normally distributed latent response variables. As predicted, for both full WLS estimation and robust WLS estimation, we found that increasing levels of nonnor- mality in latent response variables was associated with greater positive bias in parameter estimates, echoing the tendency of polychoric correlations to be positively biased when observed ordinal data derives from nonnormal latent response variables. However, in that nonnormality in latent response distributions produces only slightly biased poly- choric correlations, this nonnormality introduces only slight bias in CFA parameter estimates. As we noted earlier, because the polychoric correlations resulting from ex- tremely nonnormal continuous latent response distributions were substantially distorted, we did not fit CFA models to these correlation structures. Theory would strongly predict that the CFA parameter estimates and standard errors would be biased as a function of the distorted correlation structure. Finally, we found that nonnormality in latent response variables contributed to only a slight increase in the positive bias of chi-square values obtained with full WLS estimation but not with robust WLS estimation. Similarly, Babakus et al. (1987), Potthast (1993), and Hutchinson and Olmos (1998) found that chi-square test statistics become more biased with increasing nonnormality in the observed ordinal Table 9 Mean Factor Loadings for Model 2 (10 Indicators, One Factor) N y* distribution Full WLS Robust WLS sk Pooled M Pooled SD RB Pooled M Pooled SD RB 100 0.00 0.00 .775 .080 10.71 .703 .066 0.43 0.75 1.75 .782 .078 11.71 .712 .066 1.71 0.75 3.75 .783 .082 11.86 .715 .067 2.14 1.25 1.75 .780 .077 11.43 .712 .064 1.71 1.25 3.75 .786 .081 12.29 .716 .067 2.29 200 0.00 0.00 .746 .051 6.57 .702 .047 0.29 0.75 1.75 .751 .051 7.29 .707 .047 1.00 0.75 3.75 .753 .052 7.57 .711 .047 1.57 1.25 1.75 .745 .051 6.43 .707 .046 1.00 1.25 3.75 .760 .051 8.57 .717 .047 2.43 500 0.00 0.00 .721 .030 3.00 .701 .029 0.14 0.75 1.75 .726 .031 3.71 .707 .029 1.00 0.75 3.75 .731 .031 4.43 .712 .030 1.71 1.25 1.75 .722 .030 3.14 .704 .029 0.57 1.25 3.75 .733 .031 4.71 .714 .030 2.00 1,000 0.00 0.00 .710 .021 1.43 .701 .020 0.14 0.75 1.75 .716 .021 2.29 .706 .021 0.86 0.75 3.75 .722 .021 3.14 .712 .021 1.71 1.25 1.75 .713 .021 1.86 .704 .020 0.57 1.25 3.75 .723 .022 3.29 .713 .021 1.86 Note. Factor loading population value ⫽ .7. s ⫽ skewness; k ⫽ kurtosis; WLS ⫽ weighted least squares; Pooled M is the mean within-cell factor loadings; Pooled SD is the square root of within-cell factor loading variances; RB ⫽ mean relative bias across replications. 485 ORDINAL CFA Table 10 Mean Parameter Estimates for Model 3 (10 Indicators, Two Correlated Constructs) N y* distribution Full WLS Robust WLS Loadings ( ␭ ) Correlation ( ␺ 21 ) Loadings ( ␭ ) Correlation ( ␺ 21 ) sk M S D RB MS D RB MS D RB MS D RB 100 0.00 0.00 .744 .097 6.29 .363 .165 21.16 .703 .078 0.43 .313 .115 4.49 0.75 1.75 .746 .101 6.57 .340 .175 13.31 .707 .080 1.00 .301 .122 0.39 0.75 3.75 .753 .099 7.57 .354 .178 17.87 .713 .078 1.86 .319 .130 6.44 1.25 1.75 .749 .095 7.00 .363 .174 21.00 .709 .078 1.29 .320 .118 6.55 1.25 3.75 .762 .097 8.86 .371 .173 23.69 .721 .078 3.00 .327 .120 8.86 200 0.00 0.00 .727 .060 3.86 .339 .098 13.04 .701 .054 0.14 .306 .079 1.86 0.75 1.75 .733 .061 4.71 .337 .101 12.46 .708 .055 1.14 .311 .087 3.53 0.75 3.75 .737 .061 5.29 .340 .100 13.29 .713 .055 1.86 .311 .084 3.56 1.25 1.75 .729 .061 4.14 .348 .100 15.92 .705 .055 0.71 .317 .083 5.81 1.25 3.75 .740 .060 5.71 .332 .106 10.54 .716 .054 2.29 .311 .087 3.57 500 0.00 0.00 .712 .035 1.71 .316 .059 5.22 .701 .034 0.14 .302 .054 0.82 0.75 1.75 .718 .036 2.57 .318 .055 6.10 .707 .034 1.00 .305 .051 1.55 0.75 3.75 .722 .036 3.14 .317 .057 5.70 .711 .035 1.57 .304 .052 1.35 1.25 1.75 .716 .035 2.29 .322 .057 7.48 .705 .034 0.71 .310 .052 3.40 1.25 3.75 .725 .036 3.57 .323 .058 7.53 .714 .034 2.00 .310 .053 3.28 1,000 0.00 0.00 .706 .024 0.86 .308 .038 2.71 .701 .024 0.14 .302 .036 0.52 0.75 1.75 .712 .025 1.71 .313 .038 4.39 .706 .025 0.86 .306 .037 2.14 0.75 3.75 .716 .025 2.29 .309 .041 2.87 .710 .025 1.43 .302 .039 0.81 1.25 1.75 .709 .024 1.29 .321 .037 6.85 .703 .024 0.43 .314 .036 4.72 1.25 3.75 .719 .024 2.71 .315 .041 5.03 .713 .024 1.86 .309 .039 2.91 Note. Factor loading population value ⫽ .7; factor correlation population value ⫽ .3. s ⫽ skewness; k ⫽ kurtosis; WLS ⫽ weighted least squares; RB ⫽ mean relative bias across replications. For loadings, M is the pooled mean within-cell factor loadings; SD is the square root of within-cell factor loading variances. Table 11 Mean Parameter Estimates for Model 4 (20 Indicators, Two Correlated Constructs) N y* distribution Full WLS Robust WLS Loadings ( ␭ ) Correlation ( ␺ 21 ) Loadings ( ␭ ) Correlation ( ␺ 21 ) sk M S D RB MS D RB MS D RB MS D RB 100 0.00 —————— — .703 .069 0.43 .307 .111 2.24 0.75 1.75 ————— — .711 .068 1.57 .305 .107 1.62 0.75 3.75 ————— — .716 .070 2.29 .315 .106 5.09 1.25 1.75 ————— — .708 .068 1.14 .318 .098 5.92 1.25 3.75 ————— — .718 .069 2.57 .310 .102 3.33 200 0.00 0.00 .786 .104 12.29 .423 .185 41.02 .703 .048 0.43 .302 .078 0.54 0.75 1.75 .788 .102 12.57 .404 .184 34.80 .709 .048 1.29 .307 .076 2.22 0.75 3.75 .786 .106 12.29 .413 .179 37.52 .712 .048 1.71 .303 .075 0.96 1.25 1.75 .784 .102 12.00 .419 .183 39.74 .705 .047 0.71 .315 .071 5.12 1.25 3.75 .790 .104 12.86 .400 .180 33.35 .715 .048 2.14 .307 .074 2.19 500 0.00 0.00 .745 .036 6.43 .359 .061 19.59 .701 .030 0.14 .302 .047 0.66 0.75 1.75 .748 .036 6.86 .362 .062 20.61 .706 .030 0.86 .308 .045 2.71 0.75 3.75 .753 .037 7.57 .361 .063 20.26 .712 .030 1.71 .306 .045 1.87 1.25 1.75 .745 .035 6.43 .367 .059 22.18 .704 .029 0.57 .312 .046 4.06 1.25 3.75 .756 .035 8.00 .366 .063 22.07 .714 .030 2.00 .311 .048 3.57 1,000 0.00 0.00 .723 .023 3.29 .328 .039 9.40 .701 .021 0.14 .301 .034 0.26 0.75 1.75 .728 .023 4.00 .331 .036 10.18 .706 .021 0.86 .302 .030 0.63 0.75 3.75 .733 .023 4.71 .333 .039 11.07 .711 .022 1.57 .304 .033 1.47 1.25 1.75 .725 .022 3.57 .339 .039 13.02 .704 .021 0.57 .311 .035 3.68 1.25 3.75 .736 .023 5.14 .337 .037 12.48 .713 .021 1.86 .309 .031 2.87 Note. Factor loading population value ⫽ .7, factor correlation population value ⫽ .3. Dashes indicate values that are not available because of noninvertible weight matrices. s ⫽ skewness; k ⫽ kurtosis; WLS ⫽ weighted least squares; RB ⫽ mean relative bias across replications. For loadings, M is the pooled mean within-cell factor loadings; SD is the square root of within-cell factor loading variances. 486 FLORA AND CURRAN variables, although these researchers found a greater effect of nonnormality than we did here. However, it is crucial to keep in mind that in the current study, we created nonnormal ordinal observed data by cat- egorizing nonnormal continuous latent response variables. This manipulation is fundamentally different from that im- plemented in these other studies in which nonnormal ordinal observed data were created by varying the thresholds used to categorize normal continuous latent response variables. As illustrated in Table 1, the nonnormal y* variables from which we generated our sample data had more extreme levels of skewness and kurtosis than the observed, ordinal variables from which polychoric correlations and CFAs were estimated. Indeed, the levels of skewness and kurtosis in our ordinal observed data were quite close to those of the normal distribution, despite that our continuous latent re- sponse variables were much more nonnormal. As such, observed ordinal distributions obtained in prac- tice may often have more extreme levels of skewness and kurtosis than those used here. Because prior studies (e.g., Babakus et al., 1987; Hutchinson & Olmos, 1998; Potthast, 1993; Rigdon & Ferguson, 1991) have effectively demon- strated the effects of increased skewness and kurtosis in observed ordinal variables on the estimation of CFAs, we deemed a more thorough manipulation of y variables to be beyond the scope of the current study. Rather, as stated above, our intent was to evaluate the effect of violation of a crucial theoretical assumption for estimation of CFAs using polychoric correlations, namely the latent normality as- sumption for y*, and the manipulations we chose for our simulations were explicitly targeted to do so. Thus, com- bining our findings with those from previous studies, we were able to reach three general conclusions about how distribution of y* and y affects the estimation of CFA models from observed ordinal data. First, estimation of CFA models is robust to moderate violation of the latent normality assumption for y* vari- ables, an assumption implicit in the statistical theory under- pinning the polychoric correlation, at least under conditions to those studied here. Because polychoric correlations pro- vide robust estimates of the true correlation even when different sets of thresholds are applied to y* variables, it follows that estimation of CFA models is not substantially affected according to whether or not threshold sets are constant across indicators. Second, to the extent that the observed ordinal variables have nonzero skewness and kurtosis (e.g., as a result of threshold sets that lead to a dramatically different distribu- tion shape for y relative to a normal or moderately nonnor- mal y* ), full WLS estimation is known to produce biased chi-square test statistics and parameter standard error esti- mates. This latter finding likely occurs because of an in- creased tendency for low expected cell frequencies in ob- served contingency tables, especially in the context of small-to-moderate sample sizes (e.g., fewer than 1,000; Potthast, 1993). 15 Third, when the population y* variables are of extreme nonnormality (e.g., skewness ⫽ 5, kurtosis ⫽ 50), the likely result is that the observed ordinal variables themselves will also have exaggerated levels of skewness and kurtosis, thus again leading to low expected frequencies in observed con- tingency tables. With regard to consideration of the joint effects of underlying nonnormality and varying thresholds across indicators, to the extent that these factors jointly produce observed contingency tables with low (or zero) expected cell frequencies, they are likely to lead to inaccu- rate polychoric correlations (as shown by Brown & Ben- detti, 1977), which in turn adversely affect estimation of CFA models. Implications for Applied Research There are several specific implications of our findings with respect to using these analytic methods in practice. First, our findings suggest that the estimation of CFA mod- els using polychoric correlations is robust to the moderate levels of nonnormality in the latent response variables that we considered here. Consistent with Quiroga (1992), our results showed that polychoric correlations become only slightly inflated when the latent response variables are mod- erately nonnormal. In turn, this bias in the correlation esti- mates contributes to a modest overestimation of CFA model parameters and has little effect on chi-square test statistics or parameter standard error estimates. Our findings support Pearson and Heron’s (1913) argument that the latent nor- mality assumption is merely a mathematical convenience that has little practical importance when the latent response variables are moderately (but not extremely) nonnormal. Although our study demonstrates robustness to the latent normality assumption, it is important to stress that our study does not offer a thorough assessment of the effects of skewness and kurtosis of the observed ordinal variables. In 15 An anonymous reviewer made the astute observation that for many cells of the study, chi-square values were more biased in the condition of y* skewness ⫽ 1.75 and kurtosis ⫽ 1.75 than in the condition of skewness ⫽ 1.75 and kurtosis ⫽ 3.75. This pattern was likely the result of the particular combination of skewness and kurtosis in the observed ordinal variables rather than in the latent y* variables. Specifically, Table 1 reflects that the former distri- butional condition had observed skewness of 0.486 in the context of slightly negative kurtosis, whereas the latter distribution was slightly less skewed in the context of positive kurtosis. In the present study, our aim was to illustrate robustness to the latent normality assumption rather than to investigate the effect of par- ticular combinations of skewness and kurtosis in the observed variables. This finding offers partial evidence that nonnormality in the latent y* variables per se does not affect estimation to the same extent as the level of nonzero skewness and kurtosis in the ob- served ordinal variables. 487 ORDINAL CFA practice, researchers may likely observe ordinal distribu- tions that are more skewed and kurtotic than those examined here. We refer applied researchers to prior studies (e.g., Babakus et al., 1987; Hutchinson & Olmos, 1998; Potthast, 1993; Rigdon & Ferguson, 1991) to further understand the effects of high skewness and kurtosis among observed or- dinal variables on estimation of CFAs using polychoric correlations. Consistent with previous studies for both continuous and ordinal data, our results demonstrate that for CFA models of realistic size (e.g., with 10 or more indicators), the desirable asymptotic properties of full WLS estimation are not ob- served with the types of sample sizes typically encountered in applied psychological research, even with N ⫽ 1,000. In the situation where a researcher wishes to fit a large model with N ⫽ 1,000 or fewer, our findings imply that when proper CFA solutions are obtained with full WLS (which can be quite rare at small-to-moderate sample sizes), these usually have inflated chi-square test statistics and parameter estimates and negatively biased standard errors. In contrast, robust WLS estimation nearly always produces a proper solution with test statistics, parameter estimates, and stan- dard errors that are much less vulnerable to the effects of increasing model size and decreasing sample size. Further- more, even for the situations in which full WLS estimation performs well (i.e., with small models and large sample size), robust WLS still produces less biased parameter es- timates, standard errors, and test statistics. These results support the recommendation that applied researchers closely consider robust WLS estimation for CFAs with ordinal scales (and for SEMs more generally), particularly when testing medium-to-large models with a moderate-to- small sample size. Given this recommendation, a word of caution is war- ranted. Despite its apparent finite-sample superiority to full WLS estimation, robust WLS estimation still leads to slightly biased test statistics and standard errors when large models are estimated with small samples. This inflation of the test statistic increases Type I error rates for the chi- square goodness-of-fit test, thereby causing researchers to reject correctly specified models more often than expected. It may be that researchers can supplement the chi-square goodness-of-fit test with other fit indices often computed in applications of SEM to retain a model that would otherwise be rejected on the basis of the chi-square goodness-of-fit test alone, although we did not include such measures as formal outcomes of this study. Examples of such fit indices include the comparative fit index (Bentler, 1990) and the root-mean- square error of approximation (Steiger, 1990). However, because both of these indices are based in part on the sample value of the fit function (i.e., Equation 8), these are likely to be biased to some degree as well. There has been little research explicitly evaluating the performance of these sta- tistics in the context of CFA with polychoric correlations, although Hutchinson and Olmos (1998) reported promising initial findings for the comparative fit index. Study Limitations and Directions for Future Research We believe that the design of our study allows for em- pirically informed conclusions about the practical useful- ness of CFA using polychoric correlations across several model specifications of increasing complexity, a broad range of sample sizes, several distributions for the latent response variables, and two types of WLS model-fitting procedures. However, this study shares the basic limitation of all Monte Carlo simulations; namely, it is possible that the findings cannot be generalized beyond the specific con- ditions studied here. Nonetheless, we believe that our ex- perimental design and subsequent findings enable stronger predictions to be made about the finite-sample performance of these methods across a broad range of realistic conditions than have been previously available. We defined our nonnormal underlying distributions by selecting levels of skewness and kurtosis to represent what we propose to be minor-to-moderate departures from nor- mality that might be commonly encountered in behavioral research. It is important to reiterate that we were not inter- ested in exploring how severely nonnormal the underlying distributions would need to be made for these estimators to fail. Instead, we feel that our results provide strong empir- ical evidence that robust WLS performs exceptionally well across a variety of commonly encountered conditions in applied research, and full WLS works almost as well for larger sample sizes and for simpler models. In sum, we are not concluding that robust or full WLS is unaffected by any degree of nonnormality of the latent response, but we do conclude that these methods are well-behaved for a variety of nonnormal distributions that might be expected in prac- tice. Future research is needed to determine more accurately at what point full or robust WLS estimation begins to break down under violations of latent normality. Furthermore, we again remind readers that our results pertain most directly to violation of the normality assumption for latent response variables, a crucial theoretical assumption for the estimation of polychoric correlations. This is in distinct contrast to prior research that has addressed the effects of varying skewness and kurtosis among observed ordinal data in the context of normal latent response variables. We believe our findings augment this prior work in important ways. Given the scarcity of studies that have explicitly assessed the application of CFA using polychoric correlations to realistic CFA models for ordinal variables, we felt that it was important to focus exclusively on the estimation of properly specified models. However, in practice, a given model specification is rarely exactly correct (see, e.g., Cudeck & Henly, 2003; MacCallum, 1995). Therefore, it is important that future research assess the ability of CFA with polychoric correlations to test misspecified models. In par- ticular, our study provides promising results in support of the robust WLS method of B. Muthe ´ n et al. (1997) when 488 FLORA AND CURRAN applied to correctly specified models. However, the perfor- mance of this method for the estimation of misspecified models is still unknown. Because this method calculates test statistics and standard errors in a manner similar to the Satorra and Bentler (1986, 1988) method for continuous observed data, one might predict from the results of Curran et al. (1996) that robust WLS would produce significantly underestimated chi-square statistics under model misspeci- fication, thus reducing power to reject a misspecified model. Again, future research is needed to determine whether robust WLS maintains appropriate statistical power to de- tect a misspecification under violations of distributional assumptions. Finally, we considered homogeneous values for the factor loadings both within and across models. This is of course a simplification, and it would be interesting to examine the more realistic situation of heterogeneous factor loading val- ues in future research. Although we did not empirically examine the effects of varying the values of factor loadings here, we can draw on statistical theory to make some predictions about this issue. Namely, higher factor loading values are reflective of greater factor determinacy, a condi- tion that has many benefits in model estimation and testing (see MacCallum, Widaman, Zhang, & Hong, 1999, for an excellent review). Given our focus of interest, we would predict that larger factor loadings would likely serve to convey information more saliently about violation of the underlying normality distributions within the CFA. Simi- larly, weaker loadings would likely dampen these effects. Taken together, we would expect that a heterogeneous set of factor loading values would simultaneously exacerbate and weaken the effect of the violation of assumptions, the spe- cific effect of which would depend on many other experi- mental design features. Thus, although future research is needed to better understand the influences of heterogeneous loading structures, we do not believe that our use of ho- mogenous loadings is a limitation here. Conclusion In sum, we make the following conclusions based on our experimental design and associated empirical findings. First, with the exception of a small number of modest differences in accuracy of polychoric correlation estimation and model convergence under full WLS, there were few to no differences found in any empirical results as a function of two-category versus five-category ordinal distributions. Second, moderate nonnormality of latent response distribu- tions did not significantly effect the accuracy of estimation of polychoric correlations, although severe nonnormality did. Third, full WLS rarely resulted in accurate test statis- tics, parameter estimates, and standard errors under either normal or nonnormal latent response distributions, and this accuracy only occurred at large sample sizes and for less complex models. Fourth, robust WLS resulted in accurate test statistics, parameter estimates and standard errors under both normal and nonnormal latent response distributions across all sample sizes and model complexities studied here (although there was modest bias found at the smallest sam- ple size). Fifth, as we studied four variations of a CFA model here, we would anticipate that these findings would generalize to SEMs of comparable complexity. Finally, all of our conclusions are based on proper model specifications, and future research must address the role of statistical power and the ability of full and robust WLS to detect misspeci- fications when such misspecifications truly exist. References Babakus, E., Ferguson, C. E., & Jo ¨ reskog, K. G. (1987). The sensitivity of confirmatory maximum likelihood factor analysis to violations of measurement scale and distributional assump- tions. Journal of Marketing Research, 37, 72–141. Bentler, P. M. (1990). Comparative fit indices in structural models. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 238 –246. Bentler, P. M. (1995). EQS structural equations program manual. Encino, CA: Multivariate Software. Bollen, K. A. (1989). Structural equations with latent variables. New York: Wiley. Brown, M. B., & Bendetti, J. K. (1977). On the mean and variance of the tetrachoric correlation coefficient. Psychometrika, 42, 347–355. Browne, M. W. (1982). Covariance structures. In D. M. Hawkins (Ed.), Topics in applied multivariate analysis (pp. 72–141). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Browne, M. W. (1984). Asymptotic distribution free methods in the analysis of covariance structures. British Journal of Math- ematical and Statistical Psychology, 37, 127–141. Chen, F., Bollen, K., Paxton, P., Curran, P. J., & Kirby, J. (2001). Improper solutions in structural equation models: Causes, con- sequences, and strategies. Sociological Methods and Research, 29, 468 –508. Chou, C.-P., & Bentler, P. M. (1995). Estimates and tests in structural equation modeling. In R. H. Hoyle (Ed.), Structural equation modeling: Concepts, issues, and applications (pp. 37– 54). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Chou, C.-P., Bentler, P. M., & Satorra, A. (1991). Scaled test statistics and robust standard errors for non-normal data in covariance structure analysis: A Monte Carlo study. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 44, 347– 357. Cudeck, R. (1989). Analysis of correlation matrices using covari- ance structure models. Psychological Bulletin, 105, 317–327. Cudeck, R., & Henly, S. J. (2003). A realistic perspective on pattern representation in growth data: Comment on Bauer and Curran (2003). Psychological Methods, 8, 378 –383. Curran, P. J., West, S. G., & Finch, G. F. (1996). The robustness of test statistics to nonnormality and specification error in con- firmatory factor analysis. Psychological Methods, 1, 16 –29. Dolan, C. V. (1994). Factor analysis of variables with 2, 3, 5 and 7 response categories: A comparison of categorical variable 489 ORDINAL CFA estimators using simulated data. British Journal of Mathemati- cal and Statistical Psychology, 47, 309 –326. Fleishman, A. I. (1978). A method for simulating non-normal distributions. Psychometrika, 43, 521–532. Green, S. B., Akey, T. M., Fleming, K. K., Hershberger, S. L., & Marquis, J. G. (1997). Effect of the number of scale points on chi-square fit indices in confirmatory factor analysis. Structural Equation Modeling, 4, 108 –120. Hu, L.-T., Bentler, P. M., & Kano, Y. (1992). Can test statistics in covariance structure analysis be trusted? Psychological Bulletin, 112, 351–362. Hutchinson, S. R., & Olmos, A. (1998). Behavior of descriptive fit indexes in confirmatory factor analysis using ordered categori- cal data. Structural Equation Modeling, 5, 344 –364. Jo ¨ reskog, K. G. (1969). A general approach to confirmatory max- imum likelihood factor analysis. Psychometrika, 34, 183–202. Jo ¨ reskog, K. G. (1994). On the estimation of polychoric correla- tions and their asymptotic covariance matrix. Psychometrika, 59, 381–389. Jo ¨ reskog, K. G., & So ¨ rbom, D. (1988). PRELIS: A program for multivariate data screening and data summarization. A pre- processor for LISREL (2nd ed.). Mooresville, IN: Scientific Software. Jo ¨ reskog, K. G., & So ¨ rbom, D. (1996). LISREL 8: User’s refer- ence guide. Chicago: Scientific Software. Kaplan, D. (1989). A study of the sampling variability of the z -values of parameter estimates from misspecified structural equation models. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 24, 41–57. Lord, F. M., & Novick, M. R. (1968). Statistical theories of mental test scores. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. MacCallum, R. C. (1995). Model specification: Procedures, strat- egies, and related issues. In R. Hoyle (Ed.), Structural equation modeling: Concepts, issues, and applications (pp. 16 –36). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. MacCallum, R. C., Widaman, K. F., Zhang, S., & Hong, S. (1999). Sample size in factor analysis. Psychological Methods, 4, 84 – 99. Micceri, T. (1989). The unicorn, the normal curve, and other improbable creatures. Psychological Bulletin, 105, 156 –166. Muthe ´ n, B. (1983). Latent variable structural equation modeling with categorical data. Journal of Econometrics, 22, 48 – 65. Muthe ´ n, B. (1984). A general structural equation model with dichotomous, ordered categorical, and continuous latent vari- able indicators. Psychometrika, 49, 115–132. Muthe ´ n, B., du Toit, S. H. C., & Spisic, D. (1997). Robust inference using weighted least squares and quadratic estimating equations in latent variable modeling with categorical and continuous outcomes. Unpublished manuscript. Muthe ´ n, B., & Hofacker, C. (1988). Testing the assumptions underlying tetrachoric correlations. Psychometrika, 53, 563– 578. Muthe ´ n, B., & Kaplan, D. (1985). A comparison of some meth- odologies for the factor-analysis of non-normal Likert variables. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 38, 171–180. Muthe ´ n, B., & Kaplan, D. (1992). A comparison of some meth- odologies for the factor-analysis of non-normal Likert variables: A note on the size of the model. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 45, 19 –30. Muthe ´ n, B. O., & Satorra, A. (1995). Technical aspects of Muth- e ´ n’s LISCOMP approach to estimation of latent variable rela- tions with a comprehensive measurement model. Psy- chometrika, 60, 489 –503. Muthe ´ n, L. K., & Muthe ´ n, B. O. (1998). Mplus user’s guide. Los Angeles: Author. Neale, M. C., Boker, S. M., Xie, G., & Maes, H. H. (2002). Mx: Statistical modeling (6th ed.). Richmond, VA: Department of Psychiatry, Virginia Commonwealth University. Olsson, U. (1979). Maximum likelihood estimation of the poly- choric correlation coefficient. Psychometrika, 44, 443– 460. Pearson, K. (1901). Mathematical contributions to the theory of evolution, VII: On the correlation of characters not quantita- tively measurable. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal So- ciety of London, Series A, 195, 1– 47. Pearson, K., & Heron, D. (1913). On theories of association. Biometrika, 9, 159 –315. Potthast, M. J. (1993). Confirmatory factor analysis of ordered categorical variables with large models. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 46, 273–286. Quiroga, A. M. (1992). Studies of the polychoric correlation and other correlation measures for ordinal variables. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis. Rigdon, E. E., & Ferguson, C. E. (1991). The performance of the polychoric correlation coefficient and selected fitting functions in confirmatory factor analysis with ordinal data. Journal of Marketing Research, 28, 491– 497. Satorra, A. (1992). Asymptotic robust inferences in the analysis of mean and covariance structures. In P. Marsden (Ed.), Sociolog- ical methodology 1992. Washington, DC: American Sociologi- cal Association. Satorra, A., & Bentler, P. M. (1986). Some robustness properties of goodness of fit statistics in covariance structure analysis. 1986 ASA Proceedings of the Business and Economic Section, 549 –554. Satorra, A., & Bentler, P. M. (1988). Scaling corrections for chi-square statistics in covariance structure analysis. 1988 ASA Proceedings of the Business and Economic Section, 308 –313. Satorra, A., & Bentler, P. M. (1990). Model conditions for asymp- totic robustness in the analysis of linear relations. Computa- tional Statistics and Data Analysis, 10, 235–249. Satterthwaite, F. E. (1941). Synthesis of variance. Psychometrika, 6, 309 –316. Shadish, W. R., Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (2002). Experi- mental and quasi-experimental designs for generalized causal inference. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin. Steiger, J. H. (1990). Structural model evaluation and modifica- tion: An interval estimation approach. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 25, 173–180. 490 FLORA AND CURRAN Vale, C. D., & Maurelli, V. A. (1983). Simulating multivariate nonnormal distributions. Psychometrika, 48, 465– 471. West, S. G., Finch, J. F., & Curran, P. J. (1995). Structural equation models with non-normal variables: Problems and rem- edies. In R. Hoyle (Ed.), Structural equation modeling: Con- cepts, issues, and applications (pp. 56 –75). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Yule, G. U. (1912). On the methods of measuring association between two attributes. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, 75, 579 – 652. Received January 29, 2003 Revision received July 14, 2004 Accepted July 19, 2004 䡲 New Editors Appointed, 2006 –2011 The Publications and Communications Board of the American Psychological Association announces the appointment of seven new editors for 6-year terms beginning in 2006. As of January 1, 2005, manuscripts should be directed as follows: • Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology (www.apa.org/journals/pha.html), Nancy K. Mello, PhD, McLean Hospital, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 115 Mill Street, Belmont, MA 02478-9106. • Journal of Abnormal Psychology (www.apa.org/journals/abn.html), David Watson, PhD, Department of Psychology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242-1407. • Journal of Comparative Psychology (www.apa.org/journals/com.html), Gordon M. Burghardt, PhD, Department of Psychology or Department of Ecology & Evolution- ary Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996. • Journal of Counseling Psychology (www.apa.org/journals/cou.html), Brent S. Mallinckrodt, PhD, Department of Educational, School, and Counseling Psychology, 16 Hill Hall, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211. • Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance (www.apa.org/ journals/xhp.html), Glyn W. Humphreys, PhD, Behavioural Brain Sciences Centre, School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, United Kingdom. • Journal of Personality and Social Psychology: Attitudes and Social Cognition section (www.apa.org/journals/psp.html), Charles M. Judd, PhD, Department of Psychology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309-0345. • Rehabilitation Psychology (www.apa.org/journals/rep.html), Timothy R. Elliott, PhD, Department of Psychology, 415 Campbell Hall, 1300 University Boulevard, University of Alabama, Birmingham, AL 35294-1170. Electronic submission: As of January 1, 2005, authors are expected to submit manu- scripts electronically through the journal’s Manuscript Submission Portal (see the Web site listed above with each journal title). Manuscript submission patterns make the precise date of completion of the 2005 volumes uncertain. Current editors, Warren K. Bickel, PhD, Timothy B. Baker, PhD, Meredith J. West, PhD, Jo-Ida C. Hansen, PhD, David A. Rosenbaum, PhD, Patricia G. Devine, PhD, and Bruce Caplan, PhD, respectively, will receive and consider manuscripts through December 31, 2004. Should 2005 volumes be completed before that date, manuscripts will be redirected to the new editors for consideration in 2006 volumes. 491 ORDINAL CFA Supplementary resource (1) flora-curran-techappend Data March 2013 David B Flora · Patrick J Curran Download Citations (2,467) References (67) ... The same is true for the WLS performance with ordinal categorical variables (e.g., binary, ordered categorical), due to the oversensitivity of χ 2 and negatively biased standard errors with more complex models (Muthén & Kaplan, 1992; Psychology cited in Brown, 2015). Thus, as with non-normal continuous data, WLS may not be a wise choice with categorical data, in particular with small to moderate samples (Flora & Curran, 2004 , cited in Brown, 2015. More elaborated options for ordinal categorical data are described later. ... ... For years, applied research treated ordinal categorical data as continuous (Byrne, 2012;Gorsuch, 1983;Schumacker & Beyerlein, 2000) both in traditional statistics (e.g., ANOVA, MANOVA) and SEM, maybe due to the absence of well-established estimators for ordinal categorical data (Byrne, 2012), despite the work of Muthén and Kaplan (1985) proposing a "continuous/categorical variable methodology" for SEM with any combination of dichotomous, categorical, or continuous observed variables (Flora & Curran, 2004; Byrne, 2012), in parallel to the (independent) work of Jöreskog (Jöreskog, 1994) and others (Coenders, Satorra, & Saris, 1997;Moustaki, 2001). Specifically, the methodologist suggested using the polychoric-correlation coefficient, for calculating the relationship between ordinal variables and the polyserial-correlation coefficient for calculating the relationship between an ordered categorical and a continuous variable (Raykov & Marcoulides, 2006). ... ... Alternatively, Raykov and Marcoulides (2006) recommended a sample 10 times the estimated model parameters (Byrne, 2012). Simulation research confirmed that the WLSMV generates precise test statistics, parameter estimates, and standard errors with normal and non-normal latent response distributions Psychology across varying samples (100 -1000) with CFA models (see Flora & Curran, 2004; Byrne, 2012;Brown, 2015), or CFA MTMM models (Kyriazos, 2018). However, there is no consensus on what constitutes a large sample (Raykov & Marcoulides, 2006), in complex procedures like scale development (e.g., Kyriazos & Stalikas, 2019a), especially before model-based power analysis (e.g., MacCallum, Browne, & Sugawara, 1996) become available in SEM software (e.g., R; R Development Core Team, 2022). ... Applied Psychometrics: Estimator Considerations in Commonly Encountered Conditions in CFA, SEM, and EFA Practice Article Full-text available Jan 2023 PSYCH Theodoros A. Kyriazos Mary Poga-Kyriazou View ... To assess the factor structure of the SSS exploratory factor analysis was conducted using the polychoric correlations matrix of the items. Using polychoric correlations is more appropriate for ordinal data than the Pearson correlations (Flora & Curran, 2004 ). An oblique Promax rotation was used, allowing correlations between the factors. ... Validation of the Canadian Version of the Shame and Stigma Scale for Head and Neck Cancer Patients Preprint Full-text available Jun 2023 Irene Bobevski David Kissane Justin Desroches Melissa Henry Cancers of the head and ne¬ck and their treatment can cause disfigurement and loss of functioning, with a profound negative impact on the person’s self-image and psychosocial wellbeing. This can lead to experiences of shame and stigma, which are important targets for psychosocial interventions. Accurate measurement and identification of these problems enables clinicians to offer appropriate interventions and monitor patients’ progress. This study aimed to validate the Canadian version of the Shame and Stigma Scale (SSS) among French and English speaking head and neck cancer patients. Data from 258 patients from two major Canadian hospitals was analysed. The existing 4-factor structure of the SSS was supported, with the following subscales: Shame with Appearance, Sense of Stigma, Regret, and Social/Speech Concerns. The Canadian SSS showed adequate convergent and divergent validity and test-retest reliability. Rasch analysis suggested scale improvement by removing two misfitting item and two items with differential functioning between French and English speaking patients. The final 16-item scale version had adequate fit to the Rasch model. The SSS provides more accurate measures for people with high levels of shame and stigma, and thus has utility in identifying patients with more severe symptoms who may be in need of psychosocial interventions. View Show abstract ... Due to the non-normal univariate and multivariate distribution of the indicators identified by significant Mardia's test and Anderson-Darling test, we decided to use robust estimation methods for the CFAs. Simulation studies showed that weighted least squares, which are often used for categorical data, as well as MLR-CAT, require large sample sizes for each group (> 200) (Flora and Curran, 2004; Lei and Shiverdecker, 2020). The alternatively chosen robust maximum likelihood estimator (MLR) outperforms the more restrict estimators in analysis with small sample size when latent distributions are nonnormal (Li, 2016). ... Examining early learners’ perceptions of inclusion: adaptation of the student version of the perceptions of inclusion questionnaire for first- and second-grade students (PIQ-EARLY) Article Full-text available Jun 2023 Sandra Grüter Janka Goldan Carmen Zurbriggen Promoting the emotional and social development of students with and without special needs is a central goal of implementing inclusive education in the school system. The entry into school, and thus into the formal education system, is accompanied by emotions and changes in self-image and social relationships. For assessing emotional inclusion, social inclusion, and academic self-concept, the Perceptions of Inclusion Questionnaire (PIQ) is a widely used instrument. To date, the paper-pencil questionnaire has been used from third through ninth grades but has not yet been used with younger ages. This paper presents an adapted version of the PIQ for first- and second-grade students, which was used on two measurement time occasions (T1, N = 407, M Age = 7.2; T2, N = 613, M Age = 7.6). Information on students’ reading and listening comprehension was collected from the class teachers to verify whether the adapted questionnaire can be used for all students with different levels of language competencies. Measurement invariance was demonstrated to be at least scalar for all groups considered in the analyses. Students with higher rankings of reading and listening comprehension skills reported significant higher levels of emotional inclusion and academic self-concept while there were no significant differences in social inclusion. The findings suggest that the PIQ-EARLY is a suitable instrument for assessing self-perceived inclusion in first- and second-grade students. The results also highlight the importance of students’ language competencies for adjustment to school in early school years. View Show abstract ... This analysis was carried out in Mplus version 8.2 (Muth en & Muth en, 2018). The WLSMV estimator is appropriate for ordered categorical indicators, and it has been shown to perform equally well or better than other estimation methods with ordered categorical and skewed data (Flora & Curran, 2004; Liang & Yang, 2014). The fit of the competing models was assessed using the chi-square (v 2 ) test, the Comparative Fit Index (CFI: Bentler, 1990), the Tucker Lewis Index (TLI: Tucker & Lewis, 1973), the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA; Steiger, 1980), and the standardized root mean squared residual (SRMR; Hu & Bentler, 1999). ... Post-traumatic Stress Disorder, Complex Post-traumatic Stress Disorder, and Coping Styles among Internally Displaced Ukrainians Article Jun 2023 Grainne McGinty Robert Fox Bayard Roberts Philip Hyland This study examined the relationship between coping styles and ICD-11 PTSD and Complex PTSD in a large sample of Ukrainian Internally Displaced Persons. Data were collected in 2016 using self-report measures from all Ukrainian oblasts not occupied by Russian forces. In total, 13.1% of people met diagnostic requirements for Complex PTSD, and 7.8% for PTSD. Higher levels of avoidant coping were evident in those meeting diagnostic requirements for PTSD and Complex PTSD compared to those not meeting requirements for either. Mental health interventions targeting avoidant coping might be particularly useful in reducing the burden of traumatic stress among war-affected Ukrainians. View Show abstract ... Se especificó como método de estimación los mínimos cuadrados ponderados diagonales (diagonally weighted least squares [DWLS]). Este método de estimación es más adecuado cuando las respuestas se encuentran en una escala ordinal (Flora & Curran, 2004) . Para evaluar el ajuste del modelo, se emplearon los siguientes indicadores de bondad de ajuste clásicos propuestos por Bentler (1990) (Viladrich et al., 2017). ... Cuestionario Oviedo del Sueño: Evidencias de Validez y Confiabilidad en Universitarios Chilenos Article Full-text available Apr 2023 Ana Barrera Claudia Riffo-Álvarez Danahe Fernández-Hernández Camila Salazar-Fernández El Cuestionario Oviedo de Sueño (COS) evalúa trastornos del sueño, específicamente insomnio e hipersomnia, sin embargo, no existen estudios latinoamericanos que confirmen la estructura de dos factores obtenida en investigaciones previas. Objetivo: Analizar y confirmar la estructura de dos factores del COS y estimar sus propiedades psicométricas. Método: Se aplicó el COS y las Escalas de Depresión, Ansiedad y Estrés (DASS-21) en una muestra de 601 universitarios chilenos; se realizó un análisis factorial confirmatorio y correlacionesentre las subescalas del COS y el DASS-21. Resultados: la estructura de dos factores se replica, obteniendo indicadores de ajuste razonables y adecuados valores de consistencia interna. Existen evidencias de validez basadas en las asociaciones moderadas entre el COS y el DASS-21. Conclusiones: se confirma la estructura factorial y se obtiene un instrumento con evidencias de validez, confiable, siendo una herramienta que puede aportar al diagnóstico de los trastornos del sueño en jóvenes. View Show abstract ... Using Mplus 7.4 (Muthén & Muthén, 2011), we performed confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs) with robust weighted least squares (WLSMV) appropriate for ordinal data (Flora & Curran, 2004) . Model fit was evaluated based on recommended cutoff values for acceptable model fit, including Comparative fit index (CFI; cutoff ≥ 0.90), Tucker Lewis index (TLI; cutoff ≥ 0.90), and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA; cutoff < 0.08) (Bentler, 1990;Hu & Bentler, 1999). ... The Proposed Specifiers for Conduct Disorder (PSCD) in Iranian School-Attending Adolescents: A Multi-Informant Validation Study of the PSCD Parent-and Youth Self-Report Versions View supplementary material Article May 2023 J PERS ASSESS Mojtaba Elhami Athar Olivier F. Colins Randall T Salekin Simin Heydarian The Proposed Specifier for Conduct Disorder (PSCD) was developed to measure the broad psychopathy construct with grandiose-manipulative, callous-unemotional, daring-impulsive, and conduct disorder subscales. This study tested the psychometric properties of Persian parent-and-child self-report PSCD versions with 974 parents (86% mothers) and children/adolescents (46.5% boys) dyads. Results showed that with some modifications the proposed hierarchical four-factor structure for both PSCDs was confirmed and was found to be invariant across gender. Across versions, all PSCD scores were internally consistent and demonstrated expected correlations with parent-reported externalizing problems, anxiety/depression, and poor school performance, supporting the PSCDs scores' validity. This study also is the first to examine and establish acceptable to excellent parent-child agreement of PSCD scores. Finally, all PSCD child-report scores offered small though significant incremental validity over their corresponding PSCD parent-version scores in predicting parent-reported conduct problems and proactive aggression. Findings indicated that both Persian PSCDs may hold promise for assessing psychopathy components in Iranian school-attending adolescents and generating additional research on this topic. View Show abstract ... The data were analyzed using the WLSMV estimator, which is appropriate and recommended for ordered categorical data (Flora & Curran, 2004; Kline, 2011). Each construct was analyzed, and fit indices were examined to determine if the model fits the data from the EFA results. ... Factor Analysis of the Financial Strain Index from the Welfare, Children and Families: A Three-City Study, Wave 3 Article Full-text available Jan 2023 Sally A Hageman Ji Hyang Cheon View Ceiling effects and differential measurement precision across calibrated cognitive scores in the Framingham Study Article May 2023 NEUROPSYCHOLOGY Phoebe Scollard Seo-Eun Choi Michael L. Lee Paul K Crane Objective: To calibrate cognitive assessment data across multiple waves of the Framingham Heart Study (FHS), addressing study design considerations, ceiling effects, and measurement precision. Method: FHS participants completed several cognitive assessments including screening instruments and more comprehensive batteries at different study visits. We used expert opinion to assign each cognitive test item to a single domain-memory, executive function, language, visuospatial abilities, or none of the above. As part of a larger cross-study harmonization effort, we calibrated each domain separately using bifactor confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) models, incorporating item parameters for anchor items previously calibrated from other studies and freely estimating item parameters for FHS-specific items. We obtained scores and standard errors (SEs) for each participant at each study visit. We addressed psychometric considerations of ceiling effects and measurement precision. Results: Overall, memory domain scores were the most precisely estimated. Scores for all domains from visits where the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) was the only test administered were imprecisely estimated and suffered from ceiling effects. Scores from visits with a more extensive battery were estimated more precisely and better differentiated between ability levels. Conclusions: The harmonized and calibrated cognitive data from the FHS should prove useful for future analyses examining cognition and cognitive decline. They will be of particular interest when combining FHS with other studies that have been similarly calibrated. Researchers should be aware of varying levels of measurement precision and the possibility of ceiling effects in their planned analyses of data from the FHS and similar studies. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved). View Show abstract Psychometric Performance of a Substance Use Symptom Checklist to Help Clinicians Assess Substance Use Disorder in Primary Care Article May 2023 Theresa E. Matson Kevin Hallgren Gwen T Lapham Katharine Bradley Importance: Substance use disorders (SUDs) are underrecognized in primary care, where structured clinical interviews are often infeasible. A brief, standardized substance use symptom checklist could help clinicians assess SUD. Objective: To evaluate the psychometric properties of the Substance Use Symptom Checklist (hereafter symptom checklist) used in primary care among patients reporting daily cannabis use and/or other drug use as part of population-based screening and assessment. Design, setting, and participants: This cross-sectional study was conducted among adult primary care patients who completed the symptom checklist during routine care between March 1, 2015, and March 1, 2020, at an integrated health care system. Data analysis was conducted from June 1, 2021, to May 1, 2022. Main outcomes and measures: The symptom checklist included 11 items corresponding to SUD criteria in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders (Fifth Edition) (DSM-5). Item response theory (IRT) analyses tested whether the symptom checklist was unidimensional and reflected a continuum of SUD severity and evaluated item characteristics (discrimination and severity). Differential item functioning analyses examined whether the symptom checklist performed similarly across age, sex, race, and ethnicity. Analyses were stratified by cannabis and/or other drug use. Results: A total of 23 304 screens were included (mean [SD] age, 38.2 [5.6] years; 12 554 [53.9%] male patients; 17 439 [78.8%] White patients; 20 393 [87.5%] non-Hispanic patients). Overall, 16 140 patients reported daily cannabis use only, 4791 patients reported other drug use only, and 2373 patients reported both daily cannabis and other drug use. Among patients with daily cannabis use only, other drug use only, or both daily cannabis and other drug use, 4242 (26.3%), 1446 (30.2%), and 1229 (51.8%), respectively, endorsed 2 or more items on the symptom checklist, consistent with DSM-5 SUD. For all cannabis and drug subsamples, IRT models supported the unidimensionality of the symptom checklist, and all items discriminated between higher and lower levels of SUD severity. Differential item functioning was observed for some items across sociodemographic subgroups but did not result in meaningful change (<1 point difference) in the overall score (0-11). Conclusions and relevance: In this cross-sectional study, a symptom checklist, administered to primary care patients who reported daily cannabis and/or other drug use during routine screening, discriminated SUD severity as expected and performed well across subgroups. Findings support the clinical utility of the symptom checklist for standardized and more complete SUD symptom assessment to help clinicians make diagnostic and treatment decisions in primary care. View Show abstract A Note on Evaluating the Moderated Mediation Effect Article May 2023 Jacky CK Ng Lok Yin Joyce Kwan Wai Chan View Show more Robust inference using weighted least squares and quadratic estimating equations in latent variable modeling with categorical and continuous outcomes Article Jan 1997 PSYCHOMETRIKA B. Muthén S.H.C. Du Toit Damir Spisic View Estimates and tests in structural equation modeling Chapter Jan 1995 Chih-Ping Chou P. M. Bentler View Estimates and tests in structural equation modeling Chapter Jan 1995 Chih-Ping Chou P. M. Bentler View EQS 6 Structural Equations Program Manual Article Jan 1995 P.M. Bentler View A general approach to confirmatory maximum likelihood factor analysis Article Dec 1967 PSYCHOMETRIKA Karl G. Jöreskog We describe a general procedure by which any number of parameters of the factor analytic model can be held fixed at any values and the remaining free parameters estimated by the maximum likelihood method. The generality of the approach makes it possible to deal with all kinds of solutions: orthogonal, oblique and various mixtures of these. By choosing the fixed parameters appropriately, factors can be defined to have desired properties and make subsequent rotation unnecessary. The goodness of fit of the maximum likelihood solution under the hypothesis represented by the fixed parameters is tested by a large sample χ2 test based on the likelihood ratio technique. A by-product of the procedure is an estimate of the variance-covariance matrix of the estimated parameters. From this, approximate confidence intervals for the parameters can be obtained. Several examples illustrating the usefulness of the procedure are given. View Show abstract Comparative fit indices in structural models Article Jan 1990 P.M. Bentler View The Robustness of Test Statistics to Nonnormality and Specification Error in Confirmatory Factor Analysis Article Mar 1996 PSYCHOL METHODS Patrick J. Curran Stephen G. West John F. Finch Monte Carlo computer simulations were used to investigate the performance of three χ2 test statistics in confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Normal theory maximum likelihood χ2 (ML), Browne's asymptotic distribution free χ2 (ADF), and the Satorra-Bentler rescaled χ2 (SB) were examined under varying conditions of sample size, model specification, and multivariate distribution. For properly specified models, ML and SB showed no evidence of bias under normal distributions across all sample sizes, whereas ADF was biased at all but the largest sample sizes. ML was increasingly overestimated with increasing nonnormality, but both SB (at all sample sizes) and ADF (only at large sample sizes) showed no evidence of bias. For misspecified models, ML was again inflated with increasing nonnormality, but both SB and ADF were underestimated with increasing nonnormality. It appears that the power of the SB and ADF test statistics to detect a model misspecification is attenuated given nonnormally distributed data. View Show abstract MX: Statistical Modeling Book Jan 1994 Michael C Neale View The Performance of the Polychoric Correlation Coefficient and Selected Fitting Functions in Confirmatory Factor Analysis with Ordinal Data Article Nov 1991 Edward Rigdon Carl E. Ferguson In a simulation study, no combination of the polychoric correlation coefficient with any LISREL 7 fitting function produced unbiased estimated standard errors or a correctly distributed chi square statistic. However, there were major differences in the performance of the five fitting functions in the analysis of ordinal data. View Show abstract Improper Solutions in Structural Equation Models Article May 2001 SOCIOL METHOD RES Feinian Chen Kenneth A Bollen Pamela Paxton James B Kirby In this article, the authors examine the most common type of improper solutions: zero or negative error variances. They address the causes of, consequences of, and strategies to handle these issues. Several hypotheses are evaluated using Monte Carlo simulation models, including two structural equation models with several misspecifications of each model. Results suggested several unique findings. First, increasing numbers of omitted paths in the measurement model were associated with decreasing numbers of improper solutions. Second, bias in the parameter estimates was higher in samples with improper solutions than in samples including only proper solutions. Third, investigation of the consequences of using constrained estimates in the presence of improper solutions indicated that inequality constraints helped some samples achieve convergence. Finally, the use of confidence intervals as well as four other proposed tests yielded similar results when testing whether the error variance was greater than or equal to zero. View Show abstract Show more Recommendations Discover more about: Confirmatory Factor Analysis Article A Simulation Study of Polychoric Instrumental Variable Estimation in Structural Equation Models June 2016 · Structural Equation Modeling A Multidisciplinary Journal Shaobo Jin Hao Luo Fan Yang Wallentin Data collected from questionnaires are often in ordinal scale. Unweighted least squares (ULS), diagonally weighted least squares (DWLS) and normal-theory maximum likelihood (ML) are commonly used methods to fit structural equation models. Consistency of these estimators demands no structural misspecification. In this article, we conduct a simulation study to compare the equation-by-equation ... [Show full abstract] polychoric instrumental variable (PIV) estimation with ULS, DWLS, and ML. Accuracy of PIV for the correctly specified model and robustness of PIV for misspecified models are investigated through a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) model and a structural equation model with ordinal indicators. The effects of sample size and nonnormality of the underlying continuous variables are also examined. The simulation results show that PIV produces robust factor loading estimates in the CFA model and in structural equation models. PIV also produces robust path coefficient estimates in the model where valid instruments are used. However, robustness highly depends on the validity of instruments. Read more Article Full-text available Behavior of Descriptive Fit Indexes in Confirmatory Factor Analysis Using Ordered Categorical Data January 1998 · Structural Equation Modeling A Multidisciplinary Journal Susan R Hutchinson Antonio Olmos The purpose of this study was to examine the behavior of 8 measures of fit used to evaluate confirmatory factor analysis models. This study employed Monte Carlo simulation to determine to what extent sample size, model size, estimation procedure, and level of nonnormality affected fit when polytomous data were analyzed. The 3 indexes least affected by the design conditions were the comparative ... [Show full abstract] fit index, incremental fit index, and nonnormed fit index, which were affected only by level of nonnormality. The measure of centrality was most affected by the design variables, with values of n2>. 10 for sample size, model size, and level of nonnormality and interaction effects for Model Size x Level of Nonnormality and Estimation x Level of Nonnormality. Findings from this study should alert applied researchers to exercise caution when evaluating model fit with nonnormal, polytomous data. View full-text Article Confirmatory factor analysis with ordinal data : effects of model misspecification and indicator non... Phillip Wingate Vaughan Full weighted least squares (full WLS) and robust weighted least squares (robust WLS) are currently the two primary estimation methods designed for structural equation modeling with ordinal observed variables. These methods assume that continuous latent variables were coarsely categorized by the measurement process to yield the observed ordinal variables, and that the model proposed by the ... [Show full abstract] researcher pertains to these latent variables rather than to their ordinal manifestations. Previous research has strongly suggested that robust WLS is superior to full WLS when models are correctly specified. Given the realities of applied research, it was critical to examine these methods with misspecified models. This Monte Carlo simulation study examined the performance of full and robust WLS for two-factor, eight-indicator confirmatory factor analytic models that were either correctly specified, overspecified, or misspecified in one of two ways. Seven conditions of five-category indicator distribution shape at four sample sizes were simulated. These design factors were completely crossed for a total of 224 cells. Previously findings of the relative superiority of robust WLS with correctly specified models were replicated, and robust WLS was also found to perform better than full WLS given overspecification or misspecification. Robust WLS parameter estimates were usually more accurate for correct and overspecified models, especially at the smaller sample sizes. In the face of misspecification, full WLS better approximated the correct loading values whereas robust estimates better approximated the correct factor correlation. Robust WLS chi-square values discriminated between correct and misspecified models much better than full WLS values at the two smaller sample sizes. For all four model specifications, robust parameter estimates usually showed lower variability and robust standard errors usually showed lower bias. These findings suggest that robust WLS should likely remain the estimator of choice for applied researchers. Additionally, highly leptokurtic distributions should be avoided when possible. It should also be noted that robust WLS performance was arguably adequate at the sample size of 100 when the indicators were not highly leptokurtic. Educational Psychology Read more Article The robustness of test statistics to non-normality and specification error in confirmatory factor an... March 1996 · Psychological Methods Patrick J. Curran Stephen G. West John F. Finch Monte Carlo computer simulations were used to investigate the performance of three χ–2 test statistics in confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Normal theory maximum likelihood χ–2 (ML), Browne's asymptotic distribution free χ–2 (ADF), and the Satorra-Bentler rescaled χ–2 (SB) were examined under varying conditions of sample size, model specification, and multivariate distribution. For properly ... [Show full abstract] specified models, ML and SB showed no evidence of bias under normal distributions across all sample sizes, whereas ADF was biased at all but the largest sample sizes. ML was increasingly overestimated with increasing nonnormality, but both SB (at all sample sizes) and ADF (only at large sample sizes) showed no evidence of bias. For misspecified models, ML was again inflated with increasing nonnormality, but both SB and ADF were underestimated with increasing nonnormality. It appears that the power of the SB and ADF test statistics to detect a model misspecification is attenuated given nonnormally distributed data. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved) Read more Article Recovery of weak factor loadings in confirmatory factor analysis under conditions of misspecificatio... November 2009 · Behavior Research Methods Carmen Ximénez This article presents the results of two Monte Carlo simulation studies of the recovery of weak factor loadings, in the context of confirmatory factor analysis, for models that do not exactly hold in the population. This issue has not been examined in previous research. Model error was introduced using a procedure that allows for specifying a covariance structure with a specified discrepancy in ... [Show full abstract] the population. The effects of sample size, estimation method (maximum likelihood vs. unweighted least squares), and factor correlation were also considered. The first simulation study examined recovery for models correctly specified with the known number of factors, and the second investigated recovery for models incorrectly specified by underfactoring. The results showed that recovery was not affected by model discrepancy for the correctly specified models but was affected for the incorrectly specified models. Recovery improved in both studies when factors were correlated, and unweighted least squares performed better than maximum likelihood in recovering the weak factor loadings. Read more Interested in research on Confirmatory Factor Analysis? Join ResearchGate to discover and stay up-to-date with the latest research from leading experts in Confirmatory Factor Analysis and many other scientific topics. Join for free ResearchGate iOS App Get it from the App Store now. Install Keep up with your stats and more Access scientific knowledge from anywhere or Discover by subject area Recruit researchers Join for free Login Email Tip: Most researchers use their institutional email address as their ResearchGate login Password Forgot password? Keep me logged in Log in or Continue with Google Welcome back! Please log in. Email · Hint Tip: Most researchers use their institutional email address as their ResearchGate login Password Forgot password? Keep me logged in Log in or Continue with Google No account? Sign up Company About us News Careers Support Help Center Business solutions Advertising Recruiting

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/8132039_An_Empirical_Evaluation_of_Alternative_Methods_of_Estimation_for_Confirmatory_Factor_Analysis_With_Ordinal_Data

Application of the Three-Dimensional Model to Slovenian Coastal Sea | Request PDF Request PDF | Application of the Three-Dimensional Model to Slovenian Coastal Sea | A three-dimensional baroclinic model based on the finite volume method is described. Some discussion about the use of two- and three-dimensional... | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate January 1992 DOI: 10.1007/978-94-011-2878-0_30 In book: Computer Modelling of Seas and Coastal Regions (pp.413-423) Authors: Rudi Rajar University of Ljubljana Request full-text Download citation Copy link Link copied Request full-text Download citation Copy link Link copied To read the full-text of this research, you can request a copy directly from the author. Citations (8) References (18) Abstract A three-dimensional baroclinic model based on the finite volume method is described. Some discussion about the use of two- and three-dimensional models, about turbulence modelling and about numerical diffusion is given. Two examples of model application (numerical simulation) are presented: Tidal circulation in the Koper bay (Slovenian Coast). Water exchange in Marina Koper. Discover the world's research 25+ million members 160+ million publication pages 2.3+ billion citations Join for free No full-text available To read the full-text of this research, you can request a copy directly from the author. Request full-text PDF Citations (8) References (18) ... As an example of different mathematical models developed at the Faculty of Civil Engineering of the University of Ljubljana a three dimensional baroclinic model can be mentioned (Rajar et al., 1992), used for simulations of tidal and wind-induced currents and dispersion of pollutants in the northern Adriatic. On a smaller scale this model was successfully used to predict tidal circulation in Koper bay and the water exchange in Koper marina ( Rajar, 1992 ) as a example how to handle water quality problems inside marinas. This year a 2D model for hydrodynamical, sedimentological and biogeochemical processes in Trieste bay has been developed, which was tested when modelling processes of hydrodynamics and transport of mercury in Trieste bay (Širca, 1996). ... Climate change scenario of the sea level rise in the Slovenian part of the Adriatic sea. Conference Paper Full-text available Sep 1996 Mikoš Matjaž Vezjak Marja First steps towards an integral study on possible impacts of the sea level rise were undertaken for the Slovenian part of the Adriatic sea. In this pre-feasibility study a general framework and a list of vulnerable areas was defined. This will be part of an integrated management of coastal and marine areas, as defined by the Mediterranean Action Plan of the UNEP. Problems regarding the global climate change will be incorporated into the National Environmental Action Plan, sectoral strategies, and master plans. View Show abstract ... The PCFLOW3D model has already been applied to many practical hydrodynamic and pollutant dispersion problems in Slovenia and abroad (Rajar, 1992; Rajar and Širca, 1996;Četina et al., 2000). This is a non-linear baroclinic model, composed of three modules: a HD module, a ST module, and a TD module; one version of the last has been completed to simulate mercury transport, which we refer to as Hg-module. ... Application of Three-Dimensional Mercury Cycling Model to Coastal Seas Article Jan 2004 ECOL MODEL Rudi Rajar Dusan Zagar Matjaz Cetina Milena Horvat The use of two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) hydrodynamic and pollutant-transport models is presented for two cases of mercury contamination, where field measurements are also available: the Gulf of Trieste (Northern Adriatic), where the source of contamination is a former mercury mine, and the well-known case of Minamata Bay/Yatsushiro Sea in Japan. The degree of Hg contamination of water and sediment is of the same order of magnitude in both bays. Simulations have shown, that the most important processes in both cases are physical, i.e. transport by currents, dispersion, and exchange with bottom sediment. Storm winds can displace mercury, mainly bound to suspended sediment, by tens of kilometres. One of the models also includes some chemical processes (methylation, demethylation, reduction), although it was only partly possible to verify the correctness of simulation of these processes. The mass-balance of total and methyl-mercury was also calculated for both bays, showing potential sources of Hg and their relative magnitudes. Possible reduction of Hg contamination in the Gulf of Trieste could be attained by prevention of conditions for methylation in the Gulf and/or dredging of the contaminated sediment in the catchment area. The mass-balance of mercury for Minamata Bay showed, that in the future no significant Hg contamination of the Yatsushiro Sea can be expected from Minamata Bay. View Show abstract Numerical Simulation of Circulation and Pollutant Dispersion in Lakes Conference Paper Oct 2003 Cvetanka Popovska Dragan Ivanoski Quality of surface waters, rivers and lakes, is extremely ruined which brings in danger the existence of the human and the rest of living world. Quantity of the water resources is also disturbed by the climate changes due to the global warmth that is having impact on the water balance, planning and management with water resources. This trend is continuous in the last couple of decades and is opening many problems connected to protection measures of the aquatorial systems in wider geographic spaces. It is a general impression, not only regionally but also globally, that surface waters are treated as a waste water " can " with unlimited capacity, which together with the climate change negative impacts causes unforeseeable consequences on the environment. This paper presents some investigation results with hydrodynamic model for three-dimensional simulation of the circulation and dispersion of pollutants in sees, lakes and rivers. The basic differential equation for three-dimensional flow are solved numerically by finite volume method. The model is applied on Lipkovo Lake as one designed aquatorial system with already observed quantity and quality degradation. View Show abstract 3-D Modeling of unsteady free-surface flow in open channel/ Modélisation tridimensionnelle d'un écoulement instationnaire à surface libre en riviére Article Jan 2004 J HYDRAUL RES J.-B. Faure N. Buil B. Gay We present the hydrodynamic part of a three-dimensional model for pollutant dispersion in turbulent free-surface flow in open channels. It does not require any strong assumption such as hydrostatic pressure and is able to simulate an unsteady free-surface flow as flood waves or discharge over a weir. Our main objective was to model the moving free-surface and the boundary conditions under two constraints. The first constraint was to keep a point of view as close as possible to that of the 1-D modeling generally used in river engineering, especially relative to the upstream and downstream boundary conditions. The second one was that our model had to be sufficiently flexible to be implemented in a general computational fluid dynamics package. After describing our model, we present some numerical tests and comparisons with 1-D simulations from a hydrodynamic point of view. View Show abstract Numerical Simulation and Circulation Dispersion in Lakes Conference Paper Oct 2003 Cvetanka Popovska Dragan Ivanoski Quality of surface waters, rivers and lakes, is extremely ruined which brings in danger the existence of the human and the rest of living world. Quantity of the water resources is also disturbed by the climate changes due to the global warmth that is having impact on the water balance, planning and management with water resources. This trend is continuous in the last couple of decades and is opening many problems connected to protection measures of the aquatic systems in wider geographic spaces. It is a general impression, not only regionally but also globally, that surface waters are treated as a waste water “can” with unlimited capacity, which together with the climate change negative impacts causes unforeseeable consequences on the environment. This paper presents some investigation results with hydrodynamic model for three-dimensional simulation of the circulation and dispersion of pollutants in sees, lakes and rivers. The basic differential equation for three-dimensional flow is solved numerically by finite volume method. The model is applied on Lipkovo Lake as one designed aquatic system with already observed quantity and quality degradation. View Show abstract 3-D Modeling of unsteady free-surface flow in open channel Article Jan 2004 J HYDRAUL RES J.-B. Faure N. Buil B. Gay We present the hydrodynamic part of a three-dimensional model for pollutant dispersion in turbulent free-surface flow in open channels. It does not require any strong assumption such as hydrostatic pressure and is able to simulate an unsteady free-surface flow as flood waves or discharge over a weir. Our main objective was to model the moving free-surface and the boundary conditions under two constraints. The first constraint was to keep a point of view as close as possible to that of the 1-D modeling generally used in river engineering, especially relative to the upstream and downstream boundary conditions. The second one was that our model had to be sufficiently flexible to be implemented in a general computational fluid dynamics package. After describing our model, we present some numerical tests and comparisons with 1-D simulations from a hydrodynamic point of view. View Show abstract Hydrodynamic and water quality modelling: An experience Article Aug 1997 ECOL MODEL Rudi Rajar Matjaz Cetina The three-dimensional numerical model LMT3D, used in simulations of water quality in coastal seas and lakes, is presented along with a description of the basic equations and the accompanying numerical methods. The model is composed of a hydrodynamic module and of a mass-transport module. Methodology for coupling these two modules into an integrated water quality model is described, the main problem in this coupling being the different time and space scales of both modules. Several methods for diminishing the numerical diffusion of the hybrid finite volume numerical scheme used in the model are described. Some experience with several practical applications of the model in water quality problems in lakes and in coastal seas is also presented. Three case studies from this field are described in more detail in the companion paper (Rajar, Cetina and Sirca, 1997). View Show abstract Hydrodynamic and water quality modelling: Case studies Article Aug 1997 ECOL MODEL Rudi Rajar Matjaz Cetina A. Širca Three case studies of water quality modelling are presented: (1) 3D modelling of circulation and of nutrient transport and dispersion in an alpine lake; (2) 2D modelling of mercury cycling in the Trieste Bay (Northern Adriatic); here some of the main bio-chemical processes such as sedimentation, methylation, and demethylation are simulated; (3) a 3D, long term simulation of dispersion of radioactive pollutants in the Japan sea, where thermohaline forcing is the main forcing factor. In these simulations the hydrodynamic and mass-transport models LMT2D and LMT3D, described in a companion paper (Rajar, R. and Cetina M., 1997), are used. Different methodologies for coupling hydrodynamic sub-models with mass transport sub-models into integrated water quality models are described. The choice of the methodology depends on the space and time scales, on the prevalent forcing factors and on the nature of the contaminant. View Show abstract Hydraulic modelling of tidal circulation and flushing in coastal basins Article Full-text available Jan 1989 Roger A. Falconer RE NECE The paper highlights the increasing concern of planners and designers for the hydroenvironmental problems relating to tidal circulation and flushing in small coastal basins, harbours, and marinas, and the use of physical and mathematical models as design tools to address such problems. Details are given of techniques frequently adopted in using both physical and mathematical models to quantify tidal flow patterns and water exchange characteristics of harbours and marinas. Emphasis is placed on comparative studies where alternative basin geometries and/or bathymetries are proposed. Advantages and disadvantages of both modelling techniques are considered. An example application of each approach is presented. View Show abstract A survey of three‐dimensional numerical esturine models Article Jan 1990 R.T. Cheng P.E. Smith View Notes on a theory of the thermocline Article W.H. Munk E.R. Anderson View On the application of a three-dimensional numerical model to the waters between Vancouver Island and the mainland coast of British Columbia and Washington State Chapter Jan 1987 J. O. Backhaus P. B. Crean D. K. Lee View Influence of linearization and of vertical distribution of turbulent viscosity coefficient on 3-dim. simulation of currents Article Jan 1989 Rudi Rajar Matjaz Cetina V. Tonin The influence of vertical distribution of the turbulent viscosity coefficient Nv on the computed current velocity fields is studied. Computations with the distribution of Nv after the mixing-length approach give significantly better results than computations with constant Nv, confirmed by measurements in some regions of the Northern Adriatic Sea. -from Authors View Show abstract Numerical Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow Article Jan 1980 Suhas V. Patankar Presents introductory skills needed for prediction of heat transfer and fluid flow, using the numerical method based on physical considerations. The author begins by discussing physical phenomena and moves to the concept and practice of the numerical solution. The book concludes with special topics and possible applications of the method. View Show abstract Modelling three-dimensional wind-induced flows Article Jan 1980 Christofer Koutitas Brian O'Connor Manchester Univ A three-dimensional numerical model has been developed to study hydrodynamic circulations produced in coastal zones due to tide and wind action. The model consists of a mixed finite-difference/finite element solution of the simplified fluid momentum and continuity equations. A numerical splitting technique is used to reduce the size of model solution matrices while the finite element approach is used over the flow depth to enable irregular sea beds to be tackled easily. Model errors arising from the numerical method are minimized by the use of a Galerkin weighted-residual procedure. The problems associated with modelling the turbulence closure of the basic momentum equations are also investigated with a simplified form of the model and the need for high levels of closure is demonstrated. The potential use of the three-dimensional model is illustrated by prediction of wind-induced flows in Thessaloniki Bay in the Aegean Sea. (A) View Show abstract Exploring the effects of bura over the northern Adriatic: CZCS imagery and a mathematical model prediction Article Jan 1991 Milivoj Kuzmić This is the first attempt to test the results of wind-induced current modelling for the northern Adriatic (Kuzmić and Orlić 1987) using space-borne Coastal Zone Colour Scanner (CZCS) data. In particular, new remotely sensed empirical evidence has been sought for the previously studied effect of the spatially heterogeneous bura (gusty, katabatic wind of north-easterly direction) by observing changes in spectral reflectance of the northern Adriatic waters. To that end, an existing hydrodynamical model has been extended to include a simple two-dimensional random walk dispersion model. The CZCS measured radiance has been processed to estimate pigment concentration. Remotely sensed data corroborate mathematical model findings. Comparison of model-generated and sensor-collected information strongly suggests that bura-induced gyre is the mechanism responsible for particular spatial pattern change observed in the CZCS detected radiance and estimated pigment concentration. View Show abstract A note on the theory of thermocline Article Jan 1948 W.H. Munk E.R. Anderson View Turbulence Models and Their Application in Hydraulics Book Jan 1984 W. Rodi A survey is given of existing mathematical models for describing the turbulent transport of momentum, heat and mass in flows. The merits and demerits of the individual models are discussed with respect to their predictive ability and computational economy. Examples of model applications to a fairly large variety of small scale (near field) hydraulics problems are presented, with emphasis on recently developed more refined models. The performance of the models is judged by comparison with experiments, and conclusions are drawn on the range of applicability of the individual models. View Show abstract Some Examples of Simulation of Two-Dimensional Turbulent Free-Surface Flows M Cetina Mitigating Marina Environmental Impact through Hydraulic Design R E Nece J A Layton A Look at the Pollution Problems in the Bay of Koper in Relation to the Provisional Sewage Outfall V Turk J Faganeli A Malej Three-Dimensional Modelling of Currents in the Northern Adriatic Sea R Rajar Flushing of Marinas with Weak Tidal Motion. Marinas: Planning and Feasibility E Ozdan Mathematical Simulation of Two-Dimensional Lake Circulation R Rajar M Četina Modelling Wind-Induced Circulation and Dispersion in the Northern Adriatic R Rajar M Četina On the Application of a ThreeDimensional Model to the Waters Between Vancouver Island and the Mainland Coast of British Columbia and Washington State In: Three-Dimensional Coastal Ocean Models J O Backhaus P B Crean D K Lee Recommended publications Discover more Article Measured and calculated unsteady pressure field in a vaneless diffuser of a centrifugal compressor January 2006 Teemu Turunen-Saaresti Jaakko Larjola An unsteady experimental and numerical investigation was conducted to a centrifugal compressor with a vaneless diffuser. The unsteady static pressure was measured at the diffuser inlet and outlet at three different circumferential positions. Also a time-accurate numerical simulation was carried out. The whole compressor was modeled. Turbulence was modeled with the low Reynolds number κ — ∈ ... [Show full abstract] turbulence model. The measurements were made in operation points near the surge, near the choke and at the design operation point of the compressor. The numerical simulations were conducted at the design operation point and at the operation point near the choke. The gathered numerical and experimental unsteady pressures were compared with each other. Read more Looking for the full-text? You can request the full-text of this chapter directly from the authors on ResearchGate. Request full-text Already a member? Log in ResearchGate iOS App Get it from the App Store now. Install Keep up with your stats and more Access scientific knowledge from anywhere or Discover by subject area Recruit researchers Join for free Login Email Tip: Most researchers use their institutional email address as their ResearchGate login Password Forgot password? Keep me logged in Log in or Continue with Google Welcome back! Please log in. Email · Hint Tip: Most researchers use their institutional email address as their ResearchGate login Password Forgot password? Keep me logged in Log in or Continue with Google No account? Sign up Company About us News Careers Support Help Center Business solutions Advertising Recruiting

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/300203328_Application_of_the_Three-Dimensional_Model_to_Slovenian_Coastal_Sea

Applied Sciences | Free Full-Text | On the Spectral Efficiency for Distributed Massive MIMO Systems Distributed MIMO (D-MIMO) systems are expected to play a key role in deployments for future mobile communications. Together with massive MIMO technology, D-MIMO aims to maximize the spectral efficiency and data rate in mobile networks. This paper proposes a deep study on the spectral efficiency of D-MIMO systems for essential channel parameters, such as the channel power balance or the correlation between propagation channels. For that purpose, several propagation channels were acquired in both anechoic and reverberation chambers and were emulated using channel simulators. In addition, several frequency bands were studied, both the sub–6 GHz band and mmWave band. The results of this study revealed the high influence of channel correlation and power balance on the physical channel performance. Low-correlated and high-power balance propagation channels show better performances than high correlated and power unbalance channels in terms of spectral efficiency. Given these results, it will be fundamental to take into account the spectral efficiency of D-MIMO systems when designing criteria to establish multi-connectivity in future mobile network deployments. On the Spectral Efficiency for Distributed Massive MIMO Systems by Alejandro Ramírez-Arroyo 1,* , Juan Carlos González-Macías 2 , Jose J. Rico-Palomo 2 , Javier Carmona-Murillo 2 and Antonio Martínez-González 3 Department of Signal Theory, Telematics and Communications, University of Granada (UGR), 18071 Granada, Spain 3 Department of Information and Communication Technologies, Technical University of Cartagena (UPTC), 30202 Murcia, Spain * Author to whom correspondence should be addressed. Appl. Sci. 2021 , 11 (22), 10926; https://doi.org/10.3390/app112210926 Received: 30 September 2021 / Revised: 5 November 2021 / Accepted: 17 November 2021 / Published: 18 November 2021 (This article belongs to the Special Issue Antennas and Propagation for Mobile Communication Systems ) Abstract Distributed MIMO (D-MIMO) systems are expected to play a key role in deployments for future mobile communications. Together with massive MIMO technology, D-MIMO aims to maximize the spectral efficiency and data rate in mobile networks. This paper proposes a deep study on the spectral efficiency of D-MIMO systems for essential channel parameters, such as the channel power balance or the correlation between propagation channels. For that purpose, several propagation channels were acquired in both anechoic and reverberation chambers and were emulated using channel simulators. In addition, several frequency bands were studied, both the sub–6 GHz band and mmWave band. The results of this study revealed the high influence of channel correlation and power balance on the physical channel performance. Low-correlated and high-power balance propagation channels show better performances than high correlated and power unbalance channels in terms of spectral efficiency. Given these results, it will be fundamental to take into account the spectral efficiency of D-MIMO systems when designing criteria to establish multi-connectivity in future mobile network deployments. Keywords: distributed MIMO systems ; anechoic chamber ; reverberation chamber ; spectral efficiency ; power balance 1. Introduction The prognosis for average user data consumption in 2026 is expected to be 35 GB/month compared with approximately 9 GB/month currently [ 1 , 2 ], which implies a 25% compound annual growth rate. In 2026, the most consumed user applications will continue to be based on streaming video. It is anticipated that these applications will require up to 27 GB/month per user, compared with 6 GB/month today. Applications contributing to this dramatic increase in 2026 include: (i) 1080 p full HD (1920 × 1080); (ii) full HD virtual reality (VR); and (iii) 4K UHD (3840 × 2160). Beyond 2026, more demanding video streaming applications are expected to take user traffic to new levels, such as: (i) 8K UHD (7680 × 4320); and (ii) volumetric data streaming [ 3 ]. Consequently, this prediction shows an increase of approximately 4 times in 5 years until 2026. If we linearly extrapolated this result to 2030, we obtain an increase factor of between 20 and 30 times the current traffic of the users. It is expected that the above usage cases and any future cases will require the same type of 5G key performance indicators (KPIs) including: (i) new target values (e.g., higher data rates, lower latency, higher reliability…); and (ii) new cut-off hybrids across the three types of user services for 5G, enhanced mobile broadband (eMBB), ultra-reliable low-latency communications (uRLLCs) and massive machine-type communications (mMTCs) [ 4 ]. Technological challenges and goals for the short (SEVO), medium (MEVO) and long (LEVO)-term evolution of 5G are shown in Figure 1 . Figure 1. Evolution roadmap of the communication standards and major technological challenges for future mobile communications. Within this framework and perspective, technological advances are mandatory to fulfill the user requirements. Thus, multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) is fundamental for the development of mobile networks. In particular, massive MIMO technology expects to increase the transmission speed on the network by using multiple antennas at the transmitter (TX) and receiver (RX), and high frequencies, known as millimeter waves (mmWaves) [ 5 ]. However, the propagation channel for mmWaves is particularly exposed to attenuation and fading issues. Therefore, it will be necessary to connect the user equipment (UE) to several base stations (BSs) simultaneously. Systems with multiple BSs may be known as distributed MIMO (D-MIMO) systems or coordinated multipoint (CoMP) systems. CoMP term usually refers to systems where a suppression is sought through channel awareness being distributed by the backhaul network [ 6 ]. These systems will allow the multi-connectivity between BS and UE, which will require a deep study on the designing criteria on the network in order to provide an optimal network operation. Massive MIMO and coordinated interference schemes have been proposed as solutions to mitigate high interference and thus increase spectral efficiency [ 7 ]. However, the main issue of this technique is the increased system overload in the fronthaul [ 8 ] and backhaul [ 9 ] networks. A solution for cooperation in transmissions is to find a balance for the number of coordinated cells in order to decrease the overheads [ 10 , 11 ]. These coordinated transmissions are typically based on three techniques: coordinated beamforming, coordinated transmissions and coordinated scheduling [ 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 ]. Moreover, new strategies are emerging to improve the performance of the previous techniques, such as those based on games or deep learning [ 16 , 17 , 18 ]. Previous work by MacCartey and Rappaport [ 6 ] demonstrate that the full knowledge of the propagation channel provides an increase in the data rate for the CoMP systems. However, it also proves that both the sharing of full CSI and BSs coordination imply a drastic increase on the backhaul overhead, as stated previously in [ 9 ]. For that reason, the interference mitigation may not be worthy in practical cases. Nevertheless, it is preferable to use multi-BS systems to increase the data rate of the network, since they avoid overheads. For this, the joint spectral efficiency of the distributed MIMO systems is sought. This study deals with the above-mentioned issues and proposes the following contributions: A field study on the spectral efficiency of distributed MIMO systems for the sub–6 GHz band that quantifies the losses of spectral efficiency due to power unbalance in several distributed MIMO systems working together. In this paper, channel propagation measurements are acquired in reverberation chambers to emulate different environments; A theoretical study is carried out in order to simulate a distributed massive MIMO system in the mmWave band. A deep analysis on the spectral efficiency is presented using the NYUSIM simulator; A field study is performed to emulate a distributed MIMO system in the mmWave band. A measurement campaign is performed to emulate several distributed MIMO scenarios above 30 GHz. A comparison with the power unbalance in the sub–6 GHz band is made in order to see the implementation viability of distributed MIMO scenarios for future mobile generations. The study is organized as follows. Section 2 introduces the distributed MIMO model and the channel matrix that provides the spectral efficiency of the measured scenario. Section 3 , Section 4 and Section 5 show the analysis of the D-MIMO scenarios in real deployments and simulations, and sub–6 GHz and mmWave bands. Finally, the main conclusions of the article are drawn in Section 6 . 2. Distributed MIMO Model The main goal to study the scenarios is the emulation of distributed MIMO systems by combining values from several communication channels acquired in different environments. Therefore, diverse channel matrices are combined in order to form a single matrix that symbolizes the D-MIMO channel matrix [ 6 , 19 ]. Each propagation environment has a certain number of transmitting (TX) and receiving (RX) antennas. TXs simulate a transmitting BS, where each BS is placed in a different location, emitting to a user equipment (UE) located in a fixed place and composed by several RXs. Mathematically, the combination of channel matrices can be depicted in Equation (1). A deep and detailed explanation on channel matrix models can be found on [ 20 , 21 ]. H = [ H 1 T , H 2 T , … , H N T ] T , (1) N is the total number of MIMO systems that form the D-MIMO. H i is the channel matrix from a single MIMO whose dimension is L i × R. L i and R is the number of TX and RX in the BS and UE for the i- MIMO system, respectively. Finally, H is the channel matrix of the D-MIMO with dimensions L × R, where L is computed as ∑ i = 1 N L i . It is essential to emphasize that each H i , related to different MIMO systems, represents propagation channels that may differ from each other due to the unique conditions of each scenario. Therefore, the power received by the UE is expected to be different from different schemes. In this paper, a modulation of H i is introduced to emulate the unbalance power that might occur in a D-MIMO system. In order to perform this unbalance, H i is multiplied by a balance factor ( Att ) that emulates losses in the transmission due to obstacles in the propagation path or shadow fading. H i A t t = A t t i · H i ; A t t i ≥ 0 (2) By applying this balance factor to certain i- MIMO systems, the performance of D-MIMO systems can be analyzed when they suffer a strong power unbalance. The spectral efficiency of the system can be computed to determine the effect on the D-MIMO once the power balance is modified. This metric of the full communication channel is estimated using the following formulas [ 22 ]: H n o r m ( f i ) = H ( f i ) [ 1 N f ∑ i = 1 N f | | H ( f i ) | | 2 ] − 1 2 , (3) η ( bps / Hz ) = l o g 2 | I L + SIN R L H H H | , (4) where SINR is the signal-to-interference-plus-noise ratio rate, H represents the channel matrix of the D-MIMO, I is an identity matrix, and the superscript ( H ) denotes the conjugate transpose operator. First of all, H must be normalized ( H n o r m ) in order to take into account the frequency dependence of the communication channel in Equation (3) [ 23 ], where N f is the number of frequency samples. Note that the number of frequency samples N f must be chosen long enough so that no channel effect at a single frequency is unnoticed. The spectral efficiency in Equation (4) is calculated from the normalized channel frequency response H n o r m . Throughout the article, additional modifications will be added to the channel frequency response shown in Equation (3) to demonstrate the importance of effects such as power unbalance in D-MIMO systems. A visual example of the composition of a D-MIMO system is illustrated in the Figure 2 . This example shows the composition of a D-MIMO throughout several measurements acquired in a semi-anechoic and semi-reverberation chamber. As previously stated, n– MIMO systems are deployed, where the UE/RX is located in a fixed position. However, the BS/TX position is changed in order to move and point to different locations inside the chamber. This provokes the diversity of the propagation channel which is finally reflected on the channel matrix H . Each one of the following sections details how the channel matrices H i were obtained. Figure 2. Scheme of a D-MIMO consisting of a set of MIMO subsystems acquired in a semi-anechoic and semi-reverberation chamber. 3. Power Unbalance on Sub–6 Ghz D-MIMO Systems This section presents the effect of the power unbalance for a D-MIMO system composed by multiple MIMO subsystems acquired in a reverberation chamber. The first part of the section briefly describes the acquisition process of the propagation channels. The second part shows and details the results of this power unbalance. From an analytical perspective, the relevance of this section lies in understanding how the spectral efficiency can be maximized while the power allocation is minimized at the same time. 3.1. Measurement Scenario The first subset of measurements is taken in a reverberation chamber. These measurements are characterized by the rich scattering scenario generated inside the chamber. The reflection of the waves on the shielded walls creates several multipath components (MPCs) that reach the UE in different time instants, which increase the diversity of the scenario. Seven different scenarios are measured inside the reverberation chamber, where the BS has twelve transmitter antennas and UE has three receiver antennas. In order to generate diversity on the propagation channel, two mechanical stirrers are inserted inside the reverberation chamber. Since stirrers can adopt 50 different positions, together with 201 frequency points (250 kHz frequency spacing) from 1775 GHz to 1825 GHz, 10,050 channel propagation are measured for each TX-RX pair on each scenario. The main difference between the seven scenarios is found in the load of the reverberation chamber, which is changed by introducing several absorbers in different positions. A deep explanation of the measuring process can be found in [ 24 , 25 ]. Once the acquisition process is carried out, seven MIMO systems are achieved and saved on seven H i . The full D-MIMO system is formed by the matrix H = [ H 1 T , H 2 T , … , H 7 T ] T whose dimensions are 84 TX × 3 RX. 3.2. Power Balance Analysis In order to analyze the effect of the power balance in a D-MIMO system, the balance of the measurements must be assessed. For that purpose, Table 1 shows the normalized power balance (NPB) over the maximum value for the i- MIMO system. Since all scenarios are normalized, it can be seen that scenario A reaches the maximum power in the receivers. As stated in [ 22 , 23 ], this scenario lacks absorbers, so it is logical to expect maximum received power. The higher the number of absorbers, the lower the received power due to the absorption effect. Table 1. Normalized power balance (NPB) for the i -MIMO system. Once the power allocation is known, we can establish a D-MIMO system formed by the first transmitter of the scenarios from A to E and all three receivers from every scenario. This leads to a D-MIMO whose channel matrix H has the dimensions 5 TX × 3 RX. In this new H , the average value of the normalized power is 0.65. Scenarios A and B are modified by applying the balance factors A t t 1 and A t t 2 Equation (2) to the first two rows of H to see the effect of the power balance. Figure 3 a shows the spectral efficiency of the D-MIMO when it is modulated with both balance factors simultaneously. As it can be seen, the higher the A t t 2 value is, the higher the spectral efficiency obtained. Since A t t 2 modulates H 2 ( NPB = 0.48 ) and the average NPB for the full matrix H is 0.65, it is intended to obtain an A t t 2 value as close as possible to 1. This fact provides an NPB in the H 2 row that is the closest to the average NPB. Observing the effect of A t t 1 , the spectral efficiency rises from 0.01 to 0.6, where it reaches a maximum. From that value, the metric tends to decrease. Since H 1 NPB is 1, the value of A t t 1 that provides a NPB similar to the average NPB is 0.65. It is clearly observed that the maximum spectral efficiencies are reached for these values. In short, the D-MIMO is able to maximize its spectral efficiency when the i- MIMO systems tend to be balanced due to the balance factor inclusion. Figure 3. Spectral efficiency of a D-MIMO when the power balance is modulated with two balance factors. SINR is fixed to 15 dB. The i- MIMO systems that form the D-MIMO are the scenarios ( a ) A ( A t t 1 ), B ( A t t 2 ), C, D, E, and ( b ) C ( A t t 3 ), D ( A t t 4 ), E, F, G. In order to validate this reasoning, a second experiment was carried out. The first transmitter from the scenarios C, D, E, F and G were chosen. Therefore, a D-MIMO with channel matrix H (5 TX × 3 RX) was created. In this case, the average NPB is 0.42 and the balance factors A t t 3 and A t t 4 are applied to the scenarios C ( H 3 ) and D ( H 4 ), respectively. Figure 3 b presents the spectral efficiency when both balance factors are included. First, the NPB in scenario C is 0.36. Therefore, larger values of A t t 3 obtain a NPB closer to the average NPB of the D-MIMO. Consequently, the spectral efficiency increases as A t t 3 increases. Based on the modulation of scenario D ( A t t 4 ), the NPB is 0.85. In order to maximize the spectral efficiency, the NPB must tend to values around the average NPB. This is obtained for values of A t t 4 around 0.5. Note that A t t 4 values above 0.5 do not increase the spectral efficiency even when it implies increasing the transmission power of scenario C. This fact is due to the power unbalance when A t t 4 is too high. To conclude this section, it was proven that the spectral efficiency of a D-MIMO system is directly proportional to the power balance. Therefore, the received power variance between the TX-RX pair should be reduced in order to provide satisfactory UE services. 4. Correlation and Los on Emulated D-MIMO Systems above 6 Ghz 4.1. Emulation Scenario In this section, an analysis on the TX correlation and the effect of the line-of-sight (LoS) in D-MIMO systems is performed. For that purpose, several measurements of the propagation channel are simulated in NYUSIM [ 26 ]. NYUSIM is a mmWave simulator that has a wide variety of configuration parameters for the simulated environment. In particular, it allows to simulate scenarios for a wide frequency range and several propagation models. In this study, simulations from 10 GHz to 78 GHz are carried out for two environment models: urban macrocell (UMa) and urban microcell (UMi). Several channel matrices H were simulated for a wide range of configuration parameters. Table 2 shows the choice of simulation parameters in detail. Note that each simulation was iterated ten times in order to avoid outliers in the channel matrices H . The chosen distances, antenna spacing, and frequencies ensure the UE far-field condition for all simulations shown in this section. Table 2. NYUSIM simulation parameters. 4.2. Correlation and LoS Analysis The first test consists of studying the TX/RX antenna spacing in the BS/UE to determine its effect on spectral efficiency. For that purpose, a D-MIMO system with 50 TX and 10 RX was created. The D-MIMO is formed by 3 BS which are 100 m, 120 m, and 140 m away from the receiver. The relative distance between BSs is set to be the largest BS-UE distance (140 m). On each BS the transmission is made with 17 TX, 17 TX, and 16 TX, respectively. The simulations are made for two environments (UMa and UMi) and three frequencies (28 GHz, 40 GHz, and 78 GHz). Since the goal is to study the TX/RX antenna spacing effect, three distances are considered for the TX/RX spacing: λ/10, λ/2, and λ. For the sake of clarity, the spacing is set to the same value on both sides of the communication. Theoretically, the closer the antennas are to each other, the lower the benefit from spatial diversity is due to the higher correlation between channels. Figure 4 a,b show the results for this test. We define Θ as the difference between the Shannon theoretical limit and the spectral efficiency simulated. The Shannon theoretical limit establishes the spectral efficiency for completely decorrelated channels. Therefore, the Shannon limit cannot be exceeded and Θ provides an idea of how far the scenario is from the theoretical limit. Looking at both scenarios, UMa ( Figure 4 a) and UMi ( Figure 4 b), the UMa scenario tends to obtain similar results for all frequencies, while the UMi scenario shows differences up to 3 bps/Hz due to the frequency band. However, the main effect is induced by the TX/RX spacing. The farther apart the TX and RX are spaced in the ULA, the closer the theoretical limit of spectral efficiency is. In this case, the propagation channel looks different for the receivers and the propagation channels become independent from each other. Therefore, we can take advantage of the spatial multiplexing and the spectral efficiency to be closer to the Shannon limit. It is remarkable that curves between λ/10 and λ/2 are more separated than curves between λ/2 and λ. This fact shows that a λ/10 spacing significantly affects the channel due to the high correlation. However, spacing values above λ/2 are enough decorrelated to take advantage of the channel diversity. In absolute terms, the improvement from λ/10 to λ/2 is 13 bps/Hz (UMa) and 12 bps/Hz (UMi). Nevertheless, the improvement from λ/2 to λ is only 2 bps/Hz (UMa) and 5 bps/Hz (UMi). In conclusion, a wider spacing between BS antennas allows an increase in spectral efficiency for the user by decreasing the antenna correlation and increasing the independence of the communication channels. Figure 4. Distance to the spectral efficiency theoretical limit for three frequencies (28 GHz, 40 GHz and 78 GHz) and three TX/RX antenna spacing (λ/10, λ/2 and λ) for several SINR values in a D-MIMO (50 × 10). ( a ) UMa scenario and ( b ) UMi scenario. The second test studies the influence of LoS and NLoS on the communication channels of a D-MIMO system. A D-MIMO formed by 50 TX and 10 RX is analyzed, where 2 BS are considered (25 TX per BS). Both BS are moved simultaneously from 50 to 1000 m away from the UE. The relative distance between BSs is set to be the BS-UE distance. According to the previous test, the antenna spacing is set to λ/2. Two environments were tested (UMa and UMi) and two frequencies were considered (10 GHz and 28 GHz). Figure 5 a,b show the spectral efficiency of both frequencies and visibility conditions in function of the distance between the UE and both BSs for the UMa and UMi scenario respectively. For the UMa and UMi environment (LoS and NLOS cases), the spectral efficiency slightly decreases over distance due to attenuation in the propagation path. This decrease is not linear. Due to fading effects, there are distances where a constructive contribution of the multipath environment implies an increase in the efficiency. Likewise, at other distances, a destructive contribution from the multipath environment decreases the efficiency. Note that the 28 GHz channel also has lower efficiency than the 10 GHz channel due to higher attenuation. However, besides all effects mentioned, the main one is the LoS/NLoS condition. For both environments, the spectral efficiency is increased by approximately 25% when the propagation path includes the Line-of-Sight. In conclusion, the network deployment for massive D-MIMO systems should ensure a spacing antenna above λ/2 and should provide the UE with LoS to maximize the spectral efficiency of the communications. Figure 5. Spectral efficiency of a D-MIMO (50 × 10) system for two frequencies (10 GHz and 28 GHz) and LoS and NLoS visibility conditions. SINR is fixed to 15 dB. ( a ) UMa scenario and ( b ) UMi scenario. 5. D-MIMO System on a Semi-Anechoic and Semi-Reverberation Chamber in the mmWave Band 5.1. Measurement Scenario This last section is focused on the analysis of a D-MIMO system in the mmWave band acquired in a controlled scenario, such as a semi-anechoic and semi-reverberation chamber. For that purpose, two distinct scenarios are taken into account. On the one hand, the semi-anechoic part is commonly used for the characterization of radiating elements due to the absorption of any reflection in the scenario. In this case, it is used as a communication channel where the lack of reflections decreases the diversity of the scenario. Only one direct beam reaches the receiver through the LoS. Therefore, it is expected to notice a very high correlation between channel measurements. On the other hand, the semi-reverberation part implies a rich scattering environment since the metallic walls generate several propagation paths for the electromagnetic waves. In this case, any movement on the BS/UE generates a totally different propagation path, which makes the correlation between channels low. A complete and detailed description of the chamber is available in [ 27 ]. 5.2. Anechoic and Reverberation Channel Analysis Once the two types of propagation channels are known, two MIMO systems are acquired. The first one has a BS with 11 TX pointing the UE in the semi-anechoic part. The transmitters are arranged at 90° amplitude in the azimuth angle, with an angle separation between consecutive transmitters of 9°. The UE is composed by 5 RX in a 20 cm lineal array, where the separation between consecutive RX is 5 cm. The frequency range of the measurement goes from 40 GHz to 50 GHz for 101 frequency samples (100 MHz frequency spacing) and the distance on the LoS is 150 cm. The second MIMO measured is similar to the first one. The main difference lies on the BS pointing angle. In this case, the BS points directly to the metallic wall in the semi-reverberation part, which makes a NLoS scenario where the signal reaches the RX through several reflections. In this case, the shortest path from the TX to the RX is 720 cm. Due to the peculiarities of the scenarios, several conclusions can be drawn. The anechoic channels are expected to achieve lower attenuations due to the proximity between the pair TX/RX. However, the correlation between channels will be high due to the low spatial diversity of the scenario. On other hand, the reverberation channels are expected to obtain higher attenuations due to the TX-RX distance. Nevertheless, the channels tend to be independents. Once the previous facts were known, we created a D-MIMO system formed by both MIMO systems. A matrix channel H = [ H 1 T , H 2 T ] T with dimensions 22 TX × 5 RX for 101 frequency samples was obtained. The normalized power balance for the submatrix H 1 and H 2 is 1 and 0.158, respectively. As previously stated, the anechoic channels achieve the maximum power, and the reverberation channels are attenuated in a factor 6.325 in average. Without the application of a normalization factor, reverberation channels will be masked by the anechoic channels. Therefore, as shown in Section 3 , A t t 1 and A t t 2 factors multiply the anechoic and reverberation channels in order to modulate the D-MIMO balance power. Figure 6 shows a parametric sweep of both factors for the spectral efficiency. A t t 1 moves in the range from 0 to 2 and A t t 2 in the range from 0 to 5. Moreover, a black line with slope 6.325 is shown. This line represents those operating points where the D-MIMO is balanced in terms of power. On the right side of this line, the D-MIMO system is dominated by anechoic channels, while the reverberation channels prevail in the left side. The higher the prevalence of the anechoic channels, the lower the spectral efficiency due to the high correlation between these channels. As we approach the equilibrium line, the presence of the significantly less correlated reverberation channels becomes higher, which increases the efficiency. In the balanced region, the efficiency is maximized around 45 bps/Hz. On the left side, the values remain around the maximum because the reverberation channels are the predominant ones over the anechoic channels. Figure 6. Spectral efficiency for a parametric sweep of A t t 1 and A t t 2 . The black line stands for the region where both MIMO subsystems are balanced in terms of power. The SINR is fixed to 30 dB and the values are averaged over the 101 frequency samples. Finally, to further explore this scenario, three key operating points were studied in terms of SINR. Figure 7 illustrates the spectral efficiency of the MIMO subsystem formed by the anechoic channels, the unbalanced D-MIMO and the balanced D-MIMO. The first curve takes into account only the H 1 channel matrix. For 30 dB SINR, it reaches a spectral efficiency of 24.5 bps/Hz. This operating point is shown in Figure 6 for A t t 1 = 1 and A t t 2 = 0 . If we include the reverberation channels, the unbalanced D-MIMO is formed. In this case, diversity is added to the scenario, although reverberation channels are masked due to unbalancing. The effect can be seen in the second curve, where the spectral efficiency is slightly improved. This operating point corresponds to A t t 1 = 1 and A t t 2 = 1 , where the spectral efficiency is 30.9 bps/Hz in Figure 6 . Finally, the channel power balance can improve further the scenario. This effect is shown in the third curve, where the spectral efficiency is significantly improved ( A t t 1 = 0.158 and A t t 2 = 1 ). Due to this fact, values up to 45 bps/Hz are achieved. This means an improvement of 45.6% compared with the unbalanced case and 83.7% compared with the anechoic subsystem. Figure 7. Spectral efficiency for the anechoic MIMO (blue line), unbalanced D-MIMO (red line) and balanced MIMO (black line). For each value of SINR, the spectral efficiency is averaged over the 101 frequency samples. Once the previous case was studied, a second set of measurements was acquired. On the one hand, 33 TX points the UE in the semi-anechoic chamber. As in previous case, TXs are arranged at a 90° amplitude in the azimuth angle with a separation of 9° (11 locations). However, we added 11 TX 5 cm on the left and 11 TX 5 cm on the right to form a ULA. Each position includes 11 TX that varies in the azimuth angle, for a total of 33 TX. On the other hand, the UE is composed of 25 RX in a 20 cm uniform rectangular array (URA), where the separation between the consecutive RX is 5 cm in both axes. The second MIMO is similar to the first one, but pointing the semi-reverberation chamber. The distances and frequency ranges are the same as in the previous example. After the acquisition, the D-MIMO channel matrix is formed by combining both MIMO system, whose size is 66 TX × 25 RX. The normalized power balance for the anechoic MIMO and reverberation MIMO is 1 and 0.091, respectively. This means the reverberation MIMO is even more unbalanced than in Figure 6 . Specifically, reverberation channels are attenuated in an 11.042 factor compared with the anechoic channels. Figure 8 A presents a sweep parameter for A t t 1 and A t t 2 factors, where we can extract similar conclusions as in Figure 6 . Note that the black line which indicates the balance power equilibrium is shifted to the left. This is due to the larger unbalance from the reverberation chamber. The slope of this equilibrium point is 11.042. In the balance region, the spectral efficiency is maximized around 205 bps/Hz. Figure 8 B shows the operation points previously illustrated in Figure 7 . When the number of propagation channels increases and the power distribution is balanced, the spectral efficiency is also expected to increase. For a 30 dB SINR, the anechoic MIMO obtains 60.7 bps/Hz, the unbalanced D-MIMO gets 94.3 bps/Hz and the balance D-MIMO achieves 205.8 bps/Hz. In relative terms, the balanced D-MIMO system has an improvement of 118.3% compared with the unbalanced case and 238.9% compared with the anechoic subsystem. These results show how critical a proper assignation of the power resources is for massive D-MIMO systems. Figure 8. ( a ) Spectral efficiency (D-MIMO 66 × 25) for a parametric sweep of A t t 1 and A t t 2 and ( b ) spectral efficiency for the anechoic MIMO (blue line), unbalanced D-MIMO (red line) and balanced MIMO (black line). The analysis made in this section shows that decorrelation of channels in a D-MIMO, as well as channel power balance, imply the improvement of propagation channel conditions, ensuring both conditions induce optimal physical channel performance. Furthermore, by comparing both D-MIMOs, it was shown that the higher the number of propagation channels are, the more noticeable this improvement is. 6. Conclusions In the current work, an analysis of the performance of D-MIMO systems under different conditions was carried out. Several MIMO scenarios have been proposed. On the frequency side, several bands were studied, including the sub–6 GHz and the mmWave band. On the scenario side, both simulated and real measurements were analyzed for a wide variety of environments. Rural and urban scenarios were emulated, and channels from anechoic and reverberation chambers were acquired. The analysis of all these measurements was focused on the balance power and the correlation between propagation channels for distributed MIMO systems. These systems are expected to be fundamental in the future deployment of mobile networks due to the large number of antennas which allows high spectral efficiencies. In this study, it was found that D-MIMO provides high data rates compared with common MIMO systems. However, it is fundamental to perform an accurate deployment analysis in order to find decorrelated and balanced propagation channels in terms of power. Throughout the study, we observed how the combination of both properties takes full advantage of the benefits of the propagation channel, significantly increasing the spectral efficiency on the physical layer of the communication channels. The network operation following design criteria such as those seen in this study is fundamental for the multi-connectivity expected in D-MIMO systems. An optimal choice of such criteria showed network performances of 45.6% (22 TX × 5 RX D-MIMO) and 118.3% (66 TX × 25 RX D-MIMO) better than non-optimal cases in terms of spectral efficiency for similar D-MIMO systems but with different power allocation criteria. Author Contributions Conceptualization, A.R.-A. and J.C.G.-M.; methodology, A.R.-A., J.C.G.-M. and J.C.-M.; formal analysis and investigation, A.R.-A., J.C.G.-M., J.J.R.-P., J.C.-M. and A.M.-G.; writing—original draft preparation, A.R.-A., J.C.G.-M., J.J.R.-P. and A.M.-G.; writing—review and editing, A.R.-A. and J.C.G.-M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding This work was supported in part by the Spanish Government under Project PID2020-112545RB-C54, Project RTI2018-102002-A-I00 and Project TIN2016-75097-P, in part by “Junta de Andalucía” under Project B-TIC-402-UGR18, Project A-TIC-608-UGR20 and Project P18.RT.4830, in part by “Junta de Extremadura” under Project IB18003 and in part by the predoctoral grant FPU19/01251. Data Availability Statement Not applicable. Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the constructive comments and help of Juan Valenzuela-Valdés. Conflicts of Interest The authors declare no conflict of interest. References Ericsson. Ericsson Mobility Report June 2021. 2021. Available online: https://www.ericsson.com/4a03c2/assets/local/mobility-report/documents/2021/june-2021-ericsson-mobility-report.pdf (accessed on 29 September 2021). Cisco. Cisco Annual Internet Report (2018–2023). 2020. Available online: https://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/solutions/collateral/executiveperspectives/annual-internet-report/white-paper-c11-741490.html (accessed on 29 September 2021). Han, B.; Liu, Y.; Qian, F. ViVo: Visibility-aware mobile volumetric video streaming. In Proceedings of the 26th Annual International Conference on Mobile Computing and Networking, London, UK, 21–25 September 2020; Association for Computing Machinery: New York, NY, USA, 2020; pp. 1–13. [ Google Scholar ] Ramirez-Arroyo, A.; Zapata-Cano, P.H.; Palomares-Caballero, A.; Carmona-Murillo, J.; Luna-Valero, F.; Valenzuela-Valdes, J.F. Multilayer Network Optimization for 5G & 6G. IEEE Access 2020 , 8 , 204295–204308. [ Google Scholar ] Albreem, M.A.; Juntti, M.; Shahabuddin, S. Massive MIMO Detection Techniques: A Survey. IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor. 2019 , 21 , 3109–3132. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] MacCartney, G.R.; Rappaport, T.S. Millimeter-Wave Base Station Diversity for 5G Coordinated Multipoint (CoMP) Applications. IEEE Trans. Wirel. Commun. 2019 , 18 , 3395–3410. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Jungnickel, V.; Manolakis, K.; Zirwas, W.; Panzner, B.; Braun, V.; Lossow, M.; Sternad, M.; Apelfröjd, R.; Svensson, T. The role of small cells, coordinated multipoint, and massive MIMO in 5G. IEEE Commun. Mag. 2014 , 52 , 44–51. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Zhang, J.; Ji, Y.; Jia, S.; Li, H.; Yu, X.; Wang, X. Reconfigurable Optical Mobile Fronthaul Networks for Coordinated Multipoint Transmission and Reception in 5G. J. Opt. Commun. Netw. 2017 , 9 , 489–497. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Yu, Y.-J.; Hsieh, T.-Y.; Pang, A.-C. Millimeter-Wave Backhaul Traffic Minimization for CoMP Over 5G Cellular Networks. IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol. 2019 , 68 , 4003–4015. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Bassoy, S.; Farooq, H.; Imran, M.A.; Imran, A. Coordinated Multi-Point Clustering Schemes: A Survey. IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor. 2017 , 19 , 743–764. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Bassoy, S.; Imran, M.A.; Yang, S.; Tafazolli, R. A Load-Aware Clustering Model for Coordinated Transmission in Future Wireless Networks. IEEE Access 2019 , 7 , 92693–92708. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Chen, S.; Zhao, T.; Chen, H.-H.; Lu, Z.; Meng, W. Performance Analysis of Downlink Coordinated Multipoint Joint Transmission in Ultra-Dense Networks. IEEE Netw. 2017 , 31 , 106–114. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Schwarz, S.; Rupp, M. Exploring Coordinated Multipoint Beamforming Strategies for 5G Cellular. IEEE Access 2014 , 2 , 930–946. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Marotta, A.; Cassioli, D.; Antonelli, C.; Kondepu, K.; Valcarenghi, L. Network Solutions for CoMP Coordinated Scheduling. IEEE Access 2019 , 7 , 176624–176633. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Li, L.; Yang, C.; Mkiramweni, M.E.; Pang, L. Intelligent Scheduling and Power Control for Multimedia Transmission in 5G CoMP Systems: A Dynamic Bargaining Game. IEEE J. Sel. Areas Commun. 2019 , 37 , 1622–1631. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Georgakopoulos, P.; Akhtar, T.; Politis, I.; Tselios, C.; Markakis, E.; Kotsopoulos, S. Coordination Multipoint Enabled Small Cells for Coalition-Game-Based Radio Resource Management. IEEE Netw. 2019 , 33 , 63–69. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Mismar, F.B.; Evans, B.L. Deep Learning in Downlink Coordinated Multipoint in New Radio Heterogeneous Networks. IEEE Wirel. Commun. Lett. 2019 , 8 , 1040–1043. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Song, G.; Wang, W.; Chen, D.; Jiang, T. KPI/KQI-Driven Coordinated Multipoint in 5G: Measurements, Field Trials, and Technical Solutions. IEEE Wirel. Commun. 2018 , 25 , 23–29. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Park, S.; Alkhateeb, A.; Heath, W.R., Jr. Dynamic Subarrays for Hybrid Precoding in Wideband mmWave MIMO Systems. IEEE Trans. Wirel. Commun. 2017 , 16 , 2907–2920. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Li, J.; Wang, D.; Zhu, P.; Wang, J.; You, X. Downlink Spectral Efficiency of Distributed Massive MIMO Systems with Linear Beamforming Under Pilot Contamination. IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol. 2018 , 67 , 1130–1145. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Lv, Q.; Li, J.; Zhu, P.; You, X. Spectral Efficiency Analysis for Bidirectional Dynamic Network with Massive MIMO Under Imperfect CSI. IEEE Access 2018 , 6 , 43660–43671. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Marzetta, T.L.; Larsson, E.G.; Yang, H.; Ngo, H.Q. Fundamentals of Massive MIMO ; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2018. [ Google Scholar ] Loyka, S.; Levin, G. On physically-based normalization of MIMO channel matrices. IEEE Trans. Wirel. Commun. 2009 , 8 , 1107–1112. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Valenzuela-Valdes, J.; Martinez-Gonzalez, A.; Sanchez-Hernandez, D. Emulation of MIMO Nonisotropic Fading Environments with Reverberation Chambers. IEEE Antennas Wirel. Propag. Lett. 2008 , 7 , 325–328. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Valenzuela-Valdes, J.; Martinez-Gonzalez, A.; Sanchez-Hernandez, D. Diversity Gain and MIMO Capacity for Nonisotropic Environments Using a Reverberation Chamber. IEEE Antennas Wirel. Propag. Lett. 2009 , 8 , 112–115. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Ju, S.; Kanhere, O.; Xing, Y.; Rappaport, T.S. A Millimeter-Wave Channel Simulator NYUSIM with Spatial Consistency and Human Blockage. In Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE Global Communications Conference (GLOBECOM), Waikoloa, HI, USA, 9–13 December 2019; pp. 1–6. [ Google Scholar ] Ramírez-Arroyo, A.; Alex-Amor, A.; García-García, C.; Palomares-Caballero, Á.; Padilla, P.; Valenzuela-Valdés, J.F. Time-Gating Technique for Recreating Complex Scenarios in 5G Systems. IEEE Access 2020 , 8 , 183583–183595. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Figure 1. Evolution roadmap of the communication standards and major technological challenges for future mobile communications. Figure 2. Scheme of a D-MIMO consisting of a set of MIMO subsystems acquired in a semi-anechoic and semi-reverberation chamber. Figure 3. Spectral efficiency of a D-MIMO when the power balance is modulated with two balance factors. SINR is fixed to 15 dB. The i- MIMO systems that form the D-MIMO are the scenarios ( a ) A ( A t t 1 ), B ( A t t 2 ), C, D, E, and ( b ) C ( A t t 3 ), D ( A t t 4 ), E, F, G. Figure 4. Distance to the spectral efficiency theoretical limit for three frequencies (28 GHz, 40 GHz and 78 GHz) and three TX/RX antenna spacing (λ/10, λ/2 and λ) for several SINR values in a D-MIMO (50 × 10). ( a ) UMa scenario and ( b ) UMi scenario. Figure 5. Spectral efficiency of a D-MIMO (50 × 10) system for two frequencies (10 GHz and 28 GHz) and LoS and NLoS visibility conditions. SINR is fixed to 15 dB. ( a ) UMa scenario and ( b ) UMi scenario. Figure 6. Spectral efficiency for a parametric sweep of A t t 1 and A t t 2 . The black line stands for the region where both MIMO subsystems are balanced in terms of power. The SINR is fixed to 30 dB and the values are averaged over the 101 frequency samples. Figure 7. Spectral efficiency for the anechoic MIMO (blue line), unbalanced D-MIMO (red line) and balanced MIMO (black line). For each value of SINR, the spectral efficiency is averaged over the 101 frequency samples. Figure 8. ( a ) Spectral efficiency (D-MIMO 66 × 25) for a parametric sweep of A t t 1 and A t t 2 and ( b ) spectral efficiency for the anechoic MIMO (blue line), unbalanced D-MIMO (red line) and balanced MIMO (black line). Table 1. Normalized power balance (NPB) for the i -MIMO system. A ( H 1 ) B ( H 2 ) C ( H 3 ) D ( H 4 ) E ( H 5 ) F ( H 6 ) G ( H 7 ) Power allocation 1 0.48 0.36 0.85 0.58 0.15 0.14 Table 2. NYUSIM simulation parameters. Simulation Parameters Frequency 10 GHz, 28 GHz, 40 GHz and 78 GHz Bandwidth 800 MHz Frequency samples 1601 (500 kHz frequency spacing) Propagation environment Urban macrocell (UMa) and urban microcell (UMi) Visibility Line-of-sight (LoS) and non-line-of-sight (NLoS) UE-BS distance 50 to 1000 m TX antennas in the BS 200 antennas (Lineal array) RX antennas in the UE 20 antennas (Lineal array) TX antenna separation λ/10, λ/2 and λ RX antenna separation λ/10, λ/2 and λ EIRP 30 dBm Iterations 10 Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ). Ramírez-Arroyo, Alejandro, Juan Carlos González-Macías, Jose J. Rico-Palomo, Javier Carmona-Murillo, and Antonio Martínez-González. 2021. "On the Spectral Efficiency for Distributed Massive MIMO Systems" Applied Sciences11, no. 22: 10926. https://doi.org/10.3390/app112210926 For more information on the journal statistics, click here

https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/11/22/10926/xml#fig_body_display_applsci-11-10926-f007

Sheridan v. Afni, Inc., 3:14-cv-01251 - Federal Cases - Case Law - VLEX 888996013 0: [object Object]. 1: [object Object]. 2: [object Object]. 3: [object Object]. 4: [object Object] Federal Cases Sheridan v. Afni, Inc., 3:14-cv-01251 Court United States District Courts. 6th Circuit. United States District Court of Middle District of Tennessee Writing for the Court John S. Bryant U.S. Magistrate Judge Parties TERRY SHERIDAN, PLAINTIFF, v. AFNI, INC. DEFENDANT. Docket Number No. 3:14-cv-01251,3:14-cv-01251 Decision Date 05 February 2015 TERRY SHERIDAN, PLAINTIFF, v. AFNI, INC.DEFENDANT. No. 3:14-cv-01251 UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT FOR THE MIDDLE DISTRICT OF TENNESSEE NASHVILLE DIVISION February 5, 2015 Judge Campbell/Bryant To: The Honorable Judge Todd J. Campbell , United States District Judge REPORT AND RECOMMENDATION I. Introduction Pending before the Court is Defendant's Motion to Dismiss and Memorandum of Law in Support. (Docket Entry 13 and 14). For the reasons stated below, the Magistrate Judge RECOMMENDS that Defendant's Motion to Dismiss be DENIED and that the Court grant Plaintiff 14 days leave to amend his Complaint. II. Factual and Procedural Background Plaintiff, proceeding pro se and in forma pauperis , filed his Complaint on May 30, 2014 pursuant to the Fair Credit Reporting Act (FCRA), 15 U.S.C. §§ 1681 et seq .(Docket Entry 1). Plaintiff asserts that on or about March 18, 2014, after obtaining his credit reports, "he noticed and found an inquiry by [D]efendant . . . to obtain Plaintiff's consumer credit report on May 29, 2013." (Docket Entry 1, p. 2). Plaintiff argues that Defendant obtained the report without a "permissible purpose" in violation of 15 U.S.C. §§ 1681b and 1681q . (Docket Entry 1, pp. 2-3). On July 08, 2014, the District Judge referred this case to the Magistrate Judge.(Docket Entry 8). Page 2 On July 31, 2014, Defendant filed the instant Motion. (Docket Entry 13 and 14). Defendant identifies itself as "a debt collector" and argues that Plaintiff's Complaint under 15 U.S.C. § 1681b must be dismissed because "Plaintiff has not and cannot allege that [Defendant] pulled his credit report for an impermissible purpose . . . ." (Docket Entry 14, pp. 6-7). Defendant also argues that Plaintiff's claim under 15 U.S.C. § 1681q must fail "because Plaintiff has not alleged that [Defendant] acted under false pretenses." (Docket Entry 14, p. 7). Plaintiff filed a Motion for Default Judgment that the Clerk denied. (Docket Entry 17 and 18). Plaintiff has not filed a Response to the instant Motion. Therefore, this matter is properly before the Court. III. Legal Standard Federal Rule of Civil Procedure (FED.R. CIV. P.) 12(b)(6) governs motions to dismiss for failure to state a claim. "Rule 12(b)(6) does not countenance . . . dismissals based on a judge's disbelief of a complaint's factual allegations." Bell Atl. Corp. v. Twombly,550 U.S. 544, 556 (2007) (quoting Neitzke v. Williams,490 U.S. 319, 327 (1989)). Instead, "a well-pleaded complaint may proceed even if it strikes a savvy judge that actual proof of those facts is improbable . . . ." Bell Atl. Corp., 550 U.S. at 556. A complaint will survive a motion to dismiss if it includes: (1) facts to support a plausible claim; (2) more than a recital of elements of a cause of action; and (3) facts that, taken as true, raise the right to relief above the level of speculation. Bell Atl. Corp. at 555-56. Of course, "the tenet that a court must accept as true all of the allegations contained in a complaint is inapplicable to legal conclusions." Ashcroft v. Iqbal , 556 U.S. 662 , 678 (2009). Indeed, the pleading standard in FED.R. CIV. P. 8 "marks a notable and generous departure from the hyper-technical, code-pleading regime of a prior era, but it does not unlock the doors of discovery for a plaintiff armed with nothing more than conclusions." Ashcroft , 556 U.S. at 678-79. Page 3 When a plaintiff is pro se , the Court will review the plaintiff's pleadings under "less stringent standards than formal pleadings drafted by lawyers . . . ." Haines v. Kerner , 404 U.S. 519 , 520 (1972).Still, "even pro se complaints must satisfy basic pleading requirements." Dallas v. Holmes , 137 F. App'x 746, 750 (6th Cir. 2005) (citation omitted) (unpublished opinion). IV. Analysis A. Stating a Claim Under 15 U.S.C. §§ 1681b and 1681q The provisions of the FCRA at issue here are 15 U.S.C. §§ 1681b and 1681q . 15 U.S.C. § 1681b lists the "limited circumstances under which a consumer reporting agency or a user of credit reports may furnish or utilize a consumer report." Jones v. Federated Fin.Reserve Corp. , 144 F.3d 961 , 964 (6th Cir.1998).15 U.S.C. § 1681q "provides a cause of action for obtaining credit information under false pretenses." Kennedy v. Chase Manhattan Bank USA, NA , 369 F.3d 833 , 843 (5th Cir.2004). To state a claim under the FCRA, a plaintiff must plead that the defendant is subject to the FCRA as a consumer reporting agency, a user of consumer reports, or a furnisher of information to consumer reporting agencies. See Nelski v. Trans Union, LLC , 86 F. App'x 840, 844 (6th Cir. 2004)(citation omitted)(unpublished opinion). To state a claim for improper use of a credit report, a plaintiff must plead that the defendant acted with willfulness under 15 U.S.C. § 1681n or negligence under 15 U.S.C. § 1681o . See Bickley v. Dish Network, LLC , 751 F.3d 724 , 728 (6th Cir.2014). Plaintiff must also plead that there was a consumer report, that the defendant used or obtained the consumer report, and that the defendant lacked a permissible purpose for doing so. See Bickley, LLC , 751 F.3d at 728. To state a claim under 15 U.S.C. § 1681q specifically, a plaintiff must plead that the defendant "(1) knowingly and willfully obtain[ed] a consumer report for a purpose that is not Page 4 sanctioned by the FCRA and (2) fail[ed] to disclose his true motivation to the consumer reporting agency." Shelton v. NCO Fin. Sys. Inc. , No. 3:13-CV-903, 2013 WL 2239132, at *3 (N.D. Ohio May 21, 2013)(citation omitted). The Magistrate Judge finds that Plaintiff sufficiently, if barely, states a claim under 15 U.S.C. § 1681b but fails sufficiently to state a claim under 15 U.S.C. § 1681q . The Magistrate Judge recommends that the Court grant Plaintiff 14 days leave to amend his Complaint. B. 15 U.S.C. § 1681b The Magistrate Judge first finds that Plaintiff sufficiently pleads that Defendant is subject to the FCRA as a user of consumer reports although Plaintiff states that Defendant is a "credit furnisher." (Docket Entry 1, p. 2). Regarding the term "furnisher," the Sixth Circuit has stated: Under the FCRA, those who furnish information to consumer reporting agencies have two obligations: (1) to provide accurate information [ 15 U.S.C. § 1681s-2(a) ]; and (2) to undertake an investigation upon receipt of a notice of dispute regarding credit information that is furnished [[ 15 U.S.C. § 1681s-2(b) ] . . . . If it is assumed that a private right of action exists under [ 15 U.S.C. § 1681s-2(b) ], the plaintiff must show that the furnisher received notice from a consumer reporting agency, not [from] the plaintiff, that the credit information is disputed. Downs v. Clayton Homes, Inc . , 88 F. App'x 851, 853-54 (6th Cir. 2004)(citation omitted)(unpublished opinion)(emphasis added). Therefore, when a plaintiff fails to plead that he filed a dispute about a transaction on his credit report with a credit reporting agency first and instead pleads that he filed a complaint with a "furnisher" directly, his claim under the FCRA will fail. Downs , 88 F. App'x at 854. The wrinkle here is that Plaintiff does not plead that Defendant furnished anything to a consumer reporting agency or that he disputed a transaction on his consumer report. Instead, Plaintiff pleads that Defendant, a debt collector, obtained Plaintiff's credit report in "violation of 15 U.S.C. 1681(b) ." (Docket...

https://case-law.vlex.com/vid/sheridan-v-afni-inc-888996013

Full text of Warrant Disposition Report : Warrant Disposition Report As of December 31, 2010 | FRASER | St. Louis Fed Full text of Warrant Disposition Report : Warrant Disposition Report As of December 31, 2010 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY OFFICE OF FINANCIAL STABILITY Warrant Disposition Report Update December 31, 2010 Troubled Asset Relief Program Office of Financial Stability Executive Summary The Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008 (EESA) requires that in most circumstances Treasury receive warrants in connection with the purchase of troubled assets. Treasury’s warrant sales provide additional returns beyond dividend payments from Treasury’s preferred stock investments. Treasury’s successful warrant dispositions have significantly benefited taxpayers. During the six months ending December 31, 2010, Treasury received more than $1.1 billion in gross proceeds from the disposition of nine warrant positions.2 Executive Summary The United States Department of the Treasury (Treasury) is pleased to present this supplement to the Warrant Disposition Report dated January 20, 2010 with information about the seven warrant repurchases and two warrant auctions that Treasury’s Office of Financial Stability (OFS) conducted under the Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP) in the six months ending December 31, 2010.1 Major parts of TARP were the Capital Purchase Program (CPP) and the Targeted Investment Program (TIP). Under these programs, Treasury invested $245 billion in 707 financial institutions. Since the program’s inception, Treasury has received more than $8.1 billion in gross proceeds from the disposition of warrants associated with 59 CPP investments and one TIP investment, consisting of (i) $3.1 billion from issuer repurchases at agreed upon fair market values and (ii) $5.0 billion from auctions. For the 59 fully repaid CPP investments representing $137.9 billion in capital, Treasury has received an absolute return of 4.6% from dividends and an added 5.2% return from the sale of the warrants for a total absolute return of 9.8%.3 For the $20 billion TIP investment in Bank of America Corporation, Treasury received an absolute return of 7.2% from dividends and an added 6.3% return from the sale of the warrants for a total absolute return of 13.5%.3 These returns are not predictive of the eventual returns on the entire CPP and TIP portfolios. Repurchases Upon repaying its TARP preferred stock investment, a financial institution may repurchase its warrants at an agreed upon fair market value. In all such cases, Treasury follows a consistent evaluation process to ensure that taxpayers receive fair market values for the warrants. In the six months ending December 31, 2010, Treasury received $191.8 million from seven banks through warrant repurchases at agreed upon fair market values. Auctions If an institution decides not to repurchase its warrants, Treasury has determined to dispose of the warrants as soon as practicable. Treasury has been successful in effectively disposing of warrants at fair market values through public auctions. In the 16 warrant auctions held to date, investor demand above Treasury’s minimum price has exceeded the supply of warrant shares by an average of 6.0 times with oversubscription rates ranging from 2.0 to 18.3 times. Auctioned warrants are actively traded on national exchanges, providing a liquid secondary market and observable market pricing for long-dated warrants. In the six months ending December 31, 2010, Treasury auctioned two warrant positions, generating over $930.3 million in proceeds. Remaining Positions As of December 31, 2010, Treasury held warrants to purchase common stock in 22 financial institutions that have fully repaid their CPP investments and in 195 publicly traded companies in which the CPP investment is 1) TARP’s Warrant Disposition Report is posted on the OFS website at the following link: www.treasury.gov/initiatives/financial-stability/briefing-room/ reports/other/Pages/default.aspx 2)  e repurchases of warrant preferred shares associated primarily with private institutions that Treasury exercised at the time of purchase are Th excluded from these numbers. In the six months ending December 31, 2010, nine private banks repurchased their warrant preferred shares. Since the program’s inception, 20 private banks have repurchased their warrant preferred shares. See table on page 15. 3) Returns are not annualized. Warrant Disposition Report - Update DECEMBER 31, 2010 1 Executive Summary still outstanding.4 Treasury intends to continue to execute a consistent and transparent disposition process which achieves fair market values and protects taxpayer interests. The table below sets forth proceeds from the seven warrant repurchases and two warrant auctions completed during the last six months of 2010.5 Summary of Gross Proceeds from Sale of Public Warrants since July 1, 2010 Institution Name REPURCHASES Preferred Ticker Redemption Date Discover Financial Services Fulton Financial Corporation The Bancorp, Inc. Columbia Banking System Citizens & Northern Corporation Central Jersey Bancorp Bar Harbor Bankshares DFS FULT TBBK COLB CZNC CJBK BHB TOTAL 4/21/2010 7/14/2010 3/10/2010 8/11/2010 8/4/2010 11/24/2010 2/24/2010 7 Preferred Amount Warrant Gross Warrant QEO? Redeemed Repurchase/Auction Proceeds (i.e. warrants ($thousands) Date ($thousands) cut by 50%) 1,224,558 376,500 45,220 76,898 26,400 11,300 18,751 7/7/2010 9/8/2010 9/8/2010 9/1/2010 9/1/2010 12/1/2010 7/28/2010 Yes Yes Yes $191,825 $1,779,627 $172,000 10,800 4,754 3,302 400 320 250 3 $713,687 216,621 - $930,308 - AUCTIONS Hartford Financial Services Group, Inc. HIG Lincoln National Corporation LNC TOTAL 2 3/31/2010 6/30/2010 3,400,000 950,000 9/21/2010 9/16/2010 $4,350,000 4)  reasury also holds warrants for common shares in public companies in connection with other TARP programs. For example, as of T December 31, 2010, Treasury held warrants in Citigroup Inc. associated with CPP (210.1 million shares with an exercise price of $17.85), TIP (188.5 million shares with an exercise price of $10.61), and AGP (66.5 million shares with an exercise price of $10.61). In addition, Treasury held exercised warrant preferred shares in 369 CPP institutions as of December 31, 2010. 5)  e repurchase of the warrants by Central Jersey Bancorp was completed as part of a cash acquisition of the bank. Th 2 Warrant Disposition Report - Update DECEMBER 31, 2010 Background Background As required by EESA, Treasury received warrants from TARP banks to provide taxpayers with an additional potential return on the government’s investment.6 For each CPP and TIP investment in a publicly traded company, Treasury received warrants to purchase, at a fixed exercise price, shares of common stock equal to 15 percent of the aggregate liquidation preference of the senior preferred investment. The per share exercise price was set at the 20-trading day trailing average of the bank’s common stock price as of the time it was given preliminary approval for the TARP investment. The warrants may be exercised at any time over a ten year period. These public warrants include certain customary anti-dilution provisions for Treasury’s protection. For CPP investments in a privately-held company, an S-corporation, or certain mutual institutions, Treasury received warrants to purchase, at a nominal cost, additional preferred stock (warrant preferreds) or subordinated debentures (warrant sub debt) equivalent to five percent of the aggregate liquidation preference of the primary CPP investment. These warrant preferreds and warrant sub debt securities pay a higher dividend or interest rate than the primary CPP investment. Treasury exercised these kinds of warrants at the closings of the investments. Institutions may repay Treasury for its CPP investment under the conditions established in the CPP purchase agreements as amended by the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (ARRA). The repayment price is equal to what Treasury invested, plus any unpaid dividends or interest. Originally, the CPP contracts provided that an institution could not redeem the investment within the first three years except with the proceeds of a “qualified equity offering” (QEO), which is an offering of securities that would qualify as Tier 1 capital. The repayment terms of the contracts were later effectively amended by the ARRA, which provides that an institution can repay from any source of funds and without regard to any waiting period. For TIP investments, an institution was required to first redeem its CPP investment before being able to redeem the TIP preferred stock.7 In addition, in order to encourage institutions to seek additional private capital, the CPP contracts provided that participants could halve the number of shares subject to their warrants by completing one or more QEOs before December 31, 2009 with aggregate gross proceeds equivalent to the value of Treasury’s CPP investment. Thirtyeight CPP participants completed a QEO in time to reduce their warrants. The CPP and TIP contracts further provide that once the preferred investment is redeemed or sold by Treasury, the institution has a right to repurchase its warrants at the fair market value. In addition, Treasury has the contractual right to sell the warrants. The ARRA affected Treasury’s authority to dispose of warrants, as it provided that when an institution repaid, “the Secretary shall liquidate warrants [of such institution]… at the current market price.” The ARRA was subsequently amended in May 2009 through the Helping Families Save Their Homes Act of 2009 (HFSTHA), which provides that the Secretary “may liquidate the warrants” following repayment. 6) 7) E  ESA provides that the Secretary may establish a “de minimus” exception to the requirement to issue warrants in the case of an institution that receives less than $100 million in TARP funds. Treasury has exercised that authority by not requiring warrants in the case of investments in Community Development Financial Institutions in order to encourage their participation in CPP. B  ank of America redeemed both its CPP and TIP at the same time on December 9, 2010. Citigroup was able to redeem the TIP preferred stock on December 23, 2009 and Treasury has sold its CPP investment in the bank which had been exchanged into common stock. Warrant Disposition Report - Update DECEMBER 31, 2010 3 Warrant Disposition Process Warrant Disposition Process Upon redemption of the preferred stock issued to Treasury, an institution has a contractual right to repurchase its warrants at the fair market value.8 The banks have 15 days from repayment of the preferred stock to submit a bid, and Treasury then has 10 days to respond. In June 2009, Treasury announced that, in the event that an issuer does not repurchase its warrants, Treasury would sell the warrants to third parties “as quickly as practicable” and, when possible, by public auction. Issuer Repurchases If a company wishes to repurchase its warrants, the issuer and Treasury must agree on the warrants’ fair market value. Accordingly, Treasury has established a methodology for evaluating a bank’s determination of fair market value. As described below, Treasury’s evaluation of an issuer’s bid is based on three categories of input: (i) market quotes, (ii) independent, third party valuations, and (iii) model valuations. If the issuer and Treasury fail to agree on a price, an appraisal procedure may be invoked by either party within 30 days following Treasury’s response to the issuer’s first bid. In the appraisal process, each party selects an independent appraiser. These independent appraisers conduct their own valuations and attempt to agree upon the fair market value. If they agree on a fair market value, that valuation becomes the basis for repurchase. If these appraisers fail to agree, a third appraiser is hired, and subject to some limitations, a composite valuation of the three appraisals is used to establish the fair market value. To date, no institution has invoked the appraisal procedure. Even if an agreement is not reached within the specified timeframe, a bank that has repaid its preferred stock may bid to repurchase its warrants at any time, and Treasury will determine whether to accept the bid. Sale to Third Party Treasury retains the right to sell the warrants to a third party at a mutually agreed upon price. Following repayment of the preferred stock, if a bank notifies Treasury that it does not intend to repurchase its warrants or cannot agree with Treasury on the fair market value, Treasury intends to dispose of the warrants, when possible, through public auctions. Treasury held the first warrant auctions in December 2009 and has held 16 auctions to date. These auctions were conducted as public modified “Dutch” auctions which were registered under the Securities Act of 1933. Only one bank’s warrants were sold in each auction. In this format, bidders were able to submit one or more independent bids at different price-quantity combinations and the warrants were sold at a uniform price that cleared the auction. 8) 4 P  rivately-held companies, S-corporations, and certain mutual institutions typically redeem their warrant preferreds or subordinated debentures at par when redeeming the primary CPP investment. (See Appendix I for table of warrant preferred repurchases as of December 31, 2010.) Warrant Disposition Report - Update DECEMBER 31, 2010 Treasury adheres to a consistent process for evaluating bids from institutions to repurchase their warrants. Upon receiving a bid for a warrant repurchase, Treasury utilizes (i) market quotes, (ii) independent, third party valuations, and (iii) model valuations to assess the bid. (i) Market Quotes There is little comparable market data for long-dated options. In order to perform its valuation analysis, Treasury seeks indications of value from various market participants active in the options markets. The range of estimated valuations is included in Treasury’s analysis along with the average of the market indications collected. Treasury also utilizes the market information from the trading of auctioned TARP warrants as another indication how of the market values long-dated warrants. (ii) Third Party Valuations Treasury engages outside consultants or external asset managers to provide independent, third party valuations for the warrants. The third party provides Treasury with an estimated valuation along with a range of potential values given a reasonable variance in the assumptions underlying their models. Treasury’s Evaluation of Issuer’s Bid Treasury’s Evaluation of Issuer’s Bid (iii) Model Valuations Treasury uses a number of financial models to estimate warrant valuations. Primarily, Treasury uses a binomial option model adjusted for American style options, which is a well-accepted method for valuing options by both academics and market participants. Valuation estimates generated from the binomial model are presented in the Treasury’s analysis along with a range of potential values given a reasonable variance in key model inputs, such as assumptions about the expected future volatility and dividend yield of the underlying stock. Treasury’s internal valuation modeling was reviewed by Dr. Robert Jarrow, an options expert and professor at Cornell University, who concluded that “the Treasury’s modeling methodology for valuing the warrants is consistent with industry best practice and the highest academic standards.” More information on Treasury’s internal valuation modeling and the report written by Dr. Jarrow can be found at www.treasury.gov/initiatives/financial-stability/investmentprograms/cpp/Pages/capitalpurchaseprogram.aspx. Treasury and its external asset managers use the 20-trading day trailing average stock price of a company in their valuations to minimize the effects of day-to-day market fluctuations. Market participants who provide Treasury with market indications utilize the stock price at the time that they provide the valuation. If the discussions with an institution continue over an extended period of time, Treasury and its external asset managers will update their estimates as necessary. Treasury may also collect new market quotes or adjust the market quotes based on changes in market conditions from when the quotes were collected. (See Appendix I for information on the timing of issuers’ bids.) Determination by Warrant Committee Based on the range of estimated warrant values provided by these sources, a committee of Treasury officials within the Office of Financial Stability (OFS), who comprise the OFS Warrant Committee, makes a recommendation to the Assistant Secretary for Financial Stability as to whether to agree with the bank’s determination of fair market Warrant Disposition Report - Update DECEMBER 31, 2010 5 Treasury’s Evaluation of Issuer’s Bid value. Each member of the Warrant Committee and the Assistant Secretary weigh the three valuation metrics as they deem appropriate. Additional factors presented to the Warrant Committee, along with the three valuation metrics discussed above include: •  ow quickly Treasury would have to monetize the warrants if the issuer does not repurchase based on h legislation in place at the time as discussed in the “Background” section of this report, •  he expertise and experience of the outside consultant providing the third party valuation, t •  he quality and number of market indications received, t •  ny significant movements in the stock price of the issuer since market indications were collected, a •  eviations of the current stock price from the 20-trading day trailing average of the company’s stock price, d •  he size of the warrant position and potential investor interest in the warrants, t •  he liquidity of the underlying common stock, and t •  xed transaction costs associated with selling the warrants to a third party. fi 6 Warrant Disposition Report - Update DECEMBER 31, 2010 Treasury began selling warrants back to banks that had repaid the TARP investment in May 2009. In aggregate, as of December 31, 2010, Treasury has realized $3.1 billion in gross proceeds from 44 warrant repurchases. This compares favorably to initial bids of $1.9 billion and estimates of aggregate value of $2.4 billion based on market indications, $3.0 billion based on third party estimates, and $2.8 billion based on Treasury’s internal financial model. Warrants repurchased by the issuer have yielded an extra absolute return of 7.1% on Treasury’s investment. When selling warrants back to the issuer, Treasury has achieved fair market values and protected the taxpayer. Dr. Jarrow noted that “[Treasury’s] valuation process results in a warrant valuation that is fair to both the participating banks and the U.S. taxpayers.” Further, the Special Inspector General for the Troubled Asset Relief Program (SIGTARP) audit released on May 15, 2010 entitled Assessing Treasury’s Process to Sell Warrants Received from TARP Recipients concluded that Treasury successfully negotiated prices from institutions that wished to repurchase their warrants that were at or above Treasury’s estimated range of fair market value for such warrants.9 The report also described the valuation methodology to estimate fair market value and offered no suggestions for modifying that methodology.10 Repurchases of Warrants Repurchases of Warrants 9) SIGTARP report, Assessing Treasury’s Process to Sell Warrants Received from TARP Recipients, dated May 15, 2010. 10) SIGTARP offered some suggestions regarding documentation of the negotiation process, and regarding insuring consistency in the information provided to issuers seeking to repurchase their warrants. Treasury reviewed these suggestions carefully and has made appropriate changes to its procedures for recording Warrant Committee meeting minutes and conversations with banks regarding the repurchases of their warrants. Warrant Disposition Report - Update DECEMBER 31, 2010 7 Auctions of Warrants Auctions of Warrants Following repayment of its preferred stock, if a bank notifies Treasury that it does not intend to repurchase its warrants or cannot agree with Treasury on the fair market price, Treasury disposes of the warrants, when possible, through public auctions. Since December 2009, Treasury has auctioned 16 warrant positions in 15 financial institutions, generating aggregate proceeds of approximately $5.0 billion.11 Demand in the warrant auctions has exceeded the number of warrant shares being auctioned by an average of 6.0 times with an oversubscription range of 2.0 to 18.3 times. Warrants sold through auctions have yielded an extra absolute return of 4.4% on Treasury’s investment. The auctions have also provided valuable insights into how the market values long-dated warrants, as scores of different bidders have placed hundreds of unique bids in each auction. The auctions have resulted in estimated placements of approximately 43% to fundamental institutional investors, 28% to convertible-focused investors, 19% to derivative-focused investors, and 10% to individual investors.12 Typically, many of the fundamental institutional investors who buy warrants in an given auction are also holders of the bank’s common stock. Active secondary trading in the warrants has further validated the auction prices and provides ongoing observable market prices for long-dated warrants. Each of the warrants sold through public auction has been listed on the New York Stock Exchange or the NASDAQ. Trading volumes tend to be very high during the first few days following an auction and then to fall into a lower range. Excluding the first five trading days after each auction, the daily trading volume of the warrants has averaged 0.6% of the outstanding securities. Across the 16 TARP warrant positions currently outstanding with public investors, several million warrants change hands on a typical trading day. In a Treasury report entitled Treasury Analysis of Warrant Auction Results, the OFS and the Office of Economic Policy have also examined three CPP warrant auctions and one TIP warrant auction, each of which generated proceeds in excess of $100 million.13  This report concluded that no single bidder had a large impact on the final clearing price in these four auctions.  Further, the report showed that increasing the amount of smaller bidders participating in the auctions would not have had a material impact on the final clearing price.  These two conclusions suggest that the auctions were robust and achieved a fair market price. Treasury has successfully disposed of warrants through the auction process. Clearing prices have been set through robust competition between a large number of bidders, and fair market value has been achieved for taxpayers. Additionally, an active and liquid secondary market for the warrants has been established, providing greater confidence in the market value of the total Treasury warrant portfolio and thereby supporting future auctions. 11) Treasury held two separate auctions for different Bank of America Corporation CPP and TIP warrants. See footnote 5. 12) The estimated placements to different investor types are calculated exluding any allocations to the issuing institution. 13)  e report Treasury Analysis of Warrant Auction Results can be found on the Treasury website: Th www.treasury.gov/resource-center/economic-policy/Documents/Auction-Analysis-3-18-2010.pdf 8 Warrant Disposition Report - Update DECEMBER 31, 2010 Modified “Dutch” Auctions For the first sixteen warrant auctions, Treasury utilized modified “Dutch” auctions to dispose of the warrants. The public auctions were registered under the Securities Act of 1933. Only one bank’s warrants were sold in each auction. With advice from its external asset managers and the auction agent, Treasury publicly disclosed a minimum bid and privately set a reserve price for each auction. Bidders were able to submit one or more independent bids at different price-quantity combinations at or above the set minimum price. The auction agent did not provide bidders with any information about the bids of other bidders or auction trends, or with advice regarding bidding strategies, in connection with the auction. The issuers of the warrants were able to bid for their warrants in the auctions. Bids were accepted by the auction agent from 8:00 a.m. to 6:30 p.m. on the day of the auction. The warrants were sold to all winning bids at the uniform price that cleared the auction. Figure 1:  llustrative Cumulative Auction I Demand by Price 30   Example  of  Cumula-ve  Demand  by  Price   25   20   15   Modified “Dutch” Auctions Modified “Dutch” Auctions 10   Example  Auc7on  Clearing  Price  $5.75     5   0   $3.00   $3.25   $3.50   $3.75   $4.00   $4.25   $4.50   $4.75   $5.00   $5.25   $5.50   $5.75   $6.00   $6.25   $6.50   $6.75   $7.00   $7.25   $7.50   $7.75   $8.00   Figure 2: Illustrative Auction Demand by Price Deutsche Bank Securities Inc. was Treasury’s auction agent for the first sixteen auctions. Deutsche Bank received fees equal to approximately 1.3% of the gross proceeds ($66.6 million) which is significantly below typical secondary equity offering fees that run around 3.5% to 4.5% depending on the size of the offering. For illustrative purposes only, Figures 1 and 2 are example charts of the demand in a theoretical auction of an 8 million share position with a minimum price of $3.00 per share and a clearing price of $5.75 per share. Warrant Disposition Report - Update DECEMBER 31, 2010 9 10 Ticker Warrant Disposition Report - Update DECEMBER 31, 2010 CZNC COLB TBBK FULT CJBK 44 Citizens & Northern Corporation Columbia Banking System The Bancorp, Inc. Fulton Financial Corporation Central Jersey Bancorp Total $43,947,466 11,300 376,500 45,220 76,898 26,400 18,751 1,224,558 235,000 10,000 400,000 214,181 14,700 38,263 215,000 70,000 59,000 75,000 15,000 22,000 75,000 130,000 27,875 1,700 30,000 7,000 1,576,000 10,000,000 3,000,000 3,388,890 10,000,000 3,133,640 6,599,000 2,000,000 25,000 184,011 7,414 40,000 64,779 26,918 78,158 125,000 89,310 90,000 $100,000 11/24/2010 7/14/2010 3/10/2010 8/11/2010 8/4/2010 2/24/2010 4/21/2010 12/23/2009 4/7/2010 $1,868,195 320 8,000 3,546 3,302 400 67 165,000 3,800 1,488 2,055 11,900 3/3/2010 209 431 8,167 597 400 825 500 569 2,161 1,002 168 63 857 175 37,000 500,000 79,000 230,000 600,000 20,854 115,000 60,000 465 1,500 193 875 694 320 880 3,186 1,049 620 $559 Bid #1 2/17/2010 12/23/2009 12/30/2009 12/3/2009 10/28/2009 11/18/2009 9/2/2009 11/18/2009 11/24/2009 11/4/2009 9/2/2009 9/30/2009 9/16/2009 8/5/2009 7/15/2009 6/17/2009 6/17/2009 6/17/2009 6/17/2009 6/17/2009 6/17/2009 6/17/2009 6/17/2009 6/3/2009 5/27/2009 5/20/2009 5/27/2009 5/20/2009 5/13/2009 4/22/2009 4/22/2009 4/8/2009 3/31/2009 3/31/2009 Redemption Date 9,500 4,852 175 180,000 6,200 17,500 3,610 250 9,200 700 450 950 560 2,650 1,307 212 1,125 205 75,000 800,000 118,000 260,000 900,000 41,707 131,000 600 2,700 275 1,040 1,400 900 2,200 5,025 2,100 1,200 $1,200 Bid #2 10,800 4,754 225 165,000 6,820 18,500 4,250 260 9,600 860 950 1,400 225 87,000 900,000 130,000 340,000 1,100,000 64,925 139,000 650 Bid #3 Issuer Bids 250 172,000 4,500 10,000 900 950,000 136,000 67,010 Bid #4 $3,140,811 320 10,800 4,754 3,302 400 250 172,000 6,820 1,488 18,500 4,500 260 431 10,000 900 450 950 560 569 2,650 1,307 212 63 1,400 225 87,000 950,000 136,000 340,000 1,100,000 67,010 139,000 60,000 650 2,700 275 1,040 1,400 900 2,200 5,025 2,100 1,200 $1,200 Final Price ($thousands) Bid #1 12/1/2010 8/6/2010 3/15/2010 8/19/2010 8/19/2010 3/10/2010 4/23/2010 2/18/2010 4/7/2010 3/17/2010 3/2/2010 1/6/2010 1/21/2010 12/23/2009 11/10/2009 11/24/2009 9/22/2009 12/4/2009 12/3/2009 11/5/2009 9/17/2009 10/9/2009 9/29/2009 8/19/2009 7/29/2009 6/18/2009 6/30/2009 6/30/2009 7/1/2009 6/17/2009 6/24/2009 6/18/2009 6/22/2009 6/9/2009 6/4/2009 6/4/2009 6/8/2009 6/3/2009 5/26/2009 5/2/2009 5/15/2009 4/21/2009 4/14/2009 4/15/2009 9/2/2010 3/29/2010 4/23/2010 5/4/2010 6/4/2010 4/5/2010 3/19/2010 1/22/2010 12/28/2009 12/14/2009 12/16/2009 10/20/2009 12/8/2009 11/18/2009 10/21/2009 10/20/2009 9/16/2009 8/19/2009 8/17/2009 8/3/2009 7/29/2009 7/20/2009 7/20/2009 7/8/2009 7/1/2009 6/29/2009 6/19/2009 6/17/2009 6/17/2009 6/16/2009 6/12/2009 5/21/2009 5/21/2009 5/19/2009 5/12/2009 5/6/2009 Bid #2 9/3/2010 9/2/2010 7/20/2010 6/9/2010 6/8/2010 4/6/2010 3/22/2010 2/1/2010 12/28/2009 12/23/2009 12/11/2009 9/21/2009 8/20/2009 8/19/2009 8/4/2009 7/30/2009 7/27/2009 7/21/2009 7/14/2009 7/8/2009 6/29/2009 Bid #3 Date of Issuer Bids Note: The first bid date is the date that an issuer submitted its bid. Subsequent bid dates are the dates the Warrant Committee met to consider those bids. BHB WAIN Wainwright Bank and Trust DFS OZRK Bank of the Ozarks, Inc. Bar Harbor Bankshares CVBF CVB Financial Corp. Discover Financial Services CSFL CenterState Banks, Inc. SIVB MNHN Manhattan Bancorp SVB Financial Group BARI Bancorp Rhode Island, Inc. FLFL OLBK Old Line Bancshares First Litchfield Financial Corporation NTRS Northern Trust Corporation CYN MS Morgan Stanley UMPQ BK Bank of New York Mellon City National Corporation AXP American Express Company Umpqua Holdings Corp. GS Goldman Sachs Group, Inc. MNRK BBT BB&T Corporation Monarch Financial Holdings, Inc. USB U.S. Bancorp OCFC STT State Street Corporation OceanFirst Financial Corp. HFFC HF Financial Corp. TRMK FNFG First Niagra Financial Group FFIC SOMH Somerset Hills Bancorp Trustmark Corporation BHLB Berkshire Hills Bancorp Flushing Financial Corporation SCBT SCBT Financial Corporation UBSH ALNC Alliance Financial Corporation Union Bankshares Corporation INDB Independent Bank Corp LSBX FMER FirstMerit Corp WSBC SNBC Sun Bancorp LSB Corporation IBKC IBERIABANK Corporation Wesbanco, Inc. ONB Company Old National Bancorp CPP Preferred ($thousands) Issuer Bids and Warrant Sales Ordered by Sale Date 7/22/2010 6/29/2010 3/22/2010 12/29/2009 12/28/2009 8/5/2009 7/31/2009 7/14/2009 Bid #4 12/1/2010 9/8/2010 9/8/2010 9/1/2010 9/1/2010 7/28/2010 7/7/2010 6/16/2010 4/7/2010 4/7/2010 3/31/2010 2/10/2010 2/3/2010 12/30/2009 12/30/2009 12/23/2009 12/23/2009 12/16/2009 12/16/2009 11/24/2009 10/28/2009 10/28/2009 10/14/2009 9/30/2009 9/2/2009 8/26/2009 8/12/2009 8/5/2009 7/29/2009 7/22/2009 7/22/2009 7/15/2009 7/8/2009 6/30/2009 6/24/2009 6/24/2009 6/24/2009 6/24/2009 6/17/2009 5/27/2009 5/27/2009 5/27/2009 5/20/2009 5/8/2009 Warrant Repurchase Date Appendix I – Detailed Tables of Warrant Repurchases and Auctions Appendix I – Detailed Tables of Warrant Repurchases and Auctions Appendix I – Detailed Tables of Warrant Repurchases and Auctions Issuer Bids and Warrant Auctions Ordered by Auction Date JPMorgan Chase & Co. Capital One Financial Corp. BAC TCB JPM COF 20,000,000 25,000,000 361,172 25,000,000 3,555,199 3/31/2009 5/27/2009 12/9/2009 12/9/2009 4/22/2009 6/17/2009 6/17/2009 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 3,200 825,539 46,500 Bid #1 5,572 183,673 324,196 6,709 11,321 15,623 1,255,639 310,572 9,600 950,318 148,731 N/A 1/7/2010 1/7/2010 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 5/5/2009 6/17/2009 6/30/2009 Bid #1 Date of Issuer Bids TCF Financial Corporation BAC 200,000 5/13/2009 N/A Auction Proceeds ($thousands) Issuer Bids Bank of America Corporation WFSL 75,000 120,000 2/10/2010 2,291 849,015 6/5/2009 9/21/2010 9/16/2010 6/9/2010 5/6/2010 4/29/2010 3/11/2010 3/10/2010 3/9/2010 3/3/2010 3/3/2010 12/15/2009 12/10/2009 12/3/2009 2/12/2010 2/22/2010 6/2/2010 5/20/2010 5/18/2010 Bid #4 Auction Date Bank of America Corporation SBNY 3/17/2010 3,116 N/A Bid #3 Washington Federal, Inc. TCBI 7,579,200 12/23/2009 593,600 3,008 N/A Bid #2 Signature Bank PNC 300,000 2,250,000 N/A 216,621 Bid #4 Texas Capital Bancshares CMA 12/23/2009 4,000 713,687 Bid #3 PNC Financial Services Group, Inc. VLY 25,000,000 2/24/2010 N/A $5,007,401 Bid #2 Comerica Incorporated 80,000 5/5/2009 N/A Redemption Date Valley National Bancorp WFC 125,198 6/30/2010 NA Ticker Wells Fargo & Company FFBC 950,000 3/31/2010 Company First Financial Bancorp SBIB 3,400,000 CPP/TIP Preferred ($thousands) Sterling Bancshares, Inc. LNC 113,995,769 750,000 Lincoln National Corporation 16 HIG 700,000 Total Hartford Financial Services Group, Inc. 11 Warrant Disposition Report - Update DECEMBER 31, 2010 12 Warrant Disposition Report - Update DECEMBER 31, 2010 Ticker MS AXP DFS USB BK NTRS BBT STT CYN FULT TRMK SIVB FMER TBBK UMPQ COLB FNFG OZRK INDB SNBC FLFL BARI SCBT CVBF IBKC ONB BHLB WSBC ALNC FFIC HFFC WAIN CJBK LSBX UBSH OCFC CZNC SOMH MNRK BHB OLBK CSFL MNHN 44 Goldman Sachs Group, Inc. Morgan Stanley American Express Company Discover Financial Services U.S. Bancorp Bank of New York Mellon Northern Trust Corporation BB&T Corporation State Street Corporation City National Corporation Fulton Financial Corporation Trustmark Corporation SVB Financial Group FirstMerit Corp The Bancorp, Inc. Umpqua Holdings Corp. Columbia Banking System, Inc. First Niagra Financial Group Bank of the Ozarks, Inc. Indpendent Bank Corp Sun Bancorp First Litchfield Financial Corporation Bancorp Rhode Island, Inc. SCBT Financial Corporation CVB Financial Corp. IBERIABANK Corporation Old National Bancorp Berkshire Hills Bancorp Wesbanco, Inc. Alliance Financial Corporation Flushing Financial Corporation HF Financial Corp. Wainwright Bank and Trust Central Jersey Bancorp LSB Corporation Union Bankshares Corporation OceanFirst Financial Corp Citizens & Northern Corporation Somerset Hills Bancorp Monarch Financial Holdings Bar Harbor Bankshares Old Line Bancshares CenterState Banks, Inc. Manhattan Bancorp TOTAL - 10/9/2009 10/21/2009 8/20/2009 7/22/2010 2/1/2010 6/17/2009 8/25/2010 1/28/2010 12/16/2009 12/8/2009 12/1/2010 12/11/2009 6/29/2009 12/28/2009 6/12/2009 12/11/2009 6/17/2009 5/6/2009 5/12/2009 10/21/2009 6/16/2009 9/21/2009 4/7/2010 5/19/2009 5/21/2009 11/18/2009 6/19/2009 8/25/2010 3/22/2010 9/2/2010 5/21/2009 6/8/2010 12/29/2009 9/3/2010 4/6/2010 7/1/2009 7/14/2009 8/19/2009 7/31/2009 7/8/2009 6/29/2010 7/27/2009 8/5/2009 7/21/2009 - 10/14/2009 10/28/2009 9/2/2009 7/28/2010 2/10/2010 6/24/2009 9/1/2010 2/3/2010 12/23/2009 12/16/2009 12/1/2010 12/16/2009 6/30/2009 12/30/2009 6/17/2009 12/23/2009 6/24/2009 5/8/2009 5/20/2009 10/28/2009 6/24/2009 9/30/2009 4/7/2010 5/27/2009 5/27/2009 11/24/2009 6/24/2009 9/1/2010 3/31/2010 9/8/2010 5/27/2009 6/16/2010 12/30/2009 9/8/2010 4/7/2010 7/8/2009 7/22/2009 8/26/2009 8/5/2009 7/15/2009 7/7/2010 7/29/2009 8/12/2009 7/22/2009 Payment Date - 12/5/2018 11/21/2018 12/5/2018 1/16/2019 12/19/2018 1/16/2019 1/16/2019 1/16/2019 12/19/2018 12/12/2018 12/23/2018 12/19/2018 11/21/2018 12/19/2018 12/19/2018 12/5/2018 12/19/2018 12/12/2018 12/5/2018 12/5/2018 1/16/2019 12/19/2018 12/12/2018 1/9/2019 1/9/2019 12/12/2018 11/21/2018 11/21/2018 11/14/2018 12/12/2018 1/9/2019 12/12/2018 11/21/2018 12/23/2018 11/21/2018 10/28/2018 11/14/2018 11/14/2018 10/28/2018 11/14/2018 3/13/2019 1/9/2019 10/28/2018 10/28/2018 Expiration Date - 8.65 16.67 7.40 26.81 8.33 6.82 20.36 15.07 20.94 10.74 6.31 8.46 12.40 13.97 23.33 25.61 26.51 18.45 48.74 11.68 32.06 23.32 7.53 8.27 24.34 29.62 14.48 14.49 14.46 3.46 19.69 49.78 19.57 10.25 53.16 53.80 33.81 61.81 31.00 30.29 8.96 20.95 22.99 $122.90 Strike Price 14 - Yes - Yes Yes - - Yes Yes - - - - Yes - - - - Yes Yes - - - - - - Yes Yes Yes Yes - Yes - - - Yes - - - - - - - - QEO? (i.e. warrants cut by 50%) - 29,480 125,413 141,892 52,455 132,353 163,065 194,794 190,427 211,318 209,497 268,621 390,071 302,419 375,806 173,069 439,282 226,330 813,008 138,490 834,761 303,083 192,967 199,203 1,620,545 481,664 379,811 953,096 398,023 1,110,897 980,203 952,260 354,058 1,647,931 5,509,756 1,128,668 2,788,104 13,902,573 3,824,624 14,516,129 32,679,102 20,500,413 24,264,129 65,245,759 12,205,045 Final Warrant Shares - 2.15 1.69 1.59 4.77 1.96 1.69 2.05 2.26 2.13 2.67 1.19 1.46 2.15 2.39 5.20 2.16 4.60 1.48 8.66 1.57 4.62 7.26 7.47 1.30 4.57 6.98 2.83 8.30 4.05 4.85 5.28 19.26 6.07 1.96 16.39 21.52 4.82 22.75 9.37 4.25 8.39 14.01 14.56 $90.13 Warrant Repurchase Price/Share $3,140,810,600 63,364 212,000 225,000 250,000 260,000 275,000 400,000 430,797 450,000 560,000 319,659 568,700 650,000 900,000 900,000 950,000 1,040,000 1,200,000 1,200,000 1,307,000 1,400,000 1,400,000 1,488,046 2,100,000 2,200,000 2,650,000 2,700,000 3,301,647 4,500,000 4,753,985 5,025,000 6,820,000 10,000,000 10,800,000 18,500,000 60,000,000 67,010,402 87,000,000 136,000,000 139,000,000 172,000,000 340,000,000 950,000,000 $1,100,000,000 Warrant Repurchase Proceeds - 29.7% - 34.8% 34.9% - 38.2% 26.3% - 30.1% 18.2% - 20.9% 27.8% - 32.4% 14.8% - 18.4% 41.9% - 44.4% 31.2% - 34.2% 30.3% - 33.0% 22.1% - 25.3% N/A 27.8% - 30.7% 18.3% - 21.5% 22.4% - 25.9% 13.8% - 17.0% 38.1% - 40.7% 24.0% - 28.0% 20.3% - 23.6% 17.5% - 20.8% 26.4% - 29.2% 24.1% - 27.4% 21.9% - 26.6% N/A 16.0% - 19.9% 28.5% - 31.6% 20.9% - 25.1% 28.5% - 31.7% 40.3% - 46.0% 25.1% - 29.4% 46.7% - 55.6% 34.9% - 38.3% 39.2% - 44.7% 19.0% - 22.9% 27.9% - 30.8% 23.5% - 27.9% 37.9% - 43.8% 32.0% - 35.1% 31.1% - 35.9% 35.7% - 39.6% 39.3% - 42.6% 45.6% - 52.7% 37.6% - 40.7% 33.3% - 38.7% 40.6% - 44.5% Estimated Implied Volatility* - 6.60 7.47 6.10 27.00 6.40 7.80 10.73 10.45 11.93 11.28 7.49 7.00 11.95 11.73 26.61 12.41 20.17 14.33 47.22 8.81 23.16 24.66 14.95 6.25 19.60 27.48 11.93 17.00 13.60 6.89 17.54 42.24 22.80 8.72 55.70 47.35 21.65 60.38 27.34 16.59 13.80 28.38 31.05 $159.80 Stock Price - 6.53 7.64 6.21 25.61 6.48 7.73 11.12 10.97 11.93 11.00 7.45 6.75 12.08 10.92 25.50 12.71 21.38 14.18 48.23 7.73 23.45 25.57 14.65 6.36 19.92 24.46 12.05 17.21 12.87 6.60 19.27 45.32 20.84 8.52 53.90 46.98 21.64 60.00 27.98 17.69 13.66 25.71 28.16 $148.16 - 0.33 0.23 0.26 0.18 0.31 0.22 0.19 0.22 0.18 0.24 0.16 0.21 0.18 0.20 0.20 0.17 0.23 0.10 0.18 0.18 0.20 0.29 0.50 0.21 0.23 0.25 0.24 0.49 0.30 0.70 0.30 0.46 0.27 0.22 0.29 0.45 0.22 0.38 0.34 0.26 0.61 0.49 0.47 0.56 Warrant Price / Stock Price Decision Date 20-day Avg Stock Price * Volatility implied by the repurchase price using stock price on decision date and UST estimates for dividend yield and borrow cost; reflects discounts to a modeled valuation for illiquidity, risk of cash takeout, etc. GS Institution Name Decision Date Warrant Sales Ordered By Amount of Proceeds - 0.76 x 0.45 x 0.82 x 1.01 x 0.77 x 1.14 x 0.53 x 0.69 x 0.57 x 1.05 x 1.19 x 0.83 x 0.96 x 0.84 x 1.14 x 0.48 x 0.76 x 0.78 x 0.97 x 0.75 x 0.72 x 1.06 x 1.99 x 0.76 x 0.81 x 0.93 x 0.82 x 1.17 x 0.94 x 1.99 x 0.89 x 0.85 x 1.17 x 0.85 x 1.05 x 0.88 x 0.64 x 0.98 x 0.88 x 0.55 x 1.54 x 1.35 x 1.35 x 1.30 x Underlying / Strike Appendix I – Detailed Tables of Warrant Repurchases and Auctions Appendix I – Detailed Tables of Warrant Repurchases and Auctions Warrant Auctions Ordered by Amount of Proceeds Warrant Auction Gross Proceeds Auction Date 1,255,639,099 30.6% - 34.0% 23.8% - 27.5% 32.1% - 36.8% 28.69 41.27 16.37 32.21 42.24 15.59 0.27 0.26 0.51 0.84 x 0.97 x 1.23 x Stock Price Warrant Shares 8.35 Warrant Auction Price Per Share 849,014,998 950,318,243 Estimated Implied Volatilty* 150,375,940 7.70 10.75 QEO? (i.e. Strike warrants cut Price by 50%) 88,401,697 Expiration Date 13.30 110,262,688 Auction Date 1/16/2019 - - Announce Date 3/3/2010 34.01 42.42 Ticker 3/1/2010 10/28/2018 10/28/2018 Institution Name BAC 5/20/2010 12/10/2009 20-day Warrant Avg Price / Underlying / Stock Stock Strike Price Price Bank of America Corporation 5/18/2010 0.98 x 2.37 x 12/8/2009 0.29 0.59 WFC 64.68 21.68 JPM 66.06 23.16 Wells Fargo & Company 27.6% - 31.3% 10.0% - 15.0% JPMorgan Chase & Co. 324,195,686 2.26 x 0.53 x 713,687,430 0.67 0.16 19.20 23.84 15.59 13.70 24.72 16.37 0.88 x 1.41 x 16,885,192 29.9% - 44.7% 30.9% - 33.5% 0.32 0.39 52,093,973 216,620,887 310,571,615 38.66 42.21 - 2.55 36.92 41.43 - 16.60 34.6% - 38.2% 28.6% - 32.3% 9.79 13,049,451 121,792,790 148,731,030 183,673,472 67.33 - - 11.75 16.00 6/29/2019 10.92 30.79 12,657,960 11,479,592 1.28 x 1.10 x 12/13/2018 7/10/2019 10/28/2018 - - 0.49 0.47 4/29/2010 3/3/2010 42.13 29.40 36.83 19.41 9/21/2010 9/16/2010 11/14/2018 11/14/2018 38.75 19.38 4/27/2010 3/1/2010 5/6/2010 23.1% - 29.0% 48.6% - 53.5% 9/20/2010 9/15/2010 12/3/2009 11,320,751 15,623,222 PNC 5/4/2010 9.15 HIG LNC BAC 12/1/2009 19.00 PNC Financial Services Lincoln National Corporation Bank of America Corporation COF CMA 595,829 1,707,456 The Hartford Financial Services Group, Inc. Capital One Financial Corp. Comerica Inc. - - 1.24 x 0.78 x 30.21 0.48 0.23 17.57 17.06 12.78 12/12/2018 18.41 13.22 11/14/2018 24.4% - 29.9% 28.8% - 32.1% 3/9/2010 6,709,061 9,599,964 3/10/2010 8.85 3.00 3/8/2010 758,086 3,199,988 3/8/2010 - - SBNY 14.84 16.93 WFSL 1/16/2019 11/14/2018 Signature Bank 3/11/2010 12/15/2009 Washington Federal, Inc 3/8/2010 1.23 x 0.83 x 12/14/2009 0.42 0.15 TCBI 16.81 15.49 TCB 15.87 14.80 Texas Capital Bancshares, Inc. 39.9% - 43.8% 25.1% - 27.5% TCF Financial Corporation 3,116,283 5,571,592 - 0.70 x 6.70 - 0.23 2.20 - 5.41 465,117 - 5.00 2,532,542 - 30.1% - 34.2% - 3,007,891 Yes $5,007,401,224 12.90 - 1.15 17.77 - 2,615,557 12/23/2010 - 11/14/2018 1 6/2/2010 - 7.18 5/18/2010 - 12/12/2018 6/1/2010 - 6/9/2010 5/17/2010 - 6/7/2010 FFBC SBIB VLY 16 First Financial Bancorp Sterling Bancshares, Inc. Valley National Bancorp TOTAL * Volatility implied by the repurchase price using stock price on auction date and UST estimates for dividend yield and borrow cost; reflects discounts to a modeled valuation for illiquidity, risk of cash takeout, etc. 13 Warrant Disposition Report - Update DECEMBER 31, 2010 14 Warrant Disposition Report - Update DECEMBER 31, 2010 Ticker JPM TCB BAC BAC WFSL SBNY TCBI PNC CMA VLY WFC FFBC SBIB LNC HIG 16 Capital One Financial Corp. JPMorgan Chase & Co. TCF Financial Corporation Bank of America Corporation (TIP) Bank of America Corporation (CPP) Washington Federal, Inc Signature Bank Texas Capital Bancshares, Inc. PNC Financial Services Comerica Inc. Valley National Bancorp Wells Fargo & Company First Financial Bancorp Sterling Bancshares, Inc. Lincoln National Corporation Hartford Financial Services Group, Inc. Total 9/21/2010 9/16/2010 6/9/2010 6/2/2010 5/20/2010 5/18/2010 5/6/2010 4/29/2010 3/11/2010 3/10/2010 3/9/2010 3/3/2010 3/3/2010 12/15/2009 12/10/2009 12/3/2009 Auction Date 52,093,973 13,049,451 2,615,557 465,117 110,261,688 2,532,542 11,479,592 16,885,192 758,086 595,829 1,707,456 121,792,790 150,375,940 3,199,988 88,401,697 12,657,960 Warrant Shares $5,007.4 713.7 216.6 3.0 3.1 849.0 5.6 183.7 324.2 6.7 11.3 15.6 310.6 1,255.6 9.6 950.3 $148.7 $66.635 7.423 2.950 0.150 0.150 8.640 0.150 2.571 3.918 0.150 0.170 0.234 4.659 18.835 0.150 14.255 $2.231 Gross Underwriting Proceeds Fees ($millions) ($millions) 10.50 13.50 0.85 4.00 6.50 1.70 15.00 15.00 6.50 16.00 5.00 1.50 7.00 1.50 8.00 $7.50 Minimum Bid 13.70 16.60 1.15 6.70 7.70 2.20 16.00 19.20 8.85 19.00 9.15 2.55 8.35 3.00 10.75 $11.75 Clearing Bid 11,164 1,000 795 211 142 859 183 518 1,450 326 409 708 1,246 1,489 470 754 604 Number of Bids 223 263 204 67 66 297 34 120 181 61 68 413 570 535 135 381 174 6.0x 2.0x 5.1x 6.9x 10.3x 3.9x 6.6x 2.7x 5.5x 7.0x 8.2x 14.5x 10.7x 4.4x 18.3x 6.5x 13.3x Number Coverage of Ratio 1 Bidders 1) Coverage Ratio = Gross Demand / Warrant Shares 2) Market Orders Share of Auction = Total Market Orders / Gross Demand A market order is a bid that specifies the number of warrants the bidder is willing to purchase without specifying the price it is willing to pay and is treated as a bid at the highest price received from any other bidder in the auction. 3) Daily Liquidity Turnover = Average Daily Trading Volume / Warrants Outstanding The liquidity calculation excludes the first five trading days after the auction which typically have higher than normal volume and uses data through June 30, 2010. The data source is Bloomberg. Note: Totals for Coverage Ratio, Market Orders and Daily Liquidity are weighted averages. Total for Number of Bidders is a simple average. COF Institution Warrant Auction Statistics 1.5% 4.2% 2.1% 3.6% 2.0% 2.3% 1.2% 1.9% 2.5% 0.9% 0.7% 8.3% 1.7% 1.0% 1.8% 0.3% 0.2% - 2,899,159 - - 70,165,963 - - - - - - - - - - - Market Warrants Orders Repurchased Share of by Bank Demand 2 in Auction 0.61% 0.34% 0.31% 0.58% 1.46% 0.45% 0.35% 0.3

https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/title/warrant-disposition-report-5166/warrant-disposition-report-december-31-2010-519524/fulltext

Velupillai Pirabaharan - Rebel in the Family Obituary: Velupillai Prabhakaran On the Death of  Velupillai Prabhakaran Obituary: Velupillai PrabhakaranBBC. 18 May 2009Tamil Tiger leader Velupillai Prabhakaran is dead, the Sri Lankan military says. State television made the announcement shortly after the military said it had surrounded him in the north-east.Prabhakaran was a secretive figure who was rarely seen in public, To his followers, Vellupillai Prabhakaran was a freedom fighter struggling for Tamil emancipation.  To his adversaries he was a secretive megalomaniac with a complete disregard for human life.Under his leadership, the Tamil Tigers became one of the world's most highly-disciplined and highly-motivated guerrilla forces.But in recent months they fought a desperate rearguard action as the Sri Lankan military inflicted defeat after defeat on them, ending their dream of a separate homeland in the north and east.The youngest of four children, Vellupillai Prabhakaran was born on 26 Nov 1954, in the northern coastal town of Velvettithurai on the Jaffna peninsula.Described as a shy and bookish student, he became involved in the Tamil protest movement after being angered by what he saw as discrimination against Tamils by Sri Lanka's majority Sinhalese population.He claimed he was influenced by the lives of two Indian leaders, Subhash Chandra Bose and Bhagat Singh, both of whom were involved in the armed struggle for independence from Britain.In one of his rare interviews he also said that he was fascinated by the lives of Alexander the Great and Napoleon and had studied many books on the two commanders.It is believed that Prabhakaran founded the Tamil New Tigers in 1973 or 1974, although the exact date is unknown.It was just another in a series of pressure groups and organisations protesting against what they saw as the marginalisation of the Tamil people in the post-colonial Sri Lanka.In 1975 he was accused of the murder of the mayor of Jaffna, who was shot at point blank range while he was about to enter a Hindu temple.The killing was said to be in response to an incident in Jaffna the previous year when a police attack on a crowd led to the deaths of about seven people.A year later Prabhakaran's group was renamed the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), commonly known as the Tamil Tigers.The Tigers became a formidable force numbering upwards of 10,000 soldiers, including women and children.They were also well-equipped with weaponry funded by Tamil expatriates and, according to some reports, by sympathisers in India.Always outnumbered by the Sri Lankan army, Prabhakaran led his forces in a series of guerrilla actions against a range of targets.He encouraged a cult of martyrdom among his followers which led to the first use of suicide bombings as a common form of attack, often against civilian targets.He was also reputed to carry a cyanide capsule around his neck to be swallowed in case of capture, a practice soon emulated by many of his soldiers.In 1991 he was accused of involvement in the assassination of former Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi, who was killed in a suicide bomb attack near Madras (Chennai).It was alleged Prabhakaran had personally ordered the attack in revenge for Gandhi's posting of Indian peacekeeping troops to Sri Lanka in the mid-1980s.An Indian court signed a death warrant in his name and Interpol issued a wanted notice on the grounds of terrorism, murder and organised crime.Under his leadership the LTTE was branded a terrorist organisation by many countries and he was wanted by Interpol, the global police network for murder, terrorism, organised crime and conspiracy.He was a shadowy figure, constantly under threat of arrest or assassination.At one of Prabhakaran's very rare press conferences, in 2002, he refused to answer any questions about Gandhi's murder, referring to it as a "tragic accident".Instead he repeated his demand for self-determination for Tamils and said he was prepared to die in the fight to achieve it.In 1996 more than 90 people were killed and a further 1,400 were injured when a suicide bomber crashed a lorry through the gates of the Central Bank of Colombo and detonated its cargo of explosives.Most of the casualties were civilians in what was then the Tigers' deadliest attack, with a number of foreign nationals among those killed and injured.In 2002 a Sri Lankan court issued a warrant for Prabhakaran's arrest in connection with the attack and, in his absence, sentenced him to 200 years in prison.When the latest attempt at peace talks broke down in 2006, the Sri Lankan army launched a huge offensive against Tiger strongholds, eventually capturing large areas of what had been Tiger-held territory.In early 2009 Prabhakaran suffered a major reverse when the Sri Lankan government captured the Tigers' administrative capital of Killinochchi and there were rumours he had fled the country.Vellupillai Prabhakaran remained a secretive figure throughout his life, his movements between his various jungle hideouts carefully planned to avoid capture or assassination.At the height of its powers at the end of the 1990s and the early years of this decade, the LTTE controlled nearly one-third of Sri Lanka.But Prabhakaran was unable to translate this authority into his dream: an autonomous Tamil homeland in the north of the country.His single-minded determination in pursuit of his goal never wavered: he once claimed he had ordered his own men to shoot him if he ever gave up his demands for a Tamil state.

https://tamilnation.org/ltte/vp/death/090518bbc_obituary.htm

Guide to the Papers of John Dipper Freed Slave, Baptist Minister 1816-1838 MG 1127 | The New Jersey Historical Society Guide to the Papers of John Dipper Freed Slave, Baptist Minister 1816-1838 MG 1127 TABLE OF CONTENTS Descriptive Summary Biographical Note Scope and Content Note Arrangement Restrictions Access Points Related Material Administrative Information Series Descriptions and Container List Series 1: Emancipation Documents, 1816-1818, 1830, 1835 Series 2: Correspondence, 1819-1836 Series 3: Financial and Legal Documents, 1821-1838 Series 4: Notes and Historical Documents Guide to the Papers of John Dipper Freed Slave, Baptist Minister 1816-1838 MG 1127 The New Jersey Historical Society 52 Park Place Newark, New Jersey 07102 Contact: NJHS Library (973) 596-8500 x249 [email protected] https://www.jerseyhistory.org © 2004 All rights reserved. The New Jersey Historical Society, Publisher Inventory prepared by Danielle Kovacs as part of the “Farm to City” project funded by a grant from the National Historical Publications and Records Commission.Finding aid encoded by Danielle Kovacs. March 2004. Production of the EAD 2002 version of this finding aid was made possible by a grant from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation. Finding aid written in English.Finding aid encoded by Danielle Kovacs. March 2004. Production of the EAD 2002 version of this finding aid was made possible by a grant from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation. Finding aid written in English. Descriptive Summary Creator: John Dipper Title: John Dipper Papers Dates: 1816-1838 Abstract: Consists of the papers of John Dipper, documenting his manumission at age thirty-eight in Williamsburg, Virginia, his efforts to purchase and then free members of his family, and his migration north where he and his family ultimately settled in Red Bank, New Jersey. Quantity: 0.13 linear feet (54 items) Collection Number: MG 1127 Biographical NoteJohn Dipper was born a slave in Williamsburg, Virginia in 1778. On New Year’s Eve in 1816, he was manumitted at the age of thirty-eight. Two years later, he purchased the freedom of his wife, Edy, and twelve years later the freedom of his sons. Throughout the 1820s, Dipper was involved in considerable business transactions in which he clearly prospered. It is during this period of prosperity that he suffered the loss of his wife. In 1829, he became a minister in the Baptist Church of Christ in Williamsburg; around the same time he remarried.Dipper and his second wife, Polly, relocated to New York City in 1832; one year later they moved again, this time to Red Bank, New Jersey. It is not clear whether Dipper’s children traveled with or preceded him north, but it is certain that his eldest son, John Jr., and his wife Becky moved to Canada, while his younger son, Thomas, found work in New York. By 1834, Dipper suffered another great personal loss: the deaths of both his wife and his son, John Jr.Despite these losses, Dipper determined at last to return to Virginia in order to resolve the legal and financial matters that were still preoccupying him from 600 miles away. Because of Virginia law, however, it was unsafe for a free black man to enter the state. To avoid prosecution, Dipper signed up as a crewman on a schooner bound for Virginia in 1835. With a pass from the ship’s captain, he was able to avoid the penalties that might otherwise have befallen him. After a short stay in Virginia, Dipper returned to Red Bank, where he died in 1836.Return to the Table of Contents Scope and Content NoteThe papers of John Dipper, Virginia slave and Baptist preacher, date from 1816-1838. The collection documents his manumission at age thirty-eight in Williamsburg, Virginia, his efforts to purchase and then free members of his family, and his migration north where he and his family ultimately settled in Red Bank, New Jersey.Return to the Table of Contents ArrangementThis collection is organized into four series:Series 1: Emancipation Documents, 1816-1818, 1830, 1835Series 2: Correspondence, 1819-1836Series 3: Financial and Legal Documents, 1821-1838Series 4: Notes and Historical DocumentsReturn to the Table of Contents Restrictions Access RestrictionsThere are no access restrictions on this collection.Photocopying of materials is limited and no materials may be photocopied without permission from library staff. Use RestrictionsResearchers wishing to publish, reproduce, or reprint materials from this collection must obtain permission.The New Jersey Historical Society complies with the copyright law of the United States (Title 17, United States Code), which governs the making of photocopies or other reproductions and protects unpublished materials as well as published materials.Return to the Table of Contents Access Points The entries below represent persons, organizations, topics, forms, and occupations documented in this collection. Subject Names: Dipper, Edy. Dipper, John, 1778-1836. Dipper, John, Jr. Dipper, Polly. Dipper, Thomas. Subject Organizations: Baptist Church of Christ (Williamsburg, Va.) Subject Topics: Slavery–Emancipation. Slaves–United States–History–Sources. Subject Places: New Jersey–History–1775-1865. New York (N.Y.)–History. Red Bank (N.J.)–History. Williamsburg (Va.)–History. Document Types: Certificates. Deeds. Legal documents. Letters (correspondence) Wills. Subject Occupations Clergy.Return to the Table of Contents Related MaterialFor materials related to slavery and the abolition movement in the United States, see:Manuscript Group 47, John P. Jackson PapersManuscript Group 49, Ship Logs CollectionManuscript Group 187, Essex County Anti-Slavery Society (Newark, N.J.) Minute BookManuscript Group 282, Holmes Family (Middletown, N.J.) PapersManuscript Group 380, Frelinghuysen Family (Newark, N.J.) PapersManuscript Group 416, Munn Family (Essex County, N.J.) PapersManuscript Group 422, Crane-Pierson Family PapersManuscript Group 1411, Elias Boudinot Stockton GenealogyCollectionReturn to the Table of Contents Administrative Information Custodial HistoryDonated to the New Jersey Historical Society in 1980 by Mrs. Jacob B. Rue III, the great-granddaughter of Edmund Thockmorton, executor of John Dipper’s estate. The collection remained closed until May 20, 1984 at the donor’s request. Preferred CitationThis collection should be cited as: Manuscript Group 1127, John Dipper Papers, The New Jersey Historical Society.Return to the Table of Contents Series Descriptions and Container List Series 1: Emancipation Documents, 1816-1818, 1830, 1835 Scope and Content:Arranged chronologically.This series contains documents relating to John Dipper’s manumission at age thirty-eight by Robert Scott, administrator of the estate of James Cocke. The records document how Dipper came into the possession of Cocke, how he was sold to William Browne following Cocke’s death, and how he was then emancipated the day following the purchase. After attaining his freedom, Dipper went on to purchase his wife Edy and a son. This series contains the records of these purchases, as well as the certificates of freedom he drew up for them. The records also include a register certifying the free status of a six-year-old African-American girl named Kezia; her relationship to John Dipper is not clear.After gaining his freedom, Dipper left Williamsburg, Virginia and moved north, first to New York City, and ultimately to Red Bank, New Jersey. By the mid-1830s, with a growing concern for his financial arrangements in Williamsburg, Dipper traveled to Virginia. Clearly, he was concerned about returning to the south and traveling there as a free African-American. This series contains the documents that he procured to protect that freedom: a certificate from the state of New York certifying his status as a freeman and citizen of the United States and a certificate issued from Philip Morris, Captain of the Nautilus, granting him leave to travel in Virginia as a member of the vessel’s crew. Box Folder Title Date 1 1 Deed of Emancipation: Robert Scott to John Dipper. Providing information concerning Dipper’s enslavement since 1787, including the way in which he came into the possession of James Cocke of Williamsburg, deceased, for whom Robert Scott was acting as administrator of estate. 1816 July 6 1 1 Bill of Sale: Robert Scott to William Browne. Selling John Dipper to William Brown, a Williamsburg attorney, for $450. 1816 Dec 30 1 1 Deed of Emancipation: William Brown to John Dipper. Manumitting Dipper for faithful service one day after purchasing him. 1816 Dec 31 1 1 Register: John Dipper. Granting him permission to remain in Williamsburg as a resident. 1817 Mar 24 1 1 Register: Kezia. Certifying the free status of a six-year-old African-American girl named Kezia. Her relationship to Dipper is unclear. 1817 Nov 1 1 1 Deed: Robert Scott to John Dipper. Transferring ownership of Edy Dipper from the estate of James Cocke to John Dipper, her husband, for the sum of $350. 1818 Apr 27 1 1 Deed of Emancipation: John Dipper to Edy Dipper. Granting freedom to Edy Dipper by her husband, John. 1818 May 15 1 1 Certificate of Freedom: Edy Dipper. Granting her permission to remain in Williamsburg as a resident. 1818 May 25 1 2 Bill of Sale: Robert Scott to John Dipper. Purchasing ownership of Thomas Dipper, age 13, by John Dipper, his father, for $300. 1830 Mar 25 1 2 Certificate, State of New York: Acknowledging Dipper as a “Freeman and Citizen of the United States,” providing his age and physical description, and listing his profession as “Mariner.” 1835 Apr 11 1 2 Pass issued by Philip Morris, Captain of the Schooner Nautilus : Stating that John Dipper is a part of his crew and that he should have the right to travel in Virginia until his vessel returns to New York. 1835 Apr 25Return to the Top of Page Series 2: Correspondence, 1819-1836 Scope and Content:Arranged chronologically.This series contains the correspondence of John Dipper, including letters to his second wife, Polly, and letters from his sons, daughter-in-law, and sister-in-law. All of the letters, except two, are incoming, and many of them are from friends and former business colleagues in Williamsburg, where Dipper still had financial or business arrangements. These business letters describe the legal problems that were left unsettled when Dipper moved away from Virginia. One of the letters gives legal advice regarding the suit that was filed against Dipper preventing him from selling his property in Virginia. Another letter, received by Dipper in March 1835 a few weeks before he traveled south with the crew of the Nautilus, makes an unfavorable interpretation of the law governing the admittance of free African-Americans into Virginia. Box Folder Title Date 1 3 Outgoing Letter: John Dipper to G. Ratcliff. Admitting that he has not been attending “meetings” but explaining that “I love the cause in which you are engaged but my situation prompts me to say that I must resign my license in your society.” The letter does not reveal the nature of the meetings nor the society that held them. 1819 Nov 27 1 3 Incoming Letter: William Emanuel to John Dipper. Discussing African colonization, apparently written by a free African-American in Norfolk, Virginia. 1825 Feb 15 1 3 Outgoing Letter: John Dipper, Lynchburg, Va., to Polly Dipper. Revealing that he has undertaken to preach the gospel in various places. The letter’s salutation indicates that Edy is no longer his wife, rather a woman named Polly is now his wife. 1829 Nov 24 1 4 Letter: Richard Vaughan to Henry Simmons, et al. Letter of reference recommending Dipper to various Baptist ministers in New York and Canada. 1832 Mar 2 1 4 Incoming Letter: Richard T. Booker to John Dipper, c/o John E. Rollinson, New York City. Informing him of affairs in Virginia pertinent to Dipper’s property and finances, and referring to slaves that he evidently owned. 1832 May 29 1 4 Incoming Letter: Hanley Taylor to John Dipper. Reporting on Dipper’s affairs in Williamsburg, including the disposition of two slaves that he owned. 1832 July 2 1 4 Incoming Letter: Hanley Taylor to John Dipper, New York City. Concerning affairs Dipper left unsettled in Virginia. 1832 July 17 1 4 Incoming Letter: Hanley Taylor to John Dipper. Concerning affairs Dipper left unsettled in Virginia. 1832 Aug 8 1 5 Incoming Letter: Hanley Taylor to John Dipper. Concerning affairs left unsettled by Dipper in Virginia, and concerning Polly Dipper’s family and mutual friends. 1832 Mar 2 1 5 Incoming Letter: Rice Hadsill, Red Bank, New Jersey, to John Dipper. Concerning the status of a house under construction for Dipper in Red Bank, and saying that it will be ready for occupancy, although not fully completed, by May 1, 1833. 1833 Apr 8 1 5 Incoming Letter: John Dipper, Jr., Upper Canada, to John Dipper. Asking his father if he plans to move northward and out of the United States, and expressing the view that he does not like Canada, at least not without his father there. 1833 May 6 1 5 Incoming Letter: John Andrews to John Dipper. Offering news of affairs in Williamsburg. 1833 May 8 1 6 Incoming Letter: Elizabeth Porter [i.e. John Dipper’s sister-in-law] to John and Polly Dipper. Reporting that her husband has died and hoping that John and Polly will be able to visit in order to bring her son to New York to learn a trade. 1833 July 27 1 6 Incoming Letter: William Griffin, New York, to John Dipper, Red Bank, New Jersey. Indicating that he has made an effort to visit Dipper but was unable to complete the trip. 1833 Sept 13 1 7 Incoming Letter: Hanley Taylor to John Dipper. Concerning financial affairs left unsettled by Dipper in Williamsburg. 1834 Jan 22 1 7 Incoming Letter: Becky Dipper, Toronto, to John Dipper, her father-in-law. Reporting that her husband, John Dipper, Jr., has died, and that she and the baby want to leave Canada and live with John and Polly in the United States. 1834 Aug 4 1 8 Incoming Letter: Hanley Taylor to John Dipper. Concerning financial affairs left unsettled by Dipper in Williamsburg. 1834 Sept 1 1 8 Incoming Letter: Richard Booker to John Dipper. Acknowledging receipt of various present from Dipper. 1834 Sept 9 1 8 Incoming Letter: Becky Dipper, Toronto, to John Dipper. Expressing regret at hearing about the death of Polly Dipper, explaining that she had to bury her husband herself, reporting that she is about to leave Canada for New York City, and asking her father-in-law to write letters of reference on her behalf to the places he lived while in New York. 1834 Sept 9 1 9 Incoming Letter: Thomas Dipper, New York, to John Dipper. Informing his father that he has secured an increase in wages and, if his father agrees, will remain at work in New York, and thanking his father for various items of clothing. 1834 Oct 4 1 9 Incoming Letter: Hanley Taylor to John Dipper. Concerning financial affairs unsettled by Dipper in Williamsburg. 1834 Nov 19 1 10 Incoming Letter: Hanley Taylor to John Dipper. Concerning financial affairs left unsettled by Dipper in Williamsburg. 1835 Mar 21 1 10 Incoming Letter: Robert Sanders, Jr., Williamsburg, to John Dipper. Making an unfavorable interpretation of the law governing the admittance of free African-Americans into the state, even for brief sojourns. 1835 Mar 27 1 10 Incoming Letter: Hanley Taylor to John Dipper. Concerning Dipper’s financial affairs in Virginia. 1835 June 25 1 11 Incoming Letter: Samuel J. Bowden [retained by Hanley Taylor to represent Dipper in a suit filed by R.J. Booker] to John Dipper. Reporting that Booker has successfully secured a court injunction preventing Dipper’s selling property in Virginia that had been left in trust for him, and giving legal advice. 1835 Aug 14 1 11 Incoming Letter: Samuel J. Bowden to John Dipper. Concerning legal problems in Virginia. 1835 Sept 7 1 11 Incoming Letter: Thomas Dipper to John Dipper. Informing his father of various employment difficulties he has been experiencing. 1835 Nov 13 1 12 Incoming Letter: Hanley Taylor to John Dipper. Describing the outcome of the recent suit against Dipper in Williamsburg. 1836 Jan 15 1 12 Incoming Letter: Hanley Taylor to John Dipper. Expressing the view that money he sent to Dipper was probably stolen in the mail, and describing recent robberies along the Richmond postal route. 1836 Feb 9 1 13 Incoming Letter: John Locust to John Dipper. Concerning accusations of irreligious conduct by a member of Dipper’s church. undatedReturn to the Top of Page Series 3: Financial and Legal Documents, 1821-1838 Scope and Content:Arranged alphabetically by topic or format.This series contains bills and receipts, an inventory of John Dipper’s movable property, and licenses, one permitting Dipper to carry a gun in Williamsburg and the other to preach at the Baptist Church of Christ in Williamsburg and in the surrounding areas. The series also contains two bonds that reveal that Dipper agreed to hire slaves for a period of more than two years, as well as a certificate that grants him the right “to dispose of my woman Judy” in any manner he sees fit. Finally, the series contains photocopies of legal documents: a deed for land in Red Bank, New Jersey, John Dipper’s will, and the accounts of Edmund Throckmorton, the executor of his will. Box Folder Title Date 1 14 Accounts (photocopy): Edmund Throckmorton, Executor of the Will and Testament of John Dipper. 1838 July 27 1 15 Bills and Receipts: Including bills for tailoring and mending work done for John Dipper. 1821, undated 1 16 Bonds: John Dipper, Williamsburg, to Jesse Cole. Agreeing to hire two slaves, Isaac and Salla. 1826, 1828 1 17 Certificate of Permission: John B. Peachy to John Dipper, Williamsburg. Granting Dipper the right “to dispose of my woman Judy” in any manner he sees fit. 1824 Apr 21 1 18 Deed (photocopy of typescript): Rice Handsell and his wife, Rebeckah, and John Dipper. For land in Red Bank, New Jersey. 1833 May 25 1 19 Inventory of Movable Property of John Dipper undated 1 20 Licenses: Permitting John Dipper to carry a gun in Williamsburg, and authorizing him to preach both at the Baptist Church of Christ in Williamsburg and in the surrounding area. 1825, 1829 1 21 Will (photocopy of transcript): John Dipper 1835 Mar 27Return to the Top of Page Series 4: Notes and Historical Documents Scope and Content:Arranged alphabetically by topic or format.This series includes fragments of a note from one of John Dipper’s sons, a home cure for a disease, a spiritual song beginning “Come all around that wants to see,” and the conclusion of Frelinghuysen’s argument concerning democratic majorities. The dates of the items are not known. Box Folder Title Date 1 22 Conclusion of Frelinghuysen’s Argument: manuscript excerpt concerning democratic majorities. undated 1 23 Home cure for a disease (fragment): manuscript recipe for a home cure. undated 1 24 Note (fragment): beginning “Father don’t you consent to it ….” undated 1 25 Spiritual Song: “Come all around that wants to see.” undatedReturn to the Top of Page

https://jerseyhistory.org/guide-to-the-papers-of-john-dipperfreed-slave-baptist-minister1816-1838/?highlight=genealogy%20guide

Energies | Free Full-Text | Energy Storage Systems and Power Conversion Electronics for E-Transportation and Smart Grid The special issue & ldquo;Energy Storage Systems and Power Conversion Electronics for E-Transportation and Smart Grid& rdquo; on MDPI Energies presents 20 accepted papers, with authors from North and South America, Asia, Europe and Africa, related to the emerging trends in energy storage and power conversion electronic circuits and systems, with a specific focus on transportation electrification and on the evolution of the electric grid to a smart grid. An extensive exploitation of renewable energy sources is foreseen for smart grid as well as a close integration with the energy storage and recharging systems of the electrified transportation era. Innovations at both algorithmic and hardware (i.e., power converters, electric drives, electronic control units (ECU), energy storage modules and charging stations) levels are proposed. Energy Storage Systems and Power Conversion Electronics for E-Transportation and Smart Grid by Sergio Saponara 1,* and Lucian Mihet-Popa 2 Dip. Ingegneria della Informazione, Università di Pisa, via G. Caruso 16, 56122 Pisa, Italy * Author to whom correspondence should be addressed. Energies 2019 , 12 (4), 663; https://doi.org/10.3390/en12040663 Received: 25 December 2018 / Revised: 1 February 2019 / Accepted: 1 February 2019 / Published: 19 February 2019 (This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Storage Systems and Power Conversion Electronics for E-Transportation and Smart Grid ) Abstract The special issue “Energy Storage Systems and Power Conversion Electronics for E-Transportation and Smart Grid” on MDPI Energies presents 20 accepted papers, with authors from North and South America, Asia, Europe and Africa, related to the emerging trends in energy storage and power conversion electronic circuits and systems, with a specific focus on transportation electrification and on the evolution of the electric grid to a smart grid. An extensive exploitation of renewable energy sources is foreseen for smart grid as well as a close integration with the energy storage and recharging systems of the electrified transportation era. Innovations at both algorithmic and hardware (i.e., power converters, electric drives, electronic control units (ECU), energy storage modules and charging stations) levels are proposed. Keywords: electric vehicles (EVs) ; hybrid EV (HEV) ; plug-in EV (PEV) ; intelligent transport systems ; battery ; energy storage ; electric machines ; electric drives ; electronic control unit (ECU) ; fast charging ; smart grid ; automotive electronics ; power converters ; Internet of Energy ; Internet of Things (IoT) 1. Introduction The proposed special issue has invited submissions related to energy storage, power converters and e-drive systems for electrified transportation and smart grid [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 ]. The particular topics of interest include: New emerging energy storage technologies; Ageing mechanisms of power converters and energy storage devices; Electronic control units (ECU) for energy storage system monitoring and management; Online estimation of state-of-charge and state-of-health; Power conversion electronics for renewable energy sources; Fast chargers and smart chargers for electric-vehicles; Integration of charging infrastructures in the smart grid for E-transportation; Predictive diagnostic for renewable energy sources and energy storage systems; Methods for design and verification of hardware and software for energy storage and renewable energy systems; Integration of Internet of Things (IoT) into E-transportation. Research and technology transfer activities in energy storage systems, such as batteries and super/ultra-capacitors, are essential for the success of electric transportation and to foster the use of renewable energy sources. The latter are intermittent in nature and are not directly matched with users’ requirements. Energy storage systems are the key technology to solve these issues and to increase the adoption of renewable energy sources in the smart grid. However, major challenges have still to be solved such as the design of high performance and cost-effective energy storage systems, the on-line estimation of state-of-charge/state-of-health of batteries and super/ultra-capacitors, the estimation of aging effects, the design and optimization of fast chargers and the integration within the smart grid of the charging infrastructure for electrified transportation. The strategic interest for this R&D activity is proved by the rise of initiatives such as the Battery 2030+ initiative or the European Battery Alliance [ 21 ] where a mixed effort of the European Commission, industries and research organizations aims at developing an innovative, sustainable and competitive battery “ecosystem” in Europe, from raw material to cell and battery manufacturing to electric vehicle (EV) manufacturing to recycling. Power converters and electric drives need also optimization in terms of increased efficiency and implementation of predictive diagnostic features. Beside the hardware parts, also the role of the software is increasing and new design and verification methods have to be investigated to achieve high functional safety levels. Due to the increasing role of information and communication technology (ICT) in smart grid and electrified transportation, towards an Internet of Energy scenario, cybersecurity is also becoming a key issue. The main objective of the 20 works published in the Special Issue is, hence, to provide timely solutions for the design and management of energy storage systems, of renewable energy sources and of the relevant power electronics conversion systems. Proposed works addressed these issues from the low component level, up to the Integration of all these sub-systems within the smart grid for e-transportation and smart/green cities. 2. Review of the Contributions The special issue includes, after a strict review process, 20 published works of which 18 are original research papers [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 ], while papers [ 19 , 20 ] are survey papers. Reference [ 1 ] entitled “Hybrid PV-Wind, Micro-Grid Development Using Quasi-Z-Source Inverter Modeling and Control—Experimental Investigation”, by a group of authors, Priyadarshi et al. from India, Denmark, USA and Norway, dealt with the modeling and control of a hybrid photovoltaic-wind micro-grid system using a quasi Z-source inverter (QZsi). A single ended primary inductance converter (SEPIC) module used as DC-DC switched mode converter was employed for maximum power point tracking (MPPT) functions, while a modified power ratio variable step (MPRVS) based perturb and observe (P&O) method had been proposed, as part of the MPPT action for the photovoltaic system. The dSPACE real-time hardware platform had been employed to test the proposed micro grid system under varying wind speed, solar irradiation, load cutting and removing conditions. The results confirmed the performance of the proposed system for a standalone micro grid, which is used specifically in rural places. Reference [ 2 ], entitled “An Overview of Energy Scenarios, Storage Systems and the Infrastructure for Vehicle-to-Grid Technology”, by a group of authors, Harighi et al. from Turkey, Denmark, Norway and USA, presented important issues about energy scenarios, storage systems and the infrastructure of the grid related to vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technology. The scenarios, policies and targets of the governments and agencies of the world for lower greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions and high-energy efficiency had also been suggested. One of the conclusions was that the batteries needed to be further developed to comply better with the charge/life cycle and to provide more safety. All mentioned problems forced the infrastructure of the grid to work with poor quality. Today, after the development of the lithium type of batteries and the power electronics systems, including battery management unit, the battery-to-grid technologies will provide fast charging operations. With those benefits, the grid could work properly, so the lack of energy and temporary storage are solved. The power system infrastructure should be designed according to some parameters such as accessibility, reliability and being able to be developed. The result of this action was that the grid can be updated with some technologies such as V2G and the subset technologies. The grid should support the energy traffic, which was achieved by newer technologies such as V2G or energy storage systems. Reference [ 3 ], entitled “Maximum Power Point Tracking for Brushless DC Motor-Driven Photovoltaic Pumping Systems Using a Hybrid ANFIS-FLOWER Pollination Optimization Algorithm”, by a group of authors, Priyadarshi et al. from India, Denmark, and Norway, deals with a hybrid artificial neural network (ANN)-fuzzy logic control (FLC) tuned flower pollination algorithm (FPA) as a maximum power point tracker (MPPT), which was employed to amend root mean square error (RMSE) of photovoltaic (PV) modeling. Moreover, Gaussian membership functions had been considered for fuzzy controller design. Experimental results certify the effectiveness of the suggested motor-pump system supporting diverse operating states. Performed experimental responses revealed that, compared to different bio-inspired, swarm-intelligence and classical MPPT techniques reviewed in the literature, the ANFIS-FPA had superior power tracking ability, fast convergence velocity and accurate system response. Reference [ 4 ] entitled “Boundary Detection and Enhancement Strategy for Power System Bus Bar Stabilization—Investigation under Fault Conditions for Islanding Operation”, by a group of authors, Pouryekta et al., from Malaysia and Denmark, proposed a novel scheme for the detection of island boundaries and stabilizing the system during autonomous operation. In the first stage, a boundary detection method was proposed to detect the configuration of the island. In the second stage, a dynamic voltage sensitivity factor (DVSF) was proposed to assess the dynamic performance of the system. In the third stage, a wide area load shedding program was adopted based on DVSF to shed the load in weak bus-bars and stabilize the system. The proposed scheme was validated and tested on a generic 18-bus system using a combination of EMTDC/PSCAD and MATLAB software. Reference [ 5 ], entitled “An Original Transformer and Switched-Capacitor (T & SC)-Based Extension for DC-DC Boost Converter for High-Voltage/Low-Current Renewable Energy Applications: Hardware Implementation of a New T & SC Boost Converter”, by a group of authors, Padmanaban et al., from Denmark, Qatar, India and Slovakia, proposed a new transformer and switched capacitor-based boost converter (T & SC-BC) for high-voltage/low-current renewable energy applications. The proposed T & SC-BC was an original extension of the DC-DC boost converter, which is designed by utilizing a transformer and switched capacitor (T & SC). PV energy was a fast emergent segment among the renewable energy systems. The proposed T & SC-BC combines the features of the conventional boost converter and T & SC to achieve a high voltage conversion ratio. The proposed T & SC-BC topology was compared with the recently addressed DC-DC converters in terms of number of components, cost, voltage conversion ratio, ripples, efficiency and power range. Simulation and experimental results were provided, which validated the functionality, design and concept of the proposed approach. Reference [ 6 ] by a group of authors, Hossain et al., from South Africa, Malaysia, Denmark, Norway and USA, “Sliding Mode Controller and Lyapunov Redesign Controller to Improve Microgrid Stability: A Comparative Analysis with CPL Power Variation”, dealt with a storage-based load side compensation technique, which is used to enhance the stability of microgrids. Besides adopting this technique, sliding mode controller (SMC) and Lyapunov redesign controller (LRC), two of the most prominent nonlinear control techniques, were individually implemented to control microgrid system stability with desired robustness. Constant power load (CPL) is then varied to compare robustness of these two control techniques. This investigation revealed the better performance of the LRC system compared to SMC to retain stability in the microgrid with a dense CPL load. The simulation results have been validated on the MATLAB/Simulink software package for authentic verification. Reasons behind inferior SMC performance and ways to mitigate that were also discussed. Finally, the effectiveness of SMC and LRC systems to attain stability in real microgrids was verified by numerical analysis. Reference [ 7 ], entitled “Minimization of Load Variance in Power Grids—Investigation on Optimal Vehicle-to-Grid Scheduling”, by a group of authors, Tan et al. from Malaysia, South Africa, Denmark and Norway, dealt with an optimal scheduling of V2G using the genetic algorithm to minimize the power grid load variance. This was achieved by allowing EV charging (grid-to-vehicle) whenever the actual power grid loading is lower than the target loading, while conducting EV discharging (V2G) whenever the actual power grid loading is higher than the target loading. The performance of the proposed algorithm under various target load and EVs’ state of charge selections were analyzed. The effectiveness of the V2G scheduling to implement the appropriate peak load shaving and load levelling services for the grid load variance minimization was verified under various simulation investigations. A performance index was also introduced in this paper to provide an excellent indication on the overall performance of the proposed V2G optimization algorithm. Reference [ 8 ], co-authored by Bhaskar et al. from South Africa, India, Norway, Denmark and Malaysia, entitled “Hardware Implementation and a New Adaptation in the Winding Scheme of Standard Three Phase Induction Machine to Utilize for Multifunctional Operation: A New Multifunctional Induction Machine”, presented a new distinct winding scheme that is used to utilize three phase induction machines for multifunctional operation. It can be used as a three-phase induction motor (IM), welding transformer and phase converter. The proposed machine design also worked as a single-phase IM at the same time it worked as a three-phase to single-phase converter. The proposed motor provided an operative solution for agricultural as well as industrial purposes because of rugged construction and less maintenance needs. The proposed concept was verified by designing a motor by modifying the windings of an old IM and the proposed motor was well tested to find its efficiencies and the experimental results are provided in the article to validate the design and construction. Reference [ 9 ], entitled “Development of Sliding Mode Controller for a Modified Boost Ćuk Converter Configuration” from a group of authors, Padmanaban et al. from South Africa, Slovakia and Denmark, introduced an SMC-based equivalent control method to a novel high output gain Ćuk converter. An additional inductor and capacitor improves the efficiency and output gain of the classical Ćuk converter. An SMC-based equivalent control method, which achieved a robust operation in a wide operation range was also proposed. Switching frequency is kept constant in appropriate intervals at different loading and disturbance conditions by implementing a dynamic hysteresis control method. Numerical simulations conducted in MATLAB/Simulink confirm the accuracy of analysis of high output gain modified Ćuk converter. In addition, the proposed equivalent control method was validated in different perturbations to demonstrate robust operation in a wide operation range. Reference [ 10 ], by Tiwari et al., a group of authors from India and South Africa, entitled “Coordinated Control Strategies for a Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator Based Wind Energy Conversion System”, proposed a novel coordinated hybrid MPPT-pitch angle based on a radial basis function network (RBFN) for a variable speed, variable pitch wind turbine. The proposed controller was used to maximize output power when the wind speed is low and optimize the power when the wind speed is high. The proposed controller provides robustness to the nonlinear characteristic of wind speed. It used wind speed, generator speed, and generator power as input variables and utilizes the duty cycle and the reference pitch angle as the output control variables. The duty cycle was used to control the converter so as to maximize the power output and the reference pitch angle was used to control the generator speed in order to control the generator output power in the above rated wind speed region. The effectiveness of the proposed controller was verified using MATLAB/Simulink software. Reference [ 11 ], by Ganesan et al., a group of authors from India, South Africa and Norway, entitled “Study and Analysis of an Intelligent Microgrid Energy Management Solution with Distributed Energy Sources”, proposed a robust energy management solution which will facilitate the optimum and economic control of energy flows throughout a microgrid network. This study enabled precise management of power flows by forecasting renewable energy generation, estimating the availability of energy at storage batteries, and invoking the appropriate mode of operation, based on the load demand to achieve efficient and economic operation. The predefined mode of operation was derived out of an expert rule set and schedules the load and distributed energy sources along with the utility grid. A robust control methodology had been developed and demonstrated in a deterministic way to operate the microgrid network in a sustainable mode. Faster communication topologies were deployed to achieve a better response time for the control commands at local as well as centralized controllers. This work can be enhanced by interlinking multiple microgrid networks with a more complex source and load system. The load management and control could be further improved by using artificial intelligence and optimization techniques as future work. Reference [ 12 ], entitled “A Modular AC-DC Power Converter with Zero Voltage Transition for Electric Vehicles”, by Ramirez-Hernandez et al., from Mexico and Chile, presented a study of the fundamental of operation of a three-phase AC-DC power converter that uses zero-voltage transition (ZVT) together with space vector pulse width modulation (SVPWM). The proposed converter was basically an active rectifier divided into two converters: a matrix converter and an H bridge, which transfer energy through a high-frequency transformer, resulting in a modular AC-DC wireless converter appropriate for plug-in EVs (PEVs). The principle of operation of this converter considered high power quality, output regulation and low semiconductor power loss. The circuit operation, idealized waveforms and modulation strategy were explained together with simulation results of a 5 kW design. The target application was suitable for light EVs (e-scooters, small city cars) or for hybrid vehicles where the internal combustion engine was supported at low speed by an electric motor. Reference [ 13 ], entitled “Interconnecting Microgrids via the Energy Router with Smart Energy Management” by Liu et al. from China, presented a novel and flexible interconnecting framework for microgrids and corresponding energy management strategies. The proposed solution was presented in response to the situation of increasing renewable-energy penetration and the need to alleviate dependency on energy storage equipment. The key idea was to establish complementary energy exchange between adjacent microgrids through a multiport electrical energy router, according to the consideration that adjacent microgrids may differ substantially in terms of their patterns of energy production and consumption, which can be utilized to compensate for each other’s instant energy deficit. Based on multiport bidirectional voltage source converters (VSCs) and a shared direct current (DC) power line, the energy router served as an energy hub, and enabled flexible energy flow among the adjacent microgrids and the main grid. The analytical model was established for the whole system, including the energy router, the interconnected microgrids and the main grid. Various operational modes of the interconnected microgrids, facilitated by the energy router, were analyzed, and the corresponding control strategies are developed. Reference [ 14 ] by Brenna et al. from Italy and Canada, entitled “Modelling and Simulation of Electric Vehicle Fast Charging Stations Driven by High Speed Railway Systems” aimed at the analysis of the opportunity introduced by the use of railway infrastructures for the power supply of fast charging stations located in highways. Actually, long highways were often located far from urban areas and electrical infrastructure, therefore the installations of high power charging areas could be difficult. Specifically, the aim of the investigation in this paper was the analysis of the opportunity introduced by the use of railway infrastructures for the power supply of fast charging stations located in highways. This paper was focused on fast-charging electric cars in motorway service areas by using high-speed lines for supplying the required power. Economic, security, safety and environmental pressures were motivating and pushing countries around the globe to electrify transportation, which currently accounted for a significant amount, above 70% of total oil demand. Electric cars required fast-charging station networks to allowing owners to rapidly charge their batteries when they drive relatively long routes. In other words, this meant the infrastructure towards building charging stations in motorway service areas and addressing the problem of finding solutions for suitable electric power sources. A possible and promising solution was proposed in the study that involves using the high-speed railway line, because it allowed not only powering a high load but also it can be located relatively near the motorway itself. This paper presented a detailed investigation on the modelling and simulation of a 2 × 25 kV system to feed the railway. A model had been developed and implemented using the SimPowerSystems (Simscape/Specialized Power System) tool in MATLAB/Simulink to simulate the railway itself. Then, the model had been applied to simulate the battery charger and the system as a whole in two successive steps. The results showed that the concept could work in a real situation. Nonetheless if more than twenty 100 kW charging bays were required in each direction or if the line topology is changed for whatever reason, it cannot be guaranteed that the railway system will be able to deliver the additional power that is necessary. Reference [ 15 ], entitled “Real-Time Analysis of a Modified State Observer for Sensorless Induction Motor Drive Used in Electric Vehicle Applications” by Krishna et al., from India, South Africa and Norway, proposed an adaptive sliding mode Luenberger state observer with improved disturbance rejection capability and better tracking performance under dynamic conditions. The sliding hyperplane was altered by incorporating the estimated disturbance torque with the stator currents. In addition, the effects of parameter detuning on the speed convergence are observed and compared with the conventional disturbance rejection mechanism. The entire drive system was first built in the MATLAB-Simulink environment. Then, the Simulink model was integrated with real-time (RT)-Lab blocksets and implemented in a relatively new real-time environment using OP4500 real-time simulator. Real-time simulation and testing platforms had succeeded offline simulation and testing tools due to their reduced development time. The real-time results validated the improvement in the proposed state observer and also correspond to the performance of the actual physical model. The real-time results also validated the improvement in the disturbance rejection capability for the different test cases presented and also provided more credibility as compared to other offline simulated results. Reference [ 16 ], entitled “Control Strategy for a Grid-Connected Inverter under Unbalanced Network Conditions—A Disturbance Observer-Based Decoupled Current Approach”, by Ozsoy et al., a group of authors from Turkey, Norway, Slovakia, and South Africa, presented a new approach on the novel current control strategy for grid-tied voltage-source inverters (VSIs) with circumstances of asymmetrical voltage conditions. A standard grid-connected inverter (GCI) allowed the degree of freedom to integrate the renewable energy system to enhance the penetration of total utility power. This paper proposed a proportional current controller with a first-order low-pass filter disturbance observer (DOb). The proposed controller established independent control on positive, as well as negative, sequence current components under asymmetrical grid voltage conditions. A numerical simulation model of the overall power system was implemented in a commercial software tool and the results showed that double-frequency active power oscillations were suppressed by injecting appropriate negative-sequence currents. The simulation results matched the developed theoretical background for its feasibility. The proposed current controller seemed to be a valid alternative solution for GCIs under unbalanced conditions. Reference [ 17 ] by Vavilapalli et al., a group of authors from India, South Africa, Norway, entitled “Power Balancing Control for Grid Energy Storage System in Photovoltaic Applications—Real Time Digital Simulation Implementation” presented a Power Balancing Control (PBC) method for a grid energy storage system for PV applications containing three different power sources, PV array, battery storage system and the grid, was proposed to operate the system in three different modes of operation. Control of a dual active bridge (DAB)-based battery charger which provides a galvanic isolation between batteries and other sources is explained briefly. Various modes of operation of a grid energy storage system are also presented. Hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) simulation is carried out to check the performance of the system and the PBC algorithm. A power circuit (comprised of the inverter, DAB based battery charger, grid, PV cell, batteries, contactors, and switches) is simulated and the controller hardware and user interface panel are connected as HIL with the simulated power circuit through real time digital simulator (RTDS). The PBC technique is implemented on a TMS320F2812 processor-based controller card and tested. Dynamic responses of the inverter and battery charger system are verified by applying a step change in the reference values and satisfactory results are obtained. Reference [ 18 ] by Chandramohan et al., a group of authors from India, South Africa and Norway, entitled “Grid Synchronization of a Seven-Phase Wind Electric Generator Using d-q PLL”, presented the development of a comprehensive model of the wind turbine driven seven-phase induction generator (7PIG) along with the necessary power electronic converters and the controller for grid interface. The dynamic model of the system was developed in MATLAB/Simulink and the system response is observed for various wind velocities. The effectiveness of the seven phase induction generator was demonstrated with the fault tolerant capability and high output power with reduced phase current when compared to the conventional three-phase wind generation scheme phase model. The performance of the synchronous reference frame phase-locked loop (SRF-PLL) incorporated in the grid connected seven-phase wind electric generator was analyzed for various operating grid conditions. The use of multiphase machines along with the PLL synchronization of the grid increased the reliability of the wind electric generator. After the first 18 research papers the special issue also includes two excellent and comprehensive survey papers. The group of authors in reference [ 19 ], from Bangladesh, South Africa, USA and Norway, proposed “A Comprehensive Study of Key Electric Vehicle (EV) Components, Technologies, Challenges, Impacts, and Future Direction of Development”, which presented a comprehensive study about EVs, including battery EV (BEV), hybrid EV (HEV), plug-in HEV (PHEV) and fuel cell EV (FCEV). This paper was focused on reviewing all the useful data available on EV configurations, battery energy sources, electrical machines, charging techniques, optimization techniques, impacts, trends, and possible directions of future developments. Its objective was to provide an overall picture of the current EV technology and ways of future development to assist in future research in this sector. The authors concluded that the EVs have great potential of becoming the future of transport while saving this planet from imminent calamities caused by global warming. They were a viable alternative to conventional vehicles that depend directly on the diminishing fossil fuel reserves. The impacts EVs cause in different sectors had been discussed as well, along with the huge possibilities they hold to promote a better and greener energy system by collaborating with smart grid and facilitating the integration of renewable sources. Limitations of current EVs had been listed along with probable solutions to overcome these shortcomings. The current optimization techniques and control algorithms had also been included. A brief overview of the current EV market had been presented. Finally, trends and ways of future developments had been assessed followed by the outcomes of this paper to summarize the whole text, providing a clear picture of this sector and the areas in need of further research. The last contribution, reference [ 20 ], was a survey by the editors Mihet-Popa and Saponara, entitled, “Toward Green Vehicles Digitalization for the Next Generation of Connected and Electrified Transport Systems”. This survey paper reviewed recent trends in green vehicle electrification and digitalization. First, the energy demand and emissions of EVs were reviewed, including the analysis of the trends of battery technology and of the recharging issues considering the characteristics of the power grid. Solutions to integrate EV electricity demand in power grids were also proposed. Integrated electric/electronic architectures for HEVs and full EVs were discussed, detailing innovations emerging for all components (power converters, electric machines, batteries, and battery-management-systems). 48 V HEVs were emerging as the most promising solution for the short-term electrification of current vehicles based on internal combustion engines. The increased digitalization and connectivity of electrified cars was posing cyber-security issues that were discussed in detail, together with some countermeasures to mitigate them, thus tracing the path for future on-board computing and control. 3. Conclusions The special issue entitled “Energy Storage Systems and Power Conversion Electronics for E-Transportation and Smart Grid” presented 18 original research works and 2 comprehensive survey papers, with a worldwide group of authors, related to the emerging trends in energy storage, power converters and e-drives. The works, addressing both algorithmic-level and hardware-level aspects, were focused on applications such as transportation electrification (Full EV and HEV, mainly for automotive and railway scenarios) and the evolution of the electric grid to a smart grid, with massive use of renewable energy sources. Moreover, a close integration is foreseen between the smart electric grid and the electrified vehicles due to the need of an efficient and fast recharging infrastructure. Therefore, the proposed special issue provides an overview, for the energy and power electronic aspects, of the evolution and trend towards electrified, automated and connected vehicles. Funding This research was partially supported by the PRA2017-2018 E-project from University of Pisa. Acknowledgments The author is grateful to the MDPI publisher for the possibility to act as guest editor of this special issue and wants to thank the editorial staff of Energies for their kind co-operation, patience and committed engagement. Conflicts of Interest The authors declare no conflict of interest. References Priyadarshi, N.; Padmanaban, S.; Ionel, D.; Mihet-Popa, L.; Azam, F. Hybrid PV-Wind, Micro-Grid Development Using Quasi-Z-Source Inverter Modeling and Control—Experimental Investigation. Energies 2018 , 11 , 2277. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Harighi, T.; Bayindir, R.; Padmanaban, S.; Mihet-Popa, L.; Hossain, E. An Overview of Energy Scenarios, Storage Systems and the Infrastructure for Vehicle-to-Grid Technology. Energies 2018 , 11 , 2174. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Priyadarshi, N.; Padmanaban, S.; Mihet-Popa, L.; Blaabjerg, F.; Azam, F. Maximum Power Point Tracking for Brushless DC Motor-Driven Photovoltaic Pumping Systems Using a Hybrid ANFIS-FLOWER Pollination Optimization Algorithm. Energies 2018 , 11 , 1067. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Pouryekta, A.; Ramachandaramurthy, V.K.; Padmanaban, S.; Blaabjerg, F.; Guerrero, J.M. Boundary Detection and Enhancement Strategy for Power System Bus Bar Stabilization—Investigation under Fault Conditions for Islanding Operation. Energies 2018 , 11 , 889. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Padmanaban, S.; Bhaskar, M.S.; Maroti, P.K.; Blaabjerg, F.; Fedák, V. An Original Transformer and Switched-Capacitor (T & SC)-Based Extension for DC-DC Boost Converter for High-Voltage/Low-Current Renewable Energy Applications: Hardware Implementation of a New T & SC Boost Converter. Energies 2018 , 11 , 783. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Hossain, E.; Perez, R.; Padmanaban, S.; Mihet-Popa, L.; Blaabjerg, F.; Ramachandaramurthy, V.K. Sliding Mode Controller and Lyapunov Redesign Controller to Improve Microgrid Stability: A Comparative Analysis with CPL Power Variation. Energies 2017 , 10 , 1959. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Tan, K.M.; Ramachandaramurthy, V.K.; Yong, J.Y.; Padmanaban, S.; Mihet-Popa, L.; Blaabjerg, F. Minimization of Load Variance in Power Grids—Investigation on Optimal Vehicle-to-Grid Scheduling. Energies 2017 , 10 , 1880. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Bhaskar, M.S.; Padmanaban, S.; Sabnis, S.A.; Mihet-Popa, L.; Blaabjerg, F.; Ramachandaramurthy, V.K. Hardware Implementation and a New Adaptation in the Winding Scheme of Standard Three Phase Induction Machine to Utilize for Multifunctional Operation: A New Multifunctional Induction Machine. Energies 2017 , 10 , 1757. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Padmanaban, S.; Ozsoy, E.; Fedák, V.; Blaabjerg, F. Development of Sliding Mode Controller for a Modified Boost Ćuk Converter Configuration. Energies 2017 , 10 , 1513. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Tiwari, R.; Padmanaban, S.; Neelakandan, R.B. Coordinated Control Strategies for a Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator Based Wind Energy Conversion System. Energies 2017 , 10 , 1493. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Ganesan, S.; Padmanaban, S.; Varadarajan, R.; Subramaniam, U.; Mihet-Popa, L. Study and Analysis of an Intelligent Microgrid Energy Management Solution with Distributed Energy Sources. Energies 2017 , 10 , 1419. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Ramirez-Hernandez, J.; Araujo-Vargas, I.; Rivera, M. A Modular AC-DC Power Converter with Zero Voltage Transition for Electric Vehicles. Energies 2017 , 10 , 1386. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Liu, Y.; Fang, Y.; Li, J. Interconnecting Microgrids via the Energy Router with Smart Energy Management. Energies 2017 , 10 , 1297. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Brenna, M.; Longo, M.; Yaici, W. Modelling and Simulation of Electric Vehicle Fast Charging Stations Driven by High Speed Railway Systems. Energies 2017 , 10 , 1286. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Krishna, S.M.; Daya, J.L.F.; Padmanaban, S.; Mihet-Popa, L. Real-Time Analysis of a Modified State Observer for Sensorless Induction Motor Drive Used in Electric Vehicle Applications. Energies 2017 , 10 , 1077. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Ozsoy, E.; Padmanaban, S.; Mihet-Popa, L.; Fedák, V.; Ahmad, F.; Akhtar, R.; Sabanovic, A. Control Strategy for a Grid-Connected Inverter under Unbalanced Network Conditions—A Disturbance Observer-Based Decoupled Current Approach. Energies 2017 , 10 , 1067. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Vavilapalli, S.; Padmanaban, S.; Subramaniam, U.; Mihet-Popa, L. Power Balancing Control for Grid Energy Storage System in Photovoltaic Applications—Real Time Digital Simulation Implementation. Energies 2017 , 10 , 928. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Chandramohan, K.; Padmanaban, S.; Kalyanasundaram, R.; Bhaskar, M.S.; Mihet-Popa, L. Grid Synchronization of a Seven-Phase Wind Electric Generator Using d-q PLL. Energies 2017 , 10 , 926. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Un-Noor, F.; Padmanaban, S.; Mihet-Popa, L.; Mollah, M.N.; Hossain, E. A Comprehensive Study of Key Electric Vehicle (EV) Components, Technologies, Challenges, Impacts, and Future Direction of Development. Energies 2017 , 10 , 1217. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Mihet-Popa, L.; Saponara, S. Toward Green Vehicles Digitalization for the Next Generation of Connected and Electrified Transport Systems. Energies 2017 , 11 , 3124. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Policies, Information and Services/European Battery Alliance. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/growth/industry/policy/european-battery-alliance_en (accessed on 9 October 2018). © 2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ). MDPI and ACS Style Saponara, S.; Mihet-Popa, L. Energy Storage Systems and Power Conversion Electronics for E-Transportation and Smart Grid. Energies 2019, 12, 663. https://doi.org/10.3390/en12040663 AMA Style Saponara S, Mihet-Popa L. Energy Storage Systems and Power Conversion Electronics for E-Transportation and Smart Grid. Energies. 2019; 12(4):663. https://doi.org/10.3390/en12040663 Chicago/Turabian Style Saponara, Sergio, and Lucian Mihet-Popa. 2019. "Energy Storage Systems and Power Conversion Electronics for E-Transportation and Smart Grid" Energies12, no. 4: 663. https://doi.org/10.3390/en12040663 Saponara, S.; Mihet-Popa, L. Energy Storage Systems and Power Conversion Electronics for E-Transportation and Smart Grid. Energies 2019, 12, 663. https://doi.org/10.3390/en12040663 AMA Style Saponara S, Mihet-Popa L. Energy Storage Systems and Power Conversion Electronics for E-Transportation and Smart Grid. Energies. 2019; 12(4):663. https://doi.org/10.3390/en12040663 Chicago/Turabian Style Saponara, Sergio, and Lucian Mihet-Popa. 2019. "Energy Storage Systems and Power Conversion Electronics for E-Transportation and Smart Grid" Energies12, no. 4: 663. https://doi.org/10.3390/en12040663

https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/12/4/663/html

(PDF) Bernoulli Wavelet Method for Numerical Solution of Anomalous Infiltration and Diffusion Modeling by Nonlinear Fractional Differential Equations of Variable Order PDF | In this paper, generalized fractional-order Bernoulli wavelet functions based on the Bernoulli wavelets are constructed to obtain the numerical... | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate May 2021 Results in Applied Mathematics 10(100146):1-13 DOI: 10.1016/j.rinam.2021.100146 License CC BY 4.0 Authors: Devendra Chouhan IPS Academy, Institute of Engineering and Science, Indore, India Vinod Mishra Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and Technology Hari Mohan Srivastava University of Victoria Download full-text PDF Read full-text Download full-text PDF Read full-text Download citation Copy link Link copied Read full-text Download citation Copy link Link copied Citations (22) References (54) Figures (5) Abstract and Figures In this paper, generalized fractional-order Bernoulli wavelet functions based on the Bernoulli wavelets are constructed to obtain the numerical solution of problems of anomalous infiltration and diffusion modeling by a class of nonlinear fractional differential equations with variable order. The idea is to use Bernoulli wavelet functions and operational matrices of integration. Firstly, the generalized fractional-order Bernoulli wavelets are constructed. Secondly, operational matrices of integration are derived and utilize to convert the fractional differential equations (FDE) into a system of algebraic equations. Finally, some numerical examples are presented to demonstrate the validity, applicability and accuracy of the proposed Bernoulli wavelet method. Exact Solution and Numerical Solutions for k = 4 and M = 4 (Exact Numerical •••). … Exact Solution and Numerical Solutions for k = 4 and M = 4. … Exact Solution and Numerical Solutions for k = 4 and M = 4. … Absolute errors with k = 2 and M = 4. t Absolute errors by MAPS Absolute errors by EFDA Absolute errors by LWM Absolute errors by BWM … Absolute errors with k = 2 and M = 4. … Figures - uploaded by Vinod Mishra Author content All figure content in this area was uploaded by Vinod Mishra Content may be subject to copyright. Discover the world's research 25+ million members 160+ million publication pages 2.3+ billion citations Join for free Public Full-text 1 Content uploaded by Vinod Mishra Author content All content in this area was uploaded by Vinod Mishra on Mar 03, 2021 Content may be subject to copyright. Results in Applied Mathematics 10 (2021) 100146 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Results in Applied Mathematics journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/results-in-applied-mathematics Bernoulli wavelet method for numerical solution of anomalous infiltration and diffusion modeling by nonlinear fractional differential equations of variable order Devendra Chouhan a , ∗ , Vinod Mishra b , H.M. Srivastava c , d , e a Department of Mathematics, Institute of Engineering and Science, IPS Academy, Indore 452012, Madhya Pradesh, India b Department of Mathematics, Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and Technology, Longowal 148106, Punjab, India c Department of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, V8W 3R4, Canada d Department of Medical Research, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung 40402, Taiwan, Republic of China e Department of Mathematics and Informatics, Azerbaijan University, 71 Jeyhun Hajibeyli Street, AZ 1007, Baku, Azerbaijan article info Article history: Received 8 November 2020 Received in revised form 11 February 2021 Accepted 12 February 2021 Available online xxxx Keywords: Generalized fractional-order Bernoulli wavelets Variable order fractional differential equations Operational matrix Liouville–Caputo fractional derivative abstract In this paper, generalized fractional-order Bernoulli wavelet functions based on the Bernoulli wavelets are constructed to obtain the numerical solution of problems of anomalous infiltration and diffusion modeling by a class of nonlinear fractional dif- ferential equations with variable order. The idea is to use Bernoulli wavelet functions and operational matrices of integration. Firstly, the generalized fractional-order Bernoulli wavelets are constructed. Secondly, operational matrices of integration are derived and utilize to convert the fractional differential equations (FDE) into a system of algebraic equations. Finally, some numerical examples are presented to demonstrate the validity, applicability and accuracy of the proposed Bernoulli wavelet method. © 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ). 1. Introduction Fractional calculus is an old mathematical topic from 17th century [ 1 ]. Fractional calculus are increasingly used in modeling of practical problems in various areas of engineering and physics such as continuum and statistical mechan- ics [ 2 ], fluid mechanics [ 3 ] dynamic of viscoelastic materials [ 4 ], econometrics [ 5 ], electromagnetism [ 6 ], propagation of spherical flames [ 7 ], Ψ -Hilfer problem [ 8 ], fractional PDE-constrained optimization problems [ 9 ] and in many other fields [ 10 – 18 ]. Due to the fractional order kernel of these FDEs, analytic solutions are usually difficult to obtain [ 19 ]. Therefore extensive research has been performed on the development of numerical methods for the solution of FDEs such as variational iteration method [ 20 ], Adomian decomposition method [ 21 ], fractional differential transform method [ 22 ], operational approach [ 23 – 25 ] and wavelet methods like Chebyshev wavelet method [ 26 ], Legendre wavelet method [ 27 ], Haar wavelet method [ 28 – 30 ], Shannon wavelet method [ 31 ], Taylor wavelet collocation method [ 32 ] and cubic B-spline wavelet collocation method [ 33 ]. Wavelet theory is a relatively new and emerging area in mathematical research. It has been applied in a wide range of engineering and other science disciplines. It has many applications in signal analysis, image processing, data compression, detection of submarine and aircrafts, prediction of earthquake and early detection of breast cancer etc. ∗ Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (D. Chouhan). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rinam.2021.100146 2590-0374/ © 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license ( http://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by/4.0/ ).

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/349636634_Bernoulli_Wavelet_Method_for_Numerical_Solution_of_Anomalous_Infiltration_and_Diffusion_Modeling_by_Nonlinear_Fractional_Differential_Equations_of_Variable_Order

Difference between revisions of "WARTK Fundamentals" - Navipedia Difference between revisions of "WARTK Fundamentals" Irene.Hidalgo ( talk | contribs ) Revision as of 13:45, 13 June 2011 ( view source ) Irene.Hidalgo ( talk | contribs ) ( → ‎ WARTK Models and Algorithms ) Line 39: Line 39: : : :Step 1) Solve the ''extra-widelane'' ambiguity,<math>N_{ew}</math>, with a synthetic wavelength of 7.45 m (in our simulated dataset) by subtracting the pseudorange narrowlane and then rounding off the difference to the nearest whole number of wavelengths :Step 1) Solve the ''extra-widelane'' ambiguity,<math>N_{ew}</math>, with a synthetic wavelength of 7.45 m (in our simulated dataset) by subtracting the pseudorange narrowlane and then rounding off the difference to the nearest whole number of wavelengths − :<math>\quad N_{ew}=Nint [ \lambda_{ew} (s_1 - s_3) -\rho_{narr} ] </math> + : <math>\quad N_{ew}=Nint [ \lambda_{ew} (s_1 - s_3) -\rho_{narr} ] </math> :where <math>Nint</math> means “rounded off to the nearest integer” and <math> \rho_{narr}  =c/(f_1+f_3) [(f_1/c)\rho_1 +(f_3/c)\rho_3]</math> is the pseudorange narrolane combination that has the same ionospheric delay as the ''extra-widelane''  phase. Subtracting <math>N_{ew}</math> from <math>s_{ew}</math> gives the unambiguous value of the phase wide lane. Although in some cases excessive pseudorange multipath can diminish the chances for success, this error is typically small compared with the long wavelength of the ''extra-wide lane''. :where <math>Nint</math> means “rounded off to the nearest integer” and <math> \rho_{narr}  =c/(f_1+f_3) [(f_1/c)\rho_1 +(f_3/c)\rho_3]</math> is the pseudorange narrolane combination that has the same ionospheric delay as the ''extra-widelane''  phase. Subtracting <math>N_{ew}</math> from <math>s_{ew}</math> gives the unambiguous value of the phase wide lane. Although in some cases excessive pseudorange multipath can diminish the chances for success, this error is typically small compared with the long wavelength of the ''extra-wide lane''. : : − :Step 2) The wide lane combination ambiguity, <math>N_{w}</math>, is estimated by subtracting from the ambiguous wide lane the unambiguous extra-wide lane obtained in Step 1, and rounding off the result to the nearest number of whole cycles of the widelane. The difference between them consists mostly of the wide lane ambiguity, and the differential ionospheric refraction (about 0.06 cycles/TECU with the frequencies used in this work). The nondispersive terms cancel out. The main problems here are the measurement error and multipath in the carrier-phase signals. Since they are much smaller than the widelanewavelength (0.86 m), they are not likely to be an issue. :Step 2) The wide lane combination ambiguity, <math>N_{w}</math>, is estimated by subtracting from the ambiguous wide lane the unambiguous extra-wide lane obtained in step 1, and rounding off the result to the nearest number of whole cycles of the widelane. The difference between them consists mostly of the wide lane ambiguity, and the differential ionospheric refraction (about 0.06 cycles/TECU with the frequencies used in this work). The nondispersive terms cancel out. The main problems here are the measurement error and multipath in the carrier-phase signals. Since they are much smaller than the widelanewavelength (0.86 m), they are not likely to be an issue. : : :Step 3) The <math>L_1</math> phase ambiguity is derived from the difference between <math>s_1</math> and the unambiguous wide lane obtained previously. As before, this difference is rounded off to the nearest integer number of cycles (in this case of <math>s_1</math>). Once the two widelanes and L ambiguities have been resolved, the resolution of those for <math>L_2</math> and <math>L_3</math> is immediate. Typically, the combination of carrier-phase measurement error and multipath is less than 0.2 cycles and can be ignored. The same cannot be said here of the effect of the ionosphere. :Step 3) The <math>L_1</math> phase ambiguity is derived from the difference between <math>s_1</math> and the unambiguous wide lane obtained previously. As before, this difference is rounded off to the nearest integer number of cycles (in this case of <math>s_1</math>). Once the two widelanes and L ambiguities have been resolved, the resolution of those for <math>L_2</math> and <math>L_3</math> is immediate. Typically, the combination of carrier-phase measurement error and multipath is less than 0.2 cycles and can be ignored. The same cannot be said here of the effect of the ionosphere. Fundamentals Title WARTK Fundamentals Author(s) GMV Level Basic Year of Publication 2011 _image_ The Wide Area RTK concept was introduced in the late 1990s to address RTK deficiencies by the Research Group of Astronomy and Geomatics (gAGE) from the Technical University of Catalonia (UPC). The WARTK method dramatically increases the RTK/NRTK service area, with permanent stations separated by up to 500–900 kilometers — all while requiring 100 to 1,000 times fewer receivers covering a given region. Contents 1 WARTK Technique 2 WARTK Models and Algorithms 3 Notes 4 References WARTK Technique In RTK technique the differential ionospheric refraction on the signals typically limits the real-time ambiguity resolution (and the corresponding navigation with sub-decimeter errors) to baselines of few tens of km from the nearest reference site. The main techniques supporting this new approach, WARTK , are related to an accurate real-time computation of ionospheric corrections, combined with an optimal processing of GNSS observables (carrier phases in particular) in both 2 and 3-frequency GNSS systems. The navigation can be performed with few centimeters of error at distances of hundreds of kilometers from the nearest reference station. Figure 1: WARTK Technique (image cortesy of gAGE/UPC) Indeed, the Ionosphere produces ambiguity estimation biases and correlations whose mitigation is the main problem of several techniques such as LAMBDA method [1] The ionospheric model running in the WARTK central processing facitility (CPF) (see Figure 1), precisely captures the real-time, linear and larger scale electron conten variations. The model tomographically maps the ionospheric state as measured by a network o permanent GNSS receivers, each separated up to many hundreds of kilometers. A second component of the model, needed to provide precise ionospheric corrections to the users, characterizes and mitigates ionospheric waves, known as medium scale traveling ionospheric disturbances (MSTID), which are frequent non-linear phenomenon affecting GNSS users at mid latitude. This precise real-time ionopsheric model is well integrated in the geodetic filter of the CPF, and ensuers successful ambiguity fixing among the permanent GNSS stations and especially between the nearest permanent site. Figure 2: WARTK algorithm layout for the user receiver (image cortesy of gAGE/UPC) Then, then WARTK user navigation employs multi-frequency carrier phase data, combined with the accurate corrections provided by the CPF, most importantly, ionospheric delay. Once the ionospheric corrections are applied by the user, cycle ambiguities can be fixed either by using a three-carrier ambiguity resolution (TCAR) approach [2] or the well-know LAMBDA method [1] . A layout of this approach for a WARTK user receiver is shown in Figure 2. WARTK Models and Algorithms The Real-time tomographic model. [3] . The resolution of the model initialized with data from the previous day, is performed using the geometry-free combination of phases, [math]L_1[/math] and [math]L_2[/math] , of the transmitter T measured from the receiver R. The estimation of this ionospheric model is done by means of a Kalman filter with 10 minutes of updating time (similar performance with 2 minutes), in such a way that the results of the last batch are used to estimate the ionospheric delays up to the next updating time. Then, all ionospheric delays are estimated only from the previous data, as must be done in real-time. WARTK algorihtm user. There are two different techniques at user level to solve the ambiguity, differentiating between dual-frequency data or 3-frequency data WARTK-2 algorithm: In the case of dual-frequency user, the ambiguity resolution can be obtained with the well-known LAMBDA method, explained in article RTK Fundamentals . The main difference with classical RTK is that the ionospheric delay is much more precise, the one received from the WARTK CPF. WARTK-3 algorithm: For the three frequency case, the ambiguity fixing is done with three-carrier ambiguity resolution (TCAR) approach [4] . Using phases and pseudorange observables in the form of double differences. The extra-widelane and widelane phase combinations are [math]s_{ew}=s_1 - s_2[/math] and [math]s_w=s_1 - s_3[/math] , being 1, 2 y 3 each frequency. The TCAR method consists of three basic steps: Step 1) Solve the extra-widelane ambiguity, [math]N_{ew}[/math] , with a synthetic wavelength of 7.45 m (in our simulated dataset) by subtracting the pseudorange narrowlane and then rounding off the difference to the nearest whole number of wavelengths [math]\quad N_{ew}=Nint [ \lambda_{ew} (s_1 - s_3) -\rho_{narr} ] [/math] where [math]Nint[/math] means “rounded off to the nearest integer” and [math] \rho_{narr} =c/(f_1+f_3) [(f_1/c)\rho_1 +(f_3/c)\rho_3][/math] is the pseudorange narrolane combination that has the same ionospheric delay as the extra-widelane phase. Subtracting [math]N_{ew}[/math] from [math]s_{ew}[/math] gives the unambiguous value of the phase wide lane. Although in some cases excessive pseudorange multipath can diminish the chances for success, this error is typically small compared with the long wavelength of the extra-wide lane . Step 2) The wide lane combination ambiguity, [math]N_{w}[/math] Step 3) The [math]L_1[/math] [math]s_1[/math] and the unambiguous wide lane obtained previously. As before, this difference is rounded off to the nearest integer number of cycles (in this case of [math]s_1[/math] ). Once the two widelanes and L ambiguities have been resolved, the resolution of those for [math]L_2[/math] and [math]L_3[/math] is immediate. Typically, the combination of carrier-phase measurement error and multipath is less than 0.2 cycles and can be ignored. The same cannot be said here of the effect of the ionosphere. It is in step 3 where the WARTK ionospheric correction is introduced: the estimated value of differential iono delay between the rover and the fixed network station is used as the ionospheric correction in step 3. Notes References ^ a b The least-squares ambiguity decorrelation adjustment: a method for fast GPS integer ambiguity estimation by P. Teunissen, 1995. ^ Forsell, B., M. Martín-Neira, R.A.Harris (1997), Carrier phase ambiguity resolution in GNSS-2 , proceedings of ION GPS-97. ^ Hernández-Pajares, et al, New approaches in global ionospheric determination using ground GPS data , Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics 61, 1237-1247, 1999. ^ R. A. Harris, Direct resolution of carrier-phase ambiguity by bridging the wavelength gap , ESA Publ. TST/60 107/RAH/Word, 1997. Retrieved from " https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php?title=WARTK_Fundamentals&oldid=5839 " Category : Fundamentals

https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php?diff=5839&oldid=5838&title=WARTK_Fundamentals

95-1377 La.App. 4 Cir. 1/19/96, Knapper v. Connick - Louisiana - Case Law - VLEX 891998039 0: [object Object]. 1: [object Object]. 2: [object Object]. 3: [object Object]. 4: [object Object] Louisiana 95-1377 La.App. 4 Cir. 1/19/96, Knapper v. Connick Court Court of Appeal of Louisiana (US) Writing for the Court LOBRANO Citation 668 So.2d 465 Parties 95-1377 La.App. 4 Cir Decision Date 19 January 1996 Page 465 668 So.2d 465 95-1377 La.App. 4 Cir. 1/19/96 Issac KNAPPER, v. Harry F. CONNICK and David Paddison. No. 95-CA-1377. Court of Appeal of Louisiana, Fourth Circuit. Jan. 19, 1996. Writ Granted April 8, 1996. Page 466 Michael G. Riehlmann, and Laurie A. White, New Orleans, for plaintiff/appellant, Issac Knapper. Bruce S. Kingsdorf, Cleveland, Barrios, Kingsdorf & Casteix, L.L.P., New Orleans, for defendant/appellee, David Paddison. Before BYRNES, LOBRANO and MURRAY, JJ. [95-1377 La.App. 4 Cir. 1] MURRAY, Judge. Issac Knapper appeals the grant of summary judgment dismissing his malicious prosecution claim against David Paddison 1 . In 1979, Mr. Knapper was indicted by an Orleans Parish grand jury for first degree murder in connection with a highly publicized attempted robbery and killing of a tourist. After indictment, the case was assigned for prosecution to Assistant District Attorney David Paddison, who obtained a conviction based primarily upon the testimony of a co-defendant and the corroborating testimony of a surviving victim. Mr. Knapper was sentenced to life imprisonment at Angola, and his conviction and sentence were affirmed on appeal. State v. Knapper, 458 So.2d 1284 (La.1984). Mr. Knapper subsequently obtained the initial police report for the murder at issue and filed a petition for post-conviction relief, claiming that the report [95-1377 La.App.4 Cir. 2] contained exculpatory Page 467 material which should have been disclosed under Brady v. Maryland, 373 U.S. 83 , 83 S.Ct. 1194 , 10 L.Ed.2d 215 (1963) and United States v. Bagley, 473 U.S. 667 , 105 S.Ct. 3375 , 87 L.Ed.2d 481 (1985). In State v. Knapper, , 960 (La.1991), the Louisiana Supreme Court agreed with Mr. Knapper's contentions 2 and remanded for a new trial, specifically concluding "that the prosecution failed to disclose the [police] report to the defense." On remand the Orleans Parish District Attorney's office entered a nolle prosequi in the case. The dismissal form shows the recommendation was based upon inconsistencies in the police report noted by the Supreme Court as well as difficulties in obtaining witnesses. Mr. Knapper was released from Angola in late 1991 after being incarcerated for more than twelve years. He filed this suit for malicious prosecution shortly thereafter. After answering Mr. Knapper's Second Amending Petition, Mr. Paddison moved for a summary judgment of dismissal. The motion was granted based upon the trial court's finding that although the criminal case was "a bad prosecution" and that "a gross injustice may have been done here," Mr. Paddison was immune from suit for malicious prosecution under Foster v. Powdrill, 463 So.2d 891 (La.App.2d Cir.1985). Additionally, the court indicated that since a grand jury had indicted Mr. Knapper, Mr. Paddison could not be liable. On appeal, Mr. Knapper asserts both stated grounds for dismissal are erroneous conclusions of law. When reviewing a trial court decision granting summary judgment, appellate courts consider the evidence de novo, applying the same criteria used by trial [95-1377 La.App.4 Cir. 3] courts to determine whether summary judgment is appropriate. Reynolds v. Select Properties, Ltd., 93-1480 (La. 4/11/94), 634 So.2d 1180 , 1183. Thus, the appellate court must make an independent determination of whether "the pleadings, depositions, answers to interrogatories, and admissions on file, together with the affidavits, if any, show that there is no genuine issue of material fact, and that the mover is entitled to judgment as a matter of law." La.Code Civ.Proc.Ann. art. 966(B); Young v. Oberhelman, 607 So.2d 719 (La.App.4th Cir.1992). Summary judgment must be reversed unless the reviewing court finds that the mover proved both of the following elements: (1) no genuine issues of material fact exist, and (2) the mover is entitled to judgment as a matter of law. Chaisson v. Domingue, 372 So.2d 1225 , 1227 (La.1979); Poydras Square Associates v. Suzette's Artique Inc., 614 So.2d 131 (La.App.4th Cir.1993). A fact is material if its existence or nonexistence may be essential to the plaintiff's cause of action. Whitney National Bank v. Rockwell, 94-3049 (La. 10/16/95), 661 So.2d 1325 . Both the evidence and all inferences drawn from the evidence must be construed in favor of the party opposing the motion, and all doubt must be resolved in his favor. South Central Bell Telephone Co. v. Sewerage and Water Bd., 94-1648 & 94-1649 (La.App.4th Cir. 3/16/95), 652 So.2d 1090 , 1093, writ denied, 95-0949 (La. 5/19/95), 654 So.2d 1090 . Mr. Paddison contends summary judgment was properly granted because district attorneys are immune from suit for actions taken within the course of their duties. Although this issue of prosecutorial immunity has not been addressed by the Louisiana Supreme Court, the Second Circuit has recently held that a district attorney enjoys absolute immunity for actions taken within the scope of his or...

https://case-law.vlex.com/vid/95-1377-app-4-891998039

(PDF) Land Space Change Process and Its Eco-Environmental Effects in the Guanzhong Plain Urban Agglomeration of China PDF | Urban agglomeration is the strategic core area of social–economic high-quality development in the world. However, high-density agglomeration and... | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate September 2022 Land 11(9):1547 DOI: 10.3390/land11091547 License CC BY 4.0 Authors: Yongyong Song Yongyong Song This person is not on ResearchGate, or hasn't claimed this research yet. Siyou Xia Chinese Academy of Sciences Dongqian Xue Dongqian Xue This person is not on ResearchGate, or hasn't claimed this research yet. Shuai Luo Shuai Luo This person is not on ResearchGate, or hasn't claimed this research yet. Show all 6 authors Hide Download full-text PDF Read full-text Download citation Copy link Link copied Read full-text Download citation Copy link Link copied Citations (4) References (79) Figures (8) Abstract and Figures Urban agglomeration is the strategic core area of social–economic high-quality development in the world. However, high-density agglomeration and high-speed expansion have caused dramatic changes in land space, leading to prominent eco-environmental problems and, thus, threatening human well-being. How to solve the contradiction between urban agglomeration land expansion and eco-environment protection has become an urgent scientific problem. In this paper, we constructed a framework of assessing land space change and its eco-environmental effects in the urban agglomeration by using the Geo-informatic Graphic, eco-environmental quality index (EQI), and eco-environmental contribution rate. We then quantitatively analyzed the characteristics of land space transition as well as its eco-environmental effects in the Guanzhong Plain urban Agglomeration (GPUA) based on the land use data in 1990, 2000, 2010 ,and 2020. The results indicated that from 1990 to 2020, the production space of the GPUA continued to shrink, the living space continued to expand, and the ecological space showed a fluctuating increasing trend. There were significant regional differences in the land space change of the GPUA, with 92.2% of the counties showing a significant contraction in agricultural production space, 93.3% and 91.1% showing a significant expansion in urban and rural living space, and 64.4% showing an increase in woodland ecological space. Agricultural production space is transformed into ecological space and living space, and living space occupies ecological space and agricultural production space, which is the main mode of land space transition in the GPUA. With the continuous expansion of low-quality and high-quality areas of the eco-environment and the continuous contraction of medium-quality areas, the improvement and deterioration of the eco-environmental quality of the GPUA have coexisted, first showing a trend of deterioration and then improvement. The transition of agricultural production space into grassland and woodland ecological space improved the eco-environmental quality, while the transition of grassland ecological space into agricultural production space, and the occupation of agricultural production space by urban and rural living space as well as industrial and mining production space resulted in the deterioration of eco-environmental quality. The findings of this study may provide a theoretical basis for optimizing the allocation of land space resources in ecologically fragile urban agglomeration. Geographical location (a), administrative divisions and elevation (b) in the Guanzhong Plain Urban Agglomeration (GPUA). … Research framework of land space change and its eco-environmental effects. … Distribution pattern of the production-living-ecological space in the Guanzhong Plain Urban Agglomeration from 1990 to 2020. … Spatial difference of county land space changes in the Guanzhong Plain Urban Agglomeration from 1990 to 2020. … +3 Spatio-temporal pattern of the eco-environmental quality index (EQI) in the Guanzhong Plain Urban Agglomeration from 1990 to 2020. … Figures - available via license: Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Content may be subject to copyright. Discover the world's research 25+ million members 160+ million publication pages 2.3+ billion citations Join for free Public Full-text 1 Available via license: CC BY 4.0 Content may be subject to copyright. Land  2022 ,  11 ,  1547.  https://doi.org/10.3390/land110915 47  www.mdpi.com/journal/land  Article  Land  Space  Change  Process  and  Its  Eco ‐ Environmental  Effects  in  the  Guanzhong  Plain  Urban  Agglomeration  of  China  Yongyong  Song  1 ,  Siyou  Xia  2,3, *,  Dongqian  Xue  1 ,  Shuai  Luo  1 ,  Liwei  Zhang  1  and  Donghua  Wang  1  1  School  of  Geography  and  Tourism,  Shaanxi  Normal  University,  Xi’an  710119,  China  2  Key  Laboratory  of  Regional  Sustainable  Development  Modeling,  Institute  of  Geograph ic  Sciences  and  Natural  Resources  Research,  Chinese  Academy  of  Sciences,  Beijing  100101,  China  3  College  of  Resources  and  Environment,  University  of  Ch inese  Academy  of  Sciences,  Beijing  100049,  China  *  Correspondence:  [email protected] Abstract:  Urban  agglomeration  is  the  strategic  core  area  of  social–economic  high ‐ quality  develop ‐ ment  in  the  world.  However,  high ‐ density  agglomeration  and  high ‐ speed  expansion  have  caused  dramatic  changes  in  land  space,  leading  to  prominent  eco ‐ environmental  problems  and,  thus,  threatening  human  well ‐ being.  How  to  solve  the  contradiction  between  urban  agglomeration  land  expansion  and  eco ‐ environme nt  protection  has  become  an  urgent  scientific  problem.  In  this  paper,  we  constructed  a  framework  of  asse ssing  land  space  change  and  its  eco ‐ environmental  effects  in  the  urban  agglomeration  by  using  the  Geo ‐ informatic  Graphic,  eco ‐ environmental  quality  index  (EQI),  and  eco ‐ environmental  contribution  rate.  We  then  quantit atively  analyzed  the  characteristics  of  land  space  transition  as  well  as  its  eco ‐ environmental  effects  in  the  Guanzhong  Plain  urban  Ag ‐ glomeration  (GPUA)  based  on  the  land  use  data  in  1990,  2000,  2010,  and  2020.  The  results  indicated  that  from  1990  to  2020,  the  production  space  of  the  GPUA  continu ed  to  shrink,  the  living  space  continued  to  expand,  and  the  ecological  space  showed  a  fluctuating  increasing  trend.  There  were  significant  regional  differences  in  the  land  space  change  of  the  GPUA,  with  92.2%  of  the  counties  showing  a  significant  contraction  in  agricultural  production  space,  93.3%  and  91.1%  showing  a  sig ‐ nificant  expansion  in  urban  and  rural  li ving  space,  and  64.4%  showing  an  increase  in  woodland  ecological  space.  Agricultural  production  space  is  transformed  into  ecological  space  and  living  space,  and  living  space  occupies  ecological  space  and  agricultural  production  space,  which  is  the  main  mode  of  land  space  transition  in  the  GPUA.  With  the  c ontinuous  expansion  of  low ‐ quality  and  high ‐ quality  areas  of  the  eco ‐ environment  and  the  continuous  contraction  of  medium ‐ quality  areas,  the  improvement  and  deterioration  of  the  eco ‐ environmental  quality  of  the  GPUA  have  co ‐ existed,  first  showing  a  trend  of  deterioration  and  then  improvement.  The  transition  of  agricultural  production  spa ce  into  grassland  and  woodland  ecological  space  improved  the  eco ‐ environmental  quality,  while  the  transition  of  grassland  ecological  space  into  agricultural  production  space,  and  the  occupation  of  agricultural  production  space  by  urban  an d  rural  living  space  as  well  as  industrial  and  mining  production  space  resulted  in  the  deterioration  of  eco ‐ environ mental  quality.  The  find ‐ ings  of  this  study  may  provide  a  theoretical  basis  for  optimizing  the  allocation  of  lan d  space  re ‐ sources  in  ecologically  fragile  urban  agglomeration.  Keywords:  land  space;  production ‐ living ‐ ecological  spaces;  transition;  eco ‐ environmental  quality  index;  human  activities;  government  policy  1. Introduction Land  space  is  an  important  support  for  human  social  and  economic  activitie s  and  the  construction  of  the  earth’s  community  [1,2].  Since  the  1950s,  wit h  the  rapid  development  of  urbanization  and  industrialization,  the  spatial  utilization  pattern  of  the  earth’s  surface  has  undergone  dramatic  changes  [3,4],  resulting  in  a  clash  between  human  and  land  in  Citation:  Song,  Y.;  Xia,  S.;  Xue,  D.;  Luo,  S.;  Zhang,  L.;  Wang,  D.  Land  Space  Change  Process  and  Its  Eco ‐ Environmental  Effects  in  the  Guanzhong  Plain  Urban  Agglomeration  of  China.  Land  2022 ,  11 ,  1547 .  h ttps://doi.org/10.3390/ land11091547  Academic  Editors:  Shaojian  Wang,  Yingcheng  Li  and  Shuai  Shao  and  Rui  Xie  Received:  8  August  2022  Accepted:  8  September  2022  Published:  12  September  2022  Publisher’s  Note:  MDPI  stays  neu ‐ tral  with  regard  to  jurisdictional  claims  in  published  maps  and  institu ‐ tional  affiliations.  Copyright:  ©  2022  by  the  authors.  Li ‐ censee  MDPI,  Basel,  Switzerland.  This  article  is  an  open  access  article  distributed  under  the  terms  and  con ‐ ditions  of  the  Creative  Commons  At ‐ tribution  (CC  BY)  license  (https://cre ‐ ativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).  Land  2022 ,  11 ,  1547  2  of  22   the  region,  intensification  of  ecological–production–living  spatial  conflicts  [5,6],  and  in ‐ creasingly  prominent  problems  of  ecological  destruction  and  environmental  pollution.  Research  on  the  space  change  in  national  land  and  its  eco ‐ environ mental  effects  is  based  on  the  regional  human–land  coupling  system  and  has  become  a  hot  and  frontier  field  of  global  change  and  sustainability  science  [7,8].  The  development,  utilization,  and  optimal  allocation  of  land  space  are  the  key  ar eas  of  concern  to  governmental  organizations  and  academia  [9].  Western  developed  coun ‐ tries,  such  as  the  United  States,  United  Kingdom,  and  France,  have  responded  to  the  de ‐ velopment  dilemma  brought  about  by  industrialization  and  urbanization  by  optimizing  the  spatial  pattern  of  territory  and  strengthening  environmental  protection  [ 10,11].  The  Chinese  government  has  also  established  the  land  space  optimization  goal  of  “intensive  and  efficient  production  space,  moderate  living  space,  and  beautiful  ecological  space”  [12],  which  provides  scientific  guidance  for  the  construction  of  sustainable  land  space  de ‐ velopment  and  protection  pattern  [13].  Urban  agglomeration  is  an  important  support  for  the  strategic  layout  of  urbanization  and  the  pattern  of  ecological  civilization  in  China.  Un ‐ der  the  influence  of  high ‐ intensity  human  activities,  the  spatial  pattern  and  form  of  re ‐ gional  land  are  undergoing  profound  reconstruction,  and  the  resulting  conflict  between  urbanization  and  the  protection  of  the  ecological  environment  is  not  compatible  with  the  actual  development  of  urb an  agglomeration  in  the  period  of  accelerated  urbanization  [1 4– 16].  Therefore,  it  is  of  great  significance  to  scientific ally  recognize  the  process  of  land  space  transition  an d  its  ecological  an d  environmental  effects  to  resolve  the  conf lict  between  land  space  development  and  protection  in  urban  agglomeration  areas,  formulate  land  space  optimization  management  and  control  strategies,  and  enhance  the  sustainability  of  land  space  utilization  in  urban  agglomeration  areas.  For  a  long  time,  a  large  number  of  problems,  such  as  environmental  pollution  and  ecological  degradation,  have  occurred  in  the  process  of  land  space  transition,  and  this  has  seriously  affected  the  sustainable  development  of  the  social  economy  in  regions,  espe ‐ cially  with  regard  to  urban  agglomerations  [17,18].  Therefore,  land  space  transition  and  its  ecological  and  environmental  effects  have  become  the  focus  of  attention  of  scholars  at  home  and  abroad  [19,20].  Academic  scholars  have  carried  out  extensive  theoretical  re ‐ search  and  empirical  exploration  around  the  issues  of  land  space  development  and  utili ‐ zation,  the  land  space  classification  system,  land  space  transition,  and  its  impact  on  the  ecological  environment  [21].  Domestic  scholars  have  focused  on  the  theory  of  land  space  function  [22,23],  theory  and  framework  of  land  space  function  [24,25],  process  of  land  space  pattern  change  [26,27],  driving  mechanism  of  land  space  transition  [28,29],  and  eco ‐ logical  effects  of  land  space  transition  [30,31].  For  example,  Liu  et  al.  analyzed  the  driving  mechanism  of  the  evolution  of  the  land  space  development  and  protection  pattern  from  three  perspectives,  which  included  the  carrying  capacity  of  resources  and  the  environ ‐ ment,  geo ‐ relations,  as  well  as  culture  and  institutional  mechanisms  [32].  Based  on  the  perspective  of  multi ‐ function  of  land  use,  Fan  et  al.  delineated  the  basic  pattern  of  land  and  space  development  and  protection  in  China  at  the  macro  level  [33].  Foreign  scholars  focus  on  land  space  utilization  and  ecological  service  value  [34,35],  ecological  environ ‐ ment  response  of  land  space  utilization  [36,37],  as  well  as  land  space  planning  practice  [38]  and  other  related  issues.  They  carry  out  research  work  on  land  space  development  and  land  use  model  simulation  in  typ ical  regions  [39],  which  involves  the  identifi cation  of  key  obstacles  to  land  space  development  [40].  For  example,  Morshed  et  al.  simulated  the  trend  change  in  the  land  spatial  pattern  of  Jashore  in  Bangladesh  and  analyzed  the  land  use  pattern  of  the  city  [41].  Eziz  et  al.  explored  the  coupling  relationship  between  the  change  in  the  ecological  environment  and  the  conversion  of  land  use  in  Keriya  Oasis  and  revealed  the  response  of  ecologic al  environment  to  the  evolution  of  the  land  space  pattern  [42].  As  the  main  area  of  new  urbanization  and  the  “center  of  gravity”  of  national  ec o ‐ nomic  development,  urban  agglomeration  is  the  key  area  of  world  economic  agglomera ‐ tion.  However,  high ‐ density  agglomeration  and  high ‐ speed  expansion  have  brought  Land  2022 ,  11 ,  1547  3  of  22   about  a  drastic  transformation  of  land  space,  which  has  led  to  serious  ecological  and  en ‐ vironmental  problems  and  is  increasingly  attracting  glob al  attention  [43,44].  With  the  rapid  improvement  of  the  urbanization  level,  the  development  process  of  urban  agglom ‐ eration  and  the  rapid  expansion  of  urban  land  have  accelerated  the  conversion  of  natural  ecological  land  to  artificial  construction  land,  which  has  brought  great  pressure  on  the  ecological  environment  [45,46].  For  example,  Fang  et  al.  studied  the  impact  of  urban  ag ‐ glomeration  construction  land  expansion  on  the  ecological  environment  on  the  northern  slope  of  Tianshan  Mountain,  and  they  found  that  with  the  develop ment  of  urbanization,  the  positive  impact  of  urban  agglomeration  construction  land  change  on  the  ecological  environment  was  more  obvious  after  2000  [47].  Zhang  and  Gu  believed  that  under  the  influence  of  factors  such  as  high ‐ speed  urbanization  and  disor derly  urban  sprawl,  the  de ‐ gree  of  land  use  conflict  in  urban  agglomerations  has  intensified  year  by  year,  which  is  concentrated  in  the  transfo rmation  of  la nd  use  conflict  hot  spots  from  rural  space  to  urb an  space  [48].  However,  the  existing  research  mainly  focuses  on  the  analysis  of  the  spatial  evolution  process  of  specific  urban  land  in  the  rapid  urbanization  area.  Besides,  the  law  of  land  spatial  tran sformation  and  its  impact  on  the  ecological  environment  of  eco logically  fragile  urban  agglomerations  are  still  unclear.  The  Guanzhong  Plain  Urban  Agglomeration  (GPUA)  is  the  larg est  urban  agglomer ‐ ation  in  Northwest  China  and  an  important  engine  of  economic  growth  in  Northwest  China,  which  has  significant  geographical  advantages  and  a  profound  cultural  and  his ‐ torical  background  [49].  However,  in  the  process  of  rapid  urbanization  and  industrializa ‐ tion  in  the  region,  the  development  and  utilization  of  land  space  is  extensive  or  even  dis ‐ orderly,  and  the  ecological  environment  problems  are  becoming  increasingly  prominent,  which  seriously  restricts  the  high ‐ quality  development  of  the  regional  social  economy  [50].  In  recent  years,  with  the  improvement  of  the  status  of  the  GPUA  in  the  overall  stra ‐ tegic  pattern  of  China,  the  impact  of  land  use  change  of  urban  agglomeration  on  the  eco ‐ logical  environment  has  gradually  attracted  the  attention  of  academic  circles.  For  exam ‐ ple,  Peng  et  al.  simulated  the  impact  of  urban  land  spati al  expansion  of  the  GPUA  on  the  supply  and  demand  pattern  of  ecosystem  services  under  different  land  use  sce narios  in  the  future  [16];  Yang  and  Su  explored  the  trade ‐ off  and  synergy  between  di fferent  ecosys ‐ tem  services  in  the  GPUA  by  using  the  PLUS  model  and  ESV  calculation  method  [51].  Ye  et  al.  simulated  the  land  use  and  habitat  quality  change  pattern  of  the  GPUA  fro m  2000  to  2035  by  using  the  FLUS  and  InVEST  model  [17].  These  research  results  have  laid  a  theo ‐ retical  and  methodological  foundation  for  the  in ‐ depth  study  of  land  spatial  transfor ‐ mation  and  ecological  environment  effects.  However,  existing  studies  have  not  paid  enough  attention  to  the  process  and  pattern  of  land  space  transition  in  the  GPUA  for  a  long  time.  The  contribution  rate  of  land  space  transition  of  urban  agglomerations  to  the  eco ‐ environment  quality  has  not  been  scientifically  determined.  The  rese arch  on  the  spe ‐ cial  evolution  characteristics  of  land  space  transition  of  urban  agg lomerations  and  its  im ‐ pact  on  the  fragile  ecological  environment  is  still  weak  [44,47].  Therefore,  based  on  the  theory  of  production–living–ecological  spaces  and  with  the  support  of  GIS  technology,  we  studied  the  spatial ‐ temporal  change  process  of  land  space  and  its  ecological  environ ‐ ment  effect  in  the  GPUA  from  1990  to  2020.  The  purpose  of  this  study  was  as  follows:  (1)  to  clarify  the  spatio ‐ temporal  patte rn  of  land  space  change  in  the  GPUA;  (2)  to  determine  the  eco ‐ environmental  contribution  rate  of  land  space  transition  in  the  GPUA;  and  (3)  to  discuss  the  ec o ‐ environmental  impact  mechanism  of  land  space  change  in  the  GPUA.  Th e  research  findings  may  provide  a  scientific  basis  and  policy  enlightenment  for  addressing  the  conflict  between  land  space  development  and  protection  in  urban  agglomeration  ar ‐ eas,  optimizing  the  allocation  of  land  space  resources  in  urban  agglomerations  and  pro ‐ moting  the  improvement  of  ecological  environment  quality  in  urban  agglomerations.   Land  2022 ,  11 ,  1547  4  of  22   2.  Materials  and  Methods  2.1.  Study  Area  The  GPUA  is  located  in  the  middle  of  the  Yellow  River  Basin,  between  33°57 ′ ~36°34 ′ N  and  104°35 ′ ~113°13 ′ E,  in volving  91  counties  and  districts  of  11  prefecture ‐ level  cities  in  Shaanxi,  Gansu,  and  Shanxi  provinces  (Figure  1)  and  with  a  total  area  of  about  107,100  square  kilometers.  It  accounts  for  1.12%  of  the  national  land  area  an d  is  the  second ‐ largest  urban  agglomeration  in  western  China.  In  2019,  the  permanent  population  of  the  GPUA  was  44.85  million,  accounting  for  10.4%  of  the  population  in  the  western  region.  The  total  GDP  reached  289.60  billion  USD,  accounting  for  9.7%  of  the  western  region  and  ex ceeding  2.2%  of  the  whole  country,  and  the  urbanization  rate  was  61.34%  [17].  The  region  is  the  center  of  economic  growth  in  the  western  region  of  China,  undertaking  the  mission  of  urbanizing  the  northwest  and  driving  the  social  and  economic  development,  as  well  as  the  eco ‐ environmental  protection,  of  the  surrounding  areas.  Regional  urbanization  is  in  a  period  of  accelerated  development,  with  dramatic  changes  in  th e  land  space  pattern;  sig ‐ nificant  regional  differences  in  the  level  of  urbanization  and  the  quality  of  the  eco ‐ envi ‐ ronment;  and  increasingly  prominent  problems,  such  as  ecological  damage,  environmen ‐ tal  pollution,  and  resource  consumption.  These  problems  are  caused  by  the  unreasonable  development  of  land  space  as  well  as  increasing  conflicts  with  regional  ecological  protec ‐ tion  and  high ‐ quality  development  [50].  Therefore,  how  to  solve  the  contradiction  be ‐ tween  urban  agglomeration  land  space  change  and  eco ‐ environment  protection  has  be ‐ come  an  urgent  need  to  meet  the  practical  needs  of  national  and  regional  development  and  achieve  the  goals  of  high ‐ quality  urbanization  development  and  a  high ‐ value  ecolog ‐ ical  environment  of  urban  agglomerations.   Figure  1.  Geographical  location  ( a ),  administrative  divisions  and  elevation  ( b )  in  the  Guanzhong  Plain  Urban  Agglomeration  (GPUA).  2.2.  Research  Methods  The  research  framework  of  this  study  aimed  to  clarify  the  process  of  land  space  (pro ‐ duction–living–ecological)  pattern  change  and  its  eco ‐ environmental  effects  in  the  GPUA  (Figure  2),  and  this  involved  three  steps:  (1)  determination  of  the  land  space  p attern  and  its  structural  characteristics  according  to  the  land  space  classification  system;  (2 )  clarifica ‐ tion  of  the  process  and  mode  of  land  space  transition  through  th e  Geo ‐ informatic  Graphic;  (3)  analys is  of  the  spatio ‐ temporal  variation  of  the  regional  ecological  env ironmental  qual ‐ ity  through  the  ecological  unit  eco ‐ environmental  quality  index  (EQI)  model  and  the  use  of  the  eco ‐ environmental  contribution  rate  model  to  reveal  the  eco ‐ environmental  effects  Land  2022 ,  11 ,  1547  5  of  22   of  land  space  transition  and  clarify  the  dominant  land  space  transition  mode  causing  changes  in  the  EQI.   Figure  2.  Research  framework  of  land  space  change  and  its  eco ‐ environmental  effects.  Specifically,  this  paper  adopted  a  trichotomy  method  based  on  production,  living,  and  ecological  land  to  cover  different  types  of  land,  and  it  reflects  the  multi ‐ dimensional  objectives  of  regional  social–economic  development  through  economic  production,  eco ‐ logical  environment,  and  livable  life  [12,14 ].  Then,  based  on  the  subjective  land  use  inten ‐ tions  of  different  actors,  it  constructed  a  classification  scheme  of  lan d ‐ space ‐ leading  func ‐ tions  of  urban  agglomerations,  and  it  identified  the  spatial  distribution  pattern  of  the  GPUA.  The  Geo ‐ informatic  Graphic  is  a  land  use  atlas  model  integrating  spatial,  process,  and  attribute  characteristics  [52].  This  model  could  effectively  analyze  the  transiti on  trend  and  quantitative  relationship  among  the  three  types  of  land  spaces  in  the  GPUA  and  re ‐ veal  the  changing  characteristics  of  the  regional  land  spac e  pattern.  Due  to  the  scale  de ‐ pendence  of  geospatial  data,  the  analysis  scale  selected  in  the  study  directly  affected  the  research  results  and  main  conclusions  [53].  In  order  to  obtain  the  most  suitable  research  scale,  this  paper  considered  each  land  use  patch  as  a  sampling  point,  and  the  GPUA  was  sampled  at  equal  in tervals  by  using  2  km  ×  2  km  fishing  nets  through  multiple  debugging  to  generate  27,803  sample  areas  (ecological  units).  Then,  combined  with  the  internal  pro ‐ duction–living–ecological  spaces  structure  of  each  ecological  unit  and  its  eco ‐ environment  quality  attributes,  we  comprehensively  analyzed  the  eco ‐ environment  quality.  2.2.1.  Geo ‐ Informatic  Graphic  The  Geo ‐ informatic  Graphic  is  a  model  that  reflects  the  spatial  heterogeneity  of  land  space  transition  and  its  time ‐ series  change  process  [52].  The  calculation  formula  is  as  fol ‐ lows:  b a l C C C    10  (1)  Land  space  transitions Land  space  classification Eco ‐ environmental  effects Land  use  data Production ‐ living ‐ ecological  space  pattern Production ‐ living ‐ ecological  space  structure Geo ‐ informatic  Graphic Transition  area Spatial distribution Land  space  transition  mode Ecological  unit Eco ‐ environmental  quality Contribution  rate Spatio ‐ temporal  changes  in  eco ‐ environmental  quality Transitions  of  land  space  and  changes  in  Eco ‐ environmental  Quality Changes  in  policy  system  and  changes  in  eco ‐ environmental  quality Optimal  allocation  and  coordinated  development  of  land  space  in  ecologically  fragile  Urban  Agglomerations Land  2022 ,  11 ,  1547  6  of  22   where  C l  is  the  total  area  of  land  space.  C a  and  C b  are  the  land  space  types  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  study,  respectively.  In  this  study,  ArcGIS10.2  software  was  used  to  conduct  a  superposition  analysis,  perspective  processing,  and  summary  statistics  of  land  spatial  type  data  and  obtain  the  transfer  area  of  the  land  space  area  of  the  GPUA  for  each  time  period.  2.2.2.  EQI  of  Ecological  Unit  Considering  the  eco ‐ environmental  quality  and  the  area  proportion  of  production– living–ecological  spaces  in  each  ecological  unit,  the  ecological  environmental  quality  of  each  ecological  unit  in  the  region  was  calculated  [54].  The  calculation  formula  is  as  fo l ‐ lows:   (2)  In  the  formula,  EV i  represents  the  EQI  of  the  i th  ecological  unit;  A ki  and  R, i  represent  the  area  of  the  i th  land  space  type  and  its  eco ‐ environmental  quality  coefficient,  respec ‐ tively;  A k  represents  the  total  area  of  land  space;  N  is  the  number  of  land  space  types.  Using  a  GIS  spatial  analysis  model,  the  EV i  can  be  divided  into  five  levels  [54],  namely  low ‐ quality  area  ( EV i  <  0.2),  low–medium ‐ quality  area  (0.2 ≤ EV i  <  0.35),  medium ‐ quality  area  (0.35 ≤ EV i  <  0.5),  medium–hig h ‐ quality  area  (0.50 ≤ EV i  <  0.65),  and  high ‐ quality  area  ( EV i ≥ 0.65).  2.2.3.  Eco ‐ Environmental  Contribution  Rate  of  Land  Space  Change  The  eco ‐ environmental  contribution  rate  of  land  space  change  refers  to  the  change  in  the  regional  ecological  environmental  quality  caused  by  the  change  in  a  certain  type  of  land  space  [55].  The  calculation  formula  is :    100 1      ZM BM SGI SGI SG t t  (3)  In  the  formula,  SG  is  the  ecological  contribution  rate  of  land  space  change;  SGI t  and  SGI t +1  are  the  ecological  environment  quality  indexes  of  the  land  space  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  a  certain  land  space  change  type;  BM  is  the  area  of  changed  land  space;  ZM  is  the  total  area  of  the  GPUA.  In  this  paper,  using  the  support  of  ArcGIS10.2  software,  the  types  and  areas  of  land  spatial  transition  were  obtained,  and  the  land  spatial  types  affect ‐ ing  the  changes  in  ecological  environmental  quality  in  the  GPUA  were  statisti cally  screened  out.  Furthermore,  the  dominant  types  of  land  spatial  transition  for  the  improve ‐ ment  or  deterioration  of  the  ecological  environment  in  the  urb an  agglomeration  were  de ‐ termined.  2.3.  Data  Sources  and  Processing  Land  use  data  (1990,  2000,  2010,  and  2020)  were  obtained  from  the  Data  Center  for  Resources  and  Environmental  Sciences,  Chinese  Academy  of  Sciences  (http://www.resdc.cn),  with  a  spatial  resolution  of  30  m  ×  30  m.  The  Landsat  TM/ETM  remote  sensing  image  was  used  as  the  main  data  source.  After  the  processing  of  band  synthesis,  geometric  correction,  image  enhancement  and  other  processing,  we  obtained  the  land  use  data  through  manual  visual  interpretation  [4],  which  included  six  first ‐ level  land  spatial  types  and  25  s ‐ level  land  spatial  types.  The  accuracy  of  first ‐ level  and  second ‐ level  land  use  classification  was  >90%  [56].  In  order  to  evaluate  the  applicability  of  these  data  in  the  GPUA,  this  paper  firstly  superimposed  the  land  use  data  in  each  period  and  then  extracted  the  unchanged  areas,  fro m  which  500  points  were  randomly  se lected  in  this  area  by  computer,  and  it  finally  superimposed  them  with  high ‐ resolution  satellite  images  from  Google  Earth  for  accuracy  testing.  The  comprehensive  evaluation  accuracy  of  land  Land  2022 ,  11 ,  1547  7  of  22   use  data  in  each  period  exceeded  86%  [30],  which  was  suitable  for  the  analysis  of  changes  of  the  land  space  pattern  in  urban  agglomerations.  The  administrative  boundary  data  and  traffic  network  data  of  the  GPUA  are  from  the  National  Basic  Geographic  Information  Center  (http://www.ngcc.cn ,  accessed  on  15  May  2022).  The  DEM  (Digital  Elevation  Model)  data  are  from  the  Shuttle  Radar  Topogra ‐ phy  Mission  of  the  Computer  Network  Information  Center  of  the  Chinese  Academy  of  Sciences,  with  a  spatial  resolution  of  90  m.  2.4.  Land  Space  Classification  System  There  are  many  forms  of  land  space  classification,  and  the  land  classification  based  on  production–living–ecological  spaces  focuses  on  the  main  ro le  and  function  of  various  types  of  land  in  human  production  and  life.  From  the  perspective  of  the  multi ‐ function  of  land  space,  according  to  the  land  use  classification  syst em  of  the  Chinese  Academy  of  Sciences  [57]  and  the  classification  of  the  second  national  land  use  survey  (GB/T21010 ‐ 2007),  combined  with  the  reality  of  land  space  development  and  protection  of  the  GPUA,  this  paper  adhered  to  the  classification  principle  of  giving  priority  to  ecological  functions  and  highlighting  dominant  functions,  and  it  established  the  classification  system  of  the  “production–living–ecological”  space  of  the  Guanzhong  Plain  urban  agglomeration.  Therefore,  we  divided  the  land  space  of  the  GPUA  into  three  first ‐ class  types  and  eight  second ‐ class  types  based  on  the  perspective  of  “production–living–ecological”  space  and  the  leading  function  of  land  use.  Furthermore,  it  form ulated  the  ecological  environmental  quality  values  of  different  second ‐ class  land  space  types  [58].  Finally,  the  area  weighting  method  was  used  to  assign  the  eco ‐ environmental  quality  coefficients  of  various  land  spaces  (Table  1).  Table  1.  Connection  between  land  space  classification  and  the  land  use  classification  system.  Land  Space  Classification  Land  Use  Classification  Eco ‐ Environmental  Quality  Coefficients  First ‐ Class  Land  Space  Code  Second ‐ Class  Land  Space  First ‐ Class  Land  Types  Second ‐ Class  Land  Types  Production  space  1  Agricultural  pro ‐ duction  space  Cropland  Paddy  field,  Dry  land  0.293  7  Industrial  and  mining  produc ‐ tion  space  Urban  and  rural,  industrial  and  mining,  residential  land  Other  construction  land  0.010  Living  space  5  Urban  living  space  Urban  construction  land  0.010  6  Rural  living  space  Rural  settlement  land  0.010  Ecological  space  2  Woodland  ecolog ‐ ical  space  Woodland  Closed  woodland,  Shrub  woodland,  Open  woodland,  Other  woodland  0.883  3  Grassland  ecolog ‐ ical  space  Grassland  High  coverage  grassland,  Me ‐ dium  coverage  grassland,  Low  coverage  grassland  0.798  4  Water  ecological  space  Water  body  Canals ,  Lake,  Reservoir  pond,  Permanent  glacier  snow,  Tidal  flat,  Beach  0.521  8  Other  ecological  space  Unused  land  Sand,  Gobi,  Saline ‐ alkali  land,  Wetlands,  Bare  earth,  Bare  rock  texture,  Other  0.025  Note:  The  codes  are  the  same  as  in  Figure  5  and  Table  5.    Land  2022 ,  11 ,  1547  8  of  22   3.  Results  3.1.  Characteristics  of  Changes  in  Land  Space  Structure  From  1990  to  2020,  the  production–living–ecological  space  area  of  the  GPUA  signifi ‐ cantly  changed  (Figure  3).  Over  the  past  30  years,  the  proportion  of  production  space,  living  space,  and  ecological  space  in  the  GPUA  changed  from  46.66%,  3.51%,  and  49. 83%  to  44.44%,  5.10%,  and  50.47%,  respectively.  This  indicate d  that  with  the  expansion  of  ur ‐ ban  space  and  the  development  of  social  economy,  the  production  space  of  the  GPUA  significantly  decreased,  and  the  living  space  significantly  inc reased.  The  ecological  space  has  been  dominant  for  a  long  time,  showing  a  fluctuating  incre asing  trend.   Figure  3.  Distribution  pattern  of  the  production–living–ecological  space  in  the  Guanzhong  Plain  Urban  Agglomeration  from  1990  to  2020.  Specifically,  the  agricultural  production  space  was  continuously  reduced  from  49,760.16  km 2  in  1990  to  46,832.51  km 2  in  2020  (Table  2),  indicating  a  reduction  of  2927.65  km 2 ,  and  the  proportion  of  the  total  area  decreased  from  46.50%  to  43.76%.  The  rate  of  change  was  the  largest  between  2000  and  2010  and  was  mainly  in  urbanized  areas  and  ecologically  fragile  areas.  This  is  closely  related  to  the  implementation  of  ecological  pro ‐ tection  projects,  such  as  the  expansion  of  urban  and  rural  constructio n  land  and  the  project  involving  the  return  of  farmland  to  forest  (grassland).  The  industrial  and  mining  produc ‐ tion  space  increased  continuously  from  174.29  km 2  (0.16%)  in  1990  to  722.36  km 2  (0.68%)  in  2020,  indicating  an  increase  of  548.08  km 2 .  This  was  mainly  in  the  central  part  of  the  GPUA,  which  included  Xi’an  and  Xianyang  and  parts  of  Linfen  and  Yuncheng.  The  area  of  living  space  showed  a  co ntinuous  increasing  trend.  The  living  sp ace  in  urban  and  rural  areas  increased  from  528.35  km 2  (0.49%)  and  3227.16  km 2  (3.02%)  in  1990  to  1237.72  km 2  (1.16%)  and  4211.93  km 2  (3.94%)  in  2020,  with  an  increase  of  709.36  km 2  and  984.77  km 2 ,  respectively.  The  ecological  space  area  showed  a  fluctuatin g  increasing  trend,  with  an  in ‐ creased  area  of  684.75  km 2  in  30  years,  of  which  the  ecological  space  of  woodland  and  grassland  significantly  increased  from  23,095.32  km 2  and  28,700.95  km 2  in  1990  to  23,250.52  km 2  and  29,314.26  km 2  in  2020;  the  increase  was  155.20  km 2  and  613.30  km 2 ,  and  the  pro ‐ portion  of  the  total  area  increased  from  21. 58%  and  26.82%  to  21.73%  and  27.39%,  respec ‐ tively.  It  is  worth  noting  that  there  was  a  synergistic  relationship  between  the  change  in  Land  2022 ,  11 ,  1547  9  of  22   the  ecological  space  of  woodland  and  gr assland  from  1990  to  2020,  and  the  change  in  eco ‐ logical  space  area  of  woodland  had  a  trend  of  “first  decreasing,  increasing,  and  then  de ‐ creasing”,  while  the  ecological  space  of  grassland  has  a  tren d  of  “first  decreasing  and  then  increasing”.  However,  the  water  ecological  space  and  other  ecological  spaces  generally  showed  a  continuous  decreasing  trend  and  then  increasing,  with  a  decrease  of  44.66  km 2  and  39.09  km 2 ,  respectively,  during  the  study  period.  Table  2.  Changes  in  the  production–living–ecological  space  structure  in  the  Guanzhong  Plain  Urban  Agglomeration  from  1990  to  2020.  Land  Space  Types  1990  2000  2010  2020  Area  (km 2 )  Area  (km 2 )  Area  (km 2 )  Area  (km 2 )  Agricultural  production  space  49,760.16  49,548.05  48,063.80  46,832.5 1  Woodland  ecological  space  23,095.32  22,978.32  23,455.23  23,250.52  Grassland  ecological  space  28,700.95  28,684.78  28,680.07  29,314.26  Water  ecological  space  1326.59  1241.57  1151.62  1281.93  Urban  living  space  528.35  683.03  1039.06  1237.72  Rural  living  space  3227.16  3519.70  4048.45  4 211.93  Industrial  and  mining  production  space  174.29  196.55  44 6.37  722.36  Other  ecological  space  198.86  159.7 4  128.31  159.78  3.2.  Characteristics  of  Regional  Differences  in  Land  Space  Change  There  was  a  significant  difference  in  the  spatial  pattern  of  the  GPUA.  The  production  and  living  spaces  were  mainly  concentrated  in  the  urbanized  areas,  such  as  Xi’an,  Xian ‐ yang,  Baoji,  and  Weinan,  in  the  central  part  of  the  GPUA;  Linfen;  and  Yuncheng  in  the  north,  while  the  ecological  space  was  mainly  concentrated  in  Tongchuan,  Shangluo,  Tianshui,  and  the  south  of  Baoji  (Figure  4).   Figure  4.  Spatial  difference  of  county  land  space  changes  in  the  Guanzhong  Plain  Urban  Agglom ‐ eration  from  1990  to  2020.  Land  2022 ,  11 ,  1547  10  of  22   From  1990  to  2020,  92.2%  of  the  counties  in  the  GPUA  had  their  agricultural  produc ‐ tion  space  contracted,  and  6.7%  of  the  counties  had  their  agricultural  production  space  expanded.  Lingtai  County,  located  in  the  northwest  of  the  GPUA,  had  the  largest  reduc ‐ tion,  with  the  reduction  of  agricultural  production  space  reaching  282.15  km 2 .  Yaodu  Dis ‐ trict,  located  in  the  northeast  of  the  GPUA,  had  a  significant  increase  in  agricultural  pro ‐ duction  space,  with  an  increase  of  about  125.75  km 2 .  The  counties  with  a  contraction  in  the  industrial  and  mining  production  space,  stability,  and  expansion  accounted  for  2.2%,  2.2%,  and  95.6%,  respectively,  of  which  Hejin  City  had  the  largest  reduction,  with  an  area  reduction  of  4.40  km 2 ,  and  Salt  Lake  District  and  Pucheng  County  had  the  highest  expan ‐ sion  of  industrial  and  mining  production  space,  with  an  increase  of  31.99  km 2  and  21.56  km 2 ,  respectively.  The  counties  with  a  contracted  urban  living  space  only  accounted  for  6.7%  of  the  total  number  of  counties,  while  the  living  space  of  other  counties  had  been  expanded.  Weiyang  District  of  Xi’an  City  was  the  most  typical,  with  an  expansion  area  of  85.53  km 2 .  The  counties  with  expanded  rural  living  sp ace  accounted  for  91.1%  of  the  tot al  counties  in  the  GPUA,  while  the  counties  with  contraction  mainly  included  Weiyang  and  Yanta  Districts  in  Xi’an,  Weibin  Distri ct  in  Baoji,  Yongji  City  in  Yuncheng,  and  Houma  City  in  Linfen.  As  key  development  areas  of  the  GPUA,  these  counties  showed  markedly  expanded  urban  space  and  occupied  a  large  am ount  of  rural  living  space.  The  ecological  space  was  mainly  expanded,  and  the  area  of  woodland  ecological  space  increased  in  64.4%  of  the  counties  and  districts.  The  largest  increase  was  in  Dali  and  Jicheng  Counties,  reaching  46.34  km 2  and  40.23  km 2 ,  respectively.  The  ecological  space  area  of  woodland  in  Chongxin  and  Yijun  Counties  decreased  significantly  by  74.25  km 2  and  61.95  km 2 ,  respectively.  The  counties  with  expanded  grassland  ecological  space  ac ‐ counted  for  44.4%  of  the  total  counties  in  the  GPUA.  The  largest  increas e  was  observed  in  Lingtai  and  Chongxin  Counties,  which  were  271. 58  km 2  and  182.60  km 2 ,  respectively.  The  ecological  space  of  grasslan d  in  Yaodu  District  and  Dali  County  markedly  reduce d,  reach ‐ ing  202.39  km 2  and  49.20  km 2 ,  respectively.  The  expansion  of  water  ecological  space  was  mainly  concentrated  in  the  areas  where  the  Weihe  River  system  and  the  Yellow  River  flow  through.  For  example,  the  water  expansion  area  of  Lintong  District  in  Xi’an  City  was  11.87  km 2 ,  and  that  of  Yongji  City  in  Yuncheng  City  was  16.26  km 2 .  Wanrong  and  Linyi  Counties  has  a  serious  reduction  of  water  ecological  space,  which  could  be  attributed  to  the  over ‐ exploitation  of  the  Yellow,  Fenhe,  and  Sushui  Rivers  and  the  soil  erosion  caused  by  the  change  in  the  natural  geographical  environment.  Other  counties  and  districts  with  re ‐ duced,  stable,  and  expanded  ecological  space  accounted  for  17.8%,  34.4%,  and  47.8%,  re ‐ spectively.  Of  these  locations,  Yongji  City  and  Dali  County  had  the  largest  reduction,  Lingtai  County  and  Kongtong  District  had  the  largest  growth,  and  the  ecological  environ ‐ mental  quality  significantly  improved.  3.3.  Transition  Mode  of  Land  Space  From  1990  to  2020,  the  land  space  of  the  GPUA  markedly  changed,  the  area  of  agri ‐ cultural  production  space  and  grassland  and  water  ecological  space  decreased,  and  the  urban  and  rural  living  space  significantly  increased  (Figure  5).  In  the  past  30  years,  most  of  the  agricultural  production  space  has  been  tr ansformed  into  gr assland  ecological  space  and  rural  living  sp ace,  with  areas  of  1754.88  km 2  and  1230.80  km 2 ,  respectively.  Industrial  and  mining  production  space  has  been  mainly  transformed  into  urban  and  rural  living  space,  with  the  largest  area  of  13.36  km 2  transformed  into  rural  living  space.  The  wood ‐ land  ecological  space  was  converted  into  grassland  ecological  space  (544.17  km 2 )  and  ag ‐ ricultural  production  space  (176.31  km 2 ).  The  areas  of  grassland  ecological  space  that  were  transformed  into  agricultural  produc tion  space  and  woodland  ecological  space  were  1158.77  km 2  and  429.21  km 2 ,  respectively,  and  the  transition  rates  were  4.3%  and  1.6%,  respectively.  The  transition  from  water  ecological  space  to  agricultural  production  space  and  grassland  ecological  space  accounted  for  a  large  proportion,  with  transfer  areas  of  208.75  km 2  and  54.31  km  and  transfer  rates  of  20.5%  and  5.3%,  respectively.  Rural  living  space  waas  mostly  converted  into  agricultural  production  space  and  urb an  living  space,  Land  2022 ,  11 ,  1547  11  of  22   with  conversion  rates  of  8.4%  and  2.5%,  respectively.  Other  ecological  spaces  were  easily  converted  int o  agricu ltural  production  space,  woodland,  grassland,  water  body,  and  other  ecological  spaces,  among  which  the  area  converted  into  woodland  ecological  space  was  the  largest,  reaching  34.75  km 2 ,  with  a  conversion  rate  of  30.8%.   Figure  5.  Distribution  of  land  space  transition  in  the  Guanzhong  Plain  Urban  Agglomeration  from  1990  to  2020.  Note:  Symbol  ‘ → ’  represents  the  transition  of  land  space  change.  With  regard  to  different  developmental  stages,  the  transition  from  agricu ltural  pro ‐ duction  space  to  rural  living  space  was  the  largest  from  1990  to  2000,  with  a  transition  area  of  295.21  km 2  and  a  transition  rate  of  0.6%,  while  the  transition  from  industrial  and  mining  production  space  and  living  space  to  other  types  of  land  space  was  small.  Woodland  eco ‐ logical,  grassland  ecological,  and  water  ecological  spaces  were  mainly  transformed  into  agricultural  production  space,  and  the  transition  of  grassland  ecological  space  was  the  most  obvious  at  a  transfer  rate  of  0.82%  and  a  transfer  area  of  232.79  km 2 .  Other  ecological  spaces  were  mainly  converted  into  woodland  ecological  and  water  ecological  spaces  at  transfer  rates  of  20.3%  and  5.0%,  respectively.  From  2000  to  2010,  the  area  of  agricultura l  production  space  transformed  into  grassland  ecological  and  rural  living  spaces  signifi ‐ cantly  increased,  and  the  area  of  transformed  agr icultural  production  space  was  5.2 ‐ fold  of  the  total  area  of  agricultural  production  space  in  1990~2000.  The  transformation  of  in ‐ dustrial  and  mining  production  space  into  other  types  of  land  space  also  showed  an  in ‐ creasing  trend,  and  the  areas  converted  into  agricultural  production,  urban  living,  and  rural  living  spaces  were  7.84  km 2 ,  6.99  km 2 ,  and  2.91  km 2 ,  respectively.  The  transition  of  ecological  space,  such  as  woodland,  grassland,  and  water  areas,  into  agricultural  produc ‐ tion  space  has  accelerated,  and  the  transition  area  of  production  space  and  various  eco ‐ logical  space  into  urban  and  rural  living  space  has  significantly  increased,  which  is  closely  related  to  the  rapid  progress  of  regional  urbanization  and  industrialization  since  2000  and  the  spatial  expansion  of  urban  and  rural  construction  land.  Compared  with  that  observed  from  2000  to  2010,  the  transition  speed  from  ecological  space,  such  as  woodland  and  grassland,  to  agricultural  production  space  slowed  down  Land  2022 ,  11 ,  1547  12  of  22   from  2010  to  2020,  which  was  110.57  km 2  and  463.95  km 2 ,  respectively,  while  the  area  transformed  to  living  space  showed  a  significan t  decreasing  trend.  The  conversion  of  other  land  space  types  to  woodland  and  grassl and  ecological  space  has  been  increasing.  The  conversion  area  of  agricultural  production  space  to  urban  and  rural  living  space  re ‐ duced,  with  conversion  areas  of  215.56  km 2  and  384.59  km 2 ,  respectively,  whereas  the  con ‐ version  area  of  living  space  to  water  ecological  space  and  other  ecologic al  space  increased.  These  changes  could  be  attributed  to  the  fact  that,  on  the  one  hand,  ecological  protection  policies,  such  as  the  return  of  farmland  to  forest  (grassland),  have  effectively  promoted  regional  ecological  restoration.  On  the  other  hand,  the  promulgation  and  implementation  of  the  national  main  functional  area  planning  has  effectively  controlled  the  mode  and  in ‐ tensity  of  land  space  development  and  utilization,  providing  scientific  guidance  for  the  development  and  utilization  of  land  space  in  the  GPUA.  3.4.  Eco ‐ Environmental  Effects  of  Land  Space  Change  3.4.1.  Spatial–Temporal  Changes  in  the  EQI  (1)  Temporal  change.  The  EQI  of  the  GPUA  decreased  from  0.554  in  1990  to  0.551  in  2010,  and  then,  it  increased  to  0.552  in  2020,  indicating  that  the  eco ‐ environmental  quality  first  experienced  a  process  of  deterioration  before  improvement,  and  the  overall  level  of  eco ‐ environmental  quality  deteriorated.  In  the  past  30  years,  different  grades  of  the  EQI  showed  significant  differences;  the  low ‐ quality  and  high ‐ quality  EQI  areas  showed  an  overall  expansion  trend,  and  the  area  of  other  EQI  areas  showed  a  shrinking  trend  (Table  3).  Table  3.  Areas  of  eco ‐ environmental  quality  index  (EQI)  grade  areas  in  the  Guanzhong  Plain  Urban  Agglomeration  from  1990  to  2020  (km 2 ).  Area  of  EQI  Grade  1990  2000  2010  2020  Low  795.59  1019.59  1878.76  2658.51  Low–medium  26,391.63  26,376.47  26,434.23  25,630.55  medium  21,643.91  21,678.55  20,376.51  19,794.92  Medium–high  19,065.92  19,098.96  18,544.2  18,663.45  High  39,264.36  38,987.89  39,928.94  40,413.14  Specifically,  from  1990  to  2020,  the  proportion  of  high ‐ quality  areas  remained  at  about  37%,  which  constituted  the  main  body  of  the  eco ‐ environment  of  land  space  devel ‐ opment  and  utilization  in  the  GPUA.  The  areas  of  low–medium  and  medium–high  quality  were  relatively  stable,  accounting  for  about  24%  and  17%,  respectively.  However,  the  low ‐ quality  areas  increased,  showing  a  continuous  expansion  trend.  In  1990,  the  area  of  the  low ‐ quality  areas  was  795.59  km 2 ,  accounting  for  only  0.74%.  In  2020,  it  increased  to  2658.51  km 2 ,  accounting  for  2.48%,  with  an  average  annual  growth  rate  of  4.1%.  The  me ‐ dium ‐ quality  areas  showed  a  shrinking  trend,  and  the  proportion  continued  to  decline,  with  the  most  obvious  shrinkage  change  from  2000  to  2010.  This  was  closely  related  to  the  shrinkage  of  regional  ecological  space  caused  by  rapid  urbanization  and  industrialization,  resulting  in  the  decline  of  the  EQI.  According  to  the  results  of  the  transfer  matrix  analysis  of  the  EQI  grade  area  in  the  GPUA  (Table  4),  the  are a  of  the  EQI  grade  rising  are a  was  4464.10  km 2  and  the  area  of  the  EQI  grade  declining  area  was  5476.30  km 2  in  the  past  30  years.   Land  2022 ,  11 ,  1547  13  of  22   Table  4.  Transition  area  of  the  eco ‐ environmental  quality  index  (EQI)  grade  types  from  1990  to  2020  (km 2 ).  1990  2000  Low  Low–Medium  Medium  Medium–High  High  Low  743.85  15.86  8.02  4.04  23 .82  Low–medium  259.64  25,893.55  214.38  20.08  3.98  Medium  16.10  442.92  21,029.47  147.36  8.08  Medium–high  0.00  24.12  404.85  18,577.99  58.96  High  0.00  0.00  21.77  349.49  38,893.10  2000  2010  Low  Low–medium  Medium  Medium–high  High  Low  971.22  32.18  15.80  0.39  0. 00  Low–medium  863.47  24,951.38  508.62  43.76  9.22  Medium  32.13  1200.00  18,547.04  1671.56  227.78  Medium–high  3.92  206.47  1183.95  16,111.54  1593.08  High  8.02  44.10  120.73  716. 78  38,098.32  2010  2020  Low  Low–medium  Medium  Medium–high  High  Low  1786.80  80.02  0.00  3.92  8.02  Low–medium  867.67  25,102.65  447.85  0.00  15.94  Medium  4.04  443.85  18,950.98  920.64  56.62  Medium–high  0.00  4.08  384.02  17,435.07  720.86  High  0.00  0.00  12.06  304.09  39,612.24  From  1990  to  2000,  the  EQI  grade  decline  area  was  1518.89  km 2 ,  and  the  EQI  grade  rise  area  was  504.58  km 2 ,  accounting  for  1.42%  and  0.47%  of  the  total  area,  respectively.  From  2000  to  2010,  the  EQI  grade  decline  area  reached  4379.54  km 2 ,  accounting  for  4.09%  of  the  total  area,  which  was  2.88 ‐ times  that  of  the  previous  stage  (1990~2000).  This  was  mainly  due  to  the  transition  from  a  medium ‐ quality  area  to  low–medium ‐ quality  area,  with  a  transi tion  area  of  1199.99  km 2 .  The  EQI  grade  rising  area  was  4102.39  km 2 ,  account ‐ ing  for  3.83%  of  the  total  area,  which  was  mainly  from  the  tr ansition  from  a  medium ‐ quality  area  to  medium–high ‐ quality  area  and  from  a  medium–high  quality  area  to  high ‐ quality  area,  with  the  transition  ar eas  of  1671.56  km 2  and  1593.08  km 2  respectively.  From  2010  to  2020,  the  area  of  the  EQI  grade  decline  area  was  2019.81  km 2 ,  accoun ting  for  1.88%  of  the  total  area  of  the  region,  mainly  due  to  the  tr ansition  from  low–medium ‐ quality  ar ‐ eas  to  low ‐ quality  areas.  The  EQI  grade  rising  area  was  2253.88  km 2 ,  accounting  for  2.10%  of  the  tota l  area,  main ly  due  to  the  transi tion  from  medium ‐ quality  area  to  medium–high ‐ quality  area.  This  showed  that  the  expansion  of  the  area  of  low ‐ grade  eco logical  environ ‐ mental  quality  areas  was  one  of  the  important  factors  associ ated  with  the  deterioration  of  the  overall  ecological  environmental  quality  level  of  the  GPUA.  (2)  Spatial  differentiation.  The  EQI  of  the  GPUA  gene rally  presented  a  spatial  pattern  of  “low  in  the  central  part  and  high  in  the  north  and  south”  (Figure  6).  The  low ‐ quality  areas  of  the  ecological  environment  were  expanding,  and  they  were  mainly  distributed  in  big  cities  and  their  surrounding  areas.  In  1990,  they  were  scattered  in  Xi’an,  Wein an,  Yun ‐ cheng,  and  other  urban  areas,  with  a  small  area  of  795.59  km 2 .  In  2020,  the  low ‐ quality  areas  expanded  to  2658.51  km 2 ,  showing  a  concentrated  and  contiguous  distribution  trend,  with  the  central  city  as  the  core  geographical  space.  This  is  basically  consistent  with  the  space  expansion  of  urban  construction  land  and  the  expansion  of  industriali zation  ac ‐ tivities  under  the  background  of  rapid  urbanization.  The  low–medium ‐ quality  area  was  mainly  concentrated  in  the  Fenwei  Plain  in  the  middle  of  the  GPUA,  and  its  spatial  distri ‐ bution  was  relatively  stable.  The  region  was  rich  in  water  and  soil  resources,  and  it  was  an  important  population  and  economic  gathering  place  and  agricultural  production  base.  Land  2022 ,  11 ,  1547  14  of  22   Medium ‐ quality  areas  were  mainly  distributed  in  the  surrounding  areas  of  Tianshui,  Pingliang,  Qingyang,  Tongchuan,  and  other  cities,  with  a  significant  decline  in  the  area.  These  cities  are  located  in  the  Loess  hill  and  gully  areas,  with  a  fragile  ecological  environ ‐ ment,  but  urbanization  was  in  a  period  of  accelerated  development.  The  superposition  of  urban  living  space  and  industrial  and  mining  production  space  expansion  has  occupied  part  of  the  agricultural  production  space  and  ecological  space,  causing  decline  in  the  EQI.  Medium–high ‐ quality  regions  and  high ‐ quality  areas  were  mainly  distributed  in  the  Qin ‐ ling ‐ Bashan  Mountains  in  the  south  of  the  GPUA  and  the  Loess  Plateau  in  the  north,  ac ‐ counting  for  about  54%  of  the  total  are a.  The  land  space  was  mainly  woodland  and  grass ‐ land  ecological  space,  which  was  affected  by  topography  and  geomorphology,  limiting  large ‐ scale  and  high ‐ intensity  urbanization  and  industriali zation  activities,  and  the  over ‐ all  EQI  was  relatively  high.  Moreover,  the  ecological  space  area  of  the  Qinling ‐ Bashan  Mountain  ecological  barrier  area  in  the  south  was  large,  especially  in  the  south  of  Baoji  City  and  the  north  of  Shangluo  City.  In  the  north  of  Pingliang,  Qingyang,  Tongchuan,  and  other  Loess  hill  and  gully  areas,  due  to  the  implementation  of  the  policy  of  returning  farm ‐ land  to  forest  (grassland)  and  the  continuous  constr uction  of  urban  green  space,  the  EQI  has  significantly  increased.   Figure  6.  Spatio ‐ temporal  pattern  of  the  eco ‐ environmental  quality  index  (EQI)  in  the  Guanzhong  Plain  Urban  Agglomeration  from  1990  to  2020.  From  1990  to  2020,  the  area  of  urban  and  rural  living  space  and  industri al  and  mining  production  space  in  the  GPUA  has  been  increasing,  and  the  low ‐ quality  areas  of  the  eco ‐ logical  environment  has  been  expanding  rapidly.  From  1990  to  2000,  the  development  and  expansion  of  land  space  in  the  GPUA  lagged  behind,  and  industrial  development  and  mining  construction  were  slow.  Moreover,  the  area  of  low ‐ quality  ecological  environment  areas  increased  slightly,  with  an  average  annual  increase  of  2.51%,  forming  a  “hot  spot”  for  the  expansion  of  low ‐ quality  area,s  with  Xi’an  as  the  core  in  the  space.  From  2000  to  2010,  urbanization  entered  a  period  of  rapid  development,  and  the  urbanization  develop ‐ ment  mode  dominated  by  spatial  development  and  expansion  resulted  in  the  expansion  of  urban  living  space  occupying  the  surrounding  agricultural  production  space  and  eco ‐ Land  2022 ,  11 ,  1547  15  of  22   logical  space.  This  resulted  in  the  rapid  spatial  expansion  of  low ‐ quality  ecological  envi ‐ ronment  areas,  with  an  average  annual  growth  rate  of  6.30%  and  further  expa nsion  of  low ‐ quality  areas.  It  has  formed  many  low ‐ quality  space  “hot  spots”,  such  as  Xi’an,  Lin ‐ fen,  and  Yuncheng.  From  2010  to  2020,  with  the  implementation  of  the  Main  Functional  Zone  Planning,  the  spatial  expansion  intensity  of  the  GPUA  reduced,  and  the  expansion  rate  of  the  low ‐ quality  ecologic al  environment  area  slowed  down,  with  an  average  annual  growth  rate  of  3.53%,  but  the  hot  spot  pattern  of  low ‐ quality  area  expansion  was  strength ‐ ened,  forming  a  “one ‐ pole  and  multi ‐ core”  hot  spot  distribution  pattern  of  the  low ‐ quality  area.  One  pole  refers  to  Xi’an  and  Xianyang,  the  core  cities  of  the  GPUA,  and  multi ‐ core  refers  to  Baoji,  Weinan,  Yuncheng,  Lin fen,  and  other  regional  central  cities.  The  expansion  of  urban  living  space  as  well  as  industria l  and  mining  production  space  is  mainly  concen ‐ trated  with  the  central  cities  as  the  core.  3.4.2.  Eco ‐ Environmental  Contribution  Rate  of  Land  Space  Change  From  1990  to  2020,  the  space  change  of  land  in  the  GPUA  contributed  sign ificantly  to  the  regional  ecological  environmental  quality,  and  the  improvement  and  deterioration  of  the  regional  ecological  environment  quality  appeared  alternately,  with  obvious  stage  change  characteristics  (Table  5).  Table  5.  Contribution  rate  of  the  land  space  transition  to  the  ecological  environment  quality  in  the  Guanzhong  Plain  urban  Agglomeration  from  1990  to  2020.  Eco ‐ Environmental  Effect  1990~2000  2000~2010  Type  of  Transition  Change  of  the  EQI  Contribution  Rate/%  Type  of  Transition  Change  of  the  EQI  Contribution  Rate/%  Improvement  of  the  EQI  1 → 2  4.74  ×  10 − 4  41.44  1 → 3  6.47  ×  10 − 3  62.4 9  8 → 2  2.55  ×  10 − 4  22.29  1 → 2  2.00  ×  10 − 3  19.2 9  1 → 3  1.41  ×  10 − 4  12.33  6 → 1  5.94  ×  10 − 4  5.74  1 → 4  1.04  ×  10 − 4  9.06  3 → 2  3.71  ×  10 − 4  3.58  4 → 3  9.10  ×  10 − 5  7.94  1 → 4  2.87  ×  10 − 4  2.78  8 → 4  3.60  ×  10 − 5  3.14  8 → 3  1.22  ×  10 − 4  1.18  3 → 2  2.20  ×  10 − 5  1.94  4 → 3  1.10  ×  10 − 4  1.07  4 → 2  1.10  ×  10 − 5  0.93  8 → 4  9.50  ×  10 − 5  0.92  Total  1.13  ×  10 − 3  99.07  Total  1.00  ×  10 − 2  97.05  Deterioration  of  the  EQI  3 → 1 − 1.10  ×  10 − 3  34.45  3 → 1 − 4.77  ×  10 − 3  43.93  1 → 6 − 7.81  ×  10 − 4  24.48  1 → 6 − 1.99  ×  10 − 3  18.32  1 → 5 − 3.32  ×  10 − 4  10.41  2 → 1 − 9.36  ×  10 − 4  8.62  4 → 1 − 2.89  ×  10 − 4  9.07  1 → 5 − 7.21  ×  10 − 4  6.64  2 → 3 − 1.75  ×  10 − 4  5.47  1 → 7 − 6.07  ×  10 − 4  5.59  2 → 1 − 1.30  ×  10 − 4  4.07  4 → 1 − 4.43  ×  10 − 4  4.08  2 → 5 − 1.06  ×  10 − 4  3.33  3 → 6 − 2.83  ×  10 − 4  2.61  3 → 4 − 7.70  ×  10 − 5  2.40  2 → 6 − 2.57  ×  10 − 4  2.37  Total − 2.99  ×  10 − 3  93.68  Total − 1.00  ×  10 − 2  92.15  Eco ‐ environmental  effect  2010~2020  1990~2020  Type  of  transition  Change  of  the  EQI  Contribution  rate  /%  Type  of  transi ‐ tion  Change  of  the  EQI  Contribution  rate/%  Improvement  of  the  EQI  1 → 3  4.13  ×  10 − 3  60.35  1 → 3  8.28  ×  10 − 3  63.0 7  1 → 2  9.55  ×  10 − 4  13.96  1 → 2  2.63  ×  10 − 3  20.0 4  6 → 1  5.64  ×  10 − 4  8.24  6 → 1  6.42  ×  10 − 4  4.89  1 → 4  3.18  ×  10 − 4  4.65  1 → 4  3.47  ×  10 − 4  2.64  6 → 2  2.13  ×  10 − 4  3.11  3 → 2  3.41  ×  10 − 4  2.60  3 → 2  1.49  ×  10 − 4  2.18  8 → 2  2.79  ×  10 − 4  2.12  Land  2022 ,  11 ,  1547  16  of  22   6 → 3  1.29  ×  10 − 4  1.89  4 → 3  1.41  ×  10 − 4  1.07  5 → 1  7.80  ×  10 − 5  1.14  8 → 4  1.02  ×  10 − 4  0.78  Total  6.54  ×  10 − 3  95.50  Total  1.28  ×  10 − 2  97.22  Deterioration  of  the  EQI  3 → 1 − 2.19  ×  10 − 3  33.89  3 → 1 − 5.47  ×  10 − 3  35.73  1 → 6 − 1.02  ×  10 − 3  15.74  1 → 6 − 3.26  ×  10 − 3  21.27  1 → 7 − 7.72  ×  10 − 4  11.95  1 → 5 − 1.57  ×  10 − 3  10.28  2 → 1 − 6.10  ×  10 − 4  9.43  1 → 7 − 1.32  ×  10 − 3  8.65  1 → 5 − 5.70  ×  10 − 4  8.82  2 → 1 − 9.72  ×  10 − 4  6.35  2 → 3 − 3.64  ×  10 − 4  5.63  4 → 1 − 4.45  ×  10 − 4  2.91  3 → 7 − 1.62  ×  10 − 4  2.51  2 → 3 − 4.32  ×  10 − 4  2.82  3 → 6 − 1.13  ×  10 − 4  1.75  3 → 6 − 3.44  ×  10 − 4  2.25  Total − 5.80  ×  10 − 3  89.71  Total − 1.38  ×  10 − 2  90.26  From  1990  to  2000,  the  contribution  rate  of  land  space  transition  of  the  GPUA  to  the  improvement  of  the  ecological  environment  (99.07%)  was  higher  than  that  to  the  deter io ‐ ration  of  the  ecological  environment  quality  (93.68%).  The  transition  of  agricultural  pro ‐ duction  space  and  other  ecological  space  into  woodland  and  grassl and  ecological  space  was  the  dominant  driving  force  for  the  improvement  of  eco ‐ environmental  quality  in  the  GPUA.  Among  them,  the  transition  of  agricultural  produc tion  space  into  woodland  eco ‐ logical  space  was  the  primary  driving  factor  for  the  improvement  of  eco ‐ envir onment  quality,  accounting  for  41.44%  of  the  total  improvem ent  contribution  rate.  The  transition  of  grassland  ecological  space  into  agricultural  production  space  and  the  occupa tion  of  ag ‐ ricultural  production  space  by  urban  and  rural  living  space  were  the  leading  driving  fac ‐ tors  for  the  deterioration  of  eco ‐ environmental  quality  in  the  GPUA,  and  the  contribution  rate  of  the  three  factors  to  the  deterioration  of  the  ecological  environment  reached  69.34% .  From  2000  to  2010,  th e  contribution  rate  of  land  spatial  transition  to  the  improve ment  of  eco ‐ environmental  quality  in  the  GPUA  was  97.05%,  which  was  higher  than  th at  of  the  deterioration  of  ecological  environment  qualit y  (92.15%).  This  could  be  mainly  attr ibuted  to  the  transition  of  a  large  amount  of  agricultural  production  space  into  woodland  an d  grassland  ecological  space,  and  the  contribution  rate  reached  81.78%.  The  main  reason  for  the  deterioration  of  the  ecological  environment  was  that  the  agricu ltural  production  space  occupied  the  ecological  space  of  woodland  and  grassland,  and  the  urban  and  rural  living  space  occupied  the  agricultural  production  space,  with  a  contribution  rate  of  77. 51%.  The  impact  of  land  space  transition  on  the  improvement  and  deterioration  of  ecological  envi ‐ ronment  quality  from  2010  to  2020  showed  the  same  trend  as  that  observed  from  2000  to  2010.  Overall,  both  improvement  and  deterioration  of  ecological  environmental  quality  have  been  noticed  in  the  past  30  years,  and  the  improvement  trend  of  the  ecological  envi ‐ ronment  was  less  than  the  deterioration  trend.  The  main  driving  factor  for  the  improve ‐ ment  of  eco ‐ environmental  quality  in  the  GPUA  was  the  transition  of  agricultural  produc ‐ tion  space  into  woodland  and  grassland  ecological  space,  while  th e  transition  of  grassland  ecological  space  into  agricultural  production  sp ace  and  the  occupation  of  agricultural  pro ‐ duction  space  by  urban  and  rural  living  space,  as  well  as  industrial  and  mining  production  space,  were  the  important  factors  causing  the  deterioration  of  ecological  environment  quality.  4.  Discussion  4.1.  Transition  of  Land  Space  and  Eco ‐ Environmental  Quality  in  Urban  Agglomeration  Urban  agglomerations  are  formed  in  the  advanced  stage  of  national  industrialization  and  urbanization  development.  The  transition  of  land  space  and  the  expan sion  of  con ‐ struction  land  within  urban  agglomerations  have  placed  great  pressure  on  the  ecological  environment  [47,59].  The  spatial  transition  of  land  in  the  GPUA  has  a  profound  impact  on  the  structure  and  function  of  the  regional  ecosystem,  thus  causing  the  improvement  or  Land  2022 ,  11 ,  1547  17  of  22   deterioration  of  regional  eco ‐ environme ntal  quality  [16].  This  study  found  that  the  growth  and  decline  of  urban  agglomeration  production  and  living  and  ecological  land  affected  the  eco ‐ environment  quality.  In  the  core  are a  of  urban  agglomeration  with  Xi’an  and  other  cities  as  the  main  body,  the  intensity  of  human  activities  is  large,  the  transition  of  land  space  is  intense,  and  the  deterio ration  trend  of  the  ecological  environment  quality  is  obvi ‐ ous  [51].  However,  in  the  Loess  Plateau  in  the  north  and  the  Qinling  Mountains  in  the  south  of  the  GPUA,  the  intensity  of  human  social  and  economic  activities  gradually  de ‐ creased  under  the  siphon  effect  of  the  central  city  of  Xi’an,  and  there  was  a  marke d  im ‐ provement  of  ecological  environmental  quality  [60,61].  Although  the  EQI  of  the  GPUA  was  maintained  at  about  0.552  from  1990  to  2020,  the  overall  EQI  of  the  GPUA  was  still  lower  than  0.554,  and  the  trend  of  eco ‐ environmental  quality  deterioration  was  slightly  higher  than  that  of  eco ‐ environmental  quality  improvement,  especially  in  the  core  cities  and  their  surrounding  areas  within  the  GPUA  [17].  Specifically,  from  1990  to  2000,  under  the  influence  of  domestic  deflation  and  special  urbanization  development  mode,  the  spatial  development  and  expansion  of  the  GPUA  was  slow,  the  transition  of  land  spatial  structure  was  small,  and  the  ecological  environ ‐ mental  quality  was  relatively  stable  [54].  From  2000  to  2010 ,  with  the  establishment  of  a  large  number  of  development  zones  (high ‐ tech  zones,  bonded  zones,  economic  develop ‐ ment  zones,  etc.)  in  the  GPUA,  the  industrial  and  mining  production  space  expanded  rap ‐ idly  [49],  while  the  development  of  urbanization  attracted  a  large  number  of  rural  surplus  labor  to  work  in  cities,  increased  the  demand  for  urban  living  land,  caused  the  rapid  ex ‐ pansion  of  urban  agglomeration  living  space  [20,43],  and  occupied  a  large  number  agri ‐ cultural  production  and  ecological  spaces  [13].  Consequently,  the  quality  of  the  ecological  environment  rapidly  declined,  and  the  low ‐ quality  areas  of  the  ecological  environment  rapidly  expanded.  From  2010  to  2020,  with  the  continuous  promotion  of  ecological  civili ‐ zation  construction,  the  area  of  green  ecological  space  in  urban  agglomerations  signifi ‐ cantly  expanded,  and  the  overall  quality  of  ecological  environment  showed  a  trend  of  improvement  [16,17].  However,  it  should  also  be  noted  that  with  the  rapid  development  of  the  GPUA  and  the  planning  and  construction  of  the  Greater  Xi’an  Metropolitan  Area,  the  demand  for  construction  land  caused  by  the  sharp  increase  in  the  population  and  in ‐ dustrial  development  in  Xi’an  (Xianyang)  has  been  increasing  [49],  resulting  in  a  large  number  of  agricultural  production  spaces  and  ecological  spaces  being  transformed  in to  urban  living  as  well  as  industrial  and  mining  production  spaces.  This  caused  a  significant  deterioration  of  ecological  environmental  quality  in  some  areas  of  urban  agglomerations.  Zhang  et  al.  also  found  that  construction  land  expansion  in  urban  agglomerations  led  to  rapid  changes  in  the  land  space  pattern,  and  urban  co nstruction  land  occupied  arable  and  ecological  lands,  resulting  in  a  prominent  regional  ecological  deficit  that  seriously  threat ‐ ened  the  eco ‐ environment  quality  of  urban  agglomerations  and  the  sustain ability  of  eco ‐ systems  [16].  4.2.  Government’s  Policy  System  and  Eco ‐ Environmental  Quality  in  Urban  Agglomeration  The  government’s  policy  system  is  an  important  dr iving  factor  for  the  formation  and  evolution  of  land  space  development  and  the  protection  pattern  in  urban  agglomeration  areas  [62,63],  and  it  has  a  profound  impact  on  the  deterioration  or  improvement  trend  of  eco ‐ environmental  quality  [64,65].  This  study  found  that  with  the  implementation  and  adjustment  of  national  and  local  government  policies,  the  eco ‐ environmental  quality  of  the  GPUA  showed  marked  stage  change  characteristics.  From  1990  to  2000,  under  the  influence  of  the  decentralized  urbanization  road,  with  small  towns  as  the  main  part  and  its  supporting  policies,  the  urb an  development  intensity  of  the  GPUA  was  generally  low  [66],  and  the  ecological  environmental  quality  remained  at  a  medium  or  above  level.  Since  2000,  with  the  rapid  development  of  the  refo rm  of  the  household  registration  system,  the  construction  of  a  new  socialist  countryside,  and  the  construction  of  urban  development  zones  [54,67],  the  land  space  of  urban  and  rural  con ‐ Land  2022 ,  11 ,  1547  18  of  22   struction  in  the  GPUA  has  shown  a  trend  of  disorderly  expansion,  resulting  in  a  signifi ‐ cant  decline  in  the  eco ‐ environmental  quality  of  the  central  citie s  and  their  surrounding  areas  in  urban  agglomerations.  The  continuous  implementation  of  the  policy  of  returning  farmland  to  forest  (grassland)  has  promoted  the  transition  of  a  large  number  of  agricul ‐ tural  production  spaces  in  the  Loess  Plateau  [60]  in  the  north  and  Qinling  Mountains  [61]  in  the  south  of  the  GPUA  into  woodland  and  grassland  ecological  space,  which  has  im ‐ proved  the  regional  eco ‐ environmental  quality.  After  2010,  with  the  implementation  of  the  planning  and  system  of  the  mai n  functional  areas  [68]  and  its  rise  to  a  major  national  strategy,  overall  improvement,  and  not  deterioration,  has  been  observed  in  the  ecological  environmental  quality  of  the  GPUA  [17].  In  2014,  China’s  New  Urbanization  Plan  (2014~2020)  put  forward  a  new  urbanization  strategy  to  promote  the  coordinated  devel ‐ opment  of  large,  medium,  and  small  cities  and  towns  with  urban  agglomerations  as  the  main  form  [15,31].  Furthermore,  it  provides  strict  requiremen ts  for  the  green  and  intensive  development  of  land  and  space  in  urban  agglomerations,  especially  for  the  implementa ‐ tion  of  the  ecological  protection  and  high ‐ quality  development  strategy  of  the  Yellow  River  Basin  in  2018  [69].  The  pattern  of  land  space  development  and  protection  in  the  GPUA  has  been  continuously  optimized,  and  the  intensive  use  of  production  and  living  space  has  been  continuously  improved  [14].  Moreover,  the  area  of  ecological  space  has  been  significantly  expanded,  and  the  quality  of  the  ecological  environment  in  the  GPUA  has  been  significantly  improved.  Therefore,  an  important  way  to  realize  the  orderly  development  and  high ‐ quality  utilization  of  land  space  in  the  GPUA  is  by  thoroughly  implementing  major  national  stra ‐ tegic  systems;  strengthening  the  conservation  of  ecological  space;  continuously  optimiz ‐ ing  the  production,  living,  and  ecological  spatial  pattern  of  urban  agglomerations;  and  speeding  up  the  construction  of  a  sustainable  geographical  pattern  of  urban  agglomera ‐ tion.  4.3.  Limitations  and  Prospects  The  effect  of  land  space  pattern  change  on  regional  eco ‐ environmental  quality  is  com ‐ plex,  and  the  conversion  between  different  land  spatial  types  has  different  effects  on  the  ecological  environment  [70,71].  This  paper  constructed  a  framework  of  assessing  land  space  change  and  its  eco ‐ environmental  effects  in  the  urban  agglomeration  by  using  the  Geo ‐ informatic  Graphic,  EQI,  and  eco ‐ environmental  contribution  rate  from  the  perspec ‐ tive  of  the  theory  of  “production–living–ecological  space ”;  analyzed  the  characteristic s  of  land  space  pattern  change  and  the  transition  mode  of  land  space  types  in  the  GPUA;  and  discussed  the  impact  of  land  space  transitions  and  p olicy  system  changes  on  the  eco ‐ en ‐ vironmental  quality  of  the  GPUA,  which  provided  a  new  idea  for  scientific  cognition  of  urban  agglomeration  land  space  and  eco ‐ environmental  quality  change.  The  findings  fur ‐ ther  enriched  the  theoretical  connotation  of  land  space  transition  and  contribute  to  the  understanding  of  the  eco ‐ environmental  effect  of  land  space  change,  and  they  also  pro ‐ vide  a  scientific  basis  for  the  optimization  of  land  space  of  the  GPUA.  However,  this  study  did  not  explore  the  driving  mechanism  of  land  space  transition  for  urban  agglomeration,  which  is  very  significant  in  the  study  of  land  spatial  transition.  Therefore,  future  research  can  deeply  reveal  the  natural  and  socio ‐ economic  driving  mechanism  of  the  land  space  pattern  change  in  different  development  stages  of  urban  agglomeration.  Moreover,  it  is  necessary  to  investigate  the  ecological  environment  response  mechanism  of  the  land  space  transition  of  urban  agglomeration  for  a  deeper  understanding  of  optim al  allocation  of  land  space  in  urban  agglomeration  areas.  In  addition,  based  on  land  use  data  and  eco ‐ environmental  quality  coefficients  of  land  space,  this  paper  evaluated  the  changes  of  characteristics  of  eco ‐ environmental  qual ‐ ity  in  the  GPUA.  The  results  showed  that  the  eco ‐ environmental  quality  of  the  GPUA,  based  on  the  evaluation  of  land  space  development  and  utilization  types,  was  generally  maintained  in  a  relatively  stable  state,  which  has  some  limitations  and  uncertainties.  In  fact,  under  the  influence  of  rapid  urbani zation  and  industrialization,  the  structure  of  land  Land  2022 ,  11 ,  1547  19  of  22   spatial  development  and  utilization  and  its  eco ‐ environmental  quality  of  the  GPUA  have  undergone  tremendous  changes  [15,47].  In  recent  years,  the  population  explosion  and  the  expansion  of  urban  production  and  living  land  caused  by  the  planning  and  construction  of  the  GPUA  and  Greater  Xi’an  Metropolitan  Area  have  further  aggravated  the  potential  risk  of  deterioration  of  regional  eco ‐ environmental  quality  [17,49].  Therefore,  a  follow ‐ up  study  can  introduce  the  relevant  models  of  eco ‐ environmental  quality  assessment  (such  as  In ‐ VEST)  and  scientif ically  determine  the  eco ‐ environmental  qua lity  coefficients  of  dif ‐ ferent  land  space  types  based  on  the  high ‐ resolution  remote  sensing  data;  simulate  the  change  process,  pattern,  and  mechanism  of  eco ‐ environmental  quality  of  urban  agglom ‐ erations  under  different  land  space  development  and  utilization  scenarios;  and  continu ‐ ously  improve  the  quality  of  research  results  and  conclusions.  5.  Conclusions  Using  the  GIS  software  and  based  on  the  theory  of  “production–living –ecological  space”,  this  paper  explored  the  spatial–temporal  change  characteristics  of  land  space  in  the  GPUA  from  1990  to  2020  and  revealed  the  eco ‐ environmental  effects  of  land  space  transition.  The  main  conclusions  are  as  follows:  (1)  From  1990  to  2020,  the  area  of  production–living–ecological  spaces  in  the  GPUA  has  significantly  changed;  the  production  space  has  been  shrinking,  the  living  sp ace  has  been  expanding,  and  the  overall  ecological  space  has  shown  a  fluctuating  and  increasing  trend.  About  92.2%  of  the  counties’  agricultural  production  sp ace  signific antly  contracted,  93.3%  and  91.1%  of  the  counties’  urban  and  rural  living  space  significantly  expanded,  and  64.4%  of  counties’  woodland  ecological  space  area  inc reased.  (2)  The  transition  of  land  space  in  the  GPUA  is  intense.  Agricultural  production  space  was  transitioned  into  ecological  space  and  living  space,  and  living  space  occupie d  ecolog ‐ ical  space  and  agricultural  production  space,  which  was  the  main  mode  of  land  space  transition  in  the  GPUA.  Located  in  the  ecological  barrier  area  of  the  Loess  Plateau  in  the  north  of  the  GPUA,  the  ecological  belt  along  the  Fen  and  Wei  River  in  the  middle,  and  the  Qinba  Mountains  in  the  south,  the  agricultural  production  space  showed  a  marked  shrinkage  trend,  whereas  the  urban  and  rural  living  space  and  ecologic al  space  showed  an  expansion  trend.  (3)  The  eco ‐ environmental  quality  of  the  GPUA  first  experienced  a  process  of  deteri ‐ oration  and  then  improvement,  showing  a  spatial  pattern  of  “low  in  the  central  part  and  high  in  the  no rth  and  south”  in  geographical  space.  The  EQI  decreased  from  0.554  in  1990  to  0.5 51  in  2010  and  then  increased  to  0.552  in  2020.  The  low ‐ qualit y  and  high ‐ quality  areas  of  eco ‐ environment  quality  generally  showed  an  expanding  trend,  whereas  other  ar eas  generally  showed  a  shrinking  trend,  and  the  proportion  of  high ‐ quality  areas  remaine d  at  about  37%,  which  constituted  the  main  body  of  the  ecological  environment  quality  of  land  space  development  and  utilization.  (4)  In  the  past  30  years,  the  two  trends  of  improvement  and  deterioration  of  ecological  environmental  quality  of  the  GPUA  have  coexiste d.  The  trend  of  improvement  of  the  eco ‐ logical  environment  has  been  less  than  that  of  deterioration,  but  the  trend  of  improvement  is  gradually  emerging.  The  transition  of  grassland  ecological  space  into  agr icultural  pro ‐ duction  space  and  the  occupation  of  agricultural  production  space  by  urban  and  rural  living  space,  as  well  as  industrial  and  mining  production  space,  were  th e  main  driving  factors  for  the  deterioration  of  eco ‐ environmental  quality.  The  transition  of  agricultural  production  space  into  wo odland  and  gras sland  ecological  spaces  was  the  main  factor  that  drove  the  improvement  of  eco ‐ environmental  quality  in  the  GPUA.  Author  Contributions:  Conceptualization,  Y.S.  and  S.X.;  methodology,  S.L.  and  L.Z.;  software,  L.Z.  and  D.W.;  formal  analysis,  Y.S.,  S.L.,  and  D.X.;  investigation,  D.W.  and  L.Z;  writing—original  draft  preparation,  Y.S.  and  S.X.;  writing—review  and  editing,  Y.S.  and  S.X.;  visualization,  S.L.;  supervi ‐ sion,  S.X.  and  D.X.;  project  administration,  Y.S.;  funding  acquisition,  Y.S.  All  authors  have  read  and  agreed  to  the  published  version  of  the  manuscript.  Land  2022 ,  11 ,  1547  20  of  22   Funding:  This  research  was  funded  by  the  “National  Natural  Science  Foundation  of  China”,  grant  number  “42001251”;  the  “Fundamental  Rese arch  Funds  for  the  Central  Universities”,  grant  number  “GK202103139”;  and  by  “China  Postdoctoral  Science  Foundation”,  grant  number  “2021M692003”.  Data  Availability  Statement:  Not  applicable.  Acknowledgments:  The  authors  would  like  to  thank  the  anonymous  reviewers  for  their  comments  and  suggestions.  Conflicts  of  Interest:  The  authors  declare  no  conflicts  of  interest.  References  1. Foley,  J.A.;  DeFries,  R.;  Asner,  G.P.;  Barford,  C.;  Bonan,  G.;  Carpenter,  S.R.;  Chapin,  F.S.;  Coe,  M.T.;  Daily,  G.C.;  Gibbs,  H.K.;  et  al.  Global  consequences  of  land  use.  Science  2005 ,  309 ,  570–574.  2. Moran,  E.;  Ojima,  D.;  Buchmann,  N.;  Canadell,  J.;  Coomes,  O.;  Graumlich,  L.;  Jackson,  R.;  Jaramillo,  V.;  Lavorel,  S.;  Leadley,  P.;  et  al.  Global  Land  Project:  Science  Plan  and  Implementation  Strategy ;  IGBP  Secretariat:  Stockholm,  Sweden,  2005.  3. G ü neralp,  B.;  Reba,  M.;  Hales,  B.U.;  Wentz,  E.A.;  Seto,  K.C.  Trends  in  urban  land  expansion,  density,  and  land  transitions  from  1970  to  2010:  A  global  synthesis.  Environ.  Res.  Lett.  2020 ,  15 ,  044015.  4. Ning,  J.;  Liu,  J.Y.;  Kuang,  W.H.;  Xu,  X.L.;  Ning,  J.  Spatiotemporal  patterns  and  characteristics  of  land ‐ use  change  in  China  during  2010 – 2015.  J.  Geog.  Sci.  2018 ,  28,  547–562.  5. Zhou,  D.;  Xu,  J.;  Lin,  Z.  Conflict  or  coordination?  assessing  land  use  multi ‐ functionalization  using  production ‐ living ‐ ecology  analysis.  Sci.  Total  Environ.  2016 ,  577 ,  136.  6. Yang,  Y.Y.;  Bao,  W.K.;  Liu,  Y.S.  Coupling  coordination  analysis  of  rural  production ‐ living ‐ ecological  space  in  the  Beijing ‐ Tian ‐ jin ‐ Hebei  region.  Ecol.  Ind.  2020 ,  117 ,  106512.  7. Meyfroidt,  P.;  Chowdhury,  R.R.;  De  Bremond,  A.;  Ellis,  E.C.;  Erb,  K. ‐ H.;  Filatova,  T.;  Garrett,  R.D.;  Grove,  J.M.;  Heinimann,  A.;  Kuemmerle,  T.;  et  al.  Middle ‐ range  theories  of  land  system  change.  Global  Environ.  Chang.  2018 ,  53 ,  52 – 67.  8. Fu,  B.J.;  Stafford ‐ Smith,  M.;  Wang,  Y.F.;  Wu,  B.F.;  Yu,  X.B.;  Lv,  N.;  Ojima,  D.S.;  Lv,  Y.H.;  Fu,  C.;  Liu,  Y.  The  Global ‐ DEP  concep ‐ tual  framework ‐ research  on  dryland  ecosystems  to  promote  sustainability.  Curr.  Opin.  Environ.  Sustain.  2021 ,  48 ,  17–28.  9. Long,  H.L.  Explanation  of  Land  Use  Transitions.  China  Land  Sci.  2022 ,  36 ,  1–7.  10. Batten,  D.F.  Network  cities:  Creative  urban  agglomerations  for  the  21st  century.  Urban  Stud.  1995 ,  32 ,  313–327.  11. Burke,  G.L.  Greenheart  Metropolis:  Planning  the  Western  Netherlands ;  Macmillan:  London,  UK,  1966;  pp.  91 – 96.  12. Liu,  J.L.;  Liu,  Y.S.;  Li,  Y.R.  Classification  evaluation  and  spatial ‐ temporal  analysis  of ʺ production ‐ living ‐ ecological ʺ spaces  inChina.  Acta  Geogr.  Sin.  2017 ,  72 ,  1290–1304.  13. Song,  Y.M.;  Chen,  B.;  Kwan,  M. ‐ P.  How  doe s  urban  expansion  impact  people ʹ s  exposure  to  green  environments?  A  comparative  study  of  290  Chinese  cities.  J.  Clean.  Prod.  2020 ,  246,  119018.  14. Song,  Y.Y.;  Xue,  D.Q.;  Xia,  S.Y.;  Mi,  W.B.  Chang e  characteristics  and  formation  mechanism  of  the  territorial  spatial  pattern  in  the  Yellow  River  Basin  from  1980  to  2018,  China.  Geogr.  Res.  2021 ,  40 ,  1445–1463.  15. Fang,  C.L.;  Zhou,  C.H.;  Gu,  C.L.;  Chen,  L.D.;  Li,  S.C.  A  proposal  for  the  theoretical  analysis  of  the  interactive  coupled  effects  between  urbanization  and  the  eco ‐ environment  in  mega ‐ urban  agglomerations.  J.  Geogr.  Sci.  2017 ,  27 ,  1431–1499.  16. Peng,  L.X.;  Zhang,  L.W.;  Li,  X.P.;  Wang,  Z.Z.;  Wang,  H.;  Jiao,  L.  Spatial  expansion  effects  on  urban  ecosystem  services  supply ‐ demand  mismatching  in  Guanzhong  Plain  Urban  Agglomeration  of  China.  J.  Geogr.  Sci.  2022 ,  32 ,  806–828.  17. Ye,  H.;  Song,  Y.Y.;  Xue,  D.Q.  Multi ‐ Scenario  Simulation  of  Land  Use  and  Habitat  Quality  in  the  Guanzhong  Plain  Urban  Ag ‐ glomeration,  China.  Int.  J.  Environ.  Res.  Public  Health  2022 ,  19 ,  8703.  18. Ren,  Q.;  He,  C.Y.;  Huang,  Q.X.;  Shi,  P.J.;  Zhang,  D.;  Güneralp,  B.  Impacts  of  urban  expansion  on  natural  habitats  in  global  drylands.  Nat.  Sustain.  2022 .  https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893 ‐ 022 ‐ 00930 ‐ 8.  19. Long,  H.L.;  Zhang,  Y.N.;  Ma,  L.;  Tu,  S.S.  Land  use  transitions:  Progress,  challenges  and  prospects.  Land  2021 ,  10 ,  903.  20. Long,  H.L.;  Kong,  X.B.;  Hu,  S.G.;  Li,  Y.  Land  use  transitions  under  rapid  urbanization:  A  perspective  from  developing  China.  Land  2021 ,  10 ,  903.  21. Long,  H.L.  Land  Use  Transitions  and  Rural  Restructuring  in  China ;  Springer:  Singapore,  2020;  pp.  3 – 29.  22. Fan,  J.;  Wang,  Y.F.;  Wang,  C.S.;  Jin,  F.J.;  Zhang,  W.Z.;  Li,  L.J.;  Xu,  Y.;  Dai,  E.F.;  Tao,  A.J.;  Zhou,  K.;  et  al.  Reshaping  the  sustainable  geographical  pattern:  A  major  function  zoning  model  and  its  applications  in  China.  Earth’s  Future  2019 ,  7 ,  25–42.  23. Fan,  J.  Draft  of  major  function  oriented  zoning  of  China.  Acta  Geogr.  Sin.  2015 ,  70 ,  186–201.  24. Geng,  S.;  Zhu,  W.;  Shi,  P.  A  functional  land  use  classification  for  ecological,  production  and  living  spaces  in  the  taihang  moun ‐ tains.  J.  Res.  Ecol.  2019 ,  10,  246–255.  25. Wei,  L.;  Zhang,  Y.;  Wang,  L.;  Mi,  X.;  Wu,  X.;  Cheng,  Z.  Spatiotemporal  evolution  patterns  of ʺ production ‐ living ‐ ecological ʺ spaces  and  the  coordination  level  and  optimization  of  the  functions  in  jilin  province.  Sustainability  2021 ,  13 ,  13192.  26. Chen,  G.Q.;  Han,  M.Y.  Virtual  land  use  change  in  china  2002–2010:  Internal  transition  and  trade  imbalance.  Land  Use  Pol.  2015 ,  47,  55–56.  27. He,  C.Y.;  Zhang,  J.X.;  Liu,  Z.F.;  Huang,  Q.X.  Characteristics  and  progress  of  land  use/c over  change  research  during  1990 – 2018.  J.  Geogr.  Sci.  2022 ,  32 ,  537–559.  28. Ji,  Z.M.  Mechanism  of  Land ‐ Use  Changes  in  Yuqi  Township,  Wuxi  City,  China.  Geogr.  Rev.  Japan  2004 ,  77 ,  827–837.  Land  2022 ,  11 ,  1547  21  of  22   29. Li,  Z.;  Jiao,  L.;  Zhang,  B.;  Xu,  G.;  Liu,  J.  Understanding  the  pattern  and  mechanism  of  spatial  concentration  of  urban  la nd  use,  population  and  economic  activities:  A  case  study  in  Wuhan,  China.  Geo ‐ Spat.  Inf.  Sci.  2021 ,  24 ,  678–694.  30. Song,  Y.Y.;  Xue,  D.Q.;  Dai,  L.H.;  Wang,  P.T.;  Huang,  X.G.;  Xia,  S.Y.  Land  cover  change  and  eco ‐ environmental  quality  response  of  different  geomorphic  units  on  the  Chinese  Loess  Plateau.  J.  Arid  Land  2020 ,  12 ,  29–43.  31. Li,  G.D.;  Fang,  C.L.;  Li,  Y.J.;  Wang,  Z.B.;  Sun,  S.A.;  He,  S.W.;  Qi,  W.;  Bao,  C.;  Ma,  H.T.;  Fan,  Y.P.;  et  al.  Global  impacts  of  future  urban  expansion  on  terrestrial  vertebrate  diversity.  Nat.  Commun.  2022 ,  13 ,  1628.  32. Fan,  J.;  Liu,  H.C.;  Wang,  Y.F.;  Zhao,  Y.N.;  Che n,  D.  “The  Northeast  China  Phenomenon”  and  Prejudgment  on  Economic  Revi ‐ talization  in  Northeast  China:  A  Primary  Research  on  Stable  Factors  to  Impact  National  Spatial  Development  and  Protection  Pattern.  Sci.  Geogr.  Sin.  2016 ,  36 ,  1445–1456.  33. Fan,  J.  Research  on  the  Optimal  Allocation  of  Spatial  Development  and  Protection  Pattern  in  Guangdong  Province ;  Science  Pre ss:  Beijing,  China,  2016;  pp.  2 – 10.  34. Blanco,  V.;  Holzhauer,  S.;  Brown,  C.;  Lagergren,  F.;  Vulturius,  G.;  Lindeskog,  M.;  Rounsevella,  M.D.A.  The  effect  of  forest  owner  decision ‐ making,  climatic  change  and  societal  demands  on  land ‐ use  change  and  ecosystem  service  provision  in  sweden.  Ecosyst.  Serv.  2017 ,  23 ,  174–208.  35. Donnison,  C.;  Holland,  R.A.;  Harris,  Z.M.;  Eigenbrod,  F.;  Taylor,  G.  Land ‐ use  change  from  food  to  energy:  Meta ‐ analysis  un ‐ ravels  effects  of  bioenergy  on  biodiversity  and  cultural  ecosystem  services.  Environ.  Res.  Lett.  2 021 ,  16 ,  113005.  36. Wende,  W.;  Huelsmann,  W.;  Marty,  M.;  Penn ‐ Bressel,  G.;  Bobylev,  N.  Climate  protection  and  compact  urban  structures  in  spa ‐ tial  planning  and  local  construction  plans  in  Germany.  Land  Use  Pol.  2010 ,  27 ,  864–868.  37. Ramankutty,  N.;  Mehrabi,  Z.;  Waha,  K.;  Jarvis,  L.;  Kremen,  C.;  Herrero,  M.;  Rieseberg,  L.H.  Trends  in  Global  Agricultural  Land  Use:  Implications  for  Environmental  Health  and  Food  Security.  Annu.  Rev.  Plant  Biol.  2018 ,  69 ,  789–815.  38. Hersperger,  A.M.;  Langhamer,  D.;  Dalang,  T.  Inventorying  human ‐ made  objects:  A  step  towards  better  understanding  land  use  for  multi ‐ functional  planning  in  a  periurban  Swiss  landscape.  Landsc.  Urban  Plann  2012 ,  105 ,  307–314.  39. Xiong,  J.H.;  Yue,  W.Z.;  Chen,  Y.;  Liao,  R.;  Fang,  K.  Multi ‐ scenario  urban  expansion  simulation  for  SDGs:  Taking  the  Central  Asian  region  along  the  Belt  and  Road  as  an  example.  J.  Nat.  Resour.  2021 ,  36 ,  841–853.  40. Ulasi,  J.O.;  Uwadiegwu,  B.O.;  Okoye,  C.O.  Assessment  of  the  Level  of  Compliance  of  Pe troleum  Filling  Stations  to  Development  Control  Standards  on  Land  Space/Size  and  Setbacks  in  Anambra  State.  Civil  Environ.  Res.  2020 ,  12 ,  77–87.  41. Morshed,  S.R.;  Fattah,  M.A.;  Hoque,  M.M.;  Islam,  M.R.;  Sultana,  F.;  Fatema,  K.;  Rabbi,  M.F.;  Rimi,  A.A.;  Sami,  F.Y.;  Rezvi  Amin,  F.M.;  et  al.  Simulating  future  intra ‐ urban  land  use  patterns  of  a  developing  city:  A  case  study  of  Jashore,  Bangladesh.  GeoJourn al  2022 ,  1 – 24.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708 ‐ 022 ‐ 10609 ‐ 4.  42. Eziz,  M.;  Yimit,  H.;  Mohammad,  A.;  Huang,  Z.F.  Oasis  land ‐ use  change  and  its  effects  on  the  oasis  eco ‐ environment  in  Keriya  Oasis,  China.  Int.  J.  Sustain.  Dev.  World  Ecol.  2010 ,  17 ,  244–252.  43. Kalnay,  E.;  Cai,  M.  Impact  of  urbanization  and  land ‐ use  change  on  climate.  Nature  2003 ,  423 ,  528 – 531.  44. Grimm,  N.B.;  Faeth,  S.H.;  Golubiewski,  N.E.;  Redman,  C.L.;  Wu,  J.G.;  Bai,  X.M.;  Briggs,  J.M.  Global  change  and  the  ecology  of  cities.  Science  2008 ,  319 ,  756 – 760.  45. Kuang,  W.H.;  Chi,  W.F.;  Lu,  D.S.;  Dou,  Y.Y.  A  comparative  analysis  of  megacity  expansions  in  china  and  the  U.S.:  patterns,  rates  and  driving  forces.  Landsc.  Urban  Plann  2014 ,  132 ,  121 – 135.  46. Fang,  C.L.;  Liu,  H.M.;  Li,  G.D.  International  progress  and  evaluation  on  interactive  coupling  effects  between  urbanization  and  the  eco ‐ environment.  J.  Geogr.  Sci .  2016 ,  26 ,  1081 – 1116.  47. Fang,  C.L.;  Gao,  Q.;  Zhang,  X.L.;  Cheng,  W.G.  Spatiotemporal  characteristics  of  the  expansion  of  an  urban  agglomeration  and  its  effect  on  the  ecoenvironment:  Case  study  on  the  northern  slope  of  the  Tianshan  Mo untains.  Sci.  China  Earth  Sci.  2019 ,  62 ,  1461 – 1472.  48. Zhang,  X.;  Gu,  R.X.  Spatio ‐ temporal  pattern  and  multi ‐ scenario  simulation  of  land  use  conflict:  A  case  study  of  the  Yangtze  River  Delta  urban  agglomeration.  Geogr.  Res.  2022 ,  41 ,  1311 – 1326.  49. Zheng,  H.L.;  Cao,  X.S.  Impact  of  high ‐ speed  railway  construction  on  spatial  relationships  in  the  Guanzhong  Plain  urban  ag ‐ glomeration.  Reg.  Sustain.  2021 ,  2,  47–59.  50. Yang,  Y.;  Cai,  Z.X.  Ecological  security  assessment  of  the  Guanzhong  Plain  urban  agglomeration  based  on  an  adapted  ecological  footprint  model.  J.  Clean.  Prod.  2020 ,  260 ,  120973.  51. Yang,  S.;  Su,  H.  Multi ‐ Scenario  simulation  of  ecosystem  service  values  in  the  Guanzhong  Plain  Urban  Agglomeration,  China.  Sustainability  2022 ,  14 ,  8812.  52. Tang,  C.H.;  Li,  Y.P.  Geo ‐ information  process  of  land  use/cover  change  in  polycentric  urban  agglomeration:  A  case  study  of  Changsha ‐ Zhuzhou ‐ Xiangtan  urban  agglomeration.  Geogr.  Res.  2020 ,  39 ,  2626–2641.  53. Sudhira,  H.S.;  Ramachandra,  T.V.;  Jagadish,  K.S.  Urban  sprawl:  Metrics,  dynamics  and  modelling  using  GIS.  Int.  J.  Appl.  Earth  Obs.  Geoinf.  2004 ,  5,  29–39.  54. Yang,  Q.K.;  Duan,  X.J.;  Wang,  L.;  Jin,  Z.F.  Land  Use  Transformation  Based  on  Ecological ‐ production ‐ living  Spaces  and  Associ ‐ ated  Eco ‐ environment  Effects:  A  Case  Study  in  the  Yangtze  River  Delta.  Sci.  Geogr.  Sin.  2018 ,  38 ,  97–106.  55. Oliver,  M.A.;  Webster,  R.  A  tutorial  guide  to  geostatistics:  Computing  and  modell ing  variograms  and  kriging.  Catena  2014 ,  113 ,  56 ‐ 69.  56. Kuang,  W.H.;  Zhang,  S.W.;  Du,  G.M.;  Yan,  C.Z.;  Wu,  S.X.;  Li,  R.D .;  Lu,  D.S.;  Peng,  T.;  Ning,  J.;  Guo,  C.Q.;  et  al.  Remotely  sensed  mapping  and  analysis  of  spatio ‐ temp oral  patterns  of  land  use  change  across  China  in  2015 – 2020.  Acta  Geogr.  Sin.  2022,  77 ,  1056–1071 .  Land  2022 ,  11 ,  1547  22  of  22   57. Liu,  J.Y.;  Ning,  J.;  Kuang,  W.H.;  Xu,  X.L.;  Zhang,  S.W.;  Yan,  C.Z.;  Li,  R.D.;  Wu,  S.X.;  Hu,  Y.F.;  Du,  G.M.;  et  al.  Spatio ‐ temporal  patterns  and  characteristics  of  land ‐ use  change  in  China  during  2010–2015.  Acta  Geogr.  Sin.  2018 ,  73,  789–802.  58. Li,  X.W.;  Fang,  C.L.;  Huang,  J.C.;  Mao,  H.Y.  The  urban  land  use  transformations  and  associated  effects  on  eco ‐ environment  in  northwest  China  arid  region:  A  case  study  in  Hexi  Region,  Gansu  Province.  Quat.  Sci.  2003 ,  23 ,  280–290 .  59. Li,  K.;  Zhang,  B.;  Xiao,  W.;  Lu ,  Y.  Land  Use  Transformation  Based  on  Production − Living − Ecological  Space  and  A ssociated  Eco ‐ Environment  Effects:  A  Case  Study  in  the  Yangtze  River  Delta  Urban  Agglomeration.  Land  2022 ,  11 ,  1076.  60. Zhao,  A.Z.;  Liu,  X.F.;  Zhu,  X.F.;  Pan,  Y.Z .;  Chen,  S.C.  Spatiotemporal  analyses  and  associated  driving  forces  of  vegetation  cov ‐ erage  change  in  the  Loess  Plateau.  China  Environ.  Sci.  2016 ,  36 ,  1568–1578.  61. Liu,  X.F.;  Pan,  Y.Z.;  Zhu,  X.X.;  Li,  S.  Spatiotemporal  variation  of  vegetation  coverage  in  Qinling ‐ Daba  Mountains  in  relation  to  environmental  factors.  Acta  Geogr.  Sin.  2015 ,  70,  705–716.  62. Sun,  Y.;  Li,  Y.;  Gao,  J.;  Yan,  Y.  Spatial  and  Temporal  Patterns  of  Urban  Land  Use  Structure  in  Small  Towns  in  China.  Land  2022 ,  11 ,  1262.  63. Kuang,  W.H.  70  years  of  urban  expansion  across  China:  Trajectory,  pattern,  and  national  policies.  Sci.  Bull.  2020 ,  65,  1970–1974.  64. Kuang,  W.H.;  Liu,  J.Y.;  Tian,  H.Q.;  Shi,  H.;  Dong,  J.W.;  Song,  C.Q.;  Li,  X.Y.;  Du,  G.M.;  Hou,  Y.L.;  Lu,  D.S.;  et  al.  Cropland  redis ‐ tribution  to  marginal  lands  undermines  environmental  sustainability.  Natl  Sci.  Rev.  2022 ,  9 ,  66–78.  65. Dang,  X.W.;  Zhou,  L.;  Hu,  F.L.;  Yuan,  B.;  Tang,  J.J.  The  multi ‐ scale  direct  and  indirect  effects  of  urban  extension  of  Guanzhong  Plain  urban  agglomeration  on  ecologic  land.  Acta  Ecol.  Sin.  2022 ,  42 ,  3020–3032.  66. Song,  Y.Y.;  Ma,  B.B.;  Dai,  L.H.;  Xue,  D.Q.;  Xia,  S.Y.;  Wang,  P.T.  Spatial ‐ temporal  pattern  and  formation  mechanism  of  county  urbanization  on  the  Chinese  Loess  Plateau.  J.  Mount.  Sci.  2012 ,  18 ,  1093–1111.  67. Wang,  Z.H.;  Kong,  X.S.  Cheng,  P.  Spatiotemporal  evolution  of  national  development  zones  and  their  impact  on  urban  land  growth  in  China.  J.  Geogr.  Sci.  2022 ,  32 ,  1451 – 1470.  68. Fan,  J.  The  Strategy  of  Major  Function  Oriented  Zoning  and  the  Optimization  of  Territorial  Development  Patterns.  Bull.  Chin.  Acad.  Sci.  2013 ,  28 ,  193–206.  69. Chen,  Y.;  Zhang,  K.Y.;  Chen,  X.;  Liao,  Y.;  Song,  B.;  Huang,  H.;  Wang,  X.  Ecological  protection  and  high ‐ quality  development  in  the  Yellow  River  Basin.  Reg.  Econ.  Rev.  2020 ,  1 ,  12–17.  70. Meyfroidt,  P.;  de  Bremond,  A.;  Ryan,  C.M.;  Archer,  E.;  Aspinall,  R.;  Chhabra,  A.;  Camara,  G.;  Corbera,  E.;  DeFries,  R.  Díaz,  S.;  et  al.  Ten  facts  about  land  systems  for  sustainability.  Proc.  Natl.  Acad.  Sci.  USA  2022 ,  119 ,  e2109217118.  71. Newbold,  T.;  Hudson,  L.N.;  Hill,  S.L.L.;  Contu,  S.;  Lysenko,  I.;  Senior,  R.A.;  Börger,  L.;  Bennett,  D.J.;  Choimes ,  A.;  Collen,  B.;  et  al.  Global  effects  of  land  use  on  local  terrestrial  biodiversity.  Nature  2015 ,  520 ,  45–50.  Citations (4) References (79) ... land use transfer areas. These two methods can reflect the eco-environmental quality status of different land types and clarify the main land use transformations that cause changes in the overall eco-environmental quality of the region [39] [40] [41]. Given the broad application of this method in China [42][43][44], this study adopted the EI and the ecological impact rate of PLEL change (EIR) to explore the eco-environmental response to PLEL transformation comprehensively. ... Spatiotemporal Evolution of Production–Living–Ecological Land and Its Eco-Environmental Response in China’s Coastal Zone Article Full-text available Jun 2023 Yang Fengshuo Xiaomei Yang Zhihua Wang Qi Wang High-intensity human activities have caused dramatic transformations of land function in China’s coastal zone, putting enormous pressure on the region’s ecological environment. It is urgent to fully understand the spatiotemporal evolution of the land-use function in the coastal zone to promote sustainable development. Therefore, based on CNLUCC data for 2000, 2010, and 2020, this study quantitatively explored the spatiotemporal evolution of production–living–ecological land (PLEL) and its eco-environmental response in China’s coastal zone by using multiple land-use analysis methods, gradient analysis, and the eco-environmental quality index. The results showed that over the past 20 years, the production land (PL) continued to decrease, whereas the living land (LL) and blue ecological land (BEL) increased. In the vertical direction, PL and the ecological land (EL) dominated in the northern and the southern coastal zone, respectively. In the horizontal direction, with increasing distance from the coastline, the green ecological land (GEL) increased, whereas it was the opposite for BEL. The transformations of PLEL were high and low frequency in the north and south, respectively. From 2000 to 2020, the eco-environmental quality of China’s coastal zone slightly degraded, with conditions that were “excellent in the south and poor in the north”. The eco-environmental qualities of each sub-coastal zone gradually improved with increasing distance from the coastline. The main transformation types that led to eco-environmental improvement and degradation were from other production lands (OPL) to blue ecological land (BEL) and BEL to OPL, respectively. The findings will guide PLEL planning, eco-environmental protection, and science-based land usage. View Show abstract ... Moreover, it represents an important approach for ensuring the sustainable development of ecosystem services and maintenance of ecological security (Yu et al., 2009). As the main bodies promoting the new urbanization of the country and the most dynamic and potential core areas of economic development, whether urban agglomerations can achieve healthy, coordinated, and sustainable development will profoundly affect the developmental trajectory of China's future social economy (Fang, 2014; Song et al., 2022) . In recent years, rapid urbanization has brought substantial social and economic benefits, although in doing so has also created a series of negative impacts. ... Construction of an ecological security pattern for the Guanzhong Plain urban agglomeration: Scale perspective and hierarchy demand Article Full-text available Apr 2023 Hao Ye Yongyong Song Dongqian Xue Liwei Zhang As areas of dense populations and high economic activity, urban agglomerations have driven an overall increase in economic efficiency; however, the associated ecological risks are becoming increasingly apparent. The construction of ecological security patterns (ESPs) is an important approach for ensuring the ecological security of urban agglomerations, thereby achieving coordinated development of society, economy and ecology. Previous studies on ESPs have rarely considered the demand for ecosystem services at multiple scales and have accordingly failed to accurately identify important ecological sources. Here, we propose a novel method based on multi-scale ecosystem service demand to identify ecological sources, which can more accurately identify the ecological source meeting the regional sustainable development. Selecting the Guanzhong Plain urban agglomeration (GPUA) as study area, we constructed a resistance surface by comprehensively considering natural and anthropogenic disturbances. We found high resistance areas are mainly concentrated in highly urbanized areas with Xi’an as the core. In addition, we performed minimum cumulative resistance and gravity model to obtain and classify ecological corridors. The results revealed that the ecological sources identified in this study can enhance the connectivity of the inner regions of the GPUA and the linkage between north and south ecological corridors. The ecological sources were found to be concentrated in the southern Qinling Mountains, with an area of 28,780.02 km ² , accounting for 26.85% of entire region. Furthermore, we identified 121 potential ecological corridors, 47 ecological nodes, and 49 ecological breakpoints, and established that the extent of land with a high level of ecological security accounts for 21.98% of the entire regional area. This study offers a new perspective for ESPs construction, which can provide a scientific basis and policy guidance for the optimization of spatial structure and the maintenance of ecological security in ecologically fragile urban agglomerations. View Show abstract Coupling and Coordination Relationship between Urbanization Quality and Ecosystem Services in the Upper Yellow River: A Case Study of the Lanzhou–Xining Urban Agglomeration, China Article Full-text available May 2023 Wusheng Zhao Peiji Shi Ya Wan Yan Yao The study of the man–land relationship in the urbanization process is the current frontier and focus of international research. How to balance urban development and ecosystem conservation in the Upper Yellow River is a key issue for sustainable development in China. In this study, we evaluated the Lanzhou–Xining urban agglomeration (LXUA) by constructing a multi-dimensional assessment system for urbanization quality and ecosystem services. The efficacy function model, entropy weight method, and Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Tradeoffs (InVEST) model were used to quantitatively assess the subsystems’ state of development. Then, the coupling model (CD) and the coordination degree (CCD) model were used to explore the coupling coordination relationship and spatial-temporal change characteristics of the composite system. The findings indicate that: (1) In 2020, the quality of urbanization in the LXUA showed the pattern of “double core”. The development of urban centers in each city is insufficient, and the proportion of counties with a low level is too high. (2) Integrated ecosystem services showed an increasing distribution pattern from the northeast to the southwest. Water provision services, soil conservation services and carbon fixation services all showed growth trends. (3) Each county’s composite system was in the run-in stage or highly coupled stage. The subsystems were closely related to each other. (4) The CCD was decreased by 6% between two decades. The number of counties on the verge of disorder was the highest. About 80% of the counties were relatively lagging behind in ecosystem services. View Show abstract The layout and the spatio-temporal evolution of water-polluting enterprises in Zhejiang under regulation Article Full-text available Feb 2023 Xiaozhi Xu Yu Zhang Liou Wu Water pollution is closely related to the development of water pollution-intensive industries, but there is a lack of relevant research, and few studies to verify the existence of “pollution heaven.” This paper aims to study the layout and the spatio-temporal evolution of water-polluting enterprises. Taking Zhejiang Province, China as an example, this study visualized the spatial distribution of water pollution enterprises under the “Five Water Treatment” regulations during 2018–2022. At the same time, based on the Mann-Whitney U test, this paper verifies the hypothesis of pollution paradise in Zhejiang Province. The results show that the distribution of water pollution enterprises in Zhejiang is clustered, and water pollution control has been realized to a certain extent. However, water pollution enterprises still tend to be located in areas with lower environmental standards and weak environmental regulations. In view of this, the government should optimize the industry structure, strengthen the supervision of suburban water pollution enterprises. View Show abstract Land Use Transformation Based on Production−Living−Ecological Space and Associated Eco-Environment Effects: A Case Study in the Yangtze River Delta Urban Agglomeration Article Full-text available Jul 2022 Kai Li Beiying Zhang Weidong Xiao Yong Lu We investigate the eco-environmental effects and the driving factors of transforming the production–living–ecological space (PLES) land use function and offer a scientific foundation for developing regional territorial area and environmental preservation. Eco-environment quality index and ecological contribution ratio are used to analyze the spatial–temporal evolution characteristics and eco-environment effects of land use transformation in the Yangtze River Delta Urban Agglomeration (YRDUA) over the three time periods of 2000, 2010, and 2020, and the geographic detectors are used to analyze the factors that influence the spatial difference of eco-environment quality (EEQ). The findings indicate the following: (1) The land use transformation of YRDUA is primarily shown in the shrinkage of the production land area, the stability of ecological land, and the rapid increase of living land. The area of ecological land, such as water, forest, and pasture, has remained relatively steady from the perspective of secondary land types. In contrast, the area of urban and rural living land has significantly increased. (2) Most land use environment comprises the lower-value zone, accounting for about 50%. The area of the low-value zone has continued to rise owing to the rapid urban and rural living land development, tending to continuous growth. (3) Both the ecological improvement and degradation trends are present simultaneously, although the ecological improvement trend is less prominent than the environmental degradation trend. The primary factor is improving the eco-environment by transforming agricultural production land into forest, water, and ecological pasture land. The degradation of the regional EEQ is mostly due to the occupation of agricultural production land by urban and rural living land. (4) Considering natural elements such as altitude, precipitation, and slope, the extent of land use impacts the EEQ. The combination of several factors has changed the EEQ of the YRDUA. The effect of any two elements is stronger than that of a single factor. View Show abstract Spatial and Temporal Patterns of Urban Land Use Structure in Small Towns in China Article Full-text available Aug 2022 Yongqiang Sun Yan Li Jing Gao Yan Yan This study analyzes the spatial and temporal characteristics of urban land use structure of more than 18,000 small towns in China by using the National Urban Land Use Survey Data between 2009 and 2013. It finds that the urban land area of small towns expanded rapidly during the research period. The spatial pattern of urban land use structure in small towns exhibits significant regional differences. Small towns in developed coastal regions, particularly those located in global urban areas, have a higher urban land use scale relative to small towns in central and western regions. However, the urban land use scale of small towns located in less developed inland areas has grown faster. The spatial distribution of urban stock land in small towns is mainly influenced by demographic and socio-economic factors. However, the spatial distribution of new urban land is primarily influenced by the land supply policy, which is tilted toward the central and western regions. In terms of structure, the proportion of production and living land in small towns is high, while the proportion of public services and facilities land is low. This trend is being strengthened, with commercial service land and industrial, mining, and storage land becoming the major drivers for the rapid rise of urban land in small towns. The allocation of construction land quotas should be consistent with the direction of population movement and the demands of socioeconomic development. View Show abstract Impacts of urban expansion on natural habitats in global drylands Article Full-text available Jul 2022 Qiang Ren Chunyang He Qingxu Huang Burak Güneralp Urban regions across the world have expanded rapidly in recent decades, affecting fragile natural habitats, including in drylands, and threatening the achievement of the UN Sustainable Development Goal 15, ‘life on land’. Yet, few studies have comprehensively investigated impacts of urban expansion on natural dryland habitats globally even though these cover 40% of global land area and provide habitats for 28% of endangered species. Here, we quantify at multiple scales the loss of habitat quality directly and indirectly caused by dryland urban expansion. Direct impacts are conversions of natural habitats to urban land. We define indirect impacts as proximate impacts within 10 km around the expanded urban land footprint. We found that although urban expansion from 1992 to 2016 resulted in an average 0.8% loss of dryland habitat quality, the indirect impacts were 10–15 times greater. By considering the coincidence of habitat-quality loss and threatened species ranges, we found that, globally, nearly 60% of threatened species were affected by such indirect impacts of dryland urban expansion. Our findings suggest that strategic management is imperative to mitigate the substantial impacts of dryland urban expansion on biodiversity. Urban regions are growing rapidly worldwide, threatening surrounding habitats, including in drylands. This study finds that indirect impacts to surrounding drylands are more than ten times greater than direct impacts and that such impacted areas contain almost 60% of threatened species globally. View Show abstract Multi-Scenario Simulation of Ecosystem Service Values in the Guanzhong Plain Urban Agglomeration, China Article Full-text available Jul 2022 Shuo Yang Hao Su Rapid urbanization and human activities enhanced threats to the degradation of various ecosystem services in modern urban agglomerations. This study explored the response of ecosystem service values (ESVs) to land use changes and the trade-offs among various ESVs in urban agglomerations under different future development scenarios. The patch-general land use simulation (PLUS) model and ESV calculation method were used to simulate the ESVs of Guanzhong Plain Urban Agglomeration under the Business As Usual scenario (BAU), Ecological Conservation scenario (EC), and Economic Development scenario (ED) in 2030. Global and local Moran’s I were used to detect the spatial distribution pattern, and correlation analysis was used to measure trade-offs among ecosystem services. The results showed that: (1) The simulated result of land use in Guanzhong Plain Urban Agglomeration showed high accuracy compared to the actual observed result of the same period, with a Kappa coefficient of 0.912. From 2000 to 2030, land use changes were significant, with the rapid decrease in farmland and an increase in construction land. The area of woodland increased significantly under the EC scenario, and the area of construction land increased rapidly under the ED scenario. (2) The decline of total ESV was CNY 218 million from 2000 to 2020, and ESVs remained the downward trend in the BAU and ED scenarios compared to 2020, decreasing by CNY 156 million and CNY 4731 million, respectively. An increasing trend of ESV showed under the EC scenario, with a growth of CNY 849 million. (3) Significant spatial autocorrelation showed in Guanzhong Plain Urban Agglomeration, as the Global Moran’s I were all positive and the p-values were zero. The ESV grids mainly showed “High-High” clusters in the mountainous areas and “Low-Low” clusters in plain areas. Except for food production, a majority of ecosystem services exhibited positive synergistic relationships. In future planning and development, policymakers should focus on the coordinated development of the urbanization process and ecological preservation to build an ecological safety pattern. View Show abstract Multi-Scenario Simulation of Land Use and Habitat Quality in the Guanzhong Plain Urban Agglomeration, China Article Full-text available Jul 2022 Int J Environ Res Publ Health Hao Ye Yongyong Song Dongqian Xue Regional habitat quality is a proxy of biodiversity. Simulating changes in land use and habitat quality in urban agglomerations is the scientific basis for promoting the optimal allocation of land resources and building ecological civilizations in urban agglomerations. Therefore, we established a research framework mainly consisting of the Future Land Use Simulation (FLUS) model with the Integrated Valuation of Environmental Services and Tradeoffs (InVEST) model to predict the spatial and temporal distribution of habitat quality. In addition, we set three scenarios which were a natural development scenario, a cultivated land protection scenario, and an ecological protection scenario to analyze the changes of habitat quality in the Guanzhong Plain urban agglomeration in 2035. The results showed that: (1) the FLUS model had an excellent effect on the simulation of land-use change in the Guanzhong Plain urban agglomeration, with an overall accuracy of 0.952 and a kappa coefficient of 0.924. (2) From 2000 to 2035, the cultivated land area of the study area, which was mainly transferred into construction land and grassland, shrank due to the process of urbanization. (3) The habitat quality score of this region gradually decreased from 2000 to 2020, and it continued to decrease to 0.6921 in 2035 under the natural development scenario, while it increased under the other two scenarios. The low-value areas of habitat quality were mainly located in the middle of this region with Xi’an as the core, whereas the high-value areas were mainly distributed in the southern Qinling Mountains and the northern Loess Plateau. (4) Of the different scenarios, the ecological protection scenario had the highest habitat quality, while the natural development scenario had the lowest. Besides this, we also found that the cultivated protection scenario had high habitat quality, which was mainly because the rate of occupation of ecological land was controlled. The results are expected to provide a scientific basis for optimizing the spatial allocation of land resources and promoting the sustainable use of land space in other ecologically fragile urban agglomerations. View Show abstract Spatial expansion effects on urban ecosystem services supply-demand mismatching in Guanzhong Plain Urban Agglomeration of China Article Full-text available May 2022 Lixian Peng Liwei Zhang Xupu Li Lei Jiao Global urbanization has led to drastic land use change, interfering the ecosystem services (ES) supply-demand balance, in turn threatening the well-being of humans. However, existing studies mainly stranded at the historical and current analysis, and the effects of urban spatial expansion on the relationship between ES supply and demand in the future are less clear, in particular at an urban agglomeration scale. This study was constructed with a framework of assessing the effects of urban spatial expansion on ES supply-demand mismatching under different future scenarios in the Guanzhong Plain Urban Agglomeration (GPUA) by using the Future Land Use Simulation (FLUS) model and expert-based Land-Use and Land-Cover Change (LUCC) matrix. The results showed that: (1) Urban expansion is significant in the natural development (ND) scenario, mainly manifesting the great transfer of dry land to construction land. (2) The gap between total ES supply and demand is narrowed from 2000 to 2030 and the mismatch between ES supply and demand is mainly reflected in the spatial distribution pattern in the GPUA. The ES budgets were in high surplus in Northern Qinling Mountains and northeast mountain areas, while they were in severe deficit in urban center areas. The budgets deficit under the ND scenario in 2030 is the most severe. (3) The gradient differences of ES budgets of the GPUA between urban centers and suburbs increase from 2000 to 2030 under two scenarios. The deficit region expands largest under ND scenario. The findings revealed that ES declining and supply-demand mismatching were triggered by the drastic land-use change driven by rapid urban expansion. The expansion has brought about an increasing material demand and growing industries, threatening the sustainability of ecosystems. Scenarios setting could contribute to coordinating the relationship between future urban development and ecological protection, and the policy strategies proposed in the study could inform ecological management and urban planning in the regions facing the similar urbanization situation. View Show abstract Global impacts of future urban expansion on terrestrial vertebrate diversity Article Full-text available Mar 2022 Guangdong Li Chuanglin Fang Yingjie Li Xiaoping Liu Rapid urban expansion has profound impacts on global biodiversity through habitat conversion, degradation, fragmentation, and species extinction. However, how future urban expansion will affect global biodiversity needs to be better understood. We contribute to filling this knowledge gap by combining spatially explicit projections of urban expansion under shared socioeconomic pathways (SSPs) with datasets on habitat and terrestrial biodiversity (amphibians, mammals, and birds). Overall, future urban expansion will lead to 11–33 million hectares of natural habitat loss by 2100 under the SSP scenarios and will disproportionately cause large natural habitat fragmentation. The urban expansion within the current key biodiversity priority areas is projected to be higher (e.g., 37–44% higher in the WWF’s Global 200) than the global average. Moreover, the urban land conversion will reduce local within-site species richness by 34% and species abundance by 52% per 1 km grid cell, and 7–9 species may be lost per 10 km cell. Our study suggests an urgent need to develop a sustainable urban development pathway to balance urban expansion and biodiversity conservation. View Show abstract Simulating future intra-urban land use patterns of a developing city: a case study of Jashore, Bangladesh Article Full-text available Mar 2022 GeoJournal Syed Riad Morshed Md. Abdul Fattah Md. Mojammel Hoque Md. Nazmul Haque Increasing urban growth at an unprecedented rate entails adverse implications for societal, economic, and environmental sustainability. In the cities of Bangladesh, the land covers are experiencing rapid construction-associated land expansion, population growth, and socioeconomic development. Comprehensive assessment and understanding of the prospects for rapid land use/land cover (LULC) changes are essential for managing land surface resources and ensuring sustainable development. Therefore, this study aims to assess the historical land use/land cover (LULC) changes and simulate future potential intra-urban LULC growth patterns of Jashore City up to 2050. We used (i) Landsat images to analyze LULC change using maximum likelihood supervised image classification method; (ii) Markov-CA model to illustrate the LULC transition matrix during 2000-2020, (iii) Multilayer Perception Neural Network Markov Chain (MPNNMC) Model to simulate future LULC patterns. The result shows that built-up area expanded quickly, while cropland and water areas have had a large loss of coverage. The LULC change analysis derived from prior LULC was utilized for future simulations, where natural and anthropogenic factors were chosen as the driving variables in the MPNNMC model. The future LULC modeling shows that compared to 2020, the urban area is expected to increase by 23.64%, whereas cropland, vegetation, unused land, and water areas are expected to reduce by 1.16%, 5.47%, 9.55%, and 7.73% respectively, by 2050. The change analysis shows that urban areas will increase the fastest during 2020–2030. The findings demonstrate that the rapid and unplanned urbanization and the rise of the population due to migration resulted in the fastest LULC transformation. The study findings contribute to the long-term ecological development of Jashore City and potentially enhance environmental decision making. View Show abstract Remotely sensed mapping and analysis of spatio-temporal patterns of land use change across China in 2015-2020 Article May 2022 Wenhui Kuang S. Zhang G. Du J. Liu The continuous remote sensing monitoring of land use/cover change at the national scale is of great scientific significance for land spatial planning and blueprint drawing of "Beautiful China" in the new era. Landsat 8 OLI, GF-2 and other satellite remote sensing data were used to develop the data of land use change across China during 2015-2020 and China Land Use/Cover Dataset in 2020 (CLUD 2020) by integrating remote sensing big data and expert knowledge-assisted human-computer interaction interpretation methods. Long time series land use dynamic database at a 30-m resolution in China was established at 5-year interval in the end of 1980s-2020. On this basis, the general trend, regional differences and main characteristics of land use change in 2015-2020 were revealed from national and regional scales. The research indicated that integrating vegetation cover change at a 30-m resolution and land change information generated by remotely sensed big-data cloud calculation into the expert human-computer interaction interpretation can effectively improve the efficiency of mapping and the accuracy of land use change detection. The overall accuracy of CLUD 2020 first-level type mapping reaches 95%. In general, the intensity of territorial development entered a stable state compared with 2010-2015. During the period, the cropland continued to decrease. Nationwide farmland was encroached by urban development and construction, paddy fields in Northeast China continued to decrease, and cultivated land in Xinjiang was reclaimed in the south and abandoned in the north. The built-up land continued to increase, showing a spatial pattern that "the expansion of built-up land changed from the agglomeration of coastal areas and mega and large cities in 2010-2015 to the surrounding sprawl of large, medium and small towns in the central and western regions in 2015-2020". Although the area of natural ecological land for forest and grass continued to decrease nationwide, the intensity decreased compared with 2010-2015. Under the continuous impact of climate change, the area of water in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau increased significantly. The pattern of land use change is closely related to the national macro strategy for high-quality development during the "13th Five-Year Plan" period (2016-2020) and ecological civilization construction, as well as the impact of climate change. View Show abstract Spatiotemporal evolution of national development zones and their impact on urban land growth in China Article Aug 2022 Zhihan Wang Xuesong Kong Peng Cheng Development zones are important growth poles for promoting regional economic development. However, the spatiotemporal relationship between development zone construction and urban land growth is still unclear. This paper analyzes the spatiotemporal changes of national-level development zones (NDZs), approximately 219 national economic development zones, and 156 high-tech development zones during 1990–2018 in China. The impact of development zone establishment on the growth of surrounding urban land was quantitatively explored using circle buffering analysis and time series comparative analysis. The results show that China’s NDZs spread from the southeast coast to the inland area from 1990 to 2018, and the establishment of the development zones has an obvious promoting effect on the surrounding urban land growth. The scope and intensity of influences of the development zone established in different periods present distinct nonstationarity in space and time. Overall, the impact on urban land (IU) of China’s NDZs established in different years was mostly highest at the 100 m buffer zone radius, while the slope of the IU was mostly negative, which meant that the 100 m buffer zone radius of the development zone center was the most efficient scale to promote urban land growth. In the meantime, the curve of IU of NDZs established before 1990, during 1996–2000 and 2001–2005 has a clear inflection point, which indicates that the most efficient scales of NDZs established before 1990, during 1996–2000, and 2001–2005 are 1300 m, 900–1000 m, and 800 m, respectively. NDZs established in other periods do not have the most obvious efficient scale. The development zone played the greatest role in promoting urban land growth from 2000 to 2010. Three association modes, including post-growth, pre-growth and steady-growth, were identified based on the differences in geographical location, establishment time, and type of development zones. We quantitatively identify the impact of the growth pole of NDZs on urban land growth from the perspective of spatiotemporal evolution. The findings would provide decision-making support for optimizing the spatial relationship between development zone construction and urban land growth. View Show abstract Show more Recommended publications Discover more Article Full-text available Construction of an ecological security pattern for the Guanzhong Plain urban agglomeration: Scale pe... April 2023 · Frontiers in Environmental Science Hao Ye Yongyong Song Dongqian Xue [...] Liwei Zhang As areas of dense populations and high economic activity, urban agglomerations have driven an overall increase in economic efficiency; however, the associated ecological risks are becoming increasingly apparent. The construction of ecological security patterns (ESPs) is an important approach for ensuring the ecological security of urban agglomerations, thereby achieving coordinated development of ... [Show full abstract] society, economy and ecology. Previous studies on ESPs have rarely considered the demand for ecosystem services at multiple scales and have accordingly failed to accurately identify important ecological sources. Here, we propose a novel method based on multi-scale ecosystem service demand to identify ecological sources, which can more accurately identify the ecological source meeting the regional sustainable development. Selecting the Guanzhong Plain urban agglomeration (GPUA) as study area, we constructed a resistance surface by comprehensively considering natural and anthropogenic disturbances. We found high resistance areas are mainly concentrated in highly urbanized areas with Xi’an as the core. In addition, we performed minimum cumulative resistance and gravity model to obtain and classify ecological corridors. The results revealed that the ecological sources identified in this study can enhance the connectivity of the inner regions of the GPUA and the linkage between north and south ecological corridors. The ecological sources were found to be concentrated in the southern Qinling Mountains, with an area of 28,780.02 km ² , accounting for 26.85% of entire region. Furthermore, we identified 121 potential ecological corridors, 47 ecological nodes, and 49 ecological breakpoints, and established that the extent of land with a high level of ecological security accounts for 21.98% of the entire regional area. This study offers a new perspective for ESPs construction, which can provide a scientific basis and policy guidance for the optimization of spatial structure and the maintenance of ecological security in ecologically fragile urban agglomerations. View full-text Article Full-text available Multi-Scenario Simulation of Land Use and Habitat Quality in the Guanzhong Plain Urban Agglomeration... July 2022 · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health Hao Ye Yongyong Song Dongqian Xue Regional habitat quality is a proxy of biodiversity. Simulating changes in land use and habitat quality in urban agglomerations is the scientific basis for promoting the optimal allocation of land resources and building ecological civilizations in urban agglomerations. Therefore, we established a research framework mainly consisting of the Future Land Use Simulation (FLUS) model with the ... [Show full abstract] Integrated Valuation of Environmental Services and Tradeoffs (InVEST) model to predict the spatial and temporal distribution of habitat quality. In addition, we set three scenarios which were a natural development scenario, a cultivated land protection scenario, and an ecological protection scenario to analyze the changes of habitat quality in the Guanzhong Plain urban agglomeration in 2035. The results showed that: (1) the FLUS model had an excellent effect on the simulation of land-use change in the Guanzhong Plain urban agglomeration, with an overall accuracy of 0.952 and a kappa coefficient of 0.924. (2) From 2000 to 2035, the cultivated land area of the study area, which was mainly transferred into construction land and grassland, shrank due to the process of urbanization. (3) The habitat quality score of this region gradually decreased from 2000 to 2020, and it continued to decrease to 0.6921 in 2035 under the natural development scenario, while it increased under the other two scenarios. The low-value areas of habitat quality were mainly located in the middle of this region with Xi’an as the core, whereas the high-value areas were mainly distributed in the southern Qinling Mountains and the northern Loess Plateau. (4) Of the different scenarios, the ecological protection scenario had the highest habitat quality, while the natural development scenario had the lowest. Besides this, we also found that the cultivated protection scenario had high habitat quality, which was mainly because the rate of occupation of ecological land was controlled. The results are expected to provide a scientific basis for optimizing the spatial allocation of land resources and promoting the sustainable use of land space in other ecologically fragile urban agglomerations. View full-text Article Full-text available Land cover change and eco-environmental quality response of different geomorphic units on the Chines... November 2019 · Journal of Arid Land Yongyong Song Dongqian Xue Siyou Xia [...] Lanhai Dai Land cover in the Chinese Loess Plateau has undergone dramatic changes since the late 1980s. Revealing the trend in land cover change and eco-environmental quality response of different geomorphic units in this stage is a realistic requirement for promoting sustainable development of the Chinese Loess Plateau. Based on the data of geomorphic units and land cover in 1990, 2000, 2010 and 2018 of ... [Show full abstract] the Chinese Loess Plateau, we studied the trend of land cover change and eco-environmental quality response of different geomorphic units by using a significance index of land cover change, a proportion index of land cover change and an eco-environmental response model. The results indicated that from 1990 to 2018, the areas of forestland and construction land substantially increased, whereas those of cropland, grassland, wetland and unused land considerably decreased. Land cover change exhibited large geomorphic differences, and the main conversion of land cover was from cropland into other land types. Unstable trend of land cover change in the loess tablelands and sandy loess hills declined, whereas the unstable trends in the other geomorphic units enhanced. Eco-environmental quality varied among different geomorphic units. The expansion of construction land and degradation of forestland, grassland and wetland resulted in the deterioration of eco-environmental quality. The conversion of cropland and unused land into forestland and grassland, and the conversion of grassland into forestland were the main factors that drove the improvement of eco-environmental quality. The findings of this study may provide theoretical reference and support decision making for the optimization of land use structure and the improvement of eco-environmental quality on the Chinese Loess Plateau. View full-text Article Spatial-temporal pattern and formation mechanism of county urbanization on the Chinese Loess Plateau January 2021 · Journal of Mountain Science Yongyong Song Beibei Ma Lanhai Dai [...] Pengtao Wang Urbanization is a comprehensive and complex socioeconomic phenomenon that plays an influential role in promoting global socioeconomic development. The Loess Plateau region is an important part of the China's ecological security pattern, and occupies an important position in the implementation of China's new-type urbanization strategy and the realization of the urban dream. The characteristics of ... [Show full abstract] the staged changes and regional differentiation of urbanization in the area from 1990 to 2018 were studied with focus on regions and subregions by selecting 341 county-level administrative units on the Chinese Loess Plateau as the research area, and employing partition analysis and geographic detector methods. This revealed the formation mechanism of the spatial differentiation pattern of urbanization on the Loess Plateau. We found that the urbanization of the Loess Plateau, previously in a slow growth phase, entered the accelerated development phase, presenting a macro pattern of high rates of urbanization in central and eastern areas and low rates in western areas. The formation of the regional differentiation patterns of urbanization on the Loess Plateau were the combined results of natural geographical and socioeconomic factors. Among these factors, the interaction of any two factors had a stronger impact on regional urbanization patterns than a single factor, which was specifically manifested as nonlinear or bi-factor enhancement effects. The findings of this paper may provide a theoretical reference and scientific basis for the scientific promotion of healthy urbanization on the Chinese Loess Plateau and the ecologically fragile areas of developing countries around the world. Citation: Song YY, Ma BB, Dai LH, et al. (2021) Spatial-temporal pattern and formation mechanism of county urbanization on the Chinese Loess Plateau. Journal of Mountain Science 18(4). https://doi. Read more Last Updated: 19 Apr 2023 Discover the world's research Join ResearchGate to find the people and research you need to help your work. Join for free ResearchGate iOS App Get it from the App Store now. Install Keep up with your stats and more Access scientific knowledge from anywhere or Discover by subject area Recruit researchers Join for free Login Email Tip: Most researchers use their institutional email address as their ResearchGate login Password Forgot password? Keep me logged in Log in or Continue with Google Welcome back! Please log in. Email · Hint Tip: Most researchers use their institutional email address as their ResearchGate login Password Forgot password? Keep me logged in Log in or Continue with Google No account? Sign up Company About us News Careers Support Help Center Business solutions Advertising Recruiting

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/363509200_Land_Space_Change_Process_and_Its_Eco-Environmental_Effects_in_the_Guanzhong_Plain_Urban_Agglomeration_of_China

Beyond Diffusion Tensor MRI Methods for Improved Characterization of the Brain after Ischemic Stroke: A Review | American Journal of Neuroradiology Review Article Adult Brain Beyond Diffusion Tensor MRI Methods for Improved Characterization of the Brain after Ischemic Stroke: A Review E.V.R. DiBella, A. Sharma, L. Richards, V. Prabhakaran, J.J. Majersik and S.K. HashemizadehKolowri American Journal of Neuroradiology May 2022, 43 (5) 661-669; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3174/ajnr.A7414 L. Richards bOccupational and Recreational Therapies (L.R.) V. Prabhakaran dDepartment of Radiology (V.P.), University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin J.J. Majersik cNeurology (J.J.M.), University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah S.K. HashemizadehKolowri aFrom the Departments of Radiology and Imaging Sciences (E.V.R.D., A.S., S.K.H.) Article Abstract SUMMARY: Ischemic stroke is a worldwide problem, with 15 million people experiencing a stroke annually. MR imaging is a valuable tool for understanding and assessing brain changes after stroke and predicting recovery. Of particular interest is the use of diffusion MR imaging in the nonacute stage 1–30 days poststroke. Thousands of articles have been published on the use of diffusion MR imaging in stroke, including several recent articles reviewing the use of DTI for stroke. The goal of this work was to survey and put into context the recent use of diffusion MR imaging methods beyond DTI, including diffusional kurtosis, generalized fractional anisotropy, spherical harmonics methods, and neurite orientation and dispersion models, in patients poststroke. Early studies report that these types of beyond-DTI methods outperform DTI metrics either in being more sensitive to poststroke changes or by better predicting outcome motor scores. More and larger studies are needed to confirm the improved prediction of stroke recovery with the beyond-DTI methods. ABBREVIATIONS: AD axial diffusivity AK axial kurtosis DKI diffusional kurtosis imaging FA fractional anisotropy FM Fugl-Meyer GFA generalized fractional anisotropy MD mean diffusivity MK mean kurtosis NODDI neurite orientation dispersion and density imaging; PLIC = posterior limb of the internal capsule RD radial diffusivity SHORE simple harmonic oscillator-based reconstruction and estimation v ic neurite density WMTI white matter tract integrity Stroke or a cerebrovascular accident is a problem worldwide, with 15 million people having a stroke annually, and it is a widespread cause of long-term disability and mortality. 1 MR imaging is a valuable tool for understanding and assessing brain changes after stroke and predicting recovery. Of particular interest is the use of diffusion MR imaging after the hyperacute stage, at 1–30 days poststroke. Thousands of articles have been published on the use of diffusion MR imaging in stroke, including several recent articles reviewing the use of DTI in stroke. 2⇓- 4 The goal of this work was to survey and put into context the recent use of diffusion MR imaging methods beyond DTI, including diffusional kurtosis imaging (DKI), 5 generalized fractional anisotropy (GFA), 6 and neurite orientation dispersion and density imaging (NODDI) models, 7 in patients poststroke. These methods use functional representations that either better match wider ranges of diffusion data or tie to biophysical models that may better inform stroke studies. Early works report that these types of methods outperform DTI metrics. Time Course of Ischemic Stroke Approximately 87% of strokes are ischemic, while 13% are hemorrhagic; this review focuses on ischemic stroke. Because more ischemic strokes occur in the territory of the MCA than in other locations, most ischemic strokes affect the motor system. For example, 80% of individuals with stroke have impaired upper extremity motor function acutely.8, 9 The typical time course of ischemic stroke (Online Supplemental Data) begins with an acute phase in which ischemia results from development of either an in situ or embolic thrombus that lodges in a cerebral blood vessel, reducing or stopping blood flow to neural tissue served by that vessel. Soon after reduction of downstream blood flow, cytotoxic edema develops in the ischemic area and the cells in both gray and white matter swell, reducing the extracellular space from ∼20% to 4%–10%. 10 Such cell swelling is due to the lack of oxygen that impedes adenosine triphosphate production needed for active transport by Na +/K + ATPase to keep Na ions in balance. 10 Ischemic areas with blood flow of < 10mL/100g become damaged in <6 minutes, 10 creating an ischemic core. 11 Membrane configurations also change and form blebs,10, 12 also termed axonal beading. 13 Acute treatments with tPA or catheter-based clot removal can be very helpful in limiting or avoiding neural damage if the patient presents early poststroke. During the next weeks and months, the ischemic area turns into a necrotic core and the whole brain changes in a variety of ways. In the peri-ischemic area, Wallerian degeneration 14 of the myelinated tracts is generally detectable at a few days poststroke and continues for months. Wallerian degeneration is the process of demyelination and disintegration of the distal axons that occurs after injury to a neuron. Axonal swelling is also characteristic of the early stage of Wallerian degeneration. Wallerian degeneration may occur both near and far from the ischemic bed. For example, rats with MCA occlusion exhibited Wallerian degeneration in the nonischemic corpus callosum. 14 Lesions in one hemisphere also promote changes in the unlesioned (contralateral) hemisphere, depending on the amount of damage to the ipsilesional motor system. Degeneration of transcallosal fibers, increased branching and pruning of dendrites, and increased contralateral corticospinal tract sprouting have been reported. 15 Jones and Adkins 16 suggest that overcompensation with the nonparetic side promotes remodeling in the contralesional hemisphere and may cause synaptic competition with the lesioned hemisphere and reduce recovery in the paretic limb. Neuroimaging with MR imaging plays several roles in stroke; the focus of this review is the use of diffusion MR imaging in the nonhyperacute-but-early stage 1–30 days poststroke, sometimes termed the subacute stage. Diffusion MR imaging is widely used to assess and study stroke. MR imaging diffusion-weighted images reflect how water protons diffuse during short time spans. The water diffusivity depends on the local environment of the water protons. For example, in intact myelinated fibers, water protons diffuse with little restriction along the axon or fiber. In CSF, diffusion is isotropic and protons move relatively freely in all directions. While MR imaging diffusion images are acquired on millimeter scales, the diffusion reflects hindrances and restrictions to water mobility due to microstructures, with scales on the order of microns. Thus, diffusion provides information about the integrity of neural microstructures, but in a complicated way because the brain has a variety of neuronal cell bodies, axons, dendrites, and glial cells in each image voxel. The different compartments and the orientations of the fibers in the cell and the intra- and extracellular spaces influence the diffusion signal. 17 Standard diffusion MR imaging acquires unweighted ( b = 0) and diffusion-weighted images with diffusion weighting in multiple directions. Parameters such as ADC maps are calculated. The diffusion tensor signal representation uses a low-order cumulant expansion of diffusion 18 and enables obtaining parameters such as fractional anisotropy (FA), mean diffusivity (MD), axial diffusivity (AD), and radial diffusivity (RD). Diffusion imaging and DTI have been reviewed in many places. 19 The Online Supplemental Data show an example of some of these different parameters from DTI. There has also been a tremendous amount of work, which is doubling every 2.9 years (see Fig 1 in Novikov et al 20), on diffusion MR imaging microstructural mapping techniques. These methods use higher-order signal expansions (such as DKI) or other signal representations 21 or model-based approximations to the biophysics. The motivation is that these models can be more specific to particular structures in a voxel and thus give more information regarding health or disease. The different signal representations and models are derived in different ways and require different data acquisitions than DTI, in particular with regard to q-space sampling and b-values (Online Supplemental Data). However, many of the parameters can be derived from the same acquisitions, and some of the studies listed in the Online Supplemental Data give parameters from several different representations or models, using the same data set. The Online Supplemental Data also show an example of some of these different parameters from most of the methods that are detailed later in this review. For stroke, most of the work has focused on the corticospinal tract and white matter. 22 Gray matter has been studied in healthy individuals with a NODDI model 23 and with a model designed for gray matter 24 (which may require very high b-values). There are limited studies using beyond-DTI microstructural mapping methods to look at gray matter in human subjects with stroke, though DKI 5 and diffusion spectrum imaging 25 have been used. Diffusion MR Imaging in Stroke In regions of ischemic stroke, signal in diffusion-weighted images is decreased acutely. 26 The reason that diffusion decreases in stroke is not completely understood, though a number of studies give some insight into the process. For example, as described above, ischemic neurons undergo axonal swelling. If axons swell and intra-axon diffusion compared with extra-axonal diffusion is quite different, then having more intra-axonal space, which is more restricted to diffusion, could result in lower diffusion (and higher signal) on the MR images. However, a study using fluorodeoxyglucose molecules found that the molecule diffuses equally in both intra- and extracellular spaces and diffusion in both spaces decreases (∼40% ADC decrease) in ischemic conditions. 27 More recent works have evolved estimates of intra-axonal diffusion and its relation to extracellular diffusion. 28⇓- 30 A likely partial explanation for slower, more restricted diffusion in stroke regions is that axons become “beaded,” more tortuous instead of purely cylindric structures so that the total cell surface area is preserved during the swelling. 31 In this case, diffusion may become more restricted, especially in the axonal direction. Simulations have shown that water ADC decreases in beaded structures.13, 31 Photomicrographs 12 and confocal microscopy have shown such structures. 32 Other factors such as the multiexponential diffusion change with b-value, water exchange, and the axonal g-ratio (outer-to-inner axon diameter ratio), 20 also play roles in imaging diffusion after stroke. Water exchange between fast and slow diffusion components has been studied, 33 and the biophysics of white matter in the context of diffusion imaging was reviewed by Nilsson et al. 34 More recently, a beyond-DTI method sensitive to exchange was proposed (Online Supplemental Data). 35 We move now to consider some of the works that illustrate how MR imaging has been used in the assessment of stroke and for prediction of stroke recovery. Diffusion MR Imaging for Predicting Recovery from Stroke. Diffusion MR imaging has many potential uses in subacute stroke, including understanding the time course of brain changes, predicting the response to specific therapeutic interventions, and selecting and monitoring therapy. Predicting motor recovery has been a highly studied objective. 2 Why Predict Recovery? Stroke research includes both hyperacute evaluation and treatment with thrombolysis or mechanical clot removal and less acute evaluation. “Time is brain,” and as described above, and for suitable patients presenting to the hospital within 24 hours, tPA and thrombectomy procedures often help recovery by reducing the extent of neural damage. Yet, while these procedures reduce damage from stroke, they usually do not eliminate such damage. After hyperacute procedures and for the ∼80% of subjects who do not receive such intervention, rehabilitation is commonly needed. How the brain recovers after stroke and the best therapy and therapy timing for each stroke survivor after the hyperacute phase are open questions. Therapy within the first few weeks after stroke is likely to be more effective due to the heightened neuroplasticity potential at that time. Predicting recovery is, thus, a highly sought-after goal. 36⇓- 38 Accurate prediction is needed to plan discharge, set patient goals, choose therapy (therapies aimed at reducing impairment versus therapies to train compensation strategies and assistive technologies), and offer the patient a prognosis. 39 Recovery predictions also allow better testing of newly developed recovery therapies that hope to promote greater recovery than spontaneous recovery or current therapies. Nonimaging Methods for Stroke Recovery Prediction. A variety of prediction methods have been used, such as those based on changes in the NIHSS, 40 but prediction methods that do not use imaging typically have poor specificity (36% in Hemmen et al 40) or only estimate a binary outcome (favorable or not favorable), which is not as useful clinically. Recovery depends, in part, on the size and the location of the ischemic area and on a variety of other factors such as demographics, systemic atherosclerosis, and social support networks. Strokes causing motor deficits are commonly said to display proportional recovery—that is, in the first 3 months following stroke, 70% of the new impairment is recovered 41 ⇓⇓- 44 in most individuals, while the other individuals (“atypical responders”) have much less recovery. This finding is based on function at baseline measured with the Fugl-Meyer (FM) upper extremity assessment, 45 which has a range of 0–66. For example, ΔFM = 0.7 × (66-FM initial) + 0.4 predicted recovery reasonably well in 160 of 211 subjects. 43 However, it was recently shown by two separate groups that mathematic coupling and ceiling effects incorrectly biased the previous findings and that random recovery could give results similar to proportional recovery when the previously published analysis methods were used.46, 47 Thus, we may understand recovery less than we think we do, and there is additional motivation for methods such as MR imaging to bolster our ability to characterize and predict recovery from stroke. Imaging Methods for Prediction of Stroke Recovery. MR imaging methods such as diffusion, perfusion, fMRI, spectroscopy, and T1- and T2-weighted images give insight into the location and severity of stroke.48, 49 Perfusion imaging to delineate ischemic areas is typically used in concert with diffusion imaging at the hyperacute stage of stroke to see if the ischemic area exceeds (defining a larger area at risk) or matches the restricted diffusion area. Match/mismatch criteria can inform the hyperacute use of thrombectomy and tPA. 50 These methods are applied at the hyperacute stage and are typically less valuable for longer-term recovery prediction. fMRI was shown to relate more weakly to motor deficits than tract integrity based on diffusion imaging. 51 Moreover, task fMRI relies on patient cooperation, effort, and ability to perform motor tasks, which may be compromised on the basis of the severity of stroke, though resting state functional connectivity may be promising. 52 T1 and T2 methods are often used to size lesions but correlate relatively poorly with motor function compared with also considering lesion location and load on a fiber tract (gauged with diffusion imaging53, 54). Lesion load is also a relatively poor predictor of recovery. Adding DTI enables better assessment of stroke and prediction of recovery. DTI Methods for Predicting Stroke Recovery DTI uses a signal representation that is limited to representing, for example, a Gaussian distribution of diffusion displacement and a single fiber direction in each voxel, which may not accurately reflect the mixture of glia, myelin, neurons, extracellular space, CSF, and microvasculature that can exist within a voxel. Still, DTI metrics are sensitive to stroke-related changes, and numerous studies have used DTI to better understand and characterize changes after stroke48, 54 and to gauge the effects of therapies. 55 While DTI and particularly FA are useful, histology studies have shown that FA is not a specific biomarker because it conflates myelination, fiber dispersion, and intra-/extraneurite contributions. FA is widely used despite its nonspecific nature. For example, a recent review 4 reported good correlation between a DTI metric such as FA and a motor outcome metric such as FM or NIHSS (which is not as useful a measure of motor capabilities as FM) scores, though a few of the studies did not find significant predictive correlations from the FA metrics at some stages. 56⇓- 58 Kumar et al 2 did a meta-analysis on 6 small studies with outcome measures such as NIHSS and reported a pooled r = 0.82. They pointed out the need for larger, prospective studies to better determine the utility of FA metrics for predicting outcomes. As highlighted below, these retrospective studies report best-fit linear correlations for the data obtained and would not be expected to perform as well when doing prospective predictions. Tractography from DTI has also been useful for studying stroke and predicting recovery. For example, tractography methods for defining tract-based ROIs 4 and connectivity analysis methods59, 60 have been developed. Diffusion methods stand to benefit from beyond-DTI methods that can in some ways consider crossing fibers, structural compartments with hindered or restricted diffusion, and non-Gaussian distributions of the diffusive motion of water in the brain. Here, we seek to complement the recent DTI in stroke reviews 2⇓- 4 by focusing on works that used beyond-DTI methods for obtaining microstructural parameter maps in stroke. Several studies have reported better correspondence of these microstructural mapping methods with motor outcomes, and others have reported greater changes between ipsilesional and contralesional regions in the microstructural parameters compared with DTI, implying greater sensitivity to stroke effects. Beyond-DTI Methods for Stroke New diffusion methods have been developed that better separate the diffusion signal contributions from fiber dispersion and intra-/extraneurite compartments. More samples in q-space (Online Supplemental Data) provide better angular resolution of fibers, 61 ⇓ ⇓⇓- 65 allow estimating the non-Gaussian portions of the signals (kurtosis), and enable estimating models of biophysical compartments along with fiber orientations and dispersions. Such compartment models are well-described in multiple articles, including the supplement in Lakhani et al. 66 Because the adverse impact of stroke is, in part, from disrupting white matter connectivity, better measures of assessing fiber bundle integrity could give better insight and predictive power over current techniques. This white matter assessment is one way that beyond-DTI methods may provide significant additional information. Currently, the only beyond-DTI methods used with stroke applications to date include the following: DKI, white matter tract integrity (WMTI), GFA, NODDI, simple harmonic oscillator-based reconstruction and estimation (SHORE) parameters, and 1 article using different diffusion times to estimate the rate of kurtosis. DKI. The standard DTI representation is appropriate in freely diffusing isotropic media such as CSF. For areas with restricted diffusion such as within axons, Jensen et al 67 proposed extending the DTI signal representation to add a higher-order term: where K is the kurtosis. To have sufficient data to fit these higher-order terms uniquely, one must have data acquired at multiple nonzero b-values. As with DTI, a kurtosis tensor can be defined to take into account diffusion directions. When DKI is used to fit, the DTI tensor portion has 6 unknowns and the DKI tensor values include 15 unknowns, so at least 21 q-space samples and a b=0 image are typically needed. For typical brain microstructure and diffusion acquisition parameters, the non-Gaussian portion of the diffusion signal 68 will not be prevalent if b≤1000 mm 2/s. Acquisitions vary but may include, for example, 15 directions at b=1000 and 15 directions at b=2000 (Online Supplemental Data). The additional microenvironment complexity in stroke may make DKI a better approach than DTI. Most of the beyond-DTI research in stroke has been with DKI, with 10 articles in rat stroke models, 69 ⇓ ⇓ ⇓ ⇓ ⇓ ⇓ ⇓⇓- 78 a recent review article, 79 and 10 articles in humans (Online Supplemental Data). The rat model studies found larger changes with mean kurtosis (MK) and axial kurtosis (AK) compared with DTI metrics. Sizing of lesions was also studied with ex vivo MR imaging, and the studies found that DKI metrics such as MK were larger than those in MD and histology.72, 78 However, with in vivo MR imaging and a different segmentation method, others reported that the DKI metrics yielded lesion sizes smaller than MD volumes. 77 In addition, sizing has not been shown to be very predictive of motor recovery. 80 Possibly more promising from the rat model studies is that the DKI parameters changed more with time (or compared with the contralateral hemisphere) than the DTI parameters due to stroke. This increased sensitivity to stroke was also found in the studies with humans. The Online Supplemental Data summarize the details of each of these DKI human imaging poststroke articles. The relatively widespread use of DKI compared with other beyond-DTI methods is likely due to modest acquisition requirements, GE Healthcare’s early implementation of DKI in their FuncTool software on the scanner, and early reports of potential. For example, Hui et al, 5 in 2012, reported that MK changed more than FA in stroke regions relative to the nonstroke hemisphere (ipsilesional and contralesional regions) in 44 subjects with stroke, though there was no evaluation of the clinical importance of such changes. Fast kurtosis methods using <20 diffusion-weighted images have also been developed 81 and used in rat studies.71, 74 Ideally, FM scores at 6–12 weeks poststroke serve to measure motor outcomes, and such scores were measured in 2 DKI articles. In Spampinato et al, 82 the MK ipsilesional/contralesional ratio gave the best correlation with FM scores ( r = 0.85). The AK ratio also was predictive ( r = 0.78), while DTI MD ( r = 0.69), and FA ( r = 0.4) ratios had lower associations with FM scores. Li et al 83 grouped patients into good responders (>10-point FM change) or poor responders. Then a relative axial kurtosis AK measure (ipsilesional–contralesional)/contralesional) gave the best discrimination of the 2 groups and was superior to DTI methods. The study in Yu et al 84 used NIHSS scores rather than FM and found lower correlations, but still the relative AK metric gave the highest correlation ( r = 0.3) with NIHSS scores. DTI methods in Yu et al showed no changes in the cortical spinal tract on the stroke side relative to the contralateral side (and hence no correlation with NIHSS). The WMTI method was included in 2 of the DKI articles.5, 82 WMTI assumes intra- and extra-axonal compartments and estimates axonal water fraction, intra-axonal AD, extra-axonal axial and radial diffusivities, and the tortuosity of the extra-axonal space. WMTI assumes all parallel axons and so is only applied in the corpus callosum, or where FA >0.3.5, 82 WMTI parameters were calculated along with DKI, and the axonal water fraction correlated ( r = 0.63) with FM scores in Spampinato et al. 82 More recent nonstroke works relaxed the parallel axon requirement using a WMTI-Watson model that includes fiber dispersion, though the method assumes axially symmetric diffusion, so it was only applied in the spinal cord. 85 Besides DKI, other beyond-DTI methods have been explored for use in patients with stroke. The Online Supplemental Data summarize the 9 articles that have investigated other methods: GFA, SHORE, NODDI, and rate of kurtosis methods have all shown promising results in patients with stroke. GFA. GFA is obtained from the orientation distribution function, which can be calculated from the 3D ensemble average propagator. 21 The 3D ensemble average propagator is obtained, for example, by 3D Fourier transform from Cartesian-sampled q-space data. 86 Then, similar to how FA is calculated from DTI data as SD(λ) / RMS(λ), where λ is the eigenvalue of the diffusion tensor and RMS stands for root mean square, GFA = SD(φ)/RMS(φ), where φ represents the orientation distribution function. 21 GFA can be considered as an extension of FA in voxels that have crossing/touching fibers, so it may give a better measure of fiber disarray in stroke. The GFA studies in the Online Supplemental Data came from diffusion spectrum imaging, which acquires a Cartesian grid of q-space samples with a relatively high b maximum (4000–8000 s/mm 2). Most of these studies took the unusual approach of studying only the contralesional side. GFA revealed microstructure changes in the contralesional side during poststroke remodeling.6,25, 87⇓- 89 Most of these studies used the same data set of ∼10 patients with stroke who had been imaged with a 26-minute diffusion acquisition.6,25, 89 GFA in the contralesional side was highly predictive of the 6 -month NIHSS score ( r 2 = 0.84 adjusted). 6 Combining GFA + NIHSS+ age had an even higher correlation ( r 2 = 0.96 adjusted) in this small study. 6 Other parameters (SHORE) were also calculated from this data set, as described below. SHORE. The SHORE method calculates propagator anisotropy, along with measures of the ensemble average propagator variance (mean square displacement), return-to-the-origin probability, the return-to-the-axis probability, and the return-to-the-plane probability. 90 These parameters when evaluated in a subcortical loop of tracts gave high correlations with 6-month NIHSS scores. 91 Galazzo et al 25 added comparison with DTI and evaluated findings in gray matter. Both articles used the 10-person diffusion spectrum imaging data set from Granziera et al 6 and evaluated only the contralesional side. Compartment Model Methods. Unlike the FA, GFA, and SHORE parameters that arise from signal representations that do not postulate a particular underlying biophysical model, a number of compartment-based models have been developed. These models, of which NODDI is a good example, estimate microstructural multicompartment (intra-axon, extra-axon, CSF compartments for NODDI) and fiber-dispersion parameters. This approach is thought to be useful for characterizing dispersed or crossing fibers 92 and for estimating white matter degeneration in the subacute phase of stroke when Wallerian degeneration and glial scarring processes are occurring. 93 A few groups have recently reported NODDI models to be useful in stroke imaging in rats 94 and humans.7, 95⇓- 97 These findings are despite the fact that NODDI fixes diffusivity parameters to 1.7 (and to 3.0 s/mm 2 in spinal fluid), and these parameters are not uniformly correct in healthy individuals and are less accurate in stroke regions. It is also known that NODDI “neurite density” (also called v ic) does not reflect the density of neurites in tumor and in stroke (where it has been called the “restricted diffusion index”). The only NODDI study including outcome measures (FM scores) was Hodgson et al, 96 in which the best outcome predictor was found to be the orientation dispersion index (optimism-adjusted r 2 = 0.83), though v ic (or the “restricted diffusion index”) also correlated r 2 = 0.70, as did GFA ( r 2 = 0.57). Other parameters including DTI and stroke size and lesion load did not correlate as well. The two other NODDI stroke studies included DKI and also studied changes in microstructure across time.7, 97 The study of Wang et al 97 was unpaired: The same subject was not imaged at multiple time points. Still, the percentage difference of the orientation dispersion index in the stroke area relative to the contralesional side was larger than other NODDI parameters, MK, FA, or MD. Correlation with time since stroke onset was also highest with the orientation dispersion index. Mastropietro et al 7 analyzed only the posterior limb of the internal capsule (PLIC) and cerebral peduncle regions and reported significant differences between their ipsilateral and contralateral sides for the orientation dispersion index and other parameters including FA, AD, RD, kurtosis anisotropy, and AK. Other parameters (MD, MK, v ic, isotropic volume fraction) did not show significant differences. Other biophysical factors, such as different T2s in intra-axonal and extracellular compartments, water exchange, and Gaussian diffusion assumed in compartments, could all be of interest but are not included in the compartment model methods. Using different diffusion times while maintaining the same b-value is also of interest and was recently shown to help predict chronic stroke areas in 5 subjects with stroke. 35 That method estimated the exchange rate (rate of kurtosis) using an equation based on a 2-compartment model with exchange. Other models such as NODDI assume no water exchange between the myelin and the intracellular and extracellular compartments, though there is evidence for a mixture of fast and slow exchange. 34 Such exchange causes signal changes due to different diffusivities and relaxivities (possibly negligible) in the different compartments. 98 A multishell acquisition with 2 diffusion times was used in Lampinen et al 35 to obtain a parameter sensitive to the exchange rate. Results showed faster exchange in the ischemic stroke areas. 35 The Online Supplemental Data summarize the methods with outcome measures (FM or NIHSS) graphically, with the graph edges reflecting the number of subjects in each comparison. Acquisition and Analysis Diversity in Beyond-DTI Methods The beyond-DTI studies varied considerably in the acquisition. Besides a range of angular q-space sampling and different shells or b-values, there were wide differences in spatial resolution (0.94–3 mm in-plane, 1.5- to 4-mm section thickness), number of slices (range, 9–64), acquisition time (range, 2–27 minutes), and imaging time poststroke (range, 6 hours to 4 weeks). A large high-resolution highly sampled q-space data set similar to that with connectome imaging would be ideal to determine the value of higher resolution and sampling for the use of beyond-DTI methods in stroke. Different acquisition parameters may lead to different results. This possibility is best known in DTI; for example, Table 1 in Barrio-Arranz et al 99 describes results from 14 studies of different spatial resolutions, b-values, or diffusion directions and how FA and MD changed. Less has been studied with beyond-DTI methods, but for example, NODDI results are a function of b-values and gradient directions. 100 This finding again is motivation for large rigorous studies in stroke with overcomplete sampling and outcome measures for validation. Analysis methods tended to be from either ROIs in parts or all of the cortical spinal tract (PLIC, the cerebral peduncle, and the corona radiata) and/or from manually identified ischemic regions. Note that it has been shown in DTI that different fitting methods (linear, nonlinear) give significantly different results. 101 Beyond-DTI methods such as a more rapid NODDI fitting method 102 also are known to affect results compared with the original slower NODDI fitting method. A few studies used tract-based analyses and/or voxel-based analyses. Atlas-based regions were often used, though it is not known how well the atlas matches tracts in stroke regions with disrupted fiber tracts. Trade-offs with SNR and with how different beyond-DTI parameters vary with voxel size are yet to be studied in subjects with stroke. Even if ROI analysis methods are used, it could be that imaging with smaller voxels could better inform microstructure and tractography methods. Note that for predicting stroke recovery and following stroke recovery, we are interested not only in local stroke effects but also global stroke effects. The best focus and most relevant information to understand and predict adaptations are still not known. For example, some have found the PLIC to be the most predictive of future motor function, even if the stroke was not in the PLIC. This finding may be because the PLIC is a hub with incoming sensory neurons and outgoing motor control neurons and the way that stroke, even in other regions, affects the PLIC is telling. Alternatively, this may simply be from the small sample size and limited comparisons with other fiber tracts; other regions or composites of regions may provide improved predictive information. The different acquisitions, nonstandard processing, and few studies with relatively few subjects that include motor stroke outcomes mean that larger studies with FM scores and current acquisition techniques including simultaneous multislice methods 103 are needed to better understand the impact of beyond-DTI methods. While the scan times vary widely, from 2 to 27 minutes (Online Supplemental Data), this variation is, in part, due to limited coverage, spatial resolution, and q-space sampling choices. Acquisition requirements for optimal performance for the different methods are not yet known in stroke. It is likely that all of the beyond-DTI methods can be made clinically practical (<5 minutes) with advanced acquisition (simultaneous multislice) and deep learning techniques, 104 though those techniques are still evolving and being evaluated. Direct comparisons between the beyond-DTI methods and investigation into combining parameters from different methods should also be performed in the context of stroke. Other Considerations As pointed out by Kim et al, 38 90% of neurologic biomarker studies, including most DTI studies as well as most nonimaging methods, did not use an independent set of stroke data to cross-validate their prediction model. Thus, the results are a best case of predicted correlation, retrospectively, with the given data set. The beyond-DTI studies reported in the tables here did not perform cross-validation, though 1 small study used k-fold cross-validation 96 to have more confidence in the predictive value. The studies also did not identify or discuss minimally clinically important differences, 38 which will be essential to further develop and translate these promising new methods to clinical use. Another open question is how outcome predictions vary as a function of therapy. This question includes acute treatments such as tPA or thrombectomy and therapies such as brain-computer interface methods. The brain-computer interface has shown promising results in small studies of people with chronic stroke; recovery may be enhanced, especially if such therapies are started early after stroke. Indeed, advanced diffusion-based metrics may be able to predict who would benefit the most from the brain-computer interface or other types of therapies; plasticity or reorganization changes may be measurable with beyond-DTI parameters while confounding the interpretation of FA. The ability of diffusion methods to differentiate ipsilateral-versus-contralateral contributions of motor tracts to upper extremity function may also inform stroke rehabilitation approaches. 105 The many exciting new advances in neuroimaging and particularly in beyond-DTI methods are likely to have a highly significant impact in the context of predicting stroke recovery, for improving our understanding of brain changes after stroke, and for providing unique advantages when selecting personalized stroke therapy. However, this review also makes clear that there is a need for rigorous studies to better evaluate and translate these microstructural mapping methods to clinical application. Footnotes References 1. ↵ Roger VL, Go AS, Lloyd-Jones DM, et al ; American Heart Association Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee. Heart disease and stroke statistics–2011 update: a report from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2011; 123: e18– e209 doi:10.1161/CIR.0b013e3182009701 pmid:21160056 2. ↵ Kumar P, Kathuria P, Nair P, et al . Prediction of upper limb motor recovery after subacute ischemic stroke using diffusion tensor imaging: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Stroke 2016; 18: 50– 59 doi:10.5853/jos.2015.01186 pmid:26846758 3. ↵ Puig J, Blasco G, Schlaug G, et al . Diffusion tensor imaging as a prognostic biomarker for motor recovery and rehabilitation after stroke. Neuroradiology 2017; 59: 343– 51 doi:10.1007/s00234-017-1816-0 pmid:28293701 4. ↵ Moura LM, Luccas R, de Paiva JP, et al . Diffusion tensor imaging biomarkers to predict motor outcomes in stroke: a narrative review. Front Neurol 2019; 10: 445 pmid:31156529 5. ↵ Hui ES, Fieremans E, Jensen JH, et al . Stroke assessment with diffusional kurtosis imaging. Stroke 2012; 43: 2968– 73 doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.112.657742 pmid:22933581 6. ↵ Granziera C, Daducci A, Meskaldji DE, et al . A new early and automated MRI-based predictor of motor improvement after stroke. Neurology 2012; 79: 39– 46 doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e31825f25e7 pmid:22722626 7. ↵ Mastropietro A, Rizzo G, Fontana L, et al . Microstructural characterization of corticospinal tract in subacute and chronic stroke patients with distal lesions by means of advanced diffusion MRI. Neuroradiology 2019; 61: 1033– 45 doi:10.1007/s00234-019-02249-2 pmid:31263922 8. ↵ Cramer SC, Nelles G, Benson RR, et al . Functional MRI study of subjects recovered from hemiparetic stroke. Stroke 1997; 28: 2518– 27 doi:10.1161/01.STR.28.12.2518 pmid:9412643 9. ↵ Hatem SM, Saussez G, Della Faille M, et al . Rehabilitation of motor function after stroke: a multiple systematic review focused on techniques to stimulate upper extremity recovery. Front Hum Neurosci 2016; 10: 442 doi:10.3389/fnhum.2016.00442 pmid:27679565 10. ↵ Liang D, Bhatta S, Gerzanich V, et al . Cytotoxic edema: mechanisms of pathological cell swelling. Neurosurg Focus 2007; 22: E2 doi:10.3171/foc.2007.22.5.3 pmid:17613233 11. ↵ Goyal M, Ospel JM, Menon B, et al . Challenging the ischemic core concept in acute ischemic stroke imaging. Stroke 2020; 51: 3147– 55 doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.120.030620 pmid:32933417 12. ↵ Hori N, Carpenter DO . Functional and morphological changes induced by transient in vivo ischemia. Exp Neurol 1994; 129: 279– 89 doi:10.1006/exnr.1994.1170 pmid:7957741 13. ↵ Baron CA, Kate M, Gioia L, et al . Reduction of diffusion-weighted imaging contrast of acute ischemic stroke at short diffusion times. Stroke 2015; 46: 2136– 41 doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.115.008815 pmid:26152297 14. ↵ Zuo M, Guo H, Wan T, et al . Wallerian degeneration in experimental focal cortical ischemia. Brain Res Bull 2019; 149: 194– 202 doi:10.1016/j.brainresbull.2019.04.023 pmid:31051228 15. ↵ Jones TA, Schallert T . Overgrowth and pruning of dendrites in adult rats recovering from neocortical damage. Brain Res 1992; 581: 156– 60 doi:10.1016/0006-8993(92)90356-e pmid:1498666 16. ↵ Jones TA, Adkins DL . Motor system reorganization after stroke: stimulating and training toward perfection. Physiology (Bethesda) 2015; 30: 358– 70 doi:10.1152/physiol.00014.2015 pmid:26328881 17. ↵ Alexander DC, Dyrby TB, Nilsson M, et al . Imaging brain microstructure with diffusion MRI: practicality and applications. NMR Biomed 2019; 32: e3841 doi:10.1002/nbm.3841 pmid:29193413 18. ↵ Kiselev VG . Fundamentals of diffusion MRI physics. NMR Biomed 2017; 30 doi:10.1002/nbm.3602 pmid:28230327 19. ↵ Hagmann P, Jonasson L, Maeder P, et al . Understanding diffusion MR imaging techniques: from scalar diffusion-weighted imaging to diffusion tensor imaging and beyond. Radiographics 2006; 26( Suppl 1): S205– 23 pmid:17050517 20. ↵ Novikov DS, Kiselev VG, Jespersen SN . On modeling. Magn Reson Med 2018; 79: 3172– 93 doi:10.1002/mrm.27101 pmid:29493816 21. ↵ Tuch DS . Q-ball imaging. Magn Reson Med 2004; 52: 1358– 72 doi:10.1002/mrm.20279 pmid:15562495 22. ↵ Concha L . A macroscopic view of microstructure: using diffusion-weighted images to infer damage, repair, and plasticity of white matter. Neuroscience 2014; 276: 14– 28 doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2013.09.004 pmid:24051366 23. ↵ Fukutomi H, Glasser MF, Zhang H, et al . Neurite imaging reveals microstructural variations in human cerebral cortical gray matter. Neuroimage 2018; 182: 488– 99 doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.02.017 pmid:29448073 24. ↵ Palombo M, Ianus A, Guerreri M, et al . SANDI: A compartment-based model for non-invasive apparent soma and neurite imaging by diffusion MRI. Neuroimage 2020; 215: 116835 doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.116835 pmid:32289460 CrossRef PubMed Google Scholar 25. ↵ Boscolo Galazzo I, Brusini L, Obertino S, et al . On the viability of diffusion MRI-based microstructural biomarkers in ischemic stroke. Front Neurosci 2018; 12: 92 doi:10.3389/fnins.2018.00092 pmid:29515362 CrossRef PubMed Google Scholar 26. ↵ Schaefer PW, Grant PE, Gonzalez RG . Diffusion-weighted MR imaging of the brain. Radiology 2000; 217: 331– 45 doi:10.1148/radiology.217.2.r00nv24331 pmid:11058626 CrossRef PubMed Google Scholar 27. ↵ Duong TQ, Ackerman JJ, Ying HS, et al . Evaluation of extra- and intracellular apparent diffusion in normal and globally ischemic rat brain via 19F NMR. Magn Reson Med 1998; 40: 1– 13 doi:10.1002/mrm.1910400102 pmid:9660547 CrossRef PubMed Google Scholar 28. ↵ Jelescu IO, Veraart J, Fieremans E, et al . Degeneracy in model parameter estimation for multi-compartmental diffusion in neuronal tissue. NMR Biomed 2016; 29: 33– 47 doi:10.1002/nbm.3450 pmid:26615981 CrossRef PubMed Google Scholar 29. ↵ Dhital B, Reisert M, Kellner E, et al . Intra-axonal diffusivity in brain white matter. Neuroimage 2019; 189: 543– 50 doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.01.015 pmid:30659959 CrossRef PubMed Google Scholar 30. ↵ Lampinen B, Szczepankiewicz F, Martensson J, et al . Towards unconstrained compartment modeling in white matter using diffusion-relaxation MRI with tensor-valued diffusion encoding. Magn Reson Med 2020; 84: 1605– 23 doi:10.1002/mrm.28216 pmid:32141131 31. ↵ Budde MD, Frank JA . Neurite beading is sufficient to decrease the apparent diffusion coefficient after ischemic stroke. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2010; 107: 14472– 77 doi:10.1073/pnas.1004841107 pmid:20660718 32. ↵ Datar A, Ameeramja J, Bhat A, et al . The roles of microtubules and membrane tension in axonal beading, retraction, and atrophy. Biophys J 2019; 117: 880– 91 doi:10.1016/j.bpj.2019.07.046 pmid:31427070 33. ↵ Brugieres P, Thomas P, Maraval A, et al . Water diffusion compartmentation at high b values in ischemic human brain. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2004; 25: 692– 68 pmid:15140706 34. ↵ Nilsson M, van Westen D, Stahlberg F, et al . The role of tissue microstructure and water exchange in biophysical modelling of diffusion in white matter. MAGMA 2013; 26: 345– 70 doi:10.1007/s10334-013-0371-x pmid:23443883 35. ↵ Lampinen B, Latt J, Wasselius J, et al . Time dependence in diffusion MRI predicts tissue outcome in ischemic stroke patients. Magn Reson Med 2021; 86: 754– 64 doi:10.1002/mrm.28743 pmid:33755261 36. ↵ Kruetzelmann A, Kohrmann M, Sobesky J, et al . Pretreatment diffusion-weighted imaging lesion volume predicts favorable outcome after intravenous thrombolysis with tissue-type plasminogen activator in acute ischemic stroke. Stroke 2011; 42: 1251– 54 doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.110.600148 pmid:21415399 37. ↵ Campbell BC, Tu HT, Christensen S, et al . Assessing response to stroke thrombolysis: validation of 24-hour multimodal magnetic resonance imaging. Arch Neurol 2011; 69: 45– 50 doi:10.1001/archneurol.2011.232 pmid:21911654 38. ↵ Kim B, Winstein C . Can neurological biomarkers of brain impairment be used to predict poststroke motor recovery? A systematic review. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 2017; 31: 3– 24 doi:10.1177/1545968316662708 pmid:27503908 39. ↵ Kwah LK, Herbert RD . Prediction of walking and arm recovery after stroke: a critical review. Brain Sci 2016; 6:53 doi:10.3390/brainsci6040053 pmid:27827835 40. ↵ Hemmen TM, Ernstrom K, Raman R . Two-hour improvement of patients in the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke trials and prediction of final outcome. Stroke 2011; 42: 3163– 67 doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.110.608919 pmid:21868741 41. ↵ Prabhakaran S, Zarahn E, Riley C, et al . Inter-individual variability in the capacity for motor recovery after ischemic stroke. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 2008; 22: 64– 71 doi:10.1177/1545968307305302 pmid:17687024 42. ↵ Krakauer JW, Marshall RS . The proportional recovery rule for stroke revisited. Ann Neurol 2015; 78: 845– 47 doi:10.1002/ana.24537 pmid:26435166 43. ↵ Winters C, van Wegen EE, Daffertshofer A, et al . Generalizability of the proportional recovery model for the upper extremity after an ischemic stroke. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 2015; 29: 614– 22 doi:10.1177/1545968314562115 pmid:25505223 CrossRef PubMed Google Scholar 44. ↵ Stinear CM, Byblow WD, Ackerley SJ, et al . Proportional motor recovery after stroke: implications for trial design. Stroke 2017; 48: 795– 98 doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.116.016020 pmid:28143920 45. ↵ Fugl-Meyer AR, Jaasko L, Leyman I, et al . The post-stroke hemiplegic patient, 1; a method for evaluation of physical performance. Scand J Rehabil Med 1975; 7: 13– 31 pmid:1135616 46. ↵ Hawe RL, Scott SH, Dukelow SP . Taking proportional out of stroke recovery. Stroke 2018 Dec 7. [ Epub ahead of print] doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.118.023006 pmid:30580742 47. ↵ Hope TM, Friston K, Price CJ, et al . Recovery after stroke: not so proportional after all? Brain 2019; 142: 15– 22 doi:10.1093/brain/awy302 pmid:30535098 48. ↵ Farr TD, Wegener S . Use of magnetic resonance imaging to predict outcome after stroke: a review of experimental and clinical evidence. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2010; 30: 703– 17 doi:10.1038/jcbfm.2010.5 pmid:20087362 CrossRef PubMed Google Scholar 49. ↵ Sun C, Liu X, Bao C, et al . Advanced non-invasive MRI of neuroplasticity in ischemic stroke: techniques and applications. Life Sci 2020; 261: 118365 doi:10.1016/j.lfs.2020.118365 pmid:32871181 CrossRef PubMed Google Scholar 50. ↵ Albers GW, Thijs VN, Wechsler L, et al ; DEFUSE Investigators. Magnetic resonance imaging profiles predict clinical response to early reperfusion: the diffusion and perfusion imaging evaluation for understanding stroke evolution (DEFUSE) study. Ann Neurol 2006; 60: 508– 17 doi:10.1002/ana.20976 pmid:17066483 CrossRef PubMed Google Scholar 51. ↵ Qiu M, Darling WG, Morecraft RJ, et al . White matter integrity is a stronger predictor of motor function than BOLD response in patients with stroke. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 2011; 25: 275– 84 doi:10.1177/1545968310389183 pmid:21357529 52. ↵ Carter AR, Shulman GL, Corbetta M . Why use a connectivity-based approach to study stroke and recovery of function? NeuroImage 2012; 62: 2271– 80 doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.02.070 pmid:22414990 53. ↵ Zhu LL, Lindenberg R, Alexander MP, et al . Lesion load of the corticospinal tract predicts motor impairment in chronic stroke. Stroke 2010; 41: 910– 15 doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.109.577023 pmid:20378864 54. ↵ Kumar MA, Vangala H, Tong DC, et al . MRI guides diagnostic approach for ischaemic stroke. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2011: 83; 1201– 05 doi:10.1136/jnnp.2010.237941 pmid:21551473 55. ↵ Song J, Nair VA, Young BM, et al . DTI measures track and predict motor function outcomes in stroke rehabilitation utilizing BCI technology. Front Hum Neurosci 2015; 9: 195 doi:10.3389/fnhum.2015.0019 pmid:25964753 56. ↵ Puig J, Pedraza S, Blasco G, et al . Wallerian degeneration in the corticospinal tract evaluated by diffusion tensor imaging correlates with motor deficit 30 days after middle cerebral artery ischemic stroke. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2010; 31: 1324– 30 doi:10.3174/ajnr.A2038 pmid:20299434 57. ↵ Groisser BN, Copen WA, Singhal AB, et al . Corticospinal tract diffusion abnormalities early after stroke predict motor outcome. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 2014; 28: 751– 60 doi:10.1177/1545968314521896 pmid:24519021 58. ↵ Jang SH, Lee J, Lee MY, et al . Prediction of motor outcome using remaining corticospinal tract in patients with pontine infarct: diffusion tensor imaging study. Somatosens Mot Res 2016; 33: 99– 103 doi:10.1080/08990220.2016.1194821 pmid:27323912 59. ↵ Pannek K, Chalk JB, Finnigan S, et al . Dynamic corticospinal white matter connectivity changes during stroke recovery: a diffusion tensor probabilistic tractography study. J Magn Reson Imaging 2009; 29: 529– 36 doi:10.1002/jmri.21627 pmid:19243034 60. ↵ Kim KH, Kim YH, Kim MS, et al . Prediction of motor recovery using diffusion tensor tractography in supratentorial stroke patients with severe motor involvement. Ann Rehabil Med 2015; 39: 570– 76 doi:10.5535/arm.2015.39.4.570 pmid:26361593 61. ↵ Frank LR . Anisotropy in high angular resolution diffusion-weighted MRI. Magn Reson Med 2001; 45: 935– 39 doi:10.1002/mrm.1125 pmid:11378869 62. ↵ Tuch DS, Reese TG, Wiegell MR, et al . High angular resolution diffusion imaging reveals intravoxel white matter fiber heterogeneity. Magn Reson Med 2002; 48: 577– 82 doi:10.1002/mrm.10268 pmid:12353272 63. ↵ Wedeen VJ, Wang RP, Schmahmann JD, et al . Spectrum magnetic resonance imaging (DSI) tractography of crossing fibers. Neuroimage 2008; 41: 1267– 77 doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.03.036 pmid:18495497 CrossRef PubMed Google Scholar 64. ↵ Van AT, Granziera C, Bammer R . An introduction to model-independent diffusion magnetic resonance imaging. Top Magn Reson Imaging 2010; 21: 339– 54 doi:10.1097/RMR.0b013e31823e6303 pmid:22158128 65. ↵ Jones DK, Knosche TR, Turner R . White matter integrity, fiber count, and other fallacies: The do’s and don’ts of diffusion MRI. Neuroimage 2013; 73: 239– 54 doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.06.081 pmid:22846632 CrossRef PubMed Google Scholar 66. ↵ Lakhani DA, Schilling KG, Xu J, et al . Advanced multicompartment diffusion MRI models and their application in multiple sclerosis. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2020; 41: 751– 57 doi:10.3174/ajnr.A6484 pmid:32354707 67. ↵ Jensen JH, Helpern JA, Ramani A, et al . Diffusional kurtosis imaging: the quantification of non-Gaussian water diffusion by means of magnetic resonance imaging. Magn Reson Med 2005; 53: 1432– 40 doi:10.1002/mrm.20508 pmid:15906300 CrossRef PubMed Google Scholar 68. ↵ Lu H, Jensen JH, Ramani A, et al . Three-dimensional characterization of non-Gaussian water diffusion in humans using diffusion kurtosis imaging. NMR Biomed 2006; 19: 236– 47 doi:10.1002/nbm.1020 pmid:16521095 69. ↵ Cheung JS, Wang E, Lo EH, et al . Stratification of heterogeneous diffusion MRI ischemic lesion with kurtosis imaging: evaluation of mean diffusion and kurtosis MRI mismatch in an animal model of transient focal ischemia. Stroke 2012; 43: 2252– 54 doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.112.661926 pmid:22773558 70. ↵ Hui ES, Du F, Huang S, et al . Spatiotemporal dynamics of diffusional kurtosis, mean diffusivity and perfusion changes in experimental stroke. Brain Res 2012; 1451: 100– 09 doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2012.02.044 pmid:22444274 71. ↵ Sun PZ, Wang Y, Mandeville E, et al . Validation of fast diffusion kurtosis MRI for imaging acute ischemia in a rodent model of stroke. NMR Biomed 2014; 27: 1413– 18 doi:10.1002/nbm.3188 pmid:25208309 72. ↵ Umesh Rudrapatna S, Wieloch T, Beirup K, et al . Can diffusion kurtosis imaging improve the sensitivity and specificity of detecting microstructural alterations in brain tissue chronically after experimental stroke? Comparisons with diffusion tensor imaging and histology. Neuroimage 2014; 97: 363– 73 doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2014.04.013 pmid:24742916 CrossRef PubMed Google Scholar 73. ↵ Weber RA, Hui ES, Jensen JH, et al . Diffusional kurtosis and diffusion tensor imaging reveal different time-sensitive stroke-induced microstructural changes. Stroke 2015; 46: 545– 50 doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.114.006782 pmid:25563646 74. ↵ Wu Y, Kim J, Chan ST, et al . Comparison of image sensitivity between conventional tensor-based and fast diffusion kurtosis imaging protocols in a rodent model of acute ischemic stroke. NMR Biomed 2016; 29: 625– 30 doi:10.1002/nbm.3506 pmid:26918411 CrossRef PubMed Google Scholar 75. ↵ Zhang S, Yao Y, Shi J, et al . The temporal evolution of diffusional kurtosis imaging in an experimental middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) model. Magn Reson Imaging 2016; 34: 889– 95 doi:10.1016/j.mri.2016.04.016 pmid:27125873 CrossRef PubMed Google Scholar 76. ↵ Wang E, Wu Y, Cheung JS, et al . pH imaging reveals worsened tissue acidification in diffusion kurtosis lesion than the kurtosis/diffusion lesion mismatch in an animal model of acute stroke. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2017; 37: 3325– 33 doi:10.1177/0271678X17721431 pmid:28752790 CrossRef PubMed Google Scholar 77. ↵ Lu D, Jiang Y, Ji Y, et al . JOURNAL CLUB: evaluation of diffusion kurtosis imaging of stroke lesion with hemodynamic and metabolic MRI in a rodent model of acute stroke. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2018; 210: 720– 27 doi:10.2214/AJR.17.19134 pmid:29470156 CrossRef PubMed Google Scholar

https://www.ajnr.org/content/43/5/661.full

DR. VIRAL RAS SHETH MD, NPI 1750362307 - Internal Medicine in Goshen, NY Viral Sheth an internist in 70 Hatfield Ln Goshen, Ny 10924. Taxonomy code 207RC0000X with license number 142327 (NY) and 35 years of experience. He graduated from Albany Medical College Of Union University in 1989. Provider is enrolled in PECOS Medicare. Accepted Insurance: Medicaid and Medicare DR. VIRAL RAS SHETH MD NPI 1750362307 Internal Medicine - Cardiovascular Disease in Goshen, NY Table of Contents NPI Profile Information Primary Taxonomy Accepted Insurance PECOS Enrollment and Medicare Participation Status Physician Office Visit Costs Clinician Utilization Hospital Affiliations Secondary Taxonomies NPI Validation Other Providers Same Location About DR. VIRAL RAS SHETH MD Viral Shethis an internist established inGoshen, New Yorkand his medical specialization isInternal Medicinewith a focus in cardiovascular disease with more than 35 years of experience. He graduated from Albany Medical College Of Union University in 1989. The NPI number of this provider is1750362307and was assigned on November 2005. The practitioner's primary taxonomy code is207RC0000Xwith license number 142327 (NY). The provider is registered as an individual and his NPI record was last updated 8 years ago. NPI 1750362307 Provider Name DR. VIRAL RAS SHETH MD Location Address 70 HATFIELD LN GOSHEN, NY 10924 Location Phone (845) 294-7700 Mailing Address 155 CRYSTAL RUN RD MIDDLETOWN, NY 10941 Gender Male NPI Entity Type Individual Medical School Name ALBANY MEDICAL COLLEGE OF UNION UNIVERSITY Graduation Year 1989 Is Sole Proprietor? No Enumeration Date 11-10-2005 Last Update Date 11-27-2015 An internist like Viral Sheth is a physician who has completed an internal medicine residency and is board-certified or board-eligible in an internist specialty. Internists are trained to care for adults of all ages for many different medical conditions. An internist typically monitors chronic physical conditions, identifies acute diseases, provides family planning, provides counseling about wellness and disease prevention, etc.Viral Sheth isenrolled in PECOSand is eligible to order or refer health care services for Medicare patients. The provider is eligible to order or refer: Part B Clinical Laboratory and Imaging, Durable Medical Equipment (DME), a Home Health Agency (HHA) and Power Mobility Devices. Viral Sheth isregistered with Medicareandaccepts claims assignment, this means the provider accepts Medicare's approved amount for the cost of rendered services as full payment. Participating providers may not charge Medicare beneficiaries more than Medicare's approved amount for their services. Medicare beneficiaries still have to pay a coinsurance or copayment amount for a visit or service. According to Medicare claims data he has hospital affiliations with Sibley Memorial Hospital and Suburban Hospital. The typical physician office visit costs for Medicare beneficiaries in this area are: $37 for a new patient copayment and $28.47 for an established patient copayment. Primary Taxonomy The primary taxonomy code defines the provider type, classification, and specialization. There could be only one primary taxonomy code per NPI record. For individual NPIs the license data is associated to the taxonomy code. Taxonomy Code 207RC0000X Classification Internal Medicine Type Allopathic & Osteopathic Physicians Specialization Cardiovascular Disease License No. 142327 License State NY Taxonomy Description An internist who specializes in diseases of the heart and blood vessels and manages complex cardiac conditions such as heart attacks and life-threatening, abnormal heartbeat rhythms. Accepted Insurance The NPI profile data indicates this provider might be enrolled and accepting health plans from the following insurance companies or healthcare programs: Medicaid Medicare *Please verify directly with this provider to make sure your insurance plan is currently accepted. Business Address 70 HATFIELD LN GOSHEN, NY ZIP 10924 Phone: (845) 294-7700 Fax: (845) 294-5363 Mailing Address 155 CRYSTAL RUN RD MIDDLETOWN, NY ZIP 10941 Phone: (845) 703-6999 Fax: (845) 703-6297 Location Map PECOS Enrollment and Medicare Participation Status What is PECOS? PECOS is the Medicare Provider, Enrollment, Chain and Ownership System. PECOS is Medicare's enrollment and revalidation system and it is the primary source of information about verified Medicare professionals. A NPI number is necessary to register in PECOS. Providers must enroll in PECOS to avoid denied claims. Registered in PECOS? Yes PECOS PAC ID 5092839001 PECOS Enrollment ID I20200716000359 Accepts Medicare Assignment? Yes "What does it mean "accepts medicare assignment"? When a provider accepts Medicare assignment, the provider agrees to be paid directly by Medicare and to accept the payment amount approved by Medicare. Additionally, the provider agrees to not bill patients for more than the Medicare deductible and coinsurance amounts. A provider who doesn't accept assignment may charge you up to 15% over the Medicare-approved amount. This is known as the limiting charge. You may have to pay this amount, or it may be covered by another insurer. Eligible order / refer Part B Clinical Laboratory and Imaging Yes Eligible order / refer Durable Medical Equipment Yes Eligible order / refer Home Health Agency (HHA) Yes Eligible order / refer Power Mobility Devices Yes Physician Office Visit Costs The provider accepts as payment the Medicare approved amount. Medicare beneficiaries should not be billed for more than the Medicare deductible and coinsurance amounts. Medicare pricing is usually a reference point for private insurance covered patients. The prices below reflect the costs for new and established patients in the 10924 ZIP code area. <table><tr><th colspan=3> New Patients Office Visits Costs *</th></tr><tbody><tr><td colspan=3> Most Utilized Procedure Code for new patients office visits: 99204</td></tr><tr><td> Minimum New Patient Pricing</td><td> Maximum New Patient Pricing</td><td> Typical New Patient Pricing</td></tr><tr><td> $64.72</td><td> $195.4</td><td> $148.03</td></tr><tr><td> Minimum New Patient Copayment</td><td> Maximum New Patient Copayment</td><td> Typical New Patient Copayment</td></tr><tr><td> $16.18</td><td> $48.85</td><td> $37</td></tr></tbody></table> <table><tr><th colspan=3> Established Patients Office Visits Costs *</th></tr><tbody><tr><td colspan=3> Most Utilized Procedure Code for established patients office visits: 99214</td></tr><tr><td> Minimum Established Patient Pricing</td><td> Maximum Established Patient Pricing</td><td> Typical Established Patient Pricing</td></tr><tr><td> $20.12</td><td> $159.01</td><td> $113.91</td></tr><tr><td> Minimum Established Patient Copayment</td><td> Maximum Established Patient Copayment</td><td> Typical Established Patient Copayment</td></tr><tr><td> $5.03</td><td> $39.75</td><td> $28.47</td></tr></tbody></table> * The physician office visit costs information is obtained by Medicare's statistical analysis of similar providers in the same geographical area. The pricing information above IS NOT the amount charged by this provider. Clinician Utilization The following Healthcare Common Procedure Coding System (HCPCS) codes were publicly reported as the top services rendered by this provider under the Medicare program for the year 2017. The reported codes are based on the top 5 codes for each available Medicare specialty, excluding evaluation and management codes. 375Routine ekg using at least 12 leads including interpretation and report (HCPCS:93000) 299Insertion of needle into vein for collection of blood sample (HCPCS:36415) 262Blood test, comprehensive group of blood chemicals (HCPCS:80053) 262Complete blood cell count (red cells, white blood cell, platelets), automated test (HCPCS:85025) 243Ultrasound examination of heart including color-depicted blood flow rate, direction, and valve function (HCPCS:93306) 82Nuclear medicine study of vessels of heart using drugs or exercise multiple studies (HCPCS:78452) 52Hemoglobin a1c level (HCPCS:83036) 27Ultrasound scanning of blood flow (outside the brain) on both sides of head and neck (HCPCS:93880) Hospital Affiliations Medicare hospital affiliation is identified through self-reporting data, inpatient, outpatient, physician and ancillary service claims linked by the Medicare claims NPI number and place of service code. Additionally, to further determine provider hospital affiliation the clinician must have provided services to at least three patients on three different dates in the last 12 months. Viral Sheth is affiliated with the following medical facilities: <table><tr><th> Hospital Name</th><th> Address</th><th> Phone</th><th> Hospital Type</th><th> CMS Certification Number (CCN)</th><th> Overall Rating</th></tr><tbody><tr><td> SIBLEY MEMORIAL HOSPITAL</td><td> 5255 LOUGHBORO RD NW WASHINGTON, DC 20016</td><td> (202) 537-4680</td><td> Acute Care Hospitals</td><td> 90005</td><td></td></tr><tr><td> SUBURBAN HOSPITAL</td><td> 8600 OLD GEORGETOWN ROAD BETHESDA, MD 20814</td><td> (301) 896-2576</td><td> Acute Care Hospitals</td><td> 210022</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table> Secondary Taxonomies The secondary taxonomy codes define the provider type, classification, and specialization. For individual NPIs the license data is associated to each taxonomy code. <table><tr><th> No.</th><th> Taxonomy Code</th><th> Type</th><th> Classification</th><th> Specialization</th><th> License No.</th><th> State</th><th> Primary</th></tr><tbody><tr><td rowspan=2> 1</td><td> 207UN0901X</td><td> Allopathic & Osteopathic Physicians</td><td> Nuclear Medicine</td><td> Nuclear Cardiology</td><td> 142327</td><td> NY</td><td> No</td></tr><tr><td colspan=7>Taxonomy Description: a nuclear medicine physician who specializes in nuclear cardiology.</td></tr></tbody></table> Additional Identifiers Additional identifier(s) currently or formerly used as an identifier for the provider. The codes may include UPIN, NSC, OSCAR, DEA, Medicaid State or PIN identification numbers. <table><tr><th> Identifier</th><th> Type / Code</th><th> Identifier State</th></tr><tbody><tr><td> 01669103</td><td> MEDICAID (05)</td><td> NY</td></tr><tr><td> G11486</td><td> MEDICARE UPIN (02)</td><td> NY</td></tr><tr><td> A400116236</td><td> MEDICARE PIN (08)</td><td> NY</td></tr></tbody></table> NPI Validation Check Digit Calculation The following table explains the step by step NPI number validation process using the ISO standard Luhn algorithm. Start with the original NPI number, the last digit is the check digit and is not used in the calculation. 1 7 5 0 3 6 2 3 0 7 Step 1: Double the value of the alternate digits, beginning with the rightmost digit. 2 7 10 0 6 6 4 3 0 Step 2: Add all the doubled and unaffected individual digits from step 1 plus the constant number 24. 2 + 7 + 1 + 0 + 0 + 6 + 6 + 4 + 3 + 0 + 24= 53 Step 3: Subtract the total obtained in step 2 from the next higher number ending in zero, the result is the check digit. 60 - 53 = 7 7 The NPI number 1750362307 is valid because the calculatedcheck digit 7using the Luhn validation algorithm matches the last digit of the original NPI number. Frequently Asked Questions What is Dr. Viral Sheth MD NPI number? The NPI number assigned to this healthcare provider is 1750362307, registered as an "individual" on November 10, 2005 Where is Dr. Viral Sheth MD located? The provider is located at 70 Hatfield Ln Goshen, Ny 10924 and the phone number is (845) 294-7700 Which is Dr. Viral Sheth MD specialty? The provider's speciality is Internal Medicine with a focus in Cardiovascular Disease How many years of experience does Dr. Viral Sheth MD have? The provider has more than 35 years of experience. He graduated from Albany Medical College Of Union University in 1989. What insurance does Dr. Viral Sheth MD accept? The provider might be accepting Medicaid and Medicare. Please consult your insurance carrier or call the provider to make sure your health plan is currently accepted. Is Dr. Viral Sheth MD registered in PECOS? Yes, as of June 08, 2023 the provider is registered in PECOS and is eligible to order health care services or supplies for Medicare patients. If you are a Medicare beneficiary the provider is eligible to order or refer: Part B Clinical Laboratory and Imaging, Durable Medical Equipment (DME), a Home Health Agency (HHA) and Power Mobility Devices. How much is a visit to Dr. Viral Sheth MD? Medicare beneficiaries should expect a typical cost of $148.03 with an average copayment of $37 for new patient appointments. Established patients should expect a typical charge of $113.91 and an average copayment of 28.47. Please review your insurance plan or contact the provider directly to determine your specific costs. What are some of the services provided by Dr. Viral Sheth MD? The most common procedures or services performed by this practitioner are: Routine ekg using at least 12 leads including interpretation and report, Insertion of needle into vein for collection of blood sample, Blood test, comprehensive group of blood chemicals, Complete blood cell count (red cells, white blood cell, platelets), automated test, Ultrasound examination of heart including color-depicted blood flow rate, direction, and valve function, Nuclear medicine study of vessels of heart using drugs or exercise multiple studies, Hemoglobin a1c level and Ultrasound scanning of blood flow (outside the brain) on both sides of head and neck. Is Dr. Viral Sheth MD affiliated to any hospitals? How do I update my NPI information?

https://npiprofile.com/npi/1750362307

Family Structure and Parental Investments: Economic Resources, Commitment, and Inequalities in Financial Investments in Children - DocsLib Family Structure and Parental Investments: Economic Resources, Commitment, and Inequalities in Financial Investments in Children Orestes P. Hastings FamilyStructure and Parental Investments: Economic Resources, Commitment, and Inequalities in Financial Investments in Children Orestes P. Hastings Colorado State University Department of Sociology∗ Abstract Family structure in the United States is undergoing important change and continued stratification with increases in singleparentingand cohabiting unions. These transfor- mations in family demography have important implications for social mobility as theory and empirical research suggest family structure plays an important causal role in shap- ing children’s life chances, in part through the differential financial investments thatparentsmake for their children’s development. Drawing from the 2003-2017 Consumer Expenditure Surveys, we examine differences by family structure in parental financial investments in children’s childcare, schooling, and enrichment activities. We compare differences between married, cohabiting, and single parents and we test two candidate pathways that might account for associations between family structure and financial investment in children: disparities in economic resources and differences in long-term commitment. Single and cohabiting parents make fewer parental investments than mar- ried parents. Income explains the entire difference for singles but less than half the gap for cohabiters, suggesting differences in commitment/preferences. Our work illustrates the heterogeneity in the extent and causes of familial inequalities in parental invest- ments in children, which in turn has important implications for America’s opportunity structure and future increasing inequality in the preparation of America’s future labor force. ∗We are grateful to Bradley Hardy, Ronald Mincy, James Ziliak and participants at the US 2050 author’s conference for helpful comments on earlier drafts of the manuscript. This working paper was made possible by the US 2050 project, supported by the Peter G. Peterson Foundation and the Ford Foundation. The statements made and views expressed are solely the responsibility of the authors. Email:[email protected] Children’s life chances are stratified by the marital status of their parents. Compared with children who grow up in cohabiting or single-parentfamilies, those who grow up with stable married parents appear to fare better in terms of health and behavior in childhood (McLana- han and Lee, 2015), achievement in adolescence and young adulthood (McLanahan, Tach, and Schneider, 2013), and attainment by early mid-life (Bloome, 2017). While selection remains an important concern, there is now a significant body of research that finds causal inter-generational effects of family structure (McLanahan, Tach, and Schneider, 2013). However, Americans are now marrying later and less and nearly 40% of births are non- marital (Cancian and Haskins, 2014). Family structure is also increasingly stratified in the United States (McLanahan, 2004). More educated men and women are now signifi- cantly more likely to marry than their less educated counter-parts (Schneider, Harknett, and Stimpson, 2018). Similarly, non-marital births are also increasingly stratified by mater- nal education and race/ethnicity (Wu, 2017; Gibson-Davis and Rackin, 2015). Combined, between 1980 and 2010, the share of children living with single or cohabiting parents has increased significantly for those with less educated mothers, but has remained remarkably stable and at relatively low levels for those whose mothers have a college degree (Sykes and Williams, 2013). Theory and empirical research inchild developmentsuggests a number of causal path- ways by which family structure operates on child outcomes including through effects on parenting time and quality as well as through effects on parental financial investments in en- richment and schooling (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Conger and Donnellan, 2007). Empirical and theoretical work also explores what factors might account for variation by family-structure in these causal pathways. One likely explanation is economic (Sigle-Rushton and McLana- han, 2004). Single parents and, to a somewhat lesser extent, cohabiting couples have many fewer economic resources than married couple families and may experience more economic instability as well (Ribar, 2015). This economic differential may in turn shape parenting 1 quality and time by increasing stress and strain and may also shape the ability of parents to make financial investments in formal childcare, schooling, and enrichment activities. Another explanation posits thatmarriageitself fosters greater investment in children through such mechanisms as parenting time and financial investments in children by providing for a com- mitment that fosters long-term planning (Lundberg and Pollak, 2015; Howard and Reeves, 2014) – what Richard Reeves (2014) has called “high investment parenting”marriages. While a relatively large empirical literature examines differences in time spent with chil- dren by family structure (Sandberg and Hofferth, 2001; Bianchi et al., 2006; Kalil et al., 2013; Altintas, 2016; Pepin et al., 2018), there is little prior research that describes differ- ences in parental financial investment in children by family structure and even less that shows how such disparities may be mediated by differences in economic resources or in parental preferences. Using data from the Consumer Expenditures Survey (CEX) from 2003-2017, we first ex- amine differences by family structure in parental financial investments in children’s childcare, schooling, and enrichment activities, contrasting single parents, cohabiters, and married par- ents. We next investigate the roles of economic disparities and of commitment differences in accounting for these family-structure divides. First, we introduce family income in our mod- els as a mediator in order to test the economic pathway. Second, if marriage matters for its commitment value, then we might expect higher financial investments in children for married versus cohabiting couples, conditional on income. We also examine associations between the share of expenditures and of income spent on financial investments in children and family structure and interactions between family structure and income group on financial invest- ments in children. We further examine differences for families whose family structure remain unchanged for an entire year, in subsamples by race/ethnicity, and when disaggregating the type of parental financial investment. Parental financial investments in children are stratified by family structure. After con- trolling for a number of other sociodemographic confounders, we find that married parents 2 spend $80 more per child per quarter than cohabiters and $69 more than single parents. Family economic resourcesplayan important explanatory role. Household income mediates more than 100% of the association with single parenthood – that is, controlling for income, single parents spend more on parental financial investments than married households. But household income explains only about 40% of the association with cohabitation, which may trace to differences in long-term planning and commitment between married and cohabiting parents. In all, our work illustrates the heterogenous relationship between non-marital family structure and parental financial investments as well as the heterogenous causes of these inequalities. Furthermore, this work has important forward-looking implications. In the coming decades, these children will become America’s prime workforce. If certain families are increasingly able to transmit their advantages to children while others are less likely to do so, that bodes poorly for an open opportunity structure and suggests increasing inequality in the preparation of America’s future labor force. Parental Investment in Children Parents influence the development and attainment of their children through multiple path- ways including the extent, content, and quality of the time they spend with their children and through the financial investments they make in children (Sigle-Rushton and McLanahan, 2004; Amato, 2005; Brown, 2010; Waldfogel et al., 2010; Kaushal et al., 2011). Such financial outlays include investments in young children’s childcare, in older chil- dren’s schooling, and in children’s activities and lessons. These investments shape the quality of out-of home care and schooling, access to the “shadow educational system,” and home environment in terms of the quantity and quality of books and educational toys and games. A large body of research documents how parenting practices have important effects on child well-being and later life attainment. This literature finds that more involved parent- ing, including providing educational materials, enrolling students in activities, and spending 3 time with children, is positively related to children’s test scores andcognitive development(Bodovski and Farkas 2008; Carneiro and Rodriguez 2009; Del Boca, Monfardini, and Nico- letti 2012; Greeman, Bodovski, and Reed 2011). This is also consistent with work showing that class gaps in achievement widen most during the summer months when children are out of school (Alexander, Entwisle, and Olson 2007; Downey et al. 2004). While the focus of research on inequalities in parental investment has been on class, family structure is an important axis of inequality and children who grow up outside of married couple households and with familial instability appear to fare worse in terms of early life achievement, attainment, and social mobility. Parental time and economic resources are two fundamental inputs into child development (Kaushal et al., 2011). Inequalities in parental financial investments by family structure could contribute to these disparate outcomes. Family Structure and Financial Investment in Children: Conceptual Model Scholars have distilled two key underlying causal factors that could explain why family struc- ture shapes parental practices, such as financial investment, that ultimately affect achieve- ment and attainment (Brown, 2010). First, stark differences in economic resources by family structure could account for differences in financial investment in children by family struc- ture. Second, net of economic differences, marriage could increase investment in children by providing for a commitment that fosters long-term planning. We describe the theoretical rationale and empirical basis for these two proposed mechanisms below. Family Structure, Economic Resources, and Parental Financial Investment Compared with married couple households, single-parent households have much lower levels of income and higher rates of poverty (Garfinkel and McLanahan, 1986; McLanahan and Sandefur, 1994; Carlson and Danziger, 1999; Thomas and Sawhill, 2002). There is also a gap in the economic standing of cohabiting versus married couple households (Brown et al., 4 2016), however accounting for cohabiting partner resources narrows this gap and it is smaller than the gap between single and married parent households (Manning and Brown, 2006; Kali and Ryan, 2010). Still, these differences remain stark. In 2011, 37% of children in single, unmarried families fell below the supplemental poverty line compared to 26% of those in cohabiting households and 11% of those in married couple households (Wimer et al., 2016). These stark economic inequalities are likely at once the product of selection into marriage, household composition, negative consequences of dissolution, and perhaps, marriage itself. In terms of selection, both men and women with higher earnings (Sweeney, 2002; McClendon et al., 2014), full time employment (Oppenheimer et al., 1997; Shafer and James, 2013), less precarious jobs (Schneider, Harknett, and Stimpson, 2018), less debt (Addo, 2014), and more assets (Schneider, 2011) are more likely to marry than their less well-off peers, in keeping with a cultural orientation towards marriage that sees the institution as a capstone (Cherlin, 2005) or a luxury (Furstenberg, 2003) reserved for the economically successful. Notably, while these economic resources are strong predictors of marriage, they do not generally predict cohabitation (Carlson et al., 2004; Manning et al., 2014) into which there is much less selection on economic characteristics. Second, the simple fact of co-residence, in cohabitation or marriage, may also improve households’ economic standing by allowing two earners to realize economies of scale that are not available to single parents (Becker, 1981; Manning and Brown, 2006). Third, women appear to suffer economically as a result of divorce (Holden and Smock, 1991; Smock et al., 1999; Ananat and Michaels, 2008) and as the result of dissolution of a cohabiting union (Avellar and Smock, 2005; Tach and Eads, 2015). Finally, marriage itself may have a causal effect on family economic resources, beyond that realized through economies of scale. Research that uses child gender as an instrument for marriage reports to identify a causal effect of marriage on household economic resources (Depew and Price, 2018). However, while the principal mechanism offered for such effects is a male marital wage premium (Waite and Gallagher, 2000), recent research casts considerable doubt that such premia are actually causal (Ludwig and Bruderl, 2018). 5 Economic resources are then stratified by family structure and such resources also pow- erfully shape parental financial investments in children (Kaushal et al. 2011; Kornrich and Furstenberg 2013). For example, in 2014, parents in the top decile of earners spent nearly $2,400 per year on financial investments in children as compared to just under $800 per year for those in the bottom 75 percent of earners (Schneider, Hastings, and LaBriola 2018). Children from higher-income families are also much more likely to have access to private tutors than are lower-income children (Buchmann, Condron, and Roscigno 2010), one man- ifestation of the strong link between income and access to the “shadow educational system” (Bray 1999; Park et al. 2016). Given the strong links between family structure and economic resources and the posi- tive association between economic resources and financial investment in children, we would expect then that economic differences by family structure would play an important role in explaining differences by family structure in parental financial investments in children. In- deed, compared to parenting time, for instance, financial investments may be especially likely to be driven by economic factors. Moreover, given that the economic inequalities between single and married couple households are larger than those between cohabiting and married couple households, we would expect that accounting for economic resources would explain more of the difference between single and married households. Family Structure, Commitment/Preferences, and Parental Financial Investment Scholars also suggest that married parents may differ from cohabiters in terms of their degree of commitment to the relationship and to the “project” of joint concerted investment in children (Lundberg, Pollak, and Stearns, 2016). This argument is in some ways subtle. It first proposes that college-educated men and women have a preference for making substantial and sustained investments of time and money in children, or whatAnnette Lareauhas termed “concerted cultivation” (Lareau, 2003). There is strong evidence for this contention. More educated parents spend more time in developmental activities (Kalil et al., 2012) and, even 6 controlling for income, more highly educated parents spend more money and a greater share of income on financial investments in children (Schneider, Hastings, and LaBriola, 2018). This argument then proposes that these college-educated men and women use marriage as a commitment device to realize their preferences for making long-term and resource- intensive investments in children. Lundberg and Pollak (2015) articulate this perspective concisely, arguing that “marriage is the commitment mechanism for the joint project of childrearing, and this implies that marriage is more valuable for parents whose resources and expectations lead them to invest intensely in their children’shumancapital” (p. 45). An interesting feature of this argument is that it posits that marriage plays a causal role, but that the effect of marriage is likely highly heterogenous and may be confined to those who select into marriage. One implication is that reducing marriage among the affluent might reduce child wellbeing, but that increasing marriage among the disadvantaged might have no effects, at least through this pathway. In this view, cohabitation functions very differently. In line with the idea that cohab- itation remains an “incomplete institution” (Nock, 1995), that marriage may itself set ex- pectations for parents regarding their responsibilities towards children (Hofferth, 2006), and in recognition of the reality that cohabitations remain relatively short duration and much more likely to dissolve than marriages (Kennedy and Ruggles, 2013), cohabiting parents are not as committed to a long-term relationship in the same way that married parents are and so behave very differently with respect to parental investment. While parents certainly make long-term relational and emotional commitments to their children irrespective of co- residential status (Edin and Nelson, 2013), empirical research clearly shows a stark divide in financial investments by co-residential status (Carlson and Berger, 2013). While single parents have the lowest levels of economic resources, the commitment path- way may not operate in parallel. Instead, single parents, especially stably single parents, may be more readily able to make long term commitments to investment in children than cohabitors, in part because they may avoid some of the hazards of conflictual bargaining 7 (Lundberg, Pollack, and Wales, 1997). The idea that stable single parenthood may be less detrimental to child wellbeing than cohabitation is confirmed in empirical research which shows smaller gaps in child wellbeing between those growing up with single parents versus married parents than between cohabiters versus married parents, after adjusting for eco- nomic resources (Wu and Martinson, 1993; Brown, 2004; though see Bzostek and Berger, 2017). A fairly clear implication of this argument is that compared with cohabitors, married parents can be expected to make larger financial investments in children and that this gap should persist after adjusting for differences in household income. Similarly, we would expect that at a given level of income, married couples would spend more on financial investments in children than cohabiters and would spend a larger share of their incomes on financial investment in children. Moderation by Race/Ethnicity On average, we expect that single and cohabiting families will make smaller financial invest- ments in children due to both resource constrains and differences in commitment. However, these effects may also vary depending on the race/ethnicity of the parent. In particular, differences in family economic resources are less pronounced between married and cohab- iting Hispanic or Black, non-Hispanic parents than they are between white, non-Hispanic parents (Manning and Brown, 2006) and the associations between family structure and child wellbeing appear most pronounced for white, non-Hispanic children (Lee and McLanahan, 2015; Fomby and Cherlin, 2007; Wu and Thomson, 2001; Fomby et al., 2010). As such, we might expect that differences in financial investment in children between married and cohabiting parents would be most pronounced for white, non-Hispanic parents versus Black, non-Hispanic or Hispanic parents. 8 Family Structure and Financial Investment in Children: Prior Empirical Research Despite financial investments in children being a key hypothesized pathway by which family structure affects child development and attainment, little existing empirical research de- scribes differences by family structure in parental financial investments in children. The clearest estimates of differences by family structure in financial investments in children are provided by Ziol-Guest et al. (2004) who find large and significant gaps between married, single never-married, and divorced parents in terms of expenditures on books, publications and toys, recreation, and education. However, while useful, these estimates are based on CEX data from 1980-1998 which both dates them and, due to the construction of the CEX in those years, does not permit a comparison with cohabiting couples. The Ziol-Guest et al. (2004) estimates are particularly valuable because they do not initially adjust for household economic resources, which, as discussed above, are endogenous to family structure. Indeed, prior research clearly shows that gaps in economic resources by family structure play an important role in accounting for differences by family structure in child outcomes (McLanahan and Sandefur, 1994; Amato, 2005; Hofferth, 2006; Brown, 2010; Waldfogel et al., 2010). For instance, usingsiblingfixed effects models and data from NLSY and PSID, Ginther and Pollack (2004) show that strong associations between exposure to single parenthood and educational achievement and attainment are significantly attenuated by adjusting for family income. Carlson and Corcoran (2001) similarly show that differences by family structure in children’s behavioral problems and reading and math scores are largely mediated by differences in family income. These approaches treat income as endogenous to family structure and assess the extent to which resources mediate the association. However, Ziol-Guest et al. (2004) aside, all of the other estimates of the association between family structure and parental financial investment that we are aware of control for this endogenous pathway from the outset (Bianchi et al., 2004; Kaushal et al., 2011; and Kornrich and Furstenberg, 2013). However, each of these papers adjusts for family 9 income in different ways and uses different subsets of the CEX data. For instance, Bianchi et al (2004) use CEX data from two years (1988 and 1998) and find that single mother families spent more on financial investments in children than married couples, controlling for both financial assets and the consumer unit’s rank in the total expenditures distribution. Kaushal et al. (2011) also use CEX data, from 1997-2006, and report that spending on children’s enrichment as a share of total expenditures is not strongly patterned by family structure, though they do not report the direction of any difference. In contrast, Kornrich and Furstenberg (2013) use eight years of CEX data drawn from the period 1972-2007 and find that while single-mothers spent more than two-parent families on investment in children in the early 1970s, the relationship then reversed and single mothers spent significantly less from the 1980s through mid-2000s, adjusting for household income. Finally, Ziol-Guest et al. (2004) find that adjusting for household income attenuates differences between married vs. single or divorced in spending on books and recreation, but that significant differences remain in spending on publications and toys and spending on education. A second limitation of prior work is that none of these existing estimates compare co- habiting couples against single parents and married couples. Instead, this prior research compares all two-parent families, whether married or cohabiting, againstsingle parentfam- ilies. This approach, which is likely in part due to the data limitations in early years of the CEX, both likely suppresses family structure differences and misses the theoretical leverage that comes from comparing married and cohabiting couples. Data We examine the relationship between family structure and parental investments in children by analyzing data from the Consumer Expenditure Survey (CEX) from 2003-2017. The CEX provides detailed information on the expenditures, income, and demographics of a large na- tionally representative sample of households in the U.S. We use data from the Interview survey, which is designed to obtain data on larger and reoccurring expenditures that respon- 10 dents can recall for several months. Each household is interviewed once per quarter for four consecutive quarters.1 A household head is one of the members of the household who “owns or rents” the home. This person becomes the reference person, and the CEX collects a complete list of household members and each member’s relationship to the reference person. We start with 2003 because this was the year the CEX first permitted “unmarried partner” as one of the relations to the reference person. We end with 2017 because it is the most recent year that microdata from the CEX are available. All expenditures and income data are adjusted to 2017 real dollars using the CPI-U-RS series. We limit our sample to households with resident children of the reference person (both biological or step), where at least one parent is over the age of 24 (to allow for normative age completion of schooling) and neither parent over the age of 65 (to exclude those who are retired). A small number of same-sexhouseholds appear in the data (0.4%) and we include them in our analysis, but the results are the same without them. We organize the data into a household-quarter structure, since each household could be present between 1 and 4 times. This permits us to analyze expenditures for children from 37,604 households in 107,793 household-quarters. In additional analyses, we limit our results to only stable households who appear in all four quarters and whose families maintain the same structure (married, cohabiting, or single) throughout. For these analyses we examine 16,419 households in 65,676 household-quarters. 1While we refer to the unit of analysis as a household, technically it is a “Consumer Unit” which is defined as “(1) All members of a particular household who are related by blood, marriage,adoption, or other legal arrangements. (2) A person living alone or sharing a household with others or living as a roomer in a private home or lodging house or in permanent living quarters in a hotel or motel, but who is financially independent; or (3) Two or more persons living together who use their incomes to make joint expenditure decisions. Financial independence is determined by spending behavior with regard to the three major expense categories: housing, food, and other living expenses. To be considered financially independent, the respondent must provide at least two of the three major expenditure categories, either entirely or in part.” Source: https://www.bls.gov/cex/csxfaqs.htm 11 Outcome: Parental investments in Children Consistent with previous work, we define parental investments as the total sum of expendi- tures on childcare (e.g., costs for babysitting,nannies, day care centers, and nursery schools), schooling (e.g., student room and board; school meals; books, supplies, and equipment for school; tuition; and any other Pre-K through 12th grade school-related expenses), and en- richment activities (e.g, fees for recreational lessons, instruction, and other extra-curriculars), and we divide this by the number children in the household between the ages of 0 and 18 to generate a per child expenditure measure as our outcome variable of interest (Schneider, Hastings, and LaBriola, 2018; Kornrich and Furstenberg, 2013; Kornrich, 2016).2 To avoid unduly influential outliers, for each expenditure category we drop the top 1% of expendi- tures (among those with any expenditures in that category). In additional analyses we also examine each expenditure type separately. Given that the distribution of parental expendi- tures is skewed right, we also analyzed the natural log of parental expenditures and found substantively identical results, which are presented in the Appendix. Key predictors Family Structure: Our key independent variable is the household’s family structure. We code households as “married” if there is spouse (husband/wife) of the reference person living in the home.3 We code households as “cohabiting” if there is an unmarried partner of the reference person in the home. And we code households as “single” if there is neither a spouse nor an unmarried partner in the home. Research using a similar survey instrument finds that a small percentage of households may incorrectly report an unmarried partner as an “unre- lated person” living in the home (Kennedy and Fitch, 2012). In that case, those households would be incorrectly coded as single instead of cohabiting. However, analyses that exclude 12 all households with an unrelated person in the home yields substantively identical results.4 Income: Our second key independent variable is total household income after taxes and transfers. This measures includes all sources of income and welfare/public assistance and excludes taxes. Before 2013 this measure relied on the respondent’s self-report of the amount of taxes paid. For 2013–2017, federal and state taxes are estimated using NBER’s TAXSIM model (Paulin and Hawk, 2015). The results using before-tax income are substantively identical. The CEX provides imputed income data to account for non-response, which we utilize.5 In our main analysis, we use household income (measured in thousands of dollars). For robustness, we also considered logged dollars and income quintiles, and the results were substantively similar. There is some concern that cohabiting families may be more likely to have income re- porting errors than other types of families. For example, because of the structure of the tax code, cohabiting mothers file their taxes individually, which overlooks partner’s financial contributions to the household but can increase tax transfers such as the EITC (Acs and Magg, 2005; Carasso and Steurle, 2005; Garfinkel and Zilanawa, 2015). However, the CEX first has the respondent create a household roster (which includes unmarried partners), and then asks about the earnings of each member of the household individually.6 Race/Ethnicity: In our main models, we control for race/ethnicity with categories for white, Non-Hispanic; Black, non-Hispanic; Other race, non-Hispanic; and Hispanic respon- 4We also separated never-married vs divorced cohabiting and single parents and found similar results for both groups. 5For complete details on the imputation, see “User’s Guide to Income Imputation in the CE” (https: //www.bls.gov/cex/csxguide.pdf). This imputation procedure began with the 2004 data, so for 2003 we use only non-imputed data. Dropping 2003 from our analysis does not substantively change the results. 6The results of our analysis suggest cohabiting households spend less—after adjusting for income—on children than both married and single-parent households. If cohabiting families systematically underreport their income, then this would suggest cohabiting households spend even less relative to their income, thus further increasing this aspect of the family structure gap in parental investments. 13 dents. We also test for heterogeneity in the association between family structure and parental investment in children by respondents’s (the parent’s) race/ethnicity, comparing white, Non- Hispanic; Black, non-Hispanic; and Hispanic respondents. We tested multiple ways of cod- ing race/ethnicity, as mothers and fathers may have different races/ethnicities. First, we code race/ethnicity based on the father’s race/ethnicity, except for single-parent households where we use the race/ethnicity of the one parent present. This is the coding we present in the analysis. For robustness, second, we also coded race/ethnicity based on the mother’s race/ethnicity, except for single-parent households where we use the race/ethnicity of the one parent present. And, third, we created non-mutually exclusive racial categories where house- holds were coded for each race/ethnicity category if either parent was of that race/ethnicity (e.g., a household would be Hispanic if either parent was Hispanic; Black, non-Hispanic if either parent was Black, non-Hispanic, etc). Results using these two alternate codings are in the Appendix, but substantively the results were the same. Additional Controls: In addition to the variables described above, our analysis includes measures of a number of potential confounders. We measure parental education as less than high school, high school but no bachelor’s degree, and bachelors degree or higher. For married and cohabiting households, we used the highest education between the two partners, but using the lowest education between the two yielded substantively identical results. For robustness, we also tested models separately by education and report those in the Appendix. We also control for the age and age-squared of the oldest parent. Finally, in all our models we control for the number of children in the household (as our dependent variables is a per-child measure of expenditures). In a second step we control for the presence of grandparents in the household. If multi- generational co-residence is more common in single and cohabiting families as opposed to married couple families (Dunifon et al., 2014), then financial investments might be lower in these families not because of resource differences or commitment differences but rather 14 because co-resident grandparents provide goods (such as childcare or enrichment) that would otherwise be purchased (Cherlin, 2010). Descriptives of all variables in the analysis are presented in Table1. Analytical Strategy First, we show the bivariate relationships between parental expenditures and family struc- ture, both graphically over time and in the pooled 2003-2017 CEX. Then, we show the relationship when controlling for education, race/ethnicity, age, number of children, and in- cluding month and year fixed effects. Month fixed effects account for seasonal changes in parental investments (e.g., spending patterns in the summer may be very different than in the fall) and year fixed effects net out any overall changes in spending over time, allowing the focus to be on the gap between different family structures (excluding month and year fixed effects yields substantively identical results). Next, we also control for grandparental co-residence. This model produces our best estimate of the conditional relationship between family structure and parental investments. Formally, this model can be written as: P arentalInvestments = β0 + β1Cohabiting + β2Single + β3GrandparentsP resent (1) + β4HouseholdControls + µmonth + µyear +  where β1 and β2 represent the gap between each family structure type and “Married,” which is the reference category for family structure. The models employ the sampling weights provided by the CEX and adjust the standard errors for clustering by households (since households can appear up to 4 times in the data). We also conducted between-effects models (i.e., using the means for all observations of each household) and random-effects models and found substantively similar results, which are presented in the Appendix. Family fixed-effects models – based on changes to household structure between quarters during the year – are not appropriate for two reasons: first, parental investments may precede (or in some cases, follow) the child’s activity associated with that spending (e.g., payments for private school or 15 summer camp). Second, only households who underwent a change in family structure during the would contribute to the estimate, likely conflating the effects of household instability with family structure (below we describe an alternative model focusing only on stable households). To test whether economic resources are a key pathway in explaining the family-structure gap in parental investments, we next add post-tax and transfer income to our model. If economic resources are key to these differences by family structure, then the family struc- ture coefficients should be substantially attenuated once income is accounted for. After controlling for income, we interpret any remaining association between family structure, es- pecially a cohabiting union, and parental investments in children as indirect evidence for the commitment pathway. As a second test of the role of resources in explaining effect of family structure, we also present a model of the share of total expenditures directed towards financial investments in children. Using expenditures, rather than income, is thought to better capture permanent income and is likely better measured in the CEX (e.g., Kaushal et al., 2011). We also analyzed the share of income directed towards financial investments and found substantively similar results. We further narrow our analysis by focusing on the sub-sample of CEX households who do not experience a change in households composition over the four observed quarters. For this subset of households, we are better able to discern any forward-looking effects of commitment – expected to be lower in cohabiting households – from effects of recent instability. Finally, we disaggregate the key analyses and show results separately by race/ethnicity and expenditure type (we also note differences – or the lack thereof – in the results by education, which we are included in the Appendix). 16 Results Descriptive Results We begin by showing in Figure1 the over time trends in parental expenditures by family structure. We observe large gaps between married households and both single-parent and cohabiting households. The trends suggest a modest increase in this gap, but far less than the size of the gap itself. Despite cohabiting parents having potentially two earners, we observe little difference between those cohabiters and single parents in their parental investments. Table2 compares single, cohabiting, and married parents in terms of their parental expenditures, economic resources, grandparental presence, and demographic characteristics. We see the expected demographic and economic differences: on average, married parents have higher post-tax and transfer incomes ($99,900), are less likely to have grandparents living in the home (3.9%), are more likely to have a bachelors degree (49%), are more often white (67%), and are slightly older and have more children than do cohabiting and single parent families. Cohabiting parents have higher incomes ($65,600), are more likely to have completed high school, are more likely Hispanic (24%), and have slightly more children than single parents. Single parents have the lowest incomes ($44,600), are most likely to have grandparents living with them (6.5%), are most likely to be Black, non-Hispanic (30%), and have the fewest children on average. In the Appendix Table A1, we also show nearly identical descriptives just for stable families (their incomes are slightly higher). Given these substantial differences by family structure, we next turn to the regression models to analyze the effect of family structure on parental financial investment in children. Regression Results In Table3 we present the main regression results. Model 1 shows the gap in the pooled data, without controlling for potential confounders. On average, married households spend an average of $176 more per child in each quarter on parental investments than children in single parents households, and $181 more than cohabiting households. 17 Model 2 controls for a number of potential confounders that are associated with both family structure and parental investment. After adding controls for education, race/ethnicity, and age, the family structure effects shrink by more than half, but they remain substantial and statistically significant. In Model 3, we further adjust for grandparental co-presence in the household. Grandparents do have a negative effect on parental expenditures. This could be for advantageous (e.g., grandparents providing unpaid childcare) or disadvantageous reasons (e.g., taking care of elderly adults might drawing away financial resources from children). Regardless, adding grandparents to the model has almost no effect on the family structure coefficients themselves. Across these models, we see that cohabiting and single parent households make significantly smaller financial investments in children than married couple households. We next test the first of our proposed mediating pathways – economic resources. Model 4 adds a control for income. If lower incomes are a key part of explaining why single and cohabiting households spend less on their children, then the coefficients for cohabiting and single parent households should decrease once income is controlled for. Indeed, in this model, after controlling for income, the single parent coefficient is actually positive. This implies that if incomes (and other controlled for factors) were equal, single parents household would actually spend more than married households. In contrast, the cohabiting parents coefficient remans negative, although it is reduced in magnitude by about 40%. Net of income differences, cohabiting parents spend the least on parental investments – significantly less than married and single parent households. We further confirmed (using the -khb- package in Stata) that the changes in each family structure coefficient between Models 3 and 4 when income is added is statistically – in addition to substantively – significant (p <.05).7 7Two technical notes regarding the mediating effects of income are in order. First, the size of the mod- erating effect of income depends on which controls are included in the model, because income is correlated with the other independent variables. More generally, the sequence in which covariates are added in nested models matters for how they are interpreted (Gelbach 2016). Our interest is in the mediating effect of in- come. As an additional check, we used a conditional decomposition technique provided by Gelbach (2016) and implemented in Stata with the -b1x2- package to determine how much of the changes in the family structure coefficients from Model 1 to Model 4 are explained by income. Between Model 1 and Model 4, the difference in parental investments between married and cohabiting changes changes by $133, of which 18 In Model 5 we consider an alternative way to account for economic resources – using the budget share of total expenditures dedicated to parental investments but still controlling for income on the right hand side to allow for possible non-homothetic preferences. Substan- tively, the results are similar to Model 4. Single parents spend a greater share of their budget on parental investments than married (0.4 percentage points more per child) or cohabiting households. Cohabiting households spend the smallest share (0.2 percentage points less per child than married households). Thus, like Model 4, Model 5 provides suggestive evidence that while economic resources explain disparities some differences by family structure, the commitment pathway helps explain disparities for cohabiting families. Are these differences by family structure meaningful? We can assess this in several ways. First, we can compare this to other coefficients within the same model. So, for example, returning to Model 4, a $49 gap in parental spending (the difference between cohabiting and married parent households) is equivalent to an (49.1 / 2.64 × $1000 = ) $18,600 difference in household income or about (49.1 / 204.7 = ) 24% of the difference between households with a bachelors degree and those with only a high school degree. Second, we can compare this to studies of other drivers of parental investments. Schneider, Hastings, and LaBriola (2018: 492) found that – using the same measure of parental investments – the conditional (regression-adjusted) gap between children in the bottom quartile and the middle 50% was about $75 and between the middle 50% and the next 15% (76th to 90th percentile) was about $150. These gaps by family structure are comparable. Third, we can look to existing literature on the returns to investments in children. Recent evidence from studies of school $70 (53%) of that change is attributable to income. Between Model 1 and Model 4, the difference between married and single parents changes by $203, of which $134 (66%) of that change is attributable to income. This aligns with our interpretation. Economic resources matter, but because the cohabiting gap persists even after income and all other variables are accounted for, we also believe this provides some evidence that the commitment pathway also matters. Second, it is possible there may be heterogeneous mediation effects (VanderWeele and Vansteelandt 2009). That is, income itself may have a differential effect on parental expenditures depending on the family struc- ture. We also tested models with interaction terms between the family structure variables and income. In fact, the coefficients for the main effects of both family structure variables and income remained nearly unchanged, and the interaction terms were small and statistically non-significant. These models are in the Appendix 19 finance reform suggests that a $494 per pupil annual ($124 quarterly) increase in spending is associated with a 0.1 standard deviation increase in school achievement (Lafortune, Roth- stein, and Schanzenbach 2017). Here again family structure gaps are comparable, and – also similar to educational investments – the effects are likely to accumulate as the gaps in investment persist throughout childhood and then can have long-lasting consequences into adulthood. Robustness To assess the robustness of our regression results, in Table4 we further focus this test by restricting the analysis to only households that appear in all four quarters and for whom the family structure does not change. That is, households are either married, cohabiting, or single in all four waves. Although this restriction reduces the sample by about 40% (primarily due to households not appearing in all four waves of the survey – not because of large numbers of changes in family structure type – although consistently being available and responsive to followup interviews may in itself signal more household stability), this restriction allows us to separate some of the effects of recent disruptions on financial investment in children from the anticipated effects of shorter than expected duration predicted by the commitment pathway. As shown in Table4, the results are nearly identical to those in the prior analysis (co- efficients for the standard control variables are not shown in the remaining models, but are available upon request). Both cohabiting and single parent households spend less than mar- ried households. Once household income is accounted for (Model 4), the single parent effect is positive (though not statistically significant) while the cohabiting effect remains negative. And again, for these more stable families, single parents again spend the greatest share of their budget on parental investments, while cohabiting households spend the least. We also conducted separate analyses by education level. We restricted the sample first to only households where at least one parent had a bachelors and then to households where 20 neither had a bachelors (the full models are available in Appendix Table A3). We found larger family-structure gaps for the more educated households, but for both groups control- ling for income significantly altered the single parent coefficient and made a much smaller difference to the cohabiting parent coefficient. Finally, models with the full sample using logged parental investments (Appendix Table A4) produced substantively similar findings, as did models used a between-effects and a random-effects specification (both in Appendix Table A5). 21 large and statistically significant (β = -74, p <.001). The gap between married parents and single parents is much smaller for Hispanics (β = -22, p <.05) than for Whites (β = -73, p <.001) and Blacks (β = -81, p <.001). However, once income is accounted for, single parents spend more than married (and cohabiting) parents for every racial/ethnic group (although for Blacks, this difference is not significant). Results based on alternative codings of race/ethnicity (described in the Data section above) produced substantively similar results and are reported in Appendix Tables A5 and A6. Regression results highlight family structure gaps, but these can be driven both by mar- ried parents spending more and by cohabiting and single parents spending less. We illustrate this in Figure2 by calculating the predicted parental expenditures for married, cohabiting, and single parents families for each racial/ethnic group, holding all controls at their means. The left panel shows the results without accounting for income (Models 1, 3, and 5 of Table 5). Whites spend the most for all family structure types, and, interestingly, there is the least divergence by family structure type for parental expenditures among Hispanic families. The right panel shows the results with income being controlled for (Models 2, 4, and 6). For all three groups, single parents spend the most on parental financial investments in children, while, all else being equal, White cohabiting parents spend the least. While family structure appears to stratify parental investments across all race/ethnic groups, these analyses show that family structure differences are most pronounced for white, non-Hispanic parents versus Black, non-Hispanic or Hispanic parents, as evidenced by the largest spread between family structure types among Whites, non-Hispanics in both panels of Figure2. We also found substantively similar results using alternative codings of family race/ethnicity (definitions described in the Data section above and models included in Appendix Tables A6 and A7). Disaggregation by Expenditure Type Finally, we disaggregate our models by the type of expenditure. Again, each pair of mod- els presents first a model that controls for everything but income and then a model that 22 also controls for income (Models 3 and 4 of the main results, respectively). We observe similar patterns across all three outcomes, although the effects are largest for childcare for differences between married, cohabiting, and single parents households. We prefer the single total measure of parental financial investments because it captures multiple dimensions of advantage and disadvantage that children may receive. While ultimately the cumulative advantage matters (e.g., higher quality childcare + additional extra-curricular activities + better school supplies), these results show that inequalities by family structure exist across every dimension of parental financial investment. Discussion and Conclusion Family structure in the United States is undergoing important changes. Notably, there are increases in single parenting and cohabiting unions. These transformations in family structure have important implications for social mobility because both theory and empirical research suggest family structure plays an important causal role in children’s life chances, in part through the differential financial investments that parents make for their children’s development. First, we examine differences in parental financial investments in children’s childcare, schooling, and enrichment activities, and we find substantively significant gaps by family structure. Married parents make greater financial investments in children than both co- habiting and single parents, supporting the argument that this may be a key part of the explaining why children from these families tend to fare better both in childhood wellbeing and achievement and later in adult attainment (McLanahan and Lee, 2015; McLanahan, Tach, and Schneider, 2013; Bloome, 2017). While family structure and family stability are frequently intertwined, these results are robust among the portion of the sample who expe- rienced no change in family structure during four quarters they were observed. The results are also robust across a number of other model choices and subsamples. Second, we proposed and tested two explanations for these family-structure divides. 23 These differences may be explained by economic disparities, as married couples are also the highest earners. Indeed, once controlling for income to test this pathway, single par- ents actually spend the most on parental investments. Likewise, single parents spend the greatest portion of their income on these parental investments. It is important to note that just because the gap between married and single parent families can be fully explained by differences in family income does not make the differences any less “real”. Rather, these re- sults provide a useful understanding of the particular mechanism – inequalities in economic resources – driving these differences as they exist and are experienced in children’s lives. We also find evidence that marriage itself may matter for its commitment value. Even though cohabiting parents can benefit from the same economies of scale as married families (Becker, 1981; Manning and Brown, 2006), we find they spend far less than married couples, and these differences persist even conditional on income. This provides some support for the argument that marriage itself fosters greater preferences for investing in children by providing for a commitment that fosters long-term planning (Lundberg and Pollak, 2015; Howard and Reeves, 2014; Reeves 2014). Third, we also tested whether race/ethnicity moderated these effects. Although we found the same patterns in family-structure differences for white, non-Hispanic; Black, non- Hispanic, and Hispanic families, the gaps were most pronounced among white, non-Hispanic families. This may help explain why associations between family structure and child wellbe- ing are also most pronounced for white, non-Hispanic children (Lee and McLanahan, 2015; Fomby and Cherlin, 2007; Wu and Thomson, 2001; Fomby et al., 2010). These analyses are subject to some important limitations. First, in the CEX we only know the child’s relationship to one household head (the reference person), so in cohabiting households we are unable to know whether the unmarried partner is also a parent of the child. Second, because the data come from a single respondent, if that respondent is unaware of the income or spending of another household members, this may not be captured in measures of income or parental investments. This issue is most likely to occur among cohabiting 24 households, although the extent to which cohabiting households with children pool their income and share expenses varies widely (Kenney 2004; Eickmeyer, Manning, and Brown 2018). Third, we are unable to see financial investments by parents who do not reside in the home. This is most obviously a factor for single parent households. Payments in the form ofchild supportare already accounted for in our measure of household income and parental expenditures, but any direct expenditures made by a non-resident parent would not be observed. As a result, it is possible we are overstating the size of the family structure gap. Some of these expenditures are measured in the Child Development Supplement of the Panel Study of Income Dynamics, which might allow in future work to estimate how common and large these extra parental investments are. The primary advantages of the CEX are its detailed spending categories and its far larger sample size than any other expenditure data set. To date, research on inequalities in parental investment has primarily focused on class. Recent research has found widening gaps by parental socio-economic status in how much money parents invest in their children (Schneider, Hastings, and LaBriola, 2018; Kornrich and Furstenberg, 2013; Kornrich, 2016). These increasing class divides has sparked concern because parental investment may be an important factor in the intergenerational perpet- uation of advantage (Waldfogel and Washbrook, 2011). At the same time, we know fam- ily structure itself is sharply stratified by parental socio-economic status (McLanahan and Percheski, 2008). This is confirmed within our analysis sample as well. Table 2 showed that married households with children had higher incomes and more education that cohabiting households who in turn had more than single parent households. However, our results do not suggest that the class gap in parental investment can be “explained” by compositional differences in family structure. In additional models we more directly tested this (Appendix Table A8). We first ran a model with all of controls (which in- cludes education) and income, but without family structure, then we added family structure, and then we added interactions between family structure and income and between family 25 structure and education. While our main results showed that income substantially mediated the effect of family structure (especially for single parents), the opposite does not hold. The inclusion of family structure had little change on the coefficients for income or education. Moreover, none of the interaction terms were significant, showing no evidence that the effect of family structure varies significantly by parental income or education. Looking to the Future The demography of American families has changed dramatically over the past fifty years and will likely continue to do so in the coming decades. Some of these changes are broad based – Americans in general marrying later and having fewer children. But, this story of change is in large part a story of stratification, of what Sara McLanahan has called “diverging destinies.” The retreat from marriage is most pronounced, the rise in non-marital births the sharpest, and the chances of growing up without married parents the highest for the most disadvantaged. Disparate family settings matter because they are the where the action is in terms of the early development that lays a ground-work for later life attainment and achievement (Heckman, 2006). In 2050, these children will be America’s prime workforce (an 8-year old today will be 40 in 2050). If certain families are increasingly able to transmit their advantages to children while others are less likely to do so, that bodes poorly for an open opportunity structure and suggests increasing inequality in the preparation of America’s future labor force. Our results add to the evidence that family structure is an important axis of inequality in contemporary America and, given expected demographic trends for the future, we expect this to be increasingly the case. For single parents, much of the disadvantage in investment appears to stem from differences in economic resources. One set of policy responses could usefully focus on the role of economic inequalities in accounting for these familial disparities. Policies that would increase the economic resources of single-parent families, including the 26 EITC as well as minimum wage increases, could usefully narrow this gap. The persistent gaps in parental investment between married couples and cohabiters presents a different policy problem in that it is robust to controls for economic differences. If we take the idea of a differences in “commitment” seriously, it is not clear that policy that would promote marriage would have the intended effect of increasing investment among couples that would otherwise cohabit as the implicit assumption of the “commitment” per- spective is that the effects of marriage are heterogenous, accruing to those couples who chose to marry. Instead, direct public investments in children through school expenditures, child health insurance and nutrition support, and other child-focused programs could serve to offset inequalities by family structure in parental financial investment. 27 References Acs, Gregory and Elaine Maag. 2005. “Irreconcilable differences? The conflict between mar- riage promotion initiatives for cohabiting couples with children and marriage penalties in the tax and transfer systems.” Policy Brief No. B-66. Washington DC: Urban Institute Press. Addo, Fennaba. 2014. “Debt, Cohabitation, and Marriage in Young Adulthood.” Demogra- phy 51: 1677-1701. Alexander, Karl, Doris Entwisle, and Linda Steffel Olson. 2007. “Lasting Consequences of the Summer Learning Gap.” American Sociological Review 72: 167-180. Ananat, Eilzabeth and Guy Michaels. 2008. “The Effect of Marital Breakup on the Income Distribution of Women with Children.” Journal of Human Resources 43(3): 611-629. Altintas, Evrim. 2016. “The Widening Education Gap in DevelopmentalChild CareActiv- ities in the United States, 1965-2013.” Journal of Marriage and Family 78: 26-42. Amato, Paul. 2005. “The Impact of Family Formation Change on the Cognitive, Social, and Emotional Well-Being of the Next Generation.” Future of Children 15(2): 75-96. Avellar, Sarah and Pamela Smock. 2005. “The Economic Consequences of the Dissolution of Cohabiting Unions.” Journal of Marriage and Family 67(2): 315-327. Becker, Gary. 1981. A Treatise on the Family. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. Bianchi, Suzanne, Philip Cohen, Sara Raley, and Kei Nomaguchi. 2004. “Inequality in Parental Investment in Child-Rearing: Expenditures, Time, and Health.” In Social In- equality Ed. Kathryn Neckerman. New York: Russell Sage Foundation Press. Bloome, Deirdre. 2017. “Childhood Family Structure and Intergenerational Income Mobility in the United States.” Demography 54(2): 541-569. Bodovski, Katerina and George Farkas. 2008. “ ‘Concerted Cultivation’ and Unequal Achievement in Elementary School.” Social Science Research 37(3): 903-919. Bray, Mark. 1999. The Shadow Education System: Private Tutoring and its Implications for Planners. UNESCO: International Institute for Educational Planning. Bronfenbrenner, Urie. 1979. The Ecology of Human Development. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Brown, Susan. 2004. “Family Structure and Child Well-Being: The Significance of Parental Cohabitation.” Journal of Marriage and Family 66: 351-367. Brown, Susan. 2010. “Marriage and Child Well-Being: Research and Policy Perspectives.” Journal of Marriage and Family 72(5): 1059-1077. Brown, Susan, Wendy Manning, and Krita Payne. 2016. “Family Structure and Children’s Economic Well-Being: Incorporating Same-Sex Cohabiting Mother Families.” Popula- tion Research and Policy Review 35:1-21. Buchman, Claudia, Dennis Condron, and Vincent Roscigno. 2010. “Shadow Education, American Style: Test Preparation, the SAT and College Enrollment.” Social Forces 89(2): 435-462. 28 Bzostek, Sharon and Lonnie Berger. 2017. “Family Structure Experiences and Child Socioe- motional Development During the First Nine Years of Life: Examining Heterogeneity by Family Structure at Birth.” 54:513-540. Cancian, Maria and Ron Haskins. 2014. “Changes in Family Composition: Implications for Income, Poverty, and Public Policy.” ANNALS 654: 31-47. Carlson, Marcy and Sheldon Danziger. 1999. “Cohabitation and the Measurement of Child Poverty.” Review of Income and Wealth 45(2): 179-191. Carlson, Marcia, Sara McLanahan, and Paula England. 2004. “Union Formation in Fragile Families.” Demography 41(2): 237-261. Carlson, Marcy and Lonnie Berger. 2013. “What Kids Get from Parents: Packages of Parental Involvement across Complex Family Forms.” Social Service Review 213-249. Carlson, Marcy and Mary Corcoran. 2001. “Family Structure and Children’s Behavioral and Cognitive Outcomes.” Journal of Marriage and Family 63: 779-792. Carneiro, Pedro and Margarida Rodriguez. 2009. “Evaluating the Effect of Maternal Time on Child Development Using the Generalized Propensity Score.” Institute for the Study of Labor, 12th IZA European Summer School in Labor Economics. Carasso, Adam and C. Eugene Steuerle. 2005. “The hefty penalty on marriage facing many households with children.” The Future of Children 15(2):157-75. Cherlin, Andrew. 2004. “The Deinstitutionalization of American Marriage.” Journal of Mar- riage and Family 66: 848-861. Conger, Rand and M. Brent Donnellan. 2007. “An Interactionist Perspective on the Socioe- conomic Context of Human Development.” Annual Review of Psychology 58: 175-199. Del Boca, Daniela, Chiara Monfardini, and Cheti Nicoletti. 2012. “Self Investments of Ado- lescents and their Cognitive Development.” IZA Discussion Paper 6868. Downey, Douglas, Paul von Hippel, and Beckett Broh. 2004. “Are Schools the Great Equal- izer? Cognitive Inequality during the Summer Months and the School Year.” American Sociological Review 69: 613-645. Dunifon, Rachel and Kathleen Ziol-Guest, and Kimberly Kopko. 2014. “Grandparent Cores- idence and Family Well-Being: Implications for Research and Policy.” ANNALS of the American Academy of Political Social Sciences 654: 110-126. Edin, Kathryn and Timothy Nelson. 2013. Doing the Best that I Can Berkeley, CA: Uni- versity of California Press. Eickmeyer, Kasey J., Wendy D. Manning, and Susan L. Brown. “What’s Mine is Ours? Income Pooling in American Families.” Journal of Marriage and Family. Fomby, Paula and Andrew Cherlin. 2007. “Family Instability and Child Well-Being.” Amer- ican Sociological Review 72: 181-204. Fomby, Paula, Stefanie Mollborn, and Christie Sennott. 2010. “Race/Ethnic Differences in Effects of Family Instability on Adolescents’ Risk Behavior.” Journal of Marriage and Family 72: 234-253. 29 Furstenberg, Frank. 2003. “Teenage Childbearing as a Public Issue and Private Concern.” Annual Review of Sociology 29: 23-39. Garfinkel, Irwin and Afshin Zilanawala. 2015. “Fragile families in the American welfare state.” Children and Youth Services Review 55:210-221. Garfinkel, Irwin and Sara McLanahan. 1986. Single Mothers and Their Children: A New American Dilemma. Washington DC: Urban Institute Press. Gelbach, Jonah B. 2016. “When Do Covariates Matter? And Which Ones, and How Much?” Journal of Labor Economics 34(2): 509-543. Gibson-Davis, Christina and Heather Rackin. 2014. “Marriage or Carriage? Trends in Union Contextand Birth Type by Education.” Journal of Marriage and Family 76: 506-519. Ginther, Donna and Robert Pollak. 2004. “Family Structure and Children’s Educational Outcomes: Blended Families, Stylized Facts, and Descriptive Regressions." Demography 41(4): 671-696. Greeman, Emily, Katerina Bodovski, and Katherine Reed. 2011. “Neighborhood Charac- teristics, Parental Practices and Children’s Math Achievement in Elementary School.” Social Science Research 40(5): 1434-1444. Hofferth, Sandra. 2006. “Residential Father Family Type and Child Well-Being: Investment Versus Selection.” Demography 43(1): 53-77. Holden, Karen and Pamela Smock. 1991. “The Economic Costs of Marital Dissolution: Why do Women Bear a Disproportionate Cost?” Annual Review of Sociology 17: 51-78. Howard, Kimberly and Richard Reeves. 2014. The Marriage Effect: Money or Parenting? Washington, DC: Brookings Institute. Kalil, Ariel, Rebecca Ryan, and Michael Corey. 2012. “Diverging Destinies: Maternal Edu- cation and the Developmental Gradient in Time With Children.” Demography 49:1361- 1383. Kalil, Ariel and Rebecca Ryan. 2010. “Mothers’ Economic Conditions and Sources of Sup- port in Fragile Families.” Future of Children 20(2): 39-61. Kaushal, Neeraj, Katherine Magnuson, and Jane Waldfogel. 2011. “How Is Family Income Related to Investments in Children’s Learning?” In Whither Opportunity: Rising In- equality, Schools, and Children’s Life Chances. Eds. Murnane and Duncan. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. Kenney, Catherine. 2004. “Cohabiting Couple, Filing Jointly? Resource Pooling and U.S. Poverty Policies” Family Relations 53(2): 237-247. Kennedy, Shelia and Catherine A. Fitch. 2012. “Measuring Cohabitation and Family Struc- ture in the United States: Assessing the Impact of New Data From the Current Popu- lation Survey.” Demography 49:1479-1498. Kennedy, Shelia and Steven Ruggles. 2013. “Breaking up is Hard to Count: The Rise of Divorce and Cohabitation Instability in the United States, 1980-2010.” MPC Working Papers No. 2013-01. 30 Kornrich, Sabino. 2016. “Inequalities in Parental Spending on Young Children: 1972-2010.” American Educational Research Association Open 2(2). Kornrich, Sabino and Frank Furstenberg. 2013. “Investing in Children: Changes in Parental Spending on Children, 1972-2007.” Demography 50:1-23. Lafortune, Julien, Jesse Rothstein, and Diane Whitmore Schanzenbach. 2018. “School Fi- nance Reform and the Distribution of Student Achievement” American Economic Jour- nal: Applied Economics 10(2): 1-26. Lareau, Annette. 2002. “Invisible Inequality: Social Class and Childrearing in Black Families and White Families.” American Sociological Review 67(5): 747-776. Lee, Dohoon and Sara McLanahan. 2015. “Family Structure Transitions and Child Devel- opment: Instability, Selection, and Population Heterogeneity.” American Sociological Review 80(4): 738-763. Ludwig, Volker and Josef Bruderl. 2018. “Is There a Male Marital Wage Premium? New Evidence from the United States.” American Sociological Review 83(4) 744-770. Lundberg, Shelly and Robert Pollak. 2015. “The Evolving Role of Marriage: 1950-2010.” Future of Children 25(2): 29-50. Lundberg, Shelly, Robert Pollak, and Terence Wales. 1997. “Do Husbands and Wives Pool Their Resources? Evidence from the United Kingdom Child Benefit.” Journal of Human Resources 32(3): 463-480. Manning, Wendy and Susan Brown. 2006. “Children’s Economic Well-Being in Married and Cohabiting Parent Families.” Journal of Marriage and Family 68: 345-362. Manning, Wendy, Pamela Smock, Cassandra Dorius, and Elizabeth Cooksey. 2014. “Co- habitation Expectations Among Young Adults in the United States: Do They Match Behavior?” Population Research and Policy Review 33: 287-305. McLanahan, Sara, Laura Tach, and Daniel Schneider. 2013. “The Causal Effects ofFather Absence.” Annual Review of Sociology 39: 399-427. McLanahan, Sara and Gary Sandefur. 1994. Growing Up with a Single Parent: What Hurts, What Helps? Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. McClendon, David, Janet Chen-Lan Kuo and Kelly Raley. 2014. “Opportunities to Meet: Occupational Education and Marriage Formation in Young Adulthood.” Demography 51: 1319-1344. Nock, Steven. 1995. “A Comparison of Marriages and Cohabiting Relationships.” Journal of Family Issues 16: 53-76. Oppenheimer, Valerie, Matthijs Kalmijn, and Nelson Lim. 1997. “Men’s Career Develop- ment and Marriage Timing during a Period of Rising Inequality.” Demography 34 (3): 311-30. Paulin, Geoffrey D. and William Hawk. 2015. “Improving data quality in Consumer Expen- diture Survey with TAXSIM.” Monthly Labor Review, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. https://doi.org/10.21916/mlr.2015.5. 31 Park, Hyunjoon, Claudia Bucmann, Jaesung Choi, and Joseph Merry. 2016. “Learning Beyond the School Walls: Trends and Implications.” Annual Review of Sociology 42: 231-252. Pepin, Joanna, Liana Sayer, Lynne Casper. 2018. “Marital Status and Mothers’ Time Use: Childcare, Housework, Leisure, and Sleep.” Demography 55(1): 107-133. Price, Joe. 2010. “The Effect of Parental Time Investments: Evidence from Natural Within- Family Variation.” Working Paper. Reeves, Richard. 2014. “How to Save Marriage in America.” The Atlantic February 13. Ribar, David. 2015. “Why Marriage Matters for Child Wellbeing.” Future of Children 25(2): 11-27. Sandberg, Sandra and John Hofferth. 2001. “How American Children Spend Their Time.” Journal of Marriage and Family 63: 295-308. Schneider, Daniel, Kristen Harknett, and Matthew Stimpson. 2018. “Job Quality and the Educational Gradient in Entry into Marriage and Cohabitation.” Demography Schneider, Daniel, Kristen Harknett, and Matthew Stimpson. 2018. “What Explains the Decline in First Marriage in the United States? Evidence from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics, 1969 to 2013.” Journal of Marriage and Family 80(4): 791-811 Schneider, Daniel. 2011. “Wealth and the Marital Divide.” American Journal of Sociology 117: 627-667. Schneider, Daniel, Orestes P. Hastings, and Joe LaBriola. 2018. “Income Inequality and Class Divides in Parental Investment.” American Sociological Review 83(3):475-507. Shafer, Kevin and Spencer James. 2013. “Gender and Socioeconomic Status Differences in First and Second Marriage Formation.” Journal of Marriage and Family 75: 544-564. Sigle-Rushton, Wendy and Sara McLanahan. 2004. “Father Absence and Child Well-Being: A Critical Review.” In The Future of the Family Eds. Daniel Patrick Moynihan, Timothy Smeeding, and Lee Rainwater. New York: Russell Sage Foundation PRess. Smock, Pamela, Wendy Manning, and Sanjiv Gupta. 1999. “The Effect of Marriage and Divorce on Women’s Economic Well-Being.” American Sociological Review 64(6): 794- 812. Stykes, J. B., and S. Williams. 2013. Diverging Destinies: Children’s Family Structure Variation by Maternal Education. (FP-13-16). National Center for Family & Marriage Research. Sweeney, Megan. 2002. “Two Decades of Family Change: The Shifting Economic Founda- tions of Marriage.” American Sociological Review 67(1): 132-147. Tach, Laura and Alicia Eads. 2015. “Trends in the Economic Consequences of Marital and Cohabitation Dissolution in the United States.” Demography 52: 401-432. Thomas, Adam and Elizabeth Sawhill. 2002. “For Richer or for Poorer: Marriage as an Antipoverty Strategy.” Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 21(4): 587-599. 32 VanderWeele, Tyler and Stijn Vansteelandt. 2009. “Conceptual Issues Concerning Media- tion, Interventions and Composition.” Statistics and Its Interface 2:457-468. Waite, Linda and Maggie Gallagher. 2000. The Case for Marriage: Why Married People are Happier Healthier, and Better Off Financially: New York: Random House. Waldfogel, Jane, Terry-Ann Craige, and Jeanne Brooks-Gunn. 2010. “Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing.” Future of Children 20(2): 87-112. Wimer, Chris, JaeJyun Nam, Jane Waldfogel, and Liana Fox. 2016. “Trends in Child Poverty Using an Improved Measure of Poverty.”Pediatrics16: S60-S66. Wu, Larry and Brian Martinson. 1993. “Family STrucutre and the Risk of a Premarital Birth.” American Sociological Review 58(2): 210-232. Wu, Larry and Thomson. 2001. “Race Differences in Family Experience and Early Sex- ual Initiation: Dynamic Models of Family Structure and Family Change.” Journal of Marriage and Family 63(3): 7682-696. Wu, H. 2017. Trends in Births to Single and Cohabiting Mothers, 1980-2014. Family Pro- files, FP-17-04. Bowling Green, OH: National Center for Family and Marriage Research. Ziol-Guest, Kathleen, Ariel Kalil, and Thomas DeLeire. 2004. “Expenditure Decisions in Single-Parent Households.” In Family Investments in Children’s Potential : Resources and Parenting Behaviors That Promote Success Eds. Ariel Kali and Thomas DeLeire. Taylor and Francis. 33 Tables and Figures Table 1: Descriptives for Main Analysis (Source: Consumer Expenditure Survey 2003-2017) mean sd min max Parental financial investments 355.7 707.4 0 5839.7 Married parents 0.74 0.44 0 1 Cohabiting parents 0.062 0.24 0 1 Single parent 0.20 0 1 Income (in thousands) 86.8 69.3 −207.4 1339.9 Grandparents present 0.044 0 1 No HS 0.084 0 1 HS no BA 0.50 0 1 BA+ 0.42 0 1 White, non-Hispanic 0.62 0 1 Black, non-Hispanic 0.13 0 1 Hispanic 0.19 0 1 Other, non-Hispanic 0.060 0 1 Age 40.5 8.18 25 65 Number of kids 1.93 1.00 1 13 Note: Some sources of income (e.g., self-employment income) can be negative. 34 Figure 1: Parental Investments by Family Structure (Source: Consumer Expenditure Survey) 500 400 300 200 Married parents Parental expenditures ($/quarter) expenditures Parental Cohabiting parents Single pxarent 100 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 Year 35 Table 2: Descriptives by Family Structure Married Cohabiting Single mean mean mean Parental financial investments 397.3 225.9 241.2 Income (in thousands) 99.9 65.6 44.6 Grandparents present 0.039 0.045 0.066 No HS 0.068 0.090 0.14 HS no BA 0.44 0.72 0.65 BA+ 0.49 0.19 0.21 White, non-Hispanic 0.67 0.54 0.48 Black, non-Hispanic 0.081 0.19 0.30 Hispanic 0.18 0.24 0.18 Other, non-Hispanic 0.069 0.028 0.036 Age 41.2 37.2 38.8 Number of kids 1.98 1.89 1.78 Observations 80157 6377 21259 36 Table 3: Regression Models of Parental Investments Parental Expenditures as % of Budget (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Married ref. ref. ref. ref. ref. Cohabiting −180.5∗∗∗ −79.8∗∗∗ −79.8∗∗∗ −49.1∗∗∗ −0.24∗∗∗ (10.9) (10.7) (10.7) (10.3) (0.064) Single −176.2∗∗∗ −68.6∗∗∗ −67.1∗∗∗ 24.8∗∗ 0.42∗∗∗ (7.52) (7.63) (7.64) (7.75) (0.050) Grandparents present −65.4∗∗∗ −115.2∗∗∗ −0.67∗∗∗ (12.3) (12.3) (0.060) Income (in thousands) 2.64∗∗∗ 0.0044∗∗∗ (0.098) (0.00030) No HS −66.2∗∗∗ −66.1∗∗∗ −26.9∗∗∗ −0.31∗∗∗ (6.00) (6.01) (6.19) (0.048) HS no BA ref. ref. ref. ref. BA+ 326.4∗∗∗ 325.5∗∗∗ 204.7∗∗∗ 0.86∗∗∗ (7.87) (7.87) (7.85) (0.041) White ref. ref. ref. ref. Black −67.0∗∗∗ −66.1∗∗∗ −29.8∗∗ −0.18∗∗ (10.0) (10.0) (9.64) (0.057) Hispanic −82.8∗∗∗ −79.1∗∗∗ −34.4∗∗∗ −0.23∗∗∗ (7.59) (7.64) (7.43) (0.043) Other Race 31.4 37.6∗ 46.3∗∗ 0.18∗ (17.4) (17.5) (16.7) (0.078) Age 9.04∗∗ 8.66∗∗ −5.48 −0.10∗∗∗ (3.19) (3.19) (3.10) (0.018) Age × Age −0.16∗∗∗ −0.16∗∗∗ −0.028 0.00056∗∗ (0.039) (0.039) (0.038) (0.00021) Number of kids −102.0∗∗∗ −87.6∗∗∗ −87.3∗∗∗ −88.5∗∗∗ −0.61∗∗∗ (2.96) (3.02) (3.02) (2.94) (0.016) Constant 575.1∗∗∗ 336.7∗∗∗ 345.7∗∗∗ 501.9∗∗∗ 5.60∗∗∗ (14.9) (65.5) (65.5) (63.6) (0.39) Month Fixed Effects Y es Y es Y es Y es Y es Year Fixed Effects Y es Y es Y es Y es Y es Observations 107793 107793 107793 107793 107793 Standard errors in parentheses ∗ p < .05, ∗∗ p < .01, ∗∗∗ p < .001 37 Table 4: Regression Models of Parental Investments among Stable Families Only Parental Expenditures as % of Budget (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Married ref. ref. ref. ref. ref. Cohabiting −165.0∗∗∗ −72.1∗∗∗ −72.3∗∗∗ −45.8∗∗ −0.23∗ (17.3) (16.8) (16.7) (15.9) (0.100) Single −160.1∗∗∗ −76.9∗∗∗ −75.3∗∗∗ 19.7 0.38∗∗∗ (11.2) (11.3) (11.3) (11.3) (0.074) Grandparents present −54.9∗∗ −108.8∗∗∗ −0.58∗∗∗ (17.9) (18.0) (0.085) Income (in thousands) 2.58∗∗∗ 0.0043∗∗∗ (0.13) (0.00042) Household controls Y es Y es Y es Y es Y es Month Fixed Effects No Y es Y es Y es Y es Year Fixed Effects No Y es Y es Y es Y es Observations 65676 65676 65676 65676 65676 Standard errors in parentheses ∗ p < .05, ∗∗ p < .01, ∗∗∗ p < .001 Note: In a stable family structure, the family appears in all four quarters of the CEX Interview survey and reports the same family structure in all four quarters. 38 Table 5: Regression Models of Parental Investments by Race/Ethnicity White, non-Hispanic Black, non-Hispanic Hispanic (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Married ref. ref. ref. ref. ref. ref. Cohabiting −107.6∗∗∗ −74.1∗∗∗ −47.7 12.2 −30.0 −15.7 (15.7) (15.1) (26.7) (26.1) (16.2) (15.3) Single −73.2∗∗∗ 30.5∗∗ −80.9∗∗∗ 38.8 −22.4∗ 41.6∗∗∗ (11.2) (11.4) (18.5) (21.9) (11.3) (11.5) Income (in thousands) 2.51∗∗∗ 3.57∗∗∗ 2.63∗∗∗ (0.11) (0.48) (0.20) Grandparents present −102.3∗∗∗ −145.8∗∗∗ −13.7 −92.0∗ −52.8∗∗∗ −98.3∗∗∗ (19.5) (20.1) (42.3) (40.4) (12.2) (13.1) Household controls Y es Y es Y es Y es Y es Y es Month Fixed Effects Y es Y es Y es Y es Y es Y es Year Fixed Effects Y es Y es Y es Y es Y es Y es Observations 66708 66708 12591 12591 21137 21137 Standard errors in parentheses ∗ p < .05, ∗∗ p < .01, ∗∗∗ p < .001 39 Figure 2: Predicted Parental Expenditures by Family Structure and Race/Ethnicity without Income control with Income control 400 400 350 350 300 300 Parental expenditures ($/quarter) expenditures Parental 250 250 200 200 White Black Hispanic White Black Hispanic Married Cohabiting Single 40 Table 6: Regression Models of Parental Investments Separated by Expenditure Type Lessons School Childcare (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Married ref. ref. ref. ref. ref. ref. Cohabiting −8.20∗∗∗ −3.35 −30.0∗∗∗ −20.7∗∗∗ −41.5∗∗∗ −25.0∗∗ (1.86) (1.82) (4.08) (3.98) (9.78) (9.62) Single −4.32∗∗ 10.2∗∗∗ −3.41 24.5∗∗∗ −59.3∗∗∗ −9.84 (1.63) (1.75) (4.21) (4.37) (6.30) (6.38) Income (in thousands) 0.42∗∗∗ 0.80∗∗∗ 1.42∗∗∗ (0.024) (0.060) (0.078) Grandparents present −5.45 −13.3∗∗∗ −4.59 −19.7∗∗ −55.3∗∗∗ −82.2∗∗∗ (2.90) (2.90) (6.10) (6.31) (10.4) (10.4) Household controls Y es Y es Y es Y es Y es Y es Month Fixed Effects Y es Y es Y es Y es Y es Y es Year Fixed Effects Y es Y es Y es Y es Y es Y es Observations 107793 107793 107793 107793 107793 107793 Standard errors in parentheses ∗ p < .05, ∗∗ p < .01, ∗∗∗ p < .001 41 Appendix Table A1: Descriptives by Family Structure for Stable Families Married Cohabiting Single All mean mean mean mean Parental financial investments 394.2 229.2 234.1 358.6 Income (in thousands) 101.5 67.8 45.2 90.2 Grandparents present 0.039 0.043 0.070 0.045 No HS 0.067 0.095 0.15 0.082 HS no BA 0.43 0.70 0.63 0.48 BA+ 0.50 0.20 0.22 0.44 White, non-Hispanic 0.68 0.53 0.49 0.64 Black, non-Hispanic 0.072 0.17 0.29 0.12 Hispanic 0.18 0.27 0.18 0.18 Other, non-Hispanic 0.067 0.025 0.035 0.059 Age 41.6 38.2 39.7 41.1 Number of kids 1.99 1.90 1.75 1.95 Observations 51428 3060 11188 65676 42 Table A2: Descriptives by Family Structure and Race/Ethnicity Married Cohabiting Single All mean mean mean mean White, non-Hispanic Parental financial investments 443.3 259.4 308.3 412.9 Income (in thousands) 109.4 73.4 51.9 98.7 Grandparents present 0.020 0.027 0.041 0.024 No HS 0.023 0.041 0.074 0.032 HS no BA 0.42 0.72 0.65 0.47 BA+ 0.56 0.24 0.28 0.50 Age 41.6 38.1 40.4 41.2 Number of kids 1.93 1.76 1.61 1.88 Observations 53128 3414 10166 66708 Black, non-Hispanic Parental financial investments 321.7 213.2 180.0 247.2 Income (in thousands) 84.3 54.1 36.6 59.8 Grandparents present 0.047 0.035 0.053 0.049 No HS 0.023 0.064 0.15 0.087 HS no BA 0.55 0.75 0.69 0.63 BA+ 0.42 0.18 0.16 0.28 Age 41.2 36.4 36.8 38.8 Number of kids 2.02 2.07 1.92 1.98 Observations 5496 1076 6019 12591 Hispanic Parental financial investments 210.4 163.7 162.6 197.3 Income (in thousands) 67.1 55.3 37.2 60.3 Grandparents present 0.078 0.085 0.13 0.088 No HS 0.26 0.22 0.32 0.27 HS no BA 0.52 0.68 0.59 0.54 BA+ 0.22 0.10 0.100 0.19 Age 39.5 36.0 37.6 38.9 Number of kids 2.16 2.05 1.98 2.12 Observations 15314 1663 4160 21137 43 Table A3: Regression Models of Parental Investments by Education No Bachelors Bachelors (1) (2) (3) (4) Married ref. ref. ref. ref. Cohabiting −49.1∗∗∗ −28.0∗∗ −165.7∗∗∗ −117.9∗∗∗ (9.72) (9.56) (34.4) (31.9) Single −52.4∗∗∗ 11.8 −108.1∗∗∗ 45.3∗ (6.26) (7.01) (22.9) (22.5) Income (in thousands) 2.04∗∗∗ 2.96∗∗∗ (0.14) (0.12) Grandparents present −37.3∗∗∗ −80.2∗∗∗ −130.1∗∗∗ −175.7∗∗∗ (9.09) (9.70) (36.0) (35.1) Household controls Y es Y es Y es Y es Month Fixed Effects Y es Y es Y es Y es Year Fixed Effects Y es Y es Y es Y es Observations 62377 62377 45416 45416 Standard errors in parentheses ∗ p < .05, ∗∗ p < .01, ∗∗∗ p < .001 Note: Households were coded for education based on whether the most edu- cated parent had received at least a bachelors degree. 44 Table A4: Regression Models of using Logged Parental Investments Parental Expenditures (1) (2) (3) (4) Married ref. ref. ref. ref. Cohabiting −1.04∗∗∗ −0.50∗∗∗ −0.50∗∗∗ −0.40∗∗∗ (0.056) (0.057) (0.057) (0.055) Single −0.82∗∗∗ −0.24∗∗∗ −0.23∗∗∗ 0.060 (0.034) (0.034) (0.034) (0.035) Grandparents present −0.38∗∗∗ −0.54∗∗∗ (0.059) (0.058) Income (in thousands) 0.0084∗∗∗ (0.00026) No HS −0.86∗∗∗ −0.86∗∗∗ −0.74∗∗∗ (0.043) (0.043) (0.042) HS no BA ref. ref. ref. BA+ 1.14∗∗∗ 1.13∗∗∗ 0.75∗∗∗ (0.030) (0.030) (0.031) White ref. ref. ref. Black −0.69∗∗∗ −0.68∗∗∗ −0.57∗∗∗ (0.043) (0.043) (0.042) Hispanic −0.79∗∗∗ −0.77∗∗∗ −0.63∗∗∗ (0.036) (0.036) (0.035) Other Race −0.36∗∗∗ −0.33∗∗∗ −0.30∗∗∗ (0.059) (0.059) (0.057) Age 0.16∗∗∗ 0.16∗∗∗ 0.11∗∗∗ (0.014) (0.014) (0.013) Age × Age −0.0019∗∗∗ −0.0018∗∗∗ −0.0014∗∗∗ (0.00016) (0.00016) (0.00016) Number of kids −0.23∗∗∗ −0.13∗∗∗ −0.13∗∗∗ −0.13∗∗∗ (0.013) (0.012) (0.012) (0.012) Constant 4.16∗∗∗ 0.39 0.45 0.94∗∗∗ (0.062) (0.29) (0.29) (0.28) Month Fixed Effects Y es Y es Y es Y es Year Fixed Effects Y es Y es Y es Y es Observations 107793 107793 107793 107793 Standard errors in parentheses ∗ p < .05, ∗∗ p < .01, ∗∗∗ p < .001 Note: A value of zero for logged parental expenditures is assigned to respondents with no parental expenditures for a given quarter, since the log of zero is undefined. 45 Table A5: Between Effects and Random Effects Versions of Main Models Between effects model Random effects model (1) (2) (3) (4) Married ref. ref. ref. ref. Cohabiting −85.3∗∗∗ −53.9∗∗∗ −79.2∗∗∗ −42.1∗∗∗ (13.4) (12.9) (12.5) (12.1) Single −64.2∗∗∗ 31.2∗∗∗ −67.7∗∗∗ 22.7∗∗ (8.37) (8.27) (8.08) (7.98) Grandparents present −59.3∗∗∗ −112.2∗∗∗ −65.7∗∗∗ −107.5∗∗∗ (15.4) (14.9) (13.8) (13.4) Income (in thousands) 2.69∗∗∗ 2.66∗∗∗ (0.050) (0.049) No HS −71.5∗∗∗ −30.6∗∗ −65.5∗∗∗ −27.4∗ (12.1) (11.7) (11.6) (11.2) HS no BA ref. ref. ref. ref. BA+ 330.2∗∗∗ 204.0∗∗∗ 315.4∗∗∗ 196.3∗∗∗ (7.07) (7.21) (6.80) (6.93) White ref. ref. ref. ref. Black −63.7∗∗∗ −23.8∗ −64.7∗∗∗ −24.1∗ (10.2) (9.90) (10.0) (9.68) Hispanic −84.1∗∗∗ −37.0∗∗∗ −85.3∗∗∗ −38.1∗∗∗ (8.84) (8.56) (8.58) (8.32) Other Race 26.5∗ 40.7∗∗∗ 27.5∗ 39.4∗∗∗ (12.8) (12.4) (12.4) (12.0) Age 8.93∗∗ −5.04 10.5∗∗∗ −3.07 (3.25) (3.15) (3.14) (3.04) Age × Age −0.15∗∗∗ −0.026 −0.17∗∗∗ −0.048 (0.039) (0.038) (0.038) (0.036) Number of kids −87.4∗∗∗ −87.7∗∗∗ −91.1∗∗∗ −91.0∗∗∗ (3.22) (3.11) (2.99) (2.90) Constant 301.1∗∗∗ 456.5∗∗∗ 306.4∗∗∗ 436.5∗∗∗ (70.0) (67.6) (64.9) (62.7) Month Fixed Effects Y es Y es Y es Y es Year Fixed Effects Y es Y es Y es Y es Observations 107793 107793 107793 107793 Standard errors in parentheses ∗ p < .05, ∗∗ p < .01, ∗∗∗ p < .001 46 Table A6: Regression Models of Parental Investments by Mother’s Race/Ethnicity White, non-Hispanic Black, non-Hispanic Hispanic (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Married ref. ref. ref. ref. ref. ref. Cohabiting −106.1∗∗∗ −71.5∗∗∗ −80.8∗∗ −19.9 −17.1 −0.93 (15.0) (14.4) (26.5) (26.0) (18.6) (17.8) Single −73.4∗∗∗ 28.5∗ −67.4∗∗∗ 48.9∗ −23.5∗ 41.4∗∗∗ (11.2) (11.4) (18.8) (22.3) (11.5) (11.6) Income (in thousands) 2.49∗∗∗ 3.49∗∗∗ 2.58∗∗∗ (0.11) (0.51) (0.20) Grandparents present −106.3∗∗∗ −148.7∗∗∗ −3.65 −80.7 −48.4∗∗∗ −92.8∗∗∗ (18.3) (19.1) (43.7) (41.8) (13.2) (13.5) Household controls Y es Y es Y es Y es Y es Y es Month Fixed Effects Y es Y es Y es Y es Y es Y es Year Fixed Effects Y es Y es Y es Y es Y es Y es Observations 66635 66635 11823 11823 21326 21326 Standard errors in parentheses ∗ p < .05, ∗∗ p < .01, ∗∗∗ p < .001 Note: We coded race/ethnicity based on the mother’s race/ethnicity, except for single-parent households where we use the race/ethnicity of the one parent present. 47 Table A7: Regression Models of Parental Investments by Either Parent’s Race/Ethnicity White, non-Hispanic Black, non-Hispanic Hispanic (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Married ref. ref. ref. ref. ref. ref. Cohabiting −103.9∗∗∗ −70.3∗∗∗ −51.2∗ 9.07 −32.2 −16.3 (14.5) (13.9) (25.8) (25.3) (17.1) (16.2) Single −73.5∗∗∗ 29.6∗∗ −77.3∗∗∗ 40.7 −34.0∗∗ 35.3∗∗ (11.1) (11.2) (18.1) (21.4) (11.5) (11.6) Income (in thousands) 2.51∗∗∗ 3.50∗∗∗ 2.63∗∗∗ (0.11) (0.46) (0.19) Grandparents present −104.2∗∗∗ −145.9∗∗∗ −15.9 −88.4∗ −55.2∗∗∗ −97.5∗∗∗ (18.6) (19.2) (41.8) (39.7) (13.3) (13.6) Household controls Y es Y es Y es Y es Y es Y es Month Fixed Effects Y es Y es Y es Y es Y es Y es Year Fixed Effects Y es Y es Y es Y es Y es Y es Observations 70316 70316 12942 12942 23750 23750 Standard errors in parentheses ∗ p < .05, ∗∗ p < .01, ∗∗∗ p < .001 Note: Households were coded for each race/ethnicity category if either parent was labeled as being that race/ethnicity (e.g., a household would be Hispanic if either parent was Hispanic; Black, non-Hispanic if either parent was Black, non-Hispanic, etc). This means some households appear in more than one model. 48 Table A8: Regression Models of Parental Investments with Interactions Parental Expenditures (1) (2) (3) (4) Married ref. ref. 39.1∗∗∗ (10.7) Cohabiting −49.1∗∗∗ −23.8 ref. (10.3) (18.2) Single 24.8∗∗ 28.4∗ 58.7∗∗∗ (7.75) (13.4) (11.3) Income (in thousands) 2.60∗∗∗ 2.64∗∗∗ 2.65∗∗∗ 2.64∗∗∗ (0.095) (0.098) (0.10) (0.098) Married × Income (in thousands) ref. Cohabiting × Income (in thousands) −0.38 (0.29) Single × Income (in thousands) −0.057 (0.28) No HS −23.2∗∗∗ −26.9∗∗∗ −27.3∗∗∗ −2.35 (6.22) (6.19) (6.19) (19.9) HS no BA ref. ref. ref. ref. BA+ 205.5∗∗∗ 204.7∗∗∗ 204.8∗∗∗ 139.3∗∗∗ (7.85) (7.85) (7.82) (32.3) Married × No HS −23.0 (21.0) Married × HS no BA ref. Married × BA+ 64.2 (33.1) Cohabiting × No HS ref. Cohabiting × HS no BA ref. Cohabiting × BA+ ref. Single × No HS −29.2 (21.7) Single × HS no BA ref. Single × BA+ 91.2∗ (38.6) Household controls Y es Y es Y es Y es Month Fixed Effects Y es Y es Y es Y es Year Fixed Effects Y es Y es Y es Y es Observations 107793 107793 107793 107793 Standard errors in parentheses ∗ p < .05, ∗∗ p < .01, ∗∗∗ p < .001 49

https://docslib.org/doc/11556912/family-structure-and-parental-investments-economic-resources-commitment-and-inequalities-in-financial-investments-in-children

Coupling between plasmonic and photonic crystal modes in suspended three-dimensional meta-films (Journal Article) | DOE PAGES The U.S. Department of Energy's Office of Scientific and Technical Information Title: Coupling between plasmonic and photonic crystal modes in suspended three-dimensional meta-films Full Record References ( 30 ) Images Figures / Tables ( 7 ) Other Related Research Abstract A complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) compatible fabrication method for creating three-dimensional (3D) meta-films is presented. In contrast to metasurfaces, meta-films possess structural variation throughout the thickness of the film and can possess a sub-wavelength scale structure in all three dimensions. Here we use this approach to create 2D arrays of cubic silicon nitride unit cells with plasmonic inclusions of elliptical metallic disks in horizontal and vertical orientations with lateral array-dimensions on the order of millimeters. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy is used to measure the infrared transmission of meta-films with either horizontally or vertically oriented ellipses with varying eccentricity. Shape effects due to the ellipse eccentricity, as well as localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) effects due to the effective plasmonic wavelength are observed in the scattering response. The structures were modeled using rigorous coupled wave analysis (RCWA), finite difference time domain (Lumerical), and frequency domain finite element (COMSOL). The silicon nitride support structure possesses a complex in-plane photonic crystal slab band structure due to the periodicity of the unit cells. We show that adjustments to the physical dimensions of the ellipses can be used to control the coupling to this band structure. The horizontally oriented ellipses show narrow, distinct more » plasmonic resonances while the vertically oriented ellipses possess broader resonances, with lower overall transmission amplitude for a given ellipse geometry. We attribute this difference in resonance behavior to retardation effects. The ability to couple photonic slab modes with plasmonic inclusions enables a richer space of optical functionality for design of metamaterial-inspired optical components. « less Authors: Burckel, D. Bruce ; Search DOE PAGES for author "Burckel, D. Bruce" Search DOE PAGES for ORCID "0000-0003-2222-047X" Search orcid.org for ORCID "0000-0003-2222-047X" Goldflam, Michael ; Musick, Katherine M. ; Resnick, Paul J. ; Armelles, Gaspar ; Sinclair, Michael B. Publication Date: 2020-03-30 Research Org.: Sandia National Lab. (SNL-NM), Albuquerque, NM (United States) Sponsoring Org.: USDOE; Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) OSTI Identifier: 1607618 Alternate Identifier(s): OSTI ID: 1671802 Report Number(s): SAND2020-10798J Journal ID: ISSN 1094-4087; OPEXFF Grant/Contract Number: AC04-94AL85000 Resource Type: Published Article Journal Name: Optics Express Additional Journal Information: Journal Name: Optics Express Journal Volume: 28 Journal Issue: 8; Journal ID: ISSN 1094-4087 Publisher: Optical Society of America Country of Publication: United States Language: English Subject: 42 ENGINEERING Citation Formats MLA APA Chicago BibTeX Burckel, D. Bruce, Goldflam, Michael, Musick, Katherine M., Resnick, Paul J., Armelles, Gaspar, and Sinclair, Michael B.. Coupling between plasmonic and photonic crystal modes in suspended three-dimensional meta-films . United States: N. p., 2020. Web. doi:10.1364/OE.389077. Copy to clipboard Burckel, D. Bruce, Goldflam, Michael, Musick, Katherine M., Resnick, Paul J., Armelles, Gaspar, & Sinclair, Michael B.. Coupling between plasmonic and photonic crystal modes in suspended three-dimensional meta-films . United States. https://doi.org/10.1364/OE.389077 Copy to clipboard Burckel, D. Bruce, Goldflam, Michael, Musick, Katherine M., Resnick, Paul J., Armelles, Gaspar, and Sinclair, Michael B.. Mon . "Coupling between plasmonic and photonic crystal modes in suspended three-dimensional meta-films". United States. https://doi.org/10.1364/OE.389077. Copy to clipboard @article{osti_1607618, title = {Coupling between plasmonic and photonic crystal modes in suspended three-dimensional meta-films}, author = {Burckel, D. Bruce and Goldflam, Michael and Musick, Katherine M. and Resnick, Paul J. and Armelles, Gaspar and Sinclair, Michael B.}, abstractNote = {A complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) compatible fabrication method for creating three-dimensional (3D) meta-films is presented. In contrast to metasurfaces, meta-films possess structural variation throughout the thickness of the film and can possess a sub-wavelength scale structure in all three dimensions. Here we use this approach to create 2D arrays of cubic silicon nitride unit cells with plasmonic inclusions of elliptical metallic disks in horizontal and vertical orientations with lateral array-dimensions on the order of millimeters. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy is used to measure the infrared transmission of meta-films with either horizontally or vertically oriented ellipses with varying eccentricity. Shape effects due to the ellipse eccentricity, as well as localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) effects due to the effective plasmonic wavelength are observed in the scattering response. The structures were modeled using rigorous coupled wave analysis (RCWA), finite difference time domain (Lumerical), and frequency domain finite element (COMSOL). The silicon nitride support structure possesses a complex in-plane photonic crystal slab band structure due to the periodicity of the unit cells. We show that adjustments to the physical dimensions of the ellipses can be used to control the coupling to this band structure. The horizontally oriented ellipses show narrow, distinct plasmonic resonances while the vertically oriented ellipses possess broader resonances, with lower overall transmission amplitude for a given ellipse geometry. We attribute this difference in resonance behavior to retardation effects. The ability to couple photonic slab modes with plasmonic inclusions enables a richer space of optical functionality for design of metamaterial-inspired optical components.}, doi = {10.1364/OE.389077}, journal = {Optics Express}, number = 8, volume = 28, place = {United States}, year = {2020}, month = {3} } Copy to clipboard Journal Article: Free Publicly Available Full Text Publisher's Version of Record https://doi.org/10.1364/OE.389077 Copyright Statement Other availability Search WorldCat to find libraries that may hold this journal Citation Metrics: Cited by: 4 works Citation information provided by Web of Science Figures / Tables: Fig. 1: Schematic of 3D meta-film fabrication sequence All figures and tables (7 total) Save / Share: Export Metadata Endnote RIS CSV / Excel XML JSON Save to My Library You must Sign In or Create an Account in order to save documents to your library. Facebook Twitter Email Print More share options ... LinkedIn Pinterest Tumblr Works referenced in this record: Large-scale nanophotonic phased array journal , January 2013 Sun, Jie; Timurdogan, Erman; Yaacobi, Ami Nature, Vol. 493, Issue 7431 DOI: 10.1038/nature11727 Engineering mode hybridization in regular arrays of plasmonic nanoparticles embedded in 1D photonic crystal journal , February 2019 Gerasimov, V. S.; Ershov, A. E.; Bikbaev, R. G. Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy and Radiative Transfer, Vol. 224 DOI: 10.1016/j.jqsrt.2018.11.028 Fabrication of a full-size EUV pellicle based on silicon nitride conference , October 2015 Goldfarb, Dario L. SPIE Proceedings DOI: 10.1117/12.2196901 Aberration-Free Ultrathin Flat Lenses and Axicons at Telecom Wavelengths Based on Plasmonic Metasurfaces journal , January 2012 Aieta, Francesco; Genevet, Patrice; Kats, Mikhail A. Nano Letters, Vol. 12, Issue 9, p. 4932-4936 DOI: 10.1021/nl302516v Fundamental limits of ultrathin metasurfaces journal , March 2017 Arbabi, Amir; Faraon, Andrei Scientific Reports, Vol. 7, Issue 1, Article No. 43722 DOI: 10.1038/srep43722 Modelling the optical response of gold nanoparticles journal , January 2008 Myroshnychenko, Viktor; Rodríguez-Fernández, Jessica; Pastoriza-Santos, Isabel Chemical Society Reviews, Vol. 37, Issue 9 DOI: 10.1039/b711486a Optimal High Efficiency 3D Plasmonic Metasurface Elements Revealed by Lazy Ants journal , September 2019 Zhu, Danny Z.; Whiting, Eric B.; Campbell, Sawyer D. ACS Photonics, Vol. 6, Issue 11 DOI: 10.1021/acsphotonics.9b00717 Effective Wavelength Scaling for Optical Antennas journal , June 2007 Novotny, Lukas Physical Review Letters, Vol. 98, Issue 26 DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.98.266802 Three dimensional metafilms with dual channel unit cells journal , April 2017 Burckel, D. Bruce; Campione, Salvatore; Davids, Paul S. Applied Physics Letters, Vol. 110, Issue 14 DOI: 10.1063/1.4979698 Dielectric metasurfaces for complete control of phase and polarization with subwavelength spatial resolution and high transmission journal , August 2015 Arbabi, Amir; Horie, Yu; Bagheri, Mahmood Nature Nanotechnology, Vol. 10, Issue 11, p. 937-943 DOI: 10.1038/nnano.2015.186 Previous Page 1 2 3 Next Page All References conference (1) journal (29) Search Sort by: Sort by title Sort by date [ × clear filter / sort ] Figures / Tables found in this record: Fig. 1 (p. 2) figure Fig. 2 (p. 3) figure Fig. 3 (p. 5) figure Fig. 4 (p. 6) figure Fig. 5 (p. 6) figure Fig. 6 (p. 8) figure Fig. 7 (p. 9) figure 1 All Images figures (7) Search Sort by figure / table title Sort by page order [ × clear filter / sort ] Figures/Tables have been extracted from DOE-funded journal article accepted manuscripts. Similar Records in DOE PAGES and OSTI.GOV collections: Three dimensional metafilms with dual channel unit cells Journal Article Burckel, D. Bruce ; Campione, Salvatore ; Davids, Paul S. ; ... - Applied Physics Letters Three-dimensional (3D) metafilms composed of periodic arrays of silicon unit cells containing single and multiple micrometer-scale vertical split ring resonators (SRRs) per unit cell were fabricated. In contrast to planar and stacked planar structures, these 3D metafilms have a thickness t ~λ d /4, allowing for classical thin film effects in the long wavelength limit. The infrared specular far-field scattering response was measured for metafilms containing one and two resonators per unit cell and compared to numerical simulations. Excellent agreement in the frequency region below the onset of diffractive scattering was obtained. For dense arrays of unit cells containing single SRRs, normally more » incident linearly polarized plane waves which do not excite a resonant response result in thin film interference fringes in the reflected spectra and are virtually indistinguishable from the scattering response of an undecorated array of unit cells. For the resonant linear polarization, the specular reflection for arrays is highly dependent on the SRR orientation on the vertical face for gap-up, gap-down, and gap-right orientations. For dense arrays of unit cells containing two SRRs per unit cell positioned on adjacent faces, the specular reflection spectra are slightly modified due to near-field coupling between the orthogonally oriented SRRs but otherwise exhibit reflection spectra largely representative of the corresponding single-SRR unit cell structures. Lastly, the ability to pack the unit cell with multiple inclusions which can be independently excited by choice of incident polarization suggests the construction of dual-channel films where the scattering response is selected by altering the incident polarization. « less Cited by 16 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4979698 Full Text Available Coupled surface plasmon–phonon polariton nanocavity arrays for enhanced mid-infrared absorption Journal Article Kachiraju, Satya R. ; Nekrashevich, Ivan ; Ahmad, Imtiaz ; ... - Nanophotonics (Online) Resonant optical cavities are essential components in mid-infrared applications. However, typical film-type cavities require multilayer stacks with a micron-thick spacer due to mid-infrared wavelengths, and their performance is limited by narrow frequency tunability and angular sensitivity. We propose and experimentally demonstrate the subwavelength-scale (≈λ 0 /150) resonant nanocavity arrays that enhance the absorption spectrum of the device in the mid-infrared (10–12 microns) via excitation of coupled surface plasmon–phonon polaritons. The proposed metal–insulator–polar dielectric (gold–silicon–silicon carbide) structure supports a guided mode of the coupled surface polaritons in the lateral direction while vertically confining the mid-infrared wave within the 80 nm thick dielectric spacer. more » In particular, the subwavelength-scale (≈λ 0 /10) gratings are imposed to form Fabry–Pérot cavity arrays displaying angle-insensitive and frequency-tunable absorption of up to 80% of the optical power in the mid-infrared. Our work should benefit diverse mid-infrared applications and novel designs of polariton-based photonic devices. « less https://doi.org/10.1515/nanoph-2022-0339 Full Text Available Dielectric metasurfaces made from vertically oriented nanoresonators Journal Article Gennaro, Sylvain D. ; Goldflam, Michael ; Burckel, D. Bruce ; ... - Journal of the Optical Society of America. Part B, Optical Physics Dielectric metasurfaces control optical wavefronts via nanoscale resonators laid out across a surface. However, most metasurfaces are, by design, planar. In this work, we demonstrate the ability to fabricate dielectric metasurfaces with vertically oriented dielectric resonators using membrane projection lithography. We first numerically characterize the resonant modes of an array of vertically oriented germanium ellipses with no substrate and identify a narrowband region where the resonators satisfy the first Kerker condition. We then fabricate seven metasurfaces by depositing germanium ellipses onto walls of a 3D micrometer-sized silicon nitride photonic scaffold and characterize their transmission. We find that signatures of the more » multipolar modes seen in the unsupported array persist in the supported array, but the overall behavior is more complicated due to the scaffold. Further, we show that for a conceptual metasurface containing two coupled, vertically oriented ellipses, the ellipses can generate a sharp resonance with a quality factor of 240. « less https://doi.org/10.1364/JOSAB.424442 Growth mechanisms and origin of localized surface plasmon resonance coupled exciton effects in Cu2_xS thin films Journal Article Savariraj, Dennyson A. ; Kim, Hee-Je ; Viswanathan, Kodakkal K. ; ... - RSC Advances Cu2-xS thin films prepared by template free single step wet chemical method on fluorine doped tin oxide substrate without any surfactant exhibts localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) coupled exciton effects. Cu2-xS thin films of unique surface morphology and free carrier density due to copper vacancy is controlled by the growth temperature and time. These selectively grown Cu2-xS thin films possess tunable band gap (2.6 - 1.4 eV) due to quantum size effect. Eventhough, all the samples show satellite peak in the X-ray photoelectron spectra due to Cu vacancies, only the samples with higher oxygen concentration show LSPR in the near more » infrared region. « less https://doi.org/10.1039/C5RA26744G Ultrafast Silicon Photonics with Visible to Mid-Infrared Pumping of Silicon Nanocrystals Journal Article Diroll, Benjamin T. ; Schramke, Katelyn S. ; Guo, Peijun ; ... - Nano Letters Dynamic optical control of infrared (IR) transparency and refractive index is achieved using boron-doped silicon nanocrystals excited with mid-IR optical pulses. Also, unlike previous silicon-based optical switches, large changes in transmittance are achieved without a fabricated structure by exploiting strong light coupling of the localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) produced from free holes of p-type silicon nanocrystals. The choice of optical excitation wavelength allows selectivity between hole heating and carrier generation through intraband or interband photoexcitation, respectively. Mid-IR optical pumping heats the free holes of p-Si nanocrystals to effective temperatures greater than 3500 K. Increases of the hole effective mass more » at high effective hole temperatures lead to a sub-picosecond change of the dielectric function resulting in a redshift of the LSPR, modulating mid-IR transmission by as much as 27% and increasing the index of refraction by more than 0.1 in the mid-IR. Low hole heat capacity dictates sub-picosecond hole cooling, substantially faster than carrier recombination, and negligible heating of the Si lattice, permitting mid-IR optical switching at terahertz repetition frequencies. Further, the energetic distribution of holes at high effective temperatures partially reverses the Burstein-Moss effect, permitting modulation of transmittance at telecommunications wavelengths. Lastly, the results presented here show that doped silicon, particularly in micro- or nanostructures, is a promising dynamic metamaterial for ultrafast IR photonics. « less Cited by 10 https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.nanolett.7b03393 Full Text Available Similar Records

https://www.osti.gov/pages/biblio/1607618-img638725-fig

LUMIER² Study : LUpus Molecular Immunomonitoring to Evaluate the Risk of Relapse - Full Text View - ClinicalTrials.gov LUMIER² Study : LUpus Molecular Immunomonitoring to Evaluate the Risk of Relapse (LUMIER²) The safety and scientific validity of this study is the responsibility of the study sponsor and investigators. Listing a study does not mean it has been evaluated by the U.S. Federal Government. Read our disclaimer for details. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02811094 Recruitment Status : Terminated (COVID situation) First Posted : June 23, 2016 Last Update Posted : April 25, 2023 Sponsor: Assistance Publique Hopitaux De Marseille Information provided by (Responsible Party): Assistance Publique Hopitaux De Marseille Study Description Brief Summary: We aim to determine the accuracy or blood transcriptomic signatures to predict the occurrence of flares in patients with SLE that are clinically quiescent at inclusion Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) is a chronic auto-immune disease evolving by flares, with possible organ damage, and periods of remission. Current biological markers of disease activity are not sufficient to predict the occurrence of flares, monitor response to treatment or adapt therapeutic strategies. A previous study on genome-wide whole blood transcriptomic signatures in SLE (Chiche et al, Arthritis Rheumatology 2014) has identified gene panels associated with SLE disease activity Condition or disease Intervention/treatment Phase Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) Other: polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique of blood transcriptome analysis Not Applicable Detailed Description: Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) is a chronic auto-immune disease evolving by flares, with possible organ damage, and periods of remission. Current biological markers of disease activity are not sufficient to predict the occurrence of flares, monitor response to treatment or adapt therapeutic strategies. A previous study on genome-wide whole blood transcriptomic signatures in SLE (Chiche et al, Arthritis Rheumatology 2014) has identified gene panels associated with SLE disease activity. We aim to determine the accuracy or blood transcriptomic signatures to predict the occurrence of flares in patients with SLE that are clinically quiescent at inclusion. LUMIER² is a prospective multicentric observational study conducted in the departments of Clinical Nephrology, Internal Medicine and Rheumatology in the South of France. Adult patients with SLE, clinically quiescent and with no change in treatment in the past 3 months, will be included and followed-up for 12 months. Blood samples will be drawn every 3 months during 12 months in the absence of flare. Patients presenting a flare will be sampled at the time of the flare and 1 month later. The inclusion of 300 patients is expected, with a test cohort (150 patients) and a validation cohort (150 patients). Study Design Layout table for study information Study Type : Interventional  (Clinical Trial) Actual Enrollment : 210 participants Allocation: N/A Intervention Model: Single Group Assignment Masking: None (Open Label) Primary Purpose: Other Official Title: LUMIER² Study : LUpus Molecular Immunomonitoring to Evaluate the Risk of Relapse Actual Study Start Date : November 9, 2016 Actual Primary Completion Date : January 14, 2020 Actual Study Completion Date : January 14, 2021 MedlinePlus related topics: Lupus U.S. FDA Resources Arms and Interventions Arm Intervention/treatment Adult patients with Systemic LupusErythematosus (SLE) Adult patients with SLE, clinically quiescent and with no change in treatment in the past 3 months, will be included and followed-up for 12 months. Blood samples will be drawn every 3 months during 12 months in the absence of flare. Patients presenting a flare will be sampled at the time of the flare and 1 month later. Other: polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique of blood transcriptome analysis this study (LUMIER2 study) is to test the hypothesis that a test score or prognostic transcriptomic allows to discriminate clinically quiescent or patients who will not present a push of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Outcome Measures Top of Page Study Description Study Design Arms and Interventions Outcome Measures Eligibility Criteria Contacts and Locations More Information Primary Outcome Measures : Area under the curve of the blood transcriptomic score to predict SLE flares. [ Time Frame: 3 months ] Eligibility Criteria Choosing to participate in a study is an important personal decision. Talk with your doctor and family members or friends about deciding to join a study. To learn more about this study, you or your doctor may contact the study research staff using the contacts provided below. For general information, Learn About Clinical Studies. Inclusion Criteria: Age ≥18 years SLE defined by ACR criteria Clinically quiescent disease (SLEDAI =< 4 without clinical flare) and absence of treatment increase in the past 3 months Written informed consent Exclusion Criteria: Pregnancy, lactation

https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02811094

For Keto Diet | Page 2 | Diabetes Daily Forums A keto nut butter would be any nut butter not containing sugar or fillers. So, you can get a jar of almond butter (T.J's or any store) with just almonds... For Keto Diet Seagal said: A keto nut butter would be any nut butter not containing sugar or fillers. So, you can get a jar of almond butter (T.J's or any store) with just almonds (and salt). Jeff, nothing wrong with the ingredients, but you can add some coconut oil to a jar of almond butter if you want more fat - don't know about the ingredient "vanilla bean powder". If you want further keto information,have you listened to any of the Virta blogcasts re Keto? Dietdoctor.com has a terrific section on keto. There are a lot of companies jumping on the "Keto Bandwagon" in an effort to take your $$$$. There may be nothing "bad" in the products, just that one doing Keto doesn't need them. "Raw Vanilla Bean Has More Health Benefits. Further, raw vanilla bean powder or whole vanilla bean has more health benefits than the extract, as it is rich in other powerful nutrients, where as extract contains only one component vanillin that gives flavour and fragrance of vanilla. " You could essentially buy all the products in the ingredients, but what would that cost? I do notice a lot of places "jumping in" so to speak.I'll have to listen to the podcast you were talking about.Another helpful member took some time to arrange some videos for me, that I just havn't yet had the time to watch.but will. Thanks Seagal. jeffg said: "Raw Vanilla Bean Has More Health Benefits. Further, raw vanilla bean powder or whole vanilla bean has more health benefits than the extract, as it is rich in other powerful nutrients, where as extract contains only one component vanillin that gives flavour and fragrance of vanilla. " You could essentially buy all the products in the ingredients, but what would that cost? I do notice a lot of places "jumping in" so to speak.I'll have to listen to the podcast you were talking about.Another helpful member took some time to arrange some videos for me, that I just havn't yet had the time to watch.but will. Thanks Seagal. Thanks for the vanilla powder information. Some powders of that type have sugar or maltodextrin, so it is good they have a breakdown. I think it is a matter of what a person is willing to spend on a program. I can become keto adapted without buying additional products, so I don't except for buying coconut oil, nut flours, butter. A lot of certain products also have more protein and I keep mine to under 60 g per day. Keep us posted as you move forward jdm1217 said: A stupid idea. Getting the benefits of ketones is just too easy by simply changing what you eat. They are mistaking the metric (blood ketones) for the actual condition (dietary ketosis) which has myriad features and benefits beyond ketones. Franken-medicine. Exactly, jdm! It seems to me the equivalent of purchasing a can of "sweat", and dousing yourself in it, instead of working out. It would appear you've done the work, but it would just be an illusion. Jughed said: Problem I see with these products - if you adopt the keto diet for life, the fad may end and the products may go away. Plus, they are expensive... very true jdm1217 said: Plus, there may be a more fundamental flaw. The thinking behind these products - if indeed there was any beyond the obvious profit motive - is flawed. Ketosis is a natural human state that is effective in preventing, counter-acting and reversing many types of harm inflicted by the modern ultra gluco-centric diet. It causes ketones to be present in blood. There are clear advantages to having ketones in the blood vis-a-vis brain and cognitive function, healthy fueling of cells throughout the body particular nerve cells which often suffer in the highly sugared environment. SOOO, let's just manufacture ketones and sell them to people. They old standard "magic pill" and a supposed SHORTCUT to get the desired benefits with less effort. Problem: these ketones are not something natural or anything we've ever been exposed to in a million years of our existence as a species. Taking them WITHOUT doing those things which naturally cause ketones to be present is an anomalous condition, impossible to be achieved in any natural way and as such, of unknown short, medium or long-term consequences. The state of dietary ketosis has many features and benefits to health, many known and probably many others as yet unknown. We do not have sufficient knowledge to just assume that adding ketones to the mix, WITHOUT all of the other conditions that normally produce ketones, is going to be on net beneficial. A stupid idea. Getting the benefits of ketones is just too easy by simply changing what you eat. They are mistaking the metric (blood ketones) for the actual condition (dietary ketosis) which has myriad features and benefits beyond ketones. Franken-medicine. Thanks for the info.They say the exogenous keytones.. are for boosting keytones , to get back into ketosis easier.So the 3 betahydroxybutyrate they use isnt natural? jeffg JimN said: The products seem to be very, very expensive. And, no offense, this is starting to feel like a time-share vacation sales pitch. You asked for opinions and you're getting them. What more do you want? You appear to be sold on them. Yeah I asked for opinions and I'm getting them,is it not possible for one to have more than one question? and...............? I'm not sold on anything,no time shares, just trying to gain knowledge.You'd think at that price and with the ingredients I've seen(buying all the ingredients seperately may add to same, don't know) They are way expensive! jeffg said: Yeah I asked for opinions and I'm getting them,is it not possible for one to have more than one question? and...............? I'm not sold on anything,no time shares, just trying to gain knowledge.You'd think at that price and with the ingredients I've seen(buying all the ingredients seperately may add to same, don't know) They are way expensive! OK. I forgot one of my rules that keeps me between the lines, and it's this: "Your body, your science experiment" I can't give you any validation for using these very expensive products. That being said, it's a free country, go ahead, let us know how it works for you. jeffg said: Thanks for the info.They say the exogenous keytones.. are for boosting keytones , to get back into ketosis easier.So the 3 betahydroxybutyrate they use isnt natural? Ketosis is a comprehensive condition with many features, such as: * extremely low incoming/available glucose * cells condition to utilize fats over glucose - i.e., with physiological (read: good) insulin resistance * high availability of fats either ingested or mobilized from fat stores (this and the previous REQUIRE very low insulin and low available glucose to even happen) * a liver adept and used to converting available fats to ketones * probably other things I'm not thinking of right now So, we use the METRIC of circulating ketones to detect that the above condition has occurred. Ketones are not "ketosis". They are simply the proxy by which (under normal conditions) we detect that all of the above are in play. In ketosis, we convert fat to ketones and then use them for energy. exogenous ketones help you get into ketosis faster and support many of your health goals on keto. Is this not true?If it is then whats wront with trying to boost that? Dr. Peter Attia's exogenous ketone experience https://peterattiamd.com/experience-exogenous-ketones-2/ jeffg said: exogenous ketones help you get into ketosis faster and support many of your health goals on keto. Is this not true?If it is then whats wront with trying to boost that? How are they documenting their claim of helping you "get into ketosis faster"? The usual method to determine if someone is in ketosis is to test for ketones. But if the ketones are being artificially introduced, it precludes that method of determination. PeterPumper said: How are they documenting their claim of helping you "get into ketosis faster"? The usual method to determine if someone is in ketosis is to test for ketones. But if the ketones are being artificially introduced, it precludes that method of determination. Using exogenous ketone supplements after a period of eating carbohydrates will tell your body that you want to be using ketones for energy instead of those carbs.This makes it so you don’t have to go through the awful keto flu phase, which is where all the of the nasty side effects are. When you take exogenous ketones, your blood ketone levels increase accordingly. By taking them, you can enter nutritional ketosis within an hour I guess like that? An hour?????? hmmmm https://perfectketo.com/exogenous-ketones-for-weight-loss/#2 PeterPumper said: How are they documenting their claim of helping you "get into ketosis faster"? The usual method to determine if someone is in ketosis is to test for ketones. But if the ketones are being artificially introduced, it precludes that method of determination. Why does it preclude the method of determination? Here’s a review from DietDoctor: https://www.dietdoctor.com/low-carb/keto/exogenous-ketones Triv said: Here’s a review from DietDoctor: https://www.dietdoctor.com/low-carb/keto/exogenous-ketones Thanks Triv.Ok so snake oil for the most part.Thanks all! Sorry?????????? for all the questions and what not, but when trying to learn, what else is there. Have a great day all. jeffg said: Thanks Triv.Ok so snake oil for the most part.Thanks all! Sorry?????????? for all the questions and what not, but when trying to learn, what else is there. Have a great day all. Ahhh, Jeff, you would not have come to the conclusion you did if you had not asked the questions Personally, I enjoyed reading all the responses! Ahhh, Jeff, you would not have come to the conclusion you did if you had not asked the questions Personally, I enjoyed reading all the responses! No I wouldn't have, thats why I love this place, could tell some were getting weary of all the questions a rebuttals.Hence the "sorry??" I asked my endo exactly if supplements could help. He did no know so diet doctor should be a good read. jeffg said: Why does it preclude the method of determination? Again, because the mere presence of ketones is not the definition of ketosis. The presence of ketones is an indication of ketosis, but only because achieving a state of dietary ketosis results in the presence of ketones. If the ketones are artificially introduced, it says nothing about whether or nor dietary ketosis has been achieved. To put it another way, Olympic athletes wear their Gold Metals to show that they have won their events. If you see a track star with a gold metal around his neck, it is usually safe to assume he won his event. However, if I go and buy a Gold Metal at the Gold & Silver Pawn Shop in Las Vegas from Chumlee, and put it around my neck, it doesn't make me an Olympic Champion by any means. That metal, once bought instead of won, ceased to be a proper indicator. My body creates the right ketones in the right quantities and utilises my normal diet to do so. It's been doing that for seven years now, and that costs me nothing on top of my normal food budget. Why would I want to spend a heap of money on expensive supplements? Back in 2012, Jimmy Moore was one of my original low carb heroes, but I finally stopped following him when he started accepting ads on his blog for the exogenous ketone marketers. It will be interesting to see what Peter Attia comes up with eventually in his attempt to answer his questions on the benefits of exogenous ketones. He is one of my most trusted sources of information on many aspects of health, including nutritional ketosis. I just wish I had one tenth of his curiosity and ability to focus and evaluate results. But I doubt if I would ever have the courage to put my body through even one of the stresses he has already done with his in the interests of science. One of my biggest heroes ever.

https://www.diabetesdaily.com/forum/threads/for-keto-diet.126974/page-2

Sustainability | Free Full-Text | Differentiation of Rural Development Driven by Natural Environment and Urbanization: A Case Study of Kashgar Region, Northwest China With the socio-economic transformation, the recombination of regional development factors and the followed reconstruction of the rural development elements system have profoundly changed the rural landscape of the Kashgar region in Northwest China. The factors affecting the rural production and lifestyle interact with each other, shaping different types of rural development. Accordingly, basing on the main factors influencing the rural development ability and long-term development potential, the assessment indicator system of rural comprehensive development (RCD) was established to reveal the differentiation of rural development and identify the dominant factors affecting rural development. The principal component analysis method and the cluster analysis method was used to distinguish the different types. The results show that the high-level rural development areas are mainly concentrated in the center of the region, while the low-level areas are mainly distributed in the periphery, with significant spatial differentiation characteristics. We divided the rural development into three categories and 11 zones for which the basic natural conditions and external challenges are different. The categories reflect three possible results of rural development: grow, decline, and vanish, which is in the industrialization development stage. With the transformation of human society and the change of urban–rural relationship in its mode and content, the external economy, society, and changing environment has put pressures on rural areas. Therefore, according to different rural development types, it is necessary to take measures to strengthen the rural areas to cope with external environmental challenges. Differentiation of Rural Development Driven by Natural Environment and Urbanization: A Case Study of Kashgar Region, Northwest China by Jinping Lin 1,2 , Jun Lei 1,2,* , Zhen Yang 1,2,* and Jiangang Li 1,2 Sustainability 2019 , 11 (23), 6859; https://doi.org/10.3390/su11236859 Received: 6 October 2019 / Revised: 21 November 2019 / Accepted: 28 November 2019 / Published: 2 December 2019 Abstract : Keywords: rural development differentiation natural environment urbanization Kashgar region 1. Introduction Urban and rural areas are two major regional organizational units in geographical space and are two important components in the process of social and economic development. Under the conditions of large-scale production and the division of labor, an interactive symbiotic relationship between urban and rural areas, called the urban-rural relationship, has formed [ 1 ]. How to better coordinate the relationship between urban and rural areas has been a wide concern in the academic community. The development of urban–rural connections is considered by all countries in the world to be required to achieve sustainable development [ 2 , 3 , 4 ]. However, in the process of urbanization and modernization, the contrast between urban prosperity and rural degeneration is obvious. Rural recession has become a common phenomenon around the world. Germany, France, the United States, Japan, South Korea, and other developed countries in the world have experienced signs of recession or rural crisis; emerging developing countries such as India, South Africa, Brazil, Mexico, and China are also experiencing rural recession, and large numbers of young and middle-aged laborers are moving to cities [ 5 , 6 ]. The phenomenon of urban “slums” is prominent and agricultural development is lagging behind [ 7 ]. Worldwide, rural recession has become a global issue that poses serious challenges to sustainable development [ 8 ], and is an important aspect of the global governance system. So, how can we avoid rural decline under the rapid trend of global urbanization? There is no doubt that rural development must be emphasized and promoted in the process of urbanization and modernization [ 9 ]. Western scholars have studied rural development policies, elements, subjects, and approaches from the perspectives of rural development and global governance [ 10 ]. In terms of the theory of rural development and urban–rural integration, the United States attaches great importance to the coordinated development of industry and agriculture, and promotes urban–rural integration via the “metropolitan circle model” [ 11 ]. The U.K. attaches great importance to the establishment of a social security system for urban and rural integration and to the strengthening of urban and rural planning and legislation [ 12 , 13 ]. Germany attaches importance to the balanced development of urban and rural areas and promotes urban–rural integration with the idea of “urban–rural equivalence” [ 14 ]. In terms of rural development, France promotes agricultural modernization and rural development through rural land and agricultural subsidies [ 15 ]; the U.K. promotes rural social-economic development by formulating comprehensive rural policies and development plans; Japan promotes agriculture and rural development through the establishment of the rural land legal system; Germany pays attention to improving the structure of rural population; while South Korea respects the main role of farmers and attaches importance to the harmonious development of human-land relations [ 16 , 17 , 18 ]. Japan, South Korea, France, and other countries guarantee the integrated development of rural industries by extending the agricultural industrial chain and value chain, strengthening technical research, establishing advanced information management and supporting the services, and increasing policy subsidies and financial support. China is a developing country with a large population, a weak rural base, a poor agricultural foundation, large regional differences, and a large urban–rural gap. Can China’s rural development rely on strong financial support or the full transfer of rural surplus labor as Western countries do? Chinese scholars have conducted many studies on this issue. The results show that there are many differences between China and Western countries in terms of rural development stage, development priorities, and goals [ 19 ]. Therefore, theories and models of rural development suitable for China should be explored on the basis of the research results of rural development in Western countries, and promotes the integrated development of urban and rural areas. How do we develop China’s countryside? The “Rural Revitalization Strategy” proposed in 2017 has pointed out the direction for realizing the optimization and reorganization of rural values and factor functions, promoting rural development, and realizing comprehensive rural revitalization. It also provides an important policy and institutional guarantee for the integrated development of urban and rural areas in the new era. Subsequently, a wave of rural development research began in academic circles. Some scholars analyzed the theory and mechanism of urban–rural integration of rural development [ 20 ]. Others carried out studies on main developing body, developing institutional arrangements, developing rural characteristic industries, and rural population/housing/land legacy issues [ 21 , 22 , 23 ]. Although previous studies have helped us to understand what regional characteristics of rural areas and rural development issues in China are, most of these studies are based on the eastern and central rural areas with higher development levels [ 24 , 25 ], while there are few studies on the rural areas in the western regions with a lower development level. China’s rural areas are vast, with complex, regional, and dynamic characteristics. The natural conditions and social-economic backgrounds in the eastern, central, and western regions are different. The rural development foundation, level, and constraints also have regional differences, so it is necessary to study rural development differentiation characteristics in the underdeveloped areas in the northwestern region. In addition, existing studies focus more on the villages surrounding the big cities [ 26 , 27 , 28 ]; the rural development model and paths in these studies may not be applicable to remote villages. Different types of villages need different development requirements and ideas. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct targeted research on rural development in different regions and types. 29 2. A Review of Urban–Rural Relationships and Rural Development Types 2.1. Urban–Rural Relationships To explore the issue of rural development, we should first scientifically recognize the development and evolution rules of urban–rural relationship theory, which is of great significance to revitalize rural areas, to narrow the urban–rural gap, to adjust the urban–rural structure, and to optimize urban–rural development pattern. Developed countries have achieved mature results in theoretical research on urban–rural relations. Western urban–rural relationship theory mainly includes three kinds of urban and rural development views [ 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 ]: urban bias, rural bias, and urban–rural linkage. There are roughly four major development stages of urban–rural relations. The first stage is the original theory of “urban–rural integration” represented by the utopian socialist and Marxist “integration” ideology. The second stage is the urban–rural dichotomy theory represented by the “Lewis-Fei-Ranis” model [ 34 ]. And the third stage is the urban–rural coordinated development theory represented by the “Desakota” model [ 35 ] and “The Regional Network” model [ 34 , 36 , 37 ]. The fourth stage is the urban–rural dichotomy dissolved theory from Westlund, who hold the view that rural areas surrounding the cities have two completely different development types: the city-close countryside has become a part of the expansive city regions, while the peripheral areas will stagnate or disappear if they cannot create new exchanges with the booming city regions. Therefore, rural areas as well as urban–rural dichotomy will disappear in the post-urban world [ 38 ]. Based on the study of Western urban–rural relations, China has also explored the development of its own urban–rural relations. Since the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the urban–rural relations and rural development can be divided into three stages. These different stages have their own agricultural and rural development policies, systems, and characteristics ( Table 1 ). 39 Since the implementation of economic reform in 1978, the traditional centrally planned economy has been transformed into a market-oriented economic model, and the primary agricultural economy has been gradually shifted to an urban and rural industrial economy. The implementation of the household contract responsibility system promoted the vitality of rural development and aroused enthusiasm for agricultural production. The emerging of township enterprises (TVEs) has opened up a new scene of rural development and it is one of the major achievements of China’s social and economic reforms [ 42 , 43 ]. It has promoted the transfer of agricultural surplus labor and has raised the employment level and income of farmers. Overall, urban and rural development is relatively coordinated. However, for a long time, under the dual system of urban and rural areas in China, the city-oriented development strategy, the citizen-oriented distribution system, and the heavy-industry-oriented industrial structure deepened the urban and rural division, land division, and human-land separation in China, which also restricted the transformation of China’s economic development mode, the transformation of urban–rural development, and the transformation of institutions and mechanisms. The strong polarization effect of cities in the process of rapid urbanization has prompted the rapid transfer of production factors such as rural labor, capital, energy, and technology to the cities, which has led to the formation of “city disease” characterized by population congestion, traffic congestion, environmental pollution, and housing poverty, as well as non-agricultural production factors. A series of rural development problems such as hollow villages, an aging population, environmental pollution, multi-dimensional poverty, and disorder of governance have damaged the development of farmers, agriculture, and rural areas (“rural three”), and cause rural areas declining day by day. To some extent, agriculture and rural areas have contributed to the industry and cities development in the process of industrialization and urbanization, but great sacrifices have also been made [ 44 ]. As a result, a series of problems, such as the reduction of cultivated land, ecological destruction, environmental deterioration, and a widening gap between urban and rural areas, have appeared, which has restricted the development of the rural social economy and urban–rural integration [ 45 , 46 , 47 ]. The urban–rural income ratio is still expanding, and the gap between urban and rural areas is obvious. 2.2. Differentiation Rural Development Because of social, economic, technological and the interaction of various resource elements, large spatial and temporal changes are taking place in rural areas. This change has increased the difficulty of our understanding of rural development characteristics to a certain extent. In addition, there is no doubt that rurality is difficult to accurately define because of the functions, dynamics, and variations [ 48 ]. Therefore, the differentiation rural development and classification of rural types have been discussed from multiple perspectives by scholars. 49 50 51 From the perspective of rural production, the older generation of geographers in China adhered to the purpose of geography research for agricultural development and actively promoted theoretical and practical research on regional agricultural types. Hu took the lead in researching on differentiation and dividing China into its various agricultural regions. After the reform and opening up in 1978 [ 52 ], Zhou divided rural areas of China into 10 first-level agricultural regions and 38 second-level agricultural regions [ 53 ]. In the new era, Liu and other scholars incorporate the regional differentiation of China’s rural areas into 15 agricultural first-level districts and 53 secondary districts, and rural development paths were chosen according to the relative advantages of rural agricultural production in each district [ 54 ]. 40 55 From the perspective of rural function, on the basis of analyzing the conditions and changes in rural China, Li proposed that the main types of rural development in urbanization are grain-making villages, specialized agricultural villages, professional tourism villages, residential villages, and mixed villages and explored a future rural development model [ 56 ]. From the perspective of rural settlements, some scholars have divided villages into low-density, medium-density, and high-density based on the size distribution of rural settlements [ 57 ]. Some scholars also classified rural space into mass-type, broadband types, strips, scatter, and cluster-distributed villages based on the spatial form of rural settlements [ 58 ]. From a comprehensive development perspective, Clock, also with Edwards, constructed an “index of rurality,” based on evaluation indicators such as population, household amenities, occupational structure, commuting patterns, and the distance to urban centers in order to divide local government districts in England and Wales into five categories, namely, extreme rural, intermediate rural, intermediate non-rural, extreme non-rural, and urban [ 59 , 60 ]. Bański comprehensively considered rural agricultural and non-agricultural functions in Poland from the perspectives of land-use structure, employment structure, tourism, and recuperation [ 61 ]. On the basis of the relationship between the proportion of the non-agricultural labor force and rural economic diversity, Sharma et al. portrayed regional differences in rural diversity in India and classified them into four types: higher, high, low, and lower level [ 62 ]. Zhou built indicators from four dimensions—the environmental system, resource system, humanities system and economic system—to evaluate the level of comprehensive rural development. On this basis, China’s rural areas can divide into southeast coastal areas, the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River, northeastern regions, and the Xinjiang region, etc., forming 11 types [ 63 ]. Taking northwestern China as an example, Wen comprehensively evaluated the rural development from the aspects of the rural main body, industrial development, the human settlement environment, and resource endowment and divided the rural development types into the agglomeration and promotion type, integration type of three industries, integration type of suburbs, characteristic protection type, and relocation type, corresponding to the rural revitalization paths of infrastructure improvement, industrial cultivation, resource sharing, environmental protection, and ecological restoration, respectively [ 64 ]. Taking the rural areas of the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei metropolitan area as an example, Li evaluated the rural development status using from the aspects of economy, population, location, and resources and the environment. They divided the rural development types into the central community, modern agricultural area, and enterprise agglomeration area, and correspondingly proposed rural revitalization models of satellite towns, large-scale production, and technology cultivation [ 65 ]. 66 3. Methodology, Study Area, and Data 3.1. Research Framework and Methodology 3.1.1. Assessment Indicator System The countryside is a regional complex with natural, economic, and social characteristics and with multiple functions relating to production, life, and ecology. The rural regional system is composed of rural main systems, such as humanities and the economy, and an ontology system, such as resources and the environment. It is a complex, comprehensive, dynamic, and open system that interacts in certain rural areas [ 67 ]. The development and evolution of rural regional systems are influenced by rural core systems such as economic development, social development, natural resources, and the ecological environment, and by external systems such as industrialization, urbanization, national or regional development policies, and institutional mechanisms [ 63 , 67 ]. At the same time, they are affected by objective factors such as the economic base and location conditions, and by subjective factors such as government, enterprises, and farmers [ 68 ]. Rural development is influenced by the rural core driving force, urban foreign aid driving force, and urban–rural interaction force [ 67 ], which determine the comprehensive measurement of rural development level from multiple dimensions. Therefore, on the basis of the comprehensiveness, scientific representativeness, and the availability of evaluation indicators, an evaluation index system of the rural comprehensive development level was constructed from the subsystems of population, environment, location, and economy ( Table 2 ). 69 70 71 72 71 50 3.1.2. Rural Development Type Classification Standardization Processing min j 2. Rural Comprehensive Development (3) 3.1.3. Geographical Type Division Following the principles of comprehensiveness, dominance, consistency, and regionality, we comprehensively considered various population distributions, regional natural environments, economic development levels, and comprehensive geographic locations. We should grasp the similarities and differences in regional comprehensive features, so as to divide the rural areas into types of rural development. Principal component analysis was carried out in SPSS software prior to the cluster analysis; the results were imported into ArcGIS and converted into spatial data. Finally, the rural areas in the Grater Kashgar Area were divided according to their development patterns, main function area planning, comprehensive agricultural divisions, and ecological divisions. The analysis framework is shown in Figure 1 . 3.2. Study Area and Data Collection Figure 2 X1-X3 X11 X4 X5 X6 X7 X12 X8-X10 4. Results 4.1. Spatial Differentiation Characteristics of the Rural Development Level According to Equation (3), the comprehensive development levels of rural areas in the Kashgar region were calculated, and the results were normalized to obtain the final evaluation results. The natural breakpoint method (Jenks) was used to divide the rural comprehensive development levels into five levels. Figure 3 Table 3 The higher-level areas are distributed in the core towns of the Kashgar town group and the Shache town group. These areas have flat terrain, superior agricultural production conditions, and better living environment, which is conducive to population agglomeration. The transportation is convenient, greatly influenced by the radiation of urban development, and rural industrialization is high. The high-level areas are located in Kashgar town group, which is close to the periphery of higher-level areas. These areas are located in the transition zone from high mountain to flat land, with large gradient, small oasis areas, limited agricultural production, and a high proportion of employees in the secondary and tertiary industries. The villages have a certain self-development ability and a high level of comprehensive development, but its traffic location advantage is insufficient. The medium-level areas are located in the middle of the study area, close to the periphery of the higher-and high-level areas. The small oasis area and insufficient per capita arable land in this area lead to the lack of scale advantage in agricultural production. The faraway location makes the weak influence from the town and the low development level of the secondary and tertiary industries. As a result, the rural self-development ability is weak and the external driving force is deficient, which belongs to the middle development level areas. The low-level areas are located in the periphery of the study area. These areas are characterized by extensive mountains and deserts, fragile ecological environment, rare population, and poor location conditions. Still, rural areas lack the self-development foundation and ability, and are limited by the positive impact of cities. Therefore, rural development is restricted by both internal and external driving forces, which makes the rural poverty problem prominent. The lower-level areas are scattered. These areas are high in altitude, steep in slope, harsh in natural environment, fragile in ecological environment, and agricultural production is dominated by alpine animal husbandry. Villages are sparsely distributed, with a small population and strong seasonal mobility and a lower level of comprehensive development. 4.2. Rural Development Types In view of the regional differences in the pattern characteristics, influencing factors and development mode of the comprehensive development level in rural areas, this paper further discusses the regional division of the rural comprehensive development types. Based on the principal component analysis and cluster analysis, the rural areas in the Kashgar region are divided into three categories (primary areas) and 11 zones (secondary areas) ( Figure 4 ). Different rural area types capture the distinction basic characteristics and development orientation. According to the spatial characteristics and clustering results of rural comprehensive development level, the first level areas of rural development type were divided. Then based on the above rural comprehensive development level threshold standard, the rural development types included in every primary area are counted. For example, there are three rural development types in the urban central circle: medium-level (0.20), high-level (0.32), and higher-level (0.43). Accordingly, identifying the leading factors that affect the rural development level base on the evaluation subsystem score of the rural comprehensive development level, and take “leading factors + development level” as the criterion to name the secondary area. The primary areas form a circle structure with Kashgar Kashi-Shache as the center, which the comprehensive rural development level gradually decreases from the inside to the outside. The basic features of each category are shown in Table 4 . The urban central circle countryside is mainly distributed in the center of the Kashgar town group and the Shache town group. There are three rural development types in this circle, i.e., medium-level area, high-level area, and higher-level area. On this basis, it can be further divided into three secondary rural zones: the location-dominated medium-level zone, the environment-oriented high-level zone, and the comprehensive-oriented higher-level zone. The basic features of each zones are shown in Table 5 . The urban–rural inner circle countryside is mainly distributed in the periphery of the urban central circle countryside. There are two rural development types in this circle, namely, medium-level area and the high-level area. On this basis, it is further divided into four secondary rural zones: the location-oriented high-level zone, the environment-oriented medium-level zone, the economy-constrained medium-level zone, and the comprehensive-constrained medium-level zone. The remote peripheral circle countryside is mainly distributed in the periphery of the Kashgar region. There are three rural development types in this circle, namely lower-level area, low-level area, and medium-level area. On this basis, it can be further divided into four secondary rural zones: the location-oriented medium-level zones, the economy-constrained low-level zones, the comprehensive-constrained low-level zone, and the comprehensive-constrained lower-level zone. 5. Discussion and Conclusions 5.1. Discussion Rural development is influenced by natural conditions, existing economic, social foundations, historical and cultural background, as well as geographical location and traffic conditions. In the above analyses, we concluded that the spatial differentiation characteristics of rural comprehensive development level in the Kashgar region is very obvious. The high-level areas are mainly concentrated in the center areas while the low-level areas are mainly distributed in the periphery areas. This spatial differentiation pattern can be attributed to regional differentiation of natural environmental foundations and urban radiation intensity. 38 73 74 74 9 5.2. Conclusions Different rural development types are shaped by the interaction between material and immaterial elements that affect rural production and lifestyles [ 41 ]. According to the main factors influencing the rural development ability and long-term development potential, the assessment indicator system of rural comprehensive development (RCD), including four dimensions of rural population, environment, location, and economy, was established to assess the comprehensive development level. Then, using the principal component analysis method and the cluster analysis method, we divided the rural areas in the Kashgar region into three categories and 11 zones based on the comprehensive evaluation results. In the process of social development from agricultural period to urban-industrial economy and to knowledge economy, tremendous changes have taken place in the relationship between urban and rural areas. In the interaction with cities, the rural external development environment has also changed, facing more severe challenges, and rural recession seems inevitable. It has been considered that the rural areas began to show two different development trends in the industrialization stage. The rural areas around the city have achieved growth because of the better interaction with cities. While the periphery villages are increasingly not needed by the cities, and began to decline due to the worse interaction with cities. Even worse, the former will become a part of the metropolitan region, while the latter will decline and vanish in knowledge economy era. That is to say, the countryside will no longer exist. With the transformation of human society and the change of urban–rural relationship in its mode and content, the external economy, society, and changing environment has put pressures on the rural areas. These pressures are so great, and the ability of rural areas to counteract them is so limited. Therefore, according to different rural development types, it is necessary to take measures to strengthen rural areas to cope with external environmental challenges. At present, the purpose of the Rural Revitalization Strategy in China is to promote the interaction between rural areas and urban areas, then to achieve a balanced state of rural functions, elements composition, and system operation, and finally to promote the transformation of rural development and to achieve urban–rural integration. As a special geographical location, Great Kashgar Area is the west gate of China and the core area of the Silk Road Economic Belt. From the perspective of economic development level, this region is one of the most underdeveloped areas in China, with low rural development level and prominent urban–rural contradictions. According to the latest Rural Revitalization and Development Plan of Kashgar in 2018, it is necessary to classify rural areas and promote rural development orderly. In order to achieve these goals, local governments should adopt corresponding measures to promote rural transformation, improve comprehensive rural development level, achieve urban–rural integration, and maintain social stability, according to the characteristics of rural development types and dominant factors. Author Contributions Data curation, J.L. (Jiangang Li); Funding acquisition, J.L. (Jun Lei); Writing—original draft, J.L. (Jinping Lin); Writing—review and editing, Z.Y. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Funding The current work is the Strategic Priority Research Program of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Pan-Third Pole Environment Study for a Green Silk Road (Pan-TPE) (NO: XDA20040400). Conflicts of Interest The authors declare no conflict of interest. References Mayer, H.; Habersetzer, A.; Meili, R. Rural-urban linkages and sustainable regional development: The role of entrepreneurs in linking peripheries and centers. Sustainability 2016 , 8 , 745. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Liu, Y.S.; Lu, S.S.; Chen, Y.F. Spatio-temporal change of urban-rural equalized development patterns in China and its driving factors. J. Rural Stud. 2013 , 32 , 320–330. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Roberts, P. Wealth from waste: Local and regional economic development and the environment. Geogr. J. 2004 , 170 , 126–134. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] McGee, T.G. Managing the rural-urban transformation in East Asia in the 21st century. Sustain. Sci. 2008 , 3 , 155–167. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Liu, C.F.; Yu, B.; Zhu, Y.; Liu, L.C.; Li, P.J. Measurement of rural residents’ mobility in Western China: A case study of Qingyang, Gansu province. Sustainability 2019 , 11 , 2492. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Shi, M.; Xie, Y.; Cao, Q. Spatiotemporal changes in rural settlement land and rural population in the middle basin of the Heihe River, China. Sustainability 2016 , 8 , 614. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Zeng, Z. Changes to the global economic pattern and modernization prospects of development countries. In Global Modernization Review: New Discoveries and Theories Revisited ; WSPC: Singapore, 2015. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Li, Y.H.; Su, B.Z.; Liu, Y.S. Realizing targeted poverty alleviation in China people’s voices, implementation challenges and policy implications. China Agric. Econ. Rev. 2016 , 8 , 443–454. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Liu, Y.S.; Li, Y.H. Revitalize the world’s countryside. Nature 2017 , 548 , 275–277. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Zhang, Y.N.; Long, H.L.; MA, L.; Tu, S.S.; Chen, K.Q. Research progress of urban-rural relations and its implications for rural revitalization. Geogr. Res. 2019 , 38 , 578–594. (In Chinese) [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Xue, Q.; Sun, H.A. The successful experience of urban and rural integration in western countries. Agric. Econ. 2014 , 61–63. (In Chinese) [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Huang, Z.X. Garden cities of tomorrow and rural land system reform in China. J. Anhui Agric. Univ. 2009 , 6 , 19–21. (In Chinese) [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] North, D.; Smallbone, D. The innovativeness and growth of rural SMEs during the 1990s. Reg. Stud. 2000 , 34 , 145–157. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Clark, G.; Cummins, N. Surnames and social mobility in England, 1170-2012. Hum. Nat. 2014 , 25 , 517–537. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Tang, S.S. Rural policy and enlightenment in the process of rapid urbanization in France. Issue Agric. Econ. 2012 , 33 , 104–109. (In Chinese) [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Farrigan, T.L. Rural development: Principles and practice. Reg. Stud. 2004 , 38 , 728. [ Google Scholar ] Halfacree, K. Contesting rurality: Politics in the British countryside. J. Rural Stud. 2008 , 24 , 478. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Cole, M. New labour’s countryside: Rural policy in Britain since 1997. Political Stud. Rev. 2010 , 8 , 267–268. [ Google Scholar ] Tian, L.; Yao, Z. From state-dominant to bottom-up redevelopment: Can institutional change facilitate urban and rural redevelopment in China. Cities 2018 , 76 , 72–83. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] He, R.W. Urban-rural integration and rural revitalization: Theory, mechanism and implementation. Geogr. Res. 2018 , 37 , 2127–2140. (In Chinese) [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Liu, Y.S. Introduction to land use and rural sustainability in China. Land Use Pol. 2018 , 74 , 1–4. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Liu, Y.S.; Fang, F.; Li, Y.H. Key issues of land use in China and implications for policy making. Land Use Policy 2014 , 40 , 6–12. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Zhou, Y.; Guo, L.Y.; Liu, Y.S. Land consolidation boosting poverty alleviation in China: Theory and practice. Land Use Policy 2019 , 82 , 339–348. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Chen, C.; Gao, J.L.; Chen, J.L. Institutional changes, land use dynamics, and the transition of rural settlements in suburban China: A case study of Huishan District in Wuxi city. Habitat Int. 2017 , 70 , 24–33. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Tian, Y.S.; Liu, Y.F.; Kong, X.S. Restructuring rural settlements based on mutualism at a patch scale: A case study of Huangpi District, central China. Appl. Geogr. 2018 , 92 , 74–84. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Lin, Y.L.; De Meulder, B.; Cai, X.X.; Hu, H.D.; Lai, Y.N. Linking social housing provision for rural migrants with the redevelopment of ‘villages in the city’: A case study of Beijing. Cities 2014 , 40 , 111–119. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Liu, R.; Wong, T.C. Urban village redevelopment in Beijing: The state-dominated formalization of informal housing. Cities 2018 , 72 , 160–172. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Guo, Y.; Xiao, Y.; Yuan, Q.F. The redevelopment of peri-urban villages in the context of path-dependent land institution change and its impact on Chinese inclusive urbanization: The case of Nanhai, China. Cities 2017 , 60 , 466–475. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Wu, X.Y.; Qi, X.H.; Yang, S.; Ye, C.; Sun, B. Research on the intergenerational transmission of poverty in rural China based on sustainable livelihood analysis framework: A case study of six poverty-stricken counties. Sustainability 2019 , 11 , 2341. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Lipton, M. Why Poor People Stay Poor: Urban Bias in World Development ; Harvard University: Cambridge, MA, USA, 1977; p. 467. [ Google Scholar ] Friedmann, J. Four theses in the study of China’s urbanization. Int. J. Urban Reg. Res. 2006 , 30 , 440–451. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Preston, D.A. Rural-urban and inter-settlement interaction: Theory and analytical structure. Area 1975 , 7 , 171–174. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Wang, H.; Chen, L. Review on the development theories of rural and urban areas in west. Econ. Geogr. 2006 , 26 , 463–468. (In Chinese) [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Douglass, M. A regional network strategy for reciprocal rural-urban linkages: An agenda for policy research with reference to Indonesia. Third World Plan. Rev. 1998 , 20 , 1. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Sui, D.Z.; Zeng, H. Modeling the dynamics of landscape structure in Asia’s emerging desakota regions: A case study in Shenzhen. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2001 , 53 , 37–52. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Skeldon, R. Rural-to-urban migration and its implications for poverty alleviation. Asia Pac. Popul. J. 1997 , 12 , 3–16. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Andersson, K. Beyond the rural urban divide. Environ. Urban. 2012 , 10 , 3–4. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Westlund, H. In Urban-rural relations in the post-urban world. In The Post-Urban World: Emergent Transformation of Cities and Regions in the Innovative Global Economy ; Haas, T., Westlund, H., Eds.; Routledge: London, UK, 2018; pp. 70–81. [ Google Scholar ] Long, H.L.; Zou, J.; Pykett, J.; Li, Y. Analysis of rural transformation development in China since the turn of the new millennium. Appl. Geogr. 2011 , 31 , 1094–1105. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Long, H.L.; Hellig, G.K.; Li, X.B.; Zhang, M. Socio-economic development and land-use change: Analysis of rural housing land transition in the Transect of the Yangtse River, China. Land Use Policy 2007 , 24 , 141–153. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Long, H.L.; Zou, J.; Liu, Y.S. Differentiation of rural development driven by industrialization and urbanization in eastern coastal China. Habitat Int. 2009 , 33 , 454–462. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Jiang, G.H.; Ma, W.Q.; Zhou, D.Y.; Zhao, Q.L.; Zhang, R.J. Agglomeration or dispersion? Industrial land-use pattern and its impacts in rural areas from China’s township and village enterprises perspective. J. Clean. Prod. 2017 , 159 , 207–219. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Zheng, J.H.; Liu, X.X.; Bigsten, A. Ownership structure and determinants of technical efficiency: An application of data envelopment analysis to Chinese enterprises (1986-1990). J. Comp. Econ. 1998 , 26 , 465–484. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Cai, Y.L.; Smit, B. Sustainability in Chinese agriculture-challenge and hope. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 1994 , 49 , 279–288. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Liu, Y.S.; Gao, J.; Yang, Y.F. A holistic approach towards assessment of severity of land degradation along the Great Wall in Northern Shaanxi Province, China. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2003 , 82 , 187–202. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] Xu, W.; Tan, K.C. Impact of reform and economic restructuring on rural systems in China: A case study of Yuhang, Zhejiang. J. Rural Stud. 2002 , 18 , 65–81. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Yang, H.; Li, X.B. Cultivated land and food supply in China. Land Use Policy 2000 , 17 , 73–88. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Cloke, P.J. Whither rural studies? J. Rural Stud. 1985 , 1 , 1–9. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Cloke, P.; Goodwin, M.; Milbourne, P.; Thomas, C. Deprivation, poverty and marginalization in rural lifestyles in England and Wales. J. Rural Stud. 1995 , 11 , 351–365. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Bryant, C.R.; McLellan, A.G.; Russwurm, L.H. The City’s Countryside: Land and its Management in the Rural-Urban Fringe ; Longman: New York, NY, USA, 1982; pp. 11–15. [ Google Scholar ] Kato, Y.; Yokohari, M.; Brown, R.D. Integration and visualization of the ecological value of rural landscapes in maintaining the physical environment of Japan. Landsc. Urban Plan. 1997 , 39 , 69–82. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Hu, H.Y. Agricultural regions of China. Acta Geogr. Sin. 1936 , 3 , 1–17. (In Chinese) [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Zhou, L.S.; She, Z.X. Agricutural geography and land utilization. Acta Geogr. Sin. 1990 , 45 , 146–153. (In Chinese) [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Liu, Y.S.; Zhang, Z.W.; Wang, J.Y. Regional differentiation and comprehensive regionalization scheme of modern agriculture in China. Acta Geogr. Sin. 2018 , 73 , 203–218. (In Chinese) [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Unger, J.; Chan, A. Inheritors of the boom: Private enterprise and the role of local government in a rural south China township. China J. 1999 , 42 , 45–74. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Li, X.J.; Yang, H.M. The change of rural settlements and their future development patterns. Econ. Geogr. 2017 , 37 , 1–8. (In Chinese) [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Shan, Y.B.; Ma, X.D.; Qiu, F.D. Distribution patterns characteristics and type classification of the rural settlements in central Jiangsu province. Sci. Geogr. Sin. 2012 , 32 , 1340–1347. (In Chinese) [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Tan, X.L.; Liu, Z.; He, Y.H.; Tan, J.; Zhang, Y.S.; Zhou, G.H. Regional differentiation and type division of rural settlements to South of Yangtse River: A case study of Changsha. Geogr. Res. 2015 , 34 , 2144–2154. (In Chinese) [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Cloke, P.J. An index of rurality for England and Wales. Reg. Stud. 1977 , 11 , 31–46. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Harrington, V.; O’Donoghue, D. Rurality in England and Wales 1991: A replication and extension of the 1981 Rurality Index. Sociol. Rural. 1998 , 38 , 178. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Bański, J.; Mazur, M. Classification of rural areas in Poland as an instrument of territorial policy. Land Use Policy 2016 , 54 , 1–17. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Sharma, H.R. Distribution of landholdings in rural India, 1953–1954 to 1981-82: Implications for Land Reforms. Econ. Political Wkly. 1994 , 29 , A117–A128. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Zhou, Y.; Guo, Y.Z.; Liu, Y.S. Areal types and their development paths in rural China. Geogr. Res. 2019 , 38 , 467–481. (In Chinese) [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Wen, Q.; Zheng, D.Y. Identification and revitalization of rural poverty-stricken areas in northwest China. Geogr. Res. 2019 , 38 , 509–521. (In Chinese) [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Li, L.T.; Yang, Y.Y.; Jiang, N. Mode of rural revitalization and its approaches in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei metropolitan area: A case study of Jinghai District in Tianjin. Geogr. Res. 2019 , 38 , 496–508. (In Chinese) [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Liu, H. Changing regional rural inequality in China 1980-2002. Area 2006 , 38 , 377–389. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Zhang, F.G.; Liu, Y.S. Dynamic mechanism and models of regional rural development in China. Acta Geogr. Sin. 2008 , 63 , 115–122. (In Chinese) [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Long, H.L.; Liu, Y.S. Rural restructuring in China. J. Rural Stud. 2016 , 47 , 387–391. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Guo, Y.Z.; Zhou, Y.; Han, Y. Population aging in rural China: Spatial-temporal pattern and countermeasures for rural revitalization. Geogr. Res. 2019 , 38 , 667–683. (In Chinese) [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Liao, L.W.; Gao, X.L. Progress and prospect of research on the impact of population aging on rural development. Prog. Geogr. 2018 , 37 , 617–626. (In Chinese) [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Yang, R.; Xu, Q.; Xu, X.; Chen, Y. Rural settlement spatial patterns and effects: Road traffic accessibility and geographic factors in Guangdong Province, China. J. Geogr. Sci. 2019 , 29 , 213–230. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Li, J.; Wu, Y.D.; Zhang, L.; Chen, C.Y. The suitability evaluation of social and economic factors on the location of rural settlement: Take Erhai Rim Region of Yunnan for example. Econ. Geogr. 2016 , 36 , 195–201. (In Chinese) [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Johansson, B.; Klaesson, J.; Olsson, M. Time distances and labor market integration. Pap. Reg. Sci. 2002 , 81 , 305–327. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Li, Y.H.; Westlund, H.; Liu, Y.S. Why some rural areas decline while some others not: An overview of rural evolution in the world. J. Rural Stud. 2019 , 68 , 135–143. (In Chinese) [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Figure 1. Analysis framework. Figure 1. Analysis framework. Figure 2. Location of the Kashgar region in China ( a ); Xinjiang province ( b ); and the town group of Kashgar ( c ). Figure 2. Location of the Kashgar region in China ( a ); Xinjiang province ( b ); and the town group of Kashgar ( c ). Figure 3. The distribution of rural comprehensive development level in the Kashgar region. Figure 3. The distribution of rural comprehensive development level in the Kashgar region. Figure 4. Regionalization of the types of rural development in Kashgar region. Figure 4. Regionalization of the types of rural development in Kashgar region. Table 1. Urban–rural relations and rural development in China since 1949. Table 1. Urban–rural relations and rural development in China since 1949. Time Urban–Rural Relationship Economic Development Model Rural Transformation Stage Main Characteristics Urban–Rural Income Ratio 1949–1978 Urban–rural separation Heavy industry- oriented; agriculture supports priority industrial development 1949–1953 Land reform revived farmers’ enthusiasm for production 1954–1958 Scissors of industrial and agricultural sectors; dual urban–rural economic system 2.09 1959–1978 Natural disasters occurred frequently, large-scale migration between urban and rural areas forced by political factors 2.23 1978–2003 Urban–rural disparity Centering on city economic construction 1979–1983 The household contract responsibility system promoted the vitality of rural development; urban–rural coordination 2.24 1984–1996 Township enterprises promoted the transfer of agricultural surplus labor and agricultural modernization; urban–rural unbalancing began 2.35 1997–2003 Resource elements flow to cities; urban–rural unbalanced worse 2.81 Since 2003 Urban–rural coordinated trend Industry supporting agriculture; urban supporting villages 2004–2005 “Urban–rural Balanced Development” 3.22 2006–2012 “New Socialist Countryside Construction”; cancelled the agricultural tax in 2006 3.25 2013–2017 New-Type Urbanization”;“Beautiful Countryside”;“Precise Poverty Alleviation” 2.79 Since 2018 “Rural Revitalization” 2.69 Table 2. Evaluation index system of the rural comprehensive development level. Table 2. Evaluation index system of the rural comprehensive development level. Evaluation System Evaluation Index Indicator Description (Unit) Weight Population Permanent resident ( X1 ) Frequently living at home or at home for more than 6 months ( person ) 0.046 Proportion of employees ( X2 ) Regional employment population-/-regional total population ( % ) 0.060 Proportion of employees in secondary and tertiary industries ( X3 ) Secondary and tertiary industries employees-/-total employees ( % ) 0.008 Environment Elevation ( X4 ) Regional average elevation ( m ) 0.005 Slope ( X5 ) Regional average slope (°) 0.093 Climate suitability ( X6 ) Temperature-humidity index 0.008 Oasis area ( X7 ) Regional oasis area-/-total area (%) 0.138 Location Shortest distance to the county center ( X8 ) The average nearest neighbor distance from villages to the county center ( m ) 0.137 Shortest distance to the traffic line ( X 9) The average nearest neighbor distance from villages to the traffic line ( m ) 0.134 Shortest distance to a river ( X10 ) The average nearest neighbor distance from villages to any river ( m ) 0.100 Economic industrial output value ( X11 ) The total amount of industrial products produced by regional industrial enterprises ( yuan ) 0.129 per capita cultivated land ( X12 ) Area of cultivated land/total population of the area (acres /person ) 0.141 Table 3. Quantity and area of different levels of towns. Table 3. Quantity and area of different levels of towns. Hierarchical Partition Number of Towns Proportion (%) Area (ha) Proportion (%) Lower-level areas 12 7.74 2,792,865 15.39 Low-level areas 49 31.61 10694410.12 58.91 Medium-level areas 64 41.29 3,871,329 21.33 High-level areas 13 8.39 400233.70 2.20 Higher-level areas 17 10.97 393691.80 2.17 Table 4. The basic features of rural development types. Table 4. The basic features of rural development types. Category Proportion of Town(%) Comprehensive Development Level Population Subsystem Environment Subsystem Location Subsystem Economy Subsystem Urban central circle countryside 16.77 0.35 0.26 0.83 0.67 0.17 Rural–urban inner circle countryside 39.35 0.18 0.12 0.73 0.73 0.05 Remote peripheral circle countryside 43.88 0.09 0.08 0.43 0.57 0.02 Kashgar region 100 0.21 0.15 0.66 0.65 0.08 Table 5. The basic features of rural development zones. Table 5. The basic features of rural development zones. Category Zone Comprehensive Development Level Population Subsystem Environment Subsystem Location Subsystem Economy Subsystem Urban central circle country-side Location- oriented medium-level zone 0.20 0.19 0.62 0.84 0.12 Environment- oriented high-level zone 0.32 0.28 0.80 0.55 0.15 Comprehensive higher-level zone 0.43 0.27 0.88 0.71 0.23 Rural-urban inner circle country-side Location-oriented high-level zone 0.33 0.25 0.54 0.67 0.29 Environment-oriented medium-level zone 0.18 0.12 0.89 0.69 0.06 Economy-constrained medium-level zone 0.15 0.11 0.73 0.69 0.02 Comprehensive-constrained medium-level zone 0.17 0.13 0.55 0.68 0.02 Remote peripheral circle country-side Location-oriented medium-level zone 0.16 0.13 0.56 0.73 0.04 Economy-constrained low-level zone 0.08 0.03 0.52 0.69 0.01 Comprehensive-constrained low-level zone 0.08 0.07 0.40 0.62 0.02 Comprehensive-constrained lower-level zone 0.03 0.02 0.29 0.65 0.01 Note: The numerical characteristics of each subzone do not take into account the missing values. The comprehensive development level and the values of each subsystem are standardized values, so the comprehensive development level is not equal to the sum of the subsystems.

https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/11/23/6859#B24-sustainability-11-06859

ANTONIO E. UNICA v. ANSCOR SWIRE SHIP MANAGEMENT CORPORATION GR No. 184318, (2014-02-12) THIRD DIVISION [ G.R. No. 184318, February 12, 2014 ] ANTONIO E. UNICA, PETITIONER, VS. ANSCOR SWIRE SHIP MANAGEMENT CORPORATION, RESPONDENT. DECISION PERALTA, J.: Before this Court is a petition for review on certiorari under Rule 45 of the Rules of Court seeking to set aside the Decision [1] and Resolution [2] of the Court of Appeals ( CA ) in CA-G.R. CEB-SP No. 01417, which annulled and set aside the Decision of the National Labor Relations Commission, Fourth Division in NLRC Case No. OFW V-000031-2005 (RAB Case No. VI-OFW-(M) 02-12-0083). The antecedents are as follows: Respondent Anscor Swire Ship Management Corporation is a manning agency. Since the late 1980s, petitioner was employed by respondent under various contracts. In his last contract, petitioner was deployed for a period of nine (9) months from January 29, 2000 to October 25, 2000. However, since the vessel was still at sea, petitioner was only repatriated on November 14, 2000, or twenty (20) days after the expiration of his contract of employment. Petitioner averred that since he was allowed to stay in the vessel for another twenty (20) days, there was an implied renewal of his contract of employment. Hence, when he was repatriated on November 14, 2000 without a valid cause, he was illegally dismissed. Due to the foregoing, petitioner filed a case against the respondent for illegal dismissal, payment of retirement, disability and medical benefits, separation and holiday pay. In its defense, respondent argued that petitioner was hired for a fixed period, the duration of which depends upon the mutual agreement of the parties. Petitioner's employment was, therefore, co-terminus with the term of his contract. Hence, the claim of petitioner that he was illegally dismissed must fail, because he was repatriated due to the completion of the term of his contract. On May 31, 2004, the Labor Arbiter ( LA) ruled in favor of petitioner. [3]The LA ruled that since petitioner was not repatriated at the expiration of his contract on October 25, 2000, and was allowed by respondent to continue working on board its vessel up to November 14, 2000, his contract with respondent was impliedly renewed for another nine months. The LA directed respondent to pay petitioner his salary for the unexpired portion of his impliedly renewed contract, his medical benefits and attorney's fees. Aggrieved by the decision, respondent appealed to the NLRC. On August 24, 2005, the NLRC affirmed with modification the LA's decision. [4]Like the LA, the NLRC ruled that the contract did not expire on October 25, 2000, but was impliedly extended for another nine months. This is because it was only on November 14, 2000 when petitioner was told by respondent to disembark because he would be repatriated. Since there was an implied extension of the contract for another nine months, petitioner is, therefore, entitled to payment of the unexpired term of his implied contract. The NLRC, however, deleted the award of medical benefits and reduced the amount of attorney's fees. Undaunted, respondent filed a Petition for Certiorariwith the CA. The CA, in its Decision [5]dated August 15, 2006, annulled and set aside the decision of the NLRC. The CA ruled that there was no implied renewal of contract and the 20 days extension was due to the fact that the ship was still at sea. Petitioner filed a motion for reconsideration, which was denied by the CA in a Resolution [6]dated August 11, 2008. Hence, the present petition. The main issue in this case is whether or not there was an implied renewal of petitioner's contract of employment with respondent. The petition is not meritorious. In the case at bar, although petitioner's employment contract with respondent ended on October 25, 2000 and he disembarked only on November 14, 2000 or barely 20 days after the expiration of his employment contract, such late disembarkation was not without valid reason. Respondent could not have disembarked petitioner on the date of the termination of his employment contract, because the vessel was still in the middle of the sea. Clearly, it was impossible for petitioner to safely disembark immediately upon the expiration of his contract, since he must disembark at a convenient port. Thus, petitioner's stay in the vessel for another 20 days should not be interpreted as an implied extension of his contract. A seaman need not physically disembark from a vessel at the expiration of his employment contract to have such contract considered terminated. [7] It is a settled rule that seafarers are considered contractual employees. Their employment is governed by the contracts they sign everytime they are rehired and their employment is terminated when the contract expires. Their employment is contractually fixed for a certain period of time. [8]Thus, when petitioner's contract ended on October 25, 2000, his employment is deemed automatically terminated, there being no mutually-agreed renewal or extension of the expired contract. However, petitioner is entitled to be paid his wages after the expiration of his contract until the vessel's arrival at a convenient port. Section 19 of the Standard Terms and Conditions Governing the Employment of Filipino Seafarers On-Board Ocean-Going Vessels is clear on this point: REPATRIATION. A. If the vessel is outside the Philippines upon the expiration of the contract, the seafarer shall continue his service on board until the vessel's arrival at a convenient port and/or after arrival of the replacement crew, provided that, in any case, the continuance of such service shall not exceed three months. The seafarer shall be entitled to earned wages and benefits as provided in his contract. WHEREFORE, the petition isDENIED. The Decision and Resolution of the Court of Appeals, in CA-G.R. CEB-SP No. 01417, dated August 15, 2006 and August 11, 2008, respectively, areAFFIRMEDwithMODIFICATIONthat respondent isDIRECTEDtoPAYpetitioner his salary from October 26, 2000 until November 14, 2000. The case isREMANDEDto the Labor Arbiter for the purpose of computing the aforementioned monetary award to petitioner. SO ORDERED. Velasco, Jr., J., (Chairperson), Abad, Mendoza, and Leonen, JJ., concur. [1] Penned by Associate Justice Vicente L. Yap, with Associate Justices Arsenio J. Magpale and Romeo F. Barza, concurring; rollo , pp. 49-56. [2] Rollo, p. 47. [3] Id. [4] Id. [5] Id. at 49-56. [6] Id. at 47. [7] Delos Santos v. Jebsen Maritime, Inc., 512 Phil. 301, 313 (2005). [8] Millares v. National Labor Relations Commission, 434 Phil. 524, 537-538 (2002). tags

https://lawyerly.ph/juris/view/cdcbf?opinions=1&user=gMFF6bnl6NU5xYmRBaTFYUXdTL2J3Zm16RUhsbE1rbUtwakduOVhXTXhlbz0=

View - Tasmanian Legislation Online Return to standard view Statutory Rules State Service Act 2000 State Service Act 2000 An Act to provide for the establishment and management of the State Service and for other purposes [Royal Assent 20 December 2000] Be it enacted by His Excellency the Governor of Tasmania, by and with the advice and consent of the Legislative Council and House of Assembly, in Parliament assembled, as follows: PART 1 - Preliminary 1. Short title This Act may be cited as the State Service Act 2000 . 2. Commencement This Act commences on a day to be proclaimed. 3. Interpretation (1)  In this Act, unless the contrary intention appears – accumulation scheme has the same meaning as in the Public Sector Superannuation Reform Act 1999 ; Agency means a Government department or a State authority or other organisation specified in Column 1 of Schedule 1 ; appropriate Minister , when used in relation to an Agency, means the Minister for the time being administering that Agency; award means an award, determination, decision, order or agreement in force under the Workplace Relations Act 1996 of the Commonwealth, the Industrial Relations Act 1984 or any other Act of the Commonwealth or of Tasmania which provides for the determination of conditions of employment of a person; classification means assignment of a specified salary or salary level, or of a specified status, on a scale described in an award to duties in the State Service; Code of Conduct means the conduct requirements specified in section 9 ; Commissioner means the State Service Commissioner appointed and holding office under section 25 and, except in that section and section 26 , includes a person for the time being appointed to act as Commissioner in accordance with section 27 ; Commissioner's Directions means the Directions issued by the Commissioner under section 20 ; complying superannuation scheme has the same meaning as in the Public Sector Superannuation Reform Act 1999 ; [Section 3 Subsection (1) amended by No. 65 of 2005, Sched. 1, Applied:15 Dec 2005] [Section 3 Subsection (1) amended by No. 65 of 2005, Sched. 1, Applied:15 Dec 2005] contributory scheme means the superannuation arrangements provided by Part 5 of the Retirement Benefits Regulations 2005 ; employee means a permanent employee or a fixed-term employee, but does not include a person appointed to an office under section 25 or 31 or a person in respect of whom an arrangement under section 46(1)(a) is in force; fixed-term employee means a person appointed for a specified term or for the duration of a specified task as referred to in section 37(3)(b) ; functions includes duties; Government department means a department established under section 11 ; Head of Agency means the Head of an Agency referred to in section 30 ; Ministerial Directions means the Directions issued by the Minister under section 14 ; officer means a person appointed as a Head of Agency, to a prescribed office or as a senior executive under section 31 ; permanent employee means a person appointed as a permanent employee as referred to in section 37(3)(a) ; position means an allocation of duties in accordance with section 34(1)(c) ; promotion means the assignment of duties to a permanent employee, other than for a specified period or for the duration of a specified task, which results in an employee obtaining a higher attainable maximum salary level than the salary level that the employee had immediately before the employee was assigned those duties; regulations means regulations made and in force under this Act; [Section 3 Subsection (1) amended by No. 65 of 2005, Sched. 1, Applied:15 Dec 2005] RSA means a Retirement Savings Account within the meaning of the Retirement Savings Accounts Act 1997 of the Commonwealth; salary includes wages; salary level means, if the salary is within a range of salary, the maximum salary in that range; senior executive means a person appointed to an office created by the Premier under section 29(4) ; State authority means a body or authority, whether incorporated or not, which is established or constituted by or under an Act or under the royal prerogative, being a body or authority which, or of which the governing authority, wholly or partly comprises a person or persons appointed by the Governor, a Minister or another State authority, but does not include a Government department; State Service means the State Service referred to in section 6 ; State Service Principles means the Principles in section 7 . (2)  A note in the text of this Act does not form part of this Act. (3)  In this Act, the term this Act , except in sections 14 and 20 , includes Ministerial Directions and Commissioner's Directions issued under this Act. (4)  A reference in this Act to employment, in relation to an employee, is a reference to employment in the State Service. (5)  If there is an inconsistency between a provision of this Act and any other law in force in this State, other than an award, being a law that makes specific provision with respect to the appointment of a person to the State Service or the promotion of a permanent employee, an employee included in a class of employees or any matter relating to the employment of an employee, the provision of that law is to be read subject to the provision of this Act. 4. Act binds Crown This Act binds the Crown in right of Tasmania and, in so far as the legislative power of Parliament permits, in all its other capacities. 5. Application of Act (1)  Subject to this section, this Act applies to and in relation to officers and employees. (2)  This Act does not apply to or in relation to – (a) a person who is remunerated by fees, allowances or commission only; or (b) a person who is employed in an honorary capacity only; or (c) a person in respect of whom an arrangement under section 46(1)(a) is in force. (3)  The Governor may, by order, declare that any specified provision or provisions of this Act do not apply to – (a) persons specified in the order; or (b) a class of persons specified in the order; or (c) Agencies specified in the order; or (d) positions or a class of positions specified in the order – being persons to whom or Agencies or positions to which that provision or those provisions would have applied but for the order. (4)  An order made under subsection (3) may be expressed to be in force for a period specified in the order, in which case the order is to be in force for the period so specified and then cease to have effect. (5)  The provisions of section 47(3) , (3A) , (4) , (5) , (6) and (7) of the Acts Interpretation Act 1931 apply to an order made under subsection (3) as if the order were regulations. PART 2 - The State Service 6. Constitution of the State Service The State Service consists of Heads of Agencies, holders of prescribed offices, senior executives and employees. 7. State Service Principles (1)  The State Service Principles are as follows: (a) the State Service is apolitical, performing its functions in an impartial, ethical and professional manner; (b) the State Service is a public service in which employment decisions are based on merit; (c) the State Service provides a workplace that is free from discrimination and recognises and utilises the diversity of the community it serves; (d) the State Service is accountable for its actions and performance, within the framework of Ministerial responsibility, to the Government, the Parliament and the community; (e) the State Service is responsive to the Government in providing honest, comprehensive, accurate and timely advice and in implementing the Government's policies and programs; (f) the State Service delivers services fairly and impartially to the community; (g) the State Service develops leadership of the highest quality; (h) the State Service establishes workplace practices that encourage communication, consultation, cooperation and input from employees on matters that affect their work and workplace; (i) the State Service provides a fair, flexible, safe and rewarding workplace; (j) the State Service focuses on managing its performance and achieving results; (k) the State Service promotes equity in employment; (l) the State Service provides a reasonable opportunity to members of the community to apply for State Service employment; (m) the State Service provides a fair system of review of decisions taken in respect of employees. (2)  For the purposes of subsection (1)(b) , a decision relating to appointment or promotion is based on merit if – (a) an assessment is made of the relative suitability of the candidates for the duties; and (b) the assessment is based on the relationship between the candidates' work-related qualities and the work-related qualities genuinely required for the duties; and (c) the assessment focuses on the relative capacity of the candidates to achieve outcomes related to the duties; and (d) the assessment is the primary consideration in making the decision. 8. Heads of Agencies must promote State Service Principles A Head of Agency must uphold, promote and comply with the State Service Principles. 9. The State Service Code of Conduct (1)  An employee must behave honestly and with integrity in the course of State Service employment. (2)  An employee must act with care and diligence in the course of State Service employment. (3)  An employee, when acting in the course of State Service employment, must treat everyone with respect and without harassment, victimisation or discrimination. (4)  An employee, when acting in the course of State Service employment, must comply with all applicable Australian law. (5)  For the purpose of subsection (4) , Australian law means – (a) any Act (including this Act) or any instrument made under an Act; or (b) any law of the Commonwealth or a State or Territory, including any instrument made under such a law. (6)  An employee must comply with any standing orders made under section 34(2) and with any lawful and reasonable direction given by a person having authority to give the direction. (7)  An employee must maintain appropriate confidentiality about dealings of, and information acquired by, the employee in the course of that employee's State Service employment. (8)  An employee must disclose, and take reasonable steps to avoid, any conflict of interest in connection with the employee's State Service employment. (9)  An employee must use Tasmanian Government resources in a proper manner. (10)  An employee must not knowingly provide false or misleading information in connection with the employee's State Service employment. (11)  An employee must not make improper use of – (a) information gained in the course of his or her employment; or (b) the employee's duties, status, power or authority – in order to gain, or seek to gain, a gift, benefit or advantage for the employee or for any other person. (12)  An employee who receives a gift in the course of his or her employment or in relation to his or her employment must declare that gift as prescribed by the regulations. (13)  An employee, when acting in the course of State Service employment, must behave in a way that upholds the State Service Principles. (14)  An employee must at all times behave in a way that does not adversely affect the integrity and good reputation of the State Service. (15)  An employee must comply with any other conduct requirement that is prescribed by the regulations. (16)  For the purposes of this section, a reference to an employee includes a reference to an officer and a reference to State Service employment includes a reference to an appointment as an officer and an arrangement made under section 46(1)(a) . 10. Breaches of Code of Conduct (1)  The Minister may impose one or more of the following sanctions on an employee who is found, under procedures established under subsection (3) , to have breached the Code of Conduct: (a) counselling; (b) a reprimand; (c) deductions from salary by way of fine not exceeding 20 penalty units; (d) reduction in salary within the range of salary applicable to the employee; (e) reassignment of duties; (f) reduction in classification; (g) termination of employment in accordance with section 44 or 45 . (2)  The Minister may delegate the power to impose any of the sanctions specified in subsection (1)(a) to (f) . (3)  The Commissioner is to establish procedures for the investigation and determination of whether an employee has breached the Code of Conduct. (4)  The procedures referred to in subsection (3) – (a) are to afford procedural fairness in the determination of whether an employee has breached the Code of Conduct; and (b) may be different for different categories of employees; and (c) may vary according to the circumstances of the alleged breach of the Code of Conduct. (5)  An officer or an employee must not victimise, or discriminate against, another officer or employee because that officer or employee has reported breaches (or alleged breaches) of the Code of Conduct to the Commissioner or a Head of Agency. PART 3 - Administrative arrangements and reorganisations 11. Establishment of Government departments and State authorities as Agencies (1)  The Governor may, on the recommendation of the Minister, by order – (a) establish, abolish or change the name of a Government department or State authority; or (b) restructure Government departments and State authorities. (2)  For the purpose of subsection (1)(b) , restructure includes – (a) amalgamating a Government department or State authority with another Government department or State authority; and (b) amalgamating a part or parts of a Government department or State authority with another Government department or State authority; and (c) amalgamating a part or parts of a Government department or State authority with a part or parts of another Government department or State authority – but does not include restructuring which is wholly internal to a Government department or a State authority. (3)  In subsections (1) and (2) , a reference to a State authority shall be read as a reference to that State authority in its capacity as an Agency for the purposes of this Act. 12. Amendment to Schedule 1 (1)  The Governor may, by order, amend Column 1 of Schedule 1 – (a) by omitting the name of any Agency; or (b) by inserting the name of a Government department, State authority or other organisation; or (c) where the name of an Agency is changed, by omitting the name of that Agency and substituting its new name. (2)  The Governor may, by order, amend Column 2 of Schedule 1 by inserting, opposite the name of an Agency, the title or other description of an office or by omitting or amending that title or other description. (3)  The Governor may, by order, omit Schedule 1 and substitute a Schedule containing in Column 1 the names of Agencies and containing in Column 2 the titles or other descriptions of offices. 13. Administrative reorganisations (1)  If the Governor is satisfied that it is necessary or desirable in order to give effect to a reallocation of activities from a State authority that is not an Agency to the State Service, the Governor may, by order, determine in writing that a person employed by a State authority that is not an Agency ceases to be employed by that authority and becomes an employee in a specified Agency. (2)  The regulations may prescribe arrangements for determining any variation of the salary and conditions of employment applicable to persons who become employees under subsection (1) . PART 4 - Powers of Minister 14. Ministerial Directions (1)  The Minister may issue Directions which relate to the administration of the State Service and which have effect according to their tenor unless they are inconsistent with or repugnant to other provisions of this Act. (2)  Ministerial Directions may be issued under this section – (a) so as to apply – (i) to employees generally or to a specified class or classes of employees; and (ii) to officers generally or to a specified class or classes of officers; and (iii) generally or in a particular case or class of case or in particular cases or classes of cases; and (iv) at all times or at a specified time or at specified times; and (v) throughout the State or in a specified part or specified parts of the State; and (vi) throughout the State Service or in a specified Agency or Agencies; and (b) so as to require a matter affected by them to be – (i) in accordance with a specified standard or specified requirement; or (ii) as approved by, or to the satisfaction of, a specified person or body or a specified class of person or body; and (c) so as to confer on a specified person or body or a specified class of person or body a discretionary authority; and (d) so as to provide that, in a specified case or a specified class of case, whether on specified conditions or unconditionally, persons or things of a class, or classes of persons or things, may be exempted from the Ministerial Directions, either wholly or to such extent as is specified; and (e) so as to – (i) revoke earlier Ministerial Directions in whole or in part; or (ii) revoke earlier Ministerial Directions in whole or in part, and substitute other Ministerial Directions for those which have been revoked; or (iii) vary earlier Ministerial Directions. (3)  In subsection (2) , specified means specified in the Ministerial Directions. (4)  Ministerial Directions issued under this section are not statutory rules within the meaning of the Rules Publication Act 1953 . 15. Request to Commissioner to conduct an investigation In addition to such other powers as may be conferred on the Minister under this Act, the Minister may request the Commissioner to conduct an investigation into any matter which relates to the administration of the State Service. 16. Appointments under other Acts Where the Minister administering this Act is required in any other Act to make an appointment under this Act, the appointment is to be made by the Premier if the appointment is to an office created under section 29 or any prescribed office. PART 5 - State Service Commissioner Division 1 - Commissioner's functions, &c. 17. State Service Commissioner There is to be a State Service Commissioner. 18. Functions of Commissioner (1)  The Commissioner has the following functions: (a) to take such steps as the Commissioner considers necessary to uphold, promote and ensure adherence to the State Service Principles; (b) to determine practices, procedures and standards in relation to management of, and employment in, the State Service and to evaluate their application within Agencies; (c) to provide advice to the Minister on any matter relating to the State Service; (d) to consult with, and provide assistance to, Heads of Agencies in relation to the implementation of the State Service Principles and the Code of Conduct; (e) to evaluate the adequacy of systems and procedures in Agencies for ensuring compliance with the Code of Conduct; (f) to investigate alleged breaches of the Code of Conduct by Heads of Agencies and to report to the Premier on the results of such investigations; (g) to undertake reviews applied for under section 50 ; (h) to develop principles and standards to assist Heads of Agencies in evaluating the performance of employees and provide assistance to Heads of Agencies in the application of those principles and standards; (i) to develop and coordinate training, education and development programs for the State Service; (j) to develop and implement recruitment programs for the State Service; (k) to develop classification standards and, where appropriate, procedures to enable Heads of Agencies to classify duties to be performed within the State Service and, where no classification standards have been developed, to approve the assignment of classifications to duties; (l) to determine requirements, including qualifications, for the employment of employees or groups of employees in the State Service; (m) to determine duties to be of a senior executive nature or equivalent specialist nature; (n) to determine the period within which action arising under this Act may be taken by the Commissioner, an officer or an employee; (o) such other functions as are imposed by or under this Act. (2)  If the Commissioner is requested by the Minister under section 15 to conduct an investigation, the Commissioner is to conduct such an investigation and provide a report of the outcome of that investigation to the Minister. (3)  The Commissioner, in performing the functions referred to in subsections (1) and (2) , is to act according to equity and good conscience. (4)  The Commissioner is to keep a record of all employees showing such details as are prescribed. 19. Powers of Commissioner (1)  The Commissioner may do all things necessary or convenient to be done for or in connection with, or incidental to, the performance of the Commissioner's functions under this Act. (2)  Without limiting subsection (1) , in addition to any power conferred on the Commissioner by any other provision of this Act, the Commissioner may, for the purpose of carrying out the Commissioner's functions under this Act – (a) conduct such investigations as the Commissioner considers necessary for the purposes of this Act; and (b) summon any person whose evidence appears to be material to any determination of the Commissioner; and (c) take evidence on oath or affirmation and, for that purpose, administer oaths and affirmations; and (d) subject to subsection (3) , require any person to produce documents or records in the person's possession or subject to the person's control that relate to matters of administration for the purposes of this Act. (3)  The regulations may prescribe documents or records or classes of documents or records that a person is not required to produce under subsection (2)(d) . (4)  A person, not being an employee, who, after payment to the person by the Commissioner of reasonable expenses, neglects or fails without reasonable cause to attend in obedience to a summons under subsection (2) , to be sworn or make an affirmation, to answer relevant questions or to produce any relevant documents or records when required to do so under that subsection is guilty of an offence. Penalty:  Fine not exceeding 10 penalty units. (5)  Nothing in this section is to be construed as compelling a person to answer a question or produce a document that may tend to incriminate the person. 20. Commissioner's Directions (1)  The Commissioner may issue Directions which relate to any of the Commissioner's functions under this Act and which have effect according to their tenor unless they are inconsistent with or repugnant to other provisions of this Act. (2)  Commissioner's Directions may be issued under this section – (a) so as to apply – (i) to employees generally or to a specified class or classes of employees; and (ii) to officers generally or to a specified class or classes of officers; and (iii) generally or in a particular case or class of case or in particular cases or classes of cases; and (iv) at all times or at a specified time or at specified times; and (v) throughout the State or in a specified part or specified parts of the State; and (vi) throughout the State Service or in a specified Agency or Agencies; and (b) so as to require a matter affected by them to be – (i) in accordance with a specified standard or specified requirement; or (ii) as approved by, or to the satisfaction of, a specified person or body or a specified class of person or body; and (c) so as to confer on a specified person or body or a specified class of person or body a discretionary authority; and (d) so as to provide that, in a specified case or a specified class of case, whether on specified conditions or unconditionally, persons or things of a class, or classes of persons or things, may be exempted from the Commissioner's Directions, either wholly or to such extent as is specified; and (e) so as to – (i) revoke earlier Commissioner's Directions in whole or in part; or (ii) revoke earlier Commissioner's Directions in whole or in part, and substitute other Commissioner's Directions for those which have been revoked; or (iii) vary earlier Commissioner's Directions. (3)  In subsection (2) , specified means specified in the Commissioner's Directions. (4)  Commissioner's Directions issued under this section are not statutory rules within the meaning of the Rules Publication Act 1953 . 21. Delegation by Commissioner The Commissioner may delegate any of his or her functions or powers (other than this power of delegation and the power to issue Commissioner's Directions). 22. Officers and employees to be made available to Commissioner The Commissioner may, with the approval of the Minister, make arrangements with the Secretary of the Department for such officers and employees as the Commissioner considers necessary to be made available to the Commissioner to enable the Commissioner to perform and exercise the Commissioner's functions and powers. 23. Reports by Commissioner (1)  The Commissioner, on or before 30 November in each year, is to send to both Houses of Parliament a report on the performance or exercise of the Commissioner's functions or powers during the period of 12 months ending on 30 June in that year. (2)  The Commissioner may, at any time, submit to the Minister a report with respect to any matter arising out of the performance or exercise of the Commissioner's functions or powers under this Act. 24. Relationship with Ombudsman and other persons (1)  The Commissioner is not empowered to determine a matter under section 51 that is within the jurisdiction of and is being dealt with by the Ombudsman, Tasmanian Industrial Commission or Anti-Discrimination Commissioner, or any other person or body that may be prescribed, until the matter has been dealt with. (2)  The Commissioner may refer any matter arising under this Act to the Ombudsman, Tasmanian Industrial Commission or Anti-Discrimination Commissioner, or any other person or body that may be prescribed. Division 2 - Commissioner's appointment, &c. 25. Appointment, &c., of Commissioner (1)  Subject to this section, the Governor may appoint a person to be known as the State Service Commissioner. (2)  Subject to this Division, the Commissioner holds office for such term, not exceeding 5 years, as may be specified in the instrument of appointment and may from time to time be reappointed for a further term, not exceeding 5 years, as may be specified in the instrument of reappointment. (3)  A person who is a member of a House of Parliament of the Commonwealth, or of a State or Territory of the Commonwealth, or a candidate for election as a member of such House of Parliament, is disqualified from being appointed to the office of Commissioner and, if a person holding that office becomes a candidate for election as such a member, that person vacates that office on becoming such a candidate. (4)  For the purposes of subsection (3) , a person becomes a candidate for election as a member of a House of Parliament when nominated for that election in accordance with the law regulating the election. (5)  The Commissioner is entitled to such remuneration and allowances as the Governor determines, and holds office subject to such terms and conditions as are specified in the instrument of his or her appointment. (6)  The Commissioner is taken to be an employee for the purposes of the Long Service Leave (State Employees) Act 1994 . (7)  Where a person is appointed as Commissioner – (a) he or she is not eligible to become a member of the contributory scheme; and (b) subject to subsection (8) , he or she is to be a member of the accumulation scheme; and (c) references to an employee in the Public Sector Superannuation Reform Act 1999 are to include references to the Commissioner. (8) [Section 25 Subsection (8) amended by No. 65 of 2005, Sched. 1, Applied:15 Dec 2005] The Commissioner may elect, either before or after commencing duties of that office, to become a member of an RSA or a complying superannuation scheme other than the accumulation scheme. (8A) [Section 25 Subsection (8A) inserted by No. 65 of 2005, Sched. 1, Applied:15 Dec 2005] If the Commissioner has become a member of an RSA or a complying superannuation scheme that is not the accumulation scheme, he or she may elect at any time while holding office as such to become a member of the accumulation scheme. (8B) [Section 25 Subsection (8B) inserted by No. 65 of 2005, Sched. 1, Applied:15 Dec 2005] The Commissioner is entitled to employer superannuation contributions at the relevant rate specified in section 6(7) of the Public Sector Superannuation Reform Act 1999 . (9) [Section 25 Subsection (9) amended by No. 65 of 2005, Sched. 1, Applied:15 Dec 2005] Subsections (7) , (8) , (8A) and (8B) do not apply to a person who, immediately before his or her appointment as Commissioner, was a contributor to the contributory scheme. 26. Vacation of office of Commissioner (1)  A person holding the office of Commissioner is taken to have vacated that office – (a) on resignation from office under subsection (2) ; or (b) on removal from office in accordance with subsection (3) . (2)  A person holding the office of Commissioner may at any time resign office by notice in writing delivered to the Governor. (3)  The Governor may remove the Commissioner from office if the Governor receives resolutions from both Houses of Parliament requesting that the Commissioner be so removed. (4)  The Governor may suspend the Commissioner from office if the Governor is satisfied that the Commissioner – (a) except by reason of temporary illness, is incapable of performing, or is inadequately performing, the functions of that office; or (b) has become bankrupt, has applied to take or has taken advantage of any law for the relief of bankrupt or insolvent debtors, has compounded with creditors or has made an assignment of any part of the Commissioner's estate for their benefit; or (c) has been convicted of a crime or an offence in Tasmania which is punishable by imprisonment for a term of 6 months or more, or has been convicted elsewhere than in Tasmania of a crime or an offence which, if committed in Tasmania, would be a crime or an offence so punishable; or (d) has been guilty of misconduct in relation to the performance of the Commissioner's functions; or (e) has breached a provision specified in the Commissioner's instrument of appointment. (5)  If the Commissioner has been suspended from office under subsection (4) , the Commissioner is to be restored to office unless – (a) a statement of the grounds of the suspension is laid before each House of Parliament during the first 7 sitting days of that House following the suspension; and (b) each House of Parliament, within 30 sitting days after that statement is so laid, passes a resolution requesting the Governor to remove that person from office. 27. Acting Commissioner (1)  The Governor may appoint a person as Acting Commissioner – (a) if there is a vacancy in the office of Commissioner; or (b) for any period when the Commissioner is absent from duty or is, for any reason, unable to perform the duties of office. (2)  All things done or omitted to be done by the Acting Commissioner are as valid, and have the same consequences, as if they had been done or omitted to be done by the Commissioner. (3)  A person is not to be appointed as Acting Commissioner for a period exceeding 12 months. (4)  A person who is a member of a House of Parliament of the Commonwealth, or of a State or Territory of the Commonwealth, or a candidate for election as a member of such House of Parliament, is disqualified from being appointed to the office of Acting Commissioner and, if a person holding that office becomes a candidate for election as such a member, that person vacates that office on becoming such a candidate. (5)  For the purpose of subsection (4) , a person becomes a candidate for election as a member of a House of Parliament when nominated for that election in accordance with the law regulating the election. (6)  The Acting Commissioner is entitled to such remuneration and allowances as the Governor determines and holds office subject to such terms and conditions of service as the Governor determines. (7)  The Governor may at any time terminate the appointment of a person as Acting Commissioner without notice. (8)  The Acting Commissioner may at any time resign office by notice in writing delivered to the Governor. 28. Immunity of Commissioner The Commissioner has, in performing his or her functions under this or any other Act, the same protection as a judge of the Supreme Court. PART 6 - Heads of Agencies, holders of prescribed offices and Senior Executives 29. Creation of certain offices of Head of Agency and senior executive (1)  Each office of Head of Agency specified in Column 2 of Division 1 of Part 1 of Schedule 1 is taken to be created by virtue of this Act. (2)  If Column 2 of Division 1 of Part 1 of Schedule 1 is amended by the omission of the title or other description of an office, that office of Head of Agency is taken to be abolished by virtue of this Act. (3)  If Column 2 of Division 1 of Part 1 of Schedule 1 is amended by amending the title or other description of an office of Head of Agency, the title or other description of that office is taken to be amended by virtue of this Act. (4)  If the Commissioner has determined duties to be of a senior executive nature or equivalent specialist nature, the Premier may create an office to enable those duties to be performed. (5)  The Premier may abolish an office created under subsection (4) . 30. Heads of Agencies The person holding the office specified in Column 2 of Schedule 1 opposite the name of an Agency in Column 1 of that Schedule is, for the purposes of this Act, the Head of that Agency. 31. Appointment, &c., of officers (1)  The Premier, on behalf of the Crown, may appoint a person as an officer to a vacancy – (a) in an office created under section 29 ; or (b) in any prescribed office. (2)  The Premier may delegate the power to appoint a person to an office created under section 29(4) . (3)  The provisions of this Act (other than Division 1 of Part 7 and sections 47 and 50(1)(a) ) apply to a person appointed under subsection (1) as a senior executive as if that person were an employee. (4)  An officer – (a) holds office for such period as is specified in his or her instrument of appointment; and (b) is entitled to such remuneration and allowances as are specified in his or her instrument of appointment; and (c) is taken to be an employee for the purposes of the Long Service Leave (State Employees) Act 1994 ; and (d) holds office on such terms and conditions with respect to matters not provided for in this Act in relation to officers as are specified in the instrument of appointment. (5)  A person who is a member of a House of Parliament of the Commonwealth, or of a State or Territory of the Commonwealth, or a candidate for election as a member of such House of Parliament, is disqualified from being appointed to an office created under section 29 and, if a person holding such an office becomes a candidate for election as such a member, that person vacates that office on becoming such a candidate. (6)  For the purposes of subsection (5) , a person becomes a candidate for election as a member of a House of Parliament when nominated for that election in accordance with the law regulating the election. (7)  If a person is appointed as an officer – (a) he or she is not eligible to become a member of the contributory scheme; and (b) subject to subsection (8) , he or she is to be a member of the accumulation scheme; and (c) references to an employee in the Public Sector Superannuation Reform Act 1999 are to be read as references to the person. (8) [Section 31 Subsection (8) amended by No. 65 of 2005, Sched. 1, Applied:15 Dec 2005] An officer may elect, either before or after commencing duties of his or her office, to become a member of an RSA or a complying superannuation scheme other than the accumulation scheme. (8A) [Section 31 Subsection (8A) inserted by No. 65 of 2005, Sched. 1, Applied:15 Dec 2005] If an officer has become a member of an RSA or a complying superannuation scheme that is not the accumulation scheme, he or she may elect at any time while holding office as such to become a member of the accumulation scheme. (8B) [Section 31 Subsection (8B) inserted by No. 65 of 2005, Sched. 1, Applied:15 Dec 2005] An officer is entitled to employer superannuation contributions at the relevant rate specified in section 6(7) of the Public Sector Superannuation Reform Act 1999 . (9) [Section 31 Subsection (9) amended by No. 65 of 2005, Sched. 1, Applied:15 Dec 2005] Subsections (7) , (8) , (8A) and (8B) do not apply to a person who, immediately before his or her appointment as an officer, was a contributor to the contributory scheme. (10)  An officer is to comply with any Ministerial Directions and Commissioner's Directions that relate to that officer. 32. Termination of office of certain Heads of Agencies, holders of prescribed offices and senior executives (1)  The Premier may terminate the appointment of an officer in accordance with the provisions specified in that person's instrument of appointment. (2)  The Premier may delegate the power to terminate the appointment of a senior executive. 33. Transfer of certain Heads of Agencies and senior executives (1)  The Premier may transfer a person appointed to an office specified in Division 1 of Part 1 of Schedule 1 to any other office specified in that Division. (2)  The Premier may transfer a senior executive from an office created under subsection (4) of section 29 to another office created under that subsection. (3)  The Premier may delegate the power to transfer a senior executive. (4)  A person transferred under subsection (1) or (2) is to receive a salary level not less than the salary level he or she received immediately before the transfer. 34. Functions and powers of Heads of Agencies (1)  Subject to any Ministerial Directions and Commissioner's Directions, the functions of a Head of Agency are – (a) to ensure that the Agency is operated as effectively, efficiently and economically as is practicable; and (b) to determine duties to be performed by employees; and (c) to allocate duties to positions and to vary such duties; and (d) to assign a classification to duties to be performed in that Agency and to vary such a classification – (i) in accordance with award requirements; and (ii) in accordance with classification standards and procedures determined by the Commissioner or, where no such standards or procedures have been determined, with the approval of the Commissioner; and (e) to assign duties to each employee within that Agency and to vary those duties; and (f) to ensure that the services of employees in that Agency are used as effectively and efficiently as is practicable; and (g) to develop and implement systems to evaluate the performance of employees in that Agency to ensure that the duties of employees are performed effectively and efficiently; and (h) to develop and implement a workplace diversity program to assist in giving effect to the State Service Principles; and (i) to assist employees in that Agency to undertake such training, education and development programs as are necessary to ensure the effective and efficient performance of the duties assigned to them; and (j) to develop and implement an internal grievance resolution system in the Agency; and (k) such other functions as are imposed on the Head of Agency by or under this Act. (2)  A Head of Agency may, with the approval of the Minister, make standing orders for the purposes of the administration and operation of the Agency. 35. Delegation A Head of Agency may delegate any of his or her functions or powers under this Act or any other Act (other than this power of delegation). 36. Annual reports by Heads of Agencies (1)  Each Head of Agency, in each year, is to submit to the appropriate Minister a report, in a form approved by the Minister after consultation with the Treasurer, for the period of 12 months that ended on the last preceding 30 June (or such other period of 12 months as may be prescribed) relating to – (a) the performance of the functions and the exercise of the powers of the Head of Agency under this Act; and (b) the performance of the functions and the exercise of the powers of – (i) any statutory office the holder of which is employed in or attached to that Agency; or (ii) any State authority attached to that Agency; and (c) such other matters as may be prescribed. (2)  A report required to be submitted under subsection (1) is to be combined in a single document with a report required to be made under section 27(1) of the Financial Management and Audit Act 1990 so as to form an annual report. (3)  Notwithstanding subsection (1) , the report of a Head of Agency is not to contain any matter that is required under any other enactment to be submitted to a Minister by the holder of a statutory office employed in or attached to that Agency or by any State authority attached to that Agency. (4) [Section 36 Subsection (4) amended by No. 42 of 2003, Sched. 1, Applied:04 Jul 2003] In each year, the appropriate Minister is to, on or before 31 October or such other date as may be prescribed, cause a copy of the report referred to in subsection (1) to be laid on the table of each House of Parliament. (5) [Section 36 Subsection (5) amended by No. 42 of 2003, Sched. 1, Applied:04 Jul 2003] A date prescribed for the purposes of subsection (4) is to be determined after consultation with the Minister responsible for the administration of the Financial Management and Audit Act 1990 and is to be a date not later than 4 months after the end of the period of 12 months prescribed under subsection (1) . (6) [Section 36 Subsection (6) amended by No. 42 of 2003, Sched. 1, Applied:04 Jul 2003] If the appropriate Minister is unable to comply with subsection (4) by reason of the fact that either House of Parliament is not sitting, the appropriate Minister, on 31 October or such other date as is prescribed under subsection (4) , as the case may require, is to – (a) forward a copy of the report referred to in subsection (1) to the Clerk of the Legislative Council and the Clerk of the House of Assembly; and (b) make the report available to the public – and, within the next 7 sitting days of that House, is to cause a copy of the report to be laid before that House. (7) [Section 36 Subsection (7) amended by No. 42 of 2003, Sched. 1, Applied:04 Jul 2003] If 31 October or such other date as is prescribed under subsection (4) is a Sunday or any day which is a bank holiday or a public holiday throughout the State, which days are in this section referred to as excluded days, subsection (6) is taken to be complied with if a copy of the report is forwarded to the Clerk of the Legislative Council and the Clerk of the House of Assembly, and is made available to the public, on the next day afterwards, not being an excluded day. (8)  The regulations may prescribe different periods of 12 months for the purposes of subsection (1) in relation to different Heads of Agencies, different Agencies and different parts of Agencies. PART 7 - State Service Employees Division 1 - Appointment, promotion, transfer and termination 37. Appointment and promotion of employees (1)  The appointment of a person as an employee or the promotion of a permanent employee – (a) is to be based on merit and made in accordance with the Commissioner's Directions; and (b) is to be made by the Minister on behalf of the Crown. (2)  The Minister may delegate the Minister's power of appointment of persons or promotion of permanent employees. (3)  The appointment of a person as an employee is to be – (a) as a permanent employee; or (b) for a specified term or for the duration of a specified task. (4)  The Minister, on the recommendation of the Commissioner, may change the employment status of an employee from a fixed-term employee to a permanent employee. (5)  A person is not to be appointed as an employee or a permanent employee is not to be promoted unless he or she possesses such qualifications and meets such other requirements as are determined by the Commissioner as being required for the duties to which the appointment or promotion relates. (6)  The Commissioner is to determine conditions of probation for employees including the duration of probation either generally or for specific categories of employees. (7)  The appointment of a person as a permanent employee is to be on probation unless otherwise determined by the Commissioner. 38. Terms and conditions of employment of employees (1)  The terms and conditions of employment of employees are to be those specified in an award relating to persons engaged in the work for which they are employed or, if no such award is in force, are to be determined by the Minister. (2)  The salary of a permanent employee is not to be reduced – (a) without the employee's consent; or (b) unless in accordance with section 10 , 47 or 48 . (3)  If a permanent employee is appointed as an officer or for a specified term or for the duration of a specified task, the employee is entitled to retain all existing and accruing rights with respect to leave as if the employee's service as an officer or for the specified term or for the duration of the specified task were a continuation of the employee's service as a permanent employee. (4)  A person appointed as an officer, or for a specified term or for the duration of a specified task, whose appointment is not renewed or whose appointment is terminated before the expiration of the specified term or the duration of the specified task may, subject to subsection (5) , by notice in writing served on the Commissioner, elect, within 14 days after the termination or expiration, to be reappointed as a permanent employee. (5)  A person referred to in subsection (4) may only make an election if, immediately before his or her first appointment as an officer or for a specified term or for the duration of a specified task, the person was a permanent employee and has since that appointment been continuously appointed as an officer or for a specified term or for the duration of a specified task. (6)  A person who elects under subsection (4) to be reappointed as a permanent employee is taken to be a permanent employee in the Agency in which the employee was appointed immediately before the employee so elected. (7)  A person who is taken to be a permanent employee under subsection (6) is entitled to be paid a salary not less than the salary which the person would have been entitled to be paid if the person had remained at the classification applicable to the person's appointment as a permanent employee immediately before his or her appointment as an officer or as a fixed-term employee. 39. Procedure for appointments and promotions (1)  If a Head of Agency requires duties to be performed in an Agency by the appointment of a person or the promotion of a permanent employee under section 37 to perform those duties, the Head of Agency is to advertise those duties in accordance with the Commissioner's Directions unless the Commissioner otherwise determines. (2)  If the classification assigned to duties is varied in accordance with section 34(1)(d) , those duties are taken not to be assigned to an employee and are to be dealt with in accordance with subsection (1) . (3)  The Head of Agency is to select, in accordance with the State Service Principles, a person or employee to perform the duties referred to in subsection (1) or (2) . (4)  The Minister, subject to the outcome of an application for a review under section 50(1)(a) , is to appoint or promote under section 37(1) the person or employee selected by the Head of Agency to perform the duties. (5)  If an employee has made application for a review to the Commissioner under section 50(1)(a) and the Commissioner directs under section 51 that the selection be undertaken again, no appointment is to be made under subsection (4) until that direction is complied with. 40. Request by Head of Agency to promote permanent employee without advertising (1)  Without limiting the Commissioner's discretion under subsection (1) of section 39 , the Commissioner may determine that duties not be advertised in accordance with that subsection if the Commissioner is satisfied that – (a) it is the appropriate course of action in the circumstances; and (b) not advertising those duties is consistent with section 7(1)(b) . (2)  If a Head of Agency intends to request the Commissioner to exercise discretion in relation to not advertising duties under subsection (1) , other than duties to be performed for a specified term or for the duration of a specified task, the Head of Agency, with the approval of the Commissioner, is to notify that intention in the Gazette . (3)  An employee aggrieved by the Head of Agency's intention to make a request under subsection (2) may make application to the Commissioner for a review in accordance with section 50(1)(b) . (4)  If the Commissioner determines an application for a review in favour of the employee who made the application, the Head of Agency is not to request the Commissioner to exercise discretion in relation to not advertising the relevant duties under subsection (1) . 41. Voluntary transfers between Agencies (1)  A Head of Agency may, with the agreement in writing of an employee, transfer the employee to the Head's Agency from another Agency at a salary level not higher than the salary level of the employee before the transfer. (2)  A Head of Agency may enter into an agreement in writing with an employee for the employee to transfer to the Head's Agency for a specified period. (3)  A transfer under subsection (2) is to be made with the agreement of the Head of the Agency in which the employee was employed immediately before the transfer. (3A) [Section 41 Subsection (3A) inserted by No. 76 of 2003, Sched. 1, Applied:01 Jan 2004] An employee or officer may be transferred to the Police Service as a police officer in accordance with section 24 of the Police Service Act 2003 . (4)  Subject to the Commissioner's Directions, an agreement under this section has effect according to its terms, by force of this section. 42. Compulsory transfers between Agencies (1)  Subject to subsection (2) , the Minister may transfer an employee from an Agency to another Agency to undertake duties having a similar salary level. (2)  The Minister may not transfer an employee from an Agency to another Agency to undertake duties having a lower salary level unless the employee has consented in writing to such a transfer. (3)  In transferring an employee under subsection (1) , the Minister is to – (a) have regard to the knowledge, skills, qualifications and experience of the employee; and (b) be satisfied that the employee can reasonably be required to perform the duties to which the employee is to be transferred. (4)  The Minister may delegate the power to transfer an employee from an Agency to another Agency. 43. Suspension The regulations may make provision in relation to the suspension from duties of employees, with or without salary. 44. Termination of employment of permanent employees (1)  The Minister may at any time, by notice in writing, terminate the employment of a permanent employee. (2)  The notice is to specify the ground or grounds that are relied on for the termination. (3)  The following are the only grounds for termination: (a) that the permanent employee is found under section 10 to have breached the Code of Conduct; (b) that the Head of Agency has requested the Minister under section 47(11) to terminate the employment of the permanent employee; (c) that the permanent employee is found under section 48 to be unable to efficiently and effectively perform the duties assigned to that employee; (d) any other ground prescribed by the regulations. (4)  The Minister may, by instrument in writing, delegate to a Head of Agency, on such terms and conditions as the Minister may determine, the Minister's power of termination of permanent employees. (5)  The Minister may, by instrument in writing, revoke wholly or in part or vary a delegation made under this section. (6)  The power of termination delegated to a Head of Agency when exercised by the Head of Agency is taken to have been exercised by the Minister. 45. Termination of employment of fixed-term employees (1)  The Minister may at any time, by notice in writing, terminate the employment of a fixed-term employee in accordance with the terms and conditions under which the employee is appointed. (2)  The Minister may delegate the power to terminate the employment of fixed-term employees. Division 2 - Secondment and redeployment 46. Arrangements relating to secondment of persons (1)  If the Commissioner considers it is in the public interest to do so, the Commissioner, with the agreement of the Head of Agency and, where relevant, an employee, may make an arrangement for – (a) a person who is not an employee to undertake duties in the Agency; or (b) an employee to undertake duties with an organisation that is not an Agency. (2)  An arrangement under subsection (1) may provide for such matters as the parties to the arrangement consider appropriate. (3)  If a person who enters into an arrangement under subsection (1) is an employee within the meaning of the Long Service Leave (State Employees) Act 1994 , the period to which the arrangement relates is taken to be service for the purposes of that Act. (4)  If a person who enters into an arrangement under subsection (1) is – (a) [Section 46 Subsection (4) amended by No. 65 of 2005, Sched. 1, Applied:15 Dec 2005] contributing to the contributory scheme, regulation 132 of the Retirement Benefits Regulations 2005 has effect; or (b) [Section 46 Subsection (4) amended by No. 65 of 2005, Sched. 1, Applied:15 Dec 2005] a member of an RSA or a complying superannuation scheme, other than the contributory scheme, employer superannuation contributions are to be specified in the arrangement. (5)  An arrangement under subsection (1) may be terminated, or its terms and conditions varied, in accordance with the terms and conditions of that arrangement. (6)  In this section, parties means – (a) in the case of an arrangement under subsection (1)(a) , the Commissioner, the person and the Head of Agency; and (b) in the case of an arrangement under subsection (1)(b) , the Commissioner, the employee to whom the arrangement relates, the Head of Agency and the organisation. 47. Redeployment (1)  If a Head of Agency considers a permanent employee employed in the Agency to be surplus to the requirements of the Agency, the Head of Agency is to – (a) advise the employee, in writing, of the Head of Agency's intention to recommend to the Commissioner that the employee be made available for redeployment and the reasons for that intention; and (b) request the employee to provide a response, within 14 days of being so advised, to the Head of Agency. (2)  At the expiration of the period of 14 days referred to in subsection (1) , if the Head of Agency, after considering the employee's response (if any), decides that the employee is surplus to the requirements of the Agency, the Head of Agency may recommend to the Commissioner that the employee be made available for redeployment. (3)  When making a recommendation under subsection (2) , the Head of Agency is to forward any employee's response referred to in subsection (1)(b) to the Commissioner. (4)  If the Commissioner accepts the recommendation, the Commissioner is to take such action as the Commissioner considers reasonable and practicable to identify duties in the State Service which could be assigned to the employee. (5)  The Commissioner may assign duties in the State Service to the employee – (a) having regard to the aptitude, knowledge, skills, qualifications and experience of the employee; and (b) if the Commissioner is satisfied that the employee can reasonably be required to perform the relevant duties. (6)  If the Commissioner has indicated to a Head of Agency his or her intention to assign duties to an employee under subsection (5) , the Head of Agency is not to assign those duties without the approval of the Commissioner. (7)  An employee who is assigned duties under subsection (5) is to be paid, for a period of 12 months from the day on which the employee is assigned those duties, a salary not less than the salary which the employee was paid before being so assigned those duties. (8)  After the expiration of the 12 month period referred to in subsection (7) , the employee is to be paid the salary applicable to the classification in respect of the duties which have been assigned to the employee. (9)  During the period between the date on which the Commissioner accepts the recommendation of the Head of Agency for redeployment and the date on which the employee is assigned duties by the Commissioner or the date on which the Commissioner advises the Head of Agency of the Commissioner's inability to effect the redeployment, whichever is the earlier, the Head of Agency must ensure that the services of the employee are used as effectively and efficiently as is practicable. (10)  If the Commissioner is unable to assign duties to the employee within a period of 12 months from the day on which the Commissioner accepts the recommendation of the Head of Agency under subsection (4) , the Commissioner must notify, in writing, the Head of Agency of the Commissioner's inability to do so. (11)  If the Commissioner notifies the Head of Agency of the Commissioner's inability to assign duties to the employee, the Head of Agency may request the Minister to terminate the employment of the employee in accordance with section 44(3)(b) . (12)  During the period referred to in subsection (9) , the Commissioner may suspend that period for such term as the Commissioner determines. Division 3 - Inability to perform duties 48. Inability of employees to perform duties (1)  The Minister may take one or more of the following actions in relation to an employee who is found, under procedures established under subsection (3) , to be unable to efficiently and effectively perform the duties assigned to the employee: (a) direct appropriate counselling; (b) direct appropriate retraining; (c) reduce salary within the range of salary applicable to the employee; (d) reassign duties; (e) reduce classification; (f) terminate employment in accordance with section 44 or 45 . (2)  The Minister may delegate the power to take any of the actions specified in subsection (1)(a) to (e) . (3)  The Commissioner is to establish procedures for the investigation and determination of whether an employee is able to efficiently and effectively perform the duties assigned to the employee. (4)  The procedures referred to in subsection (3) – (a) are to afford procedural fairness in the determination of whether an employee is able to efficiently and effectively perform the duties assigned to the employee; and (b) may be different for different categories of employees; and (c) may vary according to the circumstances in which the employee is alleged to be unable to efficiently and effectively perform the duties assigned to the employee. Division 4 - Review of actions 49. Interpretation of Division 4 In this Division – action includes a refusal or failure to act; State Service action means action by an officer or an employee but does not include an action to make an appointment under section 31(1) . 50. Review of actions (1)  Subject to subsections (2) and (3) , an employee is entitled to make application to the Commissioner for a review, in accordance with the Commissioner's Directions – (a) of the selection of a person or an employee to perform duties other than duties to be performed for a specified term or for the duration of a specified task; or (b) of any other State Service action that relates to his or her employment in the State Service. (2)  An employee is not entitled to make an application for a review under subsection (1)(a) if that employee was not an applicant for the duties to which the appointment or promotion relates. (3)  An employee is not entitled to make an application for a review under subsection (1)(b) in respect of the termination of the employee's employment. Note.Disputes in relation to the decision to terminate employment are to be dealt with by the appropriate industrial tribunal. 51. Determination of a review (1)  The procedure for a review is to be determined by the Commissioner. (2)  The procedure determined by the Commissioner may provide for an internal review to be conducted within the Agency in which the State Service action was taken before the conduct of the review by the Commissioner. (3)  The procedure referred to in subsection (1) – (a) is to afford procedural fairness; and (b) may be different for different categories of employees; and (c) may vary according to the circumstances in which the State Service action occurred. (4)  Before the determination of the application for a review, the Commissioner may direct the Head of Agency to take such action relating to the subject matter of the review as the Commissioner considers to be appropriate. (5)  If the Commissioner is of the opinion that an application for a review is frivolous or vexatious, the Commissioner may refuse to undertake the review and dismiss the application. (6)  In the determination of an application for a review, the Commissioner may – (a) refuse to grant the application for a review and, if appropriate, direct the Head of Agency to take such action as the Commissioner considers appropriate; or (b) in the case of an application for a review under section 50(1)(a) , grant the application and direct the Head of Agency to undertake again the selection in accordance with section 39 and undertake such other requirements as are imposed by the Commissioner; or (c) in the case of an application for a review under section 50(1)(b) , grant the application and recommend or direct the Minister or the Head of Agency or any person to whom the powers of the Minister or the Head of Agency have been delegated, to take such action as the Commissioner considers appropriate. (7)  The determination of the Commissioner in respect of an application for a review is final. PART 8 - Miscellaneous 52. Public notification A Head of Agency is to cause notice to be published in the Gazette , within such period as the Commissioner determines, of all actions relating to employment as may be prescribed and the notice is conclusive evidence of every such action. 53. Holidays (1)  Every statutory holiday specified for the whole State under the Statutory Holidays Act 2000 is to be a holiday throughout the State Service. (2)  A day or part of a day specified as a statutory holiday in any part of Tasmania under the Statutory Holidays Act 2000 is to be kept as a holiday or part holiday in all offices of the State Service situated within that part. (3)  The Minister may at any time appoint any specified day or specified part of a day to be kept as a holiday or part holiday in the offices of the State Service or in the offices of the State Service in any part of Tasmania. (4)  The Minister or a Head of Agency may require an Agency or part of any Agency to be kept open in the public interest for the whole or any portion of a holiday, and may require the attendance and service of any employee of the Agency during any such holiday. (5)  If an employee has been required by the Minister or the Head of Agency to be in attendance at that Agency during any holiday, the employee is to be granted a holiday on such other occasion as the Minister or Head of Agency determines. 54. Fines (1)  If a fine is imposed on an employee under this Act, the employee is to pay the amount of the fine to the Treasurer in such manner and within such period as may be agreed between the employee and the Treasurer or, if no agreement is reached between the employee and the Treasurer, in such manner and within such time as the Treasurer may determine. (2)  If an employee or a former employee fails to make a payment in accordance with the agreement or as determined by the Treasurer, the amount of the fine unpaid may be recovered by the Treasurer in a court of competent jurisdiction as a debt due to the Crown. (3)  All fines imposed, and all fees received, under this Act are to be paid into and form part of the Consolidated Fund. 55. Regulations (1)  The Governor may make regulations for the purposes of this Act. (2)  Without limiting subsection (1) , regulations may be made for or in relation to any of the following: (a) the specification of terms and conditions of employment of officers and employees; (b) the payment of, and deduction from, salaries, wages and allowances of officers and employees; (c) the circumstances in which, and the conditions subject to which, the employment of officers and employees may be terminated; (d) the establishment of review panels to determine, under delegation from the Commissioner, a review pursuant to section 51 . (3)  The regulations may be made so as to apply differently according to matters, limitations or restrictions, whether as to time, circumstance or otherwise, specified in the regulations. (4)  The regulations may authorise any matter to be from time to time determined, applied or regulated by the Minister, the Commissioner or a Head of Agency. 56. Administration of Act Until provision is made in relation to this Act by order under section 4 of the Administrative Arrangements Act 1990 – (a) the administration of this Act is assigned to the Premier; and (b) the department responsible to the Premier in relation to the administration of this Act is the Department of Premier and Cabinet. 57. Orders revoked Any orders made under section 5 , 6 or 24 of the Tasmanian State Service Act 1984 and in existence immediately before the commencement of this Act are revoked. 58. Acts repealed The Acts specified in Schedule 2 are repealed. 59. Statutory Rules rescinded The Statutory Rules specified in Schedule 3 are rescinded. SCHEDULE 1 - Agencies [Schedule 1 Substituted by S.R. 2002, No. 88, Applied:09 Aug 2002] [Schedule 1 Substituted by S.R. 2006, No. 22, Applied:05 Apr 2006] [Schedule 1 Substituted by S.R. 2009, No. 72, Applied:01 Jul 2009] Sections 3(1),12,29and30 PART 1 - Government departments [Part 1 of Schedule 1 Substituted by S.R. 2002, No. 88, Applied:09 Aug 2002] [Part 1 of Schedule 1 Amended by S.R. 2004, No. 4, Applied:02 Feb 2004] [Part 1 of Schedule 1 Substituted by S.R. 2006, No. 22, Applied:05 Apr 2006] [Part 1 of Schedule 1 Amended by S.R. 2008, No. 4, Applied:12 Feb 2008] [Part 1 of Schedule 1 Substituted by S.R. 2009, No. 72, Applied:01 Jul 2009] Column 1 Column 2 Agency Head of AgencyDivision 1Department of Economic Development, Tourism and the ArtsSecretaryDepartment of EducationSecretaryDepartment of Health and Human ServicesSecretaryDepartment of Infrastructure, Energy and ResourcesSecretaryDepartment of JusticeSecretaryDepartment of Police and Emergency ManagementSecretaryDepartment of Premier and CabinetSecretaryDepartment of Primary Industries, Parks, Water and EnvironmentSecretaryDepartment of Treasury and FinanceSecretaryDivision 2Tasmanian Audit OfficeAuditor-General PART 2 - State authorities [Part 2 of Schedule 1 Substituted by S.R. 2002, No. 88, Applied:09 Aug 2002] [Part 2 of Schedule 1 Amended by No. 28 of 2002, Sched. 1, Applied:25 Jun 2003] [Part 2 of Schedule 1 Amended by S.R. 2006, No. 10, Applied:21 Feb 2006] [Part 2 of Schedule 1 Substituted by S.R. 2006, No. 22, Applied:05 Apr 2006] [Part 2 of Schedule 1 Amended by No. 45 of 2008, Sched. 1, Applied:01 Jan 2009] [Part 2 of Schedule 1 Substituted by S.R. 2009, No. 72, Applied:01 Jul 2009] Column 1 Column 2 Agency Head of AgencyPort Arthur Historic Site Management AuthorityChief executive officerRivers and Water Supply CommissionChairperson of the Rivers and Water Supply CommissionTasmanian AcademyChief executive officerTasmanian Dairy Industry AuthorityChairperson of the Tasmanian Dairy Industry AuthorityTasmanian PolytechnicChief executive officerTasmanian Skills InstituteChief executive officerThe Public TrusteeChairperson of The Public Trustee SCHEDULE 2 - Acts repealed Section 58 Tasmanian State Service Act 1984(No. 25 of 1984)Tasmanian State Service (Transitional Provisions) Act 1984(No. 28 of 1984) SCHEDULE 3 - Statutory Rules rescinded Section 59 Tasmanian State Service (Agency Reporting) Regulations 1990(No. 123 of 1990)Tasmanian State Service (Public Service Rescission) Regulations 1985(No. 219 of 1985)Tasmanian State Service Regulations 1985(No. 216 of 1985)Tasmanian State Service Amendment Regulations 1986(No. 81 of 1986)Tasmanian State Service Amendment Regulations (No. 2) 1986(No. 101 of 1986)Tasmanian State Service Amendment Regulations (No. 3) 1986(No. 296 of 1986)Tasmanian State Service Amendment Regulations (No. 4) 1986(No. 297 of 1986)Tasmanian State Service Amendment Regulations 1987(No. 67 of 1987)Tasmanian State Service Amendment Regulations (No. 2) 1987(No. 76 of 1987)Tasmanian State Service Amendment Regulations (No. 3) 1987(No. 204 of 1987)Tasmanian State Service Amendment Regulations (No. 4) 1987(No. 223 of 1987)Tasmanian State Service Amendment Regulations 1988(No. 58 of 1988)Tasmanian State Service Amendment Regulations (No. 2) 1988(No. 59 of 1988)Tasmanian State Service Amendment Regulations (No. 3) 1988(No. 89 of 1988)Tasmanian State Service Amendment Regulations (No. 4) 1988(No. 134 of 1988)Tasmanian State Service Amendment Regulations (No. 5) 1988(No. 145 of 1988)Tasmanian State Service Amendment Regulations (No. 6) 1988(No. 179 of 1988)Tasmanian State Service Amendment Regulations (No. 7) 1988(No. 192 of 1988)Tasmanian State Service Amendment Regulations (No. 8) 1988(No. 215 of 1988)Tasmanian State Service Amendment Regulations (No. 9) 1988(No. 240 of 1988)Tasmanian State Service Amendment Regulations 1989(No. 77 of 1989)Tasmanian State Service Amendment Regulations (No. 2) 1989(No. 78 of 1989)Tasmanian State Service Amendment Regulations (No. 3) 1989(No. 100 of 1989)Tasmanian State Service Amendment Regulations (No. 4) 1989(No. 118 of 1989)Tasmanian State Service Amendment Regulations (No. 5) 1989(No. 120 of 1989)Tasmanian State Service Amendment Regulations (No. 6) 1989(No. 128 of 1989)Tasmanian State Service Amendment Regulations (No. 7) 1989(No. 152 of 1989)Tasmanian State Service Amendment Regulations 1990(No. 22 of 1990)Tasmanian State Service Amendment Regulations (No. 2) 1990(No. 41 of 1990)Tasmanian State Service Amendment Regulations (No. 3) 1990(No. 71 of 1990)Tasmanian State Service Amendment Regulations (No. 4) 1990(No. 213 of 1990)Tasmanian State Service Amendment Regulations 1992(No. 34 of 1992)Tasmanian State Service Amendment (Appeals) Regulations 1992(No. 94 of 1992)Tasmanian State Service Amendment Regulations (No. 2) 1992(No. 95 of 1992)Tasmanian State Service Amendment Regulations (No. 3) 1992(No. 170 of 1992)Tasmanian State Service Amendment (Appeals) Regulations 1993(No. 56 of 1993)Tasmanian State Service Amendment Regulations 1993(No. 188 of 1993)Tasmanian State Service Amendment (Appeal Period) Regulations 1994(No. 64 of 1994)Tasmanian State Service Amendment (Appeals) Regulations 1994(No. 165 of 1994)Tasmanian State Service Amendment Regulations 1995(No. 156 of 1995)Tasmanian State Service Amendment Regulations 1996(No. 179 of 1996)Tasmanian State Service Amendment Regulations 1998(No. 77 of 1998)

https://www.legislation.tas.gov.au/view/whole/html/inforce/2010-01-01/act-2000-085

2021 Functional Food Ingredients Market - Size, Share, COVID Impact Analysis and Forecast to 2027 2021 Functional Food Ingredients Market - Size, Share, COVID Impact Analysis and Forecast to 2027 2021 Functional Food Ingredients Market - Size, Share, COVID Impact - Market research report and industry analysis - 14177527 2021 Functional Food Ingredients Market - Size, Share, COVID Impact Analysis and Forecast to 2027 2021 Functional Food Ingredients Market - Size, Share, COVID Impact Analysis and Forecast to 2027– is comprehensive research with in-depth data and contemporary analysis of Functional Food Ingredients Market at a global, regional and key country level, split by different sub-segments of the industry.Functional Food Ingredients Market is quickly reaching its pre-COVID levels and a healthy growth rate is expected over the forecast period driven by the V-shaped recovery in most of the developing nations.Key strategies of companies operating in Functional Food Ingredients Market Industry are identified as showcasing their contactless manufacturing and delivery methods, highlighting USP statements, focus on product packaging, and increased the presence of products on online platforms.The food industry is set to experience a few changes in 2021 due to the increased consciousness of consumers in selecting food. This inclination towards sustainable, regenerative, plant-based food and demand for foods and beverages with immunity-boosting ingredients is driving the demand for these products and their constituents. Do It Yourself (DIY) trend has seen huge momentum during Corona times and is expected to continue in 2021.Considering the rapidly changing market landscape, companies are changing their perspectives on expanding beyond traditional markets. In addition to focusing on widening applications, introducing new product portfolios, most food and beverage companies are planning to capture domestic and international markets.Fast pace recovery of developing economies leading to increased disposable income will support the Functional Food Ingredients Market demand between 2021 and 2027.Lockdowns across the globe in 2020 and continuing restrictions in 2021 disrupted the supply chain posing challenges for manufactures in the Functional Food Ingredients Market. Intense competition, pricing issues, and shifting consumer preferences will continue to put pressure on vendors’ profit margins.Report Description-The report- ‘2021 Functional Food Ingredients Market - Size, Share, COVID Impact Analysis and Forecast to 2027’ presents growth projections in the Functional Food Ingredients Market between 2021 and 2027 for companies operating across different types, applications, and end-user verticals.Short-term and long-term trends affecting the market landscape are included in the research. Further, market drivers, restraints, and potential opportunities are also provided in the report.The Functional Food Ingredients report computes the 2020 market value in revenue terms based on the average Functional Food Ingredients prices and sales/revenue models of key companies operating in the Functional Food Ingredients Market Industry. The study forecasts the market size to 2027 for different types of Functional Food Ingredients and provides respective market share and growth rates.The study discusses technological innovations and the potential shift in demand among various products in the Functional Food Ingredients Market, over the forecast period. The leading five companies in the Functional Food Ingredients Market Industry together with their products, key strategies, and comparisons are provided.The Functional Food Ingredients Market size, share, and outlook across different types and applications are provided at geographic levels of North America, Asia Pacific, Europe, Middle East Africa, South and Central America. Further, country-level Functional Food Ingredients Market value is also provided.All recent developments in Functional Food Ingredients Market Industry including mergers, acquisitions, contract awards, licenses, product launches, and expansion plans are included in the report. Base Year- 2020; Forecast period: 2021- 2027 Publication frequency- Every six months Research Methodology- Data triangulation with top-down and Bottom-up approach are used for market size Scope of the Report - Global Functional Food Ingredients Market Industry size, 2020- 2027 Market trends, drivers, restraints, and opportunities Porter’s Five forces analysis Types of Functional Food Ingredients, 2020-2027 Functional Food Ingredients applications and end-user verticals market size, 2020- 2027 Functional Food Ingredients Market size across countries, 2020- 2027 5 leading companies in the industry- overview, key strategies, financials, and products Latest market news and developments Additional support - All the data presented in tables and charts of the report is provided in a separate Excel document Print authentication extended 10% free customization to include any specific data/analysis to match with the requirement 3 months of analyst support Please Note: The report will be delivered in two working days after purchase of the report. 1. Table of Contents 1.1 List of Tables 1.2 List of Figures 2. Functional Food Ingredients Market Latest Trends, Drivers and Challenges, 2020 - 2027 2.1 Functional Food Ingredients Market Overview 2.2 Post COVID Strategies of Leading Functional Food Ingredients Companies 2.3 Functional Food Ingredients Market Insights, 2021- 2027 2.3.1 Leading Functional Food Ingredients types, 2021- 2027 2.3.2 Leading Functional Food Ingredients End-User industries, 2021- 2027 2.3.3 Fast-Growing countries for Functional Food Ingredients sales, 2021- 2027 2.4 Functional Food Ingredients Market Drivers and Restraints 2.4.1 Functional Food Ingredients Demand Drivers to 2027 2.4.2 Functional Food Ingredients Challenges to 2027 2.5 Functional Food Ingredients Market- Five Forces Analysis 2.5.1 Functional Food Ingredients Industry Attractiveness Index, 2020 2.5.2 Threat of New Entrants 2.5.3 Bargaining Power of Suppliers 2.5.4 Bargaining Power of Buyers 2.5.5 Intensity of Competitive Rivalry 2.5.6 Threat of Substitutes 3. Global Functional Food Ingredients Market Value, Market Share, and Forecast to 2027 3.1 Global Functional Food Ingredients Market Overview, 2020 3.2 Global Functional Food Ingredients Market Revenue and Forecast, 2021- 2027 (US$ Million) 3.3 Global Functional Food Ingredients Market Size and Share Outlook by Type, 2021- 2027 3.4 Global Functional Food Ingredients Market Size and Share Outlook by End-User, 2021- 2027 3.5 Global Functional Food Ingredients Market Size and Share Outlook by Region, 2021- 2027 4. Asia Pacific Functional Food Ingredients Market Value, Market Share and Forecast to 2027 4.1 Asia Pacific Functional Food Ingredients Market Overview, 2020 4.2 Asia Pacific Functional Food Ingredients Market Revenue and Forecast, 2021- 2027 (US$ Million) 4.3 Asia Pacific Functional Food Ingredients Market Size and Share Outlook by Type, 2021- 2027 4.4 Asia Pacific Functional Food Ingredients Market Size and Share Outlook by End-User, 2021- 2027 4.5 Asia Pacific Functional Food Ingredients Market Size and Share Outlook by Country, 2021- 2027 4.6 Key Companies in Asia Pacific Functional Food Ingredients Market 5. Europe Functional Food Ingredients Market Value, Market Share, and Forecast to 2027 5.1 Europe Functional Food Ingredients Market Overview, 2020 5.2 Europe Functional Food Ingredients Market Revenue and Forecast, 2021- 2027 (US$ Million) 5.3 Europe Functional Food Ingredients Market Size and Share Outlook by Type, 2021- 2027 5.4 Europe Functional Food Ingredients Market Size and Share Outlook by End-User, 2021- 2027 5.5 Europe Functional Food Ingredients Market Size and Share Outlook by Country, 2021- 2027 5.6 Key Companies in Europe Functional Food Ingredients Market 6. North America Functional Food Ingredients Market Value, Market Share and Forecast to 2027 6.1 North America Functional Food Ingredients Market Overview, 2020 6.2 North America Functional Food Ingredients Market Revenue and Forecast, 2021- 2027 (US$ Million) 6.3 North America Functional Food Ingredients Market Size and Share Outlook by Type, 2021- 2027 6.4 North America Functional Food Ingredients Market Size and Share Outlook by End-User, 2021- 2027 6.5 North America Functional Food Ingredients Market Size and Share Outlook by Country, 2021- 2027 6.6 Key Companies in North America Functional Food Ingredients Market 7. South and Central America Functional Food Ingredients Market Value, Market Share and Forecast to 2027 7.1 South and Central America Functional Food Ingredients Market Overview, 2020 7.2 South and Central America Functional Food Ingredients Market Revenue and Forecast, 2021- 2027 (US$ Million) 7.3 South and Central America Functional Food Ingredients Market Size and Share Outlook by Type, 2021- 2027 7.4 South and Central America Functional Food Ingredients Market Size and Share Outlook by End-User, 2021- 2027 7.5 South and Central America Functional Food Ingredients Market Size and Share Outlook by Country, 2021- 2027 7.6 Key Companies in South and Central America Functional Food Ingredients Market 8. Middle East Africa Functional Food Ingredients Market Value, Market Share and Forecast to 2027 8.1 Middle East Africa Functional Food Ingredients Market Overview, 2020 8.2 Middle East and Africa Functional Food Ingredients Market Revenue and Forecast, 2021- 2027 (US$ Million) 8.3 Middle East Africa Functional Food Ingredients Market Size and Share Outlook by Type, 2021- 2027 8.4 Middle East Africa Functional Food Ingredients Market Size and Share Outlook by End-User, 2021- 2027 8.5 Middle East Africa Functional Food Ingredients Market Size and Share Outlook by Country, 2021- 2027 8.6 Key Companies in Middle East Africa Functional Food Ingredients Market 9. Functional Food Ingredients Market Structure 9.1 Key Players 9.2 Functional Food Ingredients Companies - Key Strategies and Financial Analysis 9.2.1 Snapshot 9.2.3 Business Description 9.2.4 Products and Services 9.2.5 Financial Analysis 10. Functional Food Ingredients Industry Recent Developments 11 Appendix 11.1 Publisher Expertise 11.2 Research Methodology 11.3 Annual Subscription Plans 11.4 Contact Information The report will be updated to the latest month and delivered in two working days after order confirmation. Functional Food Ingredients Market: Current Analysis and Forecast (2021-2027)

https://www.marketresearch.com/OG-Analysis-v3922/Functional-Food-Ingredients-Size-Share-14177527/

CAMP DEL CORAZON - GuideStar Profile GuideStar connects donors and grantmakers to non-profit organizations. CAMP DEL CORAZON A non-profit providing year-round opportunities for children with heart disease. aka CdC | North Hollywood, CA | www.campdelcorazon.org Mission Camp del Corazon is a registered 501(c)3 nonprofit organization that provides year-round experiential opportunities for children faced with the challenges of growing up and living with heart disease. We provide a residential summer camp experience for children ages 7-17 as well as programs that offer opportunities for growth, education and support for children, young adults and the families who are living with heart disease. Ruling year info 1997 Executive Director Chrissie Endler President Dr. Kevin Shannon Main address 11615 Hesby St North Hollywood, CA 91601 USA Contact Information Contact Email contact available with aPro subscription Fundraising Contact Kristina Wallace Director of Development Fundraising contact phone: (818) 754-0312 [email protected] Physical Address 11615 Hesby St North Hollywood, CA 91601 Payment Address 11615 Hesby St North Hollywood, CA 91601 Legal name of organization: Camp del Corazon EIN 95-4599670 NTEE code info Youth Development Programs (O50) Heart and Circulatory System (G43) Other Recreation, Sports, or Leisure Activities N.E.C. (N99) IRS filing requirement This organization is required to file an IRS Form 990 or 990-EZ. Sign in or create an account to view Form(s) 990 for 2020, 2019 and 2018.Register now Communication Programs and results What we aim to solve SOURCE: Self-reported by organization About 40,000 children are born with Congenital Heart Disease (CHD) in the United States each year, making CHD one of the most common birth defects. At least 8 out of every ... 1,000 children born each year have a heart defect. Yet resources for these children are very scarce. There is much attention paid to adults with heart disease, but virtually nothing for children born with damaged hearts. According to a study from the American Camp Association, “there is a need to develop and exercise these life skills to encourage independent living, social engagement, and community involvement. Camp can serve as a primary teaching environment to foster skills, optimism, friendships, and competence. To avoid marginalization and successfully overcome adversity, individuals with special needs require inclusion, support, and coaching on appropriate skills. Camps provide an inclusive environment with novel attention so individuals may experience normal aspects of development and success which will improvRead more Our programs SOURCE: Self-reported by organization What are the organization's current programs, how do they measure success, and who do the programs serve? Summer Camp A summer camping program for children with congenital heart disease that takes place on Catalina Island. For most, this is the only experience away from home, as they are often too sick to go on vacations or to even stay overnight at a friend’s house. Parents of children with heart conditions are often fearful that activities enjoyed by ‘normal’ kids could be harmful. There are very few camps with the resources or medically trained staff to provide for these special needs children, or a safe environment that their parents would trust. Program serves children with CHD ages 7-17. Population(s) Served Children and youth Families P.A.C.E. - Progressive Adult Congenital Experience PACE (Progressive Adult Congenital Experience) is a ground-breaking program offered by Camp del Corazon for young adults aged 18 to 25, as they transition from teen years into adulthood. This program is designed and lead by its participants, allowing individuals to take on more responsibility and leadership roles as they progress through the program, and helping to keep the content of the program fresh and relevant to the issues surrounding their age group. Population(s) Served Young adults Our results SOURCE: Self-reported by organization How does this organization measure their results? It's a hard question but an important one. Evaluation documents Number of families and children who attended the Happy Heart Symposium This metric is no longer tracked. Totals By Year 2022 237 2021 286 2020 300 2019 225 2018 250 Population(s) Served Health, Age groups, Family relationships Related Program Type of Metric Output - describing our activities and reach Direction of Success Increasing Context Notes In 2022, we had to take a hiatus with our regular Happy Heart Symposium and move to a virtual formatting. We have already hosted Happy Heart in-person in 2023 with phenomenal numbers. Number of campers enrolled This metric is no longer tracked. Totals By Year 2022 213 2021 388 Population(s) Served People with diseases and illnesses, Children and youth Related Program Summer Camp Type of Metric Output - describing our activities and reach Direction of Success Holding steady Context Notes Due to COVID and the medical fragility of our campers, we have seen attrition in our service population. We are working to ensure the continued safety of our campers and to build back our camper total Number of volunteers This metric is no longer tracked. Totals By Year 2022 186 2021 201 Population(s) Served Children and youth, People with diseases and illnesses Related Program Summer Camp Type of Metric Input - describing resources we use Direction of Success Holding steady Context Notes Our Sustainable Development Goals SOURCE: Self-reported by organization Goals & Strategy SOURCE: Self-reported by organization Learn about the organization's key goals, strategies, capabilities, and progress. Charting impact Four powerful questions that require reflection about what really matters - results. What is the organization aiming to accomplish? Immediately following each camp session, we send all volunteer counselors and camper families an extensive questionnaire asking what we did right, where we could improve, and for general feedback. We set goals for each camp session and the campers themselves. Of the children with congenital heart disease that attend our summer camp, we will confirm that more than 80% receive one or more of the following: they want to come back next year; they learned one new fun skill they want to use again on their own; they made at least one new friend; and as a result of camp, they have the confidence to try at least one new thing in another setting during the school year. What are the organization's key strategies for making this happen? About 40,000 children are born with Congenital Heart Disease (CHD) in the United States each year, making CHD one of the most common birth defects.These children spend much of their lives in and out of hospitals. Friendships are difficult, as they cannot participate in the same activities as healthy children, and they spend so much time away in hospitals.Our camp gives these children an outlet to bond with others who understand and know what they are going through. Camp studies have proven that camp helps to strengthen the confidence and self-esteem of children. Most of our campers return year after year to relive experiences they can get nowhere else.There is no charge to those who attend our camp sessions, as the families affected by this disease already incur incredible financial burdens. The children served by Camp del Corazon are not typically eligible for other camps due to the fact that they require round-the-clock medical supervision and care. What are the organization's capabilities for doing this? With the exception of a part-time office staff, Camp del Corazon is staffed completely by volunteer counselors, nurses, and physicians – including some of the country’s top pediatric cardiologists - who give of their hearts to help these special kids. Many of our volunteers were Camp del Corazon campers themselves or suffered through heart disease, surgeries and ailments as children. These counselors, in particular, have a great impact on our young campers – showing them that there is a light at the end of the tunnel. Moreover, while each session has roughly 100 campers, there are also 2-3 doctors on site, approximately 20 nurses and roughly 45 other adult counselors on site. What have they accomplished so far and what's next? We would like to build our capacity so that we may serve more campers each summer. Financials CAMP DEL CORAZON Analyze a variety of pre-calculated financial metrics Access beautifully interactive analysis and comparison tools Compare nonprofit financials to similar organizations Operations The people, governance practices, and partners that make the organization tick. Connect with nonprofit leaders Subscribe Build relationships with key people who manage and lead nonprofit organizations with GuideStar Pro. Try a low commitment monthly plan today. Analyze a variety of pre-calculated financial metrics Access beautifully interactive analysis and comparison tools Compare nonprofit financials to similar organizations CAMP DEL CORAZON Board of directors as of 02/09/2023 SOURCE: Self-reported by organization Board chair Kevin Shannon, M.D. Mattel Children’s Hospital at UCLA, Director Pediatric Electrophysiology Term: 1995 - Kevin Shannon, M.D. Thomas Klitzner, M.D., Ph.D. Mattel Children’s Hospital at UCLA Michael Paseornek Lion’s Gate Entertainment Company Tom Arnold James Russell Barlow Coelho, Esq. Astor & Phillips Daniel Levi, MD UCLA School of Medicine Jennifer Levi Joel McHale Carl Schuster Wolfgang Puck Catering Ronya Waters Organizational demographics info Candid has made improvements to the race and ethnicity options. Who works and leads organizations that serve our diverse communities? Candid partnered with CHANGE Philanthropy on this demographic section. Leadership The organization's leader identifies as: Race & ethnicity White/Caucasian/European Gender identity Female, Not transgender (cisgender) Sexual orientation Heterosexual or straight Disability status Person without a disability The organization's co-leader identifies as: Race & ethnicity White/Caucasian/European Gender identity Male, Not transgender (cisgender) Sexual orientation Heterosexual or straight Disability status Person without a disability Race & ethnicity No data Gender identity No data No data Sexual orientation No data Disability No data

https://www.guidestar.org/profile/95-4599670

JOEL F GLOVER DDS LTD, NPI 1265531057 - Dentist in Reno, NV Glover Dentistry a provider in 525 Hammill Lane Reno, Nv 89511. Taxonomy code 1223G0001X with license number 3186 (NV). Accepted Insurance: Medicaid and Medicare Dentist - General Practice in Reno, NV NPI Profile NPI Record Similar Providers Table of Contents NPI Profile Information Primary Taxonomy Accepted Insurance Authorized Official Group Taxonomy NPI Validation Organization Dentist General Practice About JOEL F GLOVER DDS LTD Glover Dentistry is a provider established in Reno, Nevada operating as a Dentist with a focus in general practice . The NPI number of this provider is 1265531057 and was assigned on September 2006. The practitioner's primary taxonomy code is 1223G0001X with license number 3186 (NV). The provider is registered as an organization and their NPI record was last updated 15 years ago. Glover Dentistry operates as a single speciality business group with one or more individual providers who practice the same area of specialization. The provider's is doing business as Glover Dentistry. The authorized official of this NPI record is Joel T Glover (Owner) NPI 1265531057 Provider Name JOEL F GLOVER DDS LTD Location Address 525 HAMMILL LANE RENO, NV 89511 Location Phone (775) 825-2227 Mailing Address 525 HAMMILL LANE RENO, NV 89511 NPI Entity Type Organization Is Sole Proprietor? N/A Is Organization Subpart? No Other Organization Name GLOVER DENTISTRY Other Name Type Doing Business As (3) Enumeration Date 09-21-2006 Last Update Date 08-04-2008 A dentist like Glover Dentistry is a skilled in and licensed provider that diagnoses and treats problems with patients teeth, gums, and related parts of the mouth. Dentists educate patients on how to take care of the teeth and gums and provide information on diet choices that affect oral health. Dentists must be licensed in the state in which they work.. Primary Taxonomy The primary taxonomy code defines the provider type, classification, and specialization. There could be only one primary taxonomy code per NPI record. For individual NPIs the license data is associated to the taxonomy code. Taxonomy Code 1223G0001X Classification Dentist Type Dental Providers Specialization General Practice License No. 3186 License State NV Taxonomy Description A general dentist is the primary dental care provider for patients of all ages. The general dentist is responsible for the diagnosis, treatment, management and overall coordination of services related to patients' oral health needs. Accepted Insurance The NPI profile data indicates this provider might be enrolled and accepting health plans from the following insurance companies or healthcare programs: Medicaid Medicare *Please verify directly with this provider to make sure your insurance plan is currently accepted. Business Address 525 HAMMILL LANE RENO, NV ZIP 89511 Phone: (775) 825-2227 Fax: (775) 825-5936 Get Directions Mailing Address 525 HAMMILL LANE RENO, NV ZIP 89511 Phone: (775) 825-2227 Fax: (775) 825-5936 Location Map Authorized Official The name of the person authorized to submit the NPI application or to officially change data for a health care provider. Authorized Official Name JOEL T GLOVER Authorized Official Title OWNER Authorized Official Phone (775) 825-2227 Group Taxonomy 193400000X SINGLE SPECIALTY GROUP - This provdier is a business group of one or more individual practitioners, all of who practice with the same area of specialization. Additional Identifiers Additional identifier(s) currently or formerly used as an identifier for the provider. The codes may include UPIN, NSC, OSCAR, DEA, Medicaid State or PIN identification numbers. Identifier Type / Code Identifier State 002216741 MEDICAID (05) NV 002216804 MEDICAID (05) NV NPI Validation Check Digit Calculation The following table explains the step by step NPI number validation process using the ISO standard Luhn algorithm. Start with the original NPI number, the last digit is the check digit and is not used in the calculation. 1 2 6 5 5 3 1 0 5 7 Step 1: Double the value of the alternate digits, beginning with the rightmost digit. 2 2 12 5 10 3 2 0 10 Step 2: Add all the doubled and unaffected individual digits from step 1 plus the constant number 24. 2 + 2 + 1 + 2 + 5 + 1 + 0 + 3 + 2 + 0 + 1 + 0 + 24 = 43 Step 3: Subtract the total obtained in step 2 from the next higher number ending in zero, the result is the check digit. 50 - 43 = 7 7 The NPI number 1265531057 is valid because the calculated check digit 7 using the Luhn validation algorithm matches the last digit of the original NPI number. Frequently Asked Questions What is GLOVER DENTISTRY NPI number? The NPI number assigned to this healthcare provider is 1265531057, registered as an "organization" on September 21, 2006 Where is GLOVER DENTISTRY located? The provider is located at 525 Hammill Lane Reno, Nv 89511 and the phone number is (775) 825-2227 What kind of medical provider is GLOVER DENTISTRY? This medical organization specializes in Dentist with a focus in General Practice What insurance does GLOVER DENTISTRY accept? The provider might be accepting Medicaid and Medicare. Please consult your insurance carrier or call the provider to make sure your health plan is currently accepted. How do I update my NPI information? The NPI record of GLOVER DENTISTRY was last updated on September 21, 2006. To officially update your NPI information contact the National Plan and Provider Enumeration System (NPPES) at 1-800-465-3203 (NPI Toll-Free) or by email at [email protected]. NPI Profile data is regularly updated with the latest NPI registry information, if you would like to update or remove your NPI Profile in this website please contact us . Previous: 1265531040 Next: 1265531065 NPI Lookup | Registry Advanced Lookup | NPI State Directory | Taxonomy Codes NPI Validation | NPI Phone Lookup | PECOS Lookup | CLIA Lookup by NPI About Us | FAQs | Stats | Contact Us | Terms of Service | Privacy Last updated: June 11, 2023 NPI Profile 2023 | The complete repository of NPI information NPI Profile is the most comprehensive reference website about the NPI registry and NPI related information. NPI Profile is designed to quickly and easily find the most current NPI records in the National Provider Identifier registry. The NPI information is provided "as-is" per the NPPES Data Dissemination Notice covering disclosable health care provider data under the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) and in accordance with the e-FOIA amendments. All contents of this website are provided on an "as is" and "as available" basis without warranty of any kind. NPI records are maintained by the National Plan & Provider Enumeration System. The contents of the NPI Profile website are for informational purposes only. Reliance on any information provided by the NPI Profile website or other visitors to this website is solely at your own risk. If you think you may have a medical emergency, please call your doctor or 911 immediately.

https://npiprofile.com/npi/1265531057

Nomenclature for kidney function and disease: report of a Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) Consensus Conference – ScienceOpen Nomenclature for kidney function and disease: report of a Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) Consensus Conference Author(s): Andrew S. Levey , Kai-Uwe Eckardt , Nijsje M. Dorman , Stacy L. Christiansen , Ewout J. Hoorn , Julie R. Ingelfinger , Lesley A. Inker , Adeera Levin , Rajnish Mehrotra , Paul M. Palevsky , Mark A. Perazella , Allison Tong , Susan J. Allison , Detlef Bockenhauer , Josephine P. Briggs , Jonathan S. Bromberg , Andrew Davenport , Harold I. Feldman , Denis Fouque , Ron T. Gansevoort , John S. Gill , Eddie L. Greene , Brenda R. Hemmelgarn , Matthias Kretzler , Mark Lambie , Pascale H. Lane , Joseph Laycock , Shari E. Leventhal , Michael Mittelman , Patricia Morrissey , Marlies Ostermann , Lesley Rees , Pierre Ronco , Franz Schaefer , Jennifer St. Clair Russell , Caroline Vinck , Stephen B. Walsh , Daniel E. Weiner , Michael Cheung , Michel Jadoul , Wolfgang C. Winkelmayer Publication date Created: March 2020 Publication date (Print): March 2020 Journal: Kidney International Publisher: Elsevier BV Abstract The worldwide burden of kidney disease is rising, but public awareness remains limited, underscoring the need for more effective communication by stakeholders in the kidney health community. Despite this need for clarity, the nomenclature for describing kidney function and disease lacks uniformity. In June 2019, Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) convened a Consensus Conference with the goal of standardizing and refining the nomenclature used in the English language to describe kidney function and disease, and of developing a glossary that could be used in scientific publications. Guiding principles of the conference were that the revised nomenclature should be patient-centered, precise, and consistent with nomenclature used in the KDIGO guidelines. Conference attendees reached general consensus on the following recommendations: (i) to use "kidney" rather than "renal" or "nephro-" when referring to kidney disease and kidney function; (ii) to use "kidney failure" with appropriate descriptions of presence or absence of symptoms, signs, and treatment, rather than "end-stage kidney disease"; (iii) to use the KDIGO definition and classification of acute kidney diseases and disorders (AKD) and acute kidney injury (AKI), rather than alternative descriptions, to define and classify severity of AKD and AKI; (iv) to use the KDIGO definition and classification of chronic kidney disease (CKD) rather than alternative descriptions to define and classify severity of CKD; and (v) to use specific kidney measures, such as albuminuria or decreased glomerular filtration rate (GFR), rather than "abnormal" or "reduced" kidney function to describe alterations in kidney structure and function. A proposed 5-part glossary contains specific items for which there was general agreement. Conference attendees acknowledged limitations of the recommendations and glossary, but they considered standardization of scientific nomenclature to be essential for improving communication. Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 354 diseases and injuries for 195 countries and territories, 1990–2017: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017 Spencer L James , Degu Abate , Kalkidan Hassen Abate … (2019) Summary Background The Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study 2017 (GBD 2017) includes a comprehensive assessment of incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability (YLDs) for 354 causes in 195 countries and territories from 1990 to 2017. Previous GBD studies have shown how the decline of mortality rates from 1990 to 2016 has led to an increase in life expectancy, an ageing global population, and an expansion of the non-fatal burden of disease and injury. These studies have also shown how a substantial portion of the world's population experiences non-fatal health loss with considerable heterogeneity among different causes, locations, ages, and sexes. Ongoing objectives of the GBD study include increasing the level of estimation detail, improving analytical strategies, and increasing the amount of high-quality data. Methods We estimated incidence and prevalence for 354 diseases and injuries and 3484 sequelae. We used an updated and extensive body of literature studies, survey data, surveillance data, inpatient admission records, outpatient visit records, and health insurance claims, and additionally used results from cause of death models to inform estimates using a total of 68 781 data sources. Newly available clinical data from India, Iran, Japan, Jordan, Nepal, China, Brazil, Norway, and Italy were incorporated, as well as updated claims data from the USA and new claims data from Taiwan (province of China) and Singapore. We used DisMod-MR 2.1, a Bayesian meta-regression tool, as the main method of estimation, ensuring consistency between rates of incidence, prevalence, remission, and cause of death for each condition. YLDs were estimated as the product of a prevalence estimate and a disability weight for health states of each mutually exclusive sequela, adjusted for comorbidity. We updated the Socio-demographic Index (SDI), a summary development indicator of income per capita, years of schooling, and total fertility rate. Additionally, we calculated differences between male and female YLDs to identify divergent trends across sexes. GBD 2017 complies with the Guidelines for Accurate and Transparent Health Estimates Reporting. Findings Globally, for females, the causes with the greatest age-standardised prevalence were oral disorders, headache disorders, and haemoglobinopathies and haemolytic anaemias in both 1990 and 2017. For males, the causes with the greatest age-standardised prevalence were oral disorders, headache disorders, and tuberculosis including latent tuberculosis infection in both 1990 and 2017. In terms of YLDs, low back pain, headache disorders, and dietary iron deficiency were the leading Level 3 causes of YLD counts in 1990, whereas low back pain, headache disorders, and depressive disorders were the leading causes in 2017 for both sexes combined. All-cause age-standardised YLD rates decreased by 3·9% (95% uncertainty interval [UI] 3·1–4·6) from 1990 to 2017; however, the all-age YLD rate increased by 7·2% (6·0–8·4) while the total sum of global YLDs increased from 562 million (421–723) to 853 million (642–1100). The increases for males and females were similar, with increases in all-age YLD rates of 7·9% (6·6–9·2) for males and 6·5% (5·4–7·7) for females. We found significant differences between males and females in terms of age-standardised prevalence estimates for multiple causes. The causes with the greatest relative differences between sexes in 2017 included substance use disorders (3018 cases [95% UI 2782–3252] per 100 000 in males vs s1400 [1279–1524] per 100 000 in females), transport injuries (3322 [3082–3583] vs 2336 [2154–2535]), and self-harm and interpersonal violence (3265 [2943–3630] vs 5643 [5057–6302]). Interpretation Global all-cause age-standardised YLD rates have improved only slightly over a period spanning nearly three decades. However, the magnitude of the non-fatal disease burden has expanded globally, with increasing numbers of people who have a wide spectrum of conditions. A subset of conditions has remained globally pervasive since 1990, whereas other conditions have displayed more dynamic trends, with different ages, sexes, and geographies across the globe experiencing varying burdens and trends of health loss. This study emphasises how global improvements in premature mortality for select conditions have led to older populations with complex and potentially expensive diseases, yet also highlights global achievements in certain domains of disease and injury. Funding Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. Show more Global, regional, and national age-sex-specific mortality for 282 causes of death in 195 countries and territories, 1980–2017: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017 Gregory A Roth , Degu Abate , Kalkidan Hassen Abate … (2019) Summary Background Global development goals increasingly rely on country-specific estimates for benchmarking a nation's progress. To meet this need, the Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD) 2016 estimated global, regional, national, and, for selected locations, subnational cause-specific mortality beginning in the year 1980. Here we report an update to that study, making use of newly available data and improved methods. GBD 2017 provides a comprehensive assessment of cause-specific mortality for 282 causes in 195 countries and territories from 1980 to 2017. Methods The causes of death database is composed of vital registration (VR), verbal autopsy (VA), registry, survey, police, and surveillance data. GBD 2017 added ten VA studies, 127 country-years of VR data, 502 cancer-registry country-years, and an additional surveillance country-year. Expansions of the GBD cause of death hierarchy resulted in 18 additional causes estimated for GBD 2017. Newly available data led to subnational estimates for five additional countries—Ethiopia, Iran, New Zealand, Norway, and Russia. Deaths assigned International Classification of Diseases (ICD) codes for non-specific, implausible, or intermediate causes of death were reassigned to underlying causes by redistribution algorithms that were incorporated into uncertainty estimation. We used statistical modelling tools developed for GBD, including the Cause of Death Ensemble model (CODEm), to generate cause fractions and cause-specific death rates for each location, year, age, and sex. Instead of using UN estimates as in previous versions, GBD 2017 independently estimated population size and fertility rate for all locations. Years of life lost (YLLs) were then calculated as the sum of each death multiplied by the standard life expectancy at each age. All rates reported here are age-standardised. Findings At the broadest grouping of causes of death (Level 1), non-communicable diseases (NCDs) comprised the greatest fraction of deaths, contributing to 73·4% (95% uncertainty interval [UI] 72·5–74·1) of total deaths in 2017, while communicable, maternal, neonatal, and nutritional (CMNN) causes accounted for 18·6% (17·9–19·6), and injuries 8·0% (7·7–8·2). Total numbers of deaths from NCD causes increased from 2007 to 2017 by 22·7% (21·5–23·9), representing an additional 7·61 million (7·20–8·01) deaths estimated in 2017 versus 2007. The death rate from NCDs decreased globally by 7·9% (7·0–8·8). The number of deaths for CMNN causes decreased by 22·2% (20·0–24·0) and the death rate by 31·8% (30·1–33·3). Total deaths from injuries increased by 2·3% (0·5–4·0) between 2007 and 2017, and the death rate from injuries decreased by 13·7% (12·2–15·1) to 57·9 deaths (55·9–59·2) per 100 000 in 2017. Deaths from substance use disorders also increased, rising from 284 000 deaths (268 000–289 000) globally in 2007 to 352 000 (334 000–363 000) in 2017. Between 2007 and 2017, total deaths from conflict and terrorism increased by 118·0% (88·8–148·6). A greater reduction in total deaths and death rates was observed for some CMNN causes among children younger than 5 years than for older adults, such as a 36·4% (32·2–40·6) reduction in deaths from lower respiratory infections for children younger than 5 years compared with a 33·6% (31·2–36·1) increase in adults older than 70 years. Globally, the number of deaths was greater for men than for women at most ages in 2017, except at ages older than 85 years. Trends in global YLLs reflect an epidemiological transition, with decreases in total YLLs from enteric infections, respiratory infections and tuberculosis, and maternal and neonatal disorders between 1990 and 2017; these were generally greater in magnitude at the lowest levels of the Socio-demographic Index (SDI). At the same time, there were large increases in YLLs from neoplasms and cardiovascular diseases. YLL rates decreased across the five leading Level 2 causes in all SDI quintiles. The leading causes of YLLs in 1990—neonatal disorders, lower respiratory infections, and diarrhoeal diseases—were ranked second, fourth, and fifth, in 2017. Meanwhile, estimated YLLs increased for ischaemic heart disease (ranked first in 2017) and stroke (ranked third), even though YLL rates decreased. Population growth contributed to increased total deaths across the 20 leading Level 2 causes of mortality between 2007 and 2017. Decreases in the cause-specific mortality rate reduced the effect of population growth for all but three causes: substance use disorders, neurological disorders, and skin and subcutaneous diseases. Interpretation Improvements in global health have been unevenly distributed among populations. Deaths due to injuries, substance use disorders, armed conflict and terrorism, neoplasms, and cardiovascular disease are expanding threats to global health. For causes of death such as lower respiratory and enteric infections, more rapid progress occurred for children than for the oldest adults, and there is continuing disparity in mortality rates by sex across age groups. Reductions in the death rate of some common diseases are themselves slowing or have ceased, primarily for NCDs, and the death rate for selected causes has increased in the past decade. Funding Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. Show more KDIGO Clinical Practice Guidelines for Acute Kidney Injury Author and article information Journal Title: Kidney International Abbreviated Title: Kidney International Publisher: Elsevier BV ISSN (Print): 00852538 Publication date Created: March 2020 Publication date (Print): March 2020 Article DOI: 10.1016/j.kint.2020.02.010 SO-VID: 1fec56ec-078f-4ea5-8142-e86761f53cdd Copyright statement: © 2020 License: https://www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ Product Self URI (article page): https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0085253820302337 Data availability:

https://www.scienceopen.com/document?id=eca88e3a-d364-4dfb-85ae-e1448eab1262

Items where Division is "Social Sciences" and Year is 2017 - Research Repository The University of Gloucestershire has a vibrant academic community where creative research and cutting-edge scholarship are conducted at a high level. Our learning-led environment enables research to thrive, providing the best support for students. Items where Division is "Social Sciences" and Year is 2017 Number of items: 32 . Article Derounian, James ORCID: 0000-0003-1738-9764(2017) A 'Big Green Gap Year' (BiGGY) for school leavers before taking up a university place.HEA Flexible Learning Practice Guide. pp. 16-17. Derounian, James ORCID: 0000-0003-1738-9764(2017) Inspirational teaching in higher education: What does it look, sound and feel like?International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 11 (1). p. 9. doi:10.20429/ijsotl.2017.110109 Derounian, James ORCID: 0000-0003-1738-9764(2017) People Shaped Localism.Progress. Derounian, James ORCID: 0000-0003-1738-9764(2017) TEF - Tiresomely Extraneous & Flawed?Compass: Journal of Learning and Teaching., 10 (2). pp. 21-25. doi:10.21100/compass.v10i2.411 Folkes, Louise ORCID: 0000-0002-7857-6953(2017) Book Review: Higher Education, Social Class and Social Mobility- The Degree Generation.Higher Education Review, 50 (1). pp. 107-108. Hockey, John C ORCID: 0000-0002-5826-8005(2017) The experience of Zulu (military) Time: an examination of the temporal practices and perceptions of UK infantry.Sociological Research Online, 22 (3). pp. 78-94. doi:10.1177/1360780417724074 Jester, Natalie ORCID: 0000-0002-7995-3028(2017) Quality peace: peacebuilding, victory, and world order.International Affairs, 93 (4). pp. 978-979. doi:10.1093/ia/iix094 Jester, Natalie ORCID: 0000-0002-7995-3028(2017) Terrorism, Security And British State Identity: Why Words Matter.Rife Magazine. Jones, Demelza ORCID: 0000-0002-5985-1972(2017) Considering (auto)biography in teaching and learning about race and racism in a diverse university.Teaching in Higher Education, 22 (7). pp. 867-878. doi:10.1080/13562517.2017.1319807 Narkowicz, Kasia ORCID: 0000-0003-3733-922X(2017) A third way? Why Poland needs an alternative to right-wing populism and western liberalism.LSE Blogs. Narkowicz, Kasia ORCID: 0000-0003-3733-922Xand Pędziwiatr, Konrad(2017) From unproblematic to contentious: mosques in Poland.Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 43 (3). pp. 441-457. doi:10.1080/1369183X.2016.1194744 Narkowicz, Kasia ORCID: 0000-0003-3733-922Xand Pędziwiatr, Konrad(2017) Saving and fearing Muslim women in ‘post-communist’ Poland: troubling Catholic and secular Islamophobia.Gender, Place and Culture, 24 (2). pp. 288-299. doi:10.1080/0966369X.2017.1298574 Narkowicz, Kasia ORCID: 0000-0003-3733-922Xand Pędziwiatr, Konrad(2017) Why are Polish people so wrong about Muslims in their country?Open Democracy. Phillips, Amber ORCID: 0000-0003-3227-7672(2017) Corrado Alvaro and the Calabrian mafia: a critical case study of the use of literary and journalistic texts in research on Italian organized crime.Trends in Organized Crime, 20 (1-2). pp. 179-195. doi:10.1007/s12117-016-9285-0 Book Section Allen-Collinson, Jacquelynand Hockey, John C ORCID: 0000-0002-5826-8005(2017) Intercorporeal enaction and synthrony: the case of distance-running.In: Moving Bodies in Interaction-Interacting Bodies in Motion. John Benjamins Publishing, Amsterdam, pp. 173-191. ISBN 9789027204622 Hockey, John C ORCID: 0000-0002-5826-8005and Allen-Collinson, Jacquelyn(2017) Running a temperature: sociological-phenomenological perspectives on distance running, thermoception and ‘temperature work’.In: Seeking the senses in physical cultures: sensual scholarship in action. Routledge Research in Sport, Culture and Society . Routledge, London, pp. 42-62. ISBN 9781138100589 Monograph Hobson, Jonathan ORCID: 0000-0001-8081-6699and Lodge, Alex(2017) Opportunities for Smart Commissioning: An analysis of services dealing with alcohol-related harm in Cheltenham.Project Report. University of Gloucestershire. (Unpublished) Hobson, Jonathan ORCID: 0000-0001-8081-6699, Lynch, Kenneth ORCID: 0000-0002-5296-2864, Payne, Brian, Ellis, Elizabeth ORCID: 0000-0001-9628-8413and Hyde, Darren(2017) Review of the Aston Project: Report.Project Report. University of Gloucestershire, University of Gloucestershire. Livesey, Louise ORCID: 0000-0003-4571-8676(2017) Analysis of Knife Crime Discussions on Social Media.Working Paper. University of Gloucestershire. (Submitted) Livesey, Louise ORCID: 0000-0003-4571-8676(2017) A Literature Review on Early Marriage.Working Paper. Iranian & Kurdish Women's Rights Organisation (IKWRO). (Submitted) Livesey, Louise ORCID: 0000-0003-4571-8676and Bradbury, Donna(2017) LGBTQ+ Sexual Violence Service Needs in Gloucestershire.Project Report. University of Gloucestershire, Cheltenham. Martin, Peteand Hobson, Jonathan ORCID: 0000-0001-8081-6699(2017) Evaluation of the potential impact on alcohol misuse of a “Responsible Off-Licensing Scheme” in Cheltenham.Project Report. University of Gloucestershire. Monckton-Smith, Jane ORCID: 0000-0001-7925-5089, Szymanska, Karolinaand Haile, Sue(2017) Exploring the Relationship between Stalking and Homicide.Project Report. University of Gloucestershire in association with Suzy Lamplugh Trust, Cheltenham. Stafford, Andrew B ORCID: 0000-0002-8059-8705and Hobson, Jonathan ORCID: 0000-0001-8081-6699(2017) The Gloucester City Safe Scheme: Examining views of the Scheme provided by the public and the Scheme’s members.Project Report. University of Gloucestershire, Cheltenham. Conference or Workshop Item Hobson, Jonathan ORCID: 0000-0001-8081-6699, Lynch, Kenneth ORCID: 0000-0002-5296-2864and Dooley, Pauline(2017) Communities and Local Government and Work and Pensions Committees. Oral evidence: Future of Supported Housing, 27th February, 2017. Transcript of evidence session.In: Communities and Local Government and Work and Pensions Committees Oral evidence: Future of Supported Housing, HC 904, 21/02/2017, House of Commons. Hockey, John C ORCID: 0000-0002-5826-8005(2017) Running a Temperature: Distance Running, thermoception and ‘temperature work’.In: Thermal Objects: Theorizing Temperatures and the Social, June 14-15, 2017, Hamburg, Germany.. (Unpublished) Stafford, Andrew B ORCID: 0000-0002-8059-8705(2017) Triangulation in data collection.In: Theory and method in empirical doctoral studies in Law, 15.9.2017, University of Birmingham. (Unpublished) Twyman-Ghoshal, Anamika ORCID: 0000-0003-4076-6687(2017) Somali Maritime Predation: Traditional piracy or a new form of terrorism.In: European Society of Criminology Conference, 13th - 16th September 2017, Cardiff, Wales. Thesis Al Thani, Ahmed Nasser(2017) The Gulf Cooperation Council's Foreign Policy towards the Middle East Peace Process (1991-2005) with Special Reference to Qatar's Foreign Policy.PhD thesis, University of Gloucestershire. Jenks, Rebecca(2017) Community-based restorative justice: Challenging ‘cultures of violence’ in local communities.Masters thesis, University of Gloucestershire. doi:10.46289/HE65NV84 Sandford, Liam(2017) Exploring the capabilities of Prevent in addressing radicalisation in cyberspace within Higher Education.Masters thesis, University of Gloucestershire. Other Derounian, James ORCID: 0000-0003-1738-9764(2017) Stepping out…..From Ivory Tower to good neighbour?Wonkhe. Other University Web Sites Comments concerning this page to Webmaster

https://eprints.glos.ac.uk/view/divisions/sc=5Fsocsci/2017.type.html

A General Method for the Synthesis of Phosphenodiimidic Amides | Request PDF Request PDF | On Jan 1, 1979, L. N. Markovski and others published A General Method for the Synthesis of Phosphenodiimidic Amides | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate A General Method for the Synthesis of Phosphenodiimidic Amides January 1979 Synthesis 1979(10):811-813 DOI: 10.1055/s-1979-28842 Authors: L. N. Markovski Vadim Romanenko National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine A. V. Ruban ChemInform Abstract: A GENERAL METHOD FOR THE SYNTHESIS OF PHOSPHENODIIMIDIC AMIDES Article Jan 1980 L. N. Markovski Vadim Romanenko A. V. RUBAN Phosphenimid- amide (I) werden mit N-Halogen-aminen (II) über die Zwischenstufen (III) zu Phosphendiimid-amiden (IV) umgesetzt. View Short-lived phosphorus(V) compounds having coordination number 3 Article Jan 1981 Manfred Regitz Gerhard Maas Without Abstract 1,2,3λ3-Diazaphosphiridine — Synthese, Molekülstruktur und Ringöffnung Nov 1981 Angew Chem Edgar Niecke Klaus Schwichtenhövel Hans-Günther Schäfer Bernt Krebs Von den dreigliedrigen Heterocyclen mit λ³-Phosphor und Heteroatomen hoher Elektronegativität gelang jetzt die Synthese der 1,2,3λ³-Diazaphosphiridine (1), R = CHMe2, SiMe3. Im Grundzustand von (1) sind die tert-Butylsubstituenten trans-ständig angeordnet. Die Diazaphosphiridine (1) isomerisieren in Toluol bei 100°C innerhalb weniger Minuten zu den ylidischen Diimino-phosphoranen (2). Composes Phosphores Possedant la Structure -P Article Jan 1986 H. Germ J. NAVECH Synthesis, structure and reactivity of tricoordinated pentavalent phosphorus derivatives with the structure -P are described.La synthése. la structure et la réactivité de dérivés du phosphore tricoordonné pentavalent possédant la structure -P sont dérites. Recent developments in the chemistry of three-coordinate pentavalent phosphorus compounds ( σ 3 λ 5-phosphoranes) Article Feb 1997 COORDIN CHEM REV Vadim Romanenko M. SANCHEZ Three-coordinate pentavalent phosphorus compounds can no longer be considered as 'exotic' species in phosphorus chemistry. Since their discovery in 1974 hundreds of stable σ3λ5-phosphoranes have been synthesized and thoroughly investigated. Early work concentrated on preparation, stability and structure of various structural types of monomeric X-P(=Y)=Z compounds. More recently the chemistry of functionalized σ3λ5-phosphoranes has been investigated, resulting both in valuable new reactions and synthetically useful, highly reactive polyfunctional σ3λ5-P reagents. Iminophosphanes: Unconventional Compounds of Main Group Elements Article Mar 1991 ANGEW CHEM INT EDIT Edgar Niecke Dietrich Gudat The large number of known stable compounds in which phosphorus has a low coordination number makes it clear that such compounds can no longer be regarded as “exotic” in main group chemistry. While the rich chemistry of PC multiply bonded systems makes clear their affinity to their organic congeners, iminophosphanes in particular are also of increasing importance. The linkage of a phosphinidine fragment with an imine fragment via a multiple bond gives rise to a class of compounds with an unusually wide range of structural types. This in turn leads to a broad spectrum of chemical behavior which makes iminophosphanes extremely useful synthetic building blocks in organoelement chemistry. View Show abstract Iminophosphane — unkonventionelle Hauptgruppenelement-Verbindungen Article Mar 1991 Angew Chem Edgar Niecke Dietrich Gudat Niederkoordinierte Phosphorverbindungen zählen angesichts der großen Zahl stabiler Verbindungen längst nicht mehr zu den „Exoten” unter den Hauptgruppenelement-Verbindungen. Neben P-C-Mehrfachbindungssystemen, deren Chemie durch die enge Verwandtschaft mit organischen Verbindungen geprägt wird, gilt das Interesse vor allem P-N-Mehrfachbindungssystemen (Iminophosphanen). Diese Verbindungsklasse zeichnet sich durch eine ungewöhnliche Strukturvielfalt und ein variationsreiches chemisches Verhalten aus, so daß Iminophosphane zu wertvollen Synthesebausteinen in der Organoelementchemie wurden. THE INTERACTION OF PHOSPHENIMIDOUS AMIDES AND PHOSPHENODIIMIDIC AMIDES WITH AMINES Article Nov 1980 L. N. Markovski Vadim Romanenko A. V. RUBAN Phosphenimidous amides 1 react with amines to give phosphonimidic diamides 3a-b or phosphorous triamides 3d-f respectively. The nature of the product depends on the substituent R (Me3Si or t-Bu) attached to the imidic nitrogen. The amide and imide forms of the compounds 3 are relatively stable and incapable of interconvertion under the conditions investigated. The reaction between phosphenodiimidic amides 2 and amines leads to phosphorimidic triamide 4. The influence of different factors on the reactions is described. The spectroscopic data of the compounds are discussed in relation to their structure. Synthese und Zerfall von λ3-bzw. λ5-Tetrazaphospholenen Article Jan 1982 EUR J INORG CHEM Edgar Niecke Hans-Günther Schäfer Iminophosphane 4a–c regieren mit tert-Butylazid unter [2+3]-Cycloaddition zu λ3-Tetrazaphospholenen 8a–c. Diese zerfallen thermisch oder photochemisch unter N2-Eliminierung, wobei unter intramolekularer Oxidation des Phosphors die Diiminophosphorane 9a,b,b′,c gebildet werden. Hierbei ist 9c nur in Form seiner [2+2]-Cycloadditionsprodukte 11c und 12c faßbar. Die Reaktion der Diiminophosphorane 7a, 9a und 9c mit tert-Butyl- bzw. Ethylazid ergibt die λ5-Tetrazaphospholene 10a′, 10c–g. Verbindungen dieses Type (10i′, h) sind ebenfalls durch Umsetzung von 4b, c mit Ethylazid zugänglich. Im Gegensatz zum λ3-Tetrazaphospholen-System 8 verläuft der Zerfall der oxidierten Form 10, wie am Beispiel von 10a′ aufgezeigt wird, thermisch unter [2+3]-Cycloreversion, während photochemisch unter N2-Eliminierung die Bildung des λ5-Diazaphosphiridins 14 beobachtet wird. Die NMR-Daten und der Zerfall der Tetrazaphospholene werden diskutiert. Synthesis and Decomposition of λ3- and λ5-Tetrazaphospholenes Iminophosphanes 4a–c react with tert-butyl azide by [2+3]-cycloaddition to give λ3-tetrazaphospholenes 8a–c. These compounds decompose thermally or photochemically by N2-elimination, forming diiminophosphoranes 9a,b,b′,c by intramolecular oxidation of the phosphorus atom, where 9c can only be captured as its [2+2]-cycloaddition product 11c and 12c. The reaction of the diiminophosphoranes 7a, 9a, and 9c with tert-butyl or ethyl azide yields the λ5-tetrazaphospholenes 10a′, 10c–g. Compounds of this type (10i′, h) are also available by the reaction of 4b,c with ethyl azide. In contrast to the λ3-tetrazaphospholene system 8, the oxidized form 10 [2+3]-cycloreverses thermally as shown for 10a′, while photochemically forms the λ5-diazaphosphoridine 14 unter N2-elimination. The NMR data and the decomposition of the tetrazaphospholenes are discussed. 1,2,3λ3-Diazaphosphiridines—Synthesis, Molecular Structure and Ring Opening Article Nov 1981 ANGEW CHEM INT EDIT Edgar Niecke Klaus Schwichtenhövel Hans-Günther Schäfer Bernt Krebs Of the three‐membered heterocycles with λ³‐phosphorus and highly electronegative heteroatoms, l,2,3λ³‐diazaphosphiridines (1), R = CHMe2, SiMe3, has now been synthesized. In the ground state of (1) the tert‐butyl substi‐tuents are trans‐oriented. The diazaphosphiridines (1) isomerize in toluene at 100°C within a few minutes to give the ylidic diiminophosphoranes (2). (Figure Presented.) ETUDE DE QUELQUES REACTIONS DE LA TRIS(TERTBUTYL)PHENYLPHOSPHINE Article Feb 1988 J. NAVECH H. GERMA Sonia Mathieu The reaction of tris(tert-butyl)phenylphosphine with some hydrogen acceptors has been investigated. Triphenylcarbenium hexafluorophosphate allows to obtain a phosphonium salt: the possibility of preliminary formation of phosphenium with a P‒H bond during this reaction is discussed. With methyltrifluoromethanesulfonate, two pentacoordinated phosphorus compounds are isolated. Diethylazodicarboxylate gives rise to a σ, λ-phosphorane. The transient formation of phosphinidene and of 1,2-bis(ethylcarboxylate) 3-tris(tert-butyl)phenyldiazaphosphirine is discussed. View Etude de l'action de l'azodicarboxylate de diethyle sur la tris(tert-butyl)phenylphosphine Article Dec 1986 TETRAHEDRON LETT J. NAVECH The reaction of diethylazodicarboxylate with tris(tert-butyl)phenylphosphine gives rise to a σ3, γ5- phosphorane. Evidence is given for the transient formation of a diazaphosphirldine derivative. Photolytic rearrangement of phosphorus azide : evidence for a transient metaphosphonimidate Article Dec 1980 TETRAHEDRON LETT Guy Bertrand Synthesis and study of the properties of compounds of low-coordinate phosphorus Article Oct 1990 L. N. Markovskii Synthesis, Structure and Reactivity of PH‐Phosphoraneiminato‐ and Iminophosphoraneiminato Group 4 Transition‐Metal Complexes Article May 2003 Z ANORG ALLG CHEM Michael Raab Jürgen Tirreé Martin Nieger Edgar Niecke Prof. Dr The versatile coordination chemistry of the well-investigated phosphoraneiminato-ligand R3PN- (1) was extended by the successive introduction of protons to the phosphorus atom. The position of the resulting equilibrium between the NH-phosphanylamido- [R2P-NH-] and the PH-phosphoraneiminato-form [R2HP=N-] is affected by the Lewis acidity of the coordinated metal fragment. Experimental studies on complexes with various substitution patterns at the group 4 metal center R2HP=N[M] (11) were unambiguously confirmed by DFT-calculations. The isolation of group 4 PH-dihydrido-phosphoraneiminato-complexes RH2PN[M] (III) is prevented by the low thermodynamic stability of the target molecules, also supported by the results of ab initio calculations. However, an access to the by then unknown transition-metal substituted-iminophosphanes RP=N[M] (IV) was verified for the first time. Within extensive studies on the coordination chemistry of bis-(imino)phosphoranes RP(=NR')(=NR"), several species of group 4 complexes R(R'N=)P=N[M] (V) were isolated and structurally characterized. In this case, investigations on the NH/PH-tautomerism were performed exclusively on theoretical level, because the required educts are experimentally non-accessible due to their kinetic instability. ChemInform Abstract: Bis(methylene)phosphorane and Related Compounds: Electrocyclization to Ring Systems Article Sep 2010 EUR J INORG CHEM Wolfgang W Schoeller Thilo Busch On the bais of ab initio calculations of double-ζ quality at a SCF and MCSCF level, bonding in bis-ylenephosphoranes is compared with the one in phosphoranes. The investigations include the series H3PX, HPX2, HPX (X = CH2, NH, O, SiH2, PH, S). The bis-ylenephosphorane formation becomes more favorable with increasing electronegativity of X. An extreme case is the electropositive group X = SiH2. The resulting π-system suffers from the Jahn-Teller distortion, causing reduction from C2v to lower C2 symmetry in the corresponding bis-ylenephosphorane. Energetically, the corresponding ring systems are more stable than their bis-ylenephoshorane counterparts (for X = CH2 and PH). The electronic hypersurface of the hitherto unknown bis(phosphinylidene)phosphorane is explored in detail and compared in regard to bonding with its analog bis(methylene)phosphorane. For both cases π-push-pull substitution is important for stabilization of the planar allylic geometry. Extremely Strong, Uncharged Auxiliary Bases; Monomeric and Polymer‐Supported Polyaminophosphazenes (P2–P5) Article Jul 2006 EUR J ORG CHEM Reinhard Schwesinger Helmut Schlemper Christian Hasenfratz L. Walz The syntheses and properties of novel, extremely strong uncharged polyaminophosphazene bases up to a high level of steric hindrance are described. Most of the systems were readily prepared in up to molar quantities and conveniently recovered from their salts. They are of appreciable to high chemical and thermal stability. Crystal structures of their salts were determined in order to parametrize a force field, which is utilized in molecular modeling studies. The latter offer a rationalization of the high conformational mobility of these systems. These bases cover a range of ca. 15 pK units in basicity and extend the range of uncharged auxiliary bases by ca. 19 pK units up to DMSOpKBH+ values of 34–35. They are proposed as a novel class of auxiliary bases for deprotonation of very low acidic compounds where chemists have been so far left to classical metalorganic bases. Depending on the basicity range and the degree of steric protection of the basic center, these systems are particularly applicable to E2 elimination or to in situ generation of highly reactive “naked” anions. Reactions of N≡W(OtBu)3 and O=W(OiPr)4 with Low-Coordinate Phosphorus Compounds: Similarities and Differences Article Mar 2011 PHOSPHORUS SULFUR Oleksandr O Kovalenko Vasyl Kinzhybalo Tadeusz Lis Anatolii I Brusilovets The reactions of N≡W(OtBu)3 and O=W(OiPr)4 with (Me3Si)2NPNSiMe3 (I), (Me3Si)2NPNtBu (II), and (Me3Si)2NP(NSiMe3)2 (III) in benzene have been studied. Low-coordinate phosphorus derivatives react with above mentioned tungsten compounds via 1,2-addition of an W-OR bond across the P=N bond, resulting in four-membered metallacycles. (Me3Si)2N-P(NSiMe3)2 reacts with O=W(OiPr)4 in a different manner via [2 + 2] cycloaddition. The structure of all new compounds was elucidated by 1H, 13C, and 31P NMR spectroscopy. Compound [(Me3Si)2N-P(NSiMe3)2(O)]{W(OiPr)4} (6) was also characterized by single crystal X-ray analysis. Reaction of NW(OtBu)3 with σ3λ5-phosphoranes. The [2 + 2] cycloaddition across the WN triple bond results in the first representative of an inorganic four-membered metallacycle with conjugated endo- and exocyclic double bonds Article Mar 2012 DALTON T Oleksandr O Kovalenko Vasyl Kinzhybalo Tadeusz Lis Anatolii I Brusilovets The reactions of N≡W(O(t)Bu)(3) with the low-coordinate phosphorus compounds (Me(3)Si)(2)NP(NSiMe(3))(2) (I) and (Me(3)Si)(2)NPS(N(t)Bu) (II) were studied. Quantum chemical calculations were used to determine why Mo- and W-containing compounds with the same composition have different molecular structures. Reactions of ((PrO)-Pr-i)(3)M M((OPr)-Pr-i)(3) (M = Mo, W) with low-coordinate phosphorus compounds. Formation of the first four-membered planar metallacycles, containing an M M triple bond Article Full-text available Apr 2011 DALTON T Oleksandr O Kovalenko Brusylovets Oleksii Vasyl Kinzhybalo Anatolii I Brusilovets The low-coordinate phosphorus compounds (Me(3)Si)(2)N-P=NSiMe(3), (Me(3)Si)(2)N-P(=S)=N(t)Bu and (Me(3)Si)(2)N-P(=NSiMe(3))(2) react with ((i)PrO)(3)M≡M(O(i)Pr)(3) (M = Mo, W) to form four- and five-membered metallacycles with intact endocyclic or exocyclic M≡M triple bonds. The first four-membered planar metallacycles, containing an M≡M triple bond were obtained in reaction with (Me(3)Si)(2)N-P=NSiMe(3). Reactions of trialkoxynitridomolybdenum with low-coordinate phosphorus compounds containing a P=N double bond Article Full-text available Jan 2011 DALTON T Oleksandr O Kovalenko Ishtvan Boldog Vasyl Kinzhybalo Anatolii I Brusilovets The reactions of N≡Mo(OR)(3) (R = (t)Bu, (i)Pr) with (Me(3)Si)(2)NPNSiMe(3) (1), (Me(3)Si)(2)NPN(t)Bu (2), (Me(3)Si)(2)NPS(N(t)Bu) (3) and (Me(3)Si)(2)NP(NSiMe(3))(2) (4) have been studied. Reported complexes were synthesized via 1,2-addition of an Mo-OR bond across the P=N bond, resulting in four-membered metallacycles of the corresponding σ(2)λ(3)-iminophosphine or σ(3)λ(5)-iminophosphorane with trialkoxynitridomolybdenum. The structure of all new compounds was elucidated by (1)H, (13)C and (31)P NMR spectroscopy. Compounds [(Me(3)Si)(2)N-P(NSiMe(3))(O-(t)Bu)]{((t)BuO)(2)Mo≡N} (5), [(Me(3)Si)(2)N-PS(N(t)Bu)(O-(t)Bu)]{((t)BuO)(2)Mo≡N} (7), [(Me(3)Si)(2)N-P(NSiMe(3))(2)(O-(t)Bu)]{((t)BuO)(2)Mo≡N} (8) and [(Me(3)Si)(2)N-P(NSiMe(3))(2)(O-(i)Pr)]{((i)PrO)(2)Mo≡N} (12) were also characterized by single X-ray analysis and shown to be metallacycles containing the Mo atom with an intact terminal nitrido ligand. Recommended publications Article Synthesis of Sphingosine Conjugate with Controlled Pore Glass Beads September 1995 · Tetrahedron Letters F Ruan Chemical synthesis of sphingosine conjugate with controlled pore glass beads via amide linkage is described Article CYCLIC PEPTIDES: January 2009 · International Journal of Peptide and Protein Research Kosaku Noda Yukie Shibata Erhard Gross [...] Nobuo Izumiya In order to establish possible routes for the synthesis of AM-toxins, cyclotetradepsipeptides containing Dha, Pyr-L-Ala-L-Hmb-L-Tyr-NH2 were prepared and treated with TFA or anhydrous HF. The product was identified to be cyclo (-α-Hyala-L-Ala-L-Hmb-L-Tyr-), resulting from intramolecular condensation of the α-keto and amide group with the formation of the α-Hyala residue. Cyclo ... [Show full abstract] (-α-Hyala-L-Ala-L-Hmb-L-Phe-) and cyclo(-α-Hyala-L-Ala-L-Val-L-Phe-) were obtained by acid-treatment of the corresponding pyruvyl-tripeptide amides. The cyclic tetrapeptides did not show the activity of AM-toxin. (S)-1-Aminoindane: synthesis by chirality transfer using (R)-phenylglycine amide as chiral auxiliary November 2003 · Tetrahedron Asymmetry Patrick Uiterweerd Marcel van der Sluis Bernard Kaptein [...] Quirinus B Broxterman A practical asymmetric synthesis of nearly enantiomerically pure (S)-1-aminoindane has been developed. The key step involves the diastereoselective heterogeneous metal-catalyzed reduction of the ketimine of 1-indanone with the chiral auxiliary (R)-phenylglycine amide. The selectivity of the asymmetric hydrogenation step was optimized with regard to metal catalyst, solvent and catalyst loading. ... [Show full abstract] The chiral auxiliary was removed by means of a novel non-reductive procedure. Thus, (S)-1-aminoindane with an ee of 96% was prepared in 58% overall yield from (R)-phenylglycine amide in an effective three-step procedure. The Synthesis of Some Derivatives of Cinnamic Acid and Their Antifungal Action December 2006 · Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association H. Wayne Schultz Gail A. Wiese Various amide derivatives of o-chlorocinnamic acid, p-nitrocinnamic acid, and cinnamic acid were prepared and tested for antifungal activity against four organisms. N-(4-Chlorophenyl)-2-chlorocinnamamide proved to be the most active compound against M. gypseum and T. rubrum, while N-(3-chlorophenyl) cinnamamide proved to be the most active compound against M. canis and T. mentagrophytes. In ... [Show full abstract] general, the results of the test indicated that most of the cinnamamide derivatives had little or no antifungal activity in vitro.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/244561905_A_General_Method_for_the_Synthesis_of_Phosphenodiimidic_Amides

Engineers make filters from tree branches to purify drinking water: Prototypes tested in India show promise as a low-cost, natural filtration option -- ScienceDaily Filters made from tree branches can purify drinking water sources, a new study finds. Prototypes of these xylem filters, tested in India, show promise as a low-cost, natural filtration option. Engineers make filters from tree branches to purify drinking water Prototypes tested in India show promise as a low-cost, natural filtration option Summary: Filters made from tree branches can purify drinking water sources, a new study finds. Prototypes of these xylem filters, tested in India, show promise as a low-cost, natural filtration option. The interiors of nonflowering trees such as pine and ginkgo contain sapwood lined with straw-like conduits known as xylem, which draw water up through a tree's trunk and branches. Xylem conduits are interconnected via thin membranes that act as natural sieves, filtering out bubbles from water and sap. MIT engineers have been investigating sapwood's natural filtering ability, and have previously fabricated simple filters from peeled cross-sections of sapwood branches, demonstrating that the low-tech design effectively filters bacteria. Now, the same team has advanced the technology and shown that it works in real-world situations. They have fabricated new xylem filters that can filter out pathogens such as E. coli and rotavirus in lab tests, and have shown that the filter can remove bacteria from contaminated spring, tap, and groundwater. They also developed simple techniques to extend the filters' shelf-life, enabling the woody disks to purify water after being stored in a dry form for at least two years. The researchers took their techniques to India, where they made xylem filters from native trees and tested the filters with local users. Based on their feedback, the team developed a prototype of a simple filtration system, fitted with replaceable xylem filters that purified water at a rate of one liter per hour. Their results, published today in Nature Communications,show that xylem filters have potential for use in community settings to remove bacteria and viruses from contaminated drinking water. The researchers are exploring options to make xylem filters available at large scale, particularly in areas where contaminated drinking water is a major cause of disease and death. The team has launched an open-source website, with guidelines for designing and fabricating xylem filters from various tree types. The website is intended to support entrepreneurs, organizations, and leaders to introduce the technology to broader communities, and inspire students to perform their own science experiments with xylem filters. "Because the raw materials are widely available and the fabrication processes are simple, one could imagine involving communities in procuring, fabricating, and distributing xylem filters," says Rohit Karnik, professor of mechanical engineering and associate department head for education at MIT. "For places where the only option has been to drink unfiltered water, we expect xylem filters would improve health, and make water drinkable." Karnik's study co-authors are lead author Krithika Ramchander and Luda Wang of MIT's Department of Mechanical Engineering, and Megha Hegde, Anish Antony, Kendra Leith, and Amy Smith of MIT D-Lab. Clearing the way In their prior studies of xylem, Karnik and his colleagues found that the woody material's natural filtering ability also came with some natural limitations. As the wood dried, the branches' sieve-like membranes began to stick to the walls, reducing the filter's permeance, or ability to allow water to flow through. The filters also appeared to "self-block" over time, building up woody matter that clogged the conduits. Surprisingly, two simple treatments overcame both limitations. By soaking small cross-sections of sapwood in hot water for an hour, then dipping them in ethanol and letting them dry, Ramchander found that the material retained its permeance, efficiently filtering water without clogging up. Its filtering could also be improved by tailoring a filter's thickness according to its tree type. The researchers sliced and treated small cross-sections of white pine from branches around the MIT campus and showed that the resulting filters maintained a permeance comparable to commercial filters, even after being stored for up to two years, significantly extending the filters' shelf life. The researchers also tested the filters' ability to remove contaminants such as E. coli and rotavirus -- the most common cause of diarrheal disease. The treated filters removed more than 99 percent of both contaminants, a water treatment level that meets the "two-star comprehensive protection" category set by the World Health Organization. "We think these filters can reasonably address bacterial contaminants," Ramchander says. "But there are chemical contaminants like arsenic and fluoride where we don't know the effect yet," she notes. Groundwork Encouraged by their results in the lab, the researchers moved to field-test their designs in India, a country that has experienced the highest mortality rate due to water-borne disease in the world, and where safe and reliable drinking water is inaccessible to more than 160 million people. Over two years, the engineers, including researchers in the MIT D-Lab, worked in mountain and urban regions, facilitated by local NGOs Himmotthan Society, Shramyog, Peoples Science Institute, and Essmart. They fabricated filters from native pine trees and tested them, along with filters made from ginkgo trees in the U.S., with local drinking water sources. These tests confirmed that the filters effectively removed bacteria found in the local water. The researchers also held interviews, focus groups, and design workshops to understand local communities' current water practices, and challenges and preferences for water treatment solutions. They also gathered feedback on the design. "One of the things that scored very high with people was the fact that this filter is a natural material that everyone recognizes," Hegde says. "We also found that people in low-income households prefer to pay a smaller amount on a daily basis, versus a larger amount less frequently. That was a barrier to using existing filters, because replacement costs were too much." With information from more than 1,000 potential users across India, they designed a prototype of a simple filtration system, fitted with a receptacle at the top that users can fill with water. The water flows down a 1-meter-long tube, through a xylem filter, and out through a valve-controlled spout. The xylem filter can be swapped out either daily or weekly, depending on a household's needs. The team is exploring ways to produce xylem filters at larger scales, with locally available resources and in a way that would encourage people to practice water purification as part of their daily lives -- for instance, by providing replacement filters in affordable, pay-as-you-go packets. "Xylem filters are made from inexpensive and abundantly available materials, which could be made available at local shops, where people can buy what they need, without requiring an upfront investment as is typical for other water filter cartridges," Karnik says. "For now, we've shown that xylem filters provide performance that's realistic." Story Source: Materialsprovided byMassachusetts Institute of Technology. Original written by Jennifer Chu. Note: Content may be edited for style and length. Journal Reference: Krithika Ramchander, Megha Hegde, Anish Paul Antony, Luda Wang, Kendra Leith, Amy Smith, Rohit Karnik. Engineering and characterization of gymnosperm sapwood toward enabling the design of water filtration devices. Nature Communications, 2021; 12 (1) DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-22055-w MLA Massachusetts Institute of Technology. "Engineers make filters from tree branches to purify drinking water: Prototypes tested in India show promise as a low-cost, natural filtration option." ScienceDaily. ScienceDaily, 25 March 2021. <www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/03/210325084818.htm>. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. (2021, March 25). Engineers make filters from tree branches to purify drinking water: Prototypes tested in India show promise as a low-cost, natural filtration option. ScienceDaily. Retrieved July 5, 2023 from www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/03/210325084818.htm Massachusetts Institute of Technology. "Engineers make filters from tree branches to purify drinking water: Prototypes tested in India show promise as a low-cost, natural filtration option." ScienceDaily. www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/03/210325084818.htm (accessed July 5, 2023).

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/03/210325084818.htm

Randle v. NCNB Texas Nat. Bank, No. 05-90-01083-CV - Texas - Case Law - VLEX 884843118 0: [object Object]. 1: [object Object]. 2: [object Object]. 3: [object Object]. 4: [object Object]. 5: [object Object] Texas Randle v. NCNB Texas Nat. Bank, No. 05-90-01083-CV Court Court of Appeals of Texas Writing for the Court Before ENOCH; CHADICK Citation 812 S.W.2d 381 Parties Marvin RANDLE, Dewayne Randle, and Randle Builders, Inc., Appellants, v. NCNB TEXAS NATIONAL BANK, Appellee. Decision Date 24 June 1991 Docket Number No. 05-90-01083-CV Page 381 812 S.W.2d 381 Marvin RANDLE, Dewayne Randle, and Randle Builders, Inc., Appellants, v. NCNB TEXAS NATIONAL BANK, Appellee. No. 05-90-01083-CV. Court of Appeals of Texas, Dallas. June 24, 1991. Page 382 Lindy F. Jones, Laura L. Worsham, Dallas, for appellee. Before ENOCH, C.J., and CHADICK 1 and CARVER, 2 JJ. OPINION CHADICK, Justice (Retired). This is an appeal from a summary judgment in a suit to recover deficiencies occurring upon foreclosure of secured real estate notes and associated relief. We modify the judgment of the trial court, and as modified, affirm. As plaintiff, NCNB Texas National Bank, N.A. [NCNB] sued Marvin Randle, 3 Dewayne Randle, and Randle Builders, Inc. [collectively "the Randles" hereinafter] as defendants. Final judgment was entered in favor of NCNB on May 21, 1990; thereafter on June 7, 1990, Marvin Randle filed Page 383 a petition in the United States Bankruptcy Court, thereby staying further proceedings as to him. The Randles have raised four points of error; clarity will be aided by considering the points out of numerical order. The Randles' third point of error is that the trial court abused its discretion by refusing to permit them to file a cross-action. The parties agree that the pleading in question was technically a counterclaim, but it will be referred to as a cross-action in the discussion that follows. NCNB's motion for summary judgment was filed on November 22, 1989, and notice was given to the Randles. Approximately three months later, the Randles filed their Second Original Answer and on the next day filed the cross-action in question. At that time, NCNB's motion for summary judgment was set for hearing on March 1, 1990. Copies of the Randles' pleadings were not served on plaintiff's attorneys, but they became aware of the instruments in the court's file jacket and responded to them. These pleadings were filed without leave of court and without the consent or written agreement of counsel for NCNB. The record in this Court contains no statement of facts or bills of exceptions. However, along with other material, the transcript brings forward the following: (a) the Randles' First Original Amended Answer, filed January 19, 1990; (b) their Second Amended Original Answer, filed February 21, 1990; (c) their original cross-action, filed February 22, 1990; and (d) their motion for leave to file a trial amendment to their First Amended Original Answer, filed March 1, 1990. The record before this Court also includes: (1) NCNB's objection to and request to strike the Randles' Second Original Answer and original cross-action, filed February 28, 1990; (2) the court order striking the Randles' Second Amended Answer and original cross-action, entered April 10, 1990; and (3) the order striking the Randles' responses to NCNB's motion for summary judgment, entered April 25, 1990. The file date endorsed on the Randles' cross-action shows it was filed seven days prior to the trial date. (Such marking on the Randles' second amended answer shows it to have been filed less than seven days prior to the trial date.) Neither of the pleadings are shown to have been filed fourteen days before trial date. Texas Rule of Civil Procedure 63 and Dallas Local Court Rule 1.9 govern the filing of the Randles' pleadings under discussion. Rule 63 contains two prerequisites to an incontestable filing. First, pleadings such as these under consideration shall be filed at such time "as not to act as a surprise to the opposite party." Second, if a party desires to file such pleading within seven days of the date of trial, leave of court must first be obtained. The Rule 63 seven-day time frame was expanded to fourteen days prior to trial by the then in-effect Local Rule 1.9, which provides "except by written agreement of all counsel of record, no amendment to a pleading shall be filed less than fourteen (14) days prior to the date a case is set for trial." On appeal, the burden of demonstrating trial court error in refusing to permit filing of an amended pleading under Rule 63 rests upon the party contending the action was not justified. Hardin v. Hardin, 597 S.W.2d 347 , 349-50 (Tex.1980); Brown Lex Real Estate Dev. Corp. v. American Nat'l Bank-South, 736 S.W.2d 205 , 206 (Tex.App. --Corpus Christi 1987, writ ref'd n.r.e.); Plata v. Guzman, 571 S.W.2d 408 , 411 (Tex.Civ.App. --Corpus Christi 1978, writ ref'd n.r.e.). The record under review does not disclose evidence, procedure, or circumstances showing the judge erred in refusing to permit the Randles to file their cross-action (as well as their second amended original answer) on grounds that the pleadings in question operated as a surprise to NCNB. On appeal, it must be presumed the trial court did not abuse its discretion in refusing to permit filing of an amended pleading in the absence of a statement of facts or bill of exception showing the facts relevant to presentation of the pleading. Hardin, 597 S.W.2d at 350 (Campbell, J., concurring); Herrin Transp. Co. v. Parker, 425 S.W.2d 876 , 878 (Tex.Civ.App. Page 384 --Houston [1st Dist.] 1968, writ ref'd n.r.e.). Should the record have been otherwise as to Rule 63, there is likewise a void in proof of compliance with Local Rule 1.9. The Randles have not questioned the local rule's validity. 4 No abuse of discretion is shown. The Randles' third point of error is overruled. Preliminary to discussion of the Randles' second point of error, it must be determined what, if any, pleadings were before the trial court at the time summary judgment was entered. The trial court not only refused to permit the filing of the Randles' cross-action, but also ordered the Randles' second amended answer stricken from the record.NCNB argues that "once the second amended original answer was stricken, defendants [Randles] had no pleadings on file." NCNB's position is based upon its interpretation of the provisions of Texas Rule of Civil Procedure 65. The rule provides that an amended pleading "entire and complete in itself" becomes a substitute for the pleading it replaces. NCNB argues that when the Randles filed their second amended original petition, their first amended original petition was superseded and no longer constituted a viable part of the record. No case authority is cited in support of NCNB's argument.Rule 65 reads: Unless the substituted instrument shall be set aside on exceptions, the instrument for which it is substituted shall no longer be regarded as a part of the pleading in the record of the cause, unless some error of the court in deciding upon the necessity of the amendment, or otherwise in superseding it, be complained of, an exception be taken to the action of the court, or unless it be necessary to look to the superseded pleading upon a question of limitation. TEX.R.CIV.P. 65. Under the provisions of Rule 65, T.R.C.P., when the plaintiff's second amended original petition was stricken, such action had the effect of restoring as a live pleading plaintiff's first amended original petition, which was a sufficient pleading, unless exceptions should be sustained to it, and in that event the plaintiff's original petition would be restored as a live pleading, on which he would have a right to go to... 10 practice notes Grigson v. Creative Artists Agency, No. 98-51016 United States United States Courts of Appeals. United States Court of Appeals (5th Circuit) April 24, 2000 ...the promisee to its detriment. Id. (citing, e.g., English v. Fischer, 660 S.W.2d 521, 524 (Tex. 1983); Randle v. NCNB Texas Nat'l Bank, 812 S.W.2d 381 (Tex.App. 1991); Aubrey v. W.O. Workman, 384 S.W.2d 389, 395 (Tex.Civ.App. 1964, writ ref'd n.r.e.)). Later decisions added: (4) reliance on...... Rincones v. WHM Custom Servs., Inc., NUMBER 13–11–00075–CV United States Court of Appeals of Texas February 12, 2015 ...Rincones's live petition, his fourth amended petition, did not allege a breach of contract claim. See Randle v. NCNB Tex. Nat'l Bank, 812 S.W.2d 381 , 384 (Tex.App.—Dallas 1991, no writ) (affirming trial court's use of first amended original petition as live pleading after court struck secon...... Grizzle v. Texas Commerce Bank, No. 05-98-00537-CV United States Court of Appeals of Texas February 14, 2001 ...No. 05-97-01076-CV (Tex. App.-Dallas Sept. 25, 1997, no. pet.) (not designated for publication); 4 see Randle v. NCNB Tex. Nat'l Bank, 812 S.W.2d 381 , 384 (Tex. App.-Dallas 1991, no writ). Because our holding was not appealed to the supreme court of Texas, it constitutes the law of the case...... Clade v. Larsen, No. 05-91-01130-CV United States Court of Appeals of Texas August 10, 1992 ...to consider an amended pleading has the burden to show an abuse of discretion. Hardin, 597 S.W.2d at 349; Randle v. NCNB Tex. Nat'l Bank, 812 S.W.2d 381 , 383 (Tex.App.--Dallas 1991, no writ). We do not disturb the trial court's ruling unless the complaining party shows an abuse of discretio...... Grigson v. Creative Artists Agency, No. 98-51016 United States United States Courts of Appeals. United States Court of Appeals (5th Circuit) April 24, 2000 ...the promisee to its detriment. Id. (citing, e.g., English v. Fischer, 660 S.W.2d 521, 524 (Tex. 1983); Randle v. NCNB Texas Nat'l Bank, 812 S.W.2d 381 (Tex.App. 1991); Aubrey v. W.O. Workman, 384 S.W.2d 389, 395 (Tex.Civ.App. 1964, writ ref'd n.r.e.)). Later decisions added: (4) reliance on...... Rincones v. WHM Custom Servs., Inc., NUMBER 13–11–00075–CV United States Court of Appeals of Texas February 12, 2015 ...Rincones's live petition, his fourth amended petition, did not allege a breach of contract claim. See Randle v. NCNB Tex. Nat'l Bank, 812 S.W.2d 381 , 384 (Tex.App.—Dallas 1991, no writ) (affirming trial court's use of first amended original petition as live pleading after court struck secon...... Grizzle v. Texas Commerce Bank, No. 05-98-00537-CV United States Court of Appeals of Texas February 14, 2001 ...No. 05-97-01076-CV (Tex. App.-Dallas Sept. 25, 1997, no. pet.) (not designated for publication); 4 see Randle v. NCNB Tex. Nat'l Bank, 812 S.W.2d 381 , 384 (Tex. App.-Dallas 1991, no writ). Because our holding was not appealed to the supreme court of Texas, it constitutes the law of the case...... Clade v. Larsen, No. 05-91-01130-CV United States Court of Appeals of Texas August 10, 1992 ...to consider an amended pleading has the burden to show an abuse of discretion. Hardin, 597 S.W.2d at 349; Randle v. NCNB Tex. Nat'l Bank, 812 S.W.2d 381 , 383 (Tex.App.--Dallas 1991, no writ). We do not disturb the trial court's ruling unless the complaining party shows an abuse of discretio......

https://case-law.vlex.com/vid/randle-v-ncnb-texas-884843118

急性上気道感染症を予防するためのプロバイオティクス - Zhao, Y - 2022 | Cochrane Library Anti-Bacterial Agents [therapeutic use]; *Influenza Vaccines; *Influenza, Human; *Probiotics [therapeutic use]; Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic; *Respiratory Tract Infections [drug therapy, prevention & control] 急性上気道感染症を予防するためのプロバイオティクス Appendices Appendix 1. MEDLINE (Ovid) search strategy 1 Common Cold/ 2 common cold*.tw. 3 exp Sinusitis/ 4 sinusit*.tw. 5 Pharyngitis/ 6 pharyngit*.tw. 7 exp Laryngitis/ 8 laryngit*.tw. 9 laryngotracheobronchit*.tw. 10 Rhinitis/ 11 rhinit*.tw. 12 Tonsillitis/ 13 tonsillit*.tw. 14 peritonsillar abscess*.tw. 15 Croup/ 16 croup*.tw. 17 Epiglottitis/ 18 epiglottit*.tw. 19 supraglottit*.tw. 20 rhinosinusit*.tw. 21 exp Otitis Media/ 22 (otitis media or aom or ome).tw. 23 (inner ear* adj2 (inflamm* or infection*)).tw. 24 Respiratory Tract Infections/ 25 respiratory tract infection*.tw. 26 upper respiratory infection*.tw. 27 urti.tw. 28 (acute infection* adj5 respirat*).tw. 29 or/1‐28 30 Probiotics/ 31 probiotic*.tw. 32 exp Lactobacillus/ 33 lactobacill*.tw. 34 Bifidobacterium/ 35 (bifido* or bifidu*).tw. 36 exp Lactococcus/ 37 lactococc*.tw. 38 exp Saccharomyces/ 39 saccharomyc*.tw. 40 Streptococcus thermophilus/ 41 streptococcus thermophilus.tw. 42 Bacillus subtilis/ 43 bacillus subtilis.tw. 44 exp Enterococcus/ 45 enterococcus faec*.tw. 46 bulgarian bacillus.tw. 47 or/30‐46 48 29 and 47 Appendix 2. Embase.com search strategy #52 #44 AND #51 #51 #47 NOT #50 #50 #49 NOT #48 #49 [animals]/lim #48 'human'/exp #47 #45 OR #46 #46 random*:ab,ti OR placebo*:ab,ti OR crossover*:ab,ti OR 'cross over':ab,ti OR allocat*:ab,ti OR ((singl* OR doubl*) NEXT/1 blind*):ab,ti OR trial:ti #45 'randomized controlled trial'/exp OR 'single blind procedure'/exp OR 'double blind procedure'/exp OR 'crossover procedure'/exp #44 #27 AND #43 #43 #28 OR #29 OR #30 OR #31 OR #32 OR #33 OR #34 OR #35 OR #36 OR #37 OR #38 OR #39 OR #40 OR #41 OR #42 #42 'bulgarian bacillus':ab,ti #41 (enterococcus NEXT/1 faec*):ab,ti #40 'enterococcus'/exp #39 'bacillus subtilis':ab,ti #38 'bacillus subtilis'/de #37 'streptococcus thermophilus':ab,ti #36 'streptococcus thermophilus'/exp #35 saccharomyc*:ab,ti #34 'saccharomyces'/exp #33 'lactococcus'/exp #32 bifido*:ab,ti OR bifidu*:ab,ti #31 'bifidobacterium'/exp #30 lactobacill*:ab,ti #29 'lactobacillus'/exp #28 'probiotic agent'/de #27 #1 OR #2 OR #3 OR #4 OR #5 OR #6 OR #7 OR #8 OR #9 OR #10 OR #11 OR #12 OR #13 OR #14 OR #15 OR #16 OR #17 OR #18 OR #19 OR #20 OR #21 OR #22 OR #23 OR #24 OR #25 OR #26 #26 urti:ab,ti #25 (upper NEAR/2 'respiratory infection'):ab,ti OR ('acute infection' NEAR/3 respiratory):ab,ti #24 'upper respiratory tract infection'/de OR 'viral upper respiratory tract infection'/de #23 'respiratory tract infection'/de #22 ('middle ear' NEAR/2 (infect* OR inflam*)):ab,ti #21 'otitis media':ab,ti OR aom:ab,ti OR ome:ab,ti #20 'otitis media'/exp #19 nasopharyngit*:ab,ti OR rhinopharyngit*:ab,ti #18 nasosinusit*:ab,ti OR rhinosinusit*:ab,ti #17 epiglottit*:ab,ti OR supraglottit*:ab,ti #16 'epiglottitis'/exp #15 croup:ab,ti #14 'croup'/de #13 tonsillit*:ab,ti OR 'peritonsillar abscess':ab,ti #12 'tonsillitis'/exp #11 rhinit*:ab,ti #10 'rhinitis'/exp #9 laryngotracheobronchit*:ab,ti #8 laryngit*:ab,ti #7 'laryngitis'/exp #6 pharyngit*:ab,ti #5 'pharyngitis'/exp #4 sinusit*:ab,ti #3 'sinusitis'/exp #2 'common cold':ab,ti OR 'common colds':ab,ti #1 'common cold'/de OR 'common cold symptom'/de Appendix 3. Web of Science search strategy Topic=(probiotic* or lactobacill* or bifido* or bifidu* or lactococc* or saccharomyc* or streptococcus thermophilus or bacillus subtilis or enterococcus faec* or bulgarian bacillus) AND Topic=(common cold* or sinusit* or pharyngit* or laryngit* or laryngotracheobronchit* or rhinit* or tonsillit* or peritonsillar abscess* or croup or epiglottit* or supraglottit* or rhinosinusit* or otitis media or aom or ome or respiratory tract infection* or upper respiratory infection* or acute respiratory infection*) Refined by: Topic=(placebo* or random* or clinical trial* or double blind* or single blind* or rct) Timespan=All Years. Databases=SCI‐EXPANDED, CPCI‐S. Appendix 4. Details of previous search strategy Previously we searched the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL 2014, Issue 6), part of The Cochrane Library, www.thecochranelibrary.com (accessed 25 July 2014), which includes the Cochrane Acute Respiratory Infections Group's Specialised Register, MEDLINE (Ovid) (1950 to July week 3, 2014), EMBASE (1974 to July 2014), Web of Science, which includes Science Citation Index (from 1900 to July 2014) and Conference Proceedings Citation Index (from 1991 to July 2014), the Chinese Biomedical Literature Database, which includes the China Biological Medicine Database (from 1978 to July 2014), the Chinese Medicine Popular Science Literature Database (from 2000 to July 2014) and the Masters Degree Dissertation of Beijing Union Medical College Database (from 1981 to July 2014). We used the following search strategy to search MEDLINE and CENTRAL. We combined the MEDLINE search strategy with the Cochrane Highly Sensitive Search Strategy for identifying randomised trials in MEDLINE: sensitivity‐ and precision‐maximising version (2008 revision); Ovid format ( Lefebvre 2011 ). We adapted the search strategy to search EMBASE; Web of Science and the Chinese Biomedical Literature Database (see Figure 1). MEDLINE (Ovid) 1 Common Cold/ 2 common cold*.tw. 3 exp Sinusitis/ 4 sinusit*.tw. 5 Pharyngitis/ 6 pharyngit*.tw. 7 exp Laryngitis/ 8 laryngit*.tw. 9 laryngotracheobronchit*.tw. 10 Rhinitis/ 11 rhinit*.tw. 12 Tonsillitis/ 13 tonsillit*.tw. 14 peritonsillar abscess*.tw. 15 Croup/ 16 croup*.tw. 17 Epiglottitis/ 18 epiglottit*.tw. 19 supraglottit*.tw. 20 rhinosinusit*.tw. 21 exp Otitis Media/ 22 (otitis media or aom or ome).tw. 23 (inner ear* adj2 (inflamm* or infection*)).tw. 24 Respiratory Tract Infections/ 25 respiratory tract infection*.tw. 26 upper respiratory infection*.tw. 27 urti.tw. 28 (acute infection* adj5 respirat*).tw. 29 or/1‐28 30 Probiotics/ 31 probiotic*.tw. 32 exp Lactobacillus/ 33 lactobacill*.tw. 34 Bifidobacterium/ 35 (bifido* or bifidu*).tw. 36 exp Lactococcus/ 37 lactococc*.tw. 38 exp Saccharomyces/ 39 saccharomyc*.tw. 40 Streptococcus thermophilus/ 41 streptococcus thermophilus.tw. 42 Bacillus subtilis/ 43 bacillus subtilis.tw. 44 exp Enterococcus/ 45 enterococcus faec*.tw. 46 bulgarian bacillus.tw. 47 or/30‐46 48 29 and 47 Figures and Tables - Figure 1 Chinese Biomedical Literature Database search strategy. Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Figure 2 Study flow diagram. Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Figure 3 Risk of bias graph: review authors' judgements about each methodological quality item presented as percentages across all included studies. Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Figure 4 Risk of bias summary: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item for each included study. Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Figure 5 Contour‐enhanced funnel plot of comparison: intention‐to‐treat analysis: probiotics versus placebo ‐ primary outcome measures, outcome: the number of participants who were diagnosed with acute URTIs: at least 1 event. Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Figure 6 Contour‐enhanced funnel plot of comparison: intention‐to‐treat analysis: probiotics versus placebo ‐ primary outcome measures, outcome: the incidence rate of acute URTIs. Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Analysis 1.1 Comparison 1: Intention‐to‐treat analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ primary outcome measures, Outcome 1: The number of participants who were diagnosed with acute URTIs: at least 1 event (age) Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Analysis 1.2 Comparison 1: Intention‐to‐treat analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ primary outcome measures, Outcome 2: The number of participants who were diagnosed with acute URTIs: at least 1 event (treatment dose) Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Analysis 1.3 Comparison 1: Intention‐to‐treat analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ primary outcome measures, Outcome 3: The number of participants who were diagnosed with acute URTIs: at least 1 event (treatment duration) Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Analysis 1.4 Comparison 1: Intention‐to‐treat analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ primary outcome measures, Outcome 4: The number of participants who were diagnosed with acute URTIs: at least 1 event (type of comparator) Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Analysis 1.5 Comparison 1: Intention‐to‐treat analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ primary outcome measures, Outcome 5: The number of participants who were diagnosed with acute URTI: at least 3 events (age) Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Analysis 1.6 Comparison 1: Intention‐to‐treat analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ primary outcome measures, Outcome 6: The number of participants who were diagnosed with acute URTI: at least 3 events (treatment dose) Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Analysis 1.7 Comparison 1: Intention‐to‐treat analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ primary outcome measures, Outcome 7: The number of participants who were diagnosed with acute URTI: at least 3 events (treatment duration) Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Analysis 1.8 Comparison 1: Intention‐to‐treat analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ primary outcome measures, Outcome 8: The number of participants who were diagnosed with acute URTI: at least 3 events (type of comparator) Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Analysis 1.9 Comparison 1: Intention‐to‐treat analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ primary outcome measures, Outcome 9: The incidence rate of acute URTIs (age) Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Analysis 1.10 Comparison 1: Intention‐to‐treat analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ primary outcome measures, Outcome 10: The incidence rate of acute URTIs (treatment dose) Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Analysis 1.11 Comparison 1: Intention‐to‐treat analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ primary outcome measures, Outcome 11: The incidence rate of acute URTIs (treatment duration) Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Analysis 1.12 Comparison 1: Intention‐to‐treat analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ primary outcome measures, Outcome 12: The incidence rate of acute URTIs (type of comparator) Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Analysis 1.13 Comparison 1: Intention‐to‐treat analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ primary outcome measures, Outcome 13: The mean duration of an episode of acute URTIs (age) Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Analysis 1.14 Comparison 1: Intention‐to‐treat analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ primary outcome measures, Outcome 14: The mean duration of an episode of acute URTIs (treatment dose) Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Analysis 1.15 Comparison 1: Intention‐to‐treat analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ primary outcome measures, Outcome 15: The mean duration of an episode of acute URTIs (treatment duration) Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Analysis 2.1 Comparison 2: Intention‐to‐treat analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ time off from childcare centre, school, or work, Outcome 1: The number of participants who were absent from childcare centre, school, or work due to acute URTIs Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Analysis 3.1 Comparison 3: Intention‐to‐treat analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ prescribed antibiotics for acute URTIs, Outcome 1: The number of participants who used antibiotics for acute URTIs (age) Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Analysis 3.2 Comparison 3: Intention‐to‐treat analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ prescribed antibiotics for acute URTIs, Outcome 2: The number of participants who used antibiotics for acute URTIs (treatment dose) Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Analysis 3.3 Comparison 3: Intention‐to‐treat analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ prescribed antibiotics for acute URTIs, Outcome 3: The number of participants who used antibiotics for acute URTIs (treatment duration) Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Analysis 3.4 Comparison 3: Intention‐to‐treat analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ prescribed antibiotics for acute URTIs, Outcome 4: The number of participants who used antibiotics for acute URTIs (type of comparator) Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Analysis 4.1 Comparison 4: Intention‐to‐treat analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ adverse events, Outcome 1: The number of participants who experienced at least 1 adverse event (age) Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Analysis 4.2 Comparison 4: Intention‐to‐treat analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ adverse events, Outcome 2: The number of participants who experienced at least 1 adverse event (treatment dose) Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Analysis 4.3 Comparison 4: Intention‐to‐treat analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ adverse events, Outcome 3: The number of participants who experienced at least 1 adverse event (treatment duration) Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Analysis 5.1 Comparison 5: Per‐protocol analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ primary outcome measures, Outcome 1: The number of participants who were diagnosed with acute URTIs: at least 1 event (age) Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Analysis 5.2 Comparison 5: Per‐protocol analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ primary outcome measures, Outcome 2: The number of participants who were diagnosed with acute URTIs: at least 1 event (treatment dose) Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Analysis 5.3 Comparison 5: Per‐protocol analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ primary outcome measures, Outcome 3: The number of participants who were diagnosed with acute URTIs: at least 1 event (treatment duration) Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Analysis 5.4 Comparison 5: Per‐protocol analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ primary outcome measures, Outcome 4: The number of participants who were diagnosed with acute URTIs: at least 1 event (type of comparator) Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Analysis 5.5 Comparison 5: Per‐protocol analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ primary outcome measures, Outcome 5: The number of participants who were diagnosed with acute URTIs: at least 3 events (age) Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Analysis 5.6 Comparison 5: Per‐protocol analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ primary outcome measures, Outcome 6: The number of participants who were diagnosed with acute URTIs: at least 3 events (treatment dose) Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Analysis 5.7 Comparison 5: Per‐protocol analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ primary outcome measures, Outcome 7: The number of participants who were diagnosed with acute URTIs: at least 3 events (treatment duration) Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Analysis 5.8 Comparison 5: Per‐protocol analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ primary outcome measures, Outcome 8: The number of participants who were diagnosed with acute URTIs: at least 3 events (type of comparator) Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Analysis 5.9 Comparison 5: Per‐protocol analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ primary outcome measures, Outcome 9: The incidence rate of acute URTIs (age) Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Analysis 5.10 Comparison 5: Per‐protocol analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ primary outcome measures, Outcome 10: The incidence rate of acute URTIs (treatment dose) Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Analysis 5.11 Comparison 5: Per‐protocol analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ primary outcome measures, Outcome 11: The incidence rate of acute URTIs (treatment duration) Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Analysis 5.12 Comparison 5: Per‐protocol analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ primary outcome measures, Outcome 12: The incidence rate of acute URTIs (type of comparator) Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Analysis 5.13 Comparison 5: Per‐protocol analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ primary outcome measures, Outcome 13: The mean duration of an episode of acute URTIs (age) Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Analysis 5.14 Comparison 5: Per‐protocol analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ primary outcome measures, Outcome 14: The mean duration of an episode of acute URTIs (treatment dose) Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Analysis 5.15 Comparison 5: Per‐protocol analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ primary outcome measures, Outcome 15: The mean duration of an episode of acute URTIs (treatment duration) Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Analysis 6.1 Comparison 6: Per‐protocol analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ time off from childcare centre, school, or work, Outcome 1: The number of participants who experienced time off from childcare centre, school, or work due to acute URTIs Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Analysis 7.1 Comparison 7: Per‐protocol analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ prescribed antibiotics for acute URTIs, Outcome 1: The number of participants who used antibiotics for acute URTIs (age) Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Analysis 7.2 Comparison 7: Per‐protocol analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ prescribed antibiotics for acute URTIs, Outcome 2: The number of participants who used antibiotics for acute URTIs (treatment dose) Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Analysis 7.3 Comparison 7: Per‐protocol analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ prescribed antibiotics for acute URTIs, Outcome 3: The number of participants who used antibiotics for acute URTIs (treatment duration) Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Analysis 7.4 Comparison 7: Per‐protocol analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ prescribed antibiotics for acute URTIs, Outcome 4: The number of participants who used antibiotics for acute URTIs (type of comparator) Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Analysis 8.1 Comparison 8: Per‐protocol analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ adverse events, Outcome 1: The number of participants who experienced at least 1 adverse event (age) Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Analysis 8.2 Comparison 8: Per‐protocol analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ adverse events, Outcome 2: The number of participants who experienced at least 1 adverse event (treatment dose) Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Figures and Tables - Analysis 8.3 Comparison 8: Per‐protocol analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ adverse events, Outcome 3: The number of participants who experienced at least 1 adverse event (treatment duration) Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab Summary of findings 1. Intention‐to‐treat analysis: probiotics compared to placebo or no treatment for preventing acute upper respiratory tract infections Intention‐to‐treat analysis: probiotics compared to placebo or no treatment for preventing acute upper respiratory tract infections Patient or population: children, adults, and the elderly Setting: in the community, care facilities, school, or hospital Intervention: probiotics Comparison: placebo or no treatment Outcomes Anticipated absolute effects * (95% CI) Relative effect (95% CI) № of participants (studies) Certainty of the evidence (GRADE) Risk with placebo or no treatment Risk with probiotics Number of participants who were diagnosed with acute URTIs: at least 1 event Study population RR 0.76 (0.67 to 0.87) 4798 (16 RCTs) ⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low a,b 447 per 1000 340 per 1000 (300 to 389) Number of participants who were diagnosed with acute URTIs: at least 3 events Study population RR 0.59 (0.38 to 0.91) 763 (4 RCTs) ⊕⊕⊕⊝ Moderate a 129 per 1000 76 per 1000 (49 to 117) Incidence rate of acute URTIs Study population Rate ratio 0.82 (0.73 to 0.92) 4364 (12 RCTs) ⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low a,b ‐ ‐ Mean duration of an episode of acute URTIs ‐ The mean duration of an episode of URTIs in the probiotics group was 1.22 days lower (2.12 to 0.33 lower). ‐ 2406 (6 RCTs) ⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low a,c Number of participants who were absent from childcare centre, school, or work due to acute URTIs Study population RR 0.14 (0.03 to 0.59) 80 (1 RCT) ⊕⊝⊝⊝ Very low d,e,f 35 per 1000 5 per 1000 (1 to 21) Number of participants who used prescribed antibiotics for acute URTIs Study population RR 0.58 (0.42 to 0.81) 1548 (6 RCTs) ⊕⊕⊕⊝ Moderate a 100 per 1000 58 per 1000 (42 to 81) Number of participants who experienced at least 1 side effect or adverse event Study population RR 1.02 (0.90 to 1.15) 2456 (8 RCTs) ⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low a,g 233 per 1000 238 per 1000 (210 to 268) * The risk in the intervention group (and its 95% confidence interval) is based on the assumed risk in the comparison group and the relative effect of the intervention (and its 95% CI). CI: confidence interval; RCT: randomised controlled trial; RR: risk ratio; URTI: upper respiratory tract infection GRADE Working Group grades of evidence High certainty: we are very confident that the true effect lies close to that of the estimate of the effect. Moderate certainty: we are moderately confident in the effect estimate: the true effect is likely to be close to the estimate of the effect, but there is a possibility that it is substantially different. Low certainty: our confidence in the effect estimate is limited: the true effect may be substantially different from the estimate of the effect. Very low certainty: we have very little confidence in the effect estimate: the true effect is likely to be substantially different from the estimate of effect. a Downgraded once for study limitations, as most information was from studies at unclear risk of bias. b Downgraded once for publication bias, as the funnel plot was asymmetrical. c Downgraded once for inconsistency due to the higher I 2 statistic (93%). d Downgraded once for study limitations due to unclear risk of bias for allocation concealment and selective reporting. e Downgraded once for imprecision due to the wide 95% CI. f Downgraded once for indirectness, as the included study only reported school absenteeism due to the common cold. g Downgraded once for imprecision, as the CI overlapped no effect. Figures and Tables - Summary of findings 1. Intention‐to‐treat analysis: probiotics compared to placebo or no treatment for preventing acute upper respiratory tract infections Navigate to table in Review Comparison 1. Intention‐to‐treat analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ primary outcome measures Outcome or subgroup title No. of studies No. of participants Statistical method Effect size 1.1 The number of participants who were diagnosed with acute URTIs: at least 1 event (age) Show forest plot 16 4798 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.76 [0.67, 0.87] 1.1.1 Adults 5 2132 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.77 [0.65, 0.93] 1.1.2 Children 10 2512 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.72 [0.58, 0.89] 1.1.3 Elderly 1 154 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.99 [0.68, 1.45] 1.2 The number of participants who were diagnosed with acute URTIs: at least 1 event (treatment dose) Show forest plot 16 4798 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.76 [0.67, 0.87] 1.2.1 Less than 1010 CFU per day 11 4121 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.77 [0.67, 0.90] 1.2.2 More than 1010 CFU per day 5 677 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.70 [0.50, 0.99] 1.3 The number of participants who were diagnosed with acute URTIs: at least 1 event (treatment duration) Show forest plot 16 4798 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.76 [0.67, 0.87] 1.3.1 Less than 3 months 2 381 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.60 [0.50, 0.74] 1.3.2 3 to 6 months 9 3704 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.81 [0.71, 0.93] 1.3.3 More than 6 months 5 713 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.78 [0.53, 1.13] 1.4 The number of participants who were diagnosed with acute URTIs: at least 1 event (type of comparator) Show forest plot 16 4798 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.76 [0.67, 0.87] 1.4.1 Placebo 14 4465 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.78 [0.68, 0.90] 1.4.2 No treatment 2 333 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.63 [0.49, 0.81] 1.5 The number of participants who were diagnosed with acute URTI: at least 3 events (age) Show forest plot 4 763 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.59 [0.38, 0.91] 1.5.1 Adults 2 551 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.62 [0.20, 1.93] 1.5.2 Children 2 212 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.64 [0.36, 1.14] 1.6 The number of participants who were diagnosed with acute URTI: at least 3 events (treatment dose) Show forest plot 4 763 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.59 [0.38, 0.91] 1.6.1 Less than 1010 CFU per day 2 449 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.59 [0.36, 0.96] 1.6.2 More than 1010 CFU per day 2 314 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.64 [0.20, 2.04] 1.7 The number of participants who were diagnosed with acute URTI: at least 3 events (treatment duration) Show forest plot 4 763 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.59 [0.38, 0.91] 1.7.1 3 to 6 months 3 682 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.61 [0.38, 0.99] 1.7.2 More than 6 months 1 81 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.51 [0.20, 1.35] 1.8 The number of participants who were diagnosed with acute URTI: at least 3 events (type of comparator) Show forest plot 4 763 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.59 [0.38, 0.91] 1.8.1 Placebo 3 530 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.57 [0.37, 0.89] 1.8.2 No treatment 1 233 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 3.08 [0.13, 74.78] 1.9 The incidence rate of acute URTIs (age) Show forest plot 12 4364 Rate Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.82 [0.73, 0.92] 1.9.1 Adults 4 2032 Rate Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.79 [0.71, 0.89] 1.9.2 Children 6 1868 Rate Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.79 [0.65, 0.96] 1.9.3 Elderly 2 464 Rate Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 1.04 [0.63, 1.71] 1.10 The incidence rate of acute URTIs (treatment dose) Show forest plot 12 4364 Rate Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.82 [0.73, 0.92] 1.10.1 Less than 1010 CFU per day 7 2631 Rate Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.77 [0.65, 0.91] 1.10.2 More than 1010 CFU per day 5 1733 Rate Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.91 [0.75, 1.11] 1.11 The incidence rate of acute URTIs (treatment duration) Show forest plot 12 4364 Rate Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.82 [0.73, 0.92] 1.11.1 3 to 6 months 10 3900 Rate Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.79 [0.70, 0.90] 1.11.2 More than 6 months 2 464 Rate Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 1.04 [0.63, 1.71] 1.12 The incidence rate of acute URTIs (type of comparator) Show forest plot 12 4364 Rate Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.82 [0.73, 0.92] 1.12.1 Placebo 11 4131 Rate Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.83 [0.73, 0.94] 1.12.2 No treatment 1 233 Rate Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.70 [0.47, 1.04] 1.13 The mean duration of an episode of acute URTIs (age) Show forest plot 6 2406 Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI) ‐1.22 [‐2.12, ‐0.33] 1.13.1 Adults 5 2252 Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI) ‐1.14 [‐2.15, ‐0.13] 1.13.2 Elderly 1 154 Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI) ‐1.69 [‐2.75, ‐0.63] 1.14 The mean duration of an episode of acute URTIs (treatment dose) Show forest plot 6 2406 Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI) ‐1.22 [‐2.12, ‐0.33] 1.14.1 Less than 1010 CFU per day 4 2152 Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI) ‐0.89 [‐2.09, 0.31] 1.14.2 More than 1010 CFU per day 2 254 Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI) ‐2.01 [‐2.66, ‐1.36] 1.15 The mean duration of an episode of acute URTIs (treatment duration) Show forest plot 6 2406 Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI) ‐1.22 [‐2.12, ‐0.33] 1.15.1 3 to 6 months 4 1773 Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI) ‐0.90 [‐1.86, 0.05] 1.15.2 More than 6 months 2 633 Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI) ‐1.90 [‐2.04, ‐1.76] Figures and Tables - Comparison 1. Intention‐to‐treat analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ primary outcome measures Navigate to table in Review Comparison 2. Intention‐to‐treat analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ time off from childcare centre, school, or work Outcome or subgroup title No. of studies No. of participants Statistical method Effect size 2.1 The number of participants who were absent from childcare centre, school, or work due to acute URTIs Show forest plot 1 Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI) Totals not selected Figures and Tables - Comparison 2. Intention‐to‐treat analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ time off from childcare centre, school, or work Navigate to table in Review Comparison 3. Intention‐to‐treat analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ prescribed antibiotics for acute URTIs Outcome or subgroup title No. of studies No. of participants Statistical method Effect size 3.1 The number of participants who used antibiotics for acute URTIs (age) Show forest plot 6 1548 Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI) 0.58 [0.42, 0.81] 3.1.1 Adults 1 233 Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI) 0.09 [0.01, 1.67] 3.1.2 Children 5 1315 Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI) 0.59 [0.43, 0.83] 3.2 The number of participants who used antibiotics for acute URTIs (treatment dose) Show forest plot 6 1548 Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI) 0.58 [0.42, 0.81] 3.2.1 Less than 1010 CFU per day 4 1234 Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI) 0.65 [0.42, 0.99] 3.2.2 More than 1010 CFU per day 2 314 Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI) 0.38 [0.09, 1.52] 3.3 The number of participants who used antibiotics for acute URTIs (treatment duration) Show forest plot 6 1548 Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI) 0.58 [0.42, 0.81] 3.3.1 Less than 3 months 1 281 Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI) 0.68 [0.42, 1.11] 3.3.2 3 to 6 months 4 1186 Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI) 0.46 [0.20, 1.10] 3.3.3 More than 6 months 1 81 Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI) 0.52 [0.31, 0.88] 3.4 The number of participants who used antibiotics for acute URTIs (type of comparator) Show forest plot 6 1548 Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI) 0.58 [0.42, 0.81] 3.4.1 Placebo 5 1315 Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI) 0.59 [0.43, 0.83] 3.4.2 No treatment 1 233 Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI) 0.09 [0.01, 1.67] Figures and Tables - Comparison 3. Intention‐to‐treat analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ prescribed antibiotics for acute URTIs Navigate to table in Review Comparison 4. Intention‐to‐treat analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ adverse events Outcome or subgroup title No. of studies No. of participants Statistical method Effect size 4.1 The number of participants who experienced at least 1 adverse event (age) Show forest plot 8 2456 Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI) 1.02 [0.90, 1.15] 4.1.1 Adults 3 1414 Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI) 1.03 [0.89, 1.19] 4.1.2 Children 5 1042 Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI) 0.99 [0.71, 1.37] 4.2 The number of participants who experienced at least 1 adverse event (treatment dose) Show forest plot 8 2456 Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI) 1.02 [0.90, 1.15] 4.2.1 Less than 1010 CFU per day 6 1709 Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI) 1.02 [0.90, 1.16] 4.2.2 More than 1010 CFU per day 2 747 Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI) 1.46 [0.23, 9.09] 4.3 The number of participants who experienced at least 1 adverse event (treatment duration) Show forest plot 8 2456 Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI) 1.02 [0.90, 1.15] 4.3.1 3 to 6 months 6 2263 Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI) 1.01 [0.89, 1.15] 4.3.2 More than 6 months 2 193 Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI) 4.06 [0.69, 23.88] Figures and Tables - Comparison 4. Intention‐to‐treat analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ adverse events Navigate to table in Review Comparison 5. Per‐protocol analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ primary outcome measures Outcome or subgroup title No. of studies No. of participants Statistical method Effect size 5.1 The number of participants who were diagnosed with acute URTIs: at least 1 event (age) Show forest plot 16 4446 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.77 [0.67, 0.88] 5.1.1 Adults 5 2023 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.78 [0.65, 0.93] 5.1.2 Children 10 2289 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.74 [0.60, 0.91] 5.1.3 Elderly 1 134 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.99 [0.66, 1.49] 5.2 The number of participants who were diagnosed with acute URTIs: at least 1 event (treatment dose) Show forest plot 16 4446 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.77 [0.67, 0.88] 5.2.1 Less than 1010 CFU per day 11 3872 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.79 [0.68, 0.91] 5.2.2 Less than 1010 CFU per day 5 574 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.71 [0.51, 0.98] 5.3 The number of participants who were diagnosed with acute URTIs: at least 1 event (treatment duration) Show forest plot 16 4446 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.77 [0.67, 0.88] 5.3.1 Less than 3 months 2 325 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.60 [0.49, 0.75] 5.3.2 3 to 6 months 9 3506 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.83 [0.72, 0.94] 5.3.3 More than 6 months 5 615 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.78 [0.54, 1.14] 5.4 The number of participants who were diagnosed with acute URTIs: at least 1 event (type of comparator) Show forest plot 16 4446 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.77 [0.67, 0.88] 5.4.1 Placebo 14 4170 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.79 [0.69, 0.91] 5.4.2 No treatment 2 276 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.62 [0.47, 0.83] 5.5 The number of participants who were diagnosed with acute URTIs: at least 3 events (age) Show forest plot 4 648 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.57 [0.36, 0.91] 5.5.1 Adults 2 477 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.60 [0.20, 1.82] 5.5.2 Children 2 171 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.60 [0.33, 1.12] 5.6 The number of participants who were diagnosed with acute URTIs: at least 3 events (treatment dose) Show forest plot 4 648 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.57 [0.36, 0.91] 5.6.1 Less than 1010 CFU per day 2 371 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.57 [0.34, 0.96] 5.6.2 More than 1010 CFU per day 2 277 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.63 [0.19, 2.03] 5.7 The number of participants who were diagnosed with acute URTIs: at least 3 events (treatment duration) Show forest plot 4 648 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.57 [0.36, 0.91] 5.7.1 3 to 6 months 3 576 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.59 [0.35, 1.00] 5.7.2 More than 6 months 1 72 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.50 [0.17, 1.45] 5.8 The number of participants who were diagnosed with acute URTIs: at least 3 events (type of comparator) Show forest plot 4 648 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.57 [0.36, 0.91] 5.8.1 Placebo 3 443 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.55 [0.35, 0.89] 5.8.2 No treatment 1 205 Risk Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 2.97 [0.12, 72.09] 5.9 The incidence rate of acute URTIs (age) Show forest plot 12 3932 Rate Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.82 [0.73, 0.91] 5.9.1 Adults 4 1927 Rate Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.79 [0.70, 0.89] 5.9.2 Children 6 1676 Rate Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.79 [0.66, 0.95] 5.9.3 Elderly 2 329 Rate Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 1.04 [0.63, 1.70] 5.10 The incidence rate of acute URTIs (treatment dose) Show forest plot 12 3932 Rate Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.82 [0.73, 0.91] 5.10.1 Less than 1010 CFU per day 7 2485 Rate Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.76 [0.64, 0.90] 5.10.2 More than 1010 CFU per day 5 1447 Rate Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.90 [0.75, 1.08] 5.11 The incidence rate of acute URTIs (treatment duration) Show forest plot 12 3932 Rate Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.82 [0.73, 0.91] 5.11.1 3 to 6 months 10 3603 Rate Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.79 [0.71, 0.89] 5.11.2 More than 6 months 2 329 Rate Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 1.04 [0.63, 1.70] 5.12 The incidence rate of acute URTIs (type of comparator) Show forest plot 12 3932 Rate Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.82 [0.73, 0.91] 5.12.1 Placebo 11 3727 Rate Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.82 [0.73, 0.93] 5.12.2 No treatment 1 205 Rate Ratio (IV, Random, 95% CI) 0.70 [0.46, 1.07] 5.13 The mean duration of an episode of acute URTIs (age) Show forest plot 6 2308 Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI) ‐1.22 [‐2.12, ‐0.32] 5.13.1 Adults 5 2174 Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI) ‐1.14 [‐2.16, ‐0.13] 5.13.2 Elderly 1 134 Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI) ‐1.69 [‐2.83, ‐0.55] 5.14 The mean duration of an episode of acute URTIs (treatment dose) Show forest plot 6 2308 Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI) ‐1.22 [‐2.12, ‐0.32] 5.14.1 Less than 1010 CFU per day 4 2078 Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI) ‐0.89 [‐2.09, 0.31] 5.14.2 More than 1010 CFU per day 2 230 Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI) ‐2.02 [‐2.70, ‐1.34] 5.15 The mean duration of an episode of acute URTIs (treatment duration) Show forest plot 6 2308 Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI) ‐1.22 [‐2.12, ‐0.32] 5.15.1 3 to 6 months 4 1720 Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI) ‐0.89 [‐1.85, 0.06] 5.15.2 More than 6 months 2 588 Mean Difference (IV, Random, 95% CI) ‐1.90 [‐2.04, ‐1.75] Figures and Tables - Comparison 5. Per‐protocol analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ primary outcome measures Navigate to table in Review Comparison 6. Per‐protocol analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ time off from childcare centre, school, or work Outcome or subgroup title No. of studies No. of participants Statistical method Effect size 6.1 The number of participants who experienced time off from childcare centre, school, or work due to acute URTIs Show forest plot 1 Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI) Totals not selected Figures and Tables - Comparison 6. Per‐protocol analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ time off from childcare centre, school, or work Navigate to table in Review Comparison 7. Per‐protocol analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ prescribed antibiotics for acute URTIs Outcome or subgroup title No. of studies No. of participants Statistical method Effect size 7.1 The number of participants who used antibiotics for acute URTIs (age) Show forest plot 6 1420 Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI) 0.57 [0.40, 0.82] 7.1.1 Adults 1 205 Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI) 0.11 [0.01, 2.02] 7.1.2 Children 5 1215 Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI) 0.59 [0.41, 0.84] 7.2 The number of participants who used antibiotics for acute URTIs (treatment dose) Show forest plot 6 1420 Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI) 0.57 [0.40, 0.82] 7.2.1 Less than 1010 CFU per day 4 1143 Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI) 0.63 [0.40, 0.99] 7.2.2 More than 1010 CFU per day 2 277 Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI) 0.45 [0.17, 1.16] 7.3 The number of participants who used antibiotics for acute URTIs (treatment duration) Show forest plot 6 1420 Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI) 0.57 [0.40, 0.82] 7.3.1 Less than 3 months 1 254 Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI) 0.67 [0.40, 1.11] 7.3.2 3 to 6 months 4 1094 Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI) 0.45 [0.18, 1.13] 7.3.3 More than 6 months 1 72 Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI) 0.52 [0.29, 0.92] 7.4 The number of participants who used antibiotics for acute URTIs (type of comparator) Show forest plot 6 1420 Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI) 0.57 [0.40, 0.82] 7.4.1 Placebo 5 1215 Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI) 0.59 [0.41, 0.84] 7.4.2 No treatment 1 205 Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI) 0.11 [0.01, 2.02] Figures and Tables - Comparison 7. Per‐protocol analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ prescribed antibiotics for acute URTIs Navigate to table in Review Comparison 8. Per‐protocol analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ adverse events Outcome or subgroup title No. of studies No. of participants Statistical method Effect size 8.1 The number of participants who experienced at least 1 adverse event (age) Show forest plot 8 2209 Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI) 1.01 [0.89, 1.16] 8.1.1 Adults 3 1321 Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI) 1.03 [0.89, 1.20] 8.1.2 Children 5 888 Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI) 0.96 [0.71, 1.30] 8.2 The number of participants who experienced at least 1 adverse event (treatment dose) Show forest plot 8 2209 Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI) 1.01 [0.89, 1.16] 8.2.1 Less than 1010 CFU per day 6 1578 Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI) 1.02 [0.89, 1.16] 8.2.2 More than 1010 CFU per day 2 631 Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI) 1.20 [0.31, 4.61] 8.3 The number of participants who experienced at least 1 adverse event (treatment duration) Show forest plot 8 2209 Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI) 1.01 [0.89, 1.16] 8.3.1 3 to 6 months 6 2060 Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI) 1.01 [0.88, 1.15] 8.3.2 More than 6 months 2 149 Risk Ratio (M‐H, Random, 95% CI) 3.71 [0.62, 22.10] Figures and Tables - Comparison 8. Per‐protocol analysis: probiotics versus placebo or no treatment ‐ adverse events Navigate to table in Review Available in Deutsch Español فارسی Français 日本语 한국어 Bahasa Malaysia 繁体中文 《実施组织》 阪野正大、杉山伸子 翻訳[2022.09.28]《注意》この日本语訳は、临床医、疫学研究者などによる翻訳のチェックを受けて公开していますが、訳语の间违いなどお気づきの点がございましたら、コクランジャパンまでご连络ください。なお、2013年6月からコクラン・ライブラリーのNew review, Updated reviewとも日単位で更新されています。最新版の日本语訳を掲载するよう努めておりますが、タイム・ラグが生じている场合もあります。ご利用に际しては、最新版(英语版)の内容をご确认ください。 《CD006895.pub4》 Close

https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD006895.pub4/appendices/ja

Comparison of MEGA-PRESS and Short Echo Time PRESS on Classification of IDH Mutation Using Machine Learning at 3T Ayhan Gursan 1 , Gokce Hale Hatay 1 , Cengiz Yakicier 2 , M. Necmettin Pamir 3,4 , Koray Ozduman 3,4 , Alp Dincer 3,5 , and Esin Ozturk-Isik 1 1 Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Bogazici University, Istanbul, Turkey, 2 Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Acibadem Mehmet Ali Aydinlar University, Istanbul, Turkey, 3 Neuroradiology Research Center, Acibadem Mehmet Ali Aydinlar University, Istanbul, Turkey, 4 Department of Neurosurgery, Acibadem Mehmet Ali Aydinlar University, Istanbul, Turkey, 5 Department of Radiology, Acibadem Mehmet Ali Aydinlar University, Istanbul, Turkey Synopsis Isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH) mutation is common in grade II and grade III gliomas, and results in better patient prognosis IDH mutant (IDH-mut) gliomas. Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) studies indicated an increase in 2-hydroxyglutarate (2HG) and decrease in glutamate (Glu) and glutathione (GSH) as a result of IDH mutation. The goal of this study is to compare IDH mutation classification performances of short echo-time (TE) PRESS and MEGA-PRESS by using machine learning in 60 glioma patients. Highest average classification accuracy was 75% with coarse decision trees for short TE PRESS, and 74% with ensemble of bagged of trees for MEGA-PRESS. Introduction Recent WHO criteria has included genetic mutations in glioma classification 1 . Isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH) mutation which is related to metabolism of the cancer tissue, is common in grade II and grade III gliomas. IDH mutant (IDH-mut) gliomas have better prognosis than IDH wild-type (IDH-wt) 2 . In IDH-mut gliomas, 2-hydroxyglutarate (2HG) accumulates at tumor site as a result of the mutation 3, 4 . Additionally, lower glutamate (Glu) 5, 6 and glutathione (GSH) 6, 7 values have been reported in IDH-mut gliomas. 2HG protons give rise to peaks located at 4.02, 2.25 and 1.9 ppm and all peaks of 2HG overlap with other brain metabolite peaks, such as N-acetylaspartate (NAA), creatine (Cr), glutamine (Gln), Glu, and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA). These overlaps make 2HG detection challenging. Mescher-Garwood (MEGA) is a frequency selective refocusing technique that has been combined with Point Resolved Spectroscopy (PRESS) sequence. The aim of this study is to detect IDH mutation using machine learning algorithms by comparing the performance of a MEGA-PRESS spectral editing technique with a short echo time (TE) PRESS. Materials and Methods Seventy-five glioma patients, whose IDH mutation status was assessed by immunohistochemistry, were included in this study. PRESS data was acquired from the solid tumor region excluding gross hemorrhage, edema and necrosis (TR=2000ms, TE=30ms, 1024 Points, BW=2000 Hz), and MEGA-PRESS data was acquired from the same region (TR=1500ms, TE=68ms, 512 Points, BW=1000 Hz) using a Siemens Tim Trio- 3T whole body scanner. At 68 ms echo time, middle peak of the 2HG triplet at 4.02 ppm is inverted, since J-coupling constants with neighboring protons at 1.90 ppm are 7 Hz (leading to an inversion at TE=142 ms) and 4.1 Hz (inversion at TE=243 ms). At difference spectra, outside peaks of the triplet at 4.02 ppm are magnified while the one in the middle is almost suppressed. Fifteen patients were excluded from the study, because of poor signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and high full width at half maximum values. In total, 60 patients (IDH-mut:24, IDH-wt:36) were included in the analysis. LCModel spectral fitting program was used for quantification of metabolites 8. The basis set for MEGA-PRESS sequence was simulated for TE=68ms using General Approach to Magnetic Resonance Mathematical Analysis (GAMMA) simulation library of Versatile Simulation, Pulses and Analysis (VESPA) with the prior knowledge of metabolite chemical shifts and coupling constants 9. The features for classification were selected based on previous studies 5-7. Glycine (Glyc), GSH, 2HG, myo-inositol (Ins), lactate (Lac), total choline (Cho), total NAA and Glx (Glu+Gln) relative concentrations to Cr have been used in machine learning for both PRESS and MEGA-PRESS sequences. Classification Learner app in MATLAB R2018a (The MathWorks Inc., Natick, MA) was used to construct machine learning (ML) models, such as decision trees, support vector machine (SVM), k nearest neighbor (kNN) and ensemble of bagged trees to classify IDH-mut and IDH-wt gliomas. 10-fold cross validation was used to evaluate classifier performance. Models giving the highest accuracy was executed hundred times and average accuracy, sensitivity and specificity values were reported. Results Figure 1 shows LCModel analysis results for short TE PRESS and difference spectrum of MEGA-PRESS sequence for an example IDH-mut glioma. Highest average classification accuracy obtained was 75% with coarse decision trees for short TE PRESS, and 74% with ensemble of bagged of trees for MEGA-PRESS (Table 1). Also, the highest sensitivity of 73% was achieved with cubic SVM model, and highest specificity of 81% was obtained with ensemble of bagged trees for MEGA-PRESS. Similarly, highest sensitivity and specificity values were 75% for short-TE PRESS when coarse decision trees was used. Discussion and Conclusion This study investigated the differences of short-TE PRESS and MEGA-PRESS in terms of IDH mutation detection in gliomas. Our results indicated that IDH mutation classification results based on MR spectral profiles obtained from the two spectral data acquisition techniques were similar. The classifier results could be improved with a larger cohort size. Future studies will explore the detection efficiency of MRS for other genetic mutations of gliomas, and further optimization of machine learning models and choice of features. Acknowledgements This project has been funded by TUBİTAK 1003 grant 216S432 and Bogazici Univesity BAP grant 10844SUP. References 1. Hoshide, R. and R. Jandial, 2016 World Health Organization Classification of Central Nervous System Tumors: An Era of Molecular Biology. World Neurosurg, 2016. 94: p. 561-562. 2. Weller, M., et al., Glioma. Nat Rev Dis Primers, 2015. 1: p. 15017. 3. Choi, C., et al., 2-hydroxyglutarate detection by magnetic resonance spectroscopy in IDH-mutated patients with gliomas. Nature medicine, 2012. 18(4): p. 624-629. 4. Andronesi, O.C., et al., Detection of 2-hydroxyglutarate in IDH-mutated glioma patients by in vivo spectral-editing and 2D correlation magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Sci Transl Med, 2012. 4(116): p. 116ra4. 5. Nagashima, H., et al., Diagnostic value of glutamate with 2-hydroxyglutarate in magnetic resonance spectroscopy for IDH1 mutant glioma. Neuro-Oncology 2016. 18(11): p. 1559-1568. 6. Ozturk-Isik, E., et al. Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopic Differences of Diffuse Glioma Groups Classified by IDH and TERT Promoter Mutations at 3T. in Conference Proceedings of ISMRM-ESMRMB . 2018. Paris, France: ISMRM. p. 955. 7. Shi, J., et al., An IDH1 mutation inhibits growth of glioma cells via GSH depletion and ROS generation. Neurological Sciences, 2014. 35(6): p. 839-45. 8. Provencher, S.W., Estimation of metabolite concentrations from localized in vivo proton NMR spectra. Magnetic Resonance in Medicine, 1993. 30(6): p. 672-679. 9. Govindaraju, V.Y., K. ; Maudsley, A.A, Proton NMR chemical shifts and coupling constants for brain metabolites. NMR Biomed, 2001. 13: p. 129-153. Figures Figure 1. LCModel analysis of MEGA-PRESS difference (a) and short TE PRESS (c) spectra and voxel placements (b, d) for an IDH-mut grade III glioma. Table 1. Highest classification accuracy results obtained from MRS profiles of short-TE PRESS and MEGA-PRESS. Proc. Intl. Soc. Mag. Reson. Med. 27 (2019) 2533

https://cds.ismrm.org/protected/19MProceedings/PDFfiles/2533.html

Comparison of options for sugarcane ( Saccharum officinarum L.) stool destruction | Request PDF Request PDF | Comparison of options for sugarcane ( Saccharum officinarum L.) stool destruction | Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.) production is customarily from a plant crop followed by two or more ratoon crops, which are grown from the... | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate Comparison of options for sugarcane ( Saccharum officinarum L.) stool destruction March 1995 Soil and Tillage Research 33(3):185-195 DOI: 10.1016/0167-1987(94)00445-K Authors: Request full-text Abstract Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.) production is customarily from a plant crop followed by two or more ratoon crops, which are grown from the underground stubble called the sugarcane stool. Frequently, the stool has to be ploughed out when the yield of a ratoon crop falls below acceptable levels, or as a control measure for sugarcane diseases. Sugarcane stool destruction with conventional land preparation equipment has proved to be ineffective, especially in high-rainfall areas. Methods for killing the stools have either been too expensive or keep the land unproductive for an uneconomical period of time. More efficient and cheaper mechanical systems for stool destruction are therefore needed. This study was a comparison of four methods that could be used for stool destruction. The soils on the experimental site were a combination of Dystric Cambisols and Humic Acrisols in the petroferric phase. Three of the methods compared have traditionally been used at a leading sugarcane estate in Kenya, whereas the fourth utilizes a new implement that was developed with the objective of improving efficiency of the operation. Factors thought likely to influence individual methods are discussed. It is concluded that the new implement has potential as a device for sugarcane stool destruction under conditions of rainfed production. It is suggested that the shortest time period allowed between stool destruction and subsequent land preparation operations should be between 4 and 5 weeks. ... Studies suggest that sugarcane stools contain about 10-19 underground buds, and together with the roots, these underground buds and stalks combine to form the ratoon stool or crown [42] [43][44][45][46], distributed about 15 cm below the soil surface. The upper section of the sugarcane stubble is mainly composed of surface buds, with about 2-3 living buds. ... Effect of cutting depth during sugarcane (Saccharum spp. hybrid) harvest on root characteristics and yield Article Full-text available Jan 2021 PLOS ONE Shaolin Yang Yue-bin Zhang Jun Deng Syed Asad Hussain Bukhari Ratooning is an important cultivation practice in sugarcane production around the world, with underground buds on the remaining stalk acting as the source for establishment of a subsequent ratoon crop. However, the optimal depth of cutting during harvest in terms of yield and root growth remains unknown. We carried out a two-year field study to determine the effects of three cutting depths (0, 5 and 10 cm below the surface) ratoon cane root and yield. Results showed that cutting to a depth of 5 cm increased the root fresh weight and root volume by 21–59% and 41–127%, respectively, compared to cutting depths of 0 and 10 cm. Remarkably, cutting to a depth of 5 cm also had a significant effect on the development of fine roots, which is closely linked to cane yield. The effect was particularly noticeable in terms of two root traits, root volume and the surface area of roots with a diameter of 1.0–2.0mm, and root length and the number of root tips in roots with a diameter of 0–0.5mm. As a result, a cutting depth of 5 cm below the surface increased cane yield by 43 and 28% compared to depths of 0 and 10 cm below the surface, respectively. Overall, these findings suggest that a cutting depth of 5 cm is optimal in terms of sugarcane yield, largely due to the enhanced effect on root traits, especially the development of fine roots. These findings will help optimize sugarcane ratoon management and improve the ratoon cycle. The role, shortcomings and future strategy of agricultural machinery testing in Kenya Article Jun 1996 Philip Owende P.G. Kaumbutho Appropriate agricultural mechanization should be based on rational acquisition, utilization and maintenance of machinery units and systems to minimize operation costs and optimize performance in respective operations. Consequently, machinery testing is the best basis for selection, utilization and sustainance of appropriate machinery. This paper outlines the status of agricultural machinery testing in Kenya, with emphasis on the deficiency in its role in encouraging efficient selection and utilization, local innovation and manufacture, and in technology transfer as a whole. The revitalization of agricultural machinery testing as part of a strategy for self-sufficiency in agricultural production, and the necessary infrastructural support required for development of National Testing Standards are proposed. While strategy for agricultural machinery technology development and transer for Kenya is presented, the same may apply to most developing countries. Ratoon stunting disease Chapter Dec 1989 D.S. TEAKLE A NEW CHEMICAL (GLYPHOSATE) FOR KILLSING SUGARCANE Article G. A. IGGO The results of eight experiments to evaluate the efficacy of glyphosate (N-(phosphonomethyl)gly- cine) for killing sugarcane are discussed. Factors that were considered include the time of application, growth stage of the crop, rate of application, spray volume and varietalsusceptibility. Glyphosate applied to actively growing sugarcane with a leaf canopy height of approximately 30-60 cm consistently gave the best results. Varieties differed in their suscepti- bility to glyphosate but results indicate that under favourable conditions an application rate of 3,6 kg a.e, per hectare will kill most of the released sugar- cane varieties of the South African sugarcane industry. A NEW APPROACH TO MECHANICAL STOOL ERADICATION Article Jan 1981 E. N. DICKS E. MEYER G. C. PAYN Four field experiments were conducted to compare the efficiency of stool eradication with a shallow mouldboard plough, a conventional disc plough, a conventional chisel plough and a shallow rotary hoe. The soil at one experi- ment site was a structured clay loam and the other three sites were on Recent Sands. Shallow ploughing with a mould- board plough followed by a discing or power harrowing was the most effective method of eradicating stools on a clay loam whilst a rotary hoe operating at a shall~ow depth at 220 spm and 2,6 km per hour forward speed was the most effec- tive method tested on the Recent Sands. Glyphosate can be used successfully to eradica~e the old sugarcane crop on all soil types when sprayed at the rate of 10 litres per hectare on actively growing young cane in summer. The Growing of Sugar Cane Article Mar 1969 SOIL SCI Roger P. Humbert

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248301052_Comparison_of_options_for_sugarcane_Saccharum_officinarum_L_stool_destruction

Publications - Global Disability Innovation Hub The GDI Hub brings together academic excellence, innovative practice and co-creation; harnessing the power of technology for good. Publications Search & Filter Filter by type All PhD Working Paper Workshop Editorial Conference Paper Journal Paper Landscape review Toolkit Book Article Filter by theme All Assistive & Accessible Technology Inclusive Design Culture and Participation Climate & Crisis Resilience Inclusive Educational Technology Filter by research group All Disability Interactions Physiological Computing Social Justice Humanitarian & Disasters Local Productions Sort Date descending Date ascending A-Z by title Type Conference Paper Themes Assistive & Accessible Technology Culture and Participation The Social Network: How People with Visual Impairment use Mobile Phones in Kibera, Kenya Giulia Barbareschi , Catherine Holloway , Katherine Arnold, Grace Magomere, Wycliffe Ambeyi Wetende, Gabriel Ngare, Joyce Olenja We present the findings of a case study of mobile technology use by People with Visual Impairment (VIPs) in Kibera, an informal settlement in Nairobi. We used contextual interviews, ethnographic observations and a co-design workshop to explore how VIPs use mobile phones in their daily lives, and how this use influences the social infrastructure of VIPs. Our findings suggest that mobile technology supports and shapes the creation of social infrastructure. However, this is only made possible through the existing support networks of the VIPs, which are mediated through four types of interaction: direct, supported, dependent and restricted. CHI '20: Proceedings of the 2020 CHI Conference; 2020 Cite Share Read Abstract Visit publisher Abstract The Social Network: How People with Visual Impairment use Mobile Phones in Kibera, Kenya Living in an informal settlement with a visual impairment can be very challenging resulting in social exclusion. Mobile phones have been shown to be hugely beneficial to people with sight loss in formal and high-income settings. However, little is known about whether these results hold true for people with visual impairment (VIPs) in informal settlements. We present the findings of a case study of mobile technology use by VIPs in Kibera, an informal settlement in Nairobi. We used contextual interviews, ethnographic observations and a co-design workshop to explore how VIPs use mobile phones in their daily lives, and how this use influences the social infrastructure of VIPs. Our findings suggest that mobile technology supports and shapes the creation of social infrastructure. However, this is only made possible through the existing support networks of the VIPs, which are mediated through four types of interaction: direct, supported, dependent and restricted. Cite The Social Network: How People with Visual Impairment use Mobile Phones in Kibera, Kenya Giulia Barbareschi, Catherine Holloway, Katherine Arnold, Grace Magomere, Wycliffe Ambeyi Wetende, Gabriel Ngare, and Joyce Olenja. 2020. The Social Network: How People with Visual Impairment use Mobile Phones in Kibera, Kenya. In Proceedings of the 2020 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI '20). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1145/331383... Share The Social Network: How People with Visual Impairment use Mobile Phones in Kibera, Kenya Type Conference Paper Disability design and innovation in computing research in low resource settings Dafne Zuleima Morgado-Ramirez, Giulia Barbareschi , Maggie Kate Donovan-Hall, Mohammad Sobuh, Nida' Elayyan, Brenda T Nakandi, Robert Tamale Ssekitoleko, joyce Olenja, Grace Nyachomba Magomere, Sibylle Daymond, Jake Honeywill, Ian Harris, Nancy Mbugua, Laurence Kenney, Catherine Holloway 80% of people with disabilities worldwide live in low resourced settings, rural areas, informal settlements and in multidimensional poverty. ICT4D leverages technological innovations to deliver programs for international development. But very few do so with a focus on and involving people with disabilities in low resource settings. Also, most studies largely focus on publishing the results of the research with a focus on the positive stories and not the learnings and recommendations regarding research processes. ASSETS '20: Proceedings of the 22nd International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers and Accessibility; 2020 Cite Share Read Abstract Visit publisher Abstract Disability design and innovation in computing research in low resource settings 80% of people with disabilities worldwide live in low resourced settings, rural areas, informal settlements and in multidimensional poverty. ICT4D leverages technological innovations to deliver programs for international development. But very few do so with a focus on and involving people with disabilities in low resource settings. Also, most studies largely focus on publishing the results of the research with a focus on the positive stories and not the learnings and recommendations regarding research processes. In short, researchers rarely examine what was challenging in the process of collaboration. We present reflections from the field across four studies. Our contributions are: (1) an overview of past work in computing with a focus on disability in low resource settings and (2) learnings and recommendations from four collaborative projects in Uganda, Jordan and Kenya over the last two years, that are relevant for future HCI studies in low resource settings with communities with disabilities. We do this through a lens of Disability Interaction and ICT4D. Cite Disability design and innovation in computing research in low resource settings Dafne Zuleima Morgado-Ramirez, Giulia Barbareschi, Maggie Kate Donovan-Hall, Mohammad Sobuh, Nida' Elayyan, Brenda T Nakandi, Robert Tamale Ssekitoleko, joyce Olenja, Grace Nyachomba Magomere, Sibylle Daymond, Jake Honeywill, Ian Harris, Nancy Mbugua, Laurence Kenney, and Catherine Holloway. 2020. Disability design and innovation in computing research in low resource settings. In Proceedings of the 22nd International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers and Accessibility (ASSETS '20). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, Article 11, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1145/337362... Share Disability design and innovation in computing research in low resource settings Type Workshop Themes Assistive & Accessible Technology Research Group Disability Interactions Could AI Democratise Education? Socio-Technical Imaginaries of an EdTech Revolution Sahan Bulathwela, María Pérez-Ortiz, Catherine Holloway , John Shawe-Taylor This paper starts by synthesising how AI might change how we learn and teach, focusing specifically on the case of personalised learning companions, and then move to discuss some socio-technical features that will be crucial for avoiding the perils of these AI systems worldwide (and perhaps ensuring their success). This paper also discusses the potential of using AI together with free, participatory and democratic resources, such as Wikipedia, Open Educational Resources and open-source tools. We also emphasise the need for collectively designing human-centered, transparent, interactive and collaborative AI-based algorithms that empower and give complete agency to stakeholders, as well as support new emerging pedagogies. Workshop on Machine Learning for the Developing World (ML4D) at the Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems 2021; 2021 Share Read Abstract Visit publisher Abstract Could AI Democratise Education? Socio-Technical Imaginaries of an EdTech Revolution Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Education has been said to have the potential for building more personalised curricula, as well as democratising education worldwide and creating a Renaissance of new ways of teaching and learning. Millions of students are already starting to benefit from the use of these technologies, but millions more around the world are not. If this trend continues, the first delivery of AI in Education could be greater educational inequality, along with a global misallocation of educational resources motivated by the current technological determinism narrative. In this paper, we focus on speculating and posing questions around the future of AI in Education, with the aim of starting the pressing conversation that would set the right foundations for the new generation of education that is permeated by technology. This paper starts by synthesising how AI might change how we learn and teach, focusing specifically on the case of personalised learning companions, and then move to discuss some socio-technical features that will be crucial for avoiding the perils of these AI systems worldwide (and perhaps ensuring their success). This paper also discusses the potential of using AI together with free, participatory and democratic resources, such as Wikipedia, Open Educational Resources and open-source tools. We also emphasise the need for collectively designing human-centered, transparent, interactive and collaborative AI-based algorithms that empower and give complete agency to stakeholders, as well as support new emerging pedagogies. Finally, we ask what would it take for this educational revolution to provide egalitarian and empowering access to education, beyond any political, cultural, language, geographical and learning ability barriers. Share Could AI Democratise Education? Socio-Technical Imaginaries of an EdTech Revolution Type Workshop Themes Assistive & Accessible Technology Towards Proactive Information Retrieval in Noisy Text with Wikipedia Concepts Tabish Ahmed, Sahan Bulathwela The informational needs of people are highly contextual and can depend on many different factors such as their current knowledge state, interests and goals [1, 2, 3]. However, an effective information retrieval companion should minimise the human effort required in i) expressing a human information need and ii) navigating a lengthy result set. Using topical representations of the user history (e.g. [4]) can immensely help formulating zero shot queries and refining short user queries that enable proactive information retrieval (IR). While the world has digital textual information in abundance, it can often be noisy (e.g. extracted through Automatic Speech Recognition (ASR), PDF text extraction etc.), leading to state-of-the-art neural models being highly sensitive to the noise producing sub-optimal results [5]. This demands denoising steps to refine both query and document representation. In this paper, we argue that Wikipedia, an openly available encyclopedia, can be a humanly intuitive knowledge base [6] that has the potential to provide the world view many noisy information Retrieval systems need. Published at the First Workshop on Proactive and Agent-Supported Information Retrieval at CIKM 2022; 2022 Share Read Abstract Visit publisher Abstract Towards Proactive Information Retrieval in Noisy Text with Wikipedia Concepts Extracting useful information from the user history to clearly understand informational needs is a crucial feature of a proactive information retrieval system. Regarding understanding information and relevance, Wikipedia can provide the background knowledge that an intelligent system needs. This work explores how exploiting the context of a query using Wikipedia concepts can improve proactive information retrieval on noisy text. We formulate two models that use entity linking to associate Wikipedia topics with the relevance model. Our experiments around a podcast segment retrieval task demonstrate that there is a clear signal of relevance in Wikipedia concepts while a ranking model can improve precision by incorporating them. We also find Wikifying the background context of a query can help disambiguate the meaning of the query, further helping proactive information retrieval. Share Towards Proactive Information Retrieval in Noisy Text with Wikipedia Concepts Type Book Research Group Disability Interactions Disability Interactions Creating Inclusive Innovations Catherine Holloway , Giulia Barbareschi ; 2021 Share Read Abstract Visit publisher Abstract Disability Interactions Creating Inclusive Innovations Disability interactions (DIX) is a new approach to combining cross-disciplinary methods and theories from Human Computer Interaction (HCI), disability studies, assistive technology, and social development to co-create new technologies, experiences, and ways of working with disabled people. DIX focuses on the interactions people have with their technologies and the interactions which result because of technology use. A central theme of the approach is to tackle complex issues where disability problems are part of a system that does not have a simple solution. Therefore, DIX pushes researchers and practitioners to take a challenge-based approach, which enables both applied and basic research to happen alongside one another. DIX complements other frameworks and approaches that have been developed within HCI research and beyond. Traditional accessibility approaches are likely to focus on specific aspects of technology design and use without considering how features of large-scale assistive technology systems might influence the experiences of people with disabilities. DIX aims to embrace complexity from the start, to better translate the work of accessibility and assistive technology research into the real world. DIX also has a stronger focus on user-centered and participatory approaches across the whole value chain of technology, ensuring we design with the full system of technology in mind (from conceptualization and development to large-scale distribution and access). DIX also helps to acknowledge that solutions and approaches are often non-binary and that technologies and interactions that deliver value to disabled people in one situation can become a hindrance in a different context. Therefore, it offers a more nuanced guide to designing within the disability space, which expands the more traditional problem-solving approaches to designing for accessibility. This book explores why such a novel approach is needed and gives case studies of applications highlighting how different areas of focus—from education to health to work to global development—can benefit from applying a DIX perspective. We conclude with some lessons learned and a look ahead to the next 60 years of DIX. Share Disability Interactions Creating Inclusive Innovations Type Conference Paper Themes Assistive & Accessible Technology Value beyond function: analyzing the perception of wheelchair innovations in Kenya Barbareschi, G ; Daymond, S; Honeywill, J; Singh, A; Noble, D; Mbugua, N; Harris, I; Austin, V ; Holloway, C The World Health Organization (WHO) defines Assistive Technology (AT) as “an umbrella term covering the systems and services related to the delivery of assistive products and services” [6]. This definition highlights how AT encompasses not only the physical and digital products used by millions of persons with disabilities (PWDs) worldwide, but also the systems and services that accompany the provision of these devices [78]. ASSETS '20: The 22nd International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers and Accessibility.; 2020 Share Read Abstract Visit publisher Abstract Value beyond function: analyzing the perception of wheelchair innovations in Kenya Innovations in the field of assistive technology are usually evaluated based on practical considerations related to their ability to perform certain functions. However, social and emotional aspects play a huge role in how people with disabilities interact with assistive products and services. Over a five months period, we tested an innovative wheelchair service provision model that leverages 3D printing and Computer Aided Design to provide bespoke wheelchairs in Kenya. The study involved eight expert wheelchair users and five healthcare professionals who routinely provide wheelchair services in their community. Results from the study show that both users and providers attributed great value to both the novel service delivery model and the wheelchairs produced as part of the study. The reasons for their appreciation went far beyond the practical considerations and were rooted in the fact that the service delivery model and the wheelchairs promoted core values of agency, empowerment and self-expression. Share Value beyond function: analyzing the perception of wheelchair innovations in Kenya Type Conference Paper Themes Assistive & Accessible Technology Culture and Participation Inclusion and Independence: The impact of Mobile Technology on the Lives of Persons with Disabilities in Kenya and Bangladesh Nusrat Jahan, Giulia Barbareschi , Clara Aranda Jan, Charles Musungu Mutuku, Naemur Rahman, Victoria Austin , Catherine Holloway Worldwide it is estimated that there are over a billion people who live with some form of disability [1] . Approximately 80% of people with disabilities live in low-and-middle income countries (LMICs). The combination of an inaccessible environment compounded by socio-economic factors such as poverty and stigma, makes it more likely for people with disabilities to be marginalised and excluded from society [1] . Assistive Technologies (ATs) are known to bridge the accessibility gaps and allow for greater social inclusion. However, there is a lack of adequate access to ATs in LMICs, combined with often poorly designed services, which only magnifies these challenges, thus limiting the opportunities for persons with disabilities to live an independent life [2] . Despite the importance of AT, access to AT globally is inadequate with only 10 percent of those in need having access to the ATs that they need [2] . 2020 IEEE Global Humanitarian Technology Conference Cite Share Read Abstract Visit publisher Abstract Inclusion and Independence: The impact of Mobile Technology on the Lives of Persons with Disabilities in Kenya and Bangladesh Globally, mobile technology plays a significant role connecting and supporting people with disabilities. However, there has been limited research focused on understanding the impact of mobile technology in the lives of persons with disabilities in low or middle- income countries. This paper presents the findings of a participatory photovoice study looking at the role that mobile phones play in the daily lives of 16 persons with disabilities in Kenya and Bangladesh. Participants used a combination of pictures and voice recordings to capture their own stories and illustrate the impact that mobile phone use has on their lives. Through thematic analysis, we categorized the benefits of mobile phones captured by participants as 1) Improved social connection; 2) Increased independence and 3) Access to opportunities. While mobile phones are ubiquitously used for communication, for persons with disabilities they become essential assistive technologies that bridge barriers to opportunities which are not accessible otherwise. Our paper adds evidence to the need for mobile phones for persons with disabilities to enable communication and connectivity in support of development. Cite Inclusion and Independence: The impact of Mobile Technology on the Lives of Persons with Disabilities in Kenya and Bangladesh N. Jahan et al ., "Inclusion and Independence: The impact of Mobile Technology on the Lives of Persons with Disabilities in Kenya and Bangladesh," 2020 IEEE Global Humanitarian Technology Conference (GHTC) , Seattle, WA, USA, 2020, pp. 1-8, doi: 10.1109/GHTC46280.2020.9342934. Share Inclusion and Independence: The impact of Mobile Technology on the Lives of Persons with Disabilities in Kenya and Bangladesh Type Conference Paper Themes Assistive & Accessible Technology Research Group Local Productions A Preliminary Study to Understand How Mainstream Accessibility and Digital Assistive Technologies Reaches People in Lower- and Middle-Income Countries Tigmanshu Bhatnagar , George Torrens, Ben Oldfrey, Priya Morjaria Felipe Ramos Barajas , Katherine Perry and Catherine Holloway Access to information on digital platforms not only facilitates education, employment, entertainment, social interaction but also facilitates critical governmental services, ecommerce, healthcare services and entrepreneurship [1]. Article 9 of United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD) enforces its signatories to commit to provide full accessibility to every citizen of the nation [2]. This has helped to spearhead accessibility directives such as the European Accessibility Act [3] that aims to improve the functioning of markets for accessible products and services. Such directives contribute to ensure that mainstream digital technologies (smartphones, computers etc.) are accessible for everyone and without being socially remarkable, they are able to assist in daily living. Additionally, there is evidence that improving access in mainstream technologies improves product experience and usability for everyone [4]. However, mainstream access has not been fully realized, leading to inferior opportunities for people with disabilities, a disparity which is more prominent in lower and middle-income countries [5]. RESNA Annual Conference; 2021 Share Visit publisher Share A Preliminary Study to Understand How Mainstream Accessibility and Digital Assistive Technologies Reaches People in Lower- and Middle-Income Countries Type Toolkit Innovate Now Toolkit As an entrepreneur, learning how to solve problems by creating and experimenting with different strategies is a core pillar of the entrepreneurial mindset you need to succeed. However, there’s rarely a single correct way to solve problems as an entrepreneur, so you need to learn how to create and compare different solutions. The open entrepreneurship toolkit is a set of learning materials that can help you and your team do just that. Covering the domains of user, product, market and business development, the set of cards have been designed to be used by two or more group members to actively experiment with different solutions. Innovate Now Share Visit publisher Share Innovate Now Toolkit Type Workshop Themes Assistive & Accessible Technology Culture and Participation Rethinking the Senses: A Workshop on Multisensory Embodied Experiences and Disability Interactions Maryam Bandukda , Aneesha Singh, Catherine Holloway, Nadia Berthouze, Emeline Brulé, Ana Tajadura-Jiménez, Oussama Metatla, Ana Javornik, and Anja Thieme The emerging possibilities of multisensory interactions provide an exciting space for disability and open up opportunities to explore new experiences for perceiving one's own body, it's interactions with the environment and also to explore the environment itself. In addition, dynamic aspects of living with disability, life transitions, including ageing, psychological distress, long-term conditions such as chronic pain and new conditions such as long-COVID further affect people's abilities. Interactions with this diversity of embodiments can be enriched, empowered and augmented through using multisensory and cross-sensory modalities to create more inclusive technologies and experiences. To explore this, in this workshop we will explore three related sub-domains: immersive multi-sensory experiences, embodied experiences, and disability interactions and design. CHI EA '21: Extended Abstracts of the 2021 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems Cite Share Read Abstract Visit publisher Abstract Rethinking the Senses: A Workshop on Multisensory Embodied Experiences and Disability Interactions The emerging possibilities of multisensory interactions provide an exciting space for disability and open up opportunities to explore new experiences for perceiving one's own body, it's interactions with the environment and also to explore the environment itself. In addition, dynamic aspects of living with disability, life transitions, including ageing, psychological distress, long-term conditions such as chronic pain and new conditions such as long-COVID further affect people's abilities. Interactions with this diversity of embodiments can be enriched, empowered and augmented through using multisensory and cross-sensory modalities to create more inclusive technologies and experiences. To explore this, in this workshop we will explore three related sub-domains: immersive multi-sensory experiences, embodied experiences, and disability interactions and design. The aim is to better understand how we can re-think the senses in technology design for disability interactions and the dynamic self, constructed through continuously changing sensing capabilities either because of changing ability or because of the empowering technology. This workshop will: (i) bring together HCI researchers from different areas, (ii) discuss tools, frameworks and methods, and (iii) form a multidisciplinary community to build synergies for further collaboration. Cite Rethinking the Senses: A Workshop on Multisensory Embodied Experiences and Disability Interactions Maryam Bandukda, Aneesha Singh, Catherine Holloway, Nadia Berthouze, Emeline Brulé, Ana Tajadura-Jiménez, Oussama Metatla, Ana Javornik, and Anja Thieme. 2021. Rethinking the Senses: A Workshop on Multisensory Embodied Experiences and Disability Interactions. Extended Abstracts of the 2021 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, Article 118, 1–5. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1145/341176... Share Rethinking the Senses: A Workshop on Multisensory Embodied Experiences and Disability Interactions Type Conference Paper Themes Assistive & Accessible Technology Opportunities for Supporting Self-efficacy through Orientation and Mobility Training Technologies for Blind and Partially Sighted People Maryam Bandukda , Catherine Holloway , Aneesha Singh, Giulia Barbareschi , Nadia Berthouze We conducted semi-structured interviews with 20 BPS people and 8 Mobility and Orientation Trainers (MOT). The interviews were thematically analysed and organised into four overarching themes discussing factors influencing the self-efficacy belief of BPS people: Tools and Strategies for O&M training, Technology Use in O&M Training, Changing Personal and Social Circumstances, and Social Influences. We further highlight opportunities for combinations of multimodal technologies to increase access to and effectiveness of O&M training. ASSETS '21: Proceedings of the 23rd International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers and Accessibility Share Read Abstract Visit publisher Abstract Opportunities for Supporting Self-efficacy through Orientation and Mobility Training Technologies for Blind and Partially Sighted People Orientation and mobility (O&M) training provides essential skills and techniques for safe and independent mobility for blind and partially sighted (BPS) people. The demand for O&M training is increasing as the number of people living with vision impairment increases. Despite the growing portfolio of HCI research on assistive technologies (AT), few studies have examined the experiences of BPS people during O&M training, including the use of technology to aid O&M training. To address this gap, we conducted semi-structured interviews with 20 BPS people and 8 Mobility and Orientation Trainers (MOT). The interviews were thematically analysed and organised into four overarching themes discussing factors influencing the self-efficacy belief of BPS people: Tools and Strategies for O&M training, Technology Use in O&M Training, Changing Personal and Social Circumstances, and Social Influences. We further highlight opportunities for combinations of multimodal technologies to increase access to and effectiveness of O&M training. Share Opportunities for Supporting Self-efficacy through Orientation and Mobility Training Technologies for Blind and Partially Sighted People Type Conference Paper Themes Assistive & Accessible Technology What difference does tech make? Conceptualizations of Disability and Assistive Technology among Kenyan Youth: Conceptualizations of Disability and AT Giulia Barbareschi , Norah Shitawa Kopi, Ben Oldfrey , Catherine Holloway In this paper, we examine how young Kenyans without disabilities view people with disabilities and AT users. Findings show that while the portrayal of disability is often shaped by negative emotion, participants felt that many of the barriers affecting people with disabilities were created by society. Perceptions of AT differed –devices were not only seen as a mark of disability but also as a sign of access to resources. Therefore, what we see is an emergent picture where social barriers can be reinforced by poverty, and where poverty reinforces social barriers faced by people with disabilities. We conclude that access to appropriate technology alongside societal interventions tackling incorrect beliefs about disability can help to overcome the stigma faced by people with disabilities. ASSETS '21: Proceedings of the 23rd International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers and Accessibility Cite Share Read Abstract Visit publisher Abstract What difference does tech make? Conceptualizations of Disability and Assistive Technology among Kenyan Youth: Conceptualizations of Disability and AT Most research which investigates stigma towards with people with disabilities and the use of Assistive Technology (AT) are based in the Global North and focus on the experiences of people with disabilities and the consequences that stigma has on choices surrounding AT. However, stigma is a societal construct rooted in the attitude and beliefs that people without disabilities hold on disability and AT. Furthermore, the portrayal of people with disabilities and AT is dependent on the social context. In this paper, we examine how young Kenyans without disabilities view people with disabilities and AT users. Findings show that while the portrayal of disability is often shaped by negative emotion, participants felt that many of the barriers affecting people with disabilities were created by society. Perceptions of AT differed –devices were not only seen as a mark of disability but also as a sign of access to resources. Therefore, what we see is an emergent picture where social barriers can be reinforced by poverty, and where poverty reinforces social barriers faced by people with disabilities. We conclude that access to appropriate technology alongside societal interventions tackling incorrect beliefs about disability can help to overcome the stigma faced by people with disabilities. Cite What difference does tech make? Conceptualizations of Disability and Assistive Technology among Kenyan Youth: Conceptualizations of Disability and AT Giulia Barbareschi, Norah Shitawa Kopi, Ben Oldfrey, and Catherine Holloway. 2021. What difference does tech make? Conceptualizations of Disability and Assistive Technology among Kenyan Youth: Conceptualizations of Disability and AT. In The 23rd International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers and Accessibility ( ASSETS '21 ). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, Article 18, 1–13. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1145/3441852.3471226 Share What difference does tech make? Conceptualizations of Disability and Assistive Technology among Kenyan Youth: Conceptualizations of Disability and AT Type Workshop Themes Assistive & Accessible Technology Research Group Disability Interactions Disability Design and Innovation in Low Resource Settings: Addressing Inequality Through HCI. Giulia Barbareschi , Dafne Zuleima Morgado-Ramirez , Catherine Holloway , Swami Manohar Swaminathan, Aditya Vashistha, and Edward Cutrell. Approximately 15% of the world's population has a disability and 80% live in low resource-settings, often in situations of severe social isolation. Technology is often inaccessible or inappropriately designed, hence unable to fully respond to the needs of people with disabilities living in low resource settings. Also lack of awareness of technology contributes to limited access. This workshop will be a call to arms for researchers in HCI to engage with people with disabilities in low resourced settings to understand their needs and design technology that is both accessible and culturally appropriate. Extended Abstracts of the 2021 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. Cite Share Read Abstract Abstract Disability Design and Innovation in Low Resource Settings: Addressing Inequality Through HCI. Approximately 15% of the world's population has a disability and 80% live in low resource-settings, often in situations of severe social isolation. Technology is often inaccessible or inappropriately designed, hence unable to fully respond to the needs of people with disabilities living in low resource settings. Also lack of awareness of technology contributes to limited access. This workshop will be a call to arms for researchers in HCI to engage with people with disabilities in low resourced settings to understand their needs and design technology that is both accessible and culturally appropriate. We will achieve this through sharing of research experiences, and exploration of challenges encountered when planning HCI4D studies featuring participants with disabilities. Thanks to the contributions of all attendees, we will build a roadmap to support researchers aiming to leverage post-colonial and participatory approaches for the development of accessible and empowering technology with truly global ambitions. Cite Disability Design and Innovation in Low Resource Settings: Addressing Inequality Through HCI. Giulia Barbareschi, Dafne Zuleima Morgado-Ramirez, Catherine Holloway, Swami Manohar Swaminathan, Aditya Vashistha, and Edward Cutrell. 2021. Disability Design and Innovation in Low Resource Settings: Addressing Inequality Through HCI. Extended Abstracts of the 2021 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, Article 124, 1–5. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1145/3411763.3441340 Share Disability Design and Innovation in Low Resource Settings: Addressing Inequality Through HCI. Type Conference Paper Themes Assistive & Accessible Technology Inclusive Educational Technology Transforming a Monolithic Sheet of Nitinol into a Passive Reconfigurable Tactile Pixel Array Display at Braille Resolution Tigmanshu Bhatnagar , Nicolai Marquardt, Mark Miodownik, Catherine Holloway Shape changing materials create a unique opportunity to design reconfigurable tactile display actuators. In this paper, we present a method that transforms a single thin monolithic sheet of Nitinol into a passive reconfigurable tactile pixel array at Braille resolution. We have designed a 27x27 tactile pixel array in which each pixel can be selectively actuated with an external source of heat. The pixels rise 0.4mm vertically with a peak blocked force of 0.28kg and have an average blocked force of 0.23kg at room temperature. After cooling, the pixels can be mechanically reconfigured back to their flat state for repeatable actuation. We demonstrate this actuator’s interactive capabilities through a novel erasable tactile drawing interface. IEEE World Haptics Conference; 2021 Cite Share Read Abstract Abstract Transforming a Monolithic Sheet of Nitinol into a Passive Reconfigurable Tactile Pixel Array Display at Braille Resolution Shape changing materials create a unique opportunity to design reconfigurable tactile display actuators. In this paper, we present a method that transforms a single thin monolithic sheet of Nitinol into a passive reconfigurable tactile pixel array at Braille resolution. We have designed a 27x27 tactile pixel array in which each pixel can be selectively actuated with an external source of heat. The pixels rise 0.4mm vertically with a peak blocked force of 0.28kg and have an average blocked force of 0.23kg at room temperature. After cooling, the pixels can be mechanically reconfigured back to their flat state for repeatable actuation. We demonstrate this actuator’s interactive capabilities through a novel erasable tactile drawing interface. Cite Transforming a Monolithic Sheet of Nitinol into a Passive Reconfigurable Tactile Pixel Array Display at Braille Resolution T. Bhatnagar, N. Marquardt, M. Miodownik and C. Holloway, "Transforming a Monolithic Sheet of Nitinol into a Passive Reconfigurable Tactile Pixel Array Display at Braille Resolution," 2021 IEEE World Haptics Conference (WHC) , 2021, pp. 409-414, doi: 10.1109/WHC49131.2021.9517239. Share Transforming a Monolithic Sheet of Nitinol into a Passive Reconfigurable Tactile Pixel Array Display at Braille Resolution Load more Previous 1 2 3

https://www.disabilityinnovation.com/publications?page=5&type=book+conference-paper+workshop+toolkit

Difference between revisions of "Providence County, Rhode Island Genealogy" • FamilySearch Guide to Providence County, Rhode Island ancestry, genealogy and family history, birth records, marriage records, death records, census records, and military records. Difference between revisions of "Providence County, Rhode Island Genealogy" Marilynbgardner49 ( talk | contribs ) m (Text replacement - ", ($)" to "($)") (90 intermediate revisions by 24 users not shown) Line 1: Line 1: {{breadcrumb {{breadcrumb | link1=[[United States|United States]] | link1=[[United States Genealogy |United States]] | link2=[[Rhode Island, United States Genealogy|Rhode Island]] | link2= [[Rhode Island, United States Genealogy|Rhode Island]] | link3= | link3= | link4= | link4= | link5=[[ {{PAGENAME}} |Providence County]] | link5=[[ Providence County, Rhode Island Genealogy |Providence County]] }} }} Guide to '''Providence County, Rhode Island ancestry, family history , and genealogy ''' birth records, marriage records, death records, census records , family history , and military records. Guide to '''Providence County, Rhode Island ancestry, genealogy and family history''' , birth records, marriage records, death records, census records, and military records. { {Click | Image : RI_ORP.png |Rhode Island Online Genealogy Records}} {| style="width:18%; float : right" |- | <center><div id="fsButtons"><span class="online_records_button">[[ Rhode Island Online Genealogy Records ]]</span></div></center> |- | <center>{{Infobox U.S. County 2016 |organized= June 16, 1729 |county seat= |parent county= [[Providence Plantations Genealogy|Providence Plantations]]<ref>[Providence Plantations Genealogy Newberry]</ref> |variant spellings= |county1= [[Bristol_County,_Rhode_Island_Genealogy|Bristol]] |county2= [[Bristol_County,_Massachusetts_Genealogy|Bristol (MA)]] |county3= [[Kent_County,_Rhode_Island_Genealogy|Kent]] |county4= [[Norfolk_County,_Massachusetts_Genealogy|Norfolk (MA)]] |county5= [[Windham_County,_Connecticut_Genealogy|Windham (CT)]] |county6= [[Worcester_County,_Massachusetts_Genealogy|Worcester (MA)]] |county7= <center>[[Providence County,_Rhode_Island Genealogy#Maps and Gazetteers|See County Maps]]</center> + |county8= |county9= |county10= |county courthouse= [[Image:Rhode Island, Providence County Courthouse.png|300px]] |county location in state= [[Image:Ri-providence.png|185x185px]] |adoption= } } | } </center> <div style="width:17%; float:left; margin-right:4em; padding:0px">__TOC__</div> == County Information == − {{Infobox U.S. County === Description === − | county = Providence County The County is located in the north area of the state . − | county_map = Ri-providence . png <ref>Wikipedia contributors, "Providence, Rhode Island " in ''https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Providence_County,_Rhode_Island'' accessed 3 Dec 2018 </ref> − | state = Rhode Island + === County Courthouse = == − | founded year = 1729 {{RI Courthouse Intro | Providence}} − | founded date = June 16 '''Providence County Courthouse'''<br>250 Benefit Street<br>Providence, RI 02903<br>Phone: 401-222-3250<br>[https://www.ri.gov/towns/view/providence/ Providence Courthouse]<br><br> − | seat wl = Records are kept on the town level and not the county level.<br> − | building image = Town and City Clerks have birth, marriage and death records.<br>Probate Judge has probate records. <br>Family Court has divorce records. <br>Municipal Court has court records. <br>Recorder Deeds has land records. <br> − | building address = − | web = − | named for = − | named for image = − }} − === County Courthouse < br >< br > === === Providence County , Rhode Island Record Dates  === {{RI Record Dates Intro|Providence}} {| cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1" border="1" |- | bgcolor="#e4d8e5" align="center" colspan="7" | <center>'''Known Beginning Dates for Major County Records'''<ref>''Handybook for Genealogists: United States of America'', 10th ed. (Draper, Utah: Everton Pub., 2002), Providence County, Rhode Island . Page 602 {{WorldCat|50140092|disp=At various libraries (WorldCat)}}; {{FSC|1049485|item|disp=FS Library Book 973 D27e 2002}}; Alice Eichholz, ed. Ancestry’s Red Book: American State, County, and Town Sources, Third ed. (Provo, Utah: Ancestry, 2004), 589-591. < /ref >< /center > |- + | width="14.2%" bgcolor="#e4d8e5" align="center" | '''[[Providence County, Rhode Island Genealogy#Birth|Birth*]]''' | width="14.2%" bgcolor="#e4d8e5" align="center" | '''[[Providence County, Rhode Island Genealogy#Marriage|Marriage]]''' | width="14.2%" bgcolor="#e4d8e5" align="center" | '''[[Providence County, Rhode Island Genealogy#Death|Death*]]''' | width="14.2%" bgcolor="#e4d8e5" align="center" | '''[[Providence County, Rhode Island Genealogy#Court Records|Court]]''' | width="14.2%" bgcolor="#e4d8e5" align="center" | '''[[Providence County, Rhode Island Genealogy#Land and Property Records|Land]]''' | width="14.2%" bgcolor="#e4d8e5" align="center" | '''[[Providence County, Rhode Island Genealogy#Probate Records|Probate]]''' | width="14.2%" bgcolor="#e4d8e5" align="center" | '''[[Providence County, Rhode Island Genealogy#Census Records|Census]]''' |- | width="14.2%" align="center" |at town creation | width="14.2%" align="center" |at town creation | width="14.2%" align="center" |at town creation | width="14.2%" align="center" |1703 | width="14.2%" align="center" |1636 | width="14.2%" align="center" |1636 | width = "14.2%" align = "center" |1747 |- | colspan = "7"| <center>*Statewide registration for births and deaths began in 1853. General compliance by 1915.</center> |} Providence County Courthouse<br> 250 Benefit Street<br> Providence, RI 02903<br> Phone: 401.277 . 671 <br> === Record Loss === {{RI Record Loss Intro| Providence }} {| |- | There is no known history of courthouse disasters in this county . |} − Probate Judge has probate records<br>Family Court has divorce records; <br>Municipal Court has court records; <br>Recorder Deeds has land records; <br>Town and City Clerks have birth , marriage and death records < br >< br >( 22 towns in Providence Co ) Towns Organized Before 1800; Cranston 1754, Cumberland 1746 - 7, Foster 1781, Gloucester 1730-1, Johnston 1759, North Providence 1765, Providence 1636, Scituate 1730-1 , Smithfield 1730 - 1 === Boundary Changes === {{RI Boundary Changes Intro|Providence}} {| |- + | * '''Parent County(s):'''  Created from [[Providence Plantations Genealogy|Providence Plantations]] County, on 22 Jun 1703 , with the named changed to Providence on 16 Jun 1729. < ref > [https://digital.newberry.org/ahcb/documents/RI_Individual_County_Chronologies.htm#PROVIDENCE Newberry] < /ref > * '''County Seat:''' *[http://www.mapofus.org/rhodeisland Interactive Map of Rhode Island County Formation History] ( 1790-1897 ) - animated maps illustrating Rhode Island county boundary changes *[https://digital.newberry.org/ahcb/documents/RI_Individual_County_Chronologies.htm#PROVIDENCE Providence County , Rhode Island Historical Boundary Changes] - list of all boundary changes by county provided by Newberry Library |} − There is no county government. The government is located at town and state levels. === Populated Places === {{RI Populated Places Intro|Providence}} === Quick Facts  === {{RIProCoTownsMap}} − {{ Wikipedia | Providence County, Rhode Island}} For a complete list of populated places, including small neighborhoods and suburbs, visit [https://RhodeIsland.hometownlocator.com/ri/Providence Hometown Locator]. The following are the most historically and genealogically relevant populated places in this county:<ref> Wikipedia contributors, " Providence County, Mississippi," in ''Wikipedia: the Free Encyclopedia'', https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Providence_County,_Rhode_Island, − Named for the Divine Providence. {{populated places <!--cities column-------------------> | cities-col1=<div> * [[Central Falls, Providence County, Rhode Island Genealogy|Central Falls]] * [[Cranston, Providence County, Rhode Island Genealogy|Cranston]]</div> | cities-col2=<div> * [[East Providence, Providence County, Rhode Island Genealogy|East Providence]] * [[Pawtucket, Providence County, Rhode Island Genealogy|Pawtucket]]</div> | cities-col3=<div> * [[Providence, Providence County, Rhode Island Genealogy|Providence]] (county seat) * [[Woonsocket, Providence County, Rhode Island Genealogy|Woonsocket]]</div> <!--towns column-------------------> | towns-col1=<div> * [[Burrillville, Providence County, Rhode Island Genealogy|Burrillville]] * [[Cumberland, Providence County, Rhode Island Genealogy|Cumberland]] * [[Foster, Providence County, Rhode Island Genealogy|Foster]] + * [[Glocester, Providence County, Rhode Island Genealogy|Glocester]]</div> | towns-col2=<div> * [[Johnston, Providence County, Rhode Island Genealogy|Johnston]] * [[Lincoln, Providence County, Rhode Island Genealogy|Lincoln]] * [[North Providence, Providence County, Rhode Island Genealogy|North Providence]]</div> | towns-col3=<div> * [[North Smithfield, Providence County, Rhode Island Genealogy|North Smithfield]] * [[Scituate, Providence County, Rhode Island Genealogy|Scituate]] * [[Smithfield, Providence County, Rhode Island Genealogy|Smithfield]]</div> <!--villages column-------------------> | villages-col1=<div> * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albion,_Rhode_Island Albion] * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnold_Mills_Historic_District Arnold Mills] * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branch_Village,_Rhode_Island Branch Village] * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esmond,_Rhode_Island Esmond] * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forestdale,_Rhode_Island Forestdale] * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgiaville,_Rhode_Island Georgiaville] * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glendale,_Rhode_Island Glendale]</div> | villages-col2=<div> * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lime_Rock,_Rhode_Island Lime Rock] * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lonsdale,_Rhode_Island Lonsdale] * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manville,_Rhode_Island Manville] * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oakland,_Rhode_Island Oakland] + * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primrose,_Rhode_Island Primrose] * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quinnville,_Rhode_Island Quinnville] * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riverside,_Rhode_Island Riverside]</div> | villages-col3=<div> * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumford,_Rhode_Island Rumford] * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saylesville,_Rhode_Island Saylesville] * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smithville_%E2%80%93_North_Scituate,_Rhode_Island Smithville-North Scituate] * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slatersville,_Rhode_Island Slatersville] * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_Village,_Rhode_Island Union Village] * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterford,_Rhode_Island Waterford]</div> <!--census column-------------------> | census-col1=<div> * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chepachet,_Rhode_Island Chepachet] * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clayville,_Rhode_Island Clayville] * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumberland_Hill,_Rhode_Island Cumberland Hill]</div> | census-col2=<div> * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foster_Center,_Rhode_Island Foster Center] * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenville,_Rhode_Island Greenville] * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmony,_Rhode_Island Harmony]</div> | census-col3=<div> * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harrisville,_Rhode_Island Harrisville] * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascoag,_Rhode_Island Pascoag] * [https://en.wikipedia . org/wiki/Valley_Falls,_Rhode_Island Valley Falls]</div> }} − ''' 16 June 1729 :''' Renamed Providence County. < ref > [http :// www.worldcat.org / oclc / 50140092 ''Handybook for Genealogists: United States of America, 10th ed.''] (Draper, Utah: Everton Pub., 2002), [FHL book 973 D27e 2002]. </ ref > {| style="width:50%; vertical-align:top;" |- | ''' Towns Organized before 1800 :''' < br > <ul class="column-spacing-halfscreen" style="padding-right : 5px;"> <li>Cranston 1754< / li> <li>Cumberland 1746-7</li> <li>Foster 1781< / li> <li>Gloucester 1730-1< / li> <li>Johnston 1759< / li> <li>North Providence 1765</li> <li>Providence 1636</li> <li>Scituate 1730-1</li> <li>Smithfield 1730-1</li> </ ul > + | |} === History Timeline === {{RI Historical Timeline Intro|Providence}} ==== Parent County  ==== == Resources == {{RI Resources Intro|Providence}} − '''1703:''' Formed as Providence Plantations County. === Bible Records === {{RI Bible Intro| Providence }} === = Boundary Changes = === === Biographies === − For animated maps illustrating Rhode Island County boundary changes, [http://www.mapofus.org/rhodeisland/ "Rotating Formation Rhode Island County Boundary Maps"] (1643-1963) may be viewed for free at the MapofUS.org website. {{RI Biographies Intro|Providence}} === = Record Loss  = === === Business, Commerce, and Occupations === {{RI Business Records Intro|Providence}} − There is no known history of courthouse disasters in this county. === Cemeteries === {{RI Cemeteries Intro|Providence}} − === Places / Localities  === {| style = "border :1px solid black; width: 70 % ; " − {{Providence County, Rhode Island}}{{RIProCoTownsMap}} − == Resources  == − === Archives and Libraries  === − === Cemeteries  === − *[http://www.pocassetcemetery.org/?page_id=19 Poccassett Cemetery, Cranston, Rhode Island] − *[http://www.rihistoriccemeteries.org/webdatabase.aspx Rhode Island Historical Cemetery Commission] − {| width="75%" cellspacing = "1" cellpadding="1 " border ="1" − |- | width ="30%" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" align="center" | '''Tombstone Transcriptions Online''' − | width="30%" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" align="center" | '''Tombstone Transcriptions in Print''' − | width="30%" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" align="center" | '''List of Cemeteries in the county''' − |- − | bgcolor="#F0F0F0" | [http : //findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gsr&GSfn=&GSmn=&GSln=&GSbyrel=all&GSby=&GSdyrel=all&GSdy=&GScntry=4&GSst=42&GScnty=2311&GSgrid=&df=all&GSob=n Findagrave.com] − | bgcolor="#F0F0F0" | {{FHL|593863|subject-id|disp=Family History Library}} − | bgcolor="#F0F0F0" | [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=csr&CScn=&CScntry=4&CSst=42&CScnty=2311 Findagrave.com] |- | bgcolor="#F0F0F0" | [http://www.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~rigenweb/#Cemeteries RIGenWeb] − | bgcolor="#F0F0F0" | [http://www.worldcat.org/search?q=su % 3Acemetery+Providence+Rhode+Island&qt=advanced&dblist=638 WorldCat] − | bgcolor= " #F0F0F0" | [https://billiongraves.com/search/results?year_range=5&action=search_cemetery&exact=true&country=United%20States&state=Rhode%20Island&county=Providence&cemetery_name=a#/ Billion Graves] |- |- | bgcolor =" #F0F0F0 " | [http://www.usgwarchives.net/ri/providence.html RIGenWeb Archives] | colspan =" 2 " bgcolor="# E0E0E0 " style =" border:1px solid black "| <center>'''Cemeteries of Providence County, Rhode Island''' online and in print</center> | bgcolor="# F0F0F0 " | − | bgcolor =" #F0F0F0 " | |- |- | bgcolor="#F0F0F0" | [http://www.usgwtombstones.org/rhodeisland/providence.html Tombstone Project] + | width="25%" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" style="border:1px solid black" | <center>'''Tombstone Transcriptions Online'''</center> | bgcolor = "#F0F0F0" | |bgcolor="#F0F0F0 " valign="top" style="border:1px solid black " | | bgcolor="#F0F0F0" | *[https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/search?firstname=&middlename=&lastname=&birthyear=&birthyearfilter=&deathyear=&deathyearfilter=&location=Providence+County%2C+Rhode%2C+Island%2C+United+States+of+America&locationId=county_2311  Find A Grave] * [http://theusgenweb.org/rigenweb/index.html#Cemeteries  USGenWeb Project] * [http://www.usgwarchives.net/ri/providence.html  USGenWeb Archives] * [http://www.usgwtombstones.org/rhodeisland/providence.html RI Tombstone Transcription Project] * [http://www.interment.net/us/ri/providence.htm  Interment.net] *[https://billiongraves.com/search/results?cemetery_country=United%20States&cemetery_state=rhode%20island&cemetery_county=Providence&year_range=5&size = 15  BillionGraves] *[http://rihistoriccemeteries.org/searchgravesnameonly.aspx Rhode Island Historical Cemetery Commission] | bgcolor="# F0F0F0 " | [ http:/ / www.interment.net/us/ri/providence.htm RIInterment] | width="25%" bgcolor="# E0E0E0" style="border:1px solid black " | <center>'''Tombstone Transcriptions in Print''' [ [The Value of Cemetery Records in Print |(Often more complete)]]< / center> | bgcolor="#F0F0F0" | |bgcolor="#F0F0F0 " style="border:1px solid black" valign="top " | | bgcolor = "#F0F0F0" | * {{FSC | 593863|subject-id|disp=FamilySearch Library}} * [http://www.worldcat.org/search?q=su%3Acemetery+Providence+Rhode+Island&qt=advanced&dblist = 638 WorldCat] | bgcolor="#F0F0F0" | [ http ://www. epodunk .com/ cgi-bin / localList.php ? local = 13449 & locTGroup = Cemeteries & direction = down & sec = 0 & qty = 71 & stateAbbv =& stateName = EPodunk ] | width="25%" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" style="border:1px solid black" |<center>'''List of Cemeteries in the County'''</center> | bgcolor = "#F0F0F0" | |bgcolor="#F0F0F0 " style="border:1px solid black" valign="top " | − | bgcolor = "#F0F0F0" | * [ https ://www. findagrave .com/ cemetery / search ? cemetery-name =& cemetery-loc = Providence+County%2C+Rhode%2C+Island%2C+United+States+of+America & only-with-cemeteries = cemOnly & locationId = county_2311 Find A Grave] * [https://www.familysearch.org/research/places/?reqParents=393310&reqParentsLabel=Providence%2C%20Rhode%20Island%2C%20United%20States & reqParentsType = 209 & reqTypes = 20 & reqTypeLabel = Cemetery FamilySearch Places ] *[https://www.google.com/maps/d/viewer?mid=1h3nsubucxQ5Ewrro-i14KQ9Jv5I&ll = 41.68096564683137%2C-71.58785881656458&z = 10 Rhode Island Historical Cemetery Commission] |- |- | bgcolor =" #F0F0F0 " |[https://billiongraves.com/pages/search/# Billion Graves] | colspan =" 2 " bgcolor="# E0E0E0 " style =" border:1px solid black "| <center> See [[Rhode Island Cemeteries| Rhode Island Cemeteries]] for more information. <center> | bgcolor="# F0F0F0 " | − | bgcolor =" #F0F0F0" | |- | bgcolor="#F0F0F0" colspan="3 " | See [[Rhode Island Cemeteries| Rhode Island Cemeteries]] for more information. |} |} &nbsp; *{{RecordSearch|3714668|Rhode Island, Providence County, Providence, Swan Point Cemetery Records, ca.1846-ca.1950}} at FamilySearch — [[Rhode Island, Providence County, Providence, Swan Point Cemetery Records - FamilySearch Historical Records|How to Use this Collection]]; index and images *[http://www.pocassetcemetery.org/?page_id=19 Poccassett Cemetery, Cranston, Rhode Island] − === Census === === Census Records === {{RI Census Intro|Providence}} − {{Census| Rhode Island }} + {{ Historical populations *'''1905''' - {{RecordSearch|1542866|Rhode Island State Census, 1905}} at [ https://familysearch.org/search FamilySearch] — index and images |type = USA |heading = Census |footnote = Source: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Providence_County,_Rhode_Island#Demographics "Wikipedia.org".] |1790 |24376 |1800 |25854 |1810 |30869 + |1820 |35736 |1830 |47018 |1840 |58073 |1850 |87526 |1860 |107799 |1870 |149190 |1880 |197874 |1890 |255123 |1900 |328683 |1910 |424353 |1920 |475190 + | 1930 |540016 |1940 |550298 |1950 |574973 |1960 |568778 |1970 |580261 |1980 |571349 |1990 |596270 |2000 |621602 |2010 |626667 }} * '''1905''' {{RecordSearch|1542866|Rhode Island State Census, 1905}} at FamilySearch — [ [Rhode Island State Census, 1905 - FamilySearch Historical Records|How to Use this Collection ] ]; index and images − === Church History and Records (Rural) === === Church Records === {{RI Church Intro|Providence}} − === Court  = == '''List of Churches and Church Parishes'''<br> + *'''[https://www.familysearch.org/research/places/?reqParents = 393310&reqParentsLabel = Providence%2C%20Rhode%20Island%2C%20United%20States&reqParentsType = 209&reqTypeGroups = 3&reqTypeLabel = Churches%20and%20Church%20Parishes FamilySearch Places]''': Map of cities and towns in this county - [[FamilySearch Places|How to Use FS Places]] − === Directories === === Court Records === {{RI Court Intro|Providence}} − *'''1861-1924''' - Fold3 ($) has [http://www.fold3.com/title_462/city_directories_providence Providence City Directories 1861-1924] available online. === Directories === {{RI Directories Intro| Providence }} − *'''1895-1935''' - Providence House Directories at [https://www.providenceri.com/archives/providence-house-directories-now-available-online-0 Providence City Archives website] - free. 1895, 1896, 1897, 1898, 1899, 1900, 1901, 1903, 1905, 1907, 1909, 1911, 1913, 1915, 1917, 1919-1920, 1921-1922, 1923-1924, 1925-1926, 1927-1928, 1929-1930, 1931-1932, 1933-1934, 1935. *'''1861-1924''' Fold3 ($) has [http://www.fold3.com/title_462/city_directories_providence Providence City Directories 1861-1924] available online. *'''1895-1935''' Providence House Directories at [https://www.providenceri.com/archives/providence-house-directories-now-available-online-0 Providence City Archives website] - free. 1895, 1896, 1897, 1898, 1899, 1900, 1901, 1903, 1905, 1907, 1909, 1911, 1913, 1915, 1917, 1919-1920, 1921-1922, 1923-1924, 1925-1926, 1927-1928, 1929-1930, 1931-1932, 1933-1934, 1935. *'''1940''' [https://www.myheritage.com/research/collection-54935/pawtucket-central-falls-providence-county-rhode-island-city-directory-1940?s=275764761 Pawtucket and Central Falls, Providence County, Rhode Island, City Directory, 1940] at MyHeritage — index & images($) === Ethnic, Religious and Political Groups === === Emigration and Immigration === {{RI Emigration Intro|Providence}} − Cottrol , Robert J. The Afro-Yankees : ''Providence's Black Community in the Antebellum Era'' - Westport , Conn.: Greenwood Press 1982. (Contributions in Afro-American and African Studies, 0069-9624; no. 68) FHL '''974.52 F2c ''' === Ethnic , Political , and Religious Groups === {{RI Ethnic Groups Intro|Providence}} === Land === ==== African Americans == == Cottrol, Robert J. The Afro-Yankees : ''Providence's Black Community in the Antebellum Era'' - Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press 1982. (Contributions in Afro-American and African Studies, 0069-9624; no. 68) FS Library '''974.52 F2c ''' === History === === Funeral Homes === {{RI Funeral Homes Intro|Providence}} === Maps === === Genealogies === {{RI Genealogies Intro|Providence}} *'''1636''' [https://www.americanancestors.org/search/databasesearch/476/thomas-angell-who-settled-in-providence-1636-genealogy-of-the-descendants-of Genealogy of the Descendants of Thomas Angell Who Settled in Providence, 1636] at American Ancestors — index & images($) [[Image:Riprovidence.jpg | 300px|Riprovidence.jpg]] === Guardianship === {{RI Guardianship Intro | Providence}} − === Military History and Records === === Land and Property Records === {{RI Land Intro|Providence}} === Local Histories === {{RI Histories Intro|Providence}} === Maps and Gazetteers === {{RI Neighboring Counties Intro|county={{RI Providence County}}}} {{RI Maps Intro|Providence}} *[https://www.familysearch.org/research/places/?reqParents=393310&reqParentsLabel=Providence%2C%20Rhode%20Island%2C%20United%20States&reqParentsType=209&reqTypeGroups=8&reqTypeLabel=Cities%20and%20Towns FamilySearch Places]: Map of cities and towns in this county - [[FamilySearch Places|How to Use FS Places]] + === Migration === {{RI Migration Intro|Providence}} === Military Records === {{RI Military Intro|Providence}} === Naturalization and Citizenship === === Naturalization and Citizenship === {{RI Naturalization Intro|Providence}} === Newspapers  === ''Online Naturalization Indexes and Records''<br> * '''1907-1991''' {{RecordSearch|2622566|Rhode Island Naturalization Records 1907-1991}} at FamilySearch — [[Rhode Island Naturalization Records - FamilySearch Historical Records|How to Use this Collection]]; index and images :*'''1778-1784, 1799-1828''' - ''The Providence Gazette'' at [http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=KEHW5XCvxlQC Google News] - free. === Newspapers === {{RI Newspapers Intro| Providence }} :*'''1779-1781''' - ''The American Journal and General Advertiser'' at [http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=CxegcQ4u50YC Google News] - free. *'''1778-1784, 1799-1828''' ''The Providence Gazette'' at [http : //news.google.com/newspapers?nid=KEHW5XCvxlQC Google News] - free. *'''1779-1781''' ''The American Journal and General Advertiser'' at [http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=CxegcQ4u50YC Google News] - free. *'''1785-1795''' ''The Providence Gazette and Country Journal'' at [http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=pKq9KLJfUZEC Google News] - free. *'''1799-1801''' ''The Providence Journal'' at [http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=0tRseZjC4qsC Google News] - free. * '''1800s-1999''' [https://www.ancestry.com/search/collections/62116/ Newspapers.com Marriage Index, 1800s-1999] at Ancestry ($) − :*'''1785-1795''' - ''The Providence Gazette and Country Journal'' at [http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=pKq9KLJfUZEC Google News] - free. === Obituaries === {{RI Obituaries Intro| Providence }} :*'''1799-1801''' - ''The Providence Journal'' at [http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=0tRseZjC4qsC Google News] - free. === Other Records === {{RI Other Records Intro| Providence }} === Probate === === Periodicals === '''Online Probate Records''' {{ RI Periodicals Intro | Providence }} *'''1582 – 1932''' [http://search.ancestry.com/search/db.aspx?dbid=9079 Rhode Island Wills and Probate Records 1582-1932] at [http://home.ancestry.com Ancestry.com] — index and images $ *'''1663 - 1775''' [https://familysearch.org/search/catalog/354188?availability=Family%20History%20Library The Providence probate records to 1775 with index] at {{ FHL | 022385 }} − === Taxation === === Probate Records === {{RI Probate Intro|Providence}} === Vital Records === ''Online Probate Indexes and Records ''<br> * '''1582-1932''' [https://www.ancestry.com/search/collections/Rhode Island, U.S., Wills and Probate Records, 1582-1932] at Ancestry ($) *'''1663-1775''' [https://familysearch.org/search/catalog/354188 The Providence probate records to 1775 with index] at {{FSC|022385}} :*'''1740s-1760s''' - Drowne, Henry Russell. "Some Vital Records of Providence, R.I.," ''The New York Genealogical and Biographical Record,'' Vol. 46, No. 1 (Jan. 1915):80-81. Digital versions at [http://www.archive.org/stream/newyorkgenealog46gree#page/160/mode/1up Internet Archive] - free; [http://newyorkfamilyhistory.org/ New York Family History] ($); {{FHL|161380|item|disp = FHL Book 974.7 B2n v. 46}}. Includes baptisms, marriages. === School Records = == :*'''1630 - 1945''' - {{ RecordSearch | 2146229|Rhode Island Town Clerk Vital and Town Records 1630-1945 at [https://familysearch.org/search FamilySearch] — index and images {{ RI Schools Intro | Providence }} :*'''1636 - 1930''' -&nbsp;On [http://www.americanancestors.org/index.aspx American Ancestors] ($): Providence, RI: Alphabetical Index of Births, Marriages and Deaths, 1636-1930. − :*'''1931 - 1940''' - On [http://www.americanancestors.org/index.aspx American Ancestors] ($): Providence, RI: Alphabetical Index of Births, Marriages and Deaths, 1931-1940. genealogyinc .com/ ordervitalcertificate / order electronically online ] or download an application for Rhode Island [ http :// health . ri . gov / records / Birth Certificate ], [ http :// health . ri . gov / records / Marriage Certificate ], [ http :// health . ri . gov / records / Death Certificate ] Application to mail. + === Social Security Records === *'''1935-2014''' {{RecordSearch|1202535|United States Social Security Death Index}} at FamilySearch — [ [ United States Social Security Death Index - FamilySearch Historical Records|How to Use this Collection]]; index. ''Also at [https ://www. ancestry .com/ search/collections/3693 / Ancestry], [https://search.findmypast.com/search - world Records / social-security-death-index findmypast ], [ https .com/ title / 830/ Fold3 myheritage . com / research / collection-10002/us-social-security-death-index-ssdi?s=270606331 MyHeritage ], and [ https :// stevemorse.org/ssdi/ssdi . html Steve Morse] . '' [[United States Social Security Administration Records#Social Security Death Index (SSDI)|Click here for more information]]. *'''1936-2007''' [https: // www.ancestry.com/search/collections/60901/ U.S., Social Security Applications and Claims Index, 1936-2007 *'''1936-2007''' {{RecordSearch|5000016|United States, Social Security Numerical Identification Files (NUMIDENT), 1936-2007}} at FamilySearch - [[United States, Social Security Numerical Identification Files (NUMIDENT) - FamilySearch Historical Records|How to Use this Collection]]; index == Societies, Libraries and Museums == === Tax Records = == {{RI Tax Intro|Providence}} *[http://www.rigensoc.org/ Rhode Island Genealogical Society],<br> P.O. Box 433,<br> Greenville Public Library,<br> 573 Putnam Pike,<br> Greenville, RI 02828 === Vital Records === *[http://www.rihs.org/ Rhode Island Historical Society],<br> 110 Benevolent St,<br> Providence 02906-3103 + {{ RI Vital Intro| Providence }} − *[http://www.bvhsri.org/ Blackstone Valley Historical Society],<br> P.O. Box 125, 1873 Louisquisset Pike,<br> Lincoln, RI 02865<br> TEL: (401) 725-2847 − *[http://www.bhps.org/ Burrillville Historical and Preservation Society],<br> Box 93, Old Bridgeton School,<br> 16 Laurel Hill Avenue,<br> Pascoag, RI 02859<br> TEL: (401) 568-8534 − *American French Genealogical,<br> 78 Earl St,<br> Lincoln, RI 02865<br> 401 765-6141 − ==== Libraries ==== ==== Birth ==== {{RI Birth Intro|Providence}} − * [http://sos.ri.gov/library/ Rhode Island State Library] , <br> State House , 2nd floor , <br> Providence , RI 02903<br> Phone: (401) 222 - 2473 * '''1630-1945''' {{RecordSearch|2146229| Rhode Island, Town Clerk, Vital and Town Records , 1630-1945}} at FamilySearch — [[Rhode Island , Town Clerk , Vital and Town Records - FamilySearch Historical Records|How to Use this Collection]]; index and images − *[http:// rihs . minisisinc .com/ Rhode Island Historical Society Library ] ,<br> 121 Hope Street,<br> Providence, RI 02906<br> TEL: ( 401 ) 273-8107 * '''1636-1930''' [http:// search . ancestry .com/ search/db.aspx?dbid=4262&cj=1&o_xid=0003096283&o_lid=0003096283 Rhode Island Births, 1636-1930 ] at Ancestry ( $ ) − *[ http ://www. eastgreenwichlibrary . org / East Greenwich Free Library],<br> 82 Pierce Street East,<br> Greenwich, RI 02818<br> * '''1800-1855''' [ https $ ) *[http: // www.lincolnlibrary.com / reference.html Lincoln Public Library],<br> Old River Road,<br> Lincoln , RI 02865 , <br> Phone: (401) 333 - 2422 − *Louttit Memorial Library,<br> 274 Victory Highway,<br> West Greenwich, RI 02817<br> Phone: (401) 397 - 3434 − *Robert H Champlin Library,<br> 1043 Main Street,<br> West Warwick, RI 02893,<br> Phone: ( 401 ) 828-3750 − *Warwick Public Library,<br> 600 Sandy Lane,<br> Warwick, RI 02886 <br> ==== Marriage ==== {{RI Marriage Intro|Providence}} <br> <br> *'''1522-1989''' [https://search.findmypast.com/search-world-records/united-states-marriages?state=rhode%20island%2cri Rhode Island, United States Marriages] at  at Findmypast — index($) * '''1630-1945''' {{RecordSearch|2146229|Rhode Island, Town Clerk, Vital and Town Records, 1630-1945}} at FamilySearch — [[Rhode Island, Town Clerk, Vital and Town Records - FamilySearch Historical Records|How to Use this Collection]]; index and images *'''1636-1930''' [http://search.ancestry.com/search/db.aspx?dbid=4263&cj=1&o_xid=0003096283&o_lid=0003096283 Rhode Island Marriages, 1851-1920] at Ancestry ($) *'''1851-1920''' [http://search.ancestry.com/search/db.aspx?dbid=4263&cj=1&o_xid=0003096283&o_lid=0003096283 Rhode Island Marriages, 1851-1920] Ancestry ($) ==== Family History Centers + ==== Death ==== {{RI Death Intro|Providence}} * '''1630-1945''' {{RecordSearch|2146229|Rhode Island, Town Clerk, Vital and Town Records, 1630-1945}} at FamilySearch — [[Rhode Island, Town Clerk, Vital and Town Records - FamilySearch Historical Records|How to Use this Collection]]; index and images ==== Divorce ==== {{RI Divorce Intro|Providence}} == Research Facilities == {{RI Research Facilities Intro|Providence}} === Archives === {{RI Archives Intro|Providence}} === FamilySearch Centers === == Websites == *[[Franklin Massachusetts FamilySearch Center]] *[[North Dartmouth Massachusetts FamilySearch Center]] *[[Providence Rhode Island FamilySearch Center]] *[https://afgs.org/site/ American French Genealogical Society] - an affiliate library *[https://dallibrary.org/ David Allen Lambert Library] - an affiliate library *[https://www.midlib.org/ Middleborough Public Library] - an affiliate library *[https://www.rwu.edu/library/ Roger Williams University Library] - an affiliate library + === Libraries = == {{RI Libraries Intro|Providence}} *'''Rhode Island State Library'''<br> State House, 2nd floor<br>82 Smith Street, Room 208<br>Providence, RI 02903<br> Phone: 401-222-2473 <br>[http://sos.ri.gov/library/ Website] *'''East Greenwich Free Library'''<br> 82 Pierce Street<br>East Greenwich, RI 02818<br>Phone: 401-884-9510<br>[http://www.eastgreenwichlibrary.org/ Website] *'''Greenville Public Library'''<br> 573 Putnam Pike<br> Greenville, RI 02828<br>Phone: 401-949-3630<br>[https://greenvillelibraryri.org Website] *'''Lincoln Public Library'''<br> 145 Old River Road<br> Lincoln, RI 02865<br> Phone: 401-333-2422 <br>[http://www.lincolnlibrary.com Website] *'''Louttit Memorial Library'''<br> 274 Victory Highway<br> West Greenwich, RI 02817<br> Phone: 401-397-3434<br>Email: [mailto:[email protected] [email protected]]<br>[https://www.louttitlibrary.org/ Website] *'''Robert H Champlin Library'''<br> 1043 Main Street<br> West Warwick, RI 02893<br> Phone: 401-828-3750 *'''Warwick Public Library'''<br> 600 Sandy Lane<br> Warwick, RI 02889<br>Phone: 401-739-5440<br>[https://www.warwicklibrary.org/ Website] === Museums === {{RI Museums Intro|Providence}} *[ http ://www. genealogyinc . com/rhodeisland/providence-county / Providence County , RI History, Records, Facts and Genealogy] == Societies == * [https:// plus . google . com / u/0/communities/110318217989954450102 Rhode Island Genealogy Network Community on Google+ {{RI Societies Intro|Providence}} *[ https ://www. facebook . com / groups/157868217616883/ Rhode Island Genealogy Network Group on Facebook *[http://www. rootsweb . ancestry . com / ~riprovid / The Providence County RIGenWeb Project] , an member of [[ RIGenWeb | The RIGenWeb Project] ] , an affiliate of [[USGenWeb|The USGenWeb Project]]. * '''Rhode Island Genealogical Society'''<br>P.O. Box 211<br>Hope, RI 02831<br>Email: [mailto:[email protected] [email protected]]<br> rigensoc *[http://www.usgwarchives.net/ri/providence.html The USGenWeb Archives Project] for Providence County. *'''Rhode Island Historical Society'''<br> 110 Benevolent St<br> Providence, RI 02906<br>Phone: 401-331-8575<br> [https:// . *{{FHL|184475|subject-id|disp=FamilySearch.org}} FamilySearch Catalog for Providence County + * '''Blackstone Valley Historical Society'''<br> P.O. Box 125<br>1873 Louisquisset Pike<br> Lincoln, RI 02865<br>Email: [mailto:[email protected] [email protected]]<br> [ http ://www. bvhsri . org / Website ] * '''Burrillville Historical and Preservation Society'''<br> Box 93<br> 16 Laurel Hill Avenue<br> Pascoag, RI 02859<br>Phone: 401-568-8534<br> [http://www. bhps.org/ Website] *'''American-French Genealogical Society'''<br> P . O . Box 830<br> 78 Earle Street<br> Woonsocket, RI 02895<br>Phone: 401-765-6141<br>[https://afgs.org / site / Website] *'''Rhode Island Historical Society Library'''<br> 121 Hope Street<br> Providence, RI 02906<br>Phone: 401-273-8107 Ext. 410<br>Email: [ mailto:[email protected] [email protected]]<br> [ https://www.rihs.org/library Website] == Websites == {{RI Websites Intro | Providence}} *[http://theusgenweb.org/rigenweb/index.html  Rhode Island RIGenWeb] *[http://www.usgwarchives.net/ri/providence.html The USGenWeb Archives Project] for Providence County. *[http://ldsgenealogy.com/RI/Providence-County.htm Providence County RI Genealogy] *[http://ldsgenealogy.com/RI/Providence-County.htm Providence County RI Genealogy] *{{FSC Place IDNum|184475|Rhode%20Island|Providence}} – The FamilySearch catalog contains descriptions and access information for all genealogical materials (including books, online materials, microfilm, microfiche, and publications) in their collection.  Use [https://familysearch.org/search/ Historical Records] to search for specific individuals in genealogical records. == Research Guides == {{RI Research Guides Intro|Providence}} == References == == References == <references /> {{ reflist}} {{ Rhode Island}} {{ Rhode Island| Rhode Island}} [[Category:Providence_County,_Rhode_Island]] [[Category:Providence_County,_Rhode_Island]] [[Category:Rhode Island Counties]] Latest revision as of 12:08, 12 May 2023 United States Rhode Island Providence County Guide to Providence County, Rhode Island ancestry, genealogy and family history, birth records, marriage records, death records, census records, and military records. Rhode Island Online Genealogy Records County Facts County seat: Organized: June 16, 1729 Parent County(s): Providence Plantations [1] Neighboring Counties Bristol • Bristol (MA) • Kent • Norfolk (MA) • Windham (CT) • Worcester (MA) • Courthouse Location Map Adoption Contents 1 County Information 1.1 Description 1.2 County Courthouse 1.3 Providence County, Rhode Island Record Dates 1.4 Record Loss 1.5 Boundary Changes 1.6 Populated Places 1.7 History Timeline 2 Resources 2.1 Bible Records 2.2 Biographies 2.3 Business, Commerce, and Occupations 2.4 Cemeteries 2.5 Census Records 2.6 Church Records 2.7 Court Records 2.8 Directories 2.9 Emigration and Immigration 2.10 Ethnic, Political, and Religious Groups 2.10.1 African Americans 2.11 Funeral Homes 2.12 Genealogies 2.13 Guardianship 2.14 Land and Property Records 2.15 Local Histories 2.16 Maps and Gazetteers 2.17 Migration 2.18 Military Records 2.19 Naturalization and Citizenship 2.20 Newspapers 2.21 Obituaries 2.22 Other Records 2.23 Periodicals 2.24 Probate Records 2.25 School Records 2.26 Social Security Records 2.27 Tax Records 2.28 Vital Records 2.28.1 Birth 2.28.2 Marriage 2.28.3 Death 2.28.4 Divorce 3 Research Facilities 3.1 Archives 3.2 FamilySearch Centers 3.3 Libraries 3.4 Museums 4 Societies 5 Websites 6 Research Guides 7 References County Information Description The County is located in the north area of the state. [2] County Courthouse Providence County Courthouse250 Benefit StreetProvidence, RI 02903Phone: 401-222-3250Providence CourthouseRecords are kept on the town level and not the county level.Town and City Clerks have birth, marriage and death records.Probate Judge has probate records.Family Court has divorce records.Municipal Court has court records.Recorder Deeds has land records. Providence County, Rhode Island Record Dates Information for this chart was taken from various sources, often containing conflicting dates. This information should be taken as a guide and should be verified by contacting the county and/or the state government agency. Known Beginning Dates for Major County Records [3] Birth* Marriage Death* Court Land Probate Census at town creation at town creation at town creation 1703 1636 1636 1747 *Statewide registration for births and deaths began in 1853. General compliance by 1915. Record Loss There is no known history of courthouse disasters in this county. Boundary Changes Parent County(s): Created from Providence Plantations County, on 22 Jun 1703, with the named changed to Providence on 16 Jun 1729. [4] County Seat: Interactive Map of Rhode Island County Formation History (1790-1897) - animated maps illustrating Rhode Island county boundary changes Providence County, Rhode Island Historical Boundary Changes - list of all boundary changes by county provided by Newberry Library Populated Places Modern towns and cities in Providence County , Rhode Island. Click map to go to each respective town page. For a complete list of populated places, including small neighborhoods and suburbs, visitHometown Locator. The following are the most historically and genealogically relevant populated places in this county: [5] Cities Central Falls Cranston East Providence Pawtucket Providence (county seat) Woonsocket Towns Burrillville Cumberland Foster Glocester Johnston Lincoln North Providence North Smithfield Scituate Smithfield Villages Albion Arnold Mills Branch Village Esmond Forestdale Georgiaville Glendale Lime Rock Lonsdale Manville Oakland Primrose Quinnville Riverside Rumford Saylesville Smithville-North Scituate Slatersville Union Village Waterford Census-designated places Chepachet Clayville Cumberland Hill Foster Center Greenville Harmony Harrisville Pascoag Valley Falls Towns Organized before 1800: Cranston 1754 Cumberland 1746-7 Foster 1781 Gloucester 1730-1 Johnston 1759 North Providence 1765 Providence 1636 Scituate 1730-1 Smithfield 1730-1 Business, Commerce, and Occupations Cemeteries For tips on accessing census records online, see:Rhode Island Census. Historical populations Census Pop. %± 1790 24,376 — 1800 25,854 6.1% 1810 30,869 19.4% 1820 35,736 15.8% 1830 47,018 31.6% 1840 58,073 23.5% 1850 87,526 50.7% 1860 107,799 23.2% 1870 149,190 38.4% 1880 197,874 32.6% 1890 255,123 28.9% 1900 328,683 28.8% 1910 424,353 29.1% 1920 475,190 12.0% 1930 540,016 13.6% 1940 550,298 1.9% 1950 574,973 4.5% 1960 568,778 −1.1% 1970 580,261 2.0% 1980 571,349 −1.5% 1990 596,270 4.4% 2000 621,602 4.2% 2010 626,667 0.8% Source: "Wikipedia.org". 1905 Rhode Island State Census, 1905 at FamilySearch — How to Use this Collection ; index and images Church Records List of Churches and Church Parishes FamilySearch Places : Map of cities and towns in this county - How to Use FS Places Court Records Directories 1861-1924 Fold3 ($) has Providence City Directories 1861-1924 available online. 1895-1935 Providence House Directories at Providence City Archives website - free. 1895, 1896, 1897, 1898, 1899, 1900, 1901, 1903, 1905, 1907, 1909, 1911, 1913, 1915, 1917, 1919-1920, 1921-1922, 1923-1924, 1925-1926, 1927-1928, 1929-1930, 1931-1932, 1933-1934, 1935. 1940 Pawtucket and Central Falls, Providence County, Rhode Island, City Directory, 1940 at MyHeritage — index & images ($) Emigration and Immigration Ethnic, Political, and Religious Groups African Americans Cottrol, Robert J. The Afro-Yankees : Providence's Black Community in the Antebellum Era- Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press 1982. (Contributions in Afro-American and African Studies, 0069-9624; no. 68) FS Library 974.52 F2c Funeral Homes Genealogies 1636 Genealogy of the Descendants of Thomas Angell Who Settled in Providence, 1636 at American Ancestors — index & images ($) Guardianship Land and Property Records Local Histories Maps and Gazetteers Click a neighboring county for more resources FamilySearch Places : Map of cities and towns in this county - How to Use FS Places Migration Military Records Naturalization and Citizenship Online Naturalization Indexes and Records 1907-1991 Rhode Island Naturalization Records 1907-1991 at FamilySearch — How to Use this Collection ; index and images Newspapers 1778-1784, 1799-1828 The Providence Gazette at Google News - free. 1779-1781 The American Journal and General Advertiser at Google News - free. 1785-1795 The Providence Gazette and Country Journal at Google News - free. 1799-1801 The Providence Journal at Google News - free. 1800s-1999 Newspapers.com Marriage Index, 1800s-1999 at Ancestry ($) Obituaries Other Records Periodicals Probate Records Online Probate Indexes and Records 1582-1932 Island, U.S., Wills and Probate Records, 1582-1932 at Ancestry ($) 1663-1775 The Providence probate records to 1775 with index at FS Library 022385 School Records Social Security Records 1935-2014 United States Social Security Death Index at FamilySearch — How to Use this Collection ; index. Also at Ancestry , findmypast , Fold3 , GenealogyBank , MyHeritage , and Steve Morse . Click here for more information . 1936-2007 U.S., Social Security Applications and Claims Index, 1936-2007 1936-2007 United States, Social Security Numerical Identification Files (NUMIDENT), 1936-2007 at FamilySearch - How to Use this Collection ; index Tax Records Vital Records Birth 1630-1945 Rhode Island, Town Clerk, Vital and Town Records, 1630-1945 at FamilySearch — How to Use this Collection ; index and images 1636-1930 Rhode Island Births, 1636-1930 at Ancestry ($) 1800-1855 Rhode Island and Pawtucket, Massachusetts Birth Index, 1800-1855 at Ancestry - index and images ($) Marriage 1522-1989 Rhode Island, United States Marriages at at Findmypast — index ($) 1630-1945 Rhode Island, Town Clerk, Vital and Town Records, 1630-1945 at FamilySearch — How to Use this Collection ; index and images 1636-1930 Rhode Island Marriages, 1851-1920 at Ancestry ($) 1851-1920 Rhode Island Marriages, 1851-1920 Ancestry ($) Death 1630-1945 Rhode Island, Town Clerk, Vital and Town Records, 1630-1945 at FamilySearch — How to Use this Collection ; index and images Divorce Research Facilities Archives Listed below are archives in Providence County. For state-wide facilities, seeRhode Island Archives and Libraries. FamilySearch Centers FamilySearch Center and Affiliate Library Locator map- search for local FamilySearch Centers or Affiliate Libraries FamilySearch Centers provide one-on-one assistance, free access to center-only databases, and to premium genealogical websites. FamilySearch Affiliate Libraries have access to most center-only databases, but may not always have full services normally provided by a FamilySearch center. Local Centers and Affiliate Libraries Franklin Massachusetts FamilySearch Center North Dartmouth Massachusetts FamilySearch Center Providence Rhode Island FamilySearch Center American French Genealogical Society - an affiliate library David Allen Lambert Library - an affiliate library Middleborough Public Library - an affiliate library Roger Williams University Library - an affiliate library Libraries Listed below are libraries in Providence County. For state-wide library facilities, seeRhode Island Archives and Libraries. Rhode Island State Library State House, 2nd floor 82 Smith Street, Room 208 Providence, RI 02903 Phone: 401-222-2473 Website East Greenwich Free Library 82 Pierce Street East Greenwich, RI 02818 Phone: 401-884-9510 Website Greenville Public Library 573 Putnam Pike Greenville, RI 02828 Phone: 401-949-3630 Website Lincoln Public Library 145 Old River Road Lincoln, RI 02865 Phone: 401-333-2422 Website Louttit Memorial Library 274 Victory Highway West Greenwich, RI 02817 Phone: 401-397-3434 Email: [email protected] Website Robert H Champlin Library 1043 Main Street West Warwick, RI 02893 Phone: 401-828-3750 Warwick Public Library 600 Sandy Lane Warwick, RI 02889 Phone: 401-739-5440 Website Museums Societies Listed below are societies in Providence County. For state-wide genealogical and historical societies, seeRhode Island Societies. Rhode Island Genealogical Society P.O. Box 211 Hope, RI 02831 Email: [email protected] Website Rhode Island Historical Society 110 Benevolent St Providence, RI 02906 Phone: 401-331-8575 Website Blackstone Valley Historical Society P.O. Box 125 1873 Louisquisset Pike Lincoln, RI 02865 Email: [email protected] Website Burrillville Historical and Preservation Society Box 93 16 Laurel Hill Avenue Pascoag, RI 02859 Phone: 401-568-8534 Website American-French Genealogical Society P.O. Box 830 78 Earle Street Woonsocket, RI 02895 Phone: 401-765-6141 Website Rhode Island Historical Society Library 121 Hope Street Providence, RI 02906 Phone: 401-273-8107 Ext. 410 Email: [email protected] Website Websites Rhode Island RIGenWeb The USGenWeb Archives Project for Providence County. Providence County RI Genealogy FamilySearch Catalog – The FamilySearch catalog contains descriptions and access information for all genealogical materials (including books, online materials, microfilm, microfiche, and publications) in their collection.  Use Historical Records to search for specific individuals in genealogical records. Research Guides References ↑ [Providence Plantations Genealogy Newberry] ↑ Wikipedia contributors, "Providence, Rhode Island" in https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Providence_County,_Rhode_Island accessed 3 Dec 2018 ↑ Handybook for Genealogists: United States of America , 10th ed. (Draper, Utah: Everton Pub., 2002), Providence County, Rhode Island . Page 602 At various libraries (WorldCat) ; FS Library Book 973 D27e 2002 ; Alice Eichholz, ed. Ancestry’s Red Book: American State, County, and Town Sources, Third ed. (Provo, Utah: Ancestry, 2004), 589-591. ↑ Newberry ↑ Wikipedia contributors, "Providence County, Mississippi," in Wikipedia: the Free Encyclopedia , https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Providence_County,_Rhode_Island , Last accessed 16 Septeber 2020. Links to Rhode Island -related articles Topics Search Strategies · Record Finder · Introduction · American Indians · Archives and Libraries · Bible Records · Biography · Cemeteries · Census · Church Records · Court Records · Directories · Emigration and Immigration · Gazetteers · Genealogy · History · Land and Property · Maps · Military Records · Naturalization and Citizenship · Newspapers · Online Records · Periodicals · Probate Records · Societies · Taxation · Town Records · Vital Records · For Further Reading Counties Bristol · Kent · Newport · Providence · Washington Extinct Counties Dominion of New England Genealogy · Massachusetts Bay Colony Genealogy · New Netherland Genealogy · King's · Plymouth Colony Genealogy · Providence Plantations Genealogy · Rhode Island Major Repositories American Antiquarian Society (Worcester MA) · American-French Genealogical Society · Brown University Rockefeller Library · Connecticut State Library (Hartford CT) · Davisville Free Library · Department of Health Office of Vital Records · East Greenwich Free Library · Judicial Records Center · National Archives at Boston (Waltham MA) · New England Historic Genealogical Society (Boston MA) · Newport Historical Society · Providence City Hall · Providence Public Library · Rhode Island Black Heritage Society · Rhode Island Genealogical Society · Rhode Island Historical Society · Rhode Island Jewish Historical Association · Rhode Island State Archives · Rhode Island State Library · Roger William University Library · Roman Catholic Diocese of Providence · Tiverton Public Library · University of Rhode Island Carothers Library · Westerly Public Library Migration Routes Atlantic Coast Ports · Long Island Sound · Narragansett Bay · Taunton River · Blackstone Valley · lower Boston Post Road · King's Highway · Old Roebuck Road · Pequot Path Retrieved from " https://www.familysearch.org/en/wiki/index.php?title=Providence_County,_Rhode_Island_Genealogy&oldid=5326346 "

https://www.familysearch.org/en/wiki/index.php?diff=cur&oldid=2775751&title=Providence_County%2C_Rhode_Island_Genealogy

Nanomaterials | Free Full-Text | The Effect of Capping Agents on Gold Nanostar Stability, Functionalization, and Colorimetric Biosensing Capability Capping agents (organic ligands, polymers, and surfactants) are pivotal for stabilizing nanoparticles; however, they may influence the surface chemistry, as well as the physico-chemical and biological characteristics, of gold nanostar (AuNS)-based biosensors. In this study, we proved that various capping agents affected capped and bioconjugated AuNS stability, functionality, biocatalysis, and colorimetric readouts. Capped and bioconjugated AuNSs were applied as localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR)-based H2O2 sensors using glucose oxidase (GOx) as a model enzyme. Furthermore, our analyses revealed that the choice of capping agent influenced the properties of the AuNSs, their stability, and their downstream applications. Our analyses provide new insights into factors governing the choice of capping agents for gold nanostars and their influences on downstream applications with conjugated enzymes in confined environments. The Effect of Capping Agents on Gold Nanostar Stability, Functionalization, and Colorimetric Biosensing Capability by Tozivepi Aaron Munyayi * , Barend Christiaan Vorster * and Danielle Wingrove Mulder Human Metabolomics, North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, Potchefstroom 2531, South Africa Nanomaterials 2022 , 12 (14), 2470; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano12142470 Received: 15 June 2022 / Revised: 5 July 2022 / Accepted: 11 July 2022 / Published: 19 July 2022 Abstract : Capping agents (organic ligands, polymers, and surfactants) are pivotal for stabilizing nanoparticles; however, they may influence the surface chemistry, as well as the physico-chemical and biological characteristics, of gold nanostar (AuNS)-based biosensors. In this study, we proved that various capping agents affected capped and bioconjugated AuNS stability, functionality, biocatalysis, and colorimetric readouts. Capped and bioconjugated AuNSs were applied as localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR)-based H 2 O 2 sensors using glucose oxidase (GOx) as a model enzyme. Furthermore, our analyses revealed that the choice of capping agent influenced the properties of the AuNSs, their stability, and their downstream applications. Our analyses provide new insights into factors governing the choice of capping agents for gold nanostars and their influences on downstream applications with conjugated enzymes in confined environments. Keywords: capping agents ; biosensor ; colorimetric ; gold nanostar ; physico-chemical 1. Introduction Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) are attractive for use in nanomedicine due to their facile synthetic methods, sensitivity, specificity, possibilities for tailoring their charge, hydrophilicity, and functionality through surface chemistries [ 1 , 2 , 3 ]. AuNPs come in a variety of morphologies that are tuneable for biomedical purposes. A single nanomorphology may be used in therapy, diagnostics, or even theranostics [ 4 ]. An example of this includes the use of nanorods as drug delivery carriers and as cell-imaging and photothermal therapies for cancer [ 5 ]. Due to their inert nature and biocompatibility, gold nanoshells are used mainly in drug delivery, gene delivery, photothermal therapy, cancer cell targeting and treatment, and medical biosensing [ 6 ]. Gold nanostars are best-suited for biosensing applications due to their strong localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR), which maximizes near the sharp tips of the particles upon excitation from a selected electromagnetic frequency [ 7 ]. Gold nanostars (AuNSs) are an auspicious morphology with arms protruding from a more or less spherical core. These arms enhance plasmonic reactions based on the lightning rod effect, which has the highest enhancement factors in localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) biosensing [ 8 , 9 ]. Surface plasmon resonance can be tailored by controlling a nanostar’s arm density, length, and physicochemical surface structure without altering the overall dimensions [ 7 , 10 ]. This ultimately redefines the limits of AuNS detection by presenting a signal-generating mechanism that induces a more significant signal when the analyte is less concentrated [ 10 , 11 ]. In biological applications, aqueous synthesis is commonly used, although in some instances, AuNSs may be synthesized in organic media [ 12 , 13 ]. This helps to achieve better control over the physical and chemical properties and homogeneity of the colloidal solution [ 13 ]. Changes in essential parameters, such as the synthesis method, capping agents, pH, temperature, concentration, and environment, greatly influence the quality and quantity of the synthesized AuNSs, as well as their characterization and applications [ 14 ]. Capping agents are usually utilized as stabilizers when creating AuNSs, with these agents being involved in modulating surface chemistry, morphology, and size distribution, as well as preventing coalescence and aiding in the formation of complex structures with metallic ions in precursor salts [ 15 , 16 , 17 ]. Capping agents influence nanoparticle shapes, while the capping agent length, size, ω-functionalities, and chemical nature influence the shelf-life and colloidal stability of AuNSs in dispersions [ 18 ]. Capping agents play a key role in altering the surface charge, furthermore acting as bioconjugation scaffolds [ 19 , 20 , 21 ]. Capping agents—enzyme conjugates—are essential considerations in biosensor preparations. In many cases, biocompatible capping agents are commonly used [ 1 , 2 , 22 , 23 , 24 ]. Capping agents may improve enzyme stability, shield enzymes from undesired interactions, and prolong shelf-life [ 23 , 25 , 26 ]. Such shielding effects rely on the physicochemical properties of the capping agents, such as the hydrophilicity, chain length, and architecture [ 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 ]. Capping agents can be categorized broadly as natural or synthetic surfactants, small ligands, polymers, dendrimers, cyclodextrins, or polysaccharides [ 3 , 27 , 30 ]. Polymeric capping agents are usually very effective due to the entropic effect associated with multiple bindings and the steric stabilization provided by the macromolecule [ 27 , 30 , 31 ]. Commonly used polymers are polyvinylpyrrolidone, polyvinyl acetate, polyethylene glycol (either modified or derivatives), poly(acrylic acid) (either modified or not with additional binding agents such as amines), copolymers based on poly(maleic acid), and polyethyleneimine [ 3 , 27 , 31 , 32 ]. In principle, a strongly adsorbing capping agent provides better colloidal stabilization to AuNSs, but in some instances, it is necessary to use a weaker capping agent in the synthesis depending on the downstream applications [ 3 , 33 , 34 ]. The adsorption of capping agents on AuNS surfaces can be through chemisorption, electrostatic interaction, or hydrophobic interaction [ 30 ]. However, there may be a pressing need for using eco-friendly (green) capping agents to secure the biological system and the environment, as some are nonbiodegradable and toxic [ 31 , 32 ]. 9 , 33 ]: (2) 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Materials 4-(2-Hydroxyethyl)-1-piperazineethanesulfonic acid (HEPES), gold (III) chloride hydrate (HAuCl 4 ·4H 2 O), glucose oxidase (GOx), hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ), silver nitrate (AgNO 3 ), polyethylene glycol (PEG 8000), polyethylene oxide (PEO 100,000), sodium chloride (NaCl), polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP 10,000), cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB), 11-mercaptoundecanoic acid (MUA), polyethylenimine (PEI), trisodium citrate, gelatin chitosan, glucose, 3′30–dithiobis sulfosuccinimidyl propionate (DTSSP), and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (Johannesburg, South Africa). Ham’s F-12K (Kaighn’s) cell culture medium supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum was purchased from Thermo Fisher Scientific (Johannesburg, South Africa). Blank urine was purchased from Industrial Analytical (Pty) Ltd. Lastly, ultrapure water (ddH 2 O) was pre-prepared with a Milli-Q ultrapure system (18.2 MΩ cm −1 ). 2.2. Nanostar Synthesis The nanostars were synthesized according to Xie et al. and Mulder et al. [ 10 , 34 ]. Briefly, 3 mL H 2 O was added to 2 mL 100 mM HEPES buffer (pH 7.4), followed by the addition of 20 µL 50 mM HAuCl 4· H 2 O and, lastly, 4 µL 1 mM AgNO 3 . The solution turned blue after gentle end-to-end inversion mixing and incubation at room temperature for 30 min. 2.3. Nanostar Capping Agents (AuNS–Capping Agent) Capping of the nanostars was achieved by adding ranges of PEO, PVP, PEG, CTAB, MUA, PEI, trisodium citrate, gelatin, and chitosan concentrations, followed by salt stress testing as outlined below. Optimal concentrations were selected based on lack, or limited degradation, after visual and spectrophotometric assessment. The nanostars were incubated for one hour for each of the selected concentrations, after which they were centrifuged at 4180× g for 35 min. Following this, the soft pellets were washed and resuspended in 500 µL ddH 2 O. The clean-up process was repeated twice. 2.4. Enzyme Bioconjugation (AuNS–Capping Agent–GOx) The PVP-, PEO-, and PEG-capped AuNSs were bioconjugated with glucose oxidase (GOx) for further investigation. This was to determine if the capping agent affected the enzyme bioconjugation process and biosensor colorimetric reactions. A method suggested by Filbrun et al. with minor modifications was followed to attach GOx to the AuNSs using DTSSP [ 35 ]. Briefly, capped AuNSs were synthesized as described above but were resuspended in 500 µL 100 mM HEPES (pH 6.9) as opposed to ddH 2 O in the final step. Four batches of 500 µL each were then pooled, making a total volume of 2 mL. An amount of 100 µL 5 mM DTSSP was then added to the solution, followed by 150 µL 2 mg/mL GOx. The solution was then left in the fridge for 2 h, allowing for AuNS–GOx attachment. Excess DTSSP and GOx were removed through 2 cycles of centrifugation at 4180× g for 35 min and resuspension in 500 µL ddH 2 O. 2.5. Characterization Characterization of the nanostars was performed with spectroscopy and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HR-TEM) analyses (JEOL, Freising, Germany). Spectral scanning (400–900 nm) was conducted with an HT Synergy (BioTEK) microplate reader (Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA, USA). High-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HR-TEM) analysis was performed with a Tecnai F20 transmission electron microscope at an acceleration voltage of 200 kV (JEOL, Freising, Germany). The capped AuNS samples were spotted onto copper grids (Agar Scientific), followed by air-drying before imaging, whereas the AuNS bioconjugates needed staining for enzyme visualization. This was performed by spotting the samples onto copper grids, staining them with 1% silver nitrate solution, and allowing them to air-dry before imaging [ 9 ]. The particle core diameters and arm counts were estimated by averaging a total count of one hundred AuNSs in different grid regions using ImageJ software (ImageJ bundled with 64-bit Java 1.8.0_172, University of Wisconsin at Madison, Madison, WI, USA). In addition, successful PVP-, PEO-, and PEG-capping and enzyme bioconjugation of the nanostars were demonstrated with nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and agarose gel electrophoresis. NMR was performed at 500 MHz with a Bruker Avance III HD NMR spectrometer equipped with a triple resonance inverse (TXI) 1H (15N, 13C) probe head (Bruker, Billerica, MA, USA). Agarose gel electrophoresis of capped and AuNS bioconjugates was carried out using a Baygene BG-power Vacutec electrophoresis gel apparatus (Vacutec, Johannesburg, South Africa). The electrophoresis was conducted using 0.5% agarose and 0.5 × Tris borate EDTA buffer (TBE buffer) at pH 8. The samples were prepared using 32 µL samples of nanostars mixed with 4 µL 80% glycerol and were run at 40 V for 45 min. Gels of AuNS bioconjugates were stained with 25 mL 0.25% ( w / v ) Coomassie blue for 4 h, followed by rinsing with a destaining solution (90% w / v isopropanol and 10% w / v glacial acetic acid), after which the protein bands were visible. Gels were kept in ddH 2 O until the gel images were captured and transferred to a computer. 2.6. Stability Assessment for Capped and AuNS Bioconjugates The stability during storage and various possible analytical assay matrices of capped and AuNS bioconjugates were assessed. The storage conditions were at both room temperature and 4 °C over 96 h. The analytical assay conditions assessed included various environments (salt, urine, serum, and supplemented cell culture medium) at room temperature for 3 h. A change in the LSPR band OD max of greater than 30% was considered unstable using UV-vis (BioTEK, Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA, USA) [ 36 ]. 2.7. Effect of the Capping Agent on the Plasmonic Properties of AuNSs in Bioassays The effect of the capping agents on the plasmonic properties of AuNSs when used as chemical sensors in bioassays was assessed first by the incubation of capped AuNSs with hydrogen peroxide, followed by unconjugated and conjugated GOx-generated hydrogen peroxide assays. For the hydrogen peroxide assay, reagents were added and pipette-mixed in the following order: 20 µL 10 mM Tris buffer (pH = 8), 15 µL capped AuNSs, 0–20 µL 50 mM hydrogen peroxide in increments of 2 µL, 2 µL 10 mM silver nitrate, and 20 µL 500 mM NaOH. As an initial step, a volume of deionized water was added that ensured a final volume of 200 µL. The reagents were incubated for 5 min at room temperature before spectrophotometric measurement [ 37 ]. The unconjugated GOx assay was performed as above, but the hydrogen peroxide was replaced with 5 µL 2 mg/mL GOx and 0–20 µL 1.65 mM glucose in increments of 5 µL, followed by 15 min of incubation at 37 °C. Then, a detection solution consisting of 2 µL 10 mM silver nitrate and 20 µL 500 mM NaOH was added and incubated for another 1 min, after which spectral readings were obtained [ 37 ]. The conjugated GOx assay was performed as above, with the exception that the GOx addition was omitted, and 0–20 µL 2 mM glucose was added in increments of 5 µL. 3. Results Even though spherical nanoparticles have been capped with CTAB, MUA, PEI, trisodium citrate, gelatin, and chitosan, attempts to reproduce this led to degradation of the AuNSs [ 38 , 39 ]. These agents were subsequently excluded from further investigation. The optimal concentrations of PVP, PEO, and PEG solutions for capping 5 mL AuNS suspensions were 600 µL 25 mM PVP, 250 µL 0.25 mM PEO, and 500 µL 35 mM PEG, respectively. The UV-vis spectral scans, NMR spectra, and electrophoretic migration of capped (left column) and bioconjugated (right column) AuNSs are presented in Figure 1 . The absorbance spectra (A and D) showed a small shoulder peak at around 545 nm and a more intense, red-shifted, prominent peak at approximately 635 nm. AuNS and AuNS-PEO achieved the best spectral resolutions of the two LSPRs, followed by AuNS-PVP and AuNS-PEG. A mild loss in spectral resolution was observed for all the GOx-bioconjugated nanostars except uncapped AuNS-GOx, which was almost identical to AuNS. The change in the 1 H-NMR spectra when compared to the AuNS spectrum hinted toward the presence of the capping agents (B) and GOx (E) in the samples and agrees with previously reported results [ 10 , 37 ]. The change in the electrophoretic pattern of the capped AuNSs compared to AuNS (C), as well as between the capped AuNSs and GOx-bioconjugated AuNS (F), indicated a change in the charge or size of the nanostars after capping and bioconjugation. The absence of the GOx band (F) in the bioconjugated AuNS lanes suggested that GOx was successfully conjugated to nanostars. All the nanostars migrated toward the anode, with migration distance being indirectly proportional to capping agent polydispersity. The presence of a five-membered ring moiety and a long-chain structure in PVP probably limited its migration in comparison to the linear chemical structures of PEO and PEG. As expected, the attachment of GOx to nanostars decreased migration when compared to unattached GOx. TEM images of capped (top row) and bioconjugated (bottom row) AuNSs are presented in Figure 2 . AuNS ( Figure 2 A), AuNS-PVP ( Figure 2 B), and AuNS-PEG ( Figure 2 D) particles were moderately monodispersed, with an estimated average size ranging from 40 to 42 nm. Most AuNS-PEO particles ( Figure 2 C) were cleaved during the capping process, with resultant tripod or tetrapod appearances and an average diameter of 25 nm. AuNS-PVP had a lower tendency toward aggregation, and most nanostars had a spiked morphology with 12 arms, of which approximately nine protruded around the nanostar and three protruded outwards. When comparing the AuNS bioconjugates, AuNS-PVP-GOx ( Figure 2 E) exhibited better monodispersity, with a larger percentage of nanostars having a spikey morphology relative to AuNS-PEO-GOx ( Figure 2 F) and AuNS-PEG-GOx ( Figure 2 G). Unexpectedly, a protein layer could not be visualized after 1% silver nitrate staining of AuNS-PVP-Gox despite ample evidence of successful functionalization, as presented in Figure 1 . The layer was, however, visible when AuNS-PEO-GOx and AuNS-PEG-GOx were stained, and it was visualized as small dark spots of approximately 3.0 nm around the nanostar bioconjugates, which is in line with previously reported observations [ 40 , 41 ]. The size distribution plots for the AuNS-PVP-Gox, AuNS-PEO-GOx and AuNS-PEG-GOx are in contained in the Supplemental Materials (Figure S1) . The AuNS-GOx sample contained mostly aggregated spheres. These nanoparticles were not stable, as was evident from changes in the absorbance spectrum and color of the solution within 30 min after conjugation ( Figure S2) . The stability of the nanostars in various matrices (left column) and the short-term stability at both room temperature and 4 °C (second and third column) are presented in Figure 3 . AuNS-PEO and AuNS-PVP maintained stability in all the tested matrices ( Figure 3 A–D), with a slight blue-shift in the spectrum relative to controls in some instances. AuNS-PEG was stable in the salt only, while AuNS was unstable in all the matrices, as shown by a relative change in the longitudinal resonance OD max of greater than 30% after 3 h of incubation. AuNS-PVP and, to a mildly lesser extent, AuNS-PEO were stable for 96 h at both room temperature and 4 °C ( Figure 3 F–K). Uncapped AuNSs exhibited stability loss at room temperature, as seen by the blue-shift in the longitudinal LSPR peak, as well as in the visible color change within 48 h of synthesis ( Figure 3 E). It did maintain stability at 4 °C over the 96 h period ( Figure 3 I), which was in contrast to AuNS-PEG, which was only stable up to 72 h at both room temperature and 4 °C ( Figure 3 H,L). In comparison, the AuNS bioconjugates had minimal loss of stability, demonstrating that enzyme conjugation could induce extra stability in the AuNSs ( Figure 4 A–D). Contrarily, conjugation had less of an effect on short-term stability, with AuNS-PVP-GOx being the most stable, followed by AuNS-PEO-GOx and AuNS-PEG-GOx. Therefore, the results suggested that the choice of capping agents affects the shelf-life, stability, and structural integrity of nanoparticles in suspension. Overall, 4 °C was the optimal storage condition for the AuNS–capping agent and AuNS–capping agent–GOx combinations. A conjugated GOx assay was used to assess the efficacy of the various bioconjugates to act as chemical sensors of biocatalytically produced hydrogen peroxide. The results of the assay are presented in Figure 5 . The results of the hydrogen peroxide and unconjugated GOx assays are presented in the Supplemental Materials (Figures S3 and S4) . As expected from the stability studies, AuNS-GOx was an inefficient sensor of hydrogen peroxide, as evident from the lack of correlation between the glucose concentration and the spectral shift ( Figure 5 B). The longitudinal LSPRs of AuNS-PVP-GOx ( Figure 5 C) and AuNS-PEG-GOx ( Figure 5 G) blue-shifted, with the degree of the shift correlating to the added glucose concentration. Only one peak was observed in the AuNS-PEO-GOx assay that was also blue-shifted with increasing glucose concentrations ( Figure 5 E). AuNS-PEO-GOx and AuNS-PEG-GOx had an immediate color change when the detection solution was added, including a reaction at 0 mM glucose. AuNS-PVP-GOx maintained its initial color at 0 mM glucose and needed 5 min of incubation for visual and spectrophotometric changes to develop at increasing glucose concentrations. AuNS-PVP-GOx outperformed both AuNS-PEO-GOx and AuNS-PEG-GOx as a chemical sensor of biocatalytically produced hydrogen peroxide, as evident from its R 2 , which approached one. The color of AuNS-PVP-GOx was also the most vivid and changed from blue to purple, whereas the other two capping agents produced mostly varying shades of purple. Table 1 is a summary of the results found in this study and possible downstream applications of the bioconjugates. 4. Discussion In summary, a plethora of the literature has focused on the synthesis of capped AuNSs. However, limited efforts have been devoted to conceptualizing the role played by capping agents in controlling the interface of AuNSs with their environment, and a clear structure–function relationship remains elusive. In this study, AuNSs synthesized through the chemical reduction of gold salt by HEPES showed traces of HEPES (a zwitterion) on the 1 H-NMR spectra ( Figure 1 B,E). The AuNSs had two localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) modes with peaks at approximately 545 nm and 635 nm, corresponding to the plasmonic resonance of the core (transverse resonance) and branches (longitudinal resonance), respectively, as has been previously reviewed in the literature [ 42 , 43 , 44 ]. HEPES, which was present in all the 1 H-NMR spectra, has previously been reported as both a shape-directing and a strong capping agent in nanostar synthesis and is likely incorporated within the nanostar lattice or bound to the surface [ 34 , 45 ]. The interactions between HEPES functional groups (sulfonate, amine, and hydroxyl) and AuNSs can be ion- or dipole-induced dipoles. These molecular interactions are heavily influenced by pH fluctuations, electron density, and capping agent binding chemistries, as revealed by Xi et al. [ 46 ]. Quintanilla et al. suggested that the larger the capping agent’s molecular weight, the more catalytically active and stable the polycrystalline nanoparticles, which is in line with our findings [ 47 ]. In addition to this, our results indicated that molecular weight and chemical moieties influenced nanoparticle stability and homogeneity. PVP, PEO, and PEG are vinyl polymers with different side groups. The larger side groups on PVP could reduce segmental mobility and hydrogen bond density near the interface and lead to lower adhesion energy, less fragility, and degradation, hence increasing biosensor stability, a phenomenon previously reported by Lucius et al. [ 48 ]. Strong hydrogen bonds at the interface influenced major chemical changes, such as chain oxidation and chain scission, leading to a reduction in the molecular weight and degree of polymerization of a polymer, as in the case of PEO- and PEG-capped AuNS. The use of PVP as a capping agent in the GOx bioassay resulted in vivid color changes in response to varied hydrogen peroxide concentrations for both bioconjugated and capped particles despite its slower response time. The PEO and PEG bioconjugates produced fast results, regardless of their instability relative to the PVP bioconjugate, and their colors resulted in a change in color intensity as opposed to a color range. Our results demonstrated that tailoring (capping) polymer functionality could improve bioconjugate activity and minimize biosensor instability. These observations suggested that the choice of capping agent has major implications in laboratory-based and point-of-care testing diagnostic applications. Capping agents introduce a protective layer on the AuNS surface, hence introducing two major interfaces, namely the AuNS–capping agent interface and the AuNS–capping agent–protein interface. There is no clear demarcation of these interfaces, and they seem intermixed in a transition zone, the AuNS–ligand interface. Similar surface chemistry analyses have been revealed by Grubbs and Campisi [ 17 , 49 ]. Electronic changes at the AuNS–ligand interphase unavoidably affect the catalytic behavior of capped nanoparticles and bioconjugates, introducing either a poisoning or promoting effect. A similar effect was revealed by Tsunoyama et al. for PVP-capped Au nanoparticles [ 50 ]. The inherent complexity of AuNS–capping agent–protein interactions also contributes to the challenge of deducing general conclusions on the best choice of a capping agent. Overall, the choices of a synthesis method and a suitable capping agent should be key considerations in bioassay design, seeing that they affect the stability, surface chemistry, catalytic response, and selectivity of AuNS sensors. 5. Conclusions The AuNSs resulting from this facile and repeatable HEPES-mediated, one-pot synthesis protocol were approximately 38 ± 4 nm in diameter, multibranched, monodispersed, and homogeneous to a great extent. The contribution of our work is two-fold. Firstly, we demonstrated that capping agents affected AuNS stability, functionalization, and colorimetric biosensing capabilities. For polymeric capping agents, we revealed that fewer hydrogen-bond-forming groups in a polymer side group could reduce the hydrogen bond density near the interface, hence increasing biosensor stability. Secondly, we showed that the confinement effects induced by free surfaces and substrates in supported polymer-capped and conjugated biosensors could improve the bioconjugate activity and biosensor stability. Conclusively, PVP capping proved to be optimal for HEPES-mediated AuNS synthesis, and the fabricated glucose biosensor proved to be a rapid colorimetric assay that may be a great candidate for potential clinical diagnosis, research, and development applications useful in resource-constrained regions. Supplementary Materials The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/nano12142470/s1 : Figure S1: TEM image comparison of bioconjugates and size distribution; Figure S2: Morphological changes of AuNS-GOx bioconjugate; Figure S3: Hydrogen-peroxide-sensing efficacy UV-vis spectra; Figure S4: UV-vis spectra and colorimetric readouts for GOx-spiked AuNSs. Author Contributions T.A.M. carried out all the experimental work, analyzed the data, and wrote the manuscript. B.C.V. analyzed the data and edited the manuscript, and D.W.M. designed the experiment, analyzed the data, and edited the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding Funding was obtained from North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa. Data Availability Statement Publicly archived datasets analyzed or generated during the study can be downloaded from DOI 10.6084/m9.figshare.20072186. Acknowledgments We would like to acknowledge Anine Jordaan, an electron microscopy specialist from the electron microscopy unit at Potchefstroom campus, NWU, for capturing TEM images of the gold nanoparticles, as well as Christian De Wet Van Zyl, an NMR specialist in the NWU biochemistry department, for conducting the NMR experiments. Conflicts of Interest The authors declare no conflict of interest. References Hu, H.; Xin, J.H.; Hu, H.; Wang, X.; Miao, D.; Liu, Y. Synthesis and stabilization of metal nanocatalysts for reduction reactions—A review. J. Mater. Chem. A 2015 , 3 , 11157–11182. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Zhu, W.; Wei, Z.; Han, C.; Weng, X. Nanomaterials as Promising Theranostic Tools in Nanomedicine and Their Applications in Clinical Disease Diagnosis and Treatment. Nanomaterials 2021 , 11 , 3346. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Javed, R.; Zia, M.; Naz, S.; Aisida, S.O.; Ain, N.U.; Ao, Q. Role of capping agents in the application of nanoparticles in biomedicine and environmental remediation: Recent trends and future prospects. J. Nanobiotech. 2020 , 18 , 172. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Pedrosa, P.; Vinhas, R.; Fernandes, A.; Baptista, P.V. Gold Nanotheranostics: Proof-of-Concept or Clinical Tool? Nanomaterials 2015 , 5 , 1853–1879. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Zong, Q.; Dong, N.; Yang, X.; Ling, G.; Zhang, P. Development of gold nanorods for cancer treatment. J. Inorg. Biochem. 2021 , 220 , 111458. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Singhana, B.; Slattery, P.; Chen, A.; Wallace, M.; Melancon, M.P. Light-activatable gold nanoshells for drug delivery applications. AAPS PharmSciTech 2014 , 15 , 741–752. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Pazos-Perez, N.; Guerrini, L.; Alvarez-Puebla, R.A. Plasmon Tunability of Gold Nanostars at the Tip Apexes. ACS Omega 2018 , 3 , 17173–17179. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Fukuoka, N.; Tanabe, K. Lightning-Rod Effect of Plasmonic Field Enhancement on Hydrogen-Absorbing Transition Metals. Nanomaterials 2019 , 9 , 1235. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Atta, S.; Beetz, M.; Fabris, L. Understanding the role of AgNO3 concentration and seed morphology in the achievement of tunable shape control in gold nanostars. Nanoscale 2019 , 11 , 2946–2958. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Mulder, D.W.; Phiri, M.M.; Jordaan, A.; Vorster, B.C. Modified HEPES one-pot synthetic strategy for gold nanostars. R. Soc. Open Sci. 2019 , 6 , 190160. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Rodríguez-Lorenzo, L.; de la Rica, R.; Álvarez-Puebla, R.A.; Liz-Marzán, L.M.; Stevens, M.M. Plasmonic nanosensors with inverse sensitivity by means of enzyme-guided crystal growth. Nat. Mater. 2012 , 11 , 604–607. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Minati, L.; Benetti, F.; Chiappini, A.; Speranza, G. One-step synthesis of star-shaped gold nanoparticles. Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 2014 , 441 , 623. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Pallavicini, P.; Cabrini, E.; Borzenkov, M. Gold Nanostar Synthesis and Functionalization with Organic Molecules. In Gold Nanostars ; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2015; pp. 1–23. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Patra, J.K.; Baek, K.-H. Green Nanobiotechnology: Factors Affecting Synthesis and Characterization Techniques. J. Nanomater. 2014 , 2014 , 417305. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Li, C.-C.; Chang, S.-J.; Su, F.-J.; Lin, S.-W.; Chou, Y.-C. Effects of capping agents on the dispersion of silver nanoparticles. Colloids Surf. A: Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 2013 , 419 , 209–215. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Niu, Z.; Li, Y. Removal and Utilization of Capping Agents in Nanocatalysis. Chem. Mater. 2014 , 26 , 72–83. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Campisi, S.; Schiavoni, M.; Chan-Thaw, C.; Villa, A. Untangling the Role of the Capping Agent in Nanocatalysis: Recent Advances and Perspectives. Catalysts 2016 , 6 , 185. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Kanelidis, I.; Kraus, T. The role of ligands in coinage-metal nanoparticles for electronics. Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2017 , 8 , 2625–2639. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Neouze, M.-A.; Schubert, U. Surface Modification and Functionalization of Metal and Metal Oxide Nanoparticles by Organic Ligands. Mon. Für Chem.—Chem. Mon. 2008 , 139 , 183–195. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Barman, P.; Sharma, S.; Saini, A. Chapter 19—Improving the functionality of a nanomaterial by biological probes. In Photophysics and Nanophysics in Therapeutics ; Mahajan, N.M., Saini, A., Raut, N.A., Dhoble, S.J., Eds.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2022; pp. 379–418. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Tonga, G.Y.; Saha, K.; Rotello, V.M. 25th Anniversary Article: Interfacing Nanoparticles and Biology: New Strategies for Biomedicine. Adv. Mater. 2014 , 26 , 359–370. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Wang, Y.; van Asdonk, K.; Zijlstra, P. A Robust and General Approach to Quantitatively Conjugate Enzymes to Plasmonic Nanoparticles. Langmuir ACS J. Surf. Colloids 2019 , 35 , 13356–13363. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Ahmed, M.; Narain, R. Physico-Chemical and Biochemical Properties of Bioconjugates. In Chemistry of Bioconjugates ; John Wiley & Sons, Inc.: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2014; pp. 431–443. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Mansur, A.; Mansur, H.; González, J. Enzyme-Polymers Conjugated to Quantum-Dots for Sensing Applications. Sensors 2011 , 11 , 9951–9972. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Ibrahim, A.M.; Alzahrani, H.A.A.; Abd El-Latif, M.M.; Selim, M.M. Influence of different stabilizers on the morphology of gold nanoparticles. Bull. Natl. Res. Cent. 2019 , 43 , 33. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Faghihnejad, A.; Huang, J.; Zeng, H. Properties and Characterization of Bioconjugates. In Chemistry of Bioconjugates ; John Wiley & Sons, Inc.: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2014; pp. 415–430. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Liébana, S.; Drago, G.A. Bioconjugation and stabilisation of biomolecules in biosensors. Essays Biochem. 2016 , 60 , 59–68. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Ahmed, M.; Narain, R. Applications of Bioconjugates. In Chemistry of Bioconjugates ; John Wiley & Sons, Inc.: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2014; pp. 444–456. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Hermanson, G.T. 16—Enzyme Modification and Conjugation. In Bioconjugate Techniques ; Hermanson, G.T., Ed.; Academic Press: San Diego, CA, USA, 1996; pp. 630–638. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Montes, S.; Belén, A. Gold nanostars: Synthesis, stabilization and applications as surface-enhanced Raman scattering tags. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Vigo, Vigo, Spain, 2016. [ Google Scholar ] Sidhu, A.K.; Verma, N.; Kaushal, P. Role of Biogenic Capping Agents in the Synthesis of Metallic Nanoparticles and Evaluation of Their Therapeutic Potential. Front. Nanotechnol. 2022 , 3 , 801620. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Virkutyte, J.; Varma, R.S. Green synthesis of metal nanoparticles: Biodegradable polymers and enzymes in stabilization and surface functionalization. Chem. Sci. 2011 , 2 , 837–846. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Pinheiro, T.; Ferrao, J.; Marques, A.C.; Oliveira, M.J.; Batra, N.M.; Costa, P.; Macedo, M.P.; Aguas, H.; Martins, R.; Fortunato, E. Paper-Based In-Situ Gold Nanoparticle Synthesis for Colorimetric, Non-Enzymatic Glucose Level Determination. Nanomaterials 2020 , 10 , 2027. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Xie, J.; Lee, J.Y.; Wang, D.I.C. Seedless, Surfactantless, High-Yield Synthesis of Branched Gold Nanocrystals in HEPES Buffer Solution. Chem. Mater. 2007 , 19 , 2823–2830. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Filbrun, S.L.; Filbrun, A.B.; Lovato, F.L.; Oh, S.H.; Driskell, E.A.; Driskell, J.D. Chemical modification of antibodies enables the formation of stable antibody–gold nanoparticle conjugates for biosensing. Analyst 2017 , 142 , 4456–4467. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Blessy, M.; Patel, R.D.; Prajapati, P.N.; Agrawal, Y.K. Development of forced degradation and stability indicating studies of drugs-A review. J. Pharm. Anal. 2014 , 4 , 159–165. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Mulder, D.; Phiri, M.M.; Vorster, B.C. Tailor-made gold nanostar colorimetric detection determined by morphology change and used as an indirect approach by using hydrogen peroxide to determine glucose concentration. Sens. Bio-Sens. Res. 2019 , 25 , 100296. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Seoudi, R. Studies on the Effect of the Capping Materials on the Spherical Gold Nanoparticles Catalytic Activity. World J. Nano Sci. Eng. 2011 , 1 , 51–61. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Kumar, A.; Das, N.; Satija, N.K.; Mandrah, K.; Roy, S.K.; Rayavarapu, R.G. A Novel Approach towards Synthesis and Characterization of Non-Cytotoxic Gold Nanoparticles Using Taurine as Capping Agent. Nanomaterials 2019 , 10 , 45. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Moses Phiri, M.; Wingrove Mulder, D.; Mason, S.; Christiaan Vorster, B. Facile immobilization of glucose oxidase onto gold nanostars with enhanced binding affinity and optimal function. R. Soc. Open Sci. 2019 , 6 , 190205. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Li, D.; He, Q.; Cui, Y.; Duan, L.; Li, J. Immobilization of glucose oxidase onto gold nanoparticles with enhanced thermostability. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2007 , 355 , 488–493. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Hao, F.; Nehl, C.L.; Hafner, J.H.; Nordlander, P. Plasmon Resonances of a Gold Nanostar. Nano Lett. 2007 , 7 , 729–732. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Barbosa, S.; Agrawal, A.; Rodríguez-Lorenzo, L.; Pastoriza-Santos, I.; Alvarez-Puebla, R.A.; Kornowski, A.; Weller, H.; Liz-Marzán, L.M. Tuning Size and Sensing Properties in Colloidal Gold Nanostars. Langmuir 2010 , 26 , 14943–14950. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Xu, D.; Yu, S.; Yin, Y.; Wang, S.; Lin, Q.; Yuan, Z. Sensitive Colorimetric Hg(2+) Detection via Amalgamation-Mediated Shape Transition of Gold Nanostars. Front. Chem. 2018 , 6 , 566. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Liu, X.-L.; Wang, J.-H.; Liang, S.; Yang, D.-J.; Nan, F.; Ding, S.-J.; Zhou, L.; Hao, Z.-H.; Wang, Q.-Q. Tuning Plasmon Resonance of Gold Nanostars for Enhancements of Nonlinear Optical Response and Raman Scattering. J. Phys. Chem. C 2014 , 118 , 9659–9664. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Xi, W.; Haes, A.J. Elucidation of HEPES Affinity to and Structure on Gold Nanostars. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2019 , 141 , 4034–4042. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Quintanilla, A.; Butselaar-Orthlieb, V.C.L.; Kwakernaak, C.; Sloof, W.G.; Kreutzer, M.T.; Kapteijn, F. Weakly bound capping agents on gold nanoparticles in catalysis: Surface poison? J. Catal. 2010 , 271 , 104–114. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Lucius, M.; Falatach, R.; McGlone, C.; Makaroff, K.; Danielson, A.; Williams, C.; Nix, J.C.; Konkolewicz, D.; Page, R.C.; Berberich, J.A. Investigating the Impact of Polymer Functional Groups on the Stability and Activity of Lysozyme–Polymer Conjugates. Biomacromolecules 2016 , 17 , 1123–1134. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Grubbs, R.B. Roles of Polymer Ligands in Nanoparticle Stabilization. Polym. Rev. 2007 , 47 , 197–215. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Tsunoyama, H.; Ichikuni, N.; Sakurai, H.; Tsukuda, T. Effect of Electronic Structures of Au Clusters Stabilized by Poly(N-vinyl-2-pyrrolidone) on Aerobic Oxidation Catalysis. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2009 , 131 , 7086–7093. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Figure 1. ( A – C ) Effects of capping agents on AuNSs using ( A ) UV-vis spectrometry, ( B ) nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), and ( C ) gel electrophoresis. ( D – F ) AuNS capping agents functionalized with glucose oxidase using ( D ) UV-vis spectrometry, ( E ) NMR, and ( F ) gel electrophoresis. Figure 1. ( A – C ) Effects of capping agents on AuNSs using ( A ) UV-vis spectrometry, ( B ) nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), and ( C ) gel electrophoresis. ( D – F ) AuNS capping agents functionalized with glucose oxidase using ( D ) UV-vis spectrometry, ( E ) NMR, and ( F ) gel electrophoresis. Figure 2. Representative HR-TEM images of the gold nanostar morphologies: ( A ) AuNS; ( B ) AuNS-PVP; ( C ) AuNS-PEO; ( D ) AuNS-PEG; ( E ) AuNS-PVP-GOx; ( F ) AuNS-PEO-GOx; and ( G ) AuNS-PEG-GOx. Figure 2. Representative HR-TEM images of the gold nanostar morphologies: ( A ) AuNS; ( B ) AuNS-PVP; ( C ) AuNS-PEO; ( D ) AuNS-PEG; ( E ) AuNS-PVP-GOx; ( F ) AuNS-PEO-GOx; and ( G ) AuNS-PEG-GOx. Figure 3. Comparison of UV-vis spectra of capped AuNS stability after 3 h of incubation in ( A ) salt; ( B ) urine; ( C ) serum; and ( D ) supplemented cell culture media. Storage stability UV-vis spectra at room temperature and 4 °C, respectively, for ( E , I ) AuNS; ( F , J ) AuNS-PVP; ( G , K ) AuNS-PEO; and ( H , L ) AuNS-PEG. Figure 3. Comparison of UV-vis spectra of capped AuNS stability after 3 h of incubation in ( A ) salt; ( B ) urine; ( C ) serum; and ( D ) supplemented cell culture media. Storage stability UV-vis spectra at room temperature and 4 °C, respectively, for ( E , I ) AuNS; ( F , J ) AuNS-PVP; ( G , K ) AuNS-PEO; and ( H , L ) AuNS-PEG. Figure 4. UV-vis spectra of stability comparisons for AuNSs bioconjugated with glucose oxidase after 3 h of incubation in ( A ) salt; ( B ) urine; ( C ) serum; and ( D ) supplemented cell culture media. Storage stability UV-vis spectra at room temperature and 4 °C, respectively, for ( E , H ) AuNS-PVP-GOx; ( F , I ) AuNS-PEO-GOx; and ( G , J ) AuNS-PEG-GOx. Figure 4. UV-vis spectra of stability comparisons for AuNSs bioconjugated with glucose oxidase after 3 h of incubation in ( A ) salt; ( B ) urine; ( C ) serum; and ( D ) supplemented cell culture media. Storage stability UV-vis spectra at room temperature and 4 °C, respectively, for ( E , H ) AuNS-PVP-GOx; ( F , I ) AuNS-PEO-GOx; and ( G , J ) AuNS-PEG-GOx. Figure 5. Glucose-sensing-efficacy-normalized UV-vis spectra and correlation curves: ( A , B ) AuNS-GOx; ( C , D ) AuNS-PVP-GOx; ( E , F ) AuNS-PEO-GOx; and ( G , H ) AuNS-PEG-GOx. Figure 5. Glucose-sensing-efficacy-normalized UV-vis spectra and correlation curves: ( A , B ) AuNS-GOx; ( C , D ) AuNS-PVP-GOx; ( E , F ) AuNS-PEO-GOx; and ( G , H ) AuNS-PEG-GOx. Table 1. Summary of results: structure–function relationship. Capping Agent Structure Side Group Stability of Capped AuNS and Bioconjugates Colourimetric Biosensing Suggested Down Stream Applications PVP Mw: 10,000 ( C 6 H 9 N O ) n Bulk Low segmental mobility Low hydrogen bond-forming capacity Short Term: Excellent Long Term: Excellent 5 min response time Distinguishable colours by the naked eye Steady reaction Colorimetric biosensing PEO Mw: 100,000 ( − C H 2 C H 2 O − ) n Linear High segmental mobility High hydrogen bond-forming capacity Short Term: Moderate Long Term: Poor Immediate response time Indistinguishable colours by the naked eye Unstable reaction Confirmatory narcotics-drugs testing Confirmatory rapid test kit PEG Mw: 8000 H ( O C H 2 C H 2 ) n O H Linear High segmental mobility High hydrogen bond-forming capacity Short Term: Moderate Long Term: Poor Immediate response time Indistinguishable colours by the naked eye Unstable reaction Confirmatory narcotics-drugs testing Confirmatory rapid test kit

https://www.mdpi.com/2079-4991/12/14/2470/htm

(PDF) Geometric phase kickback in a mesoscopic qubit-oscillator system PDF | We illustrate a reverse Von Neumann measurement scheme in which a geometric phase induced on a quantum harmonic oscillator is measured using a... | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate Geometric phase kickback in a mesoscopic qubit-oscillator system Abstract and Figures We illustrate a reverse Von Neumann measurement scheme in which a geometric phase induced on a quantum harmonic oscillator is measured using a microscopic qubit as a probe. We show how such a phase, generated by a cyclic evolution in the phase space of the harmonic oscillator, can be kicked back on the qubit, which plays the role of a quantum interferometer. We also extend our study to finite-temperature dissipative Markovian dynamics and discuss potential implementations in micro and nano-mechanical devices coupled to an effective two-level system. (a) Probabilities P + and P − against the displacement α 0 and the parameter V for η/γ = 0 . 05 and γ T 1 = 20. (b) Same probabilities … Figures - uploaded by M. Paternostro ... The appropriate combination of such QND interactions of the modes A and B with mechanical mediator M allows driving the latter around a closed path in the phase space in such a way that the geometric phase appears. The geometric phase effect has been already used in quantum optics[33][34][35]and optomechanics where mechanical oscillator was coupled to a qubit [36] or light[37,38]. As a result of the geometric phase imparted to the mechanical system the modes A and B appear to be coupled to each other but not to the mediator M that is brought back to the initial state. ... ... (b) Block-diagram of the sequence of the interactions between the pulses of modes A and B with the mechanical mediator M. allows driving the latter around a closed path in the phase space in such a way that the geometric phase appears. The geometric phase effect has been already used in quantum optics [36][37][38] and optomechanics where mechanical oscillator was coupled to a qubit [39] or light [40,41]. As a result of the geometric phase imparted to the mechanical system the modes A and B appear to be coupled to each other but not to the mediator M that is brought back to the initial state. ... Pulsed quantum continuous-variable optoelectromechanical transducer OPT EXPRESS Nikita Vostrosablin Radim Filip We propose a setup allowing to entangle two directly non-interacting radiation modes applying four sequential pulsed quantum resonant interactions with a noisy vibrational mode of a mechanical oscillator which plays the role of the mediator. We analyze Gaussian entanglement of the radiation modes generated by the transducer and confirm that the noisy mechanical mode can mediate generation of entanglement. The entanglement, however, is limited if the interaction gains are not individually optimized. We prove the robustness of the transducer to optical losses and the influence of the mechanical bath and propose the ways to achieve maximal performance through the individual optimization. ... Within quantum optics this phase has been widely used to create logic gates for quantum computing234, but has received little attention in optomechanics. Some notable exceptions come from recent proposals that have considered the effect of a geometric phase involving mechanical oscillators coupled to a qubit [5] or light [6], however not for mechanical state engineering. In this paper we consider an optomechanical system789101112 with a time dependent optical drive [9, 12, 13] that, via the optomechanical interactions, traverses a closed loop in phase space thus imparting a geometric phase onto the mechanical element. ... ... One may show more generally that the area of an arbitrary closed circuit will appear in this exponential. The proof (also discussed in [5] ) goes as follows: consider an arbitrary closed curve in phase space made by a sequence of optomechanical interactions. One may break this sequence into a series of small but finite phase space displacements and then write the overall unitary operator as a product of each displacement. ... Quantum state preparation of a mechanical resonator using an optomechanical geometric phase NEW J PHYS Warwick P. Bowen We demonstrate that a geometric phase, generated via a sequence of four optomechanical interactions, can be used to increase, or generate nonlinearities in the unitary evolution of a mechanical resonator. Interactions of this form lead to new mechanisms for preparing mechanical squeezed states, and preparation of non-classical states with significant Wigner negativity. D Leibfried D. Leibfried, et al., Nature (London) 422, 412 (2003). 1005-033015 D E Chang D. E. Chang, et al., Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 107, 1005 (2010); O. Romero-Isart, et al., New J. Phys. 12, 033015 (2010); M. Paternostro, G. De Chiara, and G. M. Palma, Phys. Rev. Lett. 104, 243602 (2010); C. Genes, D. Vitali, and P. Tombesi, Phys. Rev. A 77, 050307(R) (2008); G. De Chiara, M. Paternostro, and G. M. Palma, ibid. 83, 052324 (2011). Jan 1993 1172-1212 J Vahala F Marquardt S M Girvin J. Vahala, Science 321, 1172 (2008); F. Marquardt and S. M. Girvin, Physics 2, 40 (1993). 150403 S Pirandola D Vitali S Lloyd S. Pirandola, D. Vitali, P. Tombesi, S. Lloyd, Phys. Rev. Lett. 97, 150403 (2006). Jan 2010 133602 P Verlot P. Verlot, et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 104, 133602 (2010). Jan 2010 189 M Aspelmeyer S Groeblacher K Hammerer N Kiesel M. Aspelmeyer, S. Groeblacher, K. Hammerer, and N. Kiesel, J. Opt. Soc. Am. B 27, A189 (2010); T. J. Kippenberg and K. Jan 2003 130401 W Marshall C Simon R Penrose D Bouwmeester W. Marshall, C. Simon, R. Penrose, D. Bouwmeester, Phys. Rev. Lett. 91, 130401 (2003). Jan 2007 250401 M. Paternostro, et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 99, 250401 (2007). 30405 D Vitali D. Vitali, et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 98, 030405 (2007). K Hammerer K. Hammerer, et al., Phys. Ref. Lett. 103, 063005 (2009).

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/51928741_Geometric_phase_kickback_in_a_mesoscopic_qubit-oscillator_system

(PDF) Bond Strength Properties of GFRP and CFRP according to Concrete Strength PDF | Reinforced concrete is the most commonly used material in the construction industry. However, one disadvantage of reinforced concrete is that... | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate Bond Strength Properties of GFRP and CFRP according to Concrete Strength DOI: 10.3390/app122010611 Abstract and Figures Reinforced concrete is the most commonly used material in the construction industry. However, one disadvantage of reinforced concrete is that environmental factors cause materials to penetrate the concrete and cause steel bar corrosion. Rebar corrosion increases its volume significantly by approximately 3–6 times, which lowers concrete–rebar adhesion. This severely affects the serviceability and durability of concrete structures. The economic and social impacts of such deterioration are extremely large. To reduce corrosion, glass fiber-reinforced plastics (GFRP) and carbon fiber-reinforced plastics (CFRP) can be applied to concrete. The rebar–concrete bond strength is an important factor to be considered while applying GFRP and CFRP. Thus, we experimentally investigated the adhesion strength of GFRP and CFRP in relation to the strength of concrete and water–cement ratio according to ASTM C 234 to correlate the data for the development of GFRP and CFRP as substitutes for deformed reinforcing bars. The results showed that a lower water–cement ratio yielded higher compressive strength and bond strength; the bond strength of GFRP was approximately 23% lower than that of CFRP. The coating of the rebar surface required for GFRP and CFRP application in reinforced concrete structures ought to be investigated in the future. Bond strength and slip of GFRP. … Appl. Sci. 2022 , 12 , 10611. https://doi.org/10. 3390/app122010611 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci Concrete Stren gth Jusung Kim 1 , Sumi Jeong 1 , Hojin Kim 1 , Youngjin Kim 2 and Sungyu Park 1, * 1 Department of Architectural Engineering, M okwon University, 88 Doanbukro, Daejeon 35349, Korea 2 Research Center, Korea Concrete Institute, Seou l 06130, Korea * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +82- 42-829-7712 Abstract : Reinforced concrete is the mos t commonly used material in the construction industry. However, one disadvantage of reinforced concrete is that environmental factors cause materials t o penetrate the concrete and cause steel bar corrosion. Rebar corrosion increases its volume signifi- cantly by approximately 3–6 times, which lowers concrete–rebar adhesion. This severely affects the serviceability and durability of concrete structures. T he economic and social impac ts of such deteri- oration are extremely large. To reduce corrosion, glass fiber-reinforced plastics (GFRP) and carbon fiber-reinforced plastics (CFRP) can be applied to concrete. The rebar–concrete bond strength is an important factor to be considered while applying GFRP and CFRP. Thus, we experimentally inves- tigated the adhesion strength of GFRP and CFRP in relation to the strength of concrete and wa ter– cement ratio according to AS TM C 234 to correlate the data for the development of GFRP and CFRP as sub stitutes for deformed reinforcing bars. The results showed that a lower water–cement ratio yielded higher compressive strength and bond strength; the bond strength of GFRP was approxi- mately 23% lower than that of CFRP. The coating of the rebar surface required for GFRP and CFRP application in reinforced concrete structures ought to be investigated in the future. Keywords: GFRP; CFRP; corrosion; bond strength; surface shape; slip 1. Introduction Reinforced concrete is the most commonly used construction mater ial because the the hi gh te nsile stren gth of reba r compleme nts the limitati ons of concre te [1 ]. In Korea, the number of reinforced structures has increased sinc e the 1980s due to rapid urbaniza- tion. The demand for coarse aggregate and fine aggregate has also increased, and the country faced a shortage of river gravel and river sand supply. Therefore, rubble and washed sea sand were substituted for coarse and fine aggregate. However, the salt content of sea sand accelerates the corrosion of reba r. Simultaneously, concrete inhibits corrosion in reinf orced structures through its strong alkaline properties; however, cracks on its surface caused by drying, shrinkage, and other factors are inevitable. Various deterioration factors permeate the concrete through these cracks and accelerate rebar corrosion [2,3]. Rebar corrosion causes the struc- ture’s load carrying capacity to diminish. Corrosion damages the rebar’s rib, lowers bond strength, and eventually shorte ns its service life [4]. The bond strength reduction is af- fected by the strength of concrete, surfa ce conditions of rebar, fiber reinforcement, cra cks in concrete and anc horage length, cover t hickness, and stress c onditions around the co n- crete. The uncertainty caused by these factors increases the maintenance costs when ad- dressing corrosion da mage, which inhibits economic and social prospects [5]. To solve these problems, previous studies have suggested meth ods such as epoxy coating the sur- face of deformed reinforcing bars and increasing the concrete coating thickness [6]. Citation: Kim, J.; Jeong, S.; Kim, H.; Kim, Y.; Park, S. Bond Strength Properties of GFRP and CFRP However, difficulties have occurred during constructi on because of the cracki ng of the epoxy coating on the rebar’s surface. Furt her, the increase in cover thickness lea ds to a heavier load. Subsequently, fiber-reinforced plastics (FRP) were developed to s olve this problem [6]. FRP is a fiber-reinforced material used f or specialized structure s in many industries, such as the aerospace industry since the 19 60s. It became a commonly used material in the construction industry in the 1990s. In the construction industry, short fibers are mixed in the concrete, whereas long fibers wrap the outside of the structure to rein- force it. FRP benefits from the fiber’s high tensile strength and possesses noncorrosive and nonconductive properties [7]. Because of its high corrosion resista nce, FRP is used as a replacement for rebar in structures that will potentially be exposed to salt damage. It is also a lightweight material, exhibiting one fourth the weight of steel, which effectively reduces the weight of the structure. This allows FRP to create a lightweight struc ture that possesses a high strength. However, FRP possesses engineering disadva ntages such as low modulus of elasticity and brittle fracture. Furthermore, there is a limit on the increase of the diameter of reinforcing bars [8]. Glass fiber-reinforced plastics (GFRP) and carbon-reinforced plastics (CFRP) were developed to solve the pr oblems of FRP; they have several independent benefit s. First, GFRP is inexpensive; however, it is made of glass fiber and contains thorn-shaped protru- sions on the surface [9], which pose a risk when used on site. Moreover, since GFRP has a small elastic modulus—approximately 0.2 times that of that of rebar—there is a possibility that a relatively large deflection may occur compared to a rebar with the same reinforcing It is also lightweight and makes construction convenient. Moreover, CFRP exhibits a high corrosion resistance and economic feasibility due to advanced technology and i ncreased demand [11,12]. Bond strength is a crucial factor for the bearing strength of reinforced concrete struc- tures. When bond strength is reduced, it affects the monolithic behavior of rebar and con- crete, resulting in a decline in structural capacity [13]. Similar to the process of verifying the bond strength of deformed bar and FRP, the examination of bond strength between reinforcing bar and concrete is required in the case of GFRP and CFRP before they are used in a reinforced concrete structure. The application of GFRP and CFRP is severely limited because the curren t structural design s tandards cannot be adopted for GFRP and CFRP owing to the difference in the mechanical behaviors such as tens ile, compression, and adhesion performance from existing deformed rebars [14 ]. In this study, a bon d strength experiment was conducted based on ASTM C 234, which was used in a previous study, to examine the bond strength of GFRP and CFRP. The water –cement ratio was set at 40%, 50%, and 60%; GFRP and CFRP rebars with a diameter of 13 mm were used to test the concrete strength. 2. Manufacturing Process of GFRP and CFRP The GFRP and CFRP used in this experiment were produced through the pultrusion process as shown in Figure 1. The pultrusion process is designed to form various types of fibers similar to the shape of rebar in the r ebar production process. The first step is unwinding the loaded yarn and impregnatin g it on the hardening body. The i mpregnated yarn is molded i nto a bar shape, and winding is carried out by hardened to the inside, cooled in water and air, undergoes the caterpillar process, and cut at cer tain lengths in the production pr ocess. This process makes stronger products than those produced by the method of simply twi sting and bonding fibers. Appl. Sci. 2022 , 12 , 10611 3 of 12 Figure 1. The manufacturing process of glass fiber-reinforced plastic (GFRP) and carbon fiber-rein- forced plastic (CFRP). 3. Experimental Procedure The experiment plan is shown in Table 1. The water–cement ra tio was set at 40 %, 50%, and 60% to compare and analyze the bond strength of the GFRP and CFRP according to the level of concrete strength. Figure 2 shows the test specimen s that were made to check the bond strength of the GFRP and CFRP. For each specimen, form removal was performed 1 day after setting, and water curin g was performed at 20 ± 2 °C for 28 da ys. Table 1. Experimental parameters. Factors Levels W/C (%) 40%, 50%, 60% 3 bar type CFRP, GFRP 2 curing condition temperature 20 ± 2 °C 1 aggregate type river sand and crushed gravel 2 test item compressive strength (28 days), bond strengt h (28 days) 2 Figure 2. Bond strength test specimen. 3.1. Materials The GFRP and CFRP used in this experiment were developed as shown in Figure 3 by N company. Their physical properties are listed in Tables 2 and 3. The cement used was Type 1 Ordinary Portland Cement manufactured by H company, and its p hysical properties are shown in Table 4. The fine aggregate used was river sand, procured from E company, and the physical properties are shown in Table 5. The coarse aggregate used was crushed stones, and its physical properties a re shown in Table 6. Appl. Sci. 2022 , 12 , 10611 4 of 12 Figure 3 . Reinforcement bars. ( A ) Glass fiber-reinforced plastic (GFRP) and ( B ) carbon fiber-rein- forced plastic (CFRP). Table 2. Physical properties of GFRP. Diameter (mm) Fiber Tensile Strength (MPa) 13 glass fiber 4400TEX 1106 Table 3. Physical properties of CFRP. Diameter (mm) Fiber Tensile Strength (MPa) 13 carbon fiber 24K 1714 Table 4. Physical properties of cement. Type Specific Gravity Blaine (cm 2 /g) Setting Time (h:m) Compressive Strength (MPa) Initial Final 3 Days 7 Days 28 Days 1 3.14 3,750 4:30 6:20 36.9 49.1 60.6 Table 5. Physical properties of sand. Type Density (g/m 3 ) Fineness Modulus (g/cm 2 ) Absorption (%) river sand 2.56 2.57 0.94 Table 6. Physical properties of gravel. Type Density (g/m 3 ) Fineness Modulus (g/cm 2 ) Absorption (%) crushed gravel 2.63 7.531 0.8 3.2. Experimental Test Methods The mix formulation used in this experiment is shown in Table 7. A twin-shaft mixer was used for concrete tempering, and fluidity was secured by using superplasticizing ad- mixture (SP) water reduci ng agent for smooth concrete application. Three compressive strength test specimen s were made for each water– cement ratio using a cylindrical mold of 100 mm × 200 mm based on KS F 2405, and the mean of the three specimens was used. Bond strength test specimens were made using a cube mold with an inner diameter of 150 mm × 150 mm × 150 mm, as shown in Figure 4, based on ASTM C 234 [15]. To form a non- adhesive surface in the bond strengt h experiment, PE foam was used in area s except for four times the diameter of the buried length (4 d ). Three specimens were made for each water–cement ratio, and the mean of the three spec imens was used. Appl. Sci. 2022 , 12 , 10611 5 of 12 Table 7. Mix proportion of concrete. W/C (%) Air (%) S/a (%) Water (kg/m 3 ) Unit Weight (kg/m 3 ) Unit Volume (  /m 3 ) C S G C S G 40 5 46 175 438 74 3 910 1 39 293 344 50 5 46 175 350 77 6 950 1 11 305 359 60 5 46 175 299 79 7 977 93 314 369 Figure 4. Bar bond strength mold. The bond strength experiment was conducted as shown in Figure 5. After the bond strength test specimens were placed horizontally on the jig, linear variable differential transformers (LVDT) were installed at the bottom of both sides to check the slip between the concrete and rebar according to the load. Moreover, to prevent the rebar from splitting during the experiment, a sufficient length of action was secured in the clamping ja w. The bond strength experiment was conducted at a strain rate of 0.001 mm/s using the universal test machine (UTM) with a maximum load of 3 00 ton. Figure 5. Test equipment 4. Results and Discussion 4.1. Compressive Strength The results of the compressive strength of the concrete at 28 days are shown in Figure 6, and the fracture shape during measurement is shown in Figure 7. The compressive strength was 54.9, 3 5.8, and 2 5.1 MPa for water–cement ratios of 40%, 50%, and 60%, re- spectively. Appl. Sci. 2022 , 12 , 10611 6 of 12 Figure 6. Compressive strength of concrete. Figure 7. Fracture shape of concrete specimen. 4.2. Bond Strength Average bond strength was calculated using Equation (1). In Equation (1),  is the average bond stress,  is the maximum load applied to the test specimen,   is the dia m- eter of the rebar, and   is the embedded length of the rebar (4   ).  =      (1) The bond strength results of the test specimens at 28 days are sho wn in Figures 8 and 9. The GFRP bond strength was 11.81, 8.72, and 7.29 MPa for water–cement ratios of 40%, 50%, and 60%, respectively. The CFRP bond strength was 16.41 MPa with the 40% water– cement ratio, 11.18 MPa with 50%, and 8.76 MPa with 60%. The GFRP and CF RP showed higher bond streng th in lower water–cement ratios. This suggests t hat a lower water–ce- ment rati o generates more hydrate between the concrete and rebar, which increa ses the strength of the surface betwee n the rebar and concrete , thereby showing high bo nd strength. The se test results show that the attachment strength tended to increase with a decreasing water–cement ratio, which is consistent with the trend observed for deformed rebar attachment strength in previous studie s [16,17]. Appl. Sci. 2022 , 12 , 10611 7 of 12 Figure 8. Average bond strength results of GFRP. Figure 9. Average bond strength results of CFRP. 4.3. Bond Strength and Slip Relationship Table 8 summarizes the experimental data of the bond strength of the GF RP and CFRP according to the water–cement ratio. The notation of the test specimens is as follows: free end slip is represented by the mean of the LVDTs installed at the bottom of both sides measured at maximum bond strength. CW_D#N C = type of rebar used in the test specimen W = water–cement ratio D = diameter of rebar used in the test speci men N = number of test specimens Figure 10 shows the relationship between bond strength and slip of the GFRP. It was found that the increase in bond strength of the GFRP also led to the increase in slip. At the water–cement ratio of 40%, the bond strength increa sed after maximum bond strength. This may be because the high compressive strength cra cked the ribs on the surfa ce of the GFRP, and the ribs remaining on the bonded surface between the concrete and GFRP led to the increase in bond strength. For the water–cement ratio of 50%, the bond strengt h increased slightly after maximum bond strength. On the other hand, for the water–cement ratio of 60%, the bond strength showed a gentle slope after maximum bo nd strength and then declined. Moreover, a lower water–cement ratio led to more slip of maximum bond strength. Figure 11 is a gra ph showing the relationship bet ween bond strength a nd slip of the CFRP. For the water–cement ra tio of 40%, similar to GFRP, high compressive strength Appl. Sci. 2022 , 12 , 10611 8 of 12 cracked the ribs on the surface of the CFRP, and the ribs remaining on the bonded surface between the concrete and the CFRP led to an increase in b ond strength. In addition, the concrete with 50% and 60% water–cement ratio s howed a similar trend as the GFRP. Table 8. Bond strength and slip. Specimen Name Ultimate State Bond Strength (MPa) Free End Slip (mm) Load (kN) G40_13#1 11.29 11.67 23.96 G40_13#2 10.69 11.01 22.69 G40_13#3 13.48 9 .13 28.61 G50_13#1 8.45 6.43 17.94 G50_13#2 8.75 8.63 18.57 G50_13#3 9.00 6.38 19.10 G60_13#1 7.85 10 .11 16.66 G60_13#2 7.11 5.25 15.09 G60_13#3 6.95 11 .56 14.75 C40_13#1 18.72 10.41 39.74 C40_13#2 15.84 8.14 33.62 C40_13#3 14.70 23.19 31.20 C50_13#1 12.33 6.38 26.17 C50_13#2 8.89 6.10 18.87 C50_13#3 12.35 11.21 26.21 C60_13#1 10.34 6.05 21.95 C60_13#2 7.71 16.13 16.37 C60_13#3 8.24 12.22 17.49 G = GFRP, C = CFRP Figure 10. Bond strength and slip of GFRP. Appl. Sci. 2022 , 12 , 10611 9 of 12 Figure 11. Bond strength and slip of CFRP. 4.4. Comparison by Fiber Type Figure 12 shows the results of compari ng the bond strengths of the GF RP and the CFRP. For the 40% water–cement ratio, the CFRP showed approximately 28% higher bond strength than the G FRP, and for 50 %, the CFRP showed approximately 23% higher bond strength than the GFRP. More over, for the 60% water–cement ratio, the CFRP showed approximately 17% higher bond streng th t han the GFRP. In other words, a low water– cement ratio resul ted in a greater difference between the bond strength of the GFRP and CFRP. The concrete possessed a denser structure surrounding the concrete rei nforcing bars attachment side. Furthermore, in concrete of the same strength, the adhesion strength of the reinforcing bars with higher tensile strength was higher. The reinforcing bars with high tensile strength significantly resisted the pull-out load even if they possessed the same frictional force [18]. These test results were simil ar to those of previous studies. In addition, as GFRP has a lower tensile strength than CFRP, the attachment tip between the concrete and reinforcing bar in the GFRP experiences stress concentration, which reduces the attachment strength of the GFRP. Figure 12. Average bond strength by FRP type. Figures 13–15 show gra phs comparing the relationship between slip and bond strength of the GFRP and CFRP by water–cement ratio. The CFRP was 17–28% higher than the GFRP because the CFRP had about 35% higher tensile strength than the GF RP. Overall, bond strength and slip of the GFRP and CFRP showed similar trends despite the different water–cement ratios. Figures 1 6 and 17 show the fracture shapes of the bonded surface of the GFRP and CFRP. The upper part of the image shown is the part clamped by Appl. Sci. 2022 , 12 , 10611 10 of 12 the clamping jaw, and the lower part is the bonded surface of the concrete and rebar. Both the GFRP and CF RP failed to withsta nd the bearing pressure, and the surface coating cracked, resulting in low adhesion strength. On co mparing the resul ts of the adhesion strength of concrete, GFRP, a nd CFRP in this study w ith a previous study, it was found that the trend of the slip relationship according t o the adhesion strength of the GFRP and CFRP exhibited a similar overall pattern [1 9–23]. Figure 13. Bond strength and slip by FRP type(W/C 40). Figure 14. Bond strength and slip by FRP type(W/C 50). Figure 15. Bond strength and slip by FRP type(W/C 60). Appl. Sci. 2022 , 12 , 10611 11 of 12 Figure 16. Fracture shape of the GFRP surface. Figure 17. Fracture shape of the CFRP surface. 5. Conclusions The followin g conclu sions were drawn from the experiment on the bo nd strengths of GFRP and CFRP by concrete strength based on the scope of the study. (1) While investigating the relationship between bond strength and slip, bond strength tended to increase after rib failure in the concrete with a 40% water–cement ratio. This can be attributed to t he increased bond strength in t he remaining intact con- crete–rebar ribs under high compressive strength. (2) For all water–cement ratios, it was found that higher the compressive strength of the concrete, the better the adhesion strength between the concrete, and the CFRP or GFRP. This could be attributed to the effe ct on the increase in strength. (3) When comparing the bonding strength of the GFRP and CFRP, the bonding strength of the CFRP, which has higher tensile strength, was greater than that of the GF RP. This could be attributed to the resistance offe red by the reinforci ng bar with high tensile strength against the pull-out load even u nder the same frictional force. This experimental study wa s aimed toward investigating t he adhesion strength of GFRP and CFRP at three levels of W/C and the same reinforcement diameter. Other pa- rameters affecting adhesion stren gth between concrete, and CFRP or GFRP could not be explained through the resu lts of this study. In the fut ure, research on GFRP and CFRP according to the concrete mixing level and re bar diameter ought to be investigated. Author Contributions: Formal analysis, J.K. and S.J.; experiment, J.K., S.J. and H.K.; writing—orig- inal draft preparation, J.K. and S.J.; writing—review and editing, J.K., S.J. and H.K.; visualization, J.K.; supervision, S.P.; project admini stration, S.P., Y.K. and J.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding: This work is supported by the Korea Agency for Infrastructure Technology Advancement (KAIA) grant funded by the Ministry o f Land, Infrastructure, and Transport (Gran t 22CFRP- C163390-02). Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of inter est. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretati on of data; in the writing of the manu- script; or in the decision to publish the results. Appl. Sci. 2022 , 12 , 10611 12 of 12 References 1. Lee, Y.H.; Choi, J.H.; Kim, H.C.; Kim, D.H.; La, S.J. Experimental Study on Bond Strength of CFRP Rebar in concrete. J. Archit. Inst. Korea 2008 , 24 , 53–60. 2. Saetta, A.V.; Scotta, R.V.; Vitaliani, R.V. Analysis of chlor ide diffusion into partially saturated concrete. ACI Mater. J. 1993 , 90 , 441–451. 3. Kim, J.S.; Lee, S.H. Bond Behaviors of Epoxy Coated Reinforcements Using Direct Pull-out Test. J. Korean Recyl. Constr. Res. I nst. 2017 , 5 , 298–304. 4. Oh, B.H.; Kim, K.H.; Jang, S.Y.; Jing, T.R.; Jang, B.S. Cracking Behavior of Rein forced Concrete Structures due to Reinforcing Steel Corrosion. J. Korea Concr. Inst. 2002 , 14 , 851–863. 5. Lee, S.T.; Park, K.P.; Park, K.T.; You, Y.J.; Seo, D.W. A Study on the Application of FRP Hybrid Bar to Prevent Corrosion of Reinforcing Bar in Concrete Structure. J. Korea Acad. Ind. Coop. Soc. 2019 , 20 , 559–568. 6. Okelo, R.; Robert, L.Y. Bond strength of fiber reinforced polymer rebars in normal strength concrete. J. Compos. Constr. 2005 , 9 , 203–213. 7. Lee, J.Y.; Yi, C.K.; Kim, T.Y.; Park, J.S.; Park, Y.H. Bond Failure Surface of Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer Bars. J. Korea Concr. Inst. 2008 , 20 , 383–391. 8. ACI Committee 440. Guide for the Design and Constructi on of Concrete Reinforce with FRP Bars . 2006. Available online: https://basalt-fibers.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/Standart_ACI-4401R15.pdf (accessed on 12 September 2022). 9. Kim, T.Y.; Park, J.S.; Lee, J.Y.; Kim, K.H. Effect of Compressive Strength of Concrete on the Bond Strength of Glass Fiber Rein- forcement Plastic Bars. J. Archit. Inst. Korea 2005 , 21 , 69–76. 10. You, Y.J.; Park, Y.H.; Park, J.S. Service and Ultimate Load Be havior of Bridge Deck Reinforced with GFRP Rebars. J. Korean Soc. Civil Eng. 2008 , 28 , 719–727. 11. Kim, H.J.; Kim, J.S.; Kim, Y.J.; Choi, J.W.; Park, S.G. Bond Strength Properties of CFRP R ebar in Concrete According to the Concrete Strength. J. Korean Recycl. Constr. Res. Inst. 2017 , 9 , 569–577. 12. Yoon, S.J.; Ho, S.W.; Kim, K.S. An Experimental Study about Flexural Behavior of Timber Beam with Near Surface Mounted CFRP Bar. J. Archit. Inst. Korea 2016 , 18 , 131–138. 13. Kim, H.U.; Jee, N.Y. Effect of the Rebar Corrosion Rate on Bond Strength in Reinforced Concrete. J. Archit. Inst. Korea 2005 , 21 , 159–166. 14. Jung, K.S.; Park, K.T.; You, Y.J.; Seo, D.W.; Kim, B.C.; Park, J.S.; Evaluation of Bond Strength for FRP Hybrid Bar According t o Coating Methods using Silica Sands. J. Korea Acad. Ind. Coop. Soc. 2017 , 18 , 118–125. 15. ASTM C 234-91a ; Standard Test Method for Comparing Concretes on the Basis of the Bond Developed with Reinforcing Steel. American Society of Testing and Material, ASCE: 1991. https://kupdf.net/download/bond-strength-of-concrete-with-re- bar_6025699fe2b6f5fa1608fdd2_pdf (accessed on 10 September 2022) 16. Lee, S.S.; Joo, H.J .; Kang, I.K.; Yoon, S.J. Structural Behavior of the Reinforced Concrete Filled GFRP Tube. Com pos. Res. 2010 , 23 , 44–51. 17. Lee, H.J.; Suh, J.I.; Yoo, S.W. Bond Behavior of Concrete According to Replacement Ratio of Fly Ash and Compressive Strength of Concrete. J. Korean Recycl. Constr. Res. Inst. 2016 , 4 , 19–24. 18. Kwak, S.T.; Yoon, Y.S. A Bon d Characteristics of High Strength Steel Reinforced Concrete Members. J. Korean Soc. Civil Eng. A 2002 , 22 , 85–94. 19. Gao, J.; Xu, P.; Fan, L.; Terrasi, G.P. Study on Bond-Slip Behavior between Se awater Sea-Sand Concrete and Car bon Fiber- Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) Bars with Different Surface Shapes. Polymers 2022 , 14 , 2689. 20. Bazli, M.; Zhao, X.-.L.; Bai, Y.; Raman, R.K.S.; Saadi, S.A-. Bond-slip behaviour between FRP tubes and seawater sea sand con- crete. Eng. Struct. 2019 , 197 , 109421. 21. Solyom, S.; Di Benedetti, M.; B alázs, G.L.; Bond of FRP bars in air-entrained conc rete: Experimental and statistical study. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021 , 300 , 124193. 22. Ifrahim, M.S.; Sangi, A.J.; Hamza, S.M. Experimental Study on Bond Strength of Locally Manufa ctured GFRP Bar. Eng. Proc. 23. Zhao, J.; Luo, X.; Wang, Z.; Feng, S.; Gong, X.; Shumuye, E.D . Experimental Study on Bond Performance of Carbon- and Glass- Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP/GFRP) Bars and Steel Strands to Concrete. Materials 2021 , 14 , 1268. ... Kuang et al. [10] found that the ultimate bearing capacity and the average bond strength of the first interface of GFRP anchor bars are 25 kN, 9.4% higher than those of steel anchors, respectively, but the average bond strength of the second interface of steel anchors is slightly higher than that of GFRP anchor bars. Kim et al. [11] found that the appropriate water-to-cement ratio can improve the bond strength between GFRP bars and concrete. When the water-to-cement ratio is constant, the increase in concrete strength results in the increase in bond strength between concrete and GFRP bars. ... Mechanical Properties of GFRP Bolts and Its Application in Tunnel Face Reinforcement Mar 2023 Huayun Li Junfu Fu Bingguang Chen Lin Lang As a new type of pre-reinforcement material for tunnel faces, glass fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP) bolts can effectively and safely improve the stability of tunnel faces in soft surrounding rocks and speed up excavation. Therefore, in this paper, systematic research is carried out on the bond strength of GFRP bolts in tunnel faces and their relative pre-reinforcement parameters. Firstly, the effects of rebar diameter, anchorage length, and mortar strength on the bonding properties of GFRP bars were studied by indoor pull-out tests. The bond strength–slip curves under different working conditions were obtained, and the curves showed that the ultimate bond strength between GFRP bars and mortar was negatively correlated with the diameter of GFRP bars but positively correlated with the strength of the mortar. In addition, the increase in anchorage length led to a reduction in bonding strength. Secondly, inverse analysis was used to analyse the mechanical parameters of the bond performance of the anchor bars by the finite difference software FLAC3D, and the results indicated that 1/5 of the compressive strength of the GFRP bar grouting body can be taken as the ultimate bond strength to calculate the cohesive strength of the grout. Additionally, the formula of GFRP bar grouting body stiffness was revised. Finally, based on the results of laboratory tests and the inverse analysis, the numerical simulation analysis results showed that the optimal reinforcement configuration for a shallow buried tunnel face surrounded by weak rock is to use GFRP bars with a length of 17 m arranged in the center circle of the tunnel face with a reasonable reinforcement density of 1.0 bolt/m2. The calculation formula of the stiffness and cohesion strength of the GFRP bar grouting body and the reinforcement scheme proposed in this paper can provide a reference for the construction of shallowly buried rock tunnels in soft surrounding rock.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/364592953_Bond_Strength_Properties_of_GFRP_and_CFRP_according_to_Concrete_Strength

How Prophecy Succeeds: Jehovah's Witnesses and Prophetic Expectations | Request PDF Request PDF | How Prophecy Succeeds: Jehovah's Witnesses and Prophetic Expectations | Leon Festinger’s notion of prophecy as prediction that is liable to failure has been widely accepted in religious studies. The author argues that... | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate How Prophecy Succeeds: Jehovah's Witnesses and Prophetic Expectations International Journal for the Study of New Religions 1(1):27-48 DOI: 10.1558/ijsnr.v1i1.27 Abstract Leon Festinger’s notion of prophecy as prediction that is liable to failure has been widely accepted in religious studies. The author argues that this understanding of prophecy is not shared by biblical scholars or by the Watch Tower Society. The article explores in detail the various calculations that the Society has used in devising its views on the last days, and how these have changed over time. Four periods of development are identified: (1) the era of founder-leader Charles Taze Russell; (2) the early Rutherford period; (3) a changed chronological system in 1935; and (4) the Society’s present-day understanding. Discussion is given to the key dates of 1914, 1918, 1925 and 1975, and to the Society’s changed understanding of the ‘generation that would not pass’ until the fulfilment of prophecy. It is argued that, although there have been failures in prophetic speculation, the changing views and dates of the Jehovah’s Witnesses are more largely attributable to changed understandings of biblical chronology than to failed predictions. For the Jehovah’s Witnesses prophecy serves more as a way of discerning a divine plan in human history than a means to predicting the future. Discover the world's research ... End time expectations among JWs have been identified in earlier studies as a central characteristic of this Bible-based group (e.g. Beckford, 1975; Chryssides, 2010; Holden, 2002;Singelenberg, 1989;Zygmunt, 1970). For the individual member, loyalty to the organization and its doctrines is "a test of a person's spiritual merit and fitness to survive Armageddon" (Beckford, 1975, p. 39). ... ... The following analyses of eschatological beliefs of JWs and their psychological consequences by Schmalz (1994), Stark and Iannaccone (1997), Chryssides (2010) , Knox (2011Knox ( , 2018, and Singelenberg (1989) were based in part on the classic study by Festinger, Riecken, and Schachter (1956). Festinger et al. conducted a participant observation study of a small end time group led by a woman who claimed to have received messages from outer space forecasting the end of civilization by a great flood-which never happened. ... ... Earlier studies on group-level eschatological beliefs among JWs (e.g. Chryssides, 2010; Knox, 2011;Schmalz, 1994;Singelenberg, 1989) analyzed the psychological outcomes of failed prophecies by using the theory of cognitive dissonance (Festinger, 1957). This theory seems relevant as one contribution to understand JWs, even if conclusions are not consistent among researchers. ... End Time and Emotions: Emotion Regulation Functions of Eschatological Expectations among Jehovah’s Witnesses in Norway Article Jul 2019 J Empir Theolog Sarah Demmrich The aim of this qualitative interview study was to explore the specific expectations that N = 29 Jehovah’s Witnesses (JWs) had of end times and paradise using an emotion regulation perspective. Beyond the general eschatological doctrine of JWs, the participants were encouraged to report their individual beliefs and connected emotions. Thematic analysis identified forecasting of life in paradise in the form of a continuation of physical life but with an overall positive emotional atmosphere. Emotionally, paradise was often contrasted with the present time, as negative emotions and the downregulation of strong positive emotions dominate the current end time. As an emotion regulation strategy between current end times and future paradise, emotional forecasting, i.e., predicting which emotions would arise in the future to regulate present-day emotions, is used. The results are discussed in the frame of positive and negative psychological implications of JWs’ eschatological beliefs and emotional forecasting. Drawing on primary and secondary source material from internal and external sources, the author traces the history of the International Bible Students Association, popularly known as Jehovah’s Witnesses, in Britain, from 1881 to the present. The work of colporteurs led to the establishment of early congregations (“ecclesias”) and a branch office in London. The release of the audio-visual production entitled The Photo-Drama of Creation had an important role in bringing the Bible Student movement into prominence. Controversies shortly arose within the London congregation, which were exacerbated by intervention by Paul S. L. Johnson from the Brooklyn headquarters. The transition of leadership to Joseph Franklin Rutherford, following Charles Taze Russell’s death in 1916, caused the organization to change from the federation of independent congregations to a unified Society. Discussion is given to the effects of the two World Wars, the attempts of Bible Students to gain exemption from conscription through legal channels, and the penalties incurred by the conscientious objectors. Jehovah’s Witnesses have continued to expand their activities, through house-to-house visiting which became expected of all members, through expansion of premises, and through increased public visibility. It is concluded that Jehovah’s Witnesses do not allow their principles to be shaped by popular attitudes and values, believing that the world is currently governed by Satan rather than Jehovah. This paper provides an overview of the legal system of the religion of Scientology. To the members of the religion, this legal system supersedes and fully displaces the mainstream legal system. Scientology's legal system is self-contained and independent, with rules, enforcement mechanisms, and correctional facilities. The overview provided in this paper will be useful to courts and to further research in the nascent yet vital field of Scientological legal research. Gry Stålsett Harald Hegstad Lars Johan Danbolt The aim of this study was to explore which group-based emotion regulation goals and strategies are offered in the group culture of Jehovah's Witnesses (JWS). Based on interviews with 29 group-active JWS in Norway, a thematic analysis was conducted in which an overall pattern of cognition taking precedence over emotions was found. Due to endtime expectations and a long-term goal of eternal life in Paradise, future emotions were prioritized. The emotion regulation strategies identified among JWS were social sharing and the interconnected cognitive reappraisal. A new concept, emotional forecasting, was introduced, describing a reappraisal tactic of regulation using prospects of future emotions to regulate the here and now. It was concluded that the prospection of the future is a strong regulator of emotions of the here and now and should be included in psychological models of emotion regulation. Cesar Luiz Pasold Gabriel Real Ferrer The first part of this text reviews the standard economic viewpoint on expectational coordination, a viewpoint that the recent events have challenged. The second part reviews different existing directions assessments of the rational expectations hypothesis that have been made to-date. The third part shows how such a critical assessment, along the lines of the so-called "eductive" learning ... [Show full abstract] approach, radically modifies our view of three key problems : the economic role of speculation, the informational efficiency of markets and, last but not least, the ability of agents with long horizon to anticipate the future. The fourth part stresses what has been achieved so far well as the future challenges of the approaches advocated in this paper. View full-text

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/276913308_How_Prophecy_Succeeds_Jehovah's_Witnesses_and_Prophetic_Expectations

Kalidas Pal v. Sripati M. Roychowdhury And Others | Calcutta High Court | Judgment | Law | CaseMine Get free access to the complete judgment in Kalidas Pal v. Sripati M. Roychowdhury And Others on CaseMine. Kalidas Pal v. Sripati M. Roychowdhury And Others Calcutta High Court Mar 22, 1978 Subsequent References CaseIQ TM (AI Recommendations) Kalidas Pal v. Sripati M. Roychowdhury And Others Case Information CITATION CODES citation codes CASE NO. A.F.O.O No. 371 of 1977; Suit No. 3011 of 1969 ATTORNEY(S) JUDGES A.N Sen Bimal Chandra Basak, JJ. ACTS provisions contained in Rule 1-A Rule 5 of Chap. 7 Order 34, Rule 4 Kalidas Pal v. Sripati M. Roychowdhury And Others The Judgment of the Court was delivered by Sen, J.:— This is an appeal against the order of the trial Judge dated the 5th July, 1977 directing substitution and amendment of the decree. 2. The relevant facts may be briefly recorded. 3. One Satya Mohan Roychowdhury since deceased filed this suit on a mortgage for a decree underOrder 34, Rule 4in Form No. 9 of Appendix D to the First Schedule of the Code of Civil Procedure or any other appropriate Form. There are two defendants in the suit. The defendant No. 1, Kalidas Pal is alleged to be the mortgagor and the second defendant, Kali Prosad Gupta is alleged to be the puisne mortgagee. The defendant No. 1, Kalidas Pal, the mortgagor, duly entered appearance in the suit and filed his written statement. The other defendant Kali Prasad Gupta, the puisne mortgagee has also entered appearance and filed his written statement. 4. An application was made in the said suit for the appointment of a Receiver over the mortgaged property and in the said application a conditional order was passed. By the said order a Receiver was appointed but he was directed not to take possession, if the mortgagor defendant went on paying a particular amount every month. It appears that the mortgagor defendant had been paying the amount more or less regularly. During the pendency of the suit the mortgagor defendant, Kalidas Pal was adjudicated insolvent by an order passed by the District Judge of Hooghly in Insolvency Case No. 4 of 1974. Thereafter on the application of the plaintiff Satya Mohan Roychowdhury since deceased an order was passed directing that Mr. M.M Halder, District Judge of Hooghly as the Assignee of the mortgagor defendant to be added as a party to this suit and on the basis of the said order Mr. M.M Halder was added as a party to this suit. After Mr. M.M Halder as the Assignee of the insolvent mortgagor defendant, was added as a party to this suit, the Solicitors for the plaintiff made an application on or about the 15th of June, 1976 for final judgement and decree in the suit under the provisions of Chap. 13A of the Rules of the Original Side of this Court. The said summons was taken out only against Mr. M.M Halder, the District Judge of Hooghly who was added as a defendant as the Assignee of the mortgagor defendant. It appears that Mr. M.M Halder did not contest the said application and on the said application the learned trial Judge passed a decree under Chap. 13A against Mr. M.M Halder, the assignee, who was added as a defendant. It appears that by the said decree the learned trial Judge directed accounts to be taken in the manner indicated in the decree on the basis of the mortgage and referred the matter of taking accounts to the Registrar of this Court. The learned trial Judge further directed by the said decree the Registrar to make a report after he had taken accounts on the basis indicated in the decree. The learned trial Judge further directed and decreed that after the report of the Registrar had been confirmed, by efflux of time or otherwise with or without modification there would be a preliminary decree directing the defendant Kalidas Pal to pay the amount so found due in accordance with the pro, visions of the Code of Civil Procedure. By the said decree the learned Judge further directed and decreed that if the mortgagor defendant did not pay the said amount in terms of the preliminary decree the decree-holder would make an application for final decree. 5. It appears that the mortgagor defendant who was adjudged insolvent in Insolvency Case No. 4 of 1974 by the District Judge of Hooghly at Chinsurah was subsequently discharged by an order made on or about the 10th December, 1976. The result was that the mortgagor defendant was no longer an insolvent person. Satya Mohan Roychowdhury, the plaintiff in the suit and in whose favour the said decree in Chap 13A against the District Judge of Hooghly as the assignee of the insolvent had been passed, died on the 24th March, 1977. The present application was thereafter made by his son Sripati Mohan Roychowdhury and in the said application Sripati Mohan Roychowdhury asked for the following reliefs: (a) The death of the plaintiff Satya Mohan Roychowdhury be recorded; (b) If necessary, the Register of this suit be amended by substituting in the cause title thereof the name, address and description of the petitioner Sripati Mohan Roychowdhury, the sole executor named in the last will and testament of the plaintiff Satya Mohan Roychowdhury since deceased in place of the plaintiff Satya Mohan Roy Chowdhury since deceased and also by deleting the name of the defendant No. 3; (c) The petitioner be given leave and liberty to continue and/or carry on further proceedings in connection with suit and/or implementation of the decree passed on 14th July, 1976; (d) The decree passed in the suit on 14th July, 1976 be varied and/or amended in the manner indicated in red ink Annexure-‘A’ hereto: (e) That the costs of and incidental to this application to be taxed by the Taxing Officer of this Hon'ble Court be costs in the proceedings subsequent to the said decree made herein; 6. On the said application the learned trial Judge passed an order on the 5th July, 1977. By his order the learned trial Judge directed the applicant and Sm. Sashibala Roychowdhury to be brought on record in place of Satya Mohan Roychowdhury as his heirs and legal representatives and he further directed and ordered that the decree under Chap. 13A which had been passed be varied and/or amended as prayed for in the said application. The effect of the said amendment was to make the said decree binding on Kalidas Pal, the mortgagor. The learned Judge also gave liberty to the substituted heirs and legal representatives to continue and carry on further proceeding in connection with the suit and/or implementation of the said decree. In short the effect of the said order is that the heirs and legal representatives of Satya Mohan Roy Chowdhury, the original plaintiff (since deceased), were brought on record in the said proceedings and the decree obtained by the said Satya Mohan Roychowdhury against the District Judge, Hooghly as assignee of Kalidas Pal, the mortgagor defendant, became binding on the said mortgagor defendant Kalidas Pal and the substituted parties became entitled to carry on further proceedings in the suit or in implementation of the decree. 7. Against this order of the learned trial Judge Kalidas Pal has preferred this appeal. 8. A preliminary objection was raised on behalf of the respondent on whose application the order under appeal has been passed that this appeal is not maintainable, as the order under appeal is not an appealable order. It has been argued on behalf of the said respondent that the order is only an order effecting substitution and amendment of the decree and the learned trial Judge who has passed the order was perfectly competent to pass the same. It has been argued that this Court had jurisdiction to pass any decree in the suit. It has been argued that as this Court has pecuniary and territorial jurisdiction and jurisdiction over the subject-matter of the suit and has passed the decree in the suit over which this Court, undoubtedly has jurisdiction, the decree passed by this Court cannot be said to be a decree without jurisdiction and can never be said to be a nullity. It has been contended that the application under Chapter 13A was perfectly competent and a decree had been properly passed by the learned trial Judge on the said application. It has further been contended that even if it can be said that the provisions of Chap. 13A of the Rules of the Original Side of this Court did not have any application and the learned trial Judge was not right in passing a decree in the suit under the provisions of the said Rules in the said application under Chapter 13A, the decree passed by the learned trial Judge cannot, in any event, be said to be a decree without jurisdiction' as the learned trial Judge had undoubtedly jurisdiction over the subject-matter of the suit and this Court has both territorial and pecuniary jurisdiction to try the suit. It has been argued that at the most in such a case it may be said that the said decree passed by the learned trial Judge is an erroneous decree but it can never be said that the said decree is without jurisdiction. In support of this contention, reference has been made to the following decisions : (1)Hriday Nath Roy v. Ram Chandra Barna Sarma,ILR 48 Cal 138: AIR 1921 Cal 34) (FB), (2)Hira Lal Patni v. Sri Kali Nath, AIR 1962 SC 199; (3)Ittyavira Mathai v. Varkey Varkey, AIR 1964 SC 907; (4)Vasudev Dhanjibhai Modi v. Rajabhai Abdul Rehman, (1970) 1 SCC 670: AIR 1970 SC 1475. 9. It has been next contended that the order directing amendment of the decree is entirely a formal order. The decree under Chap. 13A has been passed against the District Judge of Hooghly as the assignee of the mortgagor defendant who was then insolvent and the District Judge represented the estate of the mortgagor. After the said order adjudging the mortgagor defendant as insolvent, there has been a subsequent order discharging him and the mortgagor has ceased to be an insolvent any longer and the formal amendment in the decree has become necessary to make the said decree effective and to enable the decree-holder to take further appropriate steps in the matter. It is, therefore, submitted that the order under appeal allowing substitution and directing amendment of the decree is not an appealable order. 10. It has been contended on behalf of the appellant that the order under appeal is without jurisdiction and is a nullity. The contention is that the order in question touches the question of jurisdiction of the Court and has also the effect of passing decree against the appellant without any jurisdiction and as such the order is clearly appealable. It is argued on behalf of the appellant that Chap. 13A of the Rules of this Court has no application to a mortgage suit and as Chap. 13A has no application to the suit, the Court had no jurisdiction or power to entertain an application under Chapter 13A in the instant case and to pass any decree in the said application. In support of this contention reliance has been placed on the decision of the Division Bench of this Court in the case ofRadha Kissen Goenka…Defendant, v. Thakursidas Khemka…Plaintiff, .reported in30 Cal WN 228: (AIR 1926 Cal 713). 11. On the merits it has been contended on behalf of the appellant that a written statement had been filed on behalf of the appellant and the appellant is contesting the suit. Under such circumstances, there cannot be any decree against the appellant without proper adjudication of his defence. It is further submitted that as Chap, 13A has no application in the case of a mortgage suit, there cannot be any decree against the appellant in an application under Chapter 13A and the learned trial Judge by passing the order of amendment of the decree has now in effect passed a decree against the appellant without adjudication of his defence on merits. 12. On behalf of the respondent applicant, the son of the original mortgagee plaintiff, it has been submitted that Chap. 13-A can be invoked even in a mortgage suit. In this connection our attention has been drawn to the relevant provisions of Chap. 13-A. Relying on theprovisions contained in Rule 1-Aof the said Chapter it has been submitted that the provisions of Chap. 13-A will apply in respect of a debt or a liquidated demand. Our attention has been drawn toRule 5 of Chap. 7which provides that the mortgage suit may be marked as a liquidated claim. It has further been submitted that the mortgagor has in fact no defence to the suit, and as the District Judge, who as assignee of the mortgagor was representing his estate, did not contest the said proceeding, the learned trial Judge very properly passed the said decree. It has been further argued that the said decree which as a mortgage decree is really in the nature of a decree against the property and is clearly binding on the mortgagor in whom the property has now again vested after his discharge from insolvency. 13. It is well-settled that if the court has initial jurisdiction to pass any order, any order passed by the Court which has jurisdiction to pass the order cannot be considered to be a nullity. The order passed by the Court may be an erroneous or a wrong order. The Court has jurisdiction to pass an order which may be a right order or which may be a wrong order. Correctness or incorrectness of the order pronounced will not make the order without jurisdiction and will not render the order a nullity. It is equally well-settled that if the Court does not have any jurisdiction to deal with a particular matter or to pass a particular order, any such order passed without jurisdiction will be a nullity. An appeal will undoubtedly lie against an order which has been passed without jurisdiction. 14. The effect of the order passed by the learned trial Judge in the instant case is to pass a decree against the appellant, although his defence in the suit still remains to be adjudicated. As the order of the learned trial Judge has the effect of passing a decree against the appellant, the order in the instant case will be appealable. 15. The relevant provisions of Chapter 13A may be set out hereunder: “1. The provisions of this Chapter shall not be applicable save to suits. (A) in which the plaintiff seeks to recover a debt or liquidated demand in money payable by the defendant with or without interest arising— (i) on a contract express or implied; or (ii) on an enactment where the sum sought to be recovered is a fixed sum of money or in the nature of a debt other than a penalty; or (iii) on a guarantee where the claim against the principal is in respect of a debt or a liquidated demand only; or (iv) on a trust; or (B) for the recovery of immoveable property with or without a claim for rent or mesne profits by a landlord against a tenant whose term has expired or has been duly determined by notice to quit or has become liable to forfeiture for non-payment of rent against persons claiming under such tenant. 3. Where the defendant in any suit which is within the terms of R. 1 has entered appearance the plaintiff may, as regards any claim which is within the terms of R. 1, on affidavit made by himself or by any other person who can swear positively to the facts verifying the cause action and the amount claimed, if any, and stating that in his behalf there is no defence to the claim, apply to the Judge for final judgement for the amount claimed together with interest, if any, or for the recovery of the land (with or without rent or mesne profits) as the case may be and costs: Provided that as against any defendant who has filed a written statement such application shall not be permissible unless the summons is taken out as in R. 4 mentioned within ten days after receipt of notice of the entering of appearance under Chap, VIII, R. 18.” 16. It will appear from the provisions contained in R. 1 that specific provisions have been made regarding any suit concerning immoveable property, when the provisions of Chap. 13A can be attracted. Under R. 3 the right is given to the plaintiff to make an application for final judgement only in a suit to which the provisions of Chap. 13A are applicable. Chapter 13A provides for the passing of a final decree in a summary manner in any suit to which the said Chapter applies. In a mortgage suit there have to be two decrees, a preliminary decree followed by a final decree. A final judgement resulting in a final decree cannot be passed in a mortgage suit under Chap. 13A of the Rules and Chap. 13A can have no application to a mortgage suit. The plaintiff in a mortgage suit does not have any right to make any application for final judgement or decree under the provisions of Chapter 13-A in a mortgage suit. Unless the provisions of Chap. 13-A apply the Court does not acquire any jurisdiction or power to entertain the application and to pass any decree and any decree which the Court may pass will clearly be without jurisdiction. Merely because R. 5 of Chap. 7 provides that a mortgage suit may be marked as a liquidated claim for the purpose of classification of suits, it does not follow that it becomes a suit to which the provisions of Chap, 13-A are applicable. 17. The view that we have taken is also supported by the decision of the Division Bench in the case ofRadha Kissen Goenka…Defendant, v. Thakursidas Khemka…Plaintiff, .,30 CWN 228: (AIR 1926 Cal 713), Rankin J. who spoke for the Bench observed: “It seems to me that the order of the learned Judge (a part of which as regards the sale of these properties is entirely without jurisdiction under Chapter XIIIA) should be altogether set aside and that the proper order to make is that the plaintiff on this application should have judgement for Rs. 13,000 but that this judgement is not to be executed pending the final determination of the other matters in the suit.” 18. InILR 48 Cal 138: ( AIR 1921 Cal 34) (FB) Mookerjee, A.C.J delivering the judgement of the Full Bench observed : “The authority to decide a case at all and not the decision rendered therein is what makes up jurisdiction.” In the instant case, as the provisions of Chap. 13A had no application to the suit in question, the application for final judgement under the said provision was incompetent and the Court had no authority to entertain the said application. The other decisions of the Supreme Court lay down well-established principles. They are, however, not of any material assistance in considering the question involved in the present appeal. 19. In any event, as the effect of the order of the learned trial Judge is to pass a decree against the mortgagor defendant, the said order is clearly appealable. 20. The appellant has filed his written statement in the suit. His defence awaits adjudication in the suit. The learned trial Judge was not right in directing an amendment of the decree which made the decree binding on him without any adjudication of his defence. 21. As the decree passed under the provisions of Chap. 13A in the instant case is without jurisdiction and in any event cannot be made binding on the mortgagor defendant without adjudication of his defence which is to be adjudicated in the suit, the order of the learned trial Judge directing amendment of the decree cannot be upheld. The decree under Chap. 13A is also a nullity being without jurisdiction and in any event the said decree in the facts and circumstances of this case cannot be enforced. 22. For reasons stated above, we hold that the appeal is competent and the appeal must succeed. We set aside the order of the learned trial Judge directing amendment of the decree. We also make it clear that the decree passed by the learned trial Judge under Chap. 13A is of no effect and is not binding on the mortgagor defendant. The order of the learned trial Judge directing substitution is, however, upheld. The said heirs of the deceased plaintiff in terms of the order of the learned trial Judge will be substituted as plaintiffs in the suit and they will proceed to make necessary amendment in the cause title and also in the body of the plaint and the suit against the mortgagor and the other defendant will proceed to trial according to law. 23. The hearing of the suit should be expedited and we direct that the suit should appear at the top of the appropriate prospective list a fortnight hence. The necessary amendment in the cause title and in the body of the plaint will be effected within a fortnight from date and the parties will be at liberty to apply before the appropriate Court for early hearing of the suit. The amendment will be effected on a signed copy of the minutes. Each party will pay and bear its own costs of the appeal. 24. Bimal Chandra Basak, J.:— I agree. 25. Order accordingly.

https://www.casemine.com/judgement/in/56095f53e4b01497112c9fd4

Difference between revisions of "Brazil Baptisms - FamilySearch Historical Records" • FamilySearch Brazil Difference between revisions of "Brazil Baptisms - FamilySearch Historical Records" Revision as of 08:15, 18 October 2017 ( view source ) Optodad2 ( talk | contribs ) ( →‎Citing This Collection : changed template ) ← Older edit Revision as of 08:45, 17 November 2017 ( view source ) RTilley ( talk | contribs ) ( →‎What Is in the Collection? ) Newer edit → Line 37: Line 37: − == What Is in the Collection? == + == What is in This Collection? == This Collection will include records from 1688 to 1935 for the country of Brazil.  The earliest vital records in Brazil were made by the churches.  The vast majority of Brazilian were Catholic and the local parish kept records.  In 1860's the civil government began keeping vital records. A law was passed in 1850 requiring registration of births, however some areas of the country they did not begin keeping records until the 1920's. This Collection will include records from 1688 to 1935 for the country of Brazil.  The earliest vital records in Brazil were made by the churches.  The vast majority of Brazilian were Catholic and the local parish kept records.  In 1860's the civil government began keeping vital records. A law was passed in 1850 requiring registration of births, however some areas of the country they did not begin keeping records until the 1920's. Brazil Brazil Baptisms, 1688-1935 CID1500708 {{{CID2}}} {{{CID3}}} {{{CID4}}} {{{CID6}}} {{{CID7}}} {{{CID8}}} {{{CID9}}} This article describes a collection of records at FamilySearch .org. Brazil Flag of the Federative Republic of Brazil Record Description Record Type: Baptisms Collection years: 1688-1935 Languages: Portuguese Title in the Language: Batismo Brasil 1 What is in This Collection? 2.1 Coverage Table This Collection will include records from 1688 to 1935 for the country of Brazil. The earliest vital records in Brazil were made by the churches. The vast majority of Brazilian were Catholic and the local parish kept records. In 1860's the civil government began keeping vital records. A law was passed in 1850 requiring registration of births, however some areas of the country they did not begin keeping records until the 1920's. This collection may include information previously published in theInternational Genealogical Indexor Vital Records Index collections, please see the coverage table below to find which areas of the country are in this collection and the time periods. Children were generally baptized within a few days of birth. Baptismal records usually give the place and date of baptism and birth, infant's name and parents' names. If the child died within a few days of baptism, the death information may also be included. Coverage Table [ edit | edit source ] The Coverage Table shows the places and time periods of the original records in this collection. The table indicates how many records the collection has from each place. Most of the records in the collection are from the time periods listed in the table; however, the collection may have a few records from before or after the time period. Locality Baptisms, 1688-1935 Marriages, 1750-1890 Deaths, 1730-1955 Alagoas 11,685 21,234 0 Amazonas 3 1 0 Bahia 7,501 0 0 Brazil 137,736 202,199 26,849 Ceara 1 0 0 Espirito Santo 1 0 0 Maranhão 1,212 0 8,573 Mato Grosso 1 0 0 Minas Gerais 73,959 86,615 1 Pará 2 0 0 Paraíba 12,468 48,304 0 Parana 23,628 4,373 0 Pernambuco 4 23 0 Rio de Janeiro 13,211 1,463 0 Rio Grande do Norte 3 0 0 Rio Grande do Sul 138,453 59,274 3,293 Santa Catarina 26,829 18,218 0 Sao Paulo 73,141 33,284 5,014 Sergipe 8 0 0 Total 519,846 474,988 43,730 As you are searching it is helpful to know such information as your relative's first name, or some identifying information such as residence, age, and family relationships. Search by Name by visiting the Collection Page :Fill in the requested information in the boxes on the initial search page. This search will return a list of possible matches.

https://www.familysearch.org/en/wiki/index.php?diff=3054183&mobileaction=toggle_view_desktop

"Satan is staging his final battle against all of the children of God." - December 24, 1976 The message covers Satan is staging his final battle against all of the children of God in the Messages given to Veronica Lueken by Jesus and Our Lady of the Roses at Bayside, NY. "Satan is staging his final battle against all of the children of God" December 24, 1976 Eve of the Nativity of Our Lord, Christmas Eve Veronica - There is a large beam of light coming in from the left side of the sky. It's outlining the trees on our left. Now beyond the light, I would say directly over the second cluster of trees, Our Lady is coming forward. The brilliance of Her garment, Her outer garment, is lighting up the whole sky around Her. Our Lady has nothing on Her feet; Her feet are bare. Her skirt is very voluminous, and it's blowing in the wind as Our Lady is moving over directly now above Her statue. I cannot see Our Lady's hair. Her mantle is coming very low down upon Her forehead. But it's very windy, because Our Lady's mantle is blowing out from Her gown. About Our Lady's waist is a beautiful blue sash. The color blue is very warm. And it's a light blue, but it has a most beautiful blue color. Our Lady is taking Her Rosary from Her waist. The beads are tied about Her waist. Our Lady now is taking Her Rosary and extending the crucifix, and making the sign of the cross: In the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. Our Lady - "My child, do not be afeared of what has happened in your mission. You will understand, My child, full well the ways of the Eternal Father as He sends the knowledge within you. "My child, I have cautioned you in the past and I repeat Myself for your welfare and the continued progress of your work, your mission from Heaven, to close your ears to those who seek to destroy the Mission from Heaven with idle tales of gossip and untruth. Know, My child, that satan is staging his final battle against all of the children of God. The warnings given from Heaven have not been accepted by all, but I assure you, My children, that soon—and very soon, I say—you will all be forced to your knees. "There is an accelerating web of evil that is extending itself into the lives of every man, woman, and child now upon your earth. In the past, My children, I gave you one message of great importance: to guard your children from the unholy ray. [Our Lady spells it out: R-A-Y.] The forces of 666 have set upon your country a diabolical plan to reduce and debilitate the bodies of your children. "O My children, you cannot in your human nature understand fully the workings of the supernatural about you. Man, in his arrogance, is ever searching but never coming to the truth. And what is the truth, My children? The truth is My Son! "The lessons of your Faith have been given to you for all time without change. My Son is forever, for God is, God was, and God always will be. My Son is your God in the Father and the Holy Ghost. Do not cast aside your knowledge in faith of the Trinity. Do not cast aside your knowledge in faith of My Son's divinity. Do not recrucify My Son upon your earth and in His Church, His House. You call upon you a heavy hand of punishment from the Eternal Father! "All manner of evil is being condoned with permissiveness by the pastors in My Son's House. All manner of abominations are being committed in My Son's House. Clean out the errors; restore the light within My Son's House, for a Church in darkness wears a band of death about it. "My children, the forces of evil are gathering within the Eternal City of Rome. They exercise great control over the human element, and satan now exercises great control over the supernatural. The Eternal Father will allow him his time, as you will all be tested as metal in the fires. Shall you bend, in your free will, your human free will, shall you bend the cross and distort it into a cross of mankind? Shall you bend My Son's cross? O evil men of the cross, whatever shall become of you? "Like sheep fast plunging for the slaughter, you await eternal damnation as you have cast aside your Faith. You have opened the doors for the entrance of all manner of heretics and evil in My Son's House. O ye of little faith, whatever shall become of ye? "My children, I cannot promise you an easy way to the Kingdom. I cannot promise you peace without penance. I can promise you hope, for the eventual victory over evil is with My Son. "You must now make your choice. The time is now! What was to happen in the future shall be now! The sides are now being divided. My Son's House is now being divided. Shall you restore it now while you have time, or shall you accept slaughter within your country—death, death in such magnitude that there will not be time nor people to bury your dead? The Ball of Redemption will soon be upon mankind, and many shall die in the great flame of the Ball of Redemption. "Your world cries peace, peace, where there is no peace. You consort with the enemies of your God in My Son's Church! And what have you in common, the light with the darkness? Shall you be unevenly yoked? "Compromise! Compromise, and you shall fall! You shall not, O pastors, win souls for the Kingdom of your God by compromise! Your example is poor! Shall you stand before My Son and say that your teaching has been pure in His sight? Oh no, I say unto you! You shall be cast into the fires of eternal damnation! "Experimentation and all manners of abomination being committed in the name of humanism and modernism—for what but destruction! You travel about like the chickens without heads, flapping your wings in pride and arrogance, for your heads have been taken off. And those with heads, they extend into the clouds, dark clouds above them, blinded by their arrogance, blinded by their pride! Get down to your knees and take off this pride and arrogance that has made you blind to the truth! "Man of science ever seeking but never coming to the truth, for it is only the simple of heart, the little ones, who shall receive the light. The numbers that shall be saved shall be counted in the few, My children. No man, woman, and child of knowledgeable age shall be destroyed except by his own desire. "Restore the discipline in your personal lives. Restore the discipline in My Son's Church while there is time! O My children, I stand before you pleading for your cause to the Eternal Father. A heavy hand of chastisement shall be set upon mankind! Many of Our children of the light shall be asked to do much penance and sacrifice to save those who are lukewarm. "There is no time, My children, for self-seeking. Divest yourselves of all worldly desire for the material. The sins of the flesh condemn many to hell. "In the struggle to retain My Son's Church, His House upon earth, it shall be bishop against bishop and cardinal against cardinal, for satan has set himself in your midst! "As in the past, My children, man goes on his way as he was, never learning from his history. "As in the past, My children, I have wandered your earth choosing among you voice-boxes to use as instruments for Heaven. "Now, My children, a great war rages against the forces of evil. It is a war that is far greater than any human nature war experienced by mankind, for you are now in the latter days. It is a war of the spirits, the fight between the good and the evil, the time of Armageddon! "Laugh, you who scorn My message—derision and mockery you may give, but if you do not accept and act upon the warning from Heaven, you shall not be counted in those saved. "Remember, My child, it would be best for your mission if you do not listen to the public opinions. I understand, My child, in your human nature, your desire for recognition of the mission. But know now, My child, as I have counseled you in the past, that you shall not accept the roses until the end of your mission. Your road will be filled with thorns. Accept the cross, My child, without complaint; carry it to the end. "You are not alone, My child. As the battle accelerates, you will find many companionable spirits. The joy of unity will be among you. Yes, My child, there is a plan from Heaven to unite all of you together. Those who will be saved will be counted in the few, My children, but better that there be few with quality than quantity without the salt. "My child, you will be subject to much temptation. You will pray a constant vigilance of prayer. Accept all that is adverse to your human nature; accept it as penance, My child. All suffering shall be given for a reason. Accept it, My child, without complaint, and you will find the road much easier for you. "Understand, My child, that human nature being as it is, the enemies are mistaken in their plan when they attack the human nature of Our voice-box without searching for the supernatural. Remember, My child, all of the forces of evil will seek to discredit you in the eyes of man, but great will be your glory, as you are watched by the Eternal Father. "If you do not expect much, My children, you will rejoice with the little that is given upon earth. You will understand, My child, in the course of time. "I will send much help to you, My child, in the days ahead to accomplish your mission. "No, My child, you cannot approach your Vicar at this time. "I must caution you to bar your doors to all but your immediate family and very close workers. Beware of those who come to you as angels of light with ravenous hearts. Beware of those who wear the garments of sanctity, but they have soiled them by sin. The rabat, priest, is a teacher of life, My child, but do not be fooled by he who has soiled his garment. "I bless you, My child; I bless you with the gift from Heaven of continued perseverance. You will not be given any heavier a burden than you can carry. I send graces, My child, to your good relations. "Do not be concerned of the attacks of satan. He is most cunning in his approach, My child, so you must learn to recognize the faces of evil. Pray a constant vigilance, and observe the signs given to you, My child." Veronica - Our Lady now is extending Her crucifix like this, straight in front of Her, and making the sign of the cross: In the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. Our Lady now is going across the sky on our left side. She's just floating. The wind is carrying Her over, that's the only way I can explain it. She seems to be weightless. There's a tremendously bright light about Our Lady. It's coming, it seems to be coming right from inside of Her. How can I explain it? It's very brilliant, beautiful, a beautiful light. And Our Lady now is bending over—She's way over above the tree—and making the sign of the cross: In the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. Now behind Our Lady, Saint Michael is coming down. Oh, he really is—oh, he's covering the whole sky, his tremendous size! Oh, and Our Lady now is going, floating—I can't explain it—gliding across the sky over to our right side. Our Lady is looking down now and making the sign of the cross with Her golden crucifix: In the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. Our Lady - "I bless you all, My children, and send among you graces, graces for cure and conversion: cures of the spirit, cures of the soul and the body, cures that will bring to many the reality of the Mission from Heaven." Veronica - Now Our Lady is gliding back, floating backwards. She hasn't turned. Our Lady is looking over to the right side. And Michael now is also going back high up into the sky. And he's standing now. Michael has the balance in his right hand. It's a golden balance, and it's leaning very heavily to the left side, his left side. And he has in his left hand a very long-handled spear. It has a very sharp point on it. The spear is like suspended from his hand, and pointing high up into the sky. Our Lady is now touching Her first finger to Her lips. Our Lady - "My child, you will all continue with your prayers of atonement. They are sorely needed." [Pause] Veronica - There are three rays of blue light just directly over Our Lady's statue. Now all about the light, the blue rays are becoming very, very dark. There are three very dark, elongated rays that look like, almost like fingers. And all about these finger-like lights there are tinges of pink now coming forward through the sky. And now there's a large leaf—I don't know what the leaf stands for—a green leaf. I believe it's a leaf that has two parts at the stem, almost like a piece of wheat. Now standing over, I can see Jesus coming forward. He's coming from a great distance because He hasn't just come forward; it's like He's traveling through a long—like a ray of light. Now Jesus is coming forward directly to our left. He's standing just a little above the statue now. It's very windy. His hair is blowing. Jesus' hair is cascading, like over His shoulders. It's—the coloring is very brilliant this evening; it's, I believe the pink tinge is coming from His cape. It's a deep ... oh, scarlet-colored cape now. It's not the burgundy color; it's almost a red. And Jesus has no shoes on; also His feet are bare. And I can see the markings on His insteps. And He has on a cream-colored gown with a tight belting. The belting looks like a piece of cord or skin, or something. Now Jesus is shifting His cape over onto His left arm, and He's touching now His lips with His first finger. Jesus - "My child, you will continue to send fast the Message from Heaven. "My Mother has directed you well in the past, and She will continue to use you for a short while as a voice-box. "There is a massive web of evil now fanning out from a nucleus of power. There is a plan now to engulf your world into a united center of power with a central head of man—man uniting all nations into a common dictatorship, man seeking to discard My House and set up one to his own liking and nature. I allow you to proceed but for a short time. "I shall not add to the words of My Mother. She has counseled you well. She has counseled you for many years. You have your choice now to accept Her wisdom, to accept or reject Her God-given knowledge of what is to come upon mankind. "I repeat: wars are a punishment for man's sins. And the wages of sin is death. I look upon you, man of earth, and find that many of you are already dead. You are dead souls in a living body. You have all but a short time to rekindle your spirit with the light. You cannot bargain your soul, for you will discard the light. You cannot sell your soul to satan for gain in your few years of pilgrimage upon your earth. You shall not sell your soul to get to the head. "Pastors in My House, I look upon you and find you wanting. I do not have to single you out, each and every one, and divide you now on your merit. You are already dividing yourselves into two camps. There will be great discord and struggle and trial within My House, and there will be great discord, struggle, and trial among the human race. "My children, do not sell your souls for your temporary pilgrimage upon earth. Gather the supernatural graces being given from Heaven to you. There is no easy passport into My Kingdom. The way has been given to you. The cross is heavy, but the reward is great for your perseverance and your maintaining your Faith. "What does it gain a man if he gathers all of the world's riches, and comes before Us with no merit to enter into the Kingdom eternal of his God? "The judgment of the Eternal Father is not akin to the judgment of mankind. He does not reward you for gathering the material. He does not reward you for gaining the highest pinnacles of success in your world upon earth, but He does reward you for following the rule He has given you. "The greatest chastisement shall be given to those who have accepted the honor to represent Me in My House, and have sold their vocation, as they have become arrogant, prideful, and self-seeking. "Turn about and maintain a true renewal of your spirit, O pastors. I have looked upon you and found you wanting. You will cleanse My House of the heretics, the errors, the fallacies, and the liars that you have allowed to enter upon it. You will cleanse it and set My House straight, or I shall come among you and send you out of My House into the fires of eternal damnation. "Your God is long-suffering and merciful, but you, as a degenerate generation, you try My patience! But for the pleading of your Mother, My Mother, the Mediatrix from God to man, you would have already received your just chastisement. But for the few prayers that rise as a balance to Heaven, you would already see death and destruction in your country and many of the countries throughout your world. "No man shall escape the Ball of Redemption. The effects shall engulf every man, woman, and child still living in the body upon your earth. "All mockers and those who have scorned My Mother's message, Her warning, shall soon shed bitter tears of remorse. Too late, I say unto you, too late will you take the blindness from your hearts. "You will all keep a constant vigilance of prayer going throughout your world and your country. Do not speculate on dates. It is important that you be prepared now, for what was to happen in the future shall be now! "Many graces for cures and conversions have been extended, and will continue to be extended to mankind in these latter days. Pray a constant vigilance of prayer that you do not become victims to the prince of darkness. "Parents, safeguard the souls of your children, or there will be much gnashing of teeth and woe set upon you by the evil one. Discipline, a firm hand must be given to the young, for they are truly the victims of their elders. "Those who should give a good example are now leading the young onto the road to perdition. I say unto you, O pastors, better that you had died in your mother's womb than to come forth and destroy young souls, for you shall receive a punishment commensurate with your evil! "I ask perseverance and fortitude and purpose in the days ahead of My children. The reward for your perseverance will be great. I must warn you that it will not be an easy road; it will be a road filled with thorns. However, as I walked this road, surely, My children, you will do this for the salvation of your soul." Veronica - Now Jesus is extending His hand out, like this, and He's making the sign of the cross: In the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. Now Jesus is going across the sky on our left. And Our Lady is coming down now high out of the sky with Saint Michael. Saint Michael is on Her right side. He's still carrying the balance, and the spear is now pointed downward. It's at a very strange angle. Now Jesus is going over. He's just above the tree, and He's bending over, like this, and making the sign of the cross: In the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. Jesus - "I bless you all, My children, and I send among you the Spirit of light." Veronica - Now Our Lady is turning and She's going across the sky. Now Jesus is coming up right—He's in back of Her, and Saint Michael is just between Our Lady and Jesus. And they're all going over by the right side, our right side of the sky, and Jesus is bending over. Our Lady is holding up the crucifix of Her Rosary in Her right hand, and now there is appearing ... I don't know where it came from; I didn't see it before, but Our Lady has a brown Scapular now in Her left hand. It's a very large brown Scapular. I can't see anything on it. It appears to be two pieces of brown, dark brown cloth on a long brown string. Now Jesus is extending His hand out, and making the sign of the cross: In the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. Now the light, it seems to be getting very ... it's not dim, but it's getting like circular. As Jesus walked, the whole sky was lighted up. But now as Jesus is going back into the sky and Our Lady — They're just floating back; there's no way to explain it—the light seems to be closing in around Them. It's not covering the whole sky now. It seems to be closing in, and They're standing almost in a circle of light. Now Jesus is touching His lips with His finger. Jesus - "My child and My children, continue with your prayers of atonement. They are sorely needed." We encourage everyone to print or email copies of this web page to all the Bishops and all the clergy.  Also, email or send this web page to the news media and as many people as possible. "My children, My little humble children, I appeal to you as your Mother, go forward on foot, knock on the doors; bring the light to your brothers and sisters.  For those who have been given great grace, much is expected of them." - Our Lady of the Roses,  May 26, 1976 "As disciples of the latter days, My children, much shall be asked of you, but I assure you:  all that you give in faith and charity shall be returned to you threefold." - Jesus, June 1, 1978 Order Form

https://www.tldm.org/Bayside/messages/bm761224.htm

Use of Mutual Coupling to Decrease Parasitic Inductance of Shunt Capacitor Filters | Request PDF Request PDF | Use of Mutual Coupling to Decrease Parasitic Inductance of Shunt Capacitor Filters | In this paper, we propose and study several new designs of a shunt capacitor filter with two surface-mount technology capacitors. These designs... | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate Article Use of Mutual Coupling to Decrease Parasitic Inductance of Shunt Capacitor Filters September 2015 IEEE Transactions on Electromagnetic Compatibility57(6):1-1 DOI: 10.1109/TEMC.2015.2478058 Authors: <here is a image 31c8dd8a9542adbf-cb5d9100f69bf1d2> Jaquie Bernal Universidad Interamericana para el Desarrollo <here is a image 0a08e9985255a691-9e2fddb7bb2a77a5> Manuel J. Freire Universidad de Sevilla <here is a image f2f62089ad6ff61c-d19572ff1996375a> Sebastian Ramiro Sebastian Ramiro Abstract In this paper, we propose and study several new designs of a shunt capacitor filter with two surface-mount technology capacitors. These designs make use of mutual inductance effects to increase the attenuation provided by the filter in the range of high frequencies where the filter behaves inductively. We provide lumped element circuit models for the proposed designs that allow identification of the key inductive parameters that determine the high-frequency performance of these filters. We obtain the equations relating these parameters to the effective inductance of the filter, which can be used to compare the high-frequency behavior of different filter designs. We have fabricated and measured several compact shunt capacitor filters with improved performance at high frequencies. We have found that, compared with a shunt capacitor filter with one capacitor, a proper filter design with two capacitors can easily increase in 15?20?dB the high-frequency attenuation provided by the filter. This design also outperforms by 10?15?dB a traditional shunt capacitor filter with two capacitors closely placed. Moreover, this improvement is obtained with no increase in size, cost, or time of design of the filter. <here is a image 175d1bd4b7439d95-754927124da715c1> ... An accuracy limitation of this modeling approach is related to not taking into account the electric and magnetic coupling between components and between component and PCB tracks, which can be very important [26], [27] . However, this model has a short simulation time compared to the traditional transient simulations, which is a great advantage when integrated in an optimization loop in EMI filter design. ... Power Efficiency and EMI Attenuation Optimization in Filter Design Article Full-text available Nov 2017 IEEE T ELECTROMAGN C <here is a image 4507868aa1abaa07-cc15137c41ff6fac> Moises Ferber <here is a image 1937ee36a50dd27a-fa33d150fae83bfe> Roberto Mrad Florent Morel <here is a image fd8181d864c0c975-14cd746ce99059df> Angelo Nagari This paper presents a discrete conducted electromagnetic (EM) interference filter optimization procedure, based on a genetic algorithms. A macromodeling technique taking into account the load impedance, the source emissions and the filter parasitic components, including the filter layout, is used to obtain an accurate solution for the optimization process. The latter searches among supplier passive component databases and provides, for a given filter topology, an optimal set of components available on the market. This approach has been applied to a differential Class-D audio amplifier for validation. By considering the electromagnetic interference (EMI), the additional power losses introduced by the filter and the audio gain, two different optimization formulations have been tested. The first corresponds to maximizing the power efficiency of the system while respecting a determined level of EM emissions. The second corresponds to minimizing the EMI without exceeding a determined level of power loss. The optimized filters are built and measurements are carried out. The results show a remarkable power efficiency improvement and a significant EM emission reduction when compared to a reference filter. ... An accuracy limitation of this modeling approach is related to not taking into account the electric and magnetic coupling between components and between component and PCB tracks, which can be very important [26], [27] . However, this model has a short simulation time compared to the traditional tran- sient simulations, which is a great advantage when integrated in an optimization loop in EMI filter design. ... Discrete Optimization of EMI Filter Using a Genetic Algorithm Article Full-text available May 2014 <here is a image 4507868aa1abaa07-cc15137c41ff6fac> Moises Ferber <here is a image 1937ee36a50dd27a-fa33d150fae83bfe> Roberto Mrad Florent Morel <here is a image 1937ee36a50dd27a-fa33d150fae83bfe> Joao Antonio de Vasconcelos A discrete optimization using a genetic algorithm (GA) for electromagnetic interference (EMI) f ler design is presented in this paper. Using a macro-model in the frequency domain this approach takes into account the load impedance and the source emissions. The macro-model includes an accurate filter model that takes into account the PCB stray elements and the passive components high frequency complex behavior. A framework between on two software is established. This framework permits a data exchange between the filter accurate model and the GA algorithm. This approach is applied on a Class-D amplification system for validation. Using the suppliers well-defined surface mounted devices (SMD) database, the GA search for a set of components that respects the Electromagnetic Compatibility limits while reducing the filter power losses. © 2014 The Institute of Electronics, Information and Communication Engineer. A New Inductance Cancelation Scheme for Surface Mount Shunt Capacitor Filters Article Jun 2022 IEEE T ELECTROMAGN C Akihito Kobayashi Sasaki Yuichi Yoneda Naofumi This article describes a new inductance cancelation scheme. The new scheme, named bilateral magnetic coupling (BMC), is applied to a surface mount shunt capacitor filter on a printed circuit board. In the filter structure, input/output paths are placed in parallel with the shunt path from a power supply trace to a ground plane. To reduce parasitic inductance of the shunt path, magnetic couplings between the input/output paths and the shunt path are utilized. The theory of BMC is explained by the method of partial equivalent elements circuit. The filter parameter design of the BMC is investigated using parametric electromagnetic simulation. When BMC performance was evaluated on a test board, it improved by 4.5 dB at 100 MHz under operation of ICs. These results show that the BMC improves the filter performance in the frequency range from a few megahertz to subgigahertz, where noise reduction is important in digital systems. A Cancelation Method of Mutual Inductance Between Capacitors in EMI Filter Article Oct 2022 IEEE T POWER ELECTR Huazhen Huang Tiebing Lu Parasitic mutual inductance between capacitors is critical for the high-frequency performance of electromagnetic interference filter. In this article, a new cancelation method is proposed to eliminate mutual inductance completely without adding additional components. The principle of the cancelation method is to design the layout of input and output traces, and the mutual coupling of traces can be equivalent to adding a negative inductance on the transfer branch of the filter to cancel the mutual inductance between capacitors. The two cancelation designs of the filters with small and large capacitor spacing are proposed, respectively. Then, the filter model is established in the finite-element method analysis tool, and the mutual inductances under different layout parameters are calculated to explore the recommended layout, which is to make the negative mutual inductance of traces fully offsets the positive mutual inductance between capacitors. Finally, the effectiveness of cancelation method and the accuracy of model are verified by experiments. The method can significantly improve the filter performance without extra costs and is expected to become a filter design that can be widely promoted. On-line Identification of the LC Product in Coupled Resonant Circuits Article Oct 2019 IEEE T INSTRUM MEAS <here is a image 8b13cbe435f4afb5-b3f97095bc28dedb> Guido De Angelis Alessio De Angelis <here is a image 1937ee36a50dd27a-fa33d150fae83bfe> A. Moschitta Rik Pintelon We present an in-circuit approach for estimating the LC parameter in coupled resonant circuits. The theoretical background is discussed by presenting the models and performing a numerical sensitivity analysis. The method for estimating LC is based on noisy frequency response function measurements of the coupled resonant circuit. A practical implementation is presented and employed to validate the proposed method. Experimental results show that the proposed method provides an estimate of LC with a deviation of less than 4% with respect to LCR meter measurement results. Etude et modélisation des couplages inter-composants pour la conception des filtres : Application aux filtres du domaine automobile Thesis Sep 2018 <here is a image 0631b8f6807c089c-603e3d8fb4678b76> Marine Heulard-Stojanovic La CEM (Compatibilité ElectroMagnétique) est de plus en plus importante dans la conception des systèmes électroniques et plus particulièrement dans le domaine automobile. En effet, avec la densification de l’électronique dans les véhicules, les problèmes liés à la CEM sont de plus en plus fréquents. Ainsi, afin de limiter ces interférences électromagnétiques, des filtres correctement dimensionnés et implémentés doivent être utilisés. Chaque filtre est dimensionné en tenant compte de l’environnement dans lequel il va être introduit. Cependant, de nombreux facteurs peuvent altérer ses performances, tel que le routage, la structure mécanique ou bien les couplages internes au filtre, entre les composants eux-mêmes. Cette thèse traite de l’étude de l’influence des couplages inter-composants sur les performances d’un filtre pour la CEM. En effet, les méthodes existantes sont basées uniquement sur des simulations électromagnétiques 3D qui sont couteuses en terme de temps et requiert également un trop grand nombre d’informations sur les composants (propriétés géométriques, des matériaux etc.). Ainsi, une méthode uniquement basée sur des calculs analytiques et exploitations de mesures a été développée. Cette méthode simplifiée est très efficace car elle permet la prédiction des performances d’un filtre, quelle que soit sa topologie et quelle que soit sa structure. Cette méthode a été validée via de nombreux cas d’applications de filtres implémentés sur des systèmes d’électronique de puissance du domaine automobile. Finalement, cette méthode a été capitalisée au travers d’un outil pour le design et la prédiction des performances de filtre pour la CEM en tenant compte de la proximité des composants. A study for designing an ESL-cancelling circuit for shunt capacitor filters based on the biot-savart law Conference Paper Aug 2017 Satoshi Yoneda Kenji Hirose Akihto Kobayashi Chiharu Miyazaki Techniques for reduction of the parasitic inductance of decoupling capacitors Conference Paper <here is a image 31c8dd8a9542adbf-cb5d9100f69bf1d2> Jaquie Bernal <here is a image 0a08e9985255a691-9e2fddb7bb2a77a5> Manuel J. Freire Improving the high-frequency attenuation of shunt capacitor, low-pass filters Conference Paper Full-text available Feb 2001 C.N. Olsen <here is a image d4314a384ceec4a3-34343d564cd72c23> Thomas Van Doren <here is a image cb30afd2b9f84725-cba6ed90e5c4dced> Todd H. Hubing R.E. DuBroff Circuit board mounted, shunt capacitive filters are less effective at high frequencies because of the mutual inductance (M) that exists between the input and output ports. An approximate expression for the mutual inductance is M=(μh/2π)ln(h/a); where h=via length and a=radius of the via connecting the capacitor to the return plane. The reduced mutual inductance associated with the new, three-terminal, surface-mounted capacitor results in more than 15 dB increased attenuation compared to two-terminal capacitors over the 0.3-6.0 GHz range with 50 Ω source and load terminations Cancellation of Capacitor Parasitic Parameters for Noise Reduction Application Article Full-text available Aug 2006 <here is a image fd4c042f837bc362-b566805443987904> Shuo Wang <here is a image 1800d32ffd17086b-f7826f39907f9df4> F.C.Y. Lee <here is a image 872a4cbdedd89f67-868df242de8b625b> Hardus Odendaal In this paper, a method is proposed to reduce the equivalent series inductance and equivalent series resistance of capacitors. The method is, first, theoretically analyzed and then verified through experiments. This method will show that it can be used for both film capacitors and electrolytic capacitors, greatly improving the performance of both. Applications in practical power converters prove that the proposed technique can significantly reduce high frequency (HF) electromagnetic interference noise. The technique can also be very useful to reduce HF voltage ripple. Analysis of a Low-Pass Filter Employing a 4-Pin Capacitor Article Full-text available Mar 2005 Theodore M. Zeeff Andrew Ritter <here is a image cb30afd2b9f84725-cba6ed90e5c4dced> Todd H. Hubing <here is a image d4314a384ceec4a3-34343d564cd72c23> Thomas Van Doren Capacitors with two or three leads tend to make poor low-pass filters at high frequencies (e.g., >100 MHz) due to the mutual inductance between the input and output sides of the filter. This work proposes a four-lead low-pass filter capacitor design that minimizes the magnetic flux coupling between the input and output. Measurements of a prototype capacitor confirm that it performs significantly better than a typical two-lead capacitor at high frequencies. Introduction to electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) Article Jan 1992 C.R. Paul Simple and cost-effective method for improving the high frequency performance of surface-mount shunt capacitors filters Conference Paper Aug 2015 <here is a image 31c8dd8a9542adbf-cb5d9100f69bf1d2> Jaquie Bernal <here is a image 0a08e9985255a691-9e2fddb7bb2a77a5> Manuel J. Freire Sebastian Ramiro A Compact Implementation of Parasitic Inductance Cancellation for Shunt Capacitor Filters on Multilayer PCBs Article Apr 2015 A. McDowell <here is a image cb30afd2b9f84725-cba6ed90e5c4dced> Todd H. Hubing Parasitic inductance limits the high-frequency performance of surface mount capacitors in a shunt filtering configuration. This paper introduces a new compact design for cancelling this parasitic inductance that makes use of magnetic coupling between vias, as well as between coplanar traces. This design is intended for use on PCBs with more than two layers, and is an extension of the designs presented in the recent paper by the authors, “Parasitic Inductance Cancellation for Surface Mount Shunt Capacitor Filters.” Implementations of the new design are shown to exhibit similar filtering performance to comparable implementations of previously published designs, while requiring nearly 40% less board area. Additionally, implementations of the design are demonstrated to be effective in the practical situation of filtering the noise due to crosstalk on a four-layer board. Introduction to Electromagnetic Compatibility, Second Edition Article Jan 1992 Clayton R. Paul A Landmark text thoroughly updated, including a new CD As digital devices continue to be produced at increasingly lower costs and with higher speeds, the need for effective electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) design practices has become more critical than ever to avoid unnecessary costs in bringing products into compliance with governmental regulations. The Second Edition of this landmark text has been thoroughly updated and revised to reflect these major developments that affect both academia and the electronics industry. Readers familiar with the First Edition will find much new material, including: Latest U.S. and international regulatory requirements PSpice used throughout the textbook to simulate EMC analysis solutions Methods of designing for Signal Integrity Fortran programs for the simulation of Crosstalk supplied on a CD OrCAD(r) PSpice(r) Release 10.0 and Version 8 Demo Edition software supplied on a CD The final chapter on System Design for EMC completely rewritten The chapter on Crosstalk rewritten to simplify the mathematics Detailed, worked-out examples are now included throughout the text. In addition, review exercises are now included following the discussion of each important topic to help readers assess their grasp of the material. Several appendices are new to this edition including Phasor Analysis of Electric Circuits, The Electromagnetic Field Equations and Waves, Computer Codes for Calculating the Per-Unit-Length Parameters and Crosstalk of Multiconductor Transmission Lines, and a SPICE (PSPICE) tutorial. Now thoroughly updated, the Second Edition of Introduction to Electromagnetic Compatibility remains the textbook of choice for university/college EMC courses as well as a reference for EMC design engineers. An Instructor's Manual presenting detailed solutions to all the problems in the book is available from the Wiley editorial department. Parasitic Inductance Cancellation for Surface Mount Shunt Capacitor Filters Article Feb 2014

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283948926_Use_of_Mutual_Coupling_to_Decrease_Parasitic_Inductance_of_Shunt_Capacitor_Filters

Rodenburg v. Rodenburg, No. 48843 - Iowa - Case Law - VLEX 886716425 0: [object Object]. 1: [object Object]. 2: [object Object]. 3: [object Object]. 4: [object Object]. 5: [object Object] Rodenburg v. Rodenburg, No. 48843 <table><tbody><tr><td> Court</td><td> United States State Supreme Court of Iowa</td></tr><tr><td> Writing for the Court</td><td> THOMPSON; LARSON; PETERSON</td></tr><tr><td> Citation</td><td> 247 Iowa 444,74 N.W.2d 241</td></tr><tr><td> Docket Number</td><td> No. 48843</td></tr><tr><td> Decision Date</td><td> 10 January 1956</td></tr><tr><td> Parties</td><td> Hugo RODENBURG, Appellee, v. Arthur W. RODENBURG et al., Appellants.</td></tr></tbody></table> Page 241 74 N.W.2d 241 247 Iowa 444 Hugo RODENBURG, Appellee, v. Arthur W. RODENBURG et al., Appellants. No. 48843. Supreme Court of Iowa. Jan. 10, 1956. Page 242 Hugh P. Finerty and John P. Churchman, Council Bluffs, and K. C. Acrea, Missouri Valley, for appellants. Smith, Peterson, Beckman & Willson, Council Bluffs, for appellee. THOMPSON, Justice. Plaintiff in his petition alleged his ownership of lands in Pottawattamie County described as the South half (S 1/2) of the Northwest Quarter (NW 1/4) and the North half (N 1/2) of the Southwest Quarter (SW 1/4), in Section 17, Township 77 North, Range 42 West of the 5th P.M. Plaintiff prayed that title to this realty be quieted in himself. He is a son of John J. Rodenburg, who died testate on November 16, [247 Iowa 446] 1940. John J. Rodenburg left surviving ten children, some of whom are now deceased. The defendants in the instant case are the surviving sons and daughters, the children or other legal heirs of those deceased, and the unknown claimants to the real estate above described. Not all of the defendants appeared, but certain ones did so, and they have now appealed from a decree in favor of the plaintiff. I. The important point in the case concerns the proper construction to be given to the will of John J. Rodenburg. The particular parts involved are Items VII and XIII, although the whole will is material, since it must be construed by a consideration of the entire document to ascertain the true intent of the testator. Items VII and XIII are set out herewith. 'Item VII 'It is my will and I do hereby give, devise and bequeath to my son, Hugo Rodenburg, the property described as the South half (S 1/2) of the Northwest Quarter (NW 1/4) and the North half (N 1/2) of the Southwest Quarter (SW 1/4) all in Section 17, Township 77 North, Range 42 West of the 5th P.M. subject to the contingency as hereinafter set forth. 'Item XIII 'It is my will and I do hereby further provide that if any of my children shall be without child or children that then and in that event such children shall be and are hereby given only a life estate in and to the property above described and shall only have the use for life of such property; if such child or children depart this life prior to his or her spouse, then such spouse shall have the use of same during his or her life and after the death of both such child or children of mine and the spouse or spouses, such property shall be equally divided as to such of my other children as may be living at said time or the children of such children and if any are dead, then their children shall only take the share of such child of mine. This is only effective as to any not having children at my death.' It is the plaintiff's claim that the will gives him a fee simple title absolute to the lands referred to in Item VII. Defendants assert that he has but a life interest, to be followed by a life interest in his spouse if she survives him. The important facts are [247 Iowa 447] that the will was executed on March 9, 1938, the testator died on November 16, 1940, that the plaintiff was married and childless both at the time the will was executed and when the testator died, and that a child, Phyllis Kay Rodenburg, was born to plaintiff and his wife on August 12, 1946. II. Both plaintiff and defendants cite certain well-established rules of law, which we repeat. The cardinal principle in construing wills is to find the real intent of the testator, and to give it effect. In so doing, the entire will must be considered; that is, it must be taken as an entirety, by its 'four corners', and every part given its proper interpretation and significance. Page 243 The intention of the testator must be arrived at by determining not what he might have said or should have said, but what he actually did say. All of these principles are so well settled in the Iowa law that they need no further elaboration or citation of authorities; but those who are interested may find them set out and discussed in In re Estate of McCulloch, 243 Iowa 449 , 456, 457, 458, 52 N.W.2d 67 , 72, 73 (Bliss, J.). It is also true, as the appellants here emphasize, that when the meaning of the will is clear and unambiguous, there is no room for construction; or perhaps it is more nearly correct to say there is then only one permissible construction. In re Estate of McCulloch, supra, at page 457 of 243 Iowa, at page 72 of 52 N.W.2d. III. But, while we agree with the rule last above stated, we do not find the language of the will under consideration here so clear that we may apply it. The will was evidently prepared by a skilled draftsman; but Item XIII is not so clear in its meaning that we can say there is no room for differing opinions as to the intent disclosed. Consideration must be given not only to this item but to the entire document. It will be noted that Item VII, while first giving to the plaintiff what, standing alone, would be a fee simple absolute, closes with the words 'subject to the contingency as hereinafter set forth.' This makes the title granted subject to a condition or conditions. It creates what is variously known in the law as a conditional, or defeasible, or base or qualified fee. We have recognized and discussed the nature of conditional or defeasible fees in many cases. See In re Estate of McCulloch, supra; Shope [247 Iowa 448] v. Unknown Claimants, 174 Iowa 662, 156 N.W. 850; Sagers v. Sagers,... 5 practice notes Tague v. Tague, No. 49136 United States United States State Supreme Court of Iowa September 17, 1957 ...without sound reason. In re Estate of McCulloch, 243 Iowa 449, 456, 457, 458, 52 N.W.2d 67, 72, 73, and citations; Rodenburg v. Rodenburg, 247 Iowa 444, 74 N.W.2d II. Paragraph 2 of the will states testator gives his widow all his real and personal estate, and full and sole control thereof ...... Helms v. Helten, No. 62820 United States United States State Supreme Court of Iowa April 23, 1980 ...It creates what is variously known in the law as a conditional, or defeasible, or base or qualified fee. Rodenburg v. Rodenburg, 247 Iowa 444, 447, 74 N.W.2d 241, 243 (1956). The will of Albert Helms gave to Carl a defeasible interest in the The import of the limitation in Albert's will bei...... Rahfeldt's Estate, In re, No. 50372 United States United States State Supreme Court of Iowa October 17, 1961 ...In re Schmitz's Estate, 231 Iowa 1178, 3 N.W.2d 512; McCulloch's Estate v. Conrad, 243 Iowa 449, 52 N.W.2d 67; Rodenburg v. Rodenburg, 247 Iowa 444, 74 N.W.2d 241; In re Yarolem's Estate, 247 Iowa 849, 76 N.W.2d 770; Pringle v. Houghton, 249 Iowa 731, 88 N.W.2d 789. Also see 95 C.J.S. Wills...... Pearson v. Pearson, No. 48874 United States United States State Supreme Court of Iowa January 10, 1956 ...Indeed he did not attempt any comparison of his financial circumstances at the time of the hearing with those at the time of the divorce. [247 Iowa 444] Although an application to modify a divorce decree may perhaps be somewhat informal and lack strict compliance with the rules of pleading,...... 5 cases Tague v. Tague, No. 49136 United States United States State Supreme Court of Iowa September 17, 1957 ...without sound reason. In re Estate of McCulloch, 243 Iowa 449, 456, 457, 458, 52 N.W.2d 67, 72, 73, and citations; Rodenburg v. Rodenburg, 247 Iowa 444, 74 N.W.2d II. Paragraph 2 of the will states testator gives his widow all his real and personal estate, and full and sole control thereof ...... Helms v. Helten, No. 62820 United States United States State Supreme Court of Iowa April 23, 1980 ...It creates what is variously known in the law as a conditional, or defeasible, or base or qualified fee. Rodenburg v. Rodenburg, 247 Iowa 444, 447, 74 N.W.2d 241, 243 (1956). The will of Albert Helms gave to Carl a defeasible interest in the The import of the limitation in Albert's will bei...... Rahfeldt's Estate, In re, No. 50372 United States United States State Supreme Court of Iowa October 17, 1961 ...In re Schmitz's Estate, 231 Iowa 1178, 3 N.W.2d 512; McCulloch's Estate v. Conrad, 243 Iowa 449, 52 N.W.2d 67; Rodenburg v. Rodenburg, 247 Iowa 444, 74 N.W.2d 241; In re Yarolem's Estate, 247 Iowa 849, 76 N.W.2d 770; Pringle v. Houghton, 249 Iowa 731, 88 N.W.2d 789. Also see 95 C.J.S. Wills...... Pearson v. Pearson, No. 48874 United States United States State Supreme Court of Iowa January 10, 1956 ...Indeed he did not attempt any comparison of his financial circumstances at the time of the hearing with those at the time of the divorce. [247 Iowa 444] Although an application to modify a divorce decree may perhaps be somewhat informal and lack strict compliance with the rules of pleading,......

https://case-law.vlex.com/vid/rodenburg-v-rodenburg-no-886716425

A Multidisciplinary Model Predicts Clinical Response in Relapsed Multiple Myeloma | Blood | American Society of Hematology Abstract. The future of cancer treatment lies in personalized strategies designed to specifically recognize, target, and anticipate dynamic tumor subpopulations A Multidisciplinary Model Predicts Clinical Response in Relapsed Multiple Myeloma Kenneth H. Shain, MD PhD , Kenneth H. Shain, MD PhD 1 Department of Malignant Hematology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL Ariosto Silva, PhD , Ariosto Silva, PhD * 2 Intergrated Mathematical Oncology, Moffitt Cancer Center, Tampa, FL Mark B Meads, PhD , Mark B Meads, PhD * 3 Malignant Hematology, Moffitt Cancer Center, Tampa, FL Allison Distler, B.S. , Allison Distler, B.S. * 3 Malignant Hematology, Moffitt Cancer Center, Tampa, FL Timothy Jacobson, B.S. , Timothy Jacobson, B.S. * 4 Intergrated Mathematic Oncology, Moffitt Cancer Center, Tampa, FL Robert Gatenby, MD, PhD , Robert Gatenby, MD, PhD * Rachid Baz , Rachid Baz 1 Department of Malignant Hematology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL Maria Silva, M.Sc , Maria Silva, M.Sc * 5 Moffitt Cancer Center, Tampa, FL Dmitri Rebatchouk, PhD , Dmitri Rebatchouk, PhD * Blood (2015) 126 (23): 501. Abstract The future of cancer treatment lies in personalized strategies designed to specifically recognize, target, and anticipate dynamic tumor subpopulations within an individual in response to drug. Multiple myeloma (MM) is at present an incurable malignancy of bone marrow resident plasma cells with highly variable survival as a consequence of both disease- and host-specific factors. 20% of MM patients, deemed high-risk (HRMM), have shown little benefit in the era of novel agents, with an OS of less than 2 years. Intuitive treatment strategies fail to account for the complexities and evolutionary dynamics of human tumors in the face of drugs. Intuitive treatment fails to adequately account for MM evolutionary dynamics and remains a critical barrier to successful cure or, at least, long-term disease control. Reasons for therapy failure include, but are not limited to, alternation of dominant clones with each line of therapy as a consequence of Darwinian dynamics, genomic instability leading to of tumor heterogeneity, and tumor microenvironment(TME)- mediated drug resistance. We have developed an integrated computational method accounting for phenotypic tumor heterogeneity. This novel ex vivodrug screen approach, termed EMMA (evolutionary mathematical myeloma advisor), predicts patient-specific drug response in silicofrom fresh bone marrow biopsies within 5 days. This method utilizes longitudinal non-destructive quantification of rate and dose responses of patient-derived MM cells to drugs in an ex vivo3D reconstruction of the bone marrow microenvironment to provide real-time personalized predictions of treatment success (percent decrease in disease burden at 90 days). The current automated 384-well plate format allows testing of 31 different drugs or combinations against a single patient sample in 5 days. An evolutionary-based computational model uses the drug sensitivity profile obtained ex vivoto detect sub-populations and their contribution to overall clinical drug response. Each drug dose is imaged once every 30 minutes for 96h. This generates 1,920 data points per drug (or combination). From these data we characterize clonal architecture as it relates to drug sensitivity as phenotypic/functional biomarker for each drug or drug combination in each MM patient sample simultaneously. We have examined the predictive accuracy of EMMA in 26 patients to date. The Pearson correlation between e x vivomodel predictions and actual tumor burden changes for the 26 patients examined generated the correlation coefficient r=0.87 (P<0.0001). Further, examination of the model predictions in terms of IMWG standards revealed that 23 out of 26 patients showed agreement between model estimation and actual clinical response (88.5% concordance). The remaining 3 patients diverged by one or two stages of response: one patient presented a very good partial response (VGPR, 98.5% reduction) while the model predicted a partial response (PR, 74.5% tumor reduction); the second patient presented a partial response (PR, 74% tumor reduction) while the model predicted a complete response (CR); and the third patient presented stable disease (SD, 12% tumor reduction) and the model predicted a minimal response (MR, 30% tumor reduction). To this end, EMMA generates patient-specific clinical response predictions to individual drugs or regimens with a high degree of clinical accuracy. Beyond testing for clinical drug response, EMMA may also be used to assess dominant cell signaling pathways. We have screened 5 patients with 25 protein kinase inhibitors (PKI) representing known signaling cascades in MM. Using heatmaps representing area under the curve (AUC) of dose-response surfaces (concentration x exposure time), we have observed both common and patient-specific sensitivities to PKIs. Together, these data demonstrate that the combination of a physiological reconstruction of the TME, a non-destructive and non-invasive cell viability assay, and mathematical models, were key to overcome the major limitations of previous predictive chemosensitivity assays. EMMA has the potential to provide precise clinical insight about treatment efficacy in a timely manner and thus become a decision support tool for oncologists based on the ever-changing clonal architecture in the face of therapy. Topics: multiple myeloma , neoplasms , partial response , reconstructive surgical procedures , biological markers , bone marrow biopsy , cancer therapy , chemosensitivity , complete remission , drug combinations

https://ashpublications.org/blood/article-split/126/23/501/94679/A-Multidisciplinary-Model-Predicts-Clinical

Computer graphics - New World Encyclopedia Computer graphics A completely synthetic, computer-generated scene. Computer graphics,a subfield ofcomputer science, is concerned with digitally synthesizing and manipulating visual content. Although the term often refers to three-dimensional (3D) computer graphics, it also encompasses two-dimensional (2D) graphics and image processing. Graphics is often differentiated from the field of visualization, although the two have many similarities. Entertainment (in the form of animated movies and video games) is perhaps the most well-known application of computer graphics. Contents 1 Branches 1.1 Modeling 1.1.1 Subfields 1.2 Shading 1.3 Animation 1.4 Rendering 1.4.1 Subfields 2 History 2.1 History of the Utah teapot 3 2D computer graphics 3.1 2D graphics techniques 3.1.1 Direct painting 3.1.2 Extended color models 3.1.3 Layers 3.2 2D graphics hardware 3.3 2D graphics software 4 3D computer graphics 4.1 Technology 4.2 Creation of 3D computer graphics 4.2.1 Modeling 4.3 Process 4.3.1 Scene layout setup 4.3.2 Tessellation and meshes 4.3.3 Rendering 4.3.4 Renderers 4.3.4.1 Projection 4.4 Reflection and shading models 4.5 3D graphics APIs 5 Applications 6 References 7 External Links Today, computer graphics can be seen in almost every illustration made. Computer graphics are often used by photographers to improve photos. It also has many other applications, ranging from themotion pictureindustry to architectural rendering. As a tool, computer graphics, which were once very expensive and complicated, can now be used by anyone in the form of freeware. In the future, computer graphics could possibly replace traditional drawing or painting for illustrations. Already, it is being used as a form of enhancement for different illustrations. Branches Some major subproblems in computer graphics include: Describing the shape of an object (modeling) Describing the motion of an object (animation) Creating an image of an object (rendering) Modeling Modeling describes the shape of an object. The two most common sources of 3D models are those created by an artist using some kind of 3D modeling tool, and those scanned into a computer from real-world objects. Models can also be produced procedurally or via physical simulation. Because the appearance of an object depends largely on the exterior of the object, boundary representations are most common in computer graphics. Two dimensional surfaces are a good analogy for the objects used in graphics, though quite often these objects are non-manifold. Since surfaces are not finite, a discrete digital approximation is required: Polygonal meshes (and to a lesser extent subdivision surfaces) are by far the most common representation, although point-based representations have been gaining some popularity in recent years. Level sets are a useful representation for deforming surfaces which undergo many topological changes such as fluids. Subfields Subdivision surfaces—A method of representing a smooth surface via the specification of a coarser piecewise linear polygon mesh. Digital geometry processing—surface reconstruction, mesh simplification, mesh repair, parameterization, remeshing, mesh generation, mesh compression, and mesh editing all fall under this heading. Discrete differential geometry—DDG is a recent topic which defines geometric quantities for the discrete surfaces used in computer graphics. Point-based graphics—a recent field which focuses on points as the fundamental representation of surfaces. Shading Texturing,or more generally, shading,is the process of describing surface appearance. This description can be as simple as the specification of a color in some colorspace or as elaborate as a shader program which describes numerous appearance attributes across the surface. The term is often used to mean "texture mapping," which maps a raster image to a surface to give it detail. A more generic description of surface appearance is given by the bidirectional scattering distribution function, which describes the relationship between incoming and outgoing illumination at a given point. Animation Animation refers to the temporaldescription of an object, that is, how it moves and deforms over time. There are numerous ways to describe these motion, many of which are used in conjunction with each other. Popular methods include keyframing, inverse kinematics, and motion capture. As with modeling, physical simulation is another way of specifying motion. Rendering Rendering converts a model into an image either by simulating light transport to get physically-based photo-realistic images, or by applying some kind of style as in non photo-realistic rendering. Subfields Physically-based rendering—concerned with generating images according to the laws of geometric optics Real time rendering—focuses on rendering for interactive applications, typically using specialized hardware like GPUs Non-photorealistic rendering Relighting—recent area concerned with quickly re-rendering scenes History William Fetter was credited with coining the term "Computer Graphics" in 1960, to describe his work at Boeing. One of the first displays of computer animation was in the film Futureworld(1976), which included ananimationof a human face and hand—produced by Ed Catmull and Fred Parke at the University of Utah. The most significant results in computer graphics are published annually in a special edition of the ACM (Association for Computing Machinery) Transactions on Graphicsand presented at SIGGRAPH (Special Interest Group for Computer GRAPHics). History of the Utah teapot The Utah teapot. The actual Melitta teapot that Martin Newell digitized. The Utah teapotor Newell teapotis a 3D model that has become a standard reference object (and something of an in-joke) in the computer graphics community. The model was created in 1975, by early computer graphics researcher Martin Newell, a member of the pioneering graphics program at the University of Utah. Newell needed a moderately simple mathematical model of a familiar object for his work. At the suggestion of his wife Sandra, he sketched their entire tea service by eye. Then he went back to the lab and edited Bezier control points on a Tektronix storage tube, again by hand. While a cup, saucer, and teaspoon were digitized along with the famous teapot, only the teapot itself attained widespread usage. The teapot shape contains a number of elements that made it ideal for the graphics experiments of the time. Newell made the mathematical data that described the teapot's geometry publicly available, and soon other researchers began to use the same data for their computer graphics experiments. They needed something with roughly the same characteristics that Newell had, and using the teapot data meant they did not have to laboriously enter geometric data for some other object. Although technical progress has meant that the act of rendering the teapot is no longer the challenge it was in 1975, the teapot continued to be used as a reference object for increasingly advanced graphics techniques. Over the following decades, editions of computer graphics journals regularly featured versions of the teapot: Faceted or smooth-shaded, wireframe, bumpy, translucent, refractive, even leopard-skin and furry teapots were created. 2D computer graphics 2D computer graphicsis thecomputer-based generation of digital images—mostly from two-dimensional models (such as 2D geometric models, text, and digital images) and by techniques specific to them. The term may stand for the branch ofcomputer sciencethat comprises such techniques, or for the models themselves. Raster graphic sprites (left) and masks (right) 2D computer graphics are mainly used in applications that were originally developed upon traditionalprintingand drawing technologies, such astypography,cartography, technical drawing,advertising, and so on. In those applications, the two-dimensional image is not just a representation of a real-world object, but an independent artifact with added semantic value; two-dimensional models are therefore preferred, because they give more direct control of the image than 3D computer graphics (whose approach is more akin to photography than to typography). In many domains, such as desktop publishing,engineering, andbusiness, a description of a document based on 2D computer graphics techniques can be much smaller than the corresponding digital image—often by a factor of 1/1000 or more. This representation is also more flexible, since it can be rendered at different resolutions to suit different output devices. For these reasons, documents and illustrations are often stored or transmitted as 2D graphic files. 2D computer graphics started in the 1950s, based on vector graphics devices. These were largely supplanted by raster-based devices in the following decades. The PostScript language and the X Window System protocol were landmark developments in the field. 2D graphics techniques 2D graphics models may combine geometric models (also called vector graphics), digital images (also called raster graphics), text to be typeset (defined by content, font style and size, color, position, and orientation), mathematical functions and equations, and more. These components can be modified and manipulated by two-dimensional geometric transformations such as translation, rotation, and scaling. In object oriented graphics, the image is described indirectly by an object endowed with a self-rendering method—a procedure which assigns colors to the image pixels by an arbitrary algorithm. Complex models can be built by combining simpler objects, in the paradigms of object-oriented programming. Direct painting A convenient way to create a complex image is to start with a blank "canvas" raster map (an array of pixels, also known as a bitmap) filled with some uniform background color and then "draw," "paint," or "paste" simple patches of color onto it, in an appropriate order. In particular, the canvas may be the frame buffer for a computer display. Some programs will set the pixel colors directly, but most will rely on some 2D graphics library and/or the machine's graphics card, which usually implement the following operations: Paste a given image at a specified offset onto the canvas Write a string of characters with a specified font, at a given position and angle Paint a simple geometric shape, such as a triangle defined by three corners or a circle with given center and radius Draw a line segment, arc of circle, or simple curve with a virtual pen of given width. Extended color models Text, shapes and lines are rendered with a client-specified color. Many libraries and cards provide color gradients, which are handy for the generation of smoothly-varying backgrounds, shadow effects, and so on. The pixel colors can also be taken from a texture, for example, a digital image (thus emulating rub-on screentones and the fabled "checker paint" which used to be available only incartoons). Painting a pixel with a given color usually replaces its previous color. However, many systems support painting with transparent and translucent colors, which only modify the previous pixel values. The two colors may also be combined in fancier ways, for example, by computing their bitwise exclusive or. This technique is known as inverting color or color inversion, and is often used in graphical user interfaces for highlighting, rubber-band drawing, and other volatile painting—since re-painting the same shapes with the same color will restore the original pixel values. Layers The models used in 2D computer graphics usually do not provide for three-dimensional shapes, or three-dimensional optical phenomena such as lighting, shadows,reflection,refraction, and so on. However, they usually can model multiple layers(conceptually of ink, paper, or film; opaque, translucent, or transparent—stacked in a specific order. The ordering is usually defined by a single number (the layer's depth,or distance from the viewer). Layered models are sometimes called 2 1/2-D computer graphics. They make it possible to mimic traditional drafting and printing techniques based on film and paper, such as cutting and pasting; and allow the user to edit any layer without affecting the others. For these reasons, they are used in most graphics editors. Layered models also allow better anti-aliasing of complex drawings and provide a sound model for certain techniques such as mitered joints and the even-odd rule. Layered models are also used to allow the user to suppress unwanted information when viewing or printing a document, for example, roads and/or railways from amap, certain process layers from anintegrated circuitdiagram, or hand annotations from a business letter. In a layer-based model, the target image is produced by "painting" or "pasting" each layer, in order of decreasing depth, on the virtual canvas. Conceptually, each layer is first rendered on its own, yielding a digital image with the desired resolution which is then painted over the canvas, pixel by pixel. Fully transparent parts of a layer need not be rendered, of course. The rendering and painting may be done in parallel, that is, each layer pixel may be painted on the canvas as soon as it is produced by the rendering procedure. Layers that consist of complex geometric objects (such as text or polylines) may be broken down into simpler elements (characters or line segments, respectively), which are then painted as separate layers, in some order. However, this solution may create undesirable aliasing artifacts wherever two elements overlap the same pixel. 2D graphics hardware Modern computer graphics card displays almost overwhelmingly use raster techniques, dividing the screen into a rectangular grid of pixels, due to the relatively low cost of raster-based video hardware as compared with vector graphic hardware. Most graphic hardware has internal support for blitting operations and sprite drawing. A co-processor dedicated to blitting is known as a Blitter chip. Classic 2D graphics chips of the late 1970s and early 80s, used in the 8-bit video game consoles and home computers, include: Atari's ANTIC (actually a 2D GPU), TIA, CTIA, and GTIA Commodore/MOS Technology's VIC and VIC-II 2D graphics software Many graphical user interfaces (GUIs), including Mac OS, Microsoft Windows, or the X Window System, are primarily based on 2D graphical concepts. Such software provides a visual environment for interacting with the computer, and commonly includes some form of window manager to aid the user in conceptually distinguishing between different applications. The user interface within individual software applications is typically 2D in nature as well, due in part to the fact that most common input devices, such as the mouse, are constrained to two dimensions of movement. 2D graphics are very important in the control peripherals such as printers, plotters, sheet cutting machines, and so on. They were also used in most earlyvideoand computer games; and are still used for card and board games such as solitaire, chess, and mahjongg, among others. 2D graphics editors or drawing programsare application-level software for the creation of images, diagrams, and illustrations by direct manipulation (through the mouse, graphics tablet, or similar device) of 2D computer graphics primitives. These editors generally provide geometric primitives as well as digital images; and some even support procedural models. The illustration is usually represented internally as a layered model, often with a hierarchical structure to make editing more convenient. These editors generally output graphics files where the layers and primitives are separately preserved in their original form. MacDraw, introduced in 1984 with the Macintosh line of computers, was an early example of this class; recent examples are the commercial products Adobe Illustrator and CorelDRAW, and the free editors such as xfig or Inkscape. There are also many 2D graphics editors specialized for certain types of drawings such as electrical, electronic and VLSI diagrams, topographic maps, computer fonts, and so forth. Image editors are specialized for the manipulation of digital images, mainly by means of free-hand drawing/painting and signal processing operations. They typically use a direct-painting paradigm, where the user controls virtual pens, brushes, and other free-hand artistic instruments to apply paint to a virtual canvas. Some image editors support a multiple-layer model; however, in order to support signal-processing operations, like blurring each layer is normally represented as a digital image. Therefore, any geometric primitives that are provided by the editor are immediately converted to pixels and painted onto the canvas. The name raster graphics editoris sometimes used to contrast this approach to that of general editors which also handle vector graphics. One of the first popular image editors was Apple's MacPaint, companion to MacDraw. Modern examples are the free GIMP editor, and the commercial products Photoshop and Paint Shop Pro. This class, too, includes many specialized editors—for medicine, remote sensing, digital photography, and others. 3D computer graphics A 3D rendering with raytracing and ambient occlusion using Blender and Yafray. 3D computer graphicsare works of graphic art created with the aid of digitalcomputersand 3D software. The term may also refer to the process of creating such graphics, or the field of study of 3D computer graphic techniques and related technology. 3D computer graphics are different from 2D computer graphics in that a three-dimensional representation of geometric data is stored in the computer for the purposes of performing calculations and rendering 2D images. Such images may be for later display or for real-time viewing. 3D modeling is the process of preparing geometric data for 3D computer graphics, and is akin to sculpting or photography, whereas the art of 2D graphics is analogous to painting. Despite these differences, 3D computer graphics rely on many of the samealgorithmsas 2D computer graphics. In computer graphics software, the distinction between 2D and 3D is occasionally blurred; 2D applications may use 3D techniques to achieve effects such as lighting, and primarily 3D may use 2D techniques. Technology OpenGL and Direct3D are two popular APIs for generation of real-time imagery. Real-time means that image generation occurs in "real time," or "on the fly," and may be highly user-interactive. Many modern graphics cards provide some degree of hardware acceleration based on these APIs, frequently enabling display of complex 3D graphics in real-time. Creation of 3D computer graphics The process of creating 3D computer graphics can be sequentially divided into three basic phases: Content creation (3D modeling, texturing, animation) Scene layout setup Rendering Modeling The modeling stage could be described as shaping individual objects that are later used in the scene. There exist a number of modeling techniques, including, but not limited to the following: <<Please explain briefly what each of the following terms means. (Check the links in Wikipedia.)>> Constructive solid geometry NURBS modeling Polygonal modeling Subdivision surfaces Implicit surfaces Modeling processes may also include editing object surface or material properties (for example, color, luminosity, diffuse, and specular shading components—more commonly called roughness and shininess, reflection characteristics, transparency, or opacity, or index of refraction), adding textures, bump-maps and other features. Modeling mayalso include various activities related to preparing a 3D model for animation (although in a complex character model this will become a stage of its own, known as rigging). Objects may be fitted with a skeleton,a central framework of an object with the capability of affecting the shape or movements of that object. This aids in the process of animation, in that the movement of the skeleton will automatically affect the corresponding portions of the model. At the rigging stage, the model can also be given specific controls to make animation easier and more intuitive, such as facial expression controls and mouth shapes (phonemes) for lip syncing. Modeling can be performed by means of a dedicated program (for example, Lightwave Modeler, Rhinoceros 3D, Moray), an application component (Shaper, Lofter in 3D Studio), or some scene description language (as in POV-Ray). In some cases, there is no strict distinction between these phases; in such cases modeling is just part of the scene creation process (this is the case, for example, with Caligari trueSpace and Realsoft 3D). Particle system are a mass of 3D coordinates which have either points, polygons, splats, or sprites assign to them. They act as a volume to represent a shape. Process Scene layout setup Scene setup involves arranging virtual objects, lights, cameras, and other entities on a scene which will later be used to produce a still image or an animation. If used foranimation, this phase usually makes use of a technique called "keyframing," which facilitates creation of complicated movement in the scene. With the aid of keyframing, instead of having to fix an object's position, rotation, or scaling for each frame in an animation, one needs only to set up some key frames between which states in every frame are interpolated. Lighting is an important aspect of scene setup. As is the case in real-world scene arrangement, lighting is a significant contributing factor to the resulting aesthetic and visual quality of the finished work. As such, it can be a difficult art to master. Lighting effects can contribute greatly to the mood and emotional response effected by a scene, a fact which is well-known to photographers and theatrical lighting technicians. Tessellation and meshes The process of transforming representations of objects, such as the middlepointcoordinate of asphereand a point on its circumference into apolygonrepresentation of a sphere, is called tessellation. This step is used in polygon-based rendering, where objects are broken down from abstract representations ("primitives") such as spheres,cones, and other shapes, to so-called meshes,which are nets of interconnected triangles. Meshes of triangles (instead of, for example,squares) are popular as they have proven to be easy to render using scanline rendering. Polygon representations are not used in all rendering techniques, and in these cases the tessellation step is not included in the transition from abstract representation to rendered scene. Rendering Rendering is the final process of creating the actual 2D image or animation from the prepared scene. This can be compared to taking a photo or filming the scene after the setup is finished in real life. Rendering for interactive media, such as games and simulations, is calculated and displayed in real time, at rates of approximately 20 to 120 frames per second. Animations for non-interactive media, such as feature films and video, are rendered much more slowly. Non-real time rendering enables the leveraging of limited processing power in order to obtain higher image quality. Rendering times for individual frames may vary from a few seconds to several days for complex scenes. Rendered frames are stored on a hard disk then can be transferred to other media such as motion picture film or optical disk. These frames are then displayed sequentially at high frame rates, typically 24, 25, or 30 frames per second, to achieve the illusion of movement. Several different, and often specialized, rendering methods have been developed. These range from the distinctly non-realistic wireframe rendering through polygon-based rendering, to more advanced techniques such as: Scanline rendering, ray tracing, or radiosity. In general, different methods are better suited for either photo-realistic rendering, or real-time rendering. In real-time rendering, the goal is to show as much information as possible as the eye can process in a 30th of a second (or one frame, in the case of 30 frame-per-second animation). The goal here is primarily speed and not photo-realism. In fact, here exploitations are made in the way the eye "perceives" the world, and thus, the final image presented is not necessarily that of the real-world, but one which the eye can closely associate to. This is the basic method employed in games, interactive worlds, and VRML. The rapid increase in computer processing power has allowed a progressively higher degree of realism even for real-time rendering, including techniques such as HDR rendering. Real-time rendering is often polygonal and aided by the computer's GPU. An example of a ray-traced image that typically takes seconds or minutes to render. The photo-realism is apparent. (Scene created by Jawed Karim and rendered with his jawRay raytracer.) When the goal is photo-realism, techniques are employed such as ray tracing or radiosity. Rendering often takes of the order of seconds or sometimes even days (for a single image/frame). This is the basic method employed in digital media and artistic works. Rendering software may simulate such visual effects as lens flares, depth of field, or motion blur. These are attempts to simulate visual phenomena resulting from the optical characteristics of cameras and of the human eye. These effects can lend an element of realism to a scene, even if the effect is merely a simulated artifact of a camera. Techniques have been developed for the purpose of simulating other naturally occurring effects, such as the interaction of light with various forms of matter. Examples of such techniques include particle systems (which can simulate rain, smoke, or fire), volumetric sampling (to simulate fog, dust, and other spatial atmospheric effects), caustics (to simulate light focusing by uneven light-refracting surfaces, such as the light ripples seen on the bottom of a swimming pool), and subsurface scattering (to simulate light reflecting inside the volumes of solid objects such as human skin). The rendering process is computationally expensive, given the complex variety of physical processes being simulated. Computer processing power has increased rapidly over the years, allowing for a progressively higher degree of realistic rendering. Film studios that produce computer-generated animations typically make use of a render farm to generate images in a timely manner. However, falling hardware costs mean that it is entirely possible to create small amounts of 3D animation on a home computer system. The output of the renderer is often used as only one small part of a completed motion-picture scene. Many layers of material may be rendered separately and integrated into the final shot using compositing software. Renderers Often renderers are included in 3D software packages, but there are some rendering systems that are used as plug-ins to popular 3D applications. These rendering systems include: AccuRender for SketchUp Brazil r/s Bunkspeed Final-Render Maxwell mental ray POV-Ray Realsoft 3D Pixar RenderMan V-Ray YafRay Indigo Renderer Projection Perspective Projection Since the human eye sees threedimensions, the mathematical model represented inside the computer must be transformed back so that the human eye can correlate the image to a realistic one. But the fact that the display device—namely a monitor—can display only two dimensions means that this mathematical model must be transferred to a two-dimensional image. Often this is done using projection; mostly using perspective projection. The basic idea behind the perspective projection, which unsurprisingly is the way the human eye works, is that objects that are further away are smaller in relation to those that are closer to the eye. Thus, to collapse the third dimension onto a screen, a corresponding operation is carried out to remove it—in this case, a division operation. Orthographic projection is used mainly inCADor CAM applications where scientific modeling requires precise measurements and preservation of the third dimension. Reflection and shading models Modern 3D computer graphics rely heavily on a simplified reflection model, called Phong reflection model(not to be confused with Phong shading). In refraction of light, an important concept is therefractive index. In most 3D programming implementations, the term for this value is "index of refraction," usually abbreviated "IOR." Popular reflection rendering techniques in 3D computer graphics include: Flat shading: A technique that shades each polygon of an object based on the polygon's "normal" and the position and intensity of a light source. Gouraud shading: Invented by H. Gouraud in 1971, a fast and resource-conscious vertex shading technique used to simulate smoothly shaded surfaces. Texture mapping: A technique for simulating a large amount of surface detail by mapping images (textures) onto polygons. Phong shading: Invented by Bui Tuong Phong, used to simulate specular highlights and smooth shaded surfaces. Bump mapping: Invented by Jim Blinn, a normal-perturbation technique used to simulate wrinkled surfaces. Cel shading: A technique used to imitate the look of hand-drawn animation. 3D graphics APIs 3D graphics have become so popular, particularly in computer games, that specialized APIs (application programming interfaces) have been created to ease the processes in all stages of computer graphics generation. These APIs have also proved vital to computer graphics hardware manufacturers, as they provide a way for programmers to access the hardware in an abstract way, while still taking advantage of the special hardware of this-or-that graphics card. These APIs for 3D computer graphics are particularly popular: OpenGL and the OpenGL Shading Language OpenGL ES 3D API for embedded devices Direct3D (a subset of DirectX) RenderMan RenderWare Glide API TruDimension LC Glasses and 3D monitor API There are also higher-level 3D scene-graph APIs that provide additional functionality on top of the lower-level rendering API. Such libraries under active development include: QSDK Quesa Java 3D Gsi3d JSR 184 (M3G) Vega Prime by MultiGen-Paradigm NVidia Scene Graph OpenSceneGraph OpenSG OGRE JMonkey Engine Irrlicht Engine Hoops3D UGS DirectModel (aka JT) Applications Special effects Video games References McConnell, Jeffrey J. 2005. Computer Graphics: Theory Into Practice . Sudbury, MA: Jones & Bartlett Pub. ISBN 0763722502 . Vince, John. 2005. Mathematics for Computer Graphics . New York: Springer. ISBN 1846280346 . Watt, Alan H. 1999. 3D Computer Graphics, 3rd edition . Boston: Addison Wesley. ISBN 0201398559 . Categories : Physical sciences Computer Science and Engineering Technology

https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Computer_graphics

B-151159, MAY 12, 1964 | U.S. GAO WAS TRANSFERRED FROM THE FOREIGN SERVICE TO THE CIVIL SERVICE. THE AUTHORIZATION OF ANNUAL LEAVE EN ROUTE TO THE UNITED STATES WAS PROPER. IT APPEARS... B-151159, MAY 12, 1964 B-151159 May 12, 1964 Highlights WAS TRANSFERRED FROM THE FOREIGN SERVICE TO THE CIVIL SERVICE. THE AUTHORIZATION OF ANNUAL LEAVE EN ROUTE TO THE UNITED STATES WAS PROPER. IT APPEARS THAT THE APPROVAL OF ANNUAL LEAVE IS NOT THE BASIS FOR DENIAL OF PER DIEM FOR THE PERIOD IN QUESTION. PROVIDE THAT WHERE FOR A TRAVELER'S PERSONAL CONVENIENCE OR THROUGH THE TAKING OF LEAVE THERE IS INTERRUPTION OF TRAVEL OR DEVIATION FROM THE DIRECT ROUTE. THE PER DIEM IN LIEU OF SUBSISTENCE ALLOWED WILL NOT EXCEED THAT WHICH WOULD HAVE BEEN INCURRED ON UNINTERRUPTED TRAVEL BY A USUALLY TRAVELED ROUTE. ROSENTHAL'S TRAVEL COULD HAVE BEEN COMPLETED ON NOVEMBER 27. WHICH WAS SEVERAL DAYS BEFORE HE BECAME ILL. "IT IS THE OPINION OF THIS AGENCY THAT THE CONTROLLER GENERAL'S RULING IN THIS CASE SHOULD BE SUSTAINED INASMUCH AS WE SEE NO BASIS FOR TREATING THIS CASE AS AN EXCEPTION. View Decision B-151159, MAY 12, 1964 TO MR. NEAL J. PRICE, AUTHORIZED CERTIFYING OFFICER, OFFICE OF THE CONTROLLER, AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT: BY LETTER OF FEBRUARY 5, 1964 (FILE REFERENCE C/FRD/VEB:MA-4), THE OFFICE OF CHIEF, VOUCHER EXAMINATION BRANCH, FINANCIAL REVIEW DIVISION, OFFICE OF THE CONTROLLER, AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT, FORWARDED HERE A LETTER DATED NOVEMBER 19, 1963, FROM MR. IRVING ROSENTHAL, REQUESTING RECONSIDERATION OF DECISION OF AUGUST 8, 1963, TO YOU, WHICH PRECLUDED THE ALLOWANCE OF HIS CLAIM FOR 56 1/2 DAYS PER DIEM FOR HIMSELF AND 2 DEPENDENTS COVERING A PERIOD OF DELAY IN OFFICIAL TRAVEL FROM ANKARA, TURKEY, TO ARLINGTON, VIRGINIA, OCCASIONED BY THE ILLNESS OF MR. ROSENTHAL. ON FEBRUARY 25, 1964, WE REQUESTED AN ADDITIONAL REPORT IN MR. ROSENTHAL'S CASE FROM YOUR AGENCY AND IN REPLY TO SUCH REQUEST WE RECEIVED A LETTER DATED APRIL 20, 1964, FROM THE CHIEF, VOUCHER EXAMINATION BRANCH (REFERENCE C/FRD/VEB-4-MA), STATING THAT--- "WE NOW FIND THAT SINCE MR. ROSENTHAL DID NOT ACTUALLY SEPARATE FROM THE FEDERAL SERVICE, BUT WAS TRANSFERRED FROM THE FOREIGN SERVICE TO THE CIVIL SERVICE, THE AUTHORIZATION OF ANNUAL LEAVE EN ROUTE TO THE UNITED STATES WAS PROPER, AND THE PROVISIONS OF THE LUMP SUM PAYMENT ACT WOULD NOT BE APPLICABLE IN HIS CASE. "NEVERTHELESS, IT APPEARS THAT THE APPROVAL OF ANNUAL LEAVE IS NOT THE BASIS FOR DENIAL OF PER DIEM FOR THE PERIOD IN QUESTION. OUR REGULATIONS, CONSISTENT WITH THE STANDARDIZED GOVERNMENT TRAVEL REGULATIONS AND DECISIONS OF THE COMPTROLLER GENERAL, PROVIDE THAT WHERE FOR A TRAVELER'S PERSONAL CONVENIENCE OR THROUGH THE TAKING OF LEAVE THERE IS INTERRUPTION OF TRAVEL OR DEVIATION FROM THE DIRECT ROUTE, THE PER DIEM IN LIEU OF SUBSISTENCE ALLOWED WILL NOT EXCEED THAT WHICH WOULD HAVE BEEN INCURRED ON UNINTERRUPTED TRAVEL BY A USUALLY TRAVELED ROUTE. "ACCORDING TO OUR COMPUTATION OF ALLOWABLE TRANSIT TIME ON THE BASIS OF UNINTERRUPTED TRAVEL, MR. ROSENTHAL'S TRAVEL COULD HAVE BEEN COMPLETED ON NOVEMBER 27, 1962, AT 10:15 P.M. WHICH WAS SEVERAL DAYS BEFORE HE BECAME ILL. "IT IS THE OPINION OF THIS AGENCY THAT THE CONTROLLER GENERAL'S RULING IN THIS CASE SHOULD BE SUSTAINED INASMUCH AS WE SEE NO BASIS FOR TREATING THIS CASE AS AN EXCEPTION. FURTHERMORE, WITH RESPECT TO MR. ROSENTHAL'S CLAIM FOR PER DIEM FOR DEPENDENTS DURING HIS DELAY IN NEW YORK, IT IS OUR VIEW THAT SUCH PAYMENT WOULD NOT BE PROPER EVEN IF HE HAD ESTABLISHED HIS ELIGIBILITY FOR PER DIEM DURING SICK LEAVE BY HAVING PERFORMED DIRECT UNINTERRUPTED TRAVEL * * *" THE ADVANCE AUTHORIZATION FOR MR. ROSENTHAL TO TAKE ANNUAL LEAVE ENROUTE IS TANTAMOUNT TO AN AUTHORIZATION TO DELAY OR INTERRUPT OFFICIAL TRAVEL FOR THE PERIOD OF SUCH LEAVE. WHILE NO PER DIEM WOULD BE PAYABLE FOR THE LEAVE PERIOD, THE PER DIEM RIGHTS OF THE TRAVELER INCIDENT TO THE REMAINING PORTION OF THE OFFICIAL TRAVEL, OCCURRING AFTER RESUMPTION OF TRAVEL STATUS, SHOULD BE DETERMINED AS THOUGH NO DELAY OR INTERRUPTION IN THE TRAVEL STATUS FOR THE PURPOSE OF TAKING LEAVE HAD OCCURRED. THIS VIEW APPEARS CONSISTENT WITH THE WORDING OF THE FOREIGN AFFAIRS MANUAL, SECTIONS 137.1 AND 137.2, APPLICABLE DURING THE PERIOD INVOLVED, WHICH ARE TO THE EFFECT THAT A DELAY AUTHORIZED IN THE TRAVEL AUTHORIZATION NEED NOT BE REGARDED AS DELAY FOR THE PERSONAL CONVENIENCE OF THE TRAVELER. FURTHERMORE, THERE IS PRESENT IN THIS CASE THE "ASSUMPTION" OF THE ONSET OF THE ILLNESS "BY DATE ONLY.' THERE MAY BE OTHER FACTORS WHICH COULD CAUSE A VARIATION IN THAT REGARD. APPLYING THE FOREGOING TO MR. ROSENTHAL'S CASE OUR OPINION IS THAT UNDER SECTION 6.15 OF THE STANDARDIZED GOVERNMENT TRAVEL REGULATIONS (DERIVED FROM 5 U.S.C. 836) WHICH, DURING THE PERIOD INVOLVED, WAS INCORPORATED INTO THE UNIFORM STATE/USIA FOREIGN SERVICE TRAVEL REGULATIONS, MR. ROSENTHAL WOULD BE ENTITLED ON HIS OWN ACCOUNT TO CONTINUATION OF PER DIEM FOR A MINIMUM PERIOD OF 14 CALENDAR DAYS FOLLOWING THE INTERRUPTION IN THE TRAVEL DUE TO HIS ILLNESS, AND TO SUCH LONGER PERIOD AS MAY BE ADMINISTRATIVELY APPROVED. HOWEVER, THERE IS NO AUTHORITY OF LAW WHICH WOULD AUTHORIZE THE CONTINUATION OF PER DIEM FOR THE DEPENDENTS OF MR. ROSENTHAL INCIDENT TO HIS ILLNESS. ACCORDINGLY, OUR DECISION OF AUGUST 8, 1963, IS MODIFIED TO THE EXTENT THAT MR. ROSENTHAL SHOULD BE PAID PER DIEM FOR AT LEAST 14 ADDITIONAL CALENDAR DAYS AND SUCH LONGER PERIOD--- NOT IN EXCESS OF THE DELAY ON ACCOUNT OF ILLNESS--- AS MAY WITHIN YOUR AGENCY'S DISCRETION, BE ADMINISTRATIVELY APPROVED.

https://www.gao.gov/products/b-151159

Selumetinib and Akt Inhibitor MK2206 or mFOLFOX Therapy Comprising Oxaliplatin and Fluorouracil in Treating Patients With Metastatic Pancreatic Cancer Previously Treated With Chemotherapy - Full Text View - ClinicalTrials.gov Selumetinib and Akt Inhibitor MK2206 or mFOLFOX Therapy Comprising Oxaliplatin and Fluorouracil in Treating Patients With Metastatic Pancreatic Cancer Previously Treated With Chemotherapy (S1115) ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT01658943 Recruitment Status : Completed First Posted : August 7, 2012 Results First Posted : March 9, 2016 Last Update Posted : March 9, 2016 Sponsor: National Cancer Institute (NCI) National Cancer Institute (NCI) Study Details Study Description Brief Summary: This randomized phase II trial studies how well selumetinib and Akt inhibitor MK2206 work compared to modified fluorouracil, leucovorin calcium, and oxaliplatin (mFOLFOX) therapy in treating patients with metastatic pancreatic cancer previously treated with chemotherapy. Selumetinib and Akt inhibitor MK2206 may stop the growth of tumor cells by blocking some of the enzymes needed for cell growth. Drugs used in chemotherapy, such as oxaliplatin, and fluorouracil, work in different ways to stop the growth of tumor cells, either by killing the cells or by stopping them from dividing. It is not yet know whether selumetinib and Akt inhibitor MK2206 are more effective than oxaliplatin and fluorouracil in treating patients with metastatic pancreatic cancer. Condition or disease Intervention/treatment Phase Pancreatic Acinar Cell Carcinoma Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma Recurrent Pancreatic Carcinoma Stage IV Pancreatic Cancer Drug: Akt Inhibitor MK2206 Drug: Fluorouracil Drug: Oxaliplatin Drug: Selumetinib Phase 2 Detailed Description: PRIMARY OBJECTIVES: I. To assess overall survival in patients with metastatic pancreatic cancer treated with the combination of AZD6244 hydrogen sulfate (selumetinib) and MK-2206 (Akt inhibitor MK2206) compared to those treated with mFOLFOX. SECONDARY OBJECTIVES: I. To assess the frequency and severity of toxicity associated with the combination of AZD6244 hydrogen sulfate and MK-2206 compared to those with mFOLFOX in this patient population. TERTIARY OBJECTIVES: I. To assess progression free survival (PFS) in patients with metastatic pancreatic cancer treated with the combination of AZD6244 hydrogen sulfate and MK-2206 compared to those treated with mFOLFOX. II. To assess objective tumor response in the subset of patients with measurable disease (confirmed and unconfirmed complete and partial response) in patients with metastatic pancreatic cancer treated with the combination of AZD6244 hydrogen sulfate and MK-2206 compared to those treated with mFOLFOX. III. To bank tissue and blood for future translational medicine studies. ARM I: Patients receive oxaliplatin intravenously (IV) over 2 hours on days 1 and 15 and fluorouracil IV over 46-48 hours on days 1-2 and 15-16 (mFOLFOX). ARM II: Patients receive Akt inhibitor MK2206 orally (PO) on days 1, 8, 15, and 22, and selumetinib PO daily on days 1-28. In all arms, courses repeat every 28 days in the absence of disease progression or unacceptable toxicity. After completion of study treatment, patients are followed up every 6 months for up to 3 years. Study Design Layout table for study information Study Type : Interventional  (Clinical Trial) Actual Enrollment : 137 participants Allocation: Randomized Intervention Model: Parallel Assignment Masking: None (Open Label) Primary Purpose: Treatment Official Title: Randomized Phase II Clinical Trial of AZD6244 Hydrogen Sulfate (NSC-748727) and MK-2206 (NSC-749607) vs mFOLFOX in Patients With Metastatic Pancreatic Cancer After Prior Chemotherapy Study Start Date : August 2012 Actual Primary Completion Date : June 2015 Actual Study Completion Date : June 2015 Resource links provided by the National Library of Medicine MedlinePlus related topics: Pancreatic Cancer Drug Information available for: Fluorouracil Oxaliplatin Selumetinib Genetic and Rare Diseases Information Center resources: Pancreatic Cancer Acinic Cell Carcinoma U.S. FDA Resources Arms and Interventions Arm Intervention/treatment Experimental: Arm I (mFOLFOX regimen) Patients receive oxaliplatin IV over 2 hours on days 1 and 15 and fluorouracil IV over 46-48 hours on days 1-2 and 15-16. Drug: Fluorouracil Given IV Other Names: 5-Fluoro-2,4(1H, 3H)-pyrimidinedione 5-Fluorouracil 5-Fluracil 5-FU AccuSite Actino-Hermal Adrucil Arumel Cytosafe Efudex Efurix Fiverocil Fluoro Uracil Fluoroplex Fluouracil Flurablastin Fluracedyl Fluracil Fluril Fluroblastin Flurox Ribofluor Ro 2-9757 Ro-2-9757 Timazin Drug: Oxaliplatin Given IV Other Names: 1-OHP Dacotin Dacplat Diaminocyclohexane Oxalatoplatinum Eloxatin Eloxatine JM-83 Oxalatoplatin Oxalatoplatinum RP 54780 RP-54780 SR-96669 Experimental: Arm II (Akt inhibitor MK2206 and selumetinib) Patients receive Akt inhibitor MK2206 PO on days 1, 8, 15, and 22, and selumetinib PO daily on days 1-28. Drug: Akt Inhibitor MK2206 Given PO Other Name: MK2206 Drug: Selumetinib Given PO Other Names: ARRY-142886 AZD6244 MEK Inhibitor AZD6244 Outcome Measures Primary Outcome Measures : Overall Survival [ Time Frame: Up to 3 years ] From date of registration to date of death due to any cause. Patients last known to be alive are censored at date of last contact. Secondary Outcome Measures : Number of Patients With Grade 3 Through Grade 5 Adverse Events That Are Related to Study Drug [ Time Frame: Up to 3 years ] Only adverse events that are possibly, probably or definitely related to study drug are reported. Other Outcome Measures: Progression-free Survival [ Time Frame: Up to 3 years ] From date of registration to date of first documentation of progression or symptomatic deterioration, or death due to any cause. Patients last known to be alive and progression free are censored at date of last contact. Objective Response Rate [ Time Frame: Up to 3 years ] Confirmed response (CR) is two or more objective statuses of CR a minimum of four weeks apart documented before progression or symptomatic deterioration. Partial response (PR) is two or more objective statuses of PR or better a minimum of four weeks apart documented before progression or symptomatic deterioration. Unconfirmed CR is one objective status of CR documented before progression or symptomatic deterioration but not qualifying as CR or PR. Unconfirmed PR is one objective status of PR documented before progression or symptomatic deterioration but not qualifying as CR, PR or unconfirmed CR. Inclusion Criteria: Patients must have histologically or cytologically confirmed diagnosis of pancreatic adenocarcinoma; patients with endocrine or neuroendocrine tumors, lymphoma of the pancreas, or ampullary cancer are not eligible Patients must have distant metastatic disease; patients with macroscopic residual disease post-resection as the only site of disease are not eligible; patient must not have clinically significant ascites (defined as requiring paracentesis) or have brain metastases Patients must have received one line, and no more than one line, of prior gemcitabine-based chemotherapy for advanced/metastatic pancreatic cancer and must have documentation of metastatic disease progression while on this treatment; documented disease progression must occur within 42 days of the last treatment; OR For patients who received one line of gemcitabine-based chemotherapy for treatment in the adjuvant setting, recurrence to a metastatic site must be documented by imaging studies within 6 months of completing chemotherapy; chemoradiation as part of adjuvant treatment is acceptable; if the patient received one line of adjuvant gemcitabine-based treatment and had disease recurrence after 6 months of completing chemotherapy, patients will only be eligible after failing one additional line of gemcitabine-based chemotherapy used to treat the metastatic disease Patients must have measurable and/or non-measurable disease; x-rays, scans. or physical examinations for assessment of measurable disease must have been completed within 28 days prior to registration; x-rays, scans, or other tests for assessment of non-measurable disease must have been completed within 42 days prior to registration; all disease must be assessed and documented on the Baseline Tumor Assessment Form Patients must have completed systemic therapy at least 14 days prior to registration, any surgical procedure must have been performed at least 14 days prior to registration, and radiation therapy must be completed at least 7 days prior to registration; patients must have recovered to =< grade 1 from any of the effects of prior therapies or procedures Patients must not plan to receive concurrent chemotherapy, radiotherapy, agents known to prolong corrected QT (QTc) interval, or agents known to be strong inducers or inhibitors of cytochrome P450 3A4/5 (CYP3A4/5) or cytochrome P450 1A2 (CYP1A2) Patient must not have received prior treatment with fluorouracil, irinotecan, leucovorin calcium, and oxaliplatin (FOLFIRINOX), FOLFOX, oxaliplatin-based chemotherapy, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MEK) inhibitors, phosphoinositide-3-kinase (PI3K) inhibitors, or protein kinase B (AKT) inhibitors Zubrod performance status of 0-1 Leukocytes >= 3,000/mcL Absolute neutrophil count (ANC) >= 1,500/mcL Platelets >= 100,000/mcL Hemoglobin >= 9.0 g/dL Patients must have adequate kidney function as evidenced by at least ONE of the following: Serum creatinine =< 1.5 mg/dL within 14 days prior to registration Calculated creatinine clearance >= 60 mL/min; the serum creatinine value used in the calculation must have been obtained within 14 days prior to registration Total bilirubin =< 1.5 times institutional upper limit of normal(IULN) Aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) both =< 2.5 times IULN Patients must have an albumin level >= 3.0 g/dL within 14 days prior to registration Patients must have an International Normalized Ratio (INR) =< 1.5 times IULN within 14 days prior to registration Patients must have an electrocardiogram (ECG) within 14 days prior to registration; patients must have QTcF (by Fridericia's calculation) =< 450 msec (male) or =< 470 msec (female) Patients must not have uncontrolled diarrhea or active infection requiring antibiotics and be fully recovered from any previous serious infections within 7 days prior to registration Patients must be able to swallow tablets and capsules Patients with diabetes must be well controlled with fasting glucose =< grade 1 according to CTCAE v 4.0 within 14 days prior to registration Patients with history of congestive heart failure must have an ejection fraction >= 55% within 14 days prior to registration Patients must not have any of the following: uncontrolled hypertension, acute coronary syndrome within 6 months prior to registration, poorly controlled angina, New York Heart Association class II-IV heart failure, prior or current cardiomyopathy, atrial fibrillation, or severe valvular heart disease Patients must not have a current or past history of central serous retinopathy, retinal vein occlusion, retinal detachment, or have uncontrolled glaucoma (irrespective of intraocular pressure [IOP]) No prior malignancy is allowed except for the following: adequately treated basal cell or squamous cell skin cancer, in situ cervical cancer, adequately treated stage I or II cancer from which the patient is currently in complete remission, or any other cancer from which the patient has been disease-free for five years Patients must not be pregnant or nursing; women/men of reproductive potential must have agreed to use an effective contraceptive method during the study plus at least 16 weeks after last dose; a woman is considered to be of "reproductive potential" if she has had menses at any time in the preceding 12 consecutive months; in addition to routine contraceptive methods, "effective contraception" also includes heterosexual celibacy and surgery intended to prevent pregnancy (or with a side-effect of pregnancy prevention) defined as a hysterectomy, bilateral oophorectomy or bilateral tubal ligation; however, if at any point a previously celibate patient chooses to become heterosexually active during the time period for use of contraceptive measures outlined in the protocol, he/she is responsible for beginning contraceptive measures Prestudy history and physical must be obtained within 28 days prior to registration Sites must seek additional patient consent for the future use of specimens All patients must be informed of the investigational nature of this study and must sign and give written informed consent in accordance with institutional and federal guidelines As part of the Oncology Patient Enrollment Network (OPEN) registration process the treating institution's identity is provided in order to ensure that the current (within 365 days) date of institutional review board approval for this study has been entered into the system

https://clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT01658943

(PDF) Immunogenicity when utilizing adenovirus serotype 4 and 5 vaccines expressing circumsporozoite protein in naïve and Adenovirus (Ad5) immune mice PDF | Induction of potent long lasting effector T cell responses against liver stage malaria antigens strongly correlates with protection from malaria.... | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate Immunogenicity when utilizing adenovirus serotype 4 and 5 vaccines expressing circumsporozoite protein in naïve and Adenovirus (Ad5) immune mice DOI: 10.1186/1475-2875-11-209 Abstract and Figures Ad4-CSP/Ad5-CSP heterologous prime boost results in improved quality of T cell response. A prime injection of 1 × 1010 vp/mouse Ad4-CSP followed by a boost of 1 × 1010 vp/mouse of Ad5-CSP resulted in significantly more IFNγ secretion by splenocytes measured by ELISpot (A) and CD3+ CD8+ T cells measured by flow cytometry (B). Ad4-CSP/Ad5-CSP was the only treatment to stimulate a significantly higher percentage of TNFα production as compared to unvaccinated animals (C). Cells were stained with CD3-APC-Cy7, CD8-Alexa flour700, TNFα-PE-Cy7, IFNγ-FITC, and Granzyme B-APC. Bars represent ± standard error. Statistical analysis was completed using One Way ANOVA with Student-Newman-Keuls post-hoc test, *, **, *** denotes significance over naïve, P < 0.05, P < 0.01, P < 0.001. … Memory responses triggered by vaccination with homologous and heterologous prime boost regimens utilizing Ad4-CSP and Ad5-CSP in Ad naïve mice. Splenocytes (B-C) and PBMCs (D-E) were collected two weeks after final vaccination. Cells were stained for CD62L-V450, CD127-PerCP Cy5.5, and CSP (NYD) tet-PE. CSP specific central memory T cells were determined as CD62L+ CD127+ cells that are tet+ and effector memory cells are CD62Llo CD127+ cells that are tet+. Provided above is an example of gating (A). Bars represent ± standard error. Statistical analysis was completed using One Way ANOVA with Student-Newman-Keuls post-hoc test, **, *** denotes significance over naïve, P < 0.01, P < 0.001. … All vaccinations stimulated significantly higher anti-CSP total IgG than unvaccinated and AD4-CSP/Ad4-CSP vaccination in Ad naïve animals. Plasma was collected 14 days post the final vaccination. Plasma was diluted 1:100, 1:200, and 1:400 and measured for total IgG against CSP by ELISA. Bars represent ± standard error. Statistical analysis was completed using One Way ANOVA with Student-Newman-Keuls post-hoc test, *, **, *** denotes significance over naïve, P < 0.05, P < 0.01, P < 0.001. ### denotes significance over Ad4-CSP/Ad4CSP treatment, P < 0.001. … Figures - uploaded by Sergey S Seregin Content uploaded by Sergey S Seregin Supplementary resources (4) Additional file 4 Data June 2012 Nathan Schuldt · Yasser Aldhamen · Sarah Godbehere-Roosa · Sergey S Seregin · Andrea Amalfitano Additional file 2 Data June 2012 Nathan Schuldt · Yasser Aldhamen · Sarah Godbehere-Roosa · Sergey S Seregin · Andrea Amalfitano Additional file 3 Data June 2012 Nathan Schuldt · Yasser Aldhamen · Sarah Godbehere-Roosa · Sergey S Seregin · Andrea Amalfitano Data Nathan Schuldt · Yasser Aldhamen · Sarah Godbehere-Roosa · Sergey S Seregin · Andrea Amalfitano ... Of the more than 70 known AdV types, only a small number have been tested in preclinical studies (6,7,9,(12)(13)(14) (15) , and apart from Ad5, only vectors based on human AdV types 4, 6, 26, and 35 and chimpanzee AdV types 3 and 63 have been advanced into clinical studies as vaccine candidates against Ebola virus (16,17), Plasmodium falciparum (18,19), Mycobacterium tuberculosis (20), influenza virus (21), hepatitis C virus (22), or human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) (23)(24)(25)(26). For most of the rare AdV-based vectors, it has been shown that their immunogenicity is inferior to that of Ad5, resulting in reduced immune responses upon immunization with these vectors, although their efficacy in Ad5-preimmune mice is superior to the efficacy of an Ad5-based vaccine (7,9,12,14,15). ... ... Of the more than 70 known AdV types, only a small number have been tested in preclinical studies (6,7,9,(12)(13)(14)(15), and apart from Ad5, only vectors based on human AdV types 4, 6, 26, and 35 and chimpanzee AdV types 3 and 63 have been advanced into clinical studies as vaccine candidates against Ebola virus (16,17), Plasmodium falciparum (18,19), Mycobacterium tuberculosis (20), influenza virus (21), hepatitis C virus (22), or human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) (23)(24)(25)(26). For most of the rare AdV-based vectors, it has been shown that their immunogenicity is inferior to that of Ad5, resulting in reduced immune responses upon immunization with these vectors, although their efficacy in Ad5-preimmune mice is superior to the efficacy of an Ad5-based vaccine (7,9,12,14, 15) . Interestingly, this reduced immunogenicity has been shown to affect the induction of transgene-specific CD8 ϩ T cell responses (9,10,13,14), but also, humoral immune responses have been shown to be reduced (7,12,15). ... ... For most of the rare AdV-based vectors, it has been shown that their immunogenicity is inferior to that of Ad5, resulting in reduced immune responses upon immunization with these vectors, although their efficacy in Ad5-preimmune mice is superior to the efficacy of an Ad5-based vaccine (7,9,12,14,15). Interestingly, this reduced immunogenicity has been shown to affect the induction of transgene-specific CD8 ϩ T cell responses (9,10,13,14), but also, humoral immune responses have been shown to be reduced (7,12, 15) . ... Comparative Evaluation of the Vaccine Efficacies of Three Adenovirus-Based Vector Types in the Friend Retrovirus Infection Model Sonja Windmann Wibke Bayer AdV-based vectors are important tools for the development of vaccines against a wide range of pathogens. While AdV vectors are generally considered safe and highly effective, their application can be severely impaired by preexisting immunity due to the widespread seroprevalence of some AdV types. The characterization of different AdV types with regard to immunogenicity and efficacy in challenge models is of great importance for the development of improved AdV-based vectors that allow for efficient immunization despite anti-AdV immunity. We show that the immunity induced by an Ad48-based vector is inferior to that induced by an Ad5-based vector but can still mediate the control of an FV infection in highly FV-susceptible mice. However, the efficacy of Ad48-based immunization was impaired in Ad5-preimmune mice. Importantly, we found cross-reactivity of both the humoral and cellular immune responses raised by the individual AdV types, suggesting that switching to a different AdV type may not be sufficient to circumvent preexisting anti-AdV immunity. View ... Ad5-based vaccines are attractive for a multitude of reasons, including their broad human cell tropism, relative ease of manufacturing for scaled production, and low potential for adverse side effects (1). Additionally, numerous studies have demonstrated the tremendous ability of Ad5-based vaccines to create robust, transgene-specific cell-mediated immunity against antigens derived from pathogens, such as HIV (2)(3)(4)(5)(6)(7)(8), the malaria parasite (9, 10) , and Mycobacterium tuberculosis (11,12), as well as many tumor-associated antigens (13)(14)(15)(16)(17). Although the advantages of these vaccines are abundant, there has been some hesitation toward their practical use due to the high prevalence of preexisting Ad5 immunity in the human population (18)(19)(20). ... ... Although the advantages of these vaccines are abundant, there has been some hesitation toward their practical use due to the high prevalence of preexisting Ad5 immunity in the human population (18)(19)(20). Several strategies to evade preexisting immunity toward Ad5 have been attempted, including the use of alternative delivery methods (21,22), modification of viral surface proteins (23), and the use of varied Ad serotypes (10, 24,25), and each of these has had various levels of success. ... Decreased vector gene expression from E2b-deleted Ad5 vaccines intensifies pro-inflammatory immune responses CLIN VACCINE IMMUNOL Dionisia Quiroga Yasser Aldhamen Andrea Amalfitano Recombinant adenovirus serotype 5 (Ad5) vectors are promising vaccine candidates due to their intrinsic immunogenicity and potent transgene expression, however, widespread pre-existing Ad5 immunity has been considered a developmental impediment to the use of traditional, first-generation (Ad5[E1-]) vaccines. Even in the presence of anti-Ad5 immunity, recent murine and human studies have confirmed E2b-deleted Ad5 (Ad5[E1-,E2b-]) vaccines to be highly efficacious inducers of transgene-specific memory responses and significantly less toxic options than Ad5[E1-] vaccines. While these findings have been substantially confirmed, the molecular mechanisms underlying the different reactions to these vaccine platforms are unknown. Using peripheral blood mononuclear cell (hPBMC) cultures derived from multiple human donors, we found that Ad5[E1-,E2b-] vaccines trigger higher levels of hPBMC pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion than Ad5[E1-] vaccines. Interestingly, these responses were generated regardless of the donors' pre-existing anti-Ad5 humoral and cell-mediated immune response status. In vitro hPBMC infection with the Ad5[E1-,E2b-] vaccine also provoked greater levels of Th1-dominant gene responses, yet lower amounts of Ad viral-derived gene expression as compared to Ad5[E1-] vaccines. These results suggest that Ad5[E1-,E2b-], in contrast to Ad5[E1-], vaccines do not promote activities that suppress innate immune signaling, thereby allowing for an improved vaccine efficacy and superior safety profile independent of previous Ad5 immunity. ... An additional layer to consider when using adenoviral vectors is related to previous immune responses to the specific type used, since prior exposure to the Ad can interfere with its capability to induce an immune response, especially in homologous prime-boost regimens (Yang Z et al., 2003; Schuldt et al., 2012) . However, usage of different types of adenoviruses can overcome this problem, as exemplified by researchers' experiments with isotypes of defective chimpanzee adenovirus applied in a heterologous prime-boost immunization; they showed induction of a high frequency of specific CD8 + T cells (Pinto et al., 2003). ... The use of adenoviral vectors in gene therapy and vaccine approaches Article Full-text available Natália Meneses Araújo Ileana Gabriela Sanchez Rubio Nicholas Pietro Agulha Toneto Rodrigo Esaki Tamura Adenovirus was first identified in the 1950s and since then this pathogenic group of viruses has been explored and transformed into a genetic transfer vehicle. Modification or deletion of few genes are necessary to transform it into a conditionally or non-replicative vector, creating a versatile tool capable of transducing different tissues and inducing high levels of transgene expression. In the early years of vector development, the application in monogenic diseases faced several hurdles, including short-term gene expression and even a fatality. On the other hand, an adenoviral delivery strategy for treatment of cancer was the first approved gene therapy product. There is an increasing interest in expressing transgenes with therapeutic potential targeting the cancer hallmarks, inhibiting metastasis, inducing cancer cell death or modulating the immune system to attack the tumor cells. Replicative adenovirus as vaccines may be even older and date to a few years of its discovery, application of non-replicative adenovirus for vaccination against different microorganisms has been investigated, but only recently, it demonstrated its full potential being one of the leading vaccination tools for COVID-19. This is not a new vector nor a new technology, but the result of decades of careful and intense work in this field. ... Thus, developing new adenoviral vectors is necessary (Alonso-Padilla et al., 2016;Guo et al., 2018). HAdV4 could be developed as a safe option for gene therapy and as vaccine vectors for long-term use in military recruits in the USA (Alonso-Padilla et al., 2016;Bullard et al., 2018;Guo et al., 2018;Gurwith et al., 2013;Hsu et al., 1992; Schuldt et al., 2012; Weaver, 2014). Further, HAdV4 seroprevalence is 58.4% in healthy populations from southern China (Ye et al., 2018). ... Characterization of a replication-competent vector encoding DsRed based on a human adenovirus type 4 a-like strain VIRUS RES Xingui Tian Yong Chen Haitao Li Rong Zhou Human adenovirus type 4 (HAdV4) is an etiological agent of acute respiratory disease (ARD) in pediatric and adult patients. HAdV4 strains can be divided into two major genomic clusters, namely prototype (p)-like viruses and a-like viruses. Here, the complete genome sequence of HAdV4 strain GZ01, isolated from a child with ARD in southern China, is first reported and analyzed. This strain was determined to be of the 4a1 genome-type based on in silico restriction profiles. Then, a replication-competent rAd4DsRed virus, containing the HAdV4 GZ01 infectious genome and expressing the reporter molecule DsRed, was generated and characterized. Recombinant rAd4DsRed can infect AD293, hamster, and mouse cells in which DsRed protein was expressed. No changes in antigenicity and genome replication were detected for rAd4DsRed and wild-type HAdV4. Mice immunized with rAd4DsRed was elicited a marked antibody response to DsRed. A rapid method of testing neutralizing antibodies against HAdV3 and HAdV4 was also established using a mixture of rAd4DsRed and rAd3EGFP. Our results provide the foundation to develop HAdV4 vaccines, potential vector platforms for vaccine and gene therapy, and rapid methods for serological and antiviral screening. View Show abstract ... Viral vectors have been extensively evaluated as malaria vaccine candidates based on their ability to encode Plasmodium antigens and induce subsequent CD8 + T cell responses [92] . Examples of viral vector platforms for inducing Plasmodium-specific CD8 + T cell responses include replication-deficient adenoviruses (e.g., human, simian, and chimpanzee serotypes) and replication-deficient orthopoxviruses (e.g., modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) and fowl pox 9 virus) [93,94]. ... CD8+ T Cell Responses to Plasmodium and Intracellular Parasites Full-text available Aug 2013 Curr Immunol Rev Nicolas F. Villarino Nathan Schmidt Parasitic protozoa are major threats to human health affecting millions of people around the world. Control of these infections by the host immune system relies on a myriad of immunological mechanisms that includes both humoral and cellular immunity. CD8+ T cells contribute to the control of these parasitic infections in both animals and humans. Here, we will focus on the CD8+ T cell response against a subset of these protozoa: Plasmodium, Toxoplasma gondii, Leishmania and Trypanosoma cruzi, with an emphasis on experimental rodent systems. It is evident a complex interaction occurs between CD8+ T cells and the invading protozoa. A detailed understanding of how CD8+ T cells mediate protection should provide the basis for the development of effective vaccines that prevent and control infections by these parasites. ... There are approximately 60 different types of Ad divided into 7 species (A-G) (Wy Ip and Qasim, 2013). Researchers, including ourselves, have begun to look into the use of low-seroprevalent Ads as alternative viral vectored vaccines (Abbink et al., 2007;Waddington et al., 2008; Schuldt et al., 2012; Teigler et al., 2012;Zahn et al., 2012;Baden et al., 2013;Weaver, 2013;Weaver and Barry, 2013). While these alternative viral vectors may have a lower seroprevalence, the differences in their biology as compared with Ad5 have started to come into question. ... CD46-Mediated Transduction of a Species D Adenovirus Vaccine Improves Mucosal Vaccine Efficacy Mar 2014 HUM GENE THER Zenaido T. Camacho Mallory A Turner Michael A. Barry The high levels of pre-existing immunity against Adenovirus type 5 (Ad5) have deemed Ad5 unusable for translation as a human vaccine vector. Low seroprevalent alternative viral vectors may be less impacted by pre-existing immunity, but they may also have significantly different phenotypes than that of Ad5. In this study we compare species D Ads (26, 28 and 48) to the species C Ad5. In vitro transduction studies show striking differences between the species C and D viruses. Most notably, Ad26 transduced human dendritic cells much more effectively than Ad5. In vivo imaging studies showed strikingly different transgene expression profiles. The Ad5 virus was superior to the species D viruses in BALB/c mice when delivered intramuscularly. However, the inverse was true when the viruses were delivered mucosally via the intranasal epithelia. Intramuscular transduction was restored in mice that ubiquitously expressed human CD46, the primary receptor for species D viruses. We analyzed both species C and D Ads for their ability to induce prophylactic immunity against influenza in the CD46 transgenic mouse model. Surprisingly, the species D vaccines again failed to induce greater levels of protective immunity as compared to the species C Ad5 when delivered intramuscularly. However, the species D Ad vaccine vector, Ad48, induced significantly greater protection as compared to Ad5 when delivered mucosally via the intranasal route in CD46 transgenic mice. These data shed light on the complexities between the species and types of Ad. Our findings indicate that more research will be required to identify the mechanisms that play a key role in the induction of protective immunity induced by species D Ad vaccines. ... 11 In addition to poxvirus vectors, adenoviral-vectored vaccines have been found to be potent vectors for inducing and boosting T-cell responses to recombinant transgene products. [13] [15] However, the widespread seroprevalence of antibodies to common human adenovirus serotype-5 (AdHu5) 16 limits the utility of these viruses as vaccine vectors in humans and was implicated in the failure of an human immunodeficiency virus vaccine to demonstrate efficacy. 17 Simian adenoviruses do not suffer from the same limitation, and we have constructed a novel replication-deficient chimpanzee adenovirus vector 18 expressing conserved influenza antigens NP and M1 (ChAdOx1 NP+M1). ... Clinical Assessment of a Novel Recombinant Simian Adenovirus ChAdOx1 as a Vectored Vaccine Expressing Conserved Influenza A Antigens Adenoviruses are potent vectors for inducing and boosting cellular immunity to encoded recombinant antigens. However, the widespread seroprevalence of neutralizing antibodies to common human adenovirus serotypes limits their use. Simian adenoviruses do not suffer from the same drawbacks. We have constructed a replication-deficient chimpanzee adenovirus-vectored vaccine expressing the conserved influenza antigens, nucleoprotein and matrix protein 1. Here we report safety and T-cell immunogenicity following vaccination with this novel recombinant simian adenovirus, ChAdOx1 NP+M1, in a first in human dose escalation study using a 3+3 study design, followed by boosting with MVA expressing the same antigens in some volunteers. We demonstrate ChAdOx1 NP+M1 to be safe and immunogenic. ChAdOx1 is a promising vaccine vector that could be used to deliver vaccine antigens where strong cellular immune responses are required for protection.Molecular Therapy (2013); doi:10.1038/mt.2013.284. Semi-quantification of antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE) in the uptake of Adenovirus serotype 5 into THP-1 cells Replication defective recombinant Ad5 vectors (rAdV5) are extensively explored for its applications in gene therapy and vaccine delivery. Ad5 enter into monocytes and macrophages through CAR independent route as an immune complex termed as antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE). We developed an effective method for estimating the ADE of rAdV5 encoding GFP (rAdV5-GFP) into THP-1 cells, using fluorimetric semi-quantification of GFP. Initially, twenty numbers of human sera samples were screened in HeLa cells for anti-Ad5 antibody titer using neutralization assay. Uptake of rAdV5-GFP in THP-1 cells was observed only after pre-incubation with the serially diluted human sera which are attributed to ADE. The optimal dilution which showed the maximum GFP expression as per the fluorescence microscopic analysis in THP-1 cells was used for further analysis. Fluorimetric analysis of the THP-1 cell lysate showed a maximum GFP intensity of 17058 RFU, which was equivalent to the 0.397 pmoles of Alexa Fluor 488 under the same experimental condition. Similarly, immunoblot analysis of GFP in THP-1 cell lysate and HeLa cell lysate confirmed the entry of rAdV5-GFP into the cells. The assay can serve as a platform for understanding the molecular events involved in ADE for the uptake of viruses into immune cells. Methods to Mitigate Immune Responses to Adenoviral Vectors Recombinant adenovirus (Ad) vectors are widely utilized vehicles for gene therapy applications in preclinical settings, as well as in clinical human gene therapy trials. Importantly, the clinical use of Ad-based vectors continues to surpass all other gene transfer platforms relative to numbers of patients treated and number of clinical trials overall. Despite their numerous advantages, including efficient transduction of therapeutic transgenes into a variety of cells in vivo and ease for scaled production, the elicitation of innate and adaptive immune responses, both to the Ad vector itself and to the transgenes expressed by the vectors, is a major limitation for their utilization in clinical applications in general, and in gene therapy trials in particular. These issues, however, are not unique to Ad-based gene transfer vectors. Thus, lessons learned with regard to overcoming these problems with Ad-based vectors are also highly relevant to all gene transfer vectors. Recent advances in adenovirus biology and immunology fields have shed light on how this virus vector interacts with both the innate and the adaptive immune systems. These facts, coupled with utilization of several strategies that allow for modulation of these immune responses, have improved the outcome of Ad-based gene transfer in several human clinical trials. In this chapter, we review the current understanding of innate and adaptive immune responses to Ad vectors, as well as some recent novel strategies that attempt to harness Ad vector- and/or host-induced immune responses to further broaden the safe and efficient use of Ad-based gene transfer therapies. Adenoviral vectors as novel vaccines for influenza Objectives Influenza is a viral respiratory disease causing seasonal epidemics, with significant annual illness and mortality. Emerging viruses can pose a major pandemic threat if they acquire the capacity for sustained human-to-human transmission. Vaccination reduces influenza-associated mortality and is critical in minimising the burden on the healthcare system. However, current vaccines are not always effective in at-risk populations and fail to induce long-lasting protective immunity against a range of viruses.Key findingsThe development of ‘universal’ influenza vaccines, which induce heterosubtypic immunity capable of reducing disease severity, limiting viral shedding or protecting against influenza subtypes with pandemic potential, has gained interest in the research community. To date, approaches have focused on inducing immune responses to conserved epitopes within the stem of haemagglutinin, targeting the ectodomain of influenza M2e or by stimulating cellular immunity to conserved internal antigens, nucleoprotein or matrix protein 1.SummaryAdenoviral vectors are potent inducers of T-cell and antibody responses and have demonstrated safety in clinical applications, making them an excellent choice of vector for delivery of vaccine antigens. In order to circumvent pre-existing immunity in humans, serotypes from non-human primates have recently been investigated. We will discuss the pre-clinical development of these novel vectors and their advancement to clinical trials.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227855616_Immunogenicity_when_utilizing_adenovirus_serotype_4_and_5_vaccines_expressing_circumsporozoite_protein_in_naive_and_Adenovirus_Ad5_immune_mice

UNIPROT:Q9NRD8 - FACTA Search A cDNA encoding an NADPH oxidase flavoprotein was isolated from the rat thyroid gland. The predicted 1517-residue polypeptide was 82.5% identical to the human THOX2/ DUOX2 and 74% similar to THOX1/DUOX1. Rat THOX2 lacks a stretch of 30 residues, corresponding to one exon in the human gene sequence. THOX2 mRNA was found to be expressed in cultured FRTL-5 cells. The level of THOX2 mRNA was increased by cAMP in these cells and it was decreased in the thyroids of rats treated with the antithyroid drug methimazole, unlike the TPO and NIS mRNAs. Since it was found in the intestine, duodenum, and colon, in addition to thyroid, we suggest that it be called LNOX, the new family of long homologs of NOX flavoproteins rather than THOX and/or DUOX. ... PMID:Thyroid oxidase (THOX2) gene expression in the rat thyroid cell line FRTL-5. 1103 19 Duox2, and probably Duox1 are glycoflavoproteins involved in the thyroid H2O2 generator functionally associated to thyroperoxidase (TPO). We investigated both DUOX1 and DUOX2 gene expressions using quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) in 47 thyroid carcinomas, including 10 paired normal/tumoral tissues. In carcinomas, variations of DUOX1 and DUOX2 mRNA levels were parallel, indicating that control mechanisms of both gene expressions operate in tumors as well as in normal thyroid tissues; DUOX1 expression was in the normal range in 20, was decreased up to 50-fold in 8, and increased up to 7-fold in 19 samples. DUOX2 expression was in the normal range in 15, was decreased up to 200-fold in 10, and increased up to 5-fold in 22 samples. In the 10 paired samples, variations of DUOX and TPO gene expressions were not correlated. We analyzed Duoxl/2 protein expression in 86 tumor samples using an antipeptide antiserum reacting with both Duox proteins. In normal tissue, Duox proteins are localized at the apical pole of thyrocytes, with 40% to 60% of thyrocytes being stained. In the 86 cancer tissues, immunostaining was absent in 19 samples, was low in 32, and normal or even slightly increased in the other 35 samples. The expression of Duox proteins was related to tumor differentiation, being more frequently found in neoplastic tissues that were able to pick up radioiodine, and in those with a detectable expression of sodium iodide symporter ( NIS ), pendrin and TPO. ... PMID:Expression of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase flavoprotein DUOX genes and proteins in human papillary and follicular thyroid carcinomas. 1176 10 Thyroperoxidase requires H(2)O(2) to catalyze the biosynthesis of thyroxine residues on thyroglobulin. Iodide inhibits the generation of H(2)O(2), and consequently the synthesis of thyroid hormones (Wolff-Chaikoff effect). The H(2)O(2) generator is a calcium-dependent nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase involving the flavoprotein Duox2. NADPH oxidase activity and Duox2 require cAMP to be expressed in pig thyrocytes. We studied the effect of iodide on NADPH oxidase activity, the DUOX2 gene, and Duox2 protein expression in pig thyroid follicles cultured for 48 h with forskolin or a cAMP analog. Iodide inhibited the cellular release of H(2)O(2) and NADPH oxidase activity, effects prevented by methimazole. Northern blot studies showed that iodide did not reduce DUOX2 mRNA levels but did reduce those of TPO and NIS . Western blot analyses using a Duox2-specific antipeptide showed that Duox2 has two N-glycosylation states, which have oligosaccharide motifs accounting for about 15 kDa and 25 kDa, respectively, of the apparent molecular mass. Cyclic AMP increased the amount of the highly glycosylated form of Duox2, an effect antagonized by iodide in a methimazole-dependent manner. These data suggest that an oxidized form of iodide inhibits the H(2)O(2) generator at a posttranscriptional level by reducing the availability of the mature Duox2 protein. ... PMID:Effect of iodide on nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase activity and Duox2 protein expression in isolated porcine thyroid follicles. 1263 6 Congenital hypothyroidism is the most common neonatal metabolic disorder and results in severe neurodevelopmental impairment and infertility if untreated. Congenital hypothyroidism is usually sporadic but up to 2% of thyroid dysgenesis is familial, and congenital hypothyroidism caused by organification defects is often recessively inherited. The candidate genes associated with this genetically heterogeneous disorder form two main groups: those causing thyroid gland dysgenesis and those causing dyshormonogenesis. Genes associated with thyroid gland dysgenesis include the TSH receptor in non-syndromic congenital hypothyroidism, and Gsalpha and the thyroid transcription factors (TTF-1, TTF-2, and Pax-8), associated with different complex syndromes that include congenital hypothyroidism. Among those causing dyshormonogenesis, the thyroid peroxidase and thyroglobulin genes were initially described, and more recently PDS (Pendred syndrome), NIS (sodium iodide symporter), and THOX2 ( thyroid oxidase 2 ) gene defects. There is also early evidence for a third group of congenital hypothyroid conditions associated with iodothyronine transporter defects associated with severe neurological sequelae. This review focuses on the genetic aspects of primary congenital hypothyroidism. ... PMID:Genetics of congenital hypothyroidism. 1586 66 Thyroid diseases constitute a heterogeneous collection of abnormalities associated with mutations in genes responsible for the development of thyroid: thyroid transcription factor-1 (TTF-1), thyroid transcriptions factor-2 (TTF-2) and PAX8, or in one of the genes coding for the proteins involved in thyroid hormone biosynthesis such as thyroglobulin (TG), thyroperoxidase (TPO), hydrogen peroxide-generating system ( DUOX2 ), sodium/iodide symporter ( NIS ), pendrin (PDS), TSH and TSH receptor (TSHr). Congenital hypothyroidism occurs with a prevalence of 1 in 4000 newborns. Patients with this syndrome can be divided into two groups: nongoitrous (dysem/bryogenesis) or goitrous (dyshormonogenesis) congenital hypothyroidism. The dysembryogenesis group, which accounts for 85% of the cases, results from ectopy, agenesis and hypoplasia. In a minority of these patients, the congenital hypothyroidism is associated with mutations in TTF-1, TTF-2, PAX-8, TSH or TSHr genes. The presence of congenital goiter (15% of the cases) has been linked to mutations in the NIS , TG, TPO, DUOX2 or PDS genes. The congenital hypothyroidism with dyshormonogenesis is transmitted as an autosomal recessive trait. Somatic mutations of the TSHr have been identified in hyperfunctioning thyroid adenomas. Another established thyroid disease is the resistance to thyroid hormone (RTH). It is a syndrome of reduced tissue responsiveness to hormonal action caused by mutations located in the thyroid hormone receptor beta (TRbeta) gene. Mutant TRbetas interfere with the function of the wild-type receptor by a dominant negative mechanism. In conclusion, the identification of mutations in the thyroid expression genes has provided important insights into structure-function relationships. The thyroid constitutes an excellent model for the molecular study of genetic diseases. ... PMID:[The thyroid as a model for molecular mechanisms in genetic diseases]. 1604 41 Thyroid hormone acts on a wide range of tissues. In the cardiovascular system, thyroid hormone is an important regulator of cardiac function and cardiovascular hemodynamics. Although some early reports in the literature suggested an unknown extrathyroidal source of thyroid hormone, it is currently thought to be produced exclusively in the thyroid gland, a highly specialized organ with the sole function of generating, storing, and secreting thyroid hormone. Whereas most of the proteins necessary for thyroid hormone synthesis are thought to be expressed exclusively in the thyroid gland, we now have found evidence that all of these proteins, i.e., thyroglobulin, DUOX1, DUOX2 , the sodium-iodide symporter , pendrin, thyroid peroxidase, and thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor, are also expressed in cardiomyocytes. Furthermore, we found thyroglobulin to be transiently upregulated in an in vitro model of ischemia. When performing these experiments in the presence of 125 I, we found that 125 I was integrated into thyroglobulin and that under ischemia-like conditions the radioactive signal in thyroglobulin was reduced. Concomitantly we observed an increase of intracellularly produced, 125 I-labeled thyroid hormone. In conclusion, our findings demonstrate for the first time that cardiomyocytes produce thyroid hormone in a manner adapted to the cell's environment. ... Iodide Handling Disorders lead to defects of the biosynthesis of thyroid hormones (thyroid dyshormonogenesis, TD) and thereafter congenital hypothyroidism (CH), the most common endocrine disease characterized by low levels of circulating thyroid hormones. The prevalence of CH is 1 in 2000-3000 live births. Prevention of CH is based on prenatal diagnosis, carrier identification, and genetic counseling. In neonates a complete diagnosis of TD should include clinical examination, biochemical thyroid tests, thyroid ultrasound, radioiodine or technetium scintigraphy and perchlorate discharge test (PDT). Biosynthesis of thyroid hormones requires the presence of iodide, thyroid peroxidase (TPO), a supply of hydrogen peroxide (DUOX system), an iodine acceptor protein, thyroglobulin (TG), and the rescue and recycling of iodide by the action of iodotyrosine deiodinase or iodotyrosine dehalogenase 1 (IYD or DEHAL1). The iodide transport is a two-step process involving transporters located either in the basolateral or apical membranes, sodium iodide symporter ( NIS ) and pendrin (PDS), respectively. TD has been linked to mutations in the solute carrier family 5, member 5 transporter (SLC5A5, encoding NIS ), solute carrier family 26, member 4 transporter (SLC26A4, encoding PDS), TPO, DUOX2 , DUOXA2, TG and IYD genes. These mutations produce a heterogeneous spectrum of CH, with an autosomal recessive inheritance. Thereafter, the patients are usually homozygous or compound heterozygous for the gene mutations and the parents, carriers of one mutation. In the last two decades, considerable progress has been made in identifying the genetic and molecular causes of TD. Recent advances in DNA sequencing technology allow the massive screening and facilitate the studies of phenotype variability. In this article we included the most recent data related to disorders caused by mutations in NIS , TPO, TG and IYD. ... PMID:Iodide handling disorders (NIS, TPO, TG, IYD). 2864 8 Thyroid dyshormonogenesis is characterized by impairment in one of the several stages of thyroid hormone synthesis and accounts for 10%-15% of congenital hypothyroidism (CH). Seven genes are known to be associated with thyroid dyshormonogenesis: SLC5A5 ( NIS ), SCL26A4 (PDS), TG, TPO, DUOX2 , DUOXA2, and IYD (DHEAL1). Depending on the underlying mechanism, CH can be permanent or transient. Inheritance is usually autosomal recessive, but there are also cases of autosomal dominant inheritance. In this review, we describe the molecular basis, clinical presentation, and genetic diagnosis of CH due to thyroid dyshormonogenesis, with an emphasis on the benefits of targeted exome sequencing as an updated diagnostic approach. ... PMID:Clinical genetics of defects in thyroid hormone synthesis. 3059 77 Целью настоящего исследования явилось изучение зависимости между распределением генотипов полиморфных маркеров генов TSHR (rs3783949, замена — А/С), NIS (rs 7250346, замена — C/G), DUOXI (rs2467825 замена — A/G), DUOX2 (rs7171366, замена G/Т), ТРО (rs 17091737, замена — G/Т) и результатом лечения диффузного эутиреоидного зоба (ДЭЗ) с использованием двух режимов: монотерапии препаратами йода и комбинированной терапии препаратами йода и левотироксина. Для выявления более эффективного и безопасного метода лечения ДЭЗ сравнивались между собой объем щитовидной железы (ЩЖ), уровни тиреотропного гормона гипофиза и антител к тиреопероксидазе в двух группах: ''Монотерапия'' (п = 40) — KI(200мкг/сут) и "комбинированная терапия"(п = 41) — К1 (100мкг) +Ь-Т4(1 мкг/кг/сут). Каждая группа в зависимости от результата лечения была разделена на 2 подгруппы: "удовлетворительный результат" и "неудовлетворительный результат" (объем ЩЖне достигал пределов нормы или продолжал увеличиваться). Для оценки зависимости между полиморфизмом изучаемых генов и результатом терапии ДЭЗ был проведен корреляционный анализ. Имелась достоверная корреляция (г = -0,39; р = 0,03) между распределением генотипов полиморфного маркера гена TSHR и результатом лечения ДЭЗ в группе "Монотерапия": при удовлетворительном результате преобладали генотипы АА + АС, а при неудовлетворительном — генотип СС. Достоверной корреляции между распределением генотипов изучаемых полиморфных маркеров и результатом лечения при помощи комбинированной терапии выявлено не было. Таким образом, результат лечения ДЭЗ с использованием монотерапии препаратами йода может зависеть от генетических факторов. ... PMID:[Influence of genetic factors on the result of therapy for diffuse euthyroid goiter]. 3156 72 Neonatal screening in Macedonia detects congenital hypothyroidism (CH) with an incidence of 1 in 1,585, and more than 50% of cases exhibit a normally located gland- in-situ (GIS). Monogenic mutations causing dyshormonogenesis may underlie GIS CH; additionally, a small proportion of thyroid hypoplasia has a monogenic cause, such as TSHR and PAX8 defects. The genetic architecture of Macedonian CH cases has not previously been studied. We recruited screening-detected, non-syndromic GIS CH or thyroid hypoplasia cases ( n = 40) exhibiting a spectrum of biochemical thyroid dysfunction ranging from severe permanent to mild transient CH and including 11 familial cases. Cases were born at term, with birth weight >3,000 g , and thyroid morphologies included goiter ( n = 11), thyroid hypoplasia ( n = 6), and apparently normal-sized thyroid. A comprehensive, phenotype-driven, Sanger sequencing approach was used to identify genetic mutations underlying CH, by sequentially screening known dyshormonogenesis-associated genes and TSHR in GIS cases and TSHR and PAX8 in cases with thyroid hypoplasia. Potentially pathogenic variants were identified in 14 cases, of which four were definitively causative; we also detected digenic variants in three cases. Seventeen variants (nine novel) were identified in TPO ( n = 4), TG ( n = 3), TSHR ( n = 4), DUOX2 ( n = 4), and PAX8 ( n = 2). No mutations were detected in DUOXA2, NIS , IYD , and SLC26A7 . The relatively low mutation frequency suggests that factors other than recognized monogenic causes (oligogenic variants, environmental factors, or novel genes) may contribute to GIS CH in this region. Future non-hypothesis-driven, next-generation sequencing studies are required to confirm these findings. ... PMID:Genetics of Gland- in-situ

http://www.nactem.ac.uk/facta/cgi-bin/facta3.cgi?query=UNIPROT%3AQ9NRD8%7C111111%7C0%7C0%7C40348%7C0%7C10

RCSB PDB - 6XOZ: Structure of human PYCR1 complexed with L-tetrahydro-2-furoic acid Structure of human PYCR1 complexed with L-tetrahydro-2-furoic acid 6XOZ Structure of human PYCR1 complexed with L-tetrahydro-2-furoic acid PDB DOI: https://doi.org/10.2210/pdb6XOZ/pdb Classification: OXIDOREDUCTASE Organism(s): Homo sapiens Expression System: Escherichia coli Mutation(s): No Deposited: 2020-07-07 Released: 2020-11-04 Deposition Author(s): Tanner, J.J. , Christensen, E.M. Funding Organization(s): National Institutes of Health/National Institute of General Medical Sciences (NIH/NIGMS) Experimental Data Snapshot Method: X-RAY DIFFRACTION Resolution: 2.35 Å R-Value Work: 0.177 R-Value Observed: 0.179 wwPDB Validation 3D Report Full Report Ligand Structure Quality Assessment Worse 0 1 Better Ligand structure goodness of fit to experimental data Best fitted TFB Literature In crystallo screening for proline analog inhibitors of the proline cycle enzyme PYCR1. Christensen, E.M. , Bogner, A.N. , Vandekeere, A. , Tam, G.S. , Patel, S.M. , Becker, D.F. , Fendt, S.M. , Tanner, J.J. (2020) J Biol Chem295: 18316-18327 PubMed : 33109600 Search on PubMed Search on PubMed Central DOI: https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.RA120.016106 Primary Citation of Related Structures: 6XOZ , 6XP0 , 6XP1 , 6XP2 , 6XP3 PubMed Abstract: Pyrroline-5-carboxylate reductase 1 (PYCR1) catalyzes the biosynthetic half-reaction of the proline cycle by reducing Δ 1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate (P5C) to proline through the oxidation of NAD(P)H. Many cancers alter their proline metabolism by up-regulating the proline cycle and proline biosynthesis, and knockdowns of PYCR1 lead to decreased cell proliferation ... Pyrroline-5-carboxylate reductase 1 (PYCR1) catalyzes the biosynthetic half-reaction of the proline cycle by reducing Δ 1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate (P5C) to proline through the oxidation of NAD(P)H. Many cancers alter their proline metabolism by up-regulating the proline cycle and proline biosynthesis, and knockdowns of PYCR1 lead to decreased cell proliferation. Thus, evidence is growing for PYCR1 as a potential cancer therapy target. Inhibitors of cancer targets are useful as chemical probes for studying cancer mechanisms and starting compounds for drug discovery; however, there is a notable lack of validated inhibitors for PYCR1. To fill this gap, we performed a small-scale focused screen of proline analogs using X-ray crystallography. Five inhibitors of human PYCR1 were discovered: l-tetrahydro-2-furoic acid, cyclopentanecarboxylate, l-thiazolidine-4-carboxylate, l-thiazolidine-2-carboxylate, and N-formyl l-proline (NFLP). The most potent inhibitor was NFLP, which had a competitive (with P5C) inhibition constant of 100 μm The structure of PYCR1 complexed with NFLP shows that inhibitor binding is accompanied by conformational changes in the active site, including the translation of an α-helix by 1 Å. These changes are unique to NFLP and enable additional hydrogen bonds with the enzyme. NFLP was also shown to phenocopy the PYCR1knockdown in MCF10A H-RAS V12breast cancer cells by inhibiting de novoproline biosynthesis and impairing spheroidal growth. In summary, we generated the first validated chemical probe of PYCR1 and demonstrated proof-of-concept for screening proline analogs to discover inhibitors of the proline cycle. Organizational Affiliation : Department of Biochemistry, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, USA; Department of Chemistry, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, USA. Electronic address: [email protected]. Macromolecules Find similar proteins by: 100% 95% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% (by identity cutoff)  | 3D Structure Entity ID: 1 Molecule Chains Sequence Length Organism Details Image Pyrroline-5-carboxylate reductase 1, mitochondrial A , B , C , D , E 322 Homo sapiens Mutation(s) : 0 Gene Names: PYCR1 EC: 1.5.1.2 UniProt & NIH Common Fund Data Resources Find proteins for P32322 (Homo sapiens) Explore P32322 Go to UniProtKB: P32322 PHAROS: P32322 Entity Groups Sequence Clusters 30% Identity 50% Identity 70% Identity 90% Identity 95% Identity 100% Identity UniProt Group P32322 Protein Feature View Expand Reference Sequence Small Molecules Ligands 2 Unique ID Chains Name / Formula / InChI Key 2D Diagram 3D Interactions TFB (Subject of Investigation/LOI) Query on TFB Download Ideal Coordinates CCD File Download Instance Coordinates SDF format, chain F [auth A] SDF format, chain H [auth B] SDF format, chain I [auth C] SDF format, chain J [auth D] SDF format, chain K [auth E] MOL2 format, chain F [auth A] MOL2 format, chain H [auth B] MOL2 format, chain I [auth C] MOL2 format, chain J [auth D] MOL2 format, chain K [auth E] F [auth A], H [auth B], I [auth C], J [auth D], K [auth E] TETRAHYDROFURAN-2-CARBOXYLIC ACID C 5 H 8 O 3 UJJLJRQIPMGXEZ-BYPYZUCNSA-N Ligand Interaction CL Query on CL Download Ideal Coordinates CCD File Download Instance Coordinates SDF format, chain G [auth A] MOL2 format, chain G [auth A] G [auth A] CHLORIDE ION Cl VEXZGXHMUGYJMC-UHFFFAOYSA-M Ligand Interaction Experimental Data & Validation Experimental Data Method: X-RAY DIFFRACTION Resolution: 2.35 Å R-Value Free: 0.224 R-Value Work: 0.177 R-Value Observed: 0.179 Space Group: C 1 2 1 Unit Cell : Length ( Å ) Angle ( ˚ ) a = 184.028 α = 90 b = 120.17 β = 108.92 c = 87.868 γ = 90 Software Package: Software Name Purpose Aimless data scaling PHENIX refinement PDB_EXTRACT data extraction XDS data reduction PHENIX phasing Structure Validation ViewFull Validation Report Ligand Structure Quality Assessment Created with Raphaël 2.3.0 Worse 0 1 Better Ligand structure goodness of fit to experimental data Best fitted TFB Entry History & Funding Information Deposition Data Released Date: 2020-11-04 Deposition Author(s): Tanner, J.J. , Christensen, E.M. Funding Organization Location Grant Number National Institutes of Health/National Institute of General Medical Sciences (NIH/NIGMS) United States R01GM065546 Revision History (Full details and data files)

https://www.rcsb.org/structure/6XOZ

1959 Chevrolet Biscayne specifications, technical data, performance 1959 Chevrolet Biscayne - full technical specs sheet, including performance data, economy and emissions, dimensions, weight and engine particulars.  Chevrolet Biscayne , 1959 MY 11-1219 Biscayne This car has a 4 door saloon (sedan) type body with a front positioned engine delivering power to the rear wheels. The 5.7 litre engine is a naturally aspirated, overhead valve, 8 cylinder unit that develops 335 bhp (340 PS/250 kW) of power at 5800 rpm, and maximum torque of 491 N·m (362 lb·ft/50.1 kgm) at 3600 rpm. A 3 speed manual gearbox transfers the power to the driven wheels. Full specs Key facts What body style? 4 door sedan/saloon with 5/6 seats How long? 5357 mm What drivetrain? naturally aspirated petrol What size engine? 5.7 litre, 5697 cm 3 How many cylinders? 8, V How much power? 340 PS / 335 bhp / 250 kW @ 5800 rpm How much torque? 491 Nm / 362 ft.lb / 50.1 kgm @ 3600 rpm 1959 Chevrolet Biscayne Spezifikationen Chevrolet auto insurance tips Make sure you only nominate those who will be driving the car on the application. If an experienced driver is nominated, your premiums may even be discounted by some auto insurers. Chevrolet Biscayne models 1959 Chevrolet Biscayne 11-1111 2 door sedan/​saloon FR 3M 3855 cm 3 /235.2 cuin 137 PS 135 bhp 101 kW 1674 kg 1959 Chevrolet Biscayne 11-1211 2 door sedan/​saloon FR 3M 4636 cm 3 /282.9 cuin 188 PS 185 bhp 138 kW 1959 Chevrolet Biscayne 11-1219 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 4M 5697 cm 3 /347.7 cuin 340 PS 335 bhp 250 kW 1959 Chevrolet Biscayne 11-1219 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 4M 4636 cm 3 /282.9 cuin 253 PS 250 bhp 186 kW 1959 Chevrolet Biscayne 11-1211 2 door sedan/​saloon FR 3M 4636 cm 3 /282.9 cuin 253 PS 250 bhp 186 kW 1959 Chevrolet Biscayne 11-1219 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 4M 4636 cm 3 /282.9 cuin 294 PS 290 bhp 216 kW 1959 Chevrolet Biscayne 11-1211 2 door sedan/​saloon FR 3M 5697 cm 3 /347.7 cuin 253 PS 250 bhp 186 kW 1959 Chevrolet Biscayne 11-1219 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3M 4636 cm 3 /282.9 cuin 188 PS 185 bhp 138 kW 1959 Chevrolet Biscayne 11-1219 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 4M 5697 cm 3 /347.7 cuin 324 PS 320 bhp 239 kW 1959 Chevrolet Biscayne 11-1219 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3M 4636 cm 3 /282.9 cuin 294 PS 290 bhp 216 kW 1959 Chevrolet Biscayne 11-1219 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3M 5697 cm 3 /347.7 cuin 284 PS 280 bhp 209 kW 1959 Chevrolet Biscayne 11-1219 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3M 5697 cm 3 /347.7 cuin 324 PS 320 bhp 239 kW 1959 Chevrolet Biscayne 11-1211 2 door sedan/​saloon FR 4M 5697 cm 3 /347.7 cuin 340 PS 335 bhp 250 kW 1959 Chevrolet Biscayne 11-1211 2 door sedan/​saloon FR 4M 5697 cm 3 /347.7 cuin 324 PS 320 bhp 239 kW 1959 Chevrolet Biscayne 11-1211 2 door sedan/​saloon FR 4M 4636 cm 3 /282.9 cuin 253 PS 250 bhp 186 kW 1959 Chevrolet Biscayne 11-1211 2 door sedan/​saloon FR 3M 5697 cm 3 /347.7 cuin 284 PS 280 bhp 209 kW 1959 Chevrolet Biscayne 11-1211 2 door sedan/​saloon FR 3M 5697 cm 3 /347.7 cuin 324 PS 320 bhp 239 kW 1959 Chevrolet Biscayne 11-1219 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3M 4636 cm 3 /282.9 cuin 253 PS 250 bhp 186 kW 1959 Chevrolet Biscayne 11-1219 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3M 4636 cm 3 /282.9 cuin 233 PS 230 bhp 172 kW 1959 Chevrolet Biscayne 11-1219 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 4M 5697 cm 3 /347.7 cuin 284 PS 280 bhp 209 kW 1959 Chevrolet Biscayne 11-1211 2 door sedan/​saloon FR 3M 4636 cm 3 /282.9 cuin 233 PS 230 bhp 172 kW 1959 Chevrolet Biscayne 11-1211 2 door sedan/​saloon FR 4M 4636 cm 3 /282.9 cuin 294 PS 290 bhp 216 kW 1959 Chevrolet Biscayne 11-1219 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3OD 4636 cm 3 /282.9 cuin 233 PS 230 bhp 172 kW 1959 Chevrolet Biscayne 11-1219 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 4M 5697 cm 3 /347.7 cuin 253 PS 250 bhp 186 kW 1959 Chevrolet Biscayne 11-1119 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3OD 3855 cm 3 /235.2 cuin 137 PS 135 bhp 101 kW 1959 Chevrolet Biscayne 11-1211 2 door sedan/​saloon FR 4M 5697 cm 3 /347.7 cuin 284 PS 280 bhp 209 kW 1959 Chevrolet Biscayne 11-1211 2 door sedan/​saloon FR 4M 5697 cm 3 /347.7 cuin 253 PS 250 bhp 186 kW 1959 Chevrolet Biscayne 11-1219 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3OD 4636 cm 3 /282.9 cuin 188 PS 185 bhp 138 kW 1959 Chevrolet Biscayne 11-1211 2 door sedan/​saloon FR 3OD 4636 cm 3 /282.9 cuin 233 PS 230 bhp 172 kW 1959 Chevrolet Biscayne 11-1211 2 door sedan/​saloon FR 3M 5697 cm 3 /347.7 cuin 340 PS 335 bhp 250 kW 1960 Bentley S2 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 4A 6223 cm 3 /379.8 cuin 1981 kg 1959 Bentley S2 Continental 2 door sedan/​saloon FR 4A 6223 cm 3 /379.8 cuin 1918 kg 1960 Bentley S2 Continental Saloon 2 door sedan/​saloon FR 4A 6230 cm 3 /380.2 cuin 1960 Bentley S2 Continental Saloon 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 4A 6230 cm 3 /380.2 cuin 1960 Bentley S2 Long Wheelbase 4 door limousine FR 4A 6230 cm 3 /380.2 cuin 1958 Cadillac Eldorado Brougham 7059 P 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3A 5973 cm 3 /364.5 cuin 340 PS 335 bhp 250 kW 2411 kg 1957 Cadillac Eldorado Brougham 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3A 5973 cm 3 /364.5 cuin 330 PS 325 bhp 242 kW 1960 Chrysler Saratoga PC2-M8 Saratoga 23 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3A 6271 cm 3 /382.7 cuin 330 PS 325 bhp 242 kW 1960 Chrysler Saratoga Hardtop PC2-M8 Saratoga 24 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3A 6271 cm 3 /382.7 cuin 330 PS 325 bhp 242 kW 1960 De Soto Adventurer Adventurer PS3 M41 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3A 6286 cm 3 /383.6 cuin 330 PS 325 bhp 242 kW 1960 De Soto Adventurer Hardtop Adventurer PS3 M23 2 door sedan/​saloon FR 3A 6286 cm 3 /383.6 cuin 330 PS 325 bhp 242 kW 1960 De Soto Adventurer Hardtop Adventurer PS3 M43 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3A 6286 cm 3 /383.6 cuin 330 PS 325 bhp 242 kW 1960 De Soto Fireflite Fireflite PS1 L41 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3A 6286 cm 3 /383.6 cuin 330 PS 325 bhp 242 kW 1960 De Soto Fireflite Hardtop Fireflite PS1 L23 2 door sedan/​saloon FR 3A 6286 cm 3 /383.6 cuin 330 PS 325 bhp 242 kW 1960 De Soto Fireflite Hardtop Fireflite PS1 L43 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3A 6286 cm 3 /383.6 cuin 330 PS 325 bhp 242 kW 1958 Dodge Coronet Lancer V-8 Hardtop LD2-L 43 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3A 5907 cm 3 /360.5 cuin 338 PS 333 bhp 248 kW 1958 Dodge Coronet Lancer V-8 Hardtop LD2-L 43 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3A 5907 cm 3 /360.5 cuin 324 PS 320 bhp 239 kW 1958 Dodge Coronet Lancer V-8 Sedan LD2-L 41 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3A 5907 cm 3 /360.5 cuin 338 PS 333 bhp 248 kW 1958 Dodge Coronet Lancer V-8 Sedan LD2-L 41 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3A 5907 cm 3 /360.5 cuin 324 PS 320 bhp 239 kW 1958 Dodge Coronet V-8 Club Sedan LD2-L 21 2 door sedan/​saloon FR 3A 5907 cm 3 /360.5 cuin 324 PS 320 bhp 239 kW 1958 Dodge Coronet V-8 Club Sedan LD2-L 21 2 door sedan/​saloon FR 3A 5907 cm 3 /360.5 cuin 338 PS 333 bhp 248 kW 1958 Dodge Custom Royal Lancer V-8 Hardtop LD3-H 43 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3A 5907 cm 3 /360.5 cuin 324 PS 320 bhp 239 kW 1958 Dodge Custom Royal Lancer V-8 Hardtop LD3-H 23 2 door sedan/​saloon FR 3A 5907 cm 3 /360.5 cuin 324 PS 320 bhp 239 kW 1958 Dodge Custom Royal Regal Lancer V-8 LD3-H 23 2 door sedan/​saloon FR 3A 5907 cm 3 /360.5 cuin 324 PS 320 bhp 239 kW 1958 Dodge Custom Royal V-8 Sedan LD3-H 41 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3A 5907 cm 3 /360.5 cuin 324 PS 320 bhp 239 kW 1960 Dodge Matador Matador PD1 L41 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3M 6286 cm 3 /383.6 cuin 330 PS 325 bhp 242 kW 1960 Dodge Matador Hardtop Matador PD1 L43 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3M 6286 cm 3 /383.6 cuin 330 PS 325 bhp 242 kW 1960 Dodge Matador Hardtop Torqueflite Matador PD1 L43 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3A 6286 cm 3 /383.6 cuin 330 PS 325 bhp 242 kW 1960 Dodge Matador Torqueflite Matador PD1 L41 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3A 6286 cm 3 /383.6 cuin 330 PS 325 bhp 242 kW 1960 Dodge Polara Polara PD2 H41 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3M 6286 cm 3 /383.6 cuin 330 PS 325 bhp 242 kW 1960 Dodge Polara Hardtop Polara PD2 H41 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3M 6286 cm 3 /383.6 cuin 330 PS 325 bhp 242 kW 1960 Dodge Polara Hardtop Torqueflite Polara PD2 H41 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3A 6286 cm 3 /383.6 cuin 330 PS 325 bhp 242 kW 1960 Dodge Polara Torqueflite Polara PD2 H41 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3A 6286 cm 3 /383.6 cuin 330 PS 325 bhp 242 kW 1960 Dodge Polara Wagon Polara PD2 H46 4 door estate/​station wagon FR 3M 6286 cm 3 /383.6 cuin 330 PS 325 bhp 242 kW 1960 Dodge Polara Wagon Polara PD2 H46 4 door estate/​station wagon FR 3M 6286 cm 3 /383.6 cuin 330 PS 325 bhp 242 kW 1960 Dodge Polara Wagon Torqueflite Polara PD2 H46 4 door estate/​station wagon FR 3A 6286 cm 3 /383.6 cuin 330 PS 325 bhp 242 kW 1960 Dodge Polara Wagon Torqueflite Polara PD2 H46 4 door estate/​station wagon FR 3A 6286 cm 3 /383.6 cuin 330 PS 325 bhp 242 kW 1958 Dodge Royal Lancer V-8 Hardtop LD2-L 43 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3A 5907 cm 3 /360.5 cuin 324 PS 320 bhp 239 kW 1958 Dodge Royal V-8 Sedan LD2-L 41 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3A 5907 cm 3 /360.5 cuin 324 PS 320 bhp 239 kW 1958 Facel Vega Excellence sedan/​saloon FR 3A 6286 cm 3 /383.6 cuin 335 PS 330 bhp 246 kW 1920 kg 1958 Facel Vega Excellence sedan/​saloon FR 3A 5905 cm 3 /360.3 cuin 340 PS 335 bhp 250 kW 1956 kg 1959 Mercury Montclair 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3A 6281 cm 3 /383.3 cuin 335 PS 330 bhp 246 kW 1958 Mercury Montclair Phaeton Sedan 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3A 6281 cm 3 /383.3 cuin 335 PS 330 bhp 246 kW 1958 Mercury Montclair Sedan 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3A 6281 cm 3 /383.3 cuin 335 PS 330 bhp 246 kW 1958 Mercury Montclair Turnpike Cruiser 2 door sedan/​saloon FR 3A 6281 cm 3 /383.3 cuin 335 PS 330 bhp 246 kW 1958 Mercury Montclair Turnpike Cruiser 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3A 6281 cm 3 /383.3 cuin 335 PS 330 bhp 246 kW 1960 Pontiac Bonneville Vista Hardtop 28 39 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3M 6374 cm 3 /389.0 cuin 338 PS 333 bhp 248 kW 1960 Pontiac Bonneville Vista Hardtop 28 39 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3M 6374 cm 3 /389.0 cuin 322 PS 318 bhp 237 kW 1960 Pontiac Bonneville Vista Hardtop 28 39 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3M 6374 cm 3 /389.0 cuin 353 PS 348 bhp 260 kW 1960 Pontiac Bonneville Vista Hardtop Hydra-Matic 28 39 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 4A 6374 cm 3 /389.0 cuin 338 PS 333 bhp 248 kW 1960 Pontiac Bonneville Vista Hardtop Hydra-Matic 28 39 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 4A 6374 cm 3 /389.0 cuin 353 PS 348 bhp 260 kW 1960 Pontiac Bonneville Vista Hardtop Hydra-Matic 28 39 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 4A 6374 cm 3 /389.0 cuin 322 PS 318 bhp 237 kW 1960 Pontiac Catalina 21 19 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3M 6374 cm 3 /389.0 cuin 353 PS 348 bhp 260 kW 1960 Pontiac Catalina 21 19 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3M 6374 cm 3 /389.0 cuin 322 PS 318 bhp 237 kW 1960 Pontiac Catalina 21 19 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3M 6374 cm 3 /389.0 cuin 338 PS 333 bhp 248 kW 1960 Pontiac Catalina Hydra-Matic 21 19 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 4A 6374 cm 3 /389.0 cuin 322 PS 318 bhp 237 kW 1960 Pontiac Catalina Hydra-Matic 21 19 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 4A 6374 cm 3 /389.0 cuin 353 PS 348 bhp 260 kW 1960 Pontiac Catalina Hydra-Matic 21 19 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 4A 6374 cm 3 /389.0 cuin 338 PS 333 bhp 248 kW 1960 Pontiac Catalina Sports Sedan 21 11 2 door sedan/​saloon FR 3M 6374 cm 3 /389.0 cuin 338 PS 333 bhp 248 kW 1960 Pontiac Catalina Sports Sedan 21 11 2 door sedan/​saloon FR 3M 6374 cm 3 /389.0 cuin 322 PS 318 bhp 237 kW 1960 Pontiac Catalina Sports Sedan 21 11 2 door sedan/​saloon FR 3M 6374 cm 3 /389.0 cuin 353 PS 348 bhp 260 kW 1960 Pontiac Catalina Sports Sedan Hydra-Matic 21 11 2 door sedan/​saloon FR 4A 6374 cm 3 /389.0 cuin 353 PS 348 bhp 260 kW 1960 Pontiac Catalina Sports Sedan Hydra-Matic 21 11 2 door sedan/​saloon FR 4A 6374 cm 3 /389.0 cuin 322 PS 318 bhp 237 kW 1960 Pontiac Catalina Sports Sedan Hydra-Matic 21 11 2 door sedan/​saloon FR 4A 6374 cm 3 /389.0 cuin 338 PS 333 bhp 248 kW 1960 Pontiac Catalina Vista Hardtop 21 39 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3M 6374 cm 3 /389.0 cuin 353 PS 348 bhp 260 kW 1960 Pontiac Catalina Vista Hardtop 21 39 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3M 6374 cm 3 /389.0 cuin 338 PS 333 bhp 248 kW 1960 Pontiac Catalina Vista Hardtop 21 39 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3M 6374 cm 3 /389.0 cuin 322 PS 318 bhp 237 kW 1960 Pontiac Catalina Vista Hardtop Hydra-Matic 21 39 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 4A 6374 cm 3 /389.0 cuin 338 PS 333 bhp 248 kW 1960 Pontiac Catalina Vista Hardtop Hydra-Matic 21 39 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 4A 6374 cm 3 /389.0 cuin 353 PS 348 bhp 260 kW 1960 Pontiac Catalina Vista Hardtop Hydra-Matic 21 39 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 4A 6374 cm 3 /389.0 cuin 322 PS 318 bhp 237 kW 1958 Pontiac Chieftain Catalina Super Hydra-Matic 27 2739 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 4A 6041 cm 3 /368.6 cuin 335 PS 330 bhp 246 kW 1958 Pontiac Chieftain Super Hydra-Matic 27 2741 2 door sedan/​saloon FR 4A 6041 cm 3 /368.6 cuin 335 PS 330 bhp 246 kW 1958 Pontiac Chieftain Super Hydra-Matic 27 2749 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 4A 6041 cm 3 /368.6 cuin 335 PS 330 bhp 246 kW 1960 Pontiac Star Chief 24 19 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3M 6374 cm 3 /389.0 cuin 353 PS 348 bhp 260 kW 1960 Pontiac Star Chief 24 19 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3M 6374 cm 3 /389.0 cuin 322 PS 318 bhp 237 kW 1960 Pontiac Star Chief 24 19 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3M 6374 cm 3 /389.0 cuin 338 PS 333 bhp 248 kW 1958 Pontiac Star Chief Custom Catalina Super Hydra-Matic 28 Super Deluxe 2839SD 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 4A 6041 cm 3 /368.6 cuin 335 PS 330 bhp 246 kW 1958 Pontiac Star Chief Custom Super Hydra-Matic 28 Super Deluxe 2849SD 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 4A 6041 cm 3 /368.6 cuin 335 PS 330 bhp 246 kW 1960 Pontiac Star Chief Hydra-Matic 24 19 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 4A 6374 cm 3 /389.0 cuin 322 PS 318 bhp 237 kW 1960 Pontiac Star Chief Hydra-Matic 24 19 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 4A 6374 cm 3 /389.0 cuin 353 PS 348 bhp 260 kW 1960 Pontiac Star Chief Hydra-Matic 24 19 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 4A 6374 cm 3 /389.0 cuin 338 PS 333 bhp 248 kW 1960 Pontiac Star Chief Sport Sedan 24 11 2 door sedan/​saloon FR 3M 6374 cm 3 /389.0 cuin 322 PS 318 bhp 237 kW 1960 Pontiac Star Chief Sport Sedan 24 11 2 door sedan/​saloon FR 3M 6374 cm 3 /389.0 cuin 338 PS 333 bhp 248 kW 1960 Pontiac Star Chief Sport Sedan 24 11 2 door sedan/​saloon FR 3M 6374 cm 3 /389.0 cuin 353 PS 348 bhp 260 kW 1960 Pontiac Star Chief Sport Sedan Hydra-Matic 24 11 2 door sedan/​saloon FR 4A 6374 cm 3 /389.0 cuin 353 PS 348 bhp 260 kW 1960 Pontiac Star Chief Sport Sedan Hydra-Matic 24 11 2 door sedan/​saloon FR 4A 6374 cm 3 /389.0 cuin 322 PS 318 bhp 237 kW 1960 Pontiac Star Chief Sport Sedan Hydra-Matic 24 11 2 door sedan/​saloon FR 4A 6374 cm 3 /389.0 cuin 338 PS 333 bhp 248 kW 1960 Pontiac Star Chief Vista Hardtop 24 39 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3M 6374 cm 3 /389.0 cuin 322 PS 318 bhp 237 kW 1960 Pontiac Star Chief Vista Hardtop 24 39 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3M 6374 cm 3 /389.0 cuin 338 PS 333 bhp 248 kW 1960 Pontiac Star Chief Vista Hardtop 24 39 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3M 6374 cm 3 /389.0 cuin 353 PS 348 bhp 260 kW 1960 Pontiac Star Chief Vista Hardtop Hydra-Matic 24 39 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 4A 6374 cm 3 /389.0 cuin 322 PS 318 bhp 237 kW 1960 Pontiac Star Chief Vista Hardtop Hydra-Matic 24 39 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 4A 6374 cm 3 /389.0 cuin 338 PS 333 bhp 248 kW 1960 Pontiac Star Chief Vista Hardtop Hydra-Matic 24 39 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 4A 6374 cm 3 /389.0 cuin 353 PS 348 bhp 260 kW 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 4A 6041 cm 3 /368.6 cuin 335 PS 330 bhp 246 kW 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 4A 6041 cm 3 /368.6 cuin 335 PS 330 bhp 246 kW 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3M 6374 cm 3 /389.0 cuin 353 PS 348 bhp 260 kW 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3M 6374 cm 3 /389.0 cuin 338 PS 333 bhp 248 kW 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 3M 6374 cm 3 /389.0 cuin 322 PS 318 bhp 237 kW 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 4A 6374 cm 3 /389.0 cuin 322 PS 318 bhp 237 kW 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 4A 6374 cm 3 /389.0 cuin 338 PS 333 bhp 248 kW 4 door sedan/​saloon FR 4A 6374 cm 3 /389.0 cuin 353 PS 348 bhp 260 kW

https://www.carfolio.com/chevrolet-biscayne-404580?l=de

Sustainability | Free Full-Text | A Comprehensive Review on Energy Storage System Optimal Planning and Benefit Evaluation Methods in Smart Grids Smart grids are the ultimate goal of power system development. With access to a high proportion of renewable energy, energy storage systems, with their energy transfer capacity, have become a key part of the smart grid construction process. This paper first summarizes the challenges brought by the high proportion of new energy generation to smart grids and reviews the classification of existing energy storage technologies in the smart grid environment and the practical application functions of energy storage in smart grids. Secondly, optimization planning and the benefit evaluation methods of energy storage technologies in the three different main application scenarios, including the grid side, user side, and new energy side, are analyzed. The advantages and shortcomings of the current research are also pointed out. Furthermore, the paper sheds light on the pressing issues that demand further consideration in energy storage planning. Finally, the aspects that warrant attention in the future application and promotion processes are elucidated in detail, culminating in a comprehensive understanding of the energy storage technologies in smart grids. A Comprehensive Review on Energy Storage System Optimal Planning and Benefit Evaluation Methods in Smart Grids by Fan Li 1 , Dan Wang 1 , Dong Liu 1 , Songheng Yang 2,* , Ke Sun 1 , Zhongjian Liu 1 , Haoyang Yu 1 and Jishuo Qin 1 1 State Grid Economic and Technological Research Institute Co., Ltd., Beijing 102209, China 2 Department of Electrical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China * Author to whom correspondence should be addressed. Sustainability 2023 , 15 (12), 9584; https://doi.org/10.3390/su15129584 Received: 3 May 2023 / Revised: 28 May 2023 / Accepted: 7 June 2023 / Published: 14 June 2023 (This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Electric Power Systems: Design, Analysis and Control ) Abstract Smart grids are the ultimate goal of power system development. With access to a high proportion of renewable energy, energy storage systems, with their energy transfer capacity, have become a key part of the smart grid construction process. This paper first summarizes the challenges brought by the high proportion of new energy generation to smart grids and reviews the classification of existing energy storage technologies in the smart grid environment and the practical application functions of energy storage in smart grids. Secondly, optimization planning and the benefit evaluation methods of energy storage technologies in the three different main application scenarios, including the grid side, user side, and new energy side, are analyzed. The advantages and shortcomings of the current research are also pointed out. Furthermore, the paper sheds light on the pressing issues that demand further consideration in energy storage planning. Finally, the aspects that warrant attention in the future application and promotion processes are elucidated in detail, culminating in a comprehensive understanding of the energy storage technologies in smart grids. Keywords: energy storage ; smart grid ; benefit evaluation ; planning ; renewable energy 1. Introduction Currently, many studies have focused on renewable energy sources, HVDC transmission projects [ 1 ], and the coupling of multiple energy sources because of the energy crisis and environmental concerns. The pursuit of carbon neutrality in the energy sector has been advocated by many countries globally as a means to combat climate change. The power industry, which is a major carbon emitter, must build a new type of power system with renewable energy as the mainstay and promote the development of sources, such as wind power and photovoltaic energy, to accelerate the decarbonization process. As society and the economy continue to develop, and with an increasingly strained energy supply, the development of new energy sources has become a crucial aspect of future energy strategies. While the adoption of renewable energy sources can bring many benefits in responding to climate change and addressing the energy crisis, high levels of renewable energy penetration in power grids can also cause significant impacts on the grid. For one, the output of renewable energy is unpredictable and intermittent due to uncontrollable external factors, such as weather and the environment, making it difficult to meet the voltage and waveform requirements of an ideal power supply system and resulting in power quality problems. Voltage fluctuations and flicker, voltage imbalance, frequency deviation, a low power factor, and harmonic pollution are among the main impacts of high renewable energy penetration on power quality in a distribution network [ 2 ]. In order to reduce the negative impact of the randomness of new energy sources on a power grid, a new control method for doubly-fed wind generators was proposed [ 3 ]. The use of power electronics to connect renewable energy sources to the grid also inevitably introduces harmonic components to the grid [ 4 ]. Furthermore, the integration of new energy generation into the grid can exacerbate the problem of voltage imbalance in the grid, leading to additional power losses and reducing the capacity of transformers and lines [ 5 ]. The high proportion of renewable energy penetration can cause voltage fluctuations, which may interfere with sensitive electrical and electronic equipment and affect the safe and stable operation of the power system [ 6 ]. Additionally, due to the intermittent nature of renewable energy output and the uncertainty of load demand, the mismatch between power generation and load demand leads to deviations in grid frequency [ 7 ]. From a power dispatch perspective, generator sets can be categorized as controllable or uncontrollable, with controllable generator sets having less impact on traditional dispatching methods. Renewable energy units, as uncontrollable generator sets, often require power generation forecasts due to their dependence on weather and other unpredictable factors [ 8 ]. When uncontrollable renewable energy units are connected to the system, the power-dispatching process becomes more complicated [ 9 ]. These problems can be solved with the application of energy storage technology, which can effectively cope with access to new energy with high penetration rates. Thus, it is necessary to study energy storage capacity planning and economically analyze various types of energy storage technology. With a smart grid scenario that combines centralized and distributed power generation, and a sizable portion of the total consumption supplied by decentralized generation, the role of decentralized generation becomes questionable in the absence of efficient and cost-effective energy storage system (ESS) technology. Nowadays, energy storage technology is widely used. For example, it has been applied in shipboard integrated power systems [ 10 ]. The widespread adoption of ESS technology enables the opportunity for demand-side management and peak load demand shaving, reducing the need for additional generation capacity to be deployed [ 11 ]. ESS technology can effectively realize demand-side management, eliminate the difference between peaks and valleys day and night, smooth the load, improve the utilization rate of power equipment, reduce power supply costs, and promote the use of renewable energy. It can also be used to improve the stability of the power system, adjust the frequency, and compensate for load fluctuations. Energy storage technology has become an important part of the development of smart grids. For integrating energy storage systems into a smart grid, the distributed control methods of ESS are also of vital importance. The study by [ 12 ] proposed a hierarchical approach for modeling and optimizing power loss in distributed energy storage systems in DC microgrids, aiming to reduce the losses in DC microgrids. In [ 13 ], a three-layer hierarchical control scheme was proposed to balance the state of charge (SoC) and state of health of distributed battery systems (DBS) in DC microgrids. The study by [ 14 ] proposed a unified loss model and a dual-ascent algorithm to optimize the current distribution coefficients in a DC microgrid with DESSs, achieving real-time loss minimization, adaptive current sharing, and robust performance in various scenarios. This paper first summarizes the challenges brought by the high proportion of new energy generation to smart grids and reviews the classification of existing energy storage technologies in the smart grid environment and the practical application functions of energy storage in smart grids. Secondly, optimization planning and the benefit evaluation methods of energy storage technology in different application fields, including the power grid, users, and new energy, are analyzed. The advantages and shortcomings of the current research in the field are also pointed out. The algorithm of energy storage optimization planning is analyzed and summarized. Finally, the paper expounds on the problems that need to be further considered in energy storage planning and the aspects that should be paid attention to. In summary, this paper makes a significant contribution by addressing the role of energy storage systems in the development of smart grids. It highlights the challenges associated with integrating a high proportion of renewable energy sources and provides an overview of the existing energy storage technologies and their practical applications in smart grids. We also analyze optimization planning and benefit evaluation methods for energy storage in three key application scenarios: the grid side, the user side, and the new energy side. Additionally, we discuss algorithmic approaches to energy storage optimization planning and identify pressing issues that require further consideration. By offering insights into future applications and promotion processes, the paper provides a comprehensive understanding of energy storage technologies in the context of smart grids, benefiting researchers, practitioners, and policymakers alike. 2. Challenges for Smart Grid and Energy Storage Role Analysis With the rapid development of power electronic conversion and new energy power generation technologies, such as wind and photovoltaic, the power system has undergone profound changes and gradually transitioned into a new power system stage characterized by a high proportion of new energy. The operating characteristics of the system are changing profoundly, and the power and energy balance at multiple time scales is facing new and significant challenges. Diversified energy storage technologies can control the input and output of power and energy at different time scales, which is expected to improve the stability and operation characteristics of smart grids. This section analyzes the main challenges faced by smart grids and the application requirements for energy storage. Different from the traditional power system, the new power system takes new energy units and power electronic equipment as the main body. It has the characteristics of power electronic control, multiple time scales, low inertia, and weak immunity, and also combines the strong randomness and high volatility of primary energy, which brings new major challenges to the power–energy balance of the power system at multiple time scales. In a short time scale, a high proportion of new energy connected to the power grid will not only affect all aspects of classical stability but will also cause new stability problems. The access to a large number of new energy units will change the power grid structure and power flow distribution, which will have a significant impact on the stability of the small disturbance/transient power angle, voltage stability, and frequency stability characterized by electromechanical dynamics. The degree of impact depends on the new energy penetration rate, unit type, access location, operating conditions, and control strategy. In the medium and long time scales, the main challenges brought by the high proportion of new energy access to the smart grid are as follows: The increasing proportion of new energy sources, such as wind power and photovoltaic, with strong randomness and volatility, makes the adjustability and flexibility of the power grid decrease, resulting in the difficulty of achieving power and energy balance between the source and load and the deterioration of the economy. In the traditional power system, whether it is thermal power, hydropower, or nuclear power on the power supply side, its power and electricity can be efficiently adjusted in a large capacity and a wide time range to meet random but predictable load changes. In the new energy high penetration power system, primary energy sources, such as wind and photovoltaic, are random and uncontrollable and fluctuate greatly due to seasonal and diurnal changes, and some special meteorological factors can cause sharp changes in the output in a short period. The mismatch between new energy and the load, coupled with the decreasing proportion of flexible resources, makes it more difficult to achieve reliable and efficient operation of the power grid through traditional dispatching. In summary, with access to a high proportion of new energy and power electronic equipment in the power system, the stability of a short time scale and the operational reliability of the medium and long time scales pose major challenges, and it is urgent to find technologies and equipment that can adjust the power and energy within a wide time scale to ensure the stability and economy of the operation of the new power system. With their energy transfer capacity, energy storage systems have become a key part of the future development of smart grids. Table 1 summarizes the challenges of smart grids regarding the power–energy balance and the role of energy storage systems. Table 1. Challenges for smart grids and energy storage role analysis. 3. Overview of Energy Storage Technologies and Their Practical Application Functions The status quo of energy storage functions in smart grids is classified according to [ 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 ]. 3.1. Overview of Energy Storage Technologies With an array of highly specialized and distinct electrical energy storage technologies available, the world of electrical energy storage can be split into six distinct categories based on their configurations and forms, including mechanical, chemical, electrochemical, electromagnetic, thermal, and hybrid energy storage systems [ 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 ]. Each energy storage system differs from the others based on various factors, such as discharge time, discharge loss, energy density, wattage rating, and life cycle [ 48 ]. Pumped hydro storage, compressed air storage, and battery energy storage are the current energy storage technologies with higher technical maturity and more applications. While pumped hydro storage and compressed air storage are more suited to peak adjustment of the power grid, battery storage energy is better suited for small- and medium-sized energy storage and new energy power generation. In contrast, superconducting electromagnetic energy storage and flywheel energy storage is more suitable for power grid frequency adjustment and electrical quality guarantee. Finally, supercapacitor energy storage are more suitable for electric vehicle energy storage and hybrid energy storage [ 49 ]. As seen in Figure 1 , the specific classification of various types of energy storage is quite complex, but careful consideration of each system’s strengths and weaknesses can allow for the optimal selection and application of energy storage technology. Figure 1. Detailed classifications of energy storage technologies. (1) Mechanical energy storage The transformation of energy from mechanical to electrical forms is a complex process in mechanical energy storage systems. In this regard, three types of mechanical energy storage have been in use for a long time: compressed air energy storage, flywheel energy storage, and pumped energy storage. Among these, pumped energy storage is the most widely used and largest form of energy storage, where energy is converted into water potential energy for storage and then released through a turbine for conversion into electrical energy. This system boasts a large capacity, long life cycle, high efficiency, and cost-effectiveness, which makes it suitable for frequency regulation, peak shaving, emergency backup, and other scenarios. However, it also has high site environment requirements. Compressed air energy storage, on the other hand, utilizes electric energy to compress air into a confined space, and then uses compressed air to push a steam turbine into electrical energy. It is further divided into traditional types, including those with heat storage devices, and liquid gas types. This system has the characteristics of a long storage period, large capacity, low cost, and high efficiency, with an efficiency rating of 70–89% and a rated power of 50–300 MW. However, it also has high site environment requirements. Lastly, flywheel energy storage uses a flywheel’s angular momentum to store energy, where the motor drives the flywheel during charging, and the flywheel drives the generator to generate electricity during discharging. The stored energy is dependent on the flywheel’s size, mass, and speed, while the rated power is dependent on the motor and generator. Flywheel energy storage has low maintenance and long life, making it suitable for high-power, short-term scenarios, such as improving the power quality, providing reactive power support, and providing rotational backup. (2) Electromagnetic energy storage Electromagnetic energy storage has been a hot topic in the energy storage field, especially the two main forms of supercapacitors and superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES). They have been identified as having high efficiency, high energy density, and high cost. SMES is a promising energy storage solution that stores energy in the form of electromagnetic energy. The stored energy is converted through superconducting material coils, and its efficiency is more than 95%, thanks to the near-zero resistance of superconductors. SMES also boasts fast response times and a long life cycle, making it a popular option for improving transmission and system capacity, enhancing the power supply quality, and ensuring operational stability. However, the cost of SMES is still a limitation to its widespread adoption, as well as the superconducting critical temperature and potential environmental impact. Supercapacitors have a simpler construction, consisting of two non-reactive porous electrode plates suspended in an electrolyte and charged on the plate. By electrochemically polarizing the electrolyte, it achieves energy storage without any electrochemical reactions occurring in the process, making it a reversible process. Supercapacitor energy storage has the advantages of a higher power density and long service life, making it ideal for high-power, short-term load smoothing, and high-peak power occasions, such as high-power DC motor starting support and dynamic voltage restorers. (3) Electrochemical energy storage Compared to other types of energy storage, the electrochemical energy storage technology represented by batteries has the widest diversity and the fastest development, and different kinds of chemical energy storage can meet various power system demands. Electrochemical energy storage uses the conversion between electrical energy and chemical energy for the storage and release of electrical energy. It has good environmental adaptability, a fast response ability, low standby loss, and high energy efficiency (60–95%). However, due to its characteristics of a small power capacity, high maintenance cost, short life cycle, and limited discharge capacity, the application scale is small. At present, the battery energy storage technologies that have been commercialized or demonstrated mainly include lead–acid batteries, lithium-ion batteries, sodium–sulfur batteries, and flow batteries [ 50 ]. Lead–acid batteries are super cheap and have a large energy storage capacity. However, they have some serious issues with self-discharge, a short life cycle, heavy metal contamination, and deep discharge. Lithium-ion batteries can be combined in series or in parallel to provide high voltage or high capacity, but they are pretty expensive. However, they have a high energy density and great charge and discharge efficiency. Sodium–sulfur batteries have a lot going for them, such as high energy density, excellent charge and discharge efficiency, cheap operating costs, modest space requirements, and simple maintenance. The depths of their discharge and life cycle, however, still need to be enhanced and preserved while in use. The utilization rate of their electric energy is 100% [ 51 ]. Flow batteries have the advantages of high power output, fast response, high energy conversion rate, simple maintenance, safety, and stability, and are currently the most popular batteries. However, their material costs are high. Nevertheless, they are a top pick for large-scale grid-connected power generation, energy storage, and regulation [ 52 ]. This paper provides the fundamental properties of various electrochemical energy storage methods in Table 2 to make comparisons among them. Table 2. Characteristics of electrochemical energy storage technologies in smart grids [ 53 ]. (4) Chemical energy storage Chemical energy storage is a highly sophisticated system that enables the storage and release of energy through chemical reactions, resulting in the formation of other compounds. This futuristic technology is characterized by zero emissions and an impressive storage capacity of over 100 GWh [ 54 ]. One of the prime examples of chemical storage is the fuel cell, which continually converts the chemical energy of fuel into electrical energy. Fuel cells, unlike batteries, produce energy by integrating fuel and oxidizers from the outside. The significant advantage of fuel cells is that they can generate electricity as long as they receive active substances. Fuel cells’ fuel efficiency generally ranges from 40 to 85%. Fuel cell technology, being an excellent source that can reduce fossil fuel usage and CO 2 emissions, is composed of a liquid or gaseous fuel as the anode and oxidants, such as oxygen, air, or chlorine, as the cathode. The hydrogen fuel cell, in particular, is highly favored in the market. This type of fuel cell uses a combination of hydrogen and oxygen to generate electricity, which can be regenerated and reversed by water and electricity. The hydrogen storage tank’s size optimization enables the storage of large amounts of energy in fuel cells regardless of the rated power. These fuel cells are applied in distributed microgrid power generation scenarios and the automotive industry, where only water vapor is released into the environment. (5) Thermal energy storage Thermal energy storage is an innovative technology that can store energy from electric or solar heaters in a reservoir for later use in heating systems or power plants. The technology offers a wide range of options, including latent heat storage, sensible heat storage, and thermochemical adsorption storage systems. Latent heat storage systems utilize various materials, including organic (such as paraffin), inorganic (such as hydrochloride), and phase-change materials (PCMs), to store energy during the phase change of the storage medium [ 55 ]. Molten salt is the latest solid–liquid PCM, and it is being used in concentrated solar power plants [ 56 ]. Latent heat storage systems have a high energy density, high heat transfer efficiency, and constant temperature capacity [ 57 ]. Sensible thermal storage systems are the most common, and they utilize various media, including solids (such as ground, cast iron, or concrete) or liquids (such as water or thermal oil) to store energy. The storage capacity of sensible thermal storage systems depends on the heat capacity of the material used. The technology is versatile, reliable, and can be used in many heating applications, including district heating systems and industrial processes. In addition, thermal energy storage may be considered to be extended to a more general type. Integrated energy systems go beyond traditional electrical energy storage and incorporate storage-like effects from other energy carriers, such as the heating network [ 58 ] and the gas network [ 59 ]. By integrating thermal energy storage, heating networks, and gas networks, an integrated energy system can exploit the storage-like effects of these interconnected networks to optimize energy utilization and enhance system flexibility. Further research and development are needed to explore the technical, economic, and regulatory aspects of expanding energy storage to include thermal energy storage and integrated energy systems. By leveraging the storage potentials from diverse energy carriers, we can unlock additional flexibility and enhance the overall performance and reliability of future energy systems. (6) Hybrid energy storage A hybrid energy storage system is the process of complementing the characteristics of two or more heterogeneous storage systems to create a super energy storage device. In the harsh operating environments of real-time applications, a single ESS system cannot meet all ideal specifications (such as energy density, power rating, operating temperature, discharge rate, life cycle, and cost). The main goal of hybrid systems is to combine high-energy-density (usually slow-response systems) with high-power-density (fast-response system) equipment to achieve high-energy and high-power rating characteristics for fast response [ 60 ]. Hybrid energy storage systems have been developed that electronically combine the output power of two or more energy storage systems with complementary characteristics. In hybrid energy storage systems, heterogeneous systems are organized in such a way that short-term high-power requirements will be provided by high-power devices, while long-term energy requirements will be met by high-energy devices [ 61 ]. Hybrid energy storage systems are divided into battery and battery hybrids, battery and supercapacitor hybrids, fuel cell and battery hybrids, battery and SMES hybrids, battery and flywheel hybrids, etc. The size and possible combinations of hybrid energy storage systems depend on factors such as environmental, economic, and type of use [ 62 ]. The use of multifunctional hybrid energy storage systems is the best choice for building smart grids and requires interdisciplinary collaboration and research to further develop and advance the field. 3.2. Temperature Regulation Technologies for Energy Storage Systems Temperature regulation plays a crucial role in ensuring the optimal operation and longevity of ESS in smart grids [ 63 ]. Effective temperature management involves utilizing thermal models, implementing thermal regulations, and employing appropriate cooling technologies. Thermal models are used to simulate and predict the temperature behavior of ESS components. These models consider factors such as the heat generation, heat transfer, and thermal capacitance of the storage system. Different types of thermal models, including lumped parameter models, distributed parameter models, and electro-thermal coupled models, can be utilized to understand the thermal characteristics of the ESS. These models enable accurate temperature predictions, aiding in the design and optimization of thermal management strategies. Thermal regulation involves establishing temperature limits and implementing control strategies to maintain the ESS within a safe operating range. This includes defining the upper and lower temperature thresholds for various components and implementing control algorithms to regulate the temperature. Thermal regulation is essential for preventing excessive temperatures that can degrade the performance, capacity, and lifespan of the ESS. By carefully monitoring and controlling temperature levels, the system can operate efficiently and safely. Cooling technologies are employed to manage and dissipate heat generated by the ESS components. Different cooling methods can be utilized based on the specific requirements and constraints of the system. Some commonly used cooling technologies include air cooling, liquid cooling, phase-change materials (PCMs, and heat pipes. Air cooling utilizes fans or natural convection to remove heat from the ESS components. Air cooling is cost-effective and suitable for low- to medium-power applications. Liquid cooling involves circulating a coolant, such as water or a specialized coolant fluid, through heat exchangers or directly in contact with the ESS components. Liquid cooling offers higher heat-transfer efficiency and is suitable for high-power or high-temperature applications. PCMs can absorb or release latent heat during phase transitions, making them ideal for passive cooling in the ESS. These materials store and release heat energy as they change from solid to liquid or vice versa, helping to stabilize temperatures within the system. Heat pipes are heat transfer devices that use the principles of evaporation and condensation to efficiently transport heat from the ESS components to cooler areas or heat sinks. They offer high thermal conductivity and are particularly effective for removing heat from concentrated areas. 3.3. Practical Application Functions of Energy Storage Energy storage equipment can realize the input and output regulation of electric energy at different time scales, which can effectively improve the operating characteristics of the system and meet the power and energy balance requirements of a smart grid. The application of different energy storage technologies in power systems is also different. As can be seen in Table 3 , for the power type and application time scale of energy storage, the current application of energy storage in the power grid mainly focuses on power frequency active regulation, especially in rapid frequency regulation, peak shaving and valley filling, and new energy grid-connected operation. From the perspective of the application distribution of energy storage in the power grid, it mainly includes the following aspects: Table 3. The status quo of energy storage functions in smart grids. (a) The functions of the power generation side mainly include fast frequency regulation, the suppression of low-frequency oscillation, automatic generation control, smoothing new energy output fluctuations, new energy output plan tracking, new energy output climbing control, etc. (b) The functions of the transmission and distribution network side mainly include optimizing new energy integration, delaying transmission and distribution line blockage, delaying equipment upgrading, and optimizing power flow distribution. (c) Load-side functions mainly include improving the power quality, providing distributed energy supply, participating in market regulation, etc. 4. Optimal Configuration of the Energy Storage System in Different Scenarios Energy storage is one of the most important links in smart grids, and power systems face many challenges with future access to a high proportion of renewable energy. Energy storage technology is considered to be one of the key technologies to balance the intermittency of variable renewable energy to achieve high penetration. A connection structure diagram of an energy storage system and a public power grid is shown in Figure 2 . Figure 2. Structural diagram of an energy storage system connected to a public power grid. Energy storage systems are applied in different scenarios, and their main role and the value of different investors are also different. Researchers have spent considerable time and effort devising optimal plans for deploying energy storage technology across diverse applications, and have even developed models to evaluate its economic impact. The different scenarios for energy storage can generally be categorized into three main categories: grid-side, user-side, and new energy-side applications, which include microgrids. The distinctive value proposition of energy storage in each scenario is highlighted in Figure 3 , illustrating the multifaceted nature of energy storage applications. Figure 3. Value manifestation of energy storage in different scenarios. 4.1. Optimal Configuration of Energy Storage System on the Grid Side Energy storage systems are a highly sophisticated technology that has revolutionized the power grid in more ways than one. By deferring the upgrading of the power grid, reducing transmission resistance, alleviating peak adjustment pressure, and providing auxiliary services, these systems have significantly improved the reliability of the power supply and the quality of power, bringing about numerous benefits to users. However, the complexity of energy systems has made it difficult to optimize their performance. Different research studies have focused on various aspects of energy storage systems, resulting in different target functions. The existing research has predominantly aimed to maximize the return on investment by optimizing the allocation of energy storage. In [ 67 ], a maximum optimization model of the income was established, and then the genetic algorithm combining linear planning was used to solve it. This was carried out while considering the advantages of delaying the grid upgrade, decreasing the cost of blocking, and the high income and high arbitrage of the power grid. In [ 68 ], considering the aspects of energy storage systems in delaying grid upgrading, providing auxiliary services, improving transmission network equipment utilization, load, and power generation optimization management, etc., a multi-objective optimization model was established, with the largest net present value and the lowest cost. The genetic algorithm was used to solve the problem, and the optimal capacity and economy of the energy storage system were analyzed. Reference [ 69 ] improved the economic efficiency of planning by utilizing the particle swarm optimization algorithm and considering the profits of distributed generation operators and energy storage operators as the objective function. In [ 70 ], the objective was to minimize the overall annual cost of planning. They employed simulated annealing and the lion algorithm to achieve the coordinated optimization of energy storage and active distribution network planning. In [ 71 ], a coordinated planning method for the transformation of energy storage and thermal power units, taking into account the benefits of auxiliary service revenue, was proposed by analyzing the deep peak shaving of thermal power units and the peak–valley arbitrage of energy storage. In [ 72 ], in order to enhance the overall peak-shaving benefits and promote the enthusiasm for peak-shaving transactions in a multi-source system, proactive peak-shaving constraints were introduced to the energy storage-assisted thermal power unit peak-shaving model. Some studies have planned with the goal of achieving the best social benefits brought by a specific purpose of the energy storage system, such as the goal of maximizing the emission reduction effect of the power grid after the construction of the energy storage system. In [ 73 ], aiming at superconducting magnetic energy storage features in a power grid, the characteristics of power operation were optimized, with minimalization of the total system’s total carbon dioxide emissions as the goal, and using the Lagrange multi-plication method to combine the K-T conditions for a solution. In [ 74 ], an optimization model was established for the combined dispatch of solar thermal power generation and thermal power generation, with the objective of minimizing the system’s curtailed wind and solar power. In [ 75 ], they proposed a coordinated planning method for energy storage and thermal power unit flexibility transformation, focusing on deep peak-shaving compensation of the thermal power units and the peak–valley arbitrage of energy storage. In [ 76 ], to maximize the total life cycle benefit of battery energy storage systems in the distribution network, a hybrid optimization model was established by considering factors such as energy storage arbitrage income, government electricity price subsidy income, reducing electric energy conversion freight, delaying power grid upgrading, and life-cycle cost. In [ 77 ], taking the sodium–sulfur energy storage system as an example, the economy of transmission operation was evaluated based on the operation model of a wind storage and transmission dual system. The correlation between the operating cost of the energy storage system and the number of discharges was analyzed in depth, and the improved particle swarm algorithm was used to solve the established optimization model. In [ 78 ], considering the health state of energy storage batteries, a configuration model was established to maximize the net return of the system, and the appropriate ratio of photovoltaic, energy storage, and load was obtained. Energy storage systems are installed in power grids, and the benefits generated have many aspects. These benefits generally do not all belong to the investment subject but have real significance. However, when the unit cost of the energy storage system is too high, it is often concluded that it is not economical due to ignoring other hidden economic values, which is not conducive to the commercialization of this technology. How to comprehensively evaluate the value of the energy storage system and measure the social and economic benefits and beneficiary subjects attached to it so that investors to obtain the support of national policies needs to be studied. 4.2. Optimal Configuration of Energy Storage Systems on the New Energy Side As an important means to increase the consumption of new energy, energy storage will become the mainstream trend of new energy development against the background of “carbon peaking and carbon neutrality”, requiring the vigorous development of new energy, such as wind and solar. Energy storage systems play a major role in smoothing the fluctuation of new energy output power, improving new energy consumption, reducing the deviation of the power generation plan, and improving the safe operation stability of the power grid. Specific classification scenarios are shown in Figure 4 . How to rationally allocate energy storage to meet the relevant needs in different application scenarios while improving the economy has become an urgent problem to be solved. Figure 4. Classification of new energy storage application scenarios. The configuration of energy storage on the new energy side needs to consider the randomness of new energy output and the indicators in single- or multiple-application scenarios. According to the uncertainty of new energy output and the different goals of energy storage optimal allocation, the uncertainty, economic benefits, environmental benefits, technical benefits, and multi-factor comprehensive evaluation indicators of new energy output were selected to establish an optimal energy storage allocation model, as shown in Figure 5 . Figure 5. Schematic diagram of the energy storage planning model on the new energy side. The uncertainty and power prediction error of new energy output, such as wind power and photovoltaic sources, will affect the results of energy storage planning. By applying the uncertainty programming method to energy storage optimization configuration, the uncertainty optimization problem can be transformed into a deterministic optimization problem, thus simplifying the solving process of energy storage planning. The uncertainty planning method mainly includes random planning, fuzzy planning, robust optimization, and a scene analysis method. Random planning is a traditional optimization method to respond to the uncertainty of modeling and establish the probability density function of wind power and photovoltaic. The Weibull probability distribution function is commonly used to model wind power, and the Beta probability distribution function is used to model photovoltaic [ 79 , 80 ]. The fuzzy programming method describes the uncertainty of wind power by constructing a fuzzy membership function in which the trapezoidal membership function is often used to deal with the uncertainty of wind power in the field of high-proportion wind power system optimization [ 81 ]. Robust optimization is a way to solve the problem of uncertain parameter optimization. In [ 82 ], the robust optimization programming method was used to construct a set of probability distribution functions of wind power output based on historical data, and the curtailment rate of the wind requirement was taken as the robust opportunity constraint to establish a robust opportunity constraint programming model, with the minimum energy storage investment cost as the goal and the curtailment rate of the wind as the constraint. In [ 83 ], the robust joint opportunity constraint model of probability distribution was used to describe the optimal configuration of energy storage in wind farm systems, and the robust opportunity constraint model was transformed into a deterministic linear matrix inequality problem. The scenario analysis method is a kind of probability distribution model with random variables in specific scenes and simulates the distribution of original random variables with as few scenarios as possible to transform the stochastic optimization problem into a deterministic optimization problem. The photovoltaic output was separated into five typical weather conditions according to the headroom model, and the probability density function was calculated by fitting the distribution parameters in [ 84 ]. According to the different energy storage optimal allocation goals, the existing literature has selected economic, environmental protection, technical, and multi-factor comprehensive evaluation indicators to construct an optimal allocation model for energy storage. In the optimal configuration of an energy storage system, the economic factor usually considers the minimum total cost and maximum total benefit. In [ 85 ], a planning model was established with the minimum total cost of the system as the optimization goal, and the power supply and energy storage capacity under the three cost scenarios of high, medium, and low were comprehensively optimized. In addition, economic analysis of energy storage instead of thermal power was proposed by new energy allocation. In [ 86 ], the impact of an energy storage system’s capacity on the economy of the whole life cycle of the system was studied to minimize the total cost of the system, including grid power supply costs, photovoltaic power generation costs, and battery charging and discharging depreciation costs. In [ 87 ], to minimize the total power generation cost of the system, a nonlinear optimization planning model of the combined wind-pumped storage system was established, the optimal energy storage scale under different wind speed characteristics was analyzed, and the benefits of the system in reducing carbon dioxide emissions were calculated. In [ 88 ], aiming at the optimal allocation of capacity of the photovoltaic energy storage system, a maximum intraday net income objective function model of the photovoltaic storage system was constructed. Environmental indicators usually include the emissions of CO 2 and other pollutants. In [ 89 ], the annual environmental cost was included in the objective function of the energy storage optimal allocation model, and the lower the annual environmental cost, the higher the utilization rate of new energy in the region. In [ 90 ], the establishment of a carbon emission cost calculation model fully considered the environmental factors of carbon emissions to achieve the minimum system operating cost, and at the same time, reduced the curtailment of wind, photovoltaic power generation, and load reduction. In the optimal configuration model of energy storage, the technical indicators mainly include voltage quality and system network loss. In [ 91 ], the voltage stability margin was used as the index to pre-select the site, and based on considering the charging and discharging state of the energy storage equipment, the active network loss was taken as the objective function to determine the installation location and capacity of the energy storage system. In [ 92 ], the voltage timing sensitivity was proposed to plan the installation location and capacity of the energy storage system from the perspective of improving the voltage distribution. In [ 93 ], by calculating the power loss sensitivity, the energy storage was selected in the position with the highest power loss sensitivity. In the actual energy storage planning problem, it is difficult to achieve the best optimization configuration effect by considering a single optimization goal. Therefore, scholars have carried out a large number of studies on energy storage planning methods that take into account multiple factors based on single objectives. In [ 94 ], a phased capacity optimization allocation model was proposed. In the first stage, the maximum consumption of new energy was the target, and in the second stage, the minimum storage cost to meet the utilization rate of new energy was the optimization objective. In [ 95 ], the upper model aimed at the minimum annual comprehensive cost, and the lower model aimed at the minimum system network loss. In [ 96 ], the upper layer aimed to maximize the total capacity of the power station, and the lower layer aimed to minimize the investment cost to optimize the wind storage ratio. In [ 97 ], the upper layer aimed to select the site with the best improvement effect of voltage fluctuation, and the lower layer targeted the minimum investment cost for a volumetric setting. In [ 98 ], the upper layer aimed to minimize the total cost of the coordinated frequency regulation of the frequency modulation generator and energy storage, and the lower model considered the minimum cost of system network loss and voltage regulation penalty for energy storage site selection and capacity. In [ 99 ], the upper layer aimed to maximize the benefit, and the lower layer considered the capacity loss of the energy storage battery and optimized the allocation of energy storage with the goal of the largest on-site absorption rate of new energy. Currently, with the penetration of a high proportion of new energy, the frequency and voltage of power grids have become unstable, causing a sharp increase in the operating pressure. As a result, in multiple application scenarios, it is particularly important to research the optimal allocation method of energy storage that considers the absorption and improvement of the capacity of a new energy storage power station to actively support the power grid. Furthermore, it is necessary to comprehensively consider the influence of factors such as the selection of the energy storage technology type and control strategy on the optimization configuration results. 4.3. Optimal Configuration of Energy Storage System on the User Side From the perspective of users, battery energy storage systems with swift adjustment performance are typically used for peak–valley spread arbitrage and demand response. Demand response refers to utilizing pricing or other incentive mechanisms to motivate power users to adjust their load characteristics to meet power system operation requirements. To alleviate grid load, enhance user load management capabilities, and increase power supply reliability, users employ energy storage to charge during low grid loads and supply electricity during high loads. Time-of-use arbitrage is the most commonly used scenario for user-side energy storage. In [ 100 ], the difference between the power cost and the equivalent electricity price throughout the energy storage system’s entire life cycle was compared, and economic criteria for user-side energy storage to participate in time-sharing arbitrage were given. In [ 101 ], the applications of sodium–sulfur batteries and flywheel energy storage systems in the New York market were studied, and feasible arbitrage schemes were proposed, highlighting the strong economic prospects for energy storage systems in energy arbitrage applications. Several scholars have conducted relevant research on the value of energy storage systems in reducing users’ electricity costs. In [ 102 ], an energy storage system of industrial users with wind turbines was optimized using a multichannel iterative particle swarm optimization algorithm to minimize the users’ monthly electricity cost and obtain the optimal charging/discharging strategy and energy storage scale. In [ 103 ], a dynamic programming method was used to optimize the scale and operation strategy of energy storage to maximize the net income generated by the battery energy storage system used for load regulation. In recent years, to maximize users’ investment income, multi-scenario joint operation optimization of user-side energy storage has gradually attracted widespread attention from academia and industry. Grouping energy storage systems so that different groups of energy storage undertake different functions is an effective means of realizing the simultaneous participation of energy storage systems in multiple profit models. Additionally, considering the decoupling of periods, operating energy storage at different times can assume different functions [ 104 ]. Most research chooses to build a unified comprehensive economic operation model of energy storage from the perspective of multi-scenario and multi-time coupling. In [ 105 ], a scheduling strategy for user-side energy storage to participate in frequency regulation and reduce the peak load of users at the same time was proposed, taking the cumulative maximum demand as the daily state variable and considering the impact of monthly demand electricity costs, using the German electricity market as an example. In [ 106 ], a nested model of energy storage operation based on dynamic programming was established, solving the problem of different time scales participating in frequency regulation and electricity price arbitrage through sub-models of different optimization time domains. In [ 107 ], a two-stage optimization model integrating time-sharing arbitrage, demand management, and grid frequency regulation was proposed, deciding the declared capacity, maximum demand threshold, and optimal SOC trajectory of energy storage on the target day in the pre-day stage, and dispatching energy storage output in real time in the intraday stage, while tracking the previous trajectory as much as possible to ensure that the peak load does not exceed the limit. 4.4. Energy Storage System Deployment Planning Approaches In the world of energy storage application planning, the literature predominantly has employed mathematical modeling, which can vary greatly depending on the different value aspects considered, the varying constraints, and the number of periods divided. As a result, solution methods can differ vastly and mainly include conventional optimization algorithms, heuristic algorithms, hybrid optimization algorithms, and AI-based technologies, as reviewed and classified in this paper. The classification is shown in Figure 6 . Figure 6. Types of energy storage system deployment planning approaches. (1) Conventional optimization algorithm Conventional optimization algorithms theoretically guarantee optimal solutions, but they often require the strict expression of the objective function and constraints, limiting their adaptability. The most popular mathematical technique with an ideal theory and solution is linear programming, which boasts an ability to handle complex problems, straightforward calculations, and quick resolution times. However, modeling the actual problem through a linear description can introduce significant inaccuracies, which is why linear programming is only used in the literature [ 67 ]. Nonlinear programming methods have been widely used to more accurately describe the actual problem and establish an accurate model of the problem. A nonlinear constraint programming model associated with the K-T condition was solved using the traditional Lagrange multiplier method in [ 73 ], and researchers used GAMS software to solve a nonlinear programming model with constraints in a study [ 87 ]. Nonlinear programming methods are computationally intensive and take a long time to calculate, necessitating the decomposition of the problem when applying large-scale systems. Dynamic programming methods are an effective means to study the optimal solution of a multi-stage decision-making process, which considers discrete variables and random factors with no strict restrictions on the objective function and constraints. The solution steps are clear, and it is easy to find the global optimal solution. Hence, dynamic optimization methods are widely used in related research, as found in the literature [ 103 , 106 ]. However, one of the limitations of dynamic optimization methods is that when the number of state variables in the model increases, the number of dimensions also sharply increases. (2) Heuristic optimization algorithm In the realm of energy storage application planning, the literature has mostly utilized mathematical modeling. However, due to the complexities and nuances involved in the energy storage problem, heuristic algorithms are becoming increasingly popular, as they do not require explicit mathematical formulas and are suitable for multi-objective optimization problems. These algorithms utilize artificial intelligence methods to determine the optimal size and location of energy storage systems. One such algorithm is the particle swarm optimization (PSO) and genetic algorithm (GA), which are effective for energy storage placement problems. For instance, multi-channel iterative PSO was used in [ 102 ] to determine the optimal charge/discharge strategy and energy storage scale. Additionally, a genetic algorithm was utilized in [ 68 ] to solve a multi-objective optimization model and examine the optimal efficiency and capacity of energy storage systems. It is important to note that while heuristic algorithms offer more flexibility than mathematical optimization methods, they come at the expense of solution accuracy, as they do not guarantee the global optimum and may instead fall into a local optimum. (3) Hybrid optimization algorithm As the complexity of power grids continues to increase, a single algorithm is often not enough to solve the problem of energy storage distribution. Hybrid algorithms combine the benefits of various optimization strategies while overcoming the limitations of a single approach. For instance, the GA has the opposite features of PSO, which has a quick search speed and high local search capability but weak global search capability. In [ 108 ], these two algorithms were merged to overcome these limitations and offer a quick and reliable worldwide search capability. The generalized Benders decomposition (GBD) approach was combined with second-order cone programming (SOCP) relaxation to prevent becoming stuck in the local optima and achieved great computation efficiency [ 109 ]. This resulted in the best solution for the ESS size, placement, number, and operation. Hence, compared to a single method, hybrid optimization algorithms can tackle more complicated problems with a faster convergence speed and better solution quality. Thus, as the complexity of the algorithm rises, some investigations have turned to hybrid optimization algorithms. (4) The application of AI-based technologies in ESS planning and control Evaluation indicators and the application of AI-based technologies are discussed in [ 101 , 110 , 111 , 112 , 113 , 114 , 115 , 116 , 117 , 118 , 119 , 120 , 121 , 122 , 123 , 124 , 125 , 126 , 127 , 128 , 129 ]. With the advancement of artificial intelligence (AI) technology, many AI techniques have been applied to ESS in smart grids, which are important for ESS in smart grids. In an energy storage-enabled smart grid, in the planning phase, AI can optimize energy storage configurations and develop appropriate selection schemes, thereby enhancing the system inertia and power quality and reducing construction costs. In terms of energy storage planning, the study [ 122 ] proposed the use of fuzzy logic algorithms to optimize the energy storage capacity, quantity, and charging/discharging time, effectively reducing the investment and operational costs of microgrids. Reference [ 123 ] utilized a multilayer perceptron to optimize the capacity and placement of energy storage, thereby improving the voltage/power distribution of the system and reducing the overall cost of the microgrid. Reference [ 124 ] applied lightweight neural networks and Q-learning methods to quantitatively evaluate the state of health (SOH) of energy storage batteries. Based on this evaluation, it optimized the energy storage capacity and charging/discharging rules, considering both the economic aspect and battery lifespan of the microgrid. This approach enhanced the operational performance of the microgrid. However, it did not consider the impact of renewable energy sources and load variations. In recent years, the emerging deep reinforcement learning algorithms have provided new perspectives for handling complex microgrid control in terms of coordinated control and energy management of the energy storage. Reference [ 125 ] applied the deep Q-network (DQN) algorithm to implement energy storage scheduling strategies for microgrids. It also utilized deep convolutional neural networks to extract temporal information features for microgrid scheduling, aiming to maximize the operational benefits of the microgrid. Reference [ 126 ], in the context of microgrids with multiple heterogeneous battery types, employed the DQN to control the charging and discharging cycles of different battery systems, thus improving the operational efficiency of the microgrid. However, for a large number of batteries with significantly different characteristics, this method may require additional computation time. Reference [ 127 ] proposed an improved DQN model to guide the dynamic scheduling of energy storage in microgrids. It employed a Monte Carlo tree search to estimate the maximum action value expected by the DQN and embedded some scheduling rules within the DQN to guide the training process. Reference [ 128 ] utilized the DQN to develop optimal operational strategies for energy storage systems in microgrids under grid-connected and islanding modes. In the grid-connected mode, the objective is to maximize profits, while in islanding mode, the aim was to minimize the overall system’s unmet load. Apart from reinforcement learning, the existing research has demonstrated the applicability of various artificial intelligence methods for energy storage control in microgrids. Reference [ 129 ] proposed a fuzzy logic algorithm combined with an attention mechanism, which can quickly and accurately mitigate bus power fluctuations while protecting the energy storage system. This approach improved the economic and reliability aspects of the microgrid. Reference [ 130 ] introduced a deep belief network-based method for assessing the power quality of energy storage-enabled microgrids. The breakthrough development of AI technology has brought transformative impacts on the development, operation, and modes of operation of energy storage in smart grids. It has also become one of the forward-looking research directions in the field of smart grids. The future prospects and research directions of AI in energy storage technology require further exploration. 5. Evaluation of the Benefits of Energy Storage System Applications The evaluation of energy storage systems is a complex task that requires the consideration of various indicators and factors. Research in this field has focused on the electricity market and incentive policies, aiming to evaluate the economic benefits of energy storage. However, the evaluation process is far from straightforward, as it involves the analysis of numerous functions and parameters. This section mainly reviews the benefit evaluation of energy storage systems from the perspectives of evaluation indicators and evaluation methods. 5.1. Evaluation Indicators In terms of evaluating indicators, the studies by [ 110 , 111 , 112 ] have identified several key functions of energy storage, such as low charge and high discharge, backup power supply, frequency regulation auxiliary services, and delayed power grid upgrading. These functions have been used to establish an economic benefit calculation method. Additionally, the study by [ 113 ] considered multiple aspects, including application demand, technology maturity, environmental protection, economy, installation location, and investment cost, when selecting evaluation indicators. The study by [ 114 ] proposed a multi-index comprehensive evaluation method that considered economy, reliability, and load smoothness. From a technical and economic perspective, the study by [ 115 ] established a numerical simulation model for the optimal operation of a wind–solar-storage independent power supply system, aiming to obtain the best power structure and energy storage capacity of the system. Moreover, some studies have compared the economics of different energy storage technologies. For instance, the study by [ 116 ] calculated the annual rate of return of vanadium battery and sodium–sulfur battery energy storage systems to maximize the revenue of spread arbitrage ancillary services. The study by [ 101 ] evaluated the economics of sodium–sulfur battery energy storage and flywheel energy storage under different operation schemes, considering low storage, high arbitrage, and frequency regulation income. In addition, the study by [ 117 ] studied the economic benefits of compressed air energy storage under different optimized dispatching operation modes and business models to maximize the benefits of the day-ahead market and the real-time balanced market. 5.2. Evaluation Methodology When it comes to evaluation methods, there are various approaches, such as the multi-attribute decision-making method, the fuzzy evaluation method, and the gray association method. However, most of these methods are based on a single approach in practical application and are combined with other methods to achieve combined improvement. The differences among the applications of comprehensive evaluation methods in different fields are mainly reflected in three aspects: research parameters, empowerment methods, and evaluation methods. For instance, fuzzy comprehensive evaluation requires the selection of evaluation parameters and weight calculation methods, which include subjective calculation and objective calculation. The studies by [ 118 , 119 , 120 ] used expert subjective empowerment, but without testing the expert score. Among these, the studies by [ 119 , 120 ] respectively used the validity coefficient and multiplicative synthesis to achieve subjective and objective combination empowerment. However, this approach can lead to important indicators being ignored. Additionally, the selection of membership function is critical, and common determination methods are the intuition method, fuzzy statistical method, and fuzzy distribution method [ 121 ]. 6. Discussion and Conclusions As renewable energy is being integrated into grids on a larger scale, it has become increasingly difficult to match generation, transmission, distribution, and use in space and time. This has made energy storage technology a focal point in current power grid development. In the quest for solutions, the existing literature has mostly adopted mathematical modeling, but some issues remain. When conducting smart grid energy storage planning, the following directions are worth considering in subsequent research: (1) Urgent attention must be given to building a power-based and energy-based energy storage technology system. The characteristics of power, capacity, life, and cost of energy storage technology must be sorted out, and the complementarity and adaptability between energy storage technologies and renewable energy should be analyzed to form perfect technical standards. Different energy storage technologies have their strengths and weaknesses, and their advantages can be fully utilized to achieve hybrid energy storage. (2) In the energy storage planning model, a bi-level planning model that combines planning and operation should be used to consider numerous factors such as new energy output uncertainty, economy, environmental protection, and technology. While this model considers the problem more comprehensively, it also makes the solution more complicated, so the focus should be on researching the bi-level planning model. (3) Energy storage technology can be applied to the user side to achieve demand-side management, but when the scale of energy storage application in the power consumption link is large, it can have a significant impact on the peak and valley electricity prices. This can affect the economy of the energy storage device and even lead to investment recovery risks. Therefore, the overall planning and research of the scale of energy storage in the power grid should be strengthened. (4) Intelligent energy storage management and control: Studying intelligent management and control strategies for energy storage, including optimizing the scheduling, energy flow management, and capacity planning of storage systems, should be carried out to achieve stable operation and optimal energy utilization in smart grids. (5) Energy storage economics and policy research: Analyzing the economics of energy storage technologies, studying their cost-effectiveness, business models, and policy support mechanisms should be carried out. Additionally, the development of adaptive policies to promote the deployment and adoption of energy storage technologies and enhance the development of energy storage markets should be researched. (6) To enhance the configuration efficiency of energy storage in smart grids, a software platform can be developed that integrates the simulation of new energy generation scenarios, energy storage system selection, the optimization of energy storage configuration, and the economic evaluation of energy storage systems. This platform will provide a theoretical foundation for practical engineering construction. Author Contributions Conceptualization, F.L. and S.Y.; methodology, F.L. and S.Y.; software, F.L. and S.Y.; validation, F.L. and S.Y.; formal analysis, F.L., S.Y. and K.S.; investigation, F.L. and S.Y.; resources, F.L. and S.Y.; data curation, F.L., S.Y. and D.W.; writing—original draft preparation, F.L. and S.Y.; writing—review and editing, F.L., S.Y., D.L., Z.L., H.Y. and J.Q. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding This research received funding from the Science and Technology Project of the State Grid Corporation of China (a study on power grid transient stability support capability evaluation and enhancement methods under high penetration of renewable energy, 5108-202218280A-2-280-XG). Institutional Review Board Statement Not applicable. Informed Consent Statement Not applicable. Data Availability Statement Not applicable. Acknowledgments This research was supported by the Science and Technology Project of State Grid Corporation of China (a study on power grid transient stability support capability evaluation and enhancement methods under high penetration of renewable energy, 5108-202218280A-2-280-XG). In the process of replying to the review comments, the paper received great support from Xing Yong from the Northwest Electric Power Design Institute Co, Ltd. of the China Power Engineering Consulting Group and Zhang De from the State Grid Hunan Electric Power Company Limited Economic and Technical Research Institute, and I would like to express my heartfelt thanks to both of them. Conflicts of Interest The authors declare no conflict of interest. References Qin, B.Y.; Liu, W.S.; Li, H.Y.; Ding, T.; Ma, K.; Liu, T.Q. Impact of system inherent characteristics on initial-stage short-circuit current of MMC-based MTDC transmission systems. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 2022 , 37 , 3913–3922. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Shafiullah, G.; Arif, M.T.; Oo, A.M. Mitigation strategies to minimize potential technical challenges of renewable energy integration. Sustain. Energy Techn. 2018 , 25 , 24–42. [ Google Scholar ] Qin, B.Y.; Sun, H.Y.; Ma, J.; Li, W.; Ding, T.; Wang, Z.J.; Albert, Y. Zomaya. Robust H∞ control of doubly fed wind generator via state-dependent riccati equation technique. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 2019 , 34 , 2390–2400. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Shi, L.L.; Jia, Q.Q.; Lin, L.J.; Wang, N.; Tian, G. Distributed Global Optimal Harmonic Mitigation Strategy for Power Electronics High Penetrated Distribution Networks. Proc. CSEE 2020 , 40 , 2914–2924. [ Google Scholar ] Meersman, B.; Renders, B.; Degroote, L.; Vandoorn, T.; Vandevelde, L. Three-phase inverter-connected DG-units and voltage unbalance. Electr. Power Syst. Res. 2011 , 81 , 899–906. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Jamal, T.; Shafiullah, G.; Carter, C.; Urmee, T. A comprehensive techno-economic and power quality analysis of a remote PV-diesel system in Australia. Renew. Energy Environ. Sustain. 2017 , 2 , 34. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Xu, Y.; Li, C.; Wang, Z.; Zhang, N.; Peng, B. Load frequency control of a novel renewable energy integrated micro-grid containing pumped hydropower energy storage. IEEE Access 2018 , 6 , 29067–29077. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Liu, J.; Zhang, W.; Zhou, R.; Zhong, J. Impacts of distributed renewable energy generations on smart grid operation and dispatch. In Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE Power and Energy Society General Meeting, San Diego, CA, USA, 22–26 July 2012; pp. 1–5. [ Google Scholar ] Das, T.; Roy, R.; Mandal, K.K. Impact of the penetration of distributed generation on optimal reactive power dispatch. Protect. Control. Mod. Power Syst. 2020 , 5 , 31. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Qin, B.Y.; Wang, W.; Li, W.; Li, F.; Ding, T. Multiobjective Energy Management of Multiple Pulsed Loads in Shipboard Integrated Power Systems. IEEE Syst. J. 2023 , 17 , 371–382. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Nguyen, H.K.; Song, J.B.; Han, Z. Distributed demand side management with energy storage in smart grid. IEEE Trans. Parallel Distrib. Syst. 2015 , 26 , 3346–3357. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Jiang, Y.; Yang, Y.; Tan, S.C.; Hui, Y.R. Distribution Power Loss Minimization of Energy Storage Systems in DC Microgrids Under FDI Attacks. In Proceedings of the 2022 IEEE Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition (ECCE), Detroit, MI, USA, 9–13 October 2022; pp. 1–6. [ Google Scholar ] Yang, Y.; Tan, S.C.; Hui, S.Y.R. State-of-Charge Balance Control of Distributed Battery Systems with Distinct State-of-Health in DC Microgrids. In Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE/IAS Industrial and Commercial Power System Asia (I&CPS Asia), Chengdu, China, 18–21 July 2021; pp. 140–144. [ Google Scholar ] Jiang, Y.; Yang, Y.; Tan, S.C.; Hui, S.Y.R. Dual-Ascent Hierarchical Control-Based Distribution Power Loss Reduction of Parallel-Connected Distributed Energy Storage Systems in DC Microgrids. IEEE J. Emerg. Sel. Top. Ind. Electron. 2023 , 4 , 137–146. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Luo, N.; Li, J.L. Research Progress of Energy Storage Technology in Power System. Power Syst. Clean Energy 2012 , 28 , 71–79. [ Google Scholar ] Li, X.R.; Huang, J.Y.; Chen, Y.Y.; Liu, W.J. Review on large-scale involvement of energy storage in power grid fast frequency regulation. Power Syst. Prot. Control. 2016 , 44 , 145–153. [ Google Scholar ] Luo, X.; Wang, J.H.; Ma, Z. Overview of energy storage technologies and their application prospects in smart grid. Smart Grid 2014 , 2 , 7–12. [ Google Scholar ] Mei, S.W.; Xue, X.D.; Chen, L.J. Discussion on compressed air energy storage technology and its application. South. Power Syst. Technol. 2016 , 10 , 11–15. [ Google Scholar ] Ye, J.L.; Xue, J.H.; Wang, W.; Wu, F.B.; Yang, B. Application of energy storage technology and its prospect in power system. Electr. Power 2014 , 47 , 1–5. [ Google Scholar ] Wang, C.M.; Sun, W.Q.; Yi, T.; Yan, Z.M.; Zhang, Y. Review on energy storage application planning and benefit evaluation methods in smart grid. Proc. CSEE 2013 , 33 , 33–41. [ Google Scholar ] Zhang, B.F.; Tong, B.; Feng, Y.M.; Liu, Q.Y.; Zhao, Y. Application analysis of electrochemical energy storage technology in new energy power generation side. Therm. Power Gener. 2020 , 49 , 13–18. [ Google Scholar ] Shi, L.J.; Chen, Z.; Wang, H.F. Damping of power system low-frequency oscillations with FESS. Autom. Electr. Power Syst. 2010 , 34 , 29–33. [ Google Scholar ] Wang, L.; Chen, S.S.; Lee, W.J. Dynamic stability enhancement and power flow control of a hybrid wind and marine-current farm using SMES. IEEE Trans. Energy Convers. 2009 , 24 , 626–639. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Ali, M.H.; Murata, T.; Tamura, J. Transient stability enhancement by fuzzy logic-controlled SMES considering coordination with optimal reclosing of circuit breakers. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 2009 , 45 , 1045–1051. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Liang, L.; Li, P.M.; Liu, J.N.; Zhan, C.L.; Li, B. Study on the control strategy of pumped storage power station for frequency regulation. High Volt. Eng. 2015 , 41 , 3288–3295. [ Google Scholar ] Guo, Z.G.; Ma, X.Y.; Lei, J.Y.; Yuan, Z.Y. Review on demonstration progress and commercial application scenarios of compressed air energy storage system. South. Energy Constr. 2019 , 6 , 17–26. [ Google Scholar ] Sun, B.B.; Yang, S.L.; Liu, Z.Q.; Li, T.T. analysis on present application of megawat-scale energy storage in frequency regulation and its enlightenment. Autom. Electr. Power Syst. 2017 , 41 , 8–16. [ Google Scholar ] Li, J.L.; Wu, Y.W.; Wang, N.; Xiong, J.J.; Ma, S.L. review and prospect of gigawatt-level electrochemical energy storage power station. Autom. Electr. Power Syst. 2021 , 45 , 2–14. [ Google Scholar ] Xu, S.P.; Li, X.J.; Hui, D. A survey of the development and demonstration application of largescale energy storage. Power Syst. Clean Energy 2013 , 29 , 94–100. [ Google Scholar ] Arani, A.K.; Karami, H.; Gharehpetian, G.B. Review of flywheel energy storage systems structures and applications in power systems and microgrids. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2017 , 69 , 9–18. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Li, J.L.; Yuan, X.D.; Yu, Z.G.; Ge, L. Comments on power quality enhancement research for power grid by energy storage system. Autom. Electr. Power Syst. 2019 , 43 , 15–24. [ Google Scholar ] Wang, H.J.; Jiang, Q.Y. An overview of control and configuration of energy storage system used for wind power fluctuation mitigation. Autom. Electr. Power Syst. 2014 , 38 , 126–135. [ Google Scholar ] Sun, Y.S.; Yang, M.; Shi, C.L.; Jia, D.Q.; Pei, W.; Sun, L.J. Analysis of Application Status and Development Trend of Energy Storage. High Volt. Eng. 2020 , 46 , 80–89. [ Google Scholar ] Hu, Z.C.; Ding, H.J.; Song, Y.H.; Zhang, F. Research status and prospect of energy storage application under energy internet background. Electr. Power Constr. 2016 , 37 , 8–17. [ Google Scholar ] Jing, P.; Xu, G.Z.; Zhao, B.; Yang, C.Y.; Wang, L.; Jin, Y.; Xiao, Y. Large-scale energy storage technology for global energy internet. Smart Grid 2015 , 3 , 486–492. [ Google Scholar ] Wang, Z.B.; Wang, Y.; Sun, Z.Z. Application and development of energy storage devices for substation. Power Sources 2012 , 36 , 1414–1417. [ Google Scholar ] Su, X.L.; Li, D.D.; Yan, X.X.; Tan, Y.X. application analysis of energy storage technology in power system. Electr. Power Constr. 2016 , 37 , 24–32. [ Google Scholar ] Tian, H.Y.; Chi, F.; Qi, X.M.; Shi, S.S.; Fang, C. Development of energy storage technology and application prospects in urban power grid. Power Energy 2018 , 39 , 867–871. [ Google Scholar ] Liu, S.L.; Wen, J.Y.; Sun, H.S.; Cheng, S.J. Progress on applications of energy storage technology in wind power integrated to the grid. Power Syst. Prot. Control. 2013 , 41 , 145–153. [ Google Scholar ] Ma, S.Y.; Li, J.C.; Duan, C.; Wu, J.; Xu, T.; Chen, H.F.; Pan, W.X.; Yan, H.M. Joint operation optimization of wind-photovoltaic-pumped hydro storage based on electricity market. New Energy 2019 , 47 , 43–49. [ Google Scholar ] Li, X.J.; Wang, S.X.; Hui, D. Summary and prospect of operation control and application method for battery energy storage systems. Power Syst. Technol. 2017 , 41 , 3315–3325. [ Google Scholar ] Kou, L.F.; Zhang, Y.; Ji, Y.; Wu, M.; Xiong, X.; Hu, C.D. Typical application scenario and operation mode analysis of distributed energy storage. Power Syst. Prot. Control. 2020 , 48 , 177–187. [ Google Scholar ] Ding, M.; Chen, Z.; Su, J.H.; Chen, Z.; Wu, J.F.; Zhu, C.Z. An overview of battery energy storage system for renewable energy generation. Autom. Electr. Power Syst. 2013 , 37 , 19–25. [ Google Scholar ] Zhen, X.Y.; Yin, Z.D.; Sun, Z. Application and perspective of advanced energy storage technology in smart grid. Electr. Age 2011 , 1 , 44–47. [ Google Scholar ] Hein, K.; Xu, Y.; Wilson, G.; Gupta, A.K. Coordinated optimal voyage planning and energy management of all-electric ship with hybrid energy storage system. IEEE Trans. Power Syst 2021 , 36 , 2355–2365. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Yu, Z.H. Status and development of bulk energy storage technology. China Power Enterp. Manag. 2009 , 7 , 26–28. [ Google Scholar ] Hannan, M.A.; Hoque, M.M.; Mohamed, A.; Ayob, A. Review of energy storage systems for electric vehicle applications: Issues and challenges. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2017 , 69 , 771–789. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Choi, W.; Wu, Y.J.; Han, D.; Gorman, J.; Palavivino, P.C.; Lee, W.; Sarlioglu, B. Reviews on grid-connected inverter, utility-scaled battery energy storage system, and vehicle-to-grid application-challenges and opportunities. In Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE Transportation Electrification Conference and Expo (ITEC), Chicago, IL, USA, 22–24 June 2017; pp. 203–210. [ Google Scholar ] Zeng, J. Construction and Control of Energy Storage Systems Used in Renewable Energy and Micro Grid ; Huazhong University of Science and Technology: Wuhan, China, 2009. [ Google Scholar ] Mei, J.; Zhang, J.; Liu, S.Y.; Qiu, L.C. Development status of battery energy storage technology. Zhejiang Electr. Power 2020 , 39 , 75–81. [ Google Scholar ] Zakeri, B.; Syri, S. Electrical energy storage systems: A comparative life cycle cost analysis. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2015 , 42 , 569–596. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Ma, X.; Zhang, H.; Sun, C. An optimal strategy of electrolyte flow rate for vanadium redox flow battery. J. Power Sources 2012 , 203 , 153–158. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Palizban, O.; Kauhaniemi, K. Energy storage systems in modern grids-Matrix of technologies and applications. J. Energy Storage 2016 , 6 , 248–259. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Yao, L.Z.; Yang, B.; Cui, H.F.; Zhuang, J.; Ye, J.L.; Xue, J.H. Challenges and progresses of energy storage technology and its application in power systems. J. Mod. Power Syst. Clean Energy 2013 , 4 , 519–528. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Electrical Energy Storage; White Paper ; The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC): Geneva, Switzerland, 2011. Tokoro, H.; Yoshikiyo, M.; Imoto, K.; Namai, A.; Nasu, T.; Nakagawa, K.; Ozaki, N.; Hakoe, F.; Tanaka, K.; Chiba, K.; et al. External stimulation controllable heat-storage ceramics. Nat. Commun. 2015 , 6 , 7037. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Anisur, M.A.; Kibria, M.A.; Mahfuz, M.H.; Metselaar, I.; Saidur, R. Latent heat thermal storage (LHTS) for energy sustainability. Green Energy Technol 2015 , 201 , 245–263. [ Google Scholar ] Zheng, W.; Zhu, J.; Luo, Q. Distributed Dispatch of Integrated Electricity-Heat Systems With Variable Mass Flow. IEEE Trans. Smart Grid 2023 , 14 , 1907–1919. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Wen, Y.; Qu, X.; Li, W.; Liu, X.; Ye, X. Synergistic Operation of Electricity and Natural Gas Networks via ADMM. IEEE Trans. Smart Grid 2018 , 9 , 4555–4565. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Anosov, V.N.; Yaroslavtsev, M.V. Evaluation of hybrid electric bus energy storage device capacity. In Proceedings of the 2016 11th International Forum on Strategic Technology (IFOST), Novosibirsk, Russia, 1–3 June 2016; pp. 65–67. [ Google Scholar ] Hemmati, R.; Saboori, H. Emergence of hybrid energy storage systems in renewable energy and transport applications-A review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2016 , 65 , 11–23. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Martinez, M.; Molina, M.G.; Frack, F.; Mercado, P.E. Dynamic modeling, simulation and control of hybrid energy storage system based on compressed air and supercapacitors. IEEE Lat. Amer. Trans. 2013 , 11 , 466–472. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Liang, H.-W.R.; Yang, Y.; Hui, S.Y.R. Improvement of lithium-ion battery charging from the state-of-the-art industrial JEITA guidelines to a hybrid temperature-regulated current control. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 2022 , 37 , 6412–6423. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Chen, W.C.; Liang, X.H.; Wang, S. SiO 2 hydrophilic modification of expanded graphite to fabricate form-stable ternary nitrate composite room temperature phase change material for thermal energy storage. Chem. Eng. J. 2020 , 413 , 127549. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Reji, K.R.; Samykano, M.; Pandey, A.K. A comparative study on thermophysical properties of functionalized and non- functionalized multi- walled carbon nano tubes (MWCNTs) enhanced salt hydrate phase change material. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 2022 , 240 , 111697. [ Google Scholar ] Yu, K.Y.; Liu, Y.S.; Yang, Y.Z. Review on form- stable inorganic hydrated salt phase change materials: Preparation, characterization and effect on the thermophysical properties. Appl. Energy 2021 , 292 , 116845. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Leou, R.C. An economic analysis model for the energy storage systems in a deregulated market. In Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Sustainable Energy Technologies, Singapore, 24–27 November 2008; pp. 744–749. [ Google Scholar ] Chacra, F.A.; Bastard, P.; Fleury, G.; Clavreul, R. Impact of energy storage costs on economical performance in a distribution substation. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 2005 , 20 , 684–691. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Yi, C.Y.; Hu, Z.J.; Lin, W.W. Cooperative planning method of distributed generation and independent energy storage in active distribution network based on Stackelberg game. Electr. Meas. Instrum. 2022 , 13 , 1–10. [ Google Scholar ] He, C.K.; Zhu, J.Z.; Liu, Y. Coordinated planning of electric vehicle Charging-Swapping-Storage integrated station and active distribution network considering carbon reduction. Trans. China Electrotech. Soc. 2022 , 37 , 92–111. [ Google Scholar ] Yang, X.Y.; Liu, X.Y.; Guo, Q.; Sun, Y.; Yan, G.G.; Li, H.Y. Coordinated Planning of Energy Storage and Flexible Retrofit of Thermal Power Units Considering Ancillary Service Income. Power Syst. Technol. 2023 , 47 , 1350–1362. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Zhao, S.Q.; Wu, Y.; Lu, Z.W. Analysis of power system peaking capacity and economy considering uncertainty of wind and solar output. Power Syst. Technol. 2022 , 46 , 1752–1761. [ Google Scholar ] Shunichi, K.; Eiichi, T.; Hiroyuki, K.; Jun, H.; Takashi, S. Life cycle assessment and economical evaluation of superconducting magnetic energy storage systems in a power system. Electr. Eng. Jpn. 2000 , 131 , 32–44. [ Google Scholar ] Zhu, X.R.; Shan, Y.Q. Multi-stage distributionally robust planning of energy storage capacity considering flexibility. Electr. Power Autom. Equip. 2023 , 37 , 1–12. [ Google Scholar ] Zhang, Y.X.; Liu, W.Y.; Li, X. Optimal control method of peak load regulation combined concentrating solar power and thermal power for power grid accessed with high proportion of renewable energy. Electr. Power Autom. Equip. 2021 , 41 , 8–15. [ Google Scholar ] Xiang, Y.P.; Wei, Z.D.; Sun, G.Q.; Sun, Y.H.; Shen, M.P. Life cycle cost based optimal configuration of battery energy storage system in distribution network. Power Syst. Technol. 2015 , 39 , 264–270. [ Google Scholar ] Zheng, J.; Wen, F.S.; Li, L.; Wang, K.; Gao, C. Transmission system expansion planning considering combined operation of wind farms and energy storage systems. Autom. Electr. Power Syst. 2013 , 37 , 35–142. [ Google Scholar ] Xiu, X.Q.; Tang, W.; Li, J.L.; Tian, C.G. Collaborative configuration of distributed generation, energy storage and load in microgrid considering state of health. High Volt. Eng. 2017 , 43 , 3118–3126. [ Google Scholar ] Yu, Q.H.; Tian, L.; Li, X.F.; Li, X.D.; Tan, X. Configuration and economic assessment of compressed air energy surveying of wind energy uncertainty. Energy Storage Sci. Technol. 2021 , 10 , 1614–1623. [ Google Scholar ] Zhang, D.L.; Mubaarak, S.; Jiang, S.Y.; Wang, L.Z.; Liu, J.X. Optimized configuration method of energy storage system in photovoltaic power station based on probability of power. Energy Storage Sci. Technol. 2021 , 10 , 2244–2251. [ Google Scholar ] Du, G.; Zhao, D.M.; Liu, X. Summary of the research of wind power uncertainty optimization scheduling. In Proceedings of the Chinese Society for Electrical Engineering, Jinan, China, 21–22 September 2023; pp. 1–21. [ Google Scholar ] Yang, L.B.; Cao, Y.; Wei, H.; Chen, L.J.; Mei, S.W. Formation of wind power uncertainty and abandoning wind rate constraints. Power Syst. Autom. 2020 , 44 , 45–52. [ Google Scholar ] Dai, L. Stochastic Robust Optimization Method for Considering New Energy Uncertainty ; Zhejiang University: Hangzhou, China, 2017. [ Google Scholar ] Zhang, Y.J.; Zhang, Y.H.; Liu, S.L.; Yi, Y.Q. Dual planning of a distribution transformer considering distributed photovoltaic and energy storage access. Power Syst. Prot. Control. 2020 , 48 , 9–15. [ Google Scholar ] Ren, D.W.; Jin, C.; Hou, J.M.; Xiao, J.Y.; Du, E.S.; Zhou, Y.B. New energy configuration inscription replacement of new energy configuration based on timing operation. Electr. Power 2021 , 54 , 18–26. [ Google Scholar ] Jia, H.; Peng, J.Q.; Li, N.P.; Zhou, C.F.; Yin, R.X. Optimization and economical analysis of distributed PV energy storage system under dynamic electric price. Acta Energ. Sol. Sin. 2021 , 42 , 187–193. [ Google Scholar ] Liliana, E.B.; Pablo, C.B.; Cornelis van Kooten, G. The economics of wind power with energy storage. Energy Econ. 2008 , 30 , 1973–1989. [ Google Scholar ] Ren, R.R.; Xie, L.R.; Xu, B.F.; Zhen, H.; Wang, K.F. Research on capacity optimization configuration of discarded light resistance. J. Xinjiang Univ. (Nat. Sci. Ed.) 2021 , 38 , 632–640. [ Google Scholar ] Chen, C.W.; Jiang, X.H.; Liu, L.J. Research on distributed power supply optimization configuration considering timing and intention. Electr. Eng. 2017 , 6 , 41–47. [ Google Scholar ] Zhu, W.; Lan, Y.P.; Zhen, Z.; Liu, B.; Feng, W.X.; Zhou, S. Research on the optimization operation of wind and discipline multi-energy complementation system. Power Syst. Prot. Control. 2019 , 47 , 127–133. [ Google Scholar ] Yan, N.; Zhang, H.Y.; Wang, Z.Q.; Xu, J.; Cheng, J.H.; Gao, R.G.; Zhao, J.P. Regional power grid distributed social selection orientation planning. High Press. Electr. 2020 , 56 , 52–58. [ Google Scholar ] Li, Z.K.; Chen, S.Y.; Fu, Y.; Dong, C.M.; Zhang, J.W. Optimal allocation of ESS in distribution network containing DG base on timing-voltage-sensitivity analysis. Proc. CSEE 2017 , 37 , 4630–4640. [ Google Scholar ] Guo, Y.H.; Yu, D.; Yang, P.; Wang, Z.J.; Wang, J.T. Optimal capacity allocation method of a distributed energy storage system based on greedy algorithm. Energy Storage Sci. Technol. 2022 , 11 , 2295–2304. [ Google Scholar ] Yuan, W.; Wang, C.X.; Li, Q.H.; Shi, Z.Y. Multi-area two-stage optimal allocation method of large-scale energy storage for renewable energy consumption. J. Glob. Energy Interconnect. 2021 , 4 , 393–400. [ Google Scholar ] Ding, M.; Fang, D.; Liu, X.F.; Pan, J.; Zhang, J.J. Optimal siting and sizing of distributed PV-storage in distribution network based on cluster partition. Proc. CSEE 2019 , 39 , 2187–2201. [ Google Scholar ] Yuan, T.J.; Jiang, P.; Sun, Y.Q.; Mei, S.W.; Alimasibieke, S. Research on bi-level capacity programming optimization for the integration of wind farm energy storage power station. High Volt. Eng. 2015 , 41 , 3204–3212. [ Google Scholar ] Tao, Q.; Sang, B.Y.; Ye, J.L.; Xuan, J.H. Optimal configuration method of distributed energy storage systems in distribution network with high penetration of photovoltaic. High Volt. Eng. 2016 , 42 , 2158–2165. [ Google Scholar ] Meng, Q.Q.; Li, X.Q.; Yu, H.F.; Li, X.R.; Li, P.Q.; Jiang, X. Optimal planning of energy storage power station considering source-charge uncertainty. Acta Energ. Sol. Sin. 2021 , 42 , 415–423. [ Google Scholar ] Jiang, X.B.; Tang, B.; Yu, G.Z.; Hu, P.F.; Xia, X.W.; Xu, L.J. Coordination and optimization method of park-level energy storage and electricity price for local accommodation of renewable energy. Autom. Electr. Power Syst. 2022 , 46 , 51–64. [ Google Scholar ] Shen, H.M.; Yu, X.H. Economic analysis of distributed electrochemical energy storage on the user-side. Zhejiang Electr. Power 2019 , 38 , 50–54. [ Google Scholar ] Rahul, W.; Jay, A.; Rick, M. Economics of electric energy storage for energy arbitrage and regulation in New York. Energy Policy 2007 , 35 , 2558–2568. [ Google Scholar ] Lee, T.Y. Operating schedule of battery energy storage system in a time-of-use rate industrial user with wind turbine generators: A multipass iteration particle swarm optimization approach. IEEE Trans. Energy Convers. 2007 , 22 , 774–782. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Oudalov, A.; Cherkaoui, R.; Beguin, A. Sizing and optimal operation of battery energy storage system for peak shaving application. In Proceedings of the IEEE Lausanne Powertech, Lausanne, Switzerland, 1–5 July 2007; pp. 621–625. [ Google Scholar ] Tian, Y.; Bera, A.; Benidris, M.; Mitra, J. Stacked revenue and technical benefits of a grid-connected energy storage system. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 2018 , 54 , 3034–3043. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Engels, J.; Claessens, B.; Deconinck, G. Optimal combination of frequency control and peak shaving with battery storage systems. IEEE Tran. Smart Grid 2020 , 11 , 3270–3279. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Cheng, B.; Powell, W.B. Co-optimizing battery storage for the frequency regulation and energy arbitrage using multi-scale dynamic programming. IEEE Trans. Smart Grid 2018 , 9 , 1997–2005. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Wang, Z.; Kirschen, D.S. Two-stage optimal scheduling for aggregators of batteries owned by commercial consumers. IET Gener. Transm. Distrib. 2019 , 13 , 4880–4887. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Lei, J.; Gong, Q.; Liu, J.; Qiao, H.; Wang, B. Optimal allocation of a VRB energy storage system for wind power applications considering the dynamic efficiency and life of VRB in active distribution networks. IET Renew. Power Gener. 2019 , 13 , 563–571. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Lin, Z.; Hu, Z.; Zhang, H.; Song, Y. Optimal ESS allocation in distribution network using accelerated generalised Benders decomposition. IET Gener. Transm. Distrib. 2019 , 13 , 2738–2746. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Benedikt, L.; Hannes, W.; Dirk, U.S. Optimizing vehicle-to-grid charging strategies using genetic algorithms under the consideration of battery aging. In Proceedings of the IEEE Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference, Chicago, IL, USA, 6–9 September 2011; pp. 1–7. [ Google Scholar ] Lone, S.A.; Mufti, M.D. Integrating a Redox flow battery system with-a wind-diesel power system. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Power Electronics, Drives and Energy Systems for Industrial Growth-2006, New Delhi, India, 12–15 December 2006; pp. 1–6. [ Google Scholar ] Waldmann, T.; Wilka, M.; Kasper, M.; Fleischhammer, M.; Wohlfahrt-Mehrens, M. Temperature dependent ageing mechanisms in lithium-ion batteries-a post-mortem study. J. Power Sources 2014 , 262 , 129–135. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Lai, L.; Zhang, Y. Comprehensive evaluation of battery energy storage system. Power Energy 2012 , 33 , 68–71. [ Google Scholar ] Zheng, X.B. The Multi-Index Comprehensive Evaluation Method of Peak Load Shifting Using Battery Energy Storage System ; North China Electric Power University: Beijing, China, 2014. [ Google Scholar ] Diaf, S.; Belhamel, M.; Haddadi, M.; Louche, A. Technical and economic assessment of hybrid photovoltaic/wind system with battery storage in Corsica island. Energy Policy 2008 , 36 , 743–754. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Moghaddam, I.G.; Saeidian, A. Self scheduling program for a VRB energy storage in a competitive electricity market. In Proceedings of the 2010 International Conference on Power System Technology, Hangzhou, China, 24–28 October 2010; pp. 1–6. [ Google Scholar ] Xian, H.; Raphael, L.; Andrei, N.; Delarue, E.; Mercier, E. Com-Pressed Air Energy Storage multi-stream value assessment on the French energy market. In Proceedings of the 2011 IEEE Trondheim PowerTech, Trondheim, Norway, 19–23 June 2011. [ Google Scholar ] Yang, Z.C.; Zhang, C.L.; Ge, L.; Gong, D.C.; Gu, Y.F.; Huang, T.H. Comprehensive fuzzy evaluation based on entropy weight method for insulator flashover pollution. Electr. Power Autom. Equip. 2014 , 34 , 90–94. [ Google Scholar ] Zeng, M.; Wang, L. Risk assessment of smart grid based on rank correlation analysis and gray triangle clustering. East China Electr. Power 2013 , 41 , 245–248. [ Google Scholar ] Li, H.H.; Xing, J.; Sun, Y.S.; Zhou, D.W.; Ma, T.; Zhang, J.W. Water quality assessment of drinking water sources of the yellow river main stem based on combination weighting fuzzy comprehensive evaluation method. J. Hydroecology 2015 , 36 , 44–50. [ Google Scholar ] Liu, S.F.; Jeffery, Y.Y. A brief introduction to grey system theory. Grey Syst. Theory Appl. 2012 , 2 , 89–104. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Mahmoud, T.S.; Ahmed, B.S.; Hassan, M.Y. The role of intelligent generation control algorithms in optimizing battery energy storage systems size in microgrids: A case study from Western Australia. Energy Convers. Manag. 2019 , 196 , 1335–1352. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Rajamand, S.; Shafie-Khah, M.; Catalao, J.P.S. Energy storage systems implementation and photovoltaic output prediction for cost minimization of a Microgrid. Electr. Power Syst. Res. 2022 , 202 , 107596. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Chen, S.; Li, J.; Jiang, C. Optimal energy storage configuration for microgrids based on SOH estimation and deep Q-network. Entropy 2022 , 24 , 630. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Wang, Y.D.; Cui, C.G.; Qian, S. Study on micro-grid energy storage dispatching strategy based on deep Q-value reinforcement learning. Renew. Energy Resour. 2019 , 7 , 1220–1228. [ Google Scholar ] Qiu, X.; Nguyen, T.A.; Crow, M.L. Heterogeneous energy storage optimization for microgrids. IEEE Trans. Smart Grid 2015 , 7 , 1453–1461. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Shang, Y.; Wu, W.; Guo, J. Stochastic dispatch of energy storage in microgrids: An augmented reinforcement learning approach. Appl. Energy 2020 , 261 , 114423. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Bui, V.H.; Hussain, A.; Kim, H.M. Q-learning-based operation strategy for community battery energy storage system (CBESS) in microgrid system. Energies 2019 , 12 , 1789. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Xing, Y. Research on Power Control Strategy of Microgrid Energy Storage System Based on Fuzzy Control ; Jiangsu University: Zhenjiang, China, 2021. [ Google Scholar ] Yang, J. Research on Power Quality Assessment and Control in Microgrid Based on Battery Energy Storage ; Northeastern University: Shenyang, China, 2019. [ Google Scholar ] Figure 1. Detailed classifications of energy storage technologies. Figure 2. Structural diagram of an energy storage system connected to a public power grid. Figure 3. Value manifestation of energy storage in different scenarios. Figure 4. Classification of new energy storage application scenarios. Figure 5. Schematic diagram of the energy storage planning model on the new energy side. Figure 6. Types of energy storage system deployment planning approaches. Table 1. Challenges for smart grids and energy storage role analysis. Challenges for Smart Grids Role of Energy Storage Short time scales The power grid structure and power flow distribution are changed. High penetration of renewable energy power generation will have a significant impact on the stability of small disturbance/transient power angle, voltage stability, and frequency stability. Fast frequency adjustment Suppresses low-frequency oscillations Automatic generation control (AGC) Smooths the fluctuation of new energy output Overvoltage suppression Short-term voltage stability Automatic voltage control (AVC) Harmonics and resonance suppression Sub-synchronous/super-synchronous resonance suppression Electrical energy quality control New energy output plan tracking Medium and long time scales The adjustability and flexibility of the grid decrease. The difficulty of balancing power and energy between the source and load increases. It is increasingly difficult to achieve reliable and efficient operation of the power grid through traditional dispatching. New energy output climbing control Alleviates transmission and distribution equipment congestion Peak shaving and valley filling Participates in market regulation Delays the expansion and upgrading of transmission and distribution Works as a backup power source Table 2. Characteristics of electrochemical energy storage technologies in smart grids [ 53 ]. Technology Name Capacity (MWh) Power (MW) Response Time Discharge Time Lifetime (Years) Efficiency (%) Electrochemical Lead–acid 0.25–50 ≤ 100 Millisecond ≤ 4 h ≤ 20 ≤ 85 Lithium-ion 0.25–25 ≤ 100 ≤ 1 h ≤ 15 ≤ 90 Sodium–sulfur ≤ 300 ≤ 50 ≤ 6 h ≤ 15 ≤ 80 Flow batteries ≤ 250 ≤ 50 ≤ 10 m i n ≤ 8 h ≤ 10 ≤ 80 Table 3. The status quo of energy storage functions in smart grids. ESS Type Mechanical ESS Electrochemical ESS Chemical ESS Electromagnetic ESS Thermal ESS Function Pumped Hydro Storage Flywheel ESS Compressed Air ESS (CAES) Lithium-Ion Batteries Lead–Acid Batteries Flow Batteries Sodium–Sulfur Batteries Hydrogen Fuel Cell Superconducting Magnetic ESS Supercapacitor ESS Latent Heat Storage, Sensible Heat Storage Power frequency active regulation Short time scales Fast frequency adjustment [ 15 ] [ 16 , 17 ] [ 18 ] [ 16 , 17 ] [ 16 , 19 ] [ 19 ] [ 20 ] [ 21 ] Suppresses low-frequency oscillations [ 22 ] [ 23 , 24 ] Automatic generation control (AGC) [ 25 ] [ 26 ] [ 27 , 28 ] [ 19 , 29 ] Smooths the fluctuation of new energy output [ 30 ] [ 31 ] [ 17 , 32 ] [ 34 ] [ 35 ] [ 36 ] [ 17 ] New energy output plan tracking [ 29 , 31 ] [ 29 ] [ 29 ] [ 66 ] Medium and long time scales New energy output climbing control [ 29 ] [ 29 ] [ 29 ] Alleviates transmission and distribution equipment congestion [ 37 ] [ 26 , 37 ] [ 38 ] [ 37 ] Peak shaving and valley filling [ 15 ] [ 29 ] [ 33 ] [ 33 ] [ 29 ] [ 29 , 34 ] [ 64 , 65 ] Participates in market regulation [ 40 ] [ 41 ] Delays the expansion and upgrading of transmission and distribution [ 37 , 42 ] [ 26 , 37 ] [ 29 ] [ 29 , 43 ] [ 37 ] Power frequency reactive power regulation Short time scales Overvoltage suppression [ 29 ] [ 31 ] Short-term voltage stability [ 31 ] [ 29 ] [ 31 ] Automatic voltage control (AVC) [ 17 ] [ 28 , 35 ] [ 29 ] [ 29 , 41 ] Non-power frequency regulation Short time scales Harmonic and resonance suppression [ 39 ] [ 17 ] Sub-synchronous/super-synchronous resonance suppression [ 29 ] [ 31 ] Electrical energy quality control [ 29 ] [ 26 ] [ 29 , 41 ] [ 17 ] [ 29 ] [ 34 ] [ 29 ] [ 31 ] Integrated energy system [ 58 , 59 ] MDPI and ACS Style Li, F.; Wang, D.; Liu, D.; Yang, S.; Sun, K.; Liu, Z.; Yu, H.; Qin, J. A Comprehensive Review on Energy Storage System Optimal Planning and Benefit Evaluation Methods in Smart Grids. Sustainability 2023, 15, 9584. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15129584 AMA Style Li F, Wang D, Liu D, Yang S, Sun K, Liu Z, Yu H, Qin J. A Comprehensive Review on Energy Storage System Optimal Planning and Benefit Evaluation Methods in Smart Grids. Sustainability. 2023; 15(12):9584. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15129584 Chicago/Turabian Style Li, Fan, Dan Wang, Dong Liu, Songheng Yang, Ke Sun, Zhongjian Liu, Haoyang Yu, and Jishuo Qin. 2023. "A Comprehensive Review on Energy Storage System Optimal Planning and Benefit Evaluation Methods in Smart Grids" Sustainability15, no. 12: 9584. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15129584

https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/15/12/9584/xml

Gould v. State, No. 05-291. - Wyoming - Case Law - VLEX 892749120 0: [object Object]. 1: [object Object]. 2: [object Object]. 3: [object Object]. 4: [object Object]. 5: [object Object] Wyoming Gould v. State, No. 05-291. Court United States State Supreme Court of Wyoming Writing for the Court Kite Citation 151 P.3d 261,2006 WY 157 Decision Date 19 December 2006 Docket Number No. 05-291.,No. 06-1. Parties David Lee GOULD, Appellant (Defendant), v. The STATE of Wyoming, Appellee (Plaintiff). Tommy J. Kolb, Appellant (Defendant), v. The State of Wyoming, Appellee (Plaintiff). 151 P.3d 261 2006 WY 157 David Lee GOULD, Appellant (Defendant), v. The STATE of Wyoming, Appellee (Plaintiff). Tommy J. Kolb, Appellant (Defendant), v. The State of Wyoming, Appellee (Plaintiff). No. 05-291. No. 06-1. Supreme Court of Wyoming. December 19, 2006. [151 P.3d 263] Representing Appellants: Pro se. Representing Appellee: Patrick J. Crank, Attorney General; Paul Rehurek, Deputy Attorney General; D. Michael Pauling, Senior Assistant Attorney General; James Michael Causey, Assistant Attorney General. Before VOIGT, C.J., and GOLDEN, HILL, KITE, and BURKE, JJ. KITE, Justice. [¶ 1] David Lee Gould and Tommy J. Kolb (appellants) were convicted for committing violent felonies in Wyoming and then were transferred by the Wyoming Department of Corrections (DOC) to a detention center in Texas to serve their sentences. The appellants filed parallel motions to correct illegal sentence in the district courts where they were convicted. They also filed motions for appointment of legal counsel to assist them with their post-judgment efforts. The respective district courts denied the motions, and appellants appealed. Because their appeals involve very similar issues and arguments, they were consolidated for decision by this Court. We conclude the appellants have not established they are entitled to correction of their sentences or to appointment of counsel. Consequently, we affirm. ISSUES [¶ 2] The appellants, who appear pro se, do not expressly set out their issues on appeal. 1 The State phrases the appellate issues as: I. Did either district court err in denying either appellant's motion for correction of an illegal sentence? II. Did either district court err in denying either appellant's motion for appointment of counsel? FACTS Facts Relevant to Mr. Gould [¶ 3] In December 2000, Mr. Gould entered a home in Campbell County without authorization and demanded sexual favors from a female occupant of the home. When she refused, he severely beat her. Mr. Gould pled guilty to, and was convicted of, one count of aggravated assault and battery, in violation of Wyo.Stat. Ann. § 6-2-502(a)(ii) (LexisNexis 2005), 2 and one count of burglary, in violation of Wyo.Stat. Ann. § 6-3-301(a) and (b) (LexisNexis 2005). 3 The district court sentenced him to serve six to ten 151 P.3d 264 years of imprisonment on each count and ruled he would serve the sentences consecutively. Mr. Gould filed a direct appeal of his judgment and sentence, but voluntarily dismissed the appeal before a decision was issued by this Court. [¶ 4] In 2002, Mr. Gould filed a motion for sentence reduction pursuant to W.R.Cr.P. 35(b), asking the district court to modify his sentences to make them concurrent instead of consecutive. The district court denied his motion, and Mr. Gould did not appeal from the denial. On October 24, 2005, he filed pro se motions to correct illegal sentence pursuant to W.R.Cr.P. 35(a) and for appointment and assistance of counsel. The district court denied Mr. Gould's motions, and he filed this appeal. Facts Relevant to Mr. Kolb [¶ 5] Mr. Kolb was convicted after a jury trial for the 1993 first degree pre-meditated murder 4 and aggravated kidnapping 5 of Christa Sallini in Sheridan County. Kolb v. State, 930 P.2d 1238 , 1239-40 (Wyo.1996). The district court entered judgment on the jury's verdict and sentenced Mr. Kolb to serve two consecutive life sentences. Id.Mr. Kolb appealed to this Court and we affirmed his convictions. Id.In 1997, he submitted claims of ineffective assistance of trial and appellate counsel in a Petition for Post-Conviction Relief filed with the district court. Mr. Kolb's petition was denied. [¶ 6] On October 31, 2005, nearly ten years after his direct appeal was rejected, Mr. Kolb filed pro se motions to correct illegal sentence and for assistance of counsel, which paralleled Mr. Gould's motions. The district court denied both of Mr. Kolb's motions and he appealed to this Court. STANDARD OF REVIEW [¶ 7] A district court has discretion in ruling on a motion to correct an illegal sentence; consequently, we review the district court's ruling for abuse of discretion. See, Whitten v. State, 2005 WY 55 , ¶ 6, 110 P.3d 892 , 894 (Wyo.2005).However, " [t]he exercise of discretion in the context of a motion to correct an illegal sentence is limited to a determination by the trial court as to whether the sentence was legal or illegal." Id.The determination of "whether a specific rule applies to a given set of facts is a question of law, requiring a de novo review." Sweets v. State, 2001 WY 126 , ¶ 9, 36 P.3d 1130 , 1132 (Wyo.2001). See also, Lee v. State, 2 P.3d 517 , 525 (Wyo.2000). [¶ 8] Pursuant to Wyo.Stat. Ann. § 7-6-104 (LexisNexis 2005), the district court has discretion as to whether or not to appoint counsel at non-critical stages of a criminal proceeding, and our review of a denial of a request for appointment of counsel is limited to determining whether or not the district court abused its discretion. See, Patrick v. State, 2005 WY 32 , ¶ 16, 108 P.3d 838 , 843-44 (Wyo.2005). The abuse-of-discretion standard of review examines the reasonableness of the trial court's choice. Lacey v. State, 2003 WY 148 , ¶ 7, 79 P.3d 493 , 495 (Wyo.2003); Griswold v. State, 2001 WY 151 P.3d 265 14, ¶ 7, 17 P.3d 728 , 731 (Wyo.2001). "Judicial discretion is a composite of many things, among which are conclusions drawn from objective criteria; it means exercising sound judgment with regard to what is right under the circumstances and without doing so arbitrarily and capriciously." Martinez v. State, 2002 WY 10 , ¶ 7, 39 P.3d 394 , 396 (Wyo.2002). DISCUSSION A. Motions to Correct Illegal Sentence [¶ 9] Pursuant to W.R.Cr.P. 35(a), a motion to correct an illegal sentence may be brought at any time." `An illegal sentence is one which exceeds statutory limits, imposes multiple terms of imprisonment for the same offense, or otherwise violates constitutions or the law.'" Martinez, ¶ 9, 39 P.3d at 396, quoting Duran v. State, 949 P.2d 885 , 887 (Wyo.1997). See also, Brown v. State, 2004 WY 119 , ¶ 7, 99 P.3d 489 , 492 (Wyo.2004). Appellants present several arguments in support of their claims the district court erred by denying their motions to correct illegal sentence, including: 1) the district court's orders denying their motions did not properly address their legal arguments; 2) their convictions should have merged for sentencing; 3) their sentences were enhanced on the basis of improper factors; and 4) their sentences were illegally executed because the DOC transferred them to a detention center in Texas to serve their sentences. 1. District Court's Orders [¶ 10] Appellants argue their cases should be remanded to their respective district courts with directions requiring the courts to articulate the legal reasons for denying their motions to correct illegal sentence. The appellants cite to general constitutional provisions but do not provide any specific authority indicating district courts are required to provide detailed legal reasons for their rulings on motions to correct an illegal sentence. [¶ 11] In Mr. Gould's case, the district court's order denying his motion to correct an illegal sentence stated, in pertinent part: "The court, having considered said motion and the governing law, finds that defendant's motion is without merit and, in large part, directs the court to consider case law and authority that is not governing in defendant's matter." Mr. Gould filed a motion "for reasoned judgment" and a motion for rehearing. The district court denied his motions, indicating the sentences were within the limits prescribed by Wyoming law and the court had discretion to sentence him to consecutive sentences. The court stated Mr. Gould's sentences were appropriate in light of his "extensive criminal history and the extreme violence of the case." In Mr. Kolb's case, the district court's order, although brief, indicates it considered his filings and the procedural history of the case and denied his motions for the reasons set forth in the State's Traverse. 6 [¶ 12] The respective orders indicate the district courts did, in fact, consider the appellants' legal claims. In their arguments to this Court, appellants do not identify any specific authority obligating the district courts to make more definitive findings and conclusions in support of their decisions. We, therefore, refuse to remand these cases to the district courts to require them to include further reasons for their respective denial orders. Moreover, as is apparent from our decisions on the substantive issues presented in this case, such an exercise would have no practical effect on the outcome. 2. Merger of Sentences [¶ 13] Appellants argue their sentences were illegal because they were punished multiple times for the same conduct in violation of the constitutional proscriptions against double jeopardy. They do not challenge the validity of the underlying convictions, but argue the convictions should have merged for sentencing. Compare, DeSpain v. State, 865 P.2d 584 (Wyo.1993) (holding a double jeopardy challenge to multiple convictions for a single criminal event must be brought in a petition for post conviction relief pursuant to Wyo.Stat. Ann. §§ 7-14-101, et seq. rather 151 P.3d 266 than in a motion to correct an illegal sentence under W.R.Cr.P. 35(a)), and Birr v. State, 878 P.2d 515 (Wyo.1994), upon rehearing, 895 P.2d 43 (Wyo.1995). [¶ 14] Before we address the merits of the appellants' arguments, we consider whether their claims are barred by res judicata. The preclusive doctrine of res judicata applies in the criminal context, as well as to civil matters. See, e.g., Beck v. State, 2005 WY 56 , 110 P.3d 898 (Wyo.2005); Lacey, 2003 WY 148 , 79 P.3d 493 ; Kallas v. State, 776 P.2d 198 (Wyo.1989). Our precedent is clear that the principle of res judicata may be applied to claims brought pursuant to W.R.Cr.P.35(a). See, e.g., Hamill v. State,... 49 practice notes State v. Allen, No. W2006-01080-SC-R11-CD. United States Supreme Court of Tennessee June 24, 2008 ...that affects the `statutory maximum' punishment, it does not activate the Sixth Amendment right to a jury determination"); Gould v. State, 151 P.3d 261 , 268 (Wyo.2006) (finding Apprendi and Blakely inapplicable to discretionary imposition of consecutive sentences), cert. denied, ___ U.S. __...... Hawes v. Pacheco, 19-8047 United States United States Courts of Appeals. United States Court of Appeals (10th Circuit) August 10, 2021 ...1239–40 (Wyo. 1996) (explaining that jury convicted defendant of "aggravated kidnap[p]ing, [§] 6-2-201(a)(iii)(d)"); Gould v. State , 151 P.3d 261 , 264 & n.5, 266–67 (Wyo. 2006) (explaining that subsections (a)(iii) and (d) "set out the definition of aggravated kidnapping," that defendant w...... State v. Francis, No. 19378. United States Supreme Court of Connecticut August 2, 2016 ...connection with motion to correct illegal sentence), cert. denied, ––– U.S. ––––, 133 S.Ct. 844, 184 L.Ed.2d 667 (2013) ; Gould v. State, 151 P.3d 261 , 269 (Wyo.2006) (motion to correct is not critical stage of criminal proceedings), cert. denied, 552 U.S. 854, 128 S.Ct. 125, 169 L.Ed.2d 88...... Schreibvogel v. State, No. S-09-0044. United States United States State Supreme Court of Wyoming April 16, 2010 ...of review requires this Court to examine "the reasonableness of the trial court's choice," in ruling on the matter. Gould v. State, 2006 WY 157 , ¶ 8, 151 P.3d 261, 264 ¶ 13 The district court "may quash or modify the subpoena if compliance would be unreasonable or oppressive." W.R.Cr.P. 17(...... 52 cases Hawes v. Pacheco, 19-8047 United States United States Courts of Appeals. United States Court of Appeals (10th Circuit) August 10, 2021 ...1239–40 (Wyo. 1996) (explaining that jury convicted defendant of "aggravated kidnap[p]ing, [§] 6-2-201(a)(iii)(d)"); Gould v. State , 151 P.3d 261 , 264 & n.5, 266–67 (Wyo. 2006) (explaining that subsections (a)(iii) and (d) "set out the definition of aggravated kidnapping," that defendant w...... State v. Allen, W2006-01080-SC-R11-CD. United States Supreme Court of Tennessee June 24, 2008 ...that affects the `statutory maximum' punishment, it does not activate the Sixth Amendment right to a jury determination"); Gould v. State, 151 P.3d 261 , 268 (Wyo.2006) (finding Apprendi and Blakely inapplicable to discretionary imposition of consecutive sentences), cert. denied, ___ U.S. __...... State v. Francis, 19378. United States Supreme Court of Connecticut August 2, 2016 ...connection with motion to correct illegal sentence), cert. denied, ––– U.S. ––––, 133 S.Ct. 844, 184 L.Ed.2d 667 (2013) ; Gould v. State, 151 P.3d 261 , 269 (Wyo.2006) (motion to correct is not critical stage of criminal proceedings), cert. denied, 552 U.S. 854, 128 S.Ct. 125, 169 L.Ed.2d 88...... Schreibvogel v. State, S-09-0044. United States United States State Supreme Court of Wyoming April 16, 2010 ...of review requires this Court to examine "the reasonableness of the trial court's choice," in ruling on the matter. Gould v. State, 2006 WY 157 , ¶ 8, 151 P.3d 261, 264 ¶ 13 The district court "may quash or modify the subpoena if compliance would be unreasonable or oppressive." W.R.Cr.P. 17(......

https://case-law.vlex.com/vid/gould-v-state-no-892749120

UNIPROT:Q9NZM5 - FACTA Search Compound Query: UNIPROT:Q9NZM5 ( PICT-1 ) 24 Several proto-oncogenes and tumor suppressors regulate the production of ribosomes. Ribosome biogenesis is a major consumer of cellular energy, and defects result in p53 activation via repression of mouse double minute 2 (MDM2) homolog by the ribosomal proteins RPL5 and RPL11. Here, we report that RPL5 and RPL11 regulate p53 from the context of a ribosomal subcomplex, the 5S ribonucleoprotein particle (RNP). We provide evidence that the third component of this complex, the 5S rRNA, is critical for p53 regulation. In addition, we show that the 5S RNP is essential for the activation of p53 by p14(ARF), a protein that is activated by oncogene overexpression. Our data show that the abundance of the 5S RNP, and therefore p53 levels, is determined by factors regulating 5S complex formation and ribosome integration, including the tumor suppressor PICT1 . The 5S RNP therefore emerges as the critical coordinator of signaling pathways that couple cell proliferation with ribosome production. ... PMID:The 5S RNP couples p53 homeostasis to ribosome biogenesis and nucleolar stress. 2412 Aug 68 Mitochondrial defects underlie a multitude of human diseases. Genetic manipulation of mitochondrial regulatory pathways represents a potential therapeutic approach. We have carried out a high-throughput overexpression screen for genes that affect mitochondrial abundance or activity using flow-cytometry-based enrichment of a cell population expressing a high-complexity, concentration-normalized pool of human ORFs. The screen identified 94 candidate mitochondrial regulators including the nuclear protein GLTSCR2, also known as PICT1 . GLTSCR2 enhances mitochondrial function and is required for the maintenance of oxygen consumption, consistent with a pivotal role in the control of cellular respiration. RNAi inactivation of the Caenorhabditis elegans ortholog of GLTSCR2 reduces respiration in worms, indicating functional conservation across species. GLTSCR2 controls cellular proliferation and metabolism via the transcription factor Myc, and is induced by mitochondrial stress, suggesting it may constitute a significant component of the mitochondrial signaling pathway. ... PMID:GLTSCR2/PICT1 links mitochondrial stress and Myc signaling. 2455 85 The nucleolus has emerged as a cellular stress sensor and key regulator of p53-dependent and -independent stress responses. A variety of abnormal metabolic conditions, cytotoxic compounds, and physical insults induce alterations in nucleolar structure and function, a situation known as nucleolar or ribosomal stress. Ribosomal proteins, including RPL11 and RPL5, become increasingly bound to the p53 regulatory protein MDM2 following nucleolar stress. Ribosomal protein binding to MDM2 blocks its E3 ligase function leading to stabilization and activation of p53. In this review we focus on a number of novel regulators of the RPL5/RPL11-MDM2-p53 complex including PICT1 (GLTSCR2), MYBBP1A, PML and NEDD8. p53-independent pathways mediating the nucleolar stress response are also emerging and in particular the negative control that RPL11 exerts on Myc oncoprotein is of importance, given the role of Myc as a master regulator of ribosome biogenesis. We also briefly discuss the potential of chemotherapeutic drugs that specifically target RNA polymerase I to induce nucleolar stress. ... PMID:p53 -Dependent and -Independent Nucleolar Stress Responses. 2471 May 30 The nucleolar protein PICT1 regulates tumor suppressor p53 by tethering ribosomal protein L11 within the nucleolus to repress the binding of L11 to the E3 ligase MDM2. PICT1 depletion results in the release of L11 to the nucleoplasm to inhibit MDM2, leading to p53 activation. Here, we demonstrate that nucleolar stress induces proteasome-mediated degradation of PICT1 in a ubiquitin-independent manner. Treatment of H1299 cells with nucleolar stress inducers, such as actinomycin D, 5-fluorouridine, or doxorubicin, induced the degradation of PICT1 protein. The proteasome inhibitors MG132, lactacystin, and epoxomicin blocked PICT1 degradation, whereas the inhibition of E1 ubiquitin-activating enzyme by a specific inhibitor and genetic inactivation fail to repress PICT1 degradation. In addition, the 20 S proteasome was able to degrade purified PICT1 protein in vitro. We also found a PICT1 mutant showing nucleoplasmic localization did not undergo nucleolar stress-induced degradation, although the same mutant underwent in vitro degradation by the 20 S proteasome, suggesting that nucleolar localization is indispensable for the stress-induced PICT1 degradation. These results suggest that PICT1 employs atypical proteasome-mediated degradation machinery to sense nucleolar stress within the nucleolus. ... PMID:Nucleolar stress induces ubiquitination-independent proteasomal degradation of PICT1 protein. 2492 47 PICT1 is a key regulator of the MDM2-TP53 pathway. High mRNA expression levels of PICT1 are associated with poor prognosis in several cancers with wild-type TP53. In this study, we identified the PICT1 protein expression profile in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) with wild-type TP53 in the nucleolus and cytoplasm, and revealed the relationship between PICT1 expression and patient clinicopathological factors. PICT1 expression in the tumor cells of 96 NSCLC patients with wild-type TP53 was evaluated by immunohistochemistry. Forty-three of 96 (44.8%) NSCLC samples were positive for nucleolar PICT1 , while 40/96 (41.7%) NSCLC samples were positive for cytoplasmic PICT1 . There was no correlation between nucleolar PICT1 expression and clinicopathological factors. However, cytoplasmic PICT1 expression was significantly correlated with sex, smoking history, differentiation, lymphatic invasion and pathological stage. In multivariate analysis, lymphatic invasion was significantly associated with cytoplasmic PICT1 expression (hazard ratio: 5.02, P = 0.026). We scrutinized PICT1 expression in samples of NSCLC with wild-type TP53, and showed a correlation between cytoplasmic PICT1 expression and several clinicopathological factors in these patients. Our results indicate that cytoplasmic PICT1 expression is a poor prognostic factor and is associated with tumor progression via lymphatic invasion in these patients. ... PMID:PICT1 expression is a poor prognostic factor in non-small cell lung cancer. 2559 32 The exosome regulates the processing, degradation, and surveillance of a plethora of RNA species. However, little is known about how the exosome recognizes and is recruited to its diverse substrates. We report the identification of adaptor proteins that recruit the exosome-associated helicase, Mtr4, to unique RNA substrates. Nop53, the yeast homolog of the tumor suppressor PICT1 , targets Mtr4 to pre-ribosomal particles for exosome-mediated processing, while a second adaptor Utp18 recruits Mtr4 to cleaved rRNA fragments destined for degradation by the exosome. Both Nop53 and Utp18 contain the same consensus motif, through which they dock to the "arch" domain of Mtr4 and target it to specific substrates. These findings show that the exosome employs a general mechanism of recruitment to defined substrates and that this process is regulated through adaptor proteins. ... PMID:The Exosome Is Recruited to RNA Substrates through Specific Adaptor Proteins. 2631 61 Nucleolar protein PICT-1 /GLTSCR2 (GLTSCR2) has both tumor suppressive and oncogenic activities, depending on the types of cancer tissue and its expression level. The role of GLTSCR2 in renal cell carcinoma (RCC) has not yet been addressed. The aims of this study were to evaluate GLTSCR2 expression in RCC tissue and to determine pathological significance of GLTSCR2 in terms of tumor grade. RCC and adjacent normal tissue from 84 different patients was retrieved from nephrectomy specimens. The expression level of GLTSCR2 in RCC tissues was determined via immunohistochemical staining and invasion was determined using transwell chambers with Matrigel-coated membranes. The expression of GLTSCR2 was suppressed in about 80% of the carcinoma specimens compared to noncancerous renal tissue and inversely correlated with Fuhrman nuclear grade (r=-0.40, p<0.05). Knockdown of GLTSCR2 expression increased the invasiveness of SNU267 RCC cells. The expression of GLTSCR2 was suppressed in RCCs and its downregulation accentuated the malignant phenotype. ... PMID:Suppression of GLTSCR2 expression in renal cell carcinomas. 2672 43 The alternative reading frame protein (p14ARF/ARF) is a key determinant of cell fate, acting as a potent tumor suppressor through a p53/MDM2-dependent pathway or promoting apoptosis in a p53-independent manner. The ARF protein is mainly expressed in the nucleolus and sequestered by nucleophosmin (NPM), whereas ARF-binding proteins, including p53 and MDM2, predominantly reside in the nucleoplasm. This raises the question of how nucleolar ARF binds nucleoplasmic signaling proteins to suppress tumor growth or inhibit cell cycle progression. GLTSCR2 (also known as PICT-1 ) is a nucleolar protein involved in both tumor suppression and oncogenesis in concert with p53, NPM, and/or MYC. Here, we show that GLTSCR2 increases nucleoplasmic ARF translocation and its degradation. Specifically, GLTSCR2 bound to ARF, and GLTSCR2-ARF complexes were released to the nucleoplasm, where GLTSCR2 increased the binding affinity of ARF for ULF/TRIP12 (a nucleoplasmic E3-ubiquitin ligase of ARF) and enhanced ARF degradation through the polyubiquitination pathway. Our results demonstrate that nucleolar/nucleoplasmic GLTSCR2 is a strong candidate for promoting the subcellular localization and protein stability of ARF. ... PMID:GLTSCR2 promotes the nucleoplasmic translocation and subsequent degradation of nucleolar ARF. 2732 97 PICT-1 was originally identified as a tumor suppressor. Here, we found that PICT-1 overexpression triggered pro-death autophagy without nucleolar disruption or p53 accumulation in U251 and MCF7 cells. Truncated PICT-1 fragments 181-346 and 1-346, which partly or totally lack nucleolar localization, showed weaker autophagy-inducing effects than full-length PICT-1 and a well-defined nucleolar mutant (181-479). Furthermore, PICT-1 partly localizes to the nucleolar fibrillar center (FC) and directly binds to ribosomal DNA (rDNA) gene loci, where it interacts with upstream binding factor (UBF). Overexpression of PICT-1 or the 181-479 mutant, but not the 1-346 or 181-346 mutants, markedly inhibited the phosphorylation of UBF and the recruitment of rRNA polymerase I (Pol I) to the rDNA promoter in response to serum stimulation, thereby suppressing rRNA transcription, suggesting that rRNA transcription inhibition might be an important contributor to PICT-1 -induced autophagy. This is supported by the finding that CX-5461, a specific Pol I inhibitor, also induced autophagy. In addition, both CX-5461 and PICT-1 , but not the 1-346 or 181-346 mutants, significantly suppressed the activation of the Akt/mTOR/p70S6K signaling pathway. Our data show that PICT-1 triggers pro-death autophagy through inhibition of rRNA transcription and the inactivation of AKT/mTOR/p70S6K pathway, independent of nucleolar disruption and p53 activation. ... PMID:PICT-1 triggers a pro-death autophagy through inhibiting rRNA transcription and AKT/mTOR/p70S6K signaling pathway. 2772 11 Glioma tumor suppressor candidate region gene 2 protein ( GLTSCR2 ) is a nucleolar protein. In the investigation of the role of GLTSCR2 that played in the cellular innate immune response to viral infection, we found GLTSCR2 supported viral replication of rhabdovirus, paramyxovirus, and coronavirus in cells. Viral infection induced translocation of GLTSCR2 from nucleus to cytoplasm that enabled GLTSCR2 to attenuate type I interferon IFN-β and support viral replication. Cytoplasmic GLTSCR2 was able to interact with retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I) and the ubiquitin-specific protease 15 (USP15), and the triple interaction induced USP15 activity to remove K63-linked ubiquitination of RIG-I, leading to attenuation of RIG-I and IFN-β. Blocking cytoplasmic translocation of GLTSCR2 , by deletion of its nuclear export sequence (NES), abrogated its ability to attenuate IFN-β and support viral replication. GLTSCR2 -mediated attenuation of RIG-I and IFN-β led to alleviation of host cell innate immune response to viral infection. Our findings suggested that GLTSCR2 contributed to efficient viral replication, and GLTSCR2 should be considered as a potential target for therapeutic control of viral infection. ... PMID:The nucleolar protein GLTSCR2 is required for efficient viral replication. 2782 81

http://www.nactem.ac.uk/facta/cgi-bin/facta3.cgi?query=UNIPROT%3AQ9NZM5%7C111111%7C0%7C0%7C-1%7C10%7C20

Carvedilol Suppresses Intractable Hiccups | American Board of Family Medicine Brief Report Brief Report Carvedilol Suppresses Intractable Hiccups The Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine July 2006, 19 (4) 418-421; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3122/jabfm.19.4.418 Article References Abstract Carvedilol (6.25 mg, 4 times daily) relieved 2 years of constant hiccupping, marked tardive dyskinesia, compulsive self-induced vomiting, and feelings of hopelessness and low mood in a 59-year-old African-American man. He previously failed trials of ranitidine, chlorpromazine, promethazine, tegaserod, ondansetron, metoclopramide, pantoprazole, pyloric injections of botulinum toxin A, and a vagal nerve stimulator. At a 5-month follow-up, improvement was maintained; there had been several instances of rapid relapse on carvedilol discontinuation. This report describes a case of persistent and intractable postoperative hiccups of 2 years duration that responded to carvedilol after nonresponse to typical therapies. The chronic singultus was one of several concurrent pathologic conditions, including self-induced vomiting, tardive dyskinesia secondary to metoclopramide use, and depressed mood. Although major causes of hiccups are associated with gastrointestinal ailments, persistent hiccups can be induced by tumors, chemotherapy, diabetes, uremia, or brain disease. The hiccup reflex arc, as generally accepted and clearly described by Hansen and Rosenberg,1has 3 main neuronal components: afferent, central, and efferent. Afferent pathways derive from somatic sensory input ascending to the brain, primarily from the gastrointestinal tract. The central component usually refers to chemoreceptor function located in the peri-aqueductal gray subthalamic nuclei. Besides the hiccup reflex arc, hiccupping can be caused by a hyperdopaminergic state2or other pathology.3The efferent pathway involves aberrant vagal nerve stimuli associated with dyssynchrony of the diaphragm. Remedies target individual points along this arc and include mechanical and pharmacologic interventions. Case Reports The patient was a 59-year-old African-American man, admitted to the hospital for nausea, frequent coffee ground hematemesis, and associated anemia, besides unrelenting hiccups. Hiccups began episodically 10 years prior. These episodes were initially relieved by self-induced vomiting and attributed to diabetic gastroparesis. The patient underwent several upper endoscopic examinations, which revealed gastric erosions, a 3-cm hiatal hernia, and a small Schatzki ring in the lower esophagus. Esophageal manometry and gastric peristalsis were within normal limits. He underwent Nissen fundoplication as expected definitive therapy for the esophageal changes, but postoperatively he developed unremitting hiccups, nausea, vomiting, and a feeling of epigastric fullness. These continued unrelieved by trials of ranitidine (150 mg orally, twice daily), chlorpromazine (25 mg, 4 times daily), tegaserod (6 mg orally, twice daily), and promethazine, ondansetron, and pantoprazole in various doses. He occasionally obtained partial improvement from intravenous metoclopramide. No evidence of obstruction or paralytic ileus was found on radiograph films or computed tomography scans of the abdomen. He failed trials of pyloric botulinum toxin A injections and a vagal nerve stimulator (Cyberonics, Inc., Houston, TX). The hiccups interfered with his ability to eat. Weight loss of 60 pounds over 24 months was documented. A gastro-jejunostomy tube was placed 1 year after the Nissen fundoplication, and he began overnight tube feedings. He complained of a constant compelling need to vomit. He retched several times hourly. He experienced Mallory-Weiss tears and numerous bouts of hematemesis attributed to self-induced vomiting. He was repeatedly hospitalized for bleeding and anemia. The patient, his family, and the primary care physicians stated that the hiccupping and weight loss would probably lead to his death soon. Our psychiatric consultation was requested because of a suspected obsessive-compulsive quality to the self-induced vomiting. He had longstanding insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus complicated by gastroparesis, gastroesophageal reflux disease, and Barrett’s esophagus, a history of colonic polyps, and peripheral vascular disease. Additional cardiovascular problems included coronary artery disease with previous deep venous thrombosis, hypertension, and dyslipidemia. He had chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. He survived a subarachnoid hemorrhage with residual right upper and lower extremity weakness and mild noticeable psychomotor slowing; the left anterior cerebral artery was clipped. Past surgeries included vagal nerve simulator implantation 2 years prior, Nissen fundoplication 4 years prior, left anterior cerebral aneurysm clipping 7 years prior, placement of a Greenfield filter 7 years prior, femoral popliteal bypasses 10 and 11 years prior, and coronary artery bypass graft 18 years prior. Review of systems revealed pervasive feelings of anergy, weakness, and demoralization tied to his medical problems. The patient denied other depression and anxiety symptoms and there were no fevers, chills, night sweats, dyspnea, palpitations, cough, headaches, seizures, blackouts, or urinary problems. On examination blood pressure was 196/100, pulse 96, and respiratory rate 20. He was alert, recumbent, in observable mild distress, and fully oriented. He repetitively and tensely complained of anger and frustration from repeated hospitalizations, home confinement, and ruination of the quality of his life from hiccups and vomiting. Recent and remote memory were intact. His speech was interrupted every 5 seconds by hiccupping. He spoke softly and mumbled frequently. His replies were typically 2 to 3 words. He avoided eye contact and frequently showed restless movements, fidgeting, and shifting. He showed continuous chewing movements, frequent tongue protrusion, and lip licking; he was unaware of these. He claimed a virtually constant urge to vomit and he clutched an emesis basin. Expecting carvedilol to mitigate the tardive dyskinesia and tardive vomiting, and to perhaps diminish the hiccupping, it was started at 3.125 mg, 4 times daily. Metoprolol and metoclopramide were discontinued. By the next day, the patient claimed improvement. Hiccupping had decreased to 6 to 8 times per minute. Observable restlessness and vomiting were less. The carvedilol dose was doubled, and the next day, hiccupping was 1 to 2 times per minute, lip licking and chewing movements were 50% improved, vomiting had stopped, he ate soft food regularly, and his outlook and mood were upbeat. His speech was dysarthric but louder and longer. He maintained eye contact. He was discharged on carvedilol 6.25 mg, 4 times daily. At a 5-month follow-up, hiccups were absent, and no lip licking, tongue protrusions, or chewing movements were evident. The patient admitted to an instance of discontinuing carvedilol but hiccupping, vomiting, dyskinesia, and low mood resumed after 2 days. This was observed in person by a psychiatrist colleague. The primary care physician resumed the dose at 6.25 mg, 4 times daily, and the hiccupping again stopped. He complained of a residual urge to vomit, and he induced vomiting several times daily; these were not connected to meals. His outlook remained good, and he enjoyed small meals regularly with his family. Discussion Few treatments reliably suppress the hiccup drive and some can even cause them as a rebound effect.4,5In a syndicated column, Paul Donohue, MD, identified usual therapies as chlorpromazine, metoclopramide, baclofen, and omeprazole.6Chlorpromazine and metoclopramide are potent dopamine antagonists with the potential to cause tardive disorders of movement and thought7particularly in frail individuals or those >55 years old.8Tardive vomiting, tardive obsessive-compulsive disorder, and tardive major depression can also develop.4,7Our patient showed marked tardive dyskinesia, presumably from the metoclopramide and chlorpromazine he had taken for 2 years.9Carvedilol was initiated under the expectation that the current dyskinesia, vomiting, hiccupping, and depressed mood were all primarily tardive phenomena and accordingly should all respond. Carvedilol rapidly mitigated manifestations of tardive dyskinesia in its typical forms of choreic and athetotic movements of the tongue and lips in clinical practice.10It also ameliorated tardive akathisia (agitation) and dystonia and was expected to relieve other tardive symptoms such as vomiting, compulsions, and depression.10After 3 doses, carvedilol (3.125 mg, twice daily) entirely suppressed frequent involuntary prominent tongue protrusion in a 37-year-old woman with a chronic haloperidol treatment. Carvedilol (6.25 mg, 3 times daily) ameliorated tongue protrusion, lip pouting and puckering, and agitation in a 47-year-old woman with longstanding neuroleptic use. A 53-year-old man with dystonia of the neck requiring tube feeding attributed to haloperidol (and possibly exacerbated by lithium) achieved 70% improvement after 3 doses of carvedilol (6.25 mg, twice daily). Patients rapidly relapsed to pretreatment severity with carvedilol discontinuation. Tolerance to carvedilol was not seen, and its continuation provided continuing benefit. In one patient, a short course of carvedilol seemed to provide continuing benefit.10 Coadministration of carvedilol attenuated orofacial dyskinesia in rats given 21 days of dopamine blockers haloperidol or chlorpromazine.11This was hypothesized as related to antioxidant effects. This study did not distinguish acute extrapyramidal (Parkinsonian) effects from tardive dyskinesia or how rapidly carvedilol effects wore off. In human patients the rapid onset of carvedilol benefits and fast decay after its discontinuation point away from an antioxidant mechanism because antioxidant-mediated clinical changes develop slowly. Multiplicity of disease in the present case complicated the clinical presentation, but the rapid simultaneous relief of hiccupping, vomiting, low mood, and abnormal involuntary movements with carvedilol administration and its subsequent rapid re-emergence with carvedilol discontinuation points toward a common tardive pathophysiology. Although the initial hiccupping antedated dopamine-blocking drugs, the current hiccupping is apparently tardive type, in view of its association with tardive dyskinesia and dopamine-blocking drugs. Because dopamine-blocking drugs can acutely diminish hiccupping, their chronic rebound effects—which are opposite and presumably hyperdopaminergic—should include singultus. Carvedilol has several clinical pharmacologic effects, including nonspecific β blockade, α-1 blockade, and calcium channel inhibition, as well as antioxidant activity.10–12As a sympatholytic, carvedilol should diminish somatic tension anxiety as other lipophilic β blockers do.4,5,13This should diminish manifestations of sympathetic nervous system irritation, such as compulsions and low mood, but this does not seem sufficient to explain all the benefits of carvedilol in the present case. Conclusion Because of the rapid responses and recurrences corresponding to carvedilol administration and discontinuation, it is clear that carvedilol effectively suppressed hiccupping, vomiting, dyskinesia, and depressive symptoms in this patient. It is not clear which pharmacological effects of carvedilol contribute to these actions. Similarly, it is not apparent if tardive hiccupping is the only kind of hiccupping that carvedilol diminishes. Carvedilol should be safer than metoclopramide or chlorpromazine, especially in long-term use and in patients over age 55. Mitigation of singultus, as in our patient, seems to require long-term carvedilol continuation. Notes Conflict of interest:CMS lectures on tardive dyskinesia and tardive psychosis and the use of carvedilol and holds a use patent on carvedilol for the treatment of tardive dyskinesia. Received for publication September 16, 2005. Revision received December 2, 2005. Accepted for publication December 14, 2005. References ↵ Hansen BJ, Rosenberg J. Persistent postoperative hiccups: a review. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1993 ; 37 : 643 –6.

https://www.jabfm.org/content/19/4/418.full

CRS INSIGHT U.S.–China Cyber Agreement October 16, 2015 (IN10376) John W. Rollins, Coordinator, Specialist in Terrorism and National Security ([email protected], 7-5529) Susan V. Lawrence, Specialist in Asian Affairs ([email protected] , 7-2577) Dianne E. Rennack, Specialist in Foreign Policy Legislation ( [email protected] , 7-7608) Catherine A. Theohary, Specialist in National Security Policy and Information Operations ( [email protected], 7- 0844) U.S.-China Cyber Agreement During the state visit on September 24-25, 2015, President Xi Jinping of China and President Barack Obama reached a Cyber Agreement. Soon after, the White House released details contained in the agreement. In principle, the United States and China agreed , among other things, to provide timely responses to requests for information and assistance concerning malicious cyber activities, refrain from conducting or knowingly supporting cyber-enabled theft of intellectual property, pursue efforts to further identify and promote appropriate norms of state behavior in cyberspace within the international community, and establish a high-level joint dialogue mechanism on fighting cybercrime and related issues. U.S. Claims of Chinese Unauthorized Computer Access Accusations of China's pursuit of cyber-capabilities directed at U.S. security interests have persisted for decades. Reportedly, many U.S. investigations of Chinese government and suspected quasi-affiliated entities have focused on unauthorized access to both U.S. government and private-sector databases for purposes of economic espionage. On May 19, 2014, the U.S. Department of Justice indicted five Chinese military hackers for computer hacking and economic espionage directed at six American entities in the U.S. nuclear power, metals, and solar products industries. In discussing the details related to this indictment, U.S. Attorney General Eric Holder stated , "This is a case alleging economic espionage by members of the Chinese military and represents the first ever charges against a state actor for this type of hacking." U.S. and Chinese Statements President Obama stated on September 16, before the state visit, that his Administration viewed alleged Chinese cyber theft of trade secrets as "an act of aggression that has to stop." He warned, that the U.S. government is "prepared to [impose] some countervailing actions to get their [China's] attention." The statement contained in the Cyber Agreement that neither government will knowingly support cyber-enabled theft of intellectual property for commercial gain appeared to signal Chinese acceptance, for the first time, of the distinction the U.S. government draws between cyber intrusions for national security purposes and activities pursued for commercial benefit. President Xi lent his personal imprimatur to the pledge not to support commercial cyber espionage by stating that "... both government[s] will not be engaged in or knowingly support online theft of intellectual properties," and by declaring in a speech in Seattle three days earlier that "the Chinese government will not, in whatever form, engage in commercial theft or encourage or support such attempts by anyone." Some observers have noted that a troublesome aspect of the Cyber Agreement, however, is that it may not reflect the intentions of the People's Liberation Army. In response to a question about whether he was satisfied with China's steps on cybersecurity, President Obama said that the United States has traditional law enforcement tools available to "go after those who are attacking our companies or trying to extract trade secrets and data," and, through an executive order issued in April 2015, also has the ability to impose sanctions. Sanctions On April 1, 2015, President Obama signed Executive Order 13694 finding "that the increasing prevalence and severity of malicious cyber-enabled activities originating from, or directed by persons located, in whole or in substantial part, outside the United States constitute an unusual and extraordinary threat to the national security, foreign policy, and economy of the United States." Declaring that the circumstances constitute a national emergency, the President ordered the Department of the Treasury to block all property and interests in property under U.S. jurisdiction of any person or entity that the Secretary of the Treasury, in consultation with the Secretary of State and the Attorney General, finds responsible for or complicit in a cyber-enabled activity that compromises any computer or network that serves a U.S. critical infrastructure sector, harms a critical infrastructure sector, disrupts the availability of a computer or network, or causes "a significant misappropriation of funds or economic resources, trade secrets, personal identifiers, or financial information for commercial or competitive advantage or private financial gain.... " The President further determined that any designated person will be denied entry into the United States. To date, no persons or entities have been designated and made subject to economic and travel restrictions under this order. Prior to President Xi's state visit, however, media reports suggest "the Chinese arrested a handful of hackers at the urging of the U.S. government" in anticipation of Chinese hacking of U.S. entities related-issues to be discussed with President Obama. International Cyber Agreements and Norms The intent of an entity's use of a cyber-capability appears to be a factor in the development of international laws and norms in cyberspace. Discussing the different types and purposes of software code being developed and used by various nations, U.S. State Department Coordinator for Cyber Issues, Chris Painter, stated in October 2015, "I don't know what (a) cyberarm is. A piece of (software code) could be used for malicious, research, or defense purposes." Many existing international instruments have implications for cybersecurity, including those relating to law enforcement, defense, and security, along with treaties, conventions, and agreements, such as the United Nations Charter and the Geneva Conventions. The Council of Europe Convention on Cybercrime, also known as the Budapest Convention , is a law-enforcement treaty that requires signatories to adopt criminal laws against specified types of activities in cyberspace, empower law-enforcement agencies to investigate such activities, and cooperate with other signatories. The Convention focuses on identification and punishment of criminals rather than prevention of cybercrime. Consequently, it may act as a deterrent, but it has no remediating effect on the criminal acts that do occur. While widely cited as the most substantive international agreement relating to cybersecurity, some observers regard it as unsuccessful. While the United States has ratified it, China is not a signatory . China and the United States are members of the UN Group of Governmental Experts , which focuses on cooperative cybersecurity and norm development. Likewise, both nations have worked with the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) to

https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/20151016_IN10376_6aaf9eb926ec5993c0b62d1a2a445f6d6bb597d1.html

{"markup":"\u003C?xml version=\u00221.0\u0022 encoding=\u0022UTF-8\u0022 ?\u003E\n \u003Chtml version=\u0022HTML+RDFa+MathML 1.1\u0022\n xmlns:content=\u0022http:\/\/purl.org\/rss\/1.0\/modules\/content\/\u0022\n xmlns:dc=\u0022http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/\u0022\n xmlns:foaf=\u0022http:\/\/xmlns.com\/foaf\/0.1\/\u0022\n xmlns:og=\u0022http:\/\/ogp.me\/ns#\u0022\n xmlns:rdfs=\u0022http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/01\/rdf-schema#\u0022\n xmlns:sioc=\u0022http:\/\/rdfs.org\/sioc\/ns#\u0022\n xmlns:sioct=\u0022http:\/\/rdfs.org\/sioc\/types#\u0022\n xmlns:skos=\u0022http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2004\/02\/skos\/core#\u0022\n xmlns:xsd=\u0022http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2001\/XMLSchema#\u0022\n xmlns:mml=\u0022http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1998\/Math\/MathML\u0022\u003E\n \u003Chead\u003E\u003Cscript type=\u0022text\/javascript\u0022 src=\u0022\/\/cdn.jsdelivr.net\/qtip2\/2.2.1\/jquery.qtip.min.js\u0022\u003E\u003C\/script\u003E\n\u003Cscript type=\u0022text\/javascript\u0022 src=\u0022https:\/\/www.medrxiv.org\/sites\/default\/files\/js\/js_YjAJQgxDlFX6S-O02jj9jCrVbrwlY3CGgCg1FzPlvBs.js\u0022\u003E\u003C\/script\u003E\n\u003Cscript type=\u0022text\/javascript\u0022\u003E\n\u003C!--\/\/--\u003E\u003C![CDATA[\/\/\u003E\u003C!--\nif(typeof window.MathJax === \u0022undefined\u0022) window.MathJax = { menuSettings: { zoom: \u0022Click\u0022 } };\n\/\/--\u003E\u003C!]]\u003E\n\u003C\/script\u003E\n\u003Cscript type=\u0022text\/javascript\u0022 src=\u0022https:\/\/www.medrxiv.org\/sites\/default\/files\/js\/js_gPqjYq7fqdMzw8-29XWQIVoDSWTmZCGy9OqaHppNxuQ.js\u0022\u003E\u003C\/script\u003E\n\u003Cscript type=\u0022text\/javascript\u0022\u003E\n\u003C!--\/\/--\u003E\u003C![CDATA[\/\/\u003E\u003C!--\n(function(i,s,o,g,r,a,m){i[\u0022GoogleAnalyticsObject\u0022]=r;i[r]=i[r]||function(){(i[r].q=i[r].q||[]).push(arguments)},i[r].l=1*new Date();a=s.createElement(o),m=s.getElementsByTagName(o)[0];a.async=1;a.src=g;m.parentNode.insertBefore(a,m)})(window,document,\u0022script\u0022,\u0022\/\/www.google-analytics.com\/analytics.js\u0022,\u0022ga\u0022);ga(\u0022create\u0022, \u0022UA-141606356-1\u0022, {\u0022cookieDomain\u0022:\u0022auto\u0022});ga(\u0022set\u0022, \u0022page\u0022, location.pathname + location.search + location.hash);ga(\u0022send\u0022, \u0022pageview\u0022);ga(\u0027create\u0027, \u0027UA-189672-38\u0027, \u0027auto\u0027, {\u0027name\u0027: \u0027hwTracker\u0027});\r\nga(\u0027set\u0027, \u0027anonymizeIp\u0027, true);\r\nga(\u0027hwTracker.send\u0027, \u0027pageview\u0027);\n\/\/--\u003E\u003C!]]\u003E\n\u003C\/script\u003E\n\u003Cscript type=\u0022text\/javascript\u0022\u003E\n\u003C!--\/\/--\u003E\u003C![CDATA[\/\/\u003E\u003C!--\njQuery.extend(Drupal.settings, {\u0022basePath\u0022:\u0022\\\/\u0022,\u0022pathPrefix\u0022:\u0022\u0022,\u0022instances\u0022:\u0022{\\u0022highwire_abstract_tooltip\\u0022:{\\u0022content\\u0022:{\\u0022text\\u0022:\\u0022\\u0022},\\u0022style\\u0022:{\\u0022tip\\u0022:{\\u0022width\\u0022:20,\\u0022height\\u0022:20,\\u0022border\\u0022:1,\\u0022offset\\u0022:0,\\u0022corner\\u0022:true},\\u0022classes\\u0022:\\u0022qtip-custom hw-tooltip hw-abstract-tooltip qtip-shadow qtip-rounded\\u0022,\\u0022classes_custom\\u0022:\\u0022hw-tooltip hw-abstract-tooltip\\u0022},\\u0022position\\u0022:{\\u0022at\\u0022:\\u0022right center\\u0022,\\u0022my\\u0022:\\u0022left center\\u0022,\\u0022viewport\\u0022:true,\\u0022adjust\\u0022:{\\u0022method\\u0022:\\u0022shift\\u0022}},\\u0022show\\u0022:{\\u0022event\\u0022:\\u0022mouseenter click \\u0022,\\u0022solo\\u0022:true},\\u0022hide\\u0022:{\\u0022event\\u0022:\\u0022mouseleave \\u0022,\\u0022fixed\\u0022:1,\\u0022delay\\u0022:\\u0022100\\u0022}},\\u0022highwire_author_tooltip\\u0022:{\\u0022content\\u0022:{\\u0022text\\u0022:\\u0022\\u0022},\\u0022style\\u0022:{\\u0022tip\\u0022:{\\u0022width\\u0022:15,\\u0022height\\u0022:15,\\u0022border\\u0022:1,\\u0022offset\\u0022:0,\\u0022corner\\u0022:true},\\u0022classes\\u0022:\\u0022qtip-custom hw-tooltip hw-author-tooltip qtip-shadow qtip-rounded\\u0022,\\u0022classes_custom\\u0022:\\u0022hw-tooltip hw-author-tooltip\\u0022},\\u0022position\\u0022:{\\u0022at\\u0022:\\u0022top center\\u0022,\\u0022my\\u0022:\\u0022bottom center\\u0022,\\u0022viewport\\u0022:true,\\u0022adjust\\u0022:{\\u0022method\\u0022:\\u0022\\u0022}},\\u0022show\\u0022:{\\u0022event\\u0022:\\u0022mouseenter \\u0022,\\u0022solo\\u0022:true},\\u0022hide\\u0022:{\\u0022event\\u0022:\\u0022mouseleave \\u0022,\\u0022fixed\\u0022:1,\\u0022delay\\u0022:\\u0022100\\u0022}},\\u0022highwire_reflinks_tooltip\\u0022:{\\u0022content\\u0022:{\\u0022text\\u0022:\\u0022\\u0022},\\u0022style\\u0022:{\\u0022tip\\u0022:{\\u0022width\\u0022:15,\\u0022height\\u0022:15,\\u0022border\\u0022:1,\\u0022mimic\\u0022:\\u0022top center\\u0022,\\u0022offset\\u0022:0,\\u0022corner\\u0022:true},\\u0022classes\\u0022:\\u0022qtip-custom hw-tooltip hw-ref-link-tooltip qtip-shadow qtip-rounded\\u0022,\\u0022classes_custom\\u0022:\\u0022hw-tooltip hw-ref-link-tooltip\\u0022},\\u0022position\\u0022:{\\u0022at\\u0022:\\u0022bottom left\\u0022,\\u0022my\\u0022:\\u0022top left\\u0022,\\u0022viewport\\u0022:true,\\u0022adjust\\u0022:{\\u0022method\\u0022:\\u0022flip\\u0022}},\\u0022show\\u0022:{\\u0022event\\u0022:\\u0022mouseenter \\u0022,\\u0022solo\\u0022:true},\\u0022hide\\u0022:{\\u0022event\\u0022:\\u0022mouseleave \\u0022,\\u0022fixed\\u0022:1,\\u0022delay\\u0022:\\u0022100\\u0022}}}\u0022,\u0022qtipDebug\u0022:\u0022{\\u0022leaveElement\\u0022:0}\u0022,\u0022highwire\u0022:{\u0022processed\u0022:[\u0022highwire_math\u0022],\u0022markup\u0022:[{\u0022requested\u0022:\u0022full-text\u0022,\u0022variant\u0022:\u0022full-text\u0022,\u0022view\u0022:\u0022full\u0022,\u0022pisa\u0022:\u0022medrxiv;2022.11.01.22281815v1\u0022}]},\u0022googleanalytics\u0022:{\u0022trackOutbound\u0022:1,\u0022trackMailto\u0022:1,\u0022trackDownload\u0022:1,\u0022trackDownloadExtensions\u0022:\u00227z|aac|arc|arj|asf|asx|avi|bin|csv|doc(x|m)?|dot(x|m)?|exe|flv|gif|gz|gzip|hqx|jar|jpe?g|js|mp(2|3|4|e?g)|mov(ie)?|msi|msp|pdf|phps|png|ppt(x|m)?|pot(x|m)?|pps(x|m)?|ppam|sld(x|m)?|thmx|qtm?|ra(m|r)?|sea|sit|tar|tgz|torrent|txt|wav|wma|wmv|wpd|xls(x|m|b)?|xlt(x|m)|xlam|xml|z|zip\u0022,\u0022trackColorbox\u0022:1,\u0022trackUrlFragments\u0022:1},\u0022ajaxPageState\u0022:{\u0022js\u0022:{\u0022\\\/\\\/cdn.jsdelivr.net\\\/qtip2\\\/2.2.1\\\/jquery.qtip.min.js\u0022:1,\u0022sites\\\/all\\\/modules\\\/highwire\\\/highwire\\\/plugins\\\/highwire_markup_process\\\/js\\\/highwire_article_reference_popup.js\u0022:1,\u0022sites\\\/all\\\/modules\\\/highwire\\\/highwire\\\/plugins\\\/highwire_markup_process\\\/js\\\/highwire_at_symbol.js\u0022:1,\u00220\u0022:1,\u0022sites\\\/all\\\/modules\\\/contrib\\\/google_analytics\\\/googleanalytics.js\u0022:1,\u00221\u0022:1}}});\n\/\/--\u003E\u003C!]]\u003E\n\u003C\/script\u003E\n\u003Clink type=\u0022text\/css\u0022 rel=\u0022stylesheet\u0022 href=\u0022https:\/\/www.medrxiv.org\/sites\/default\/files\/advagg_css\/css__dn-cpI1YtkU_iLHgA5WhlkxgYWyat_IxjF_B-WSYrpE__a9hIbt0eaZ7d5nhwnm2weG8R_2eXK4EvoOx9dOxouHE__-EZZOOp_wCSASDV0-vk6gBB76Nh1CchCZigZSlDhGlE.css\u0022 media=\u0022all\u0022 \/\u003E\n\u003Clink type=\u0022text\/css\u0022 rel=\u0022stylesheet\u0022 href=\u0022\/\/cdn.jsdelivr.net\/qtip2\/2.2.1\/jquery.qtip.min.css\u0022 media=\u0022all\u0022 \/\u003E\n\u003Clink type=\u0022text\/css\u0022 rel=\u0022stylesheet\u0022 href=\u0022https:\/\/www.medrxiv.org\/sites\/default\/files\/advagg_css\/css__HGACIFBlu2o05y3afvqlt5wrE_5Dn6MXsexfuEpeIwg__t4SOPxucAPoV3Os7g8dXqyMB1HRXQridRJ82X7nE33E__-EZZOOp_wCSASDV0-vk6gBB76Nh1CchCZigZSlDhGlE.css\u0022 media=\u0022all\u0022 \/\u003E\n\u003Clink rel=\u0027stylesheet\u0027 type=\u0027text\/css\u0027 href=\u0027\/sites\/all\/modules\/contrib\/panels\/plugins\/layouts\/onecol\/onecol.css\u0027 \/\u003E\u003C\/head\u003E\u003Cbody\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022panels-ajax-tab-panel panels-ajax-tab-panel-article-tab-full-text\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022panel-display panel-1col clearfix\u0022 \u003E\n \u003Cdiv class=\u0022panel-panel panel-col\u0022\u003E\n \u003Cdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022panel-pane pane-highwire-markup\u0022 \u003E\n \n \n \n \u003Cdiv class=\u0022pane-content\u0022\u003E\n \u003Cdiv class=\u0022highwire-markup\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv xmlns=\u0022http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1999\/xhtml\u0022 data-highwire-cite-ref-tooltip-instance=\u0022highwire_reflinks_tooltip\u0022 class=\u0022content-block-markup\u0022 xmlns:xhtml=\u0022http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1999\/xhtml\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022article fulltext-view \u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022highwire-journal-article-marker-start\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022section abstract\u0022 id=\u0022abstract-1\u0022\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\u0022\u0022\u003EAbstract\u003C\/h2\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-3\u0022\u003EDeficiency of selenium, an essential trace element, has been implicated in adverse birth outcomes and the growth of infants and young children.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-4\u0022\u003EWe used data from a randomized controlled trial to examine associations between selenium biomarkers in whole blood (WBSe), serum and selenoprotein P (SEPP1) in maternal delivery and venous cord (VC) blood, and birth weight, and adverse birth outcomes. Furthermore, we examined associations between selenium biomarkers and infant growth outcomes (age adjusted length, weight, head circumference and weight-for-length z-scores) at birth, one, and two years of age using linear regression.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-5\u0022\u003EWB and serum selenium in delivery and VC specimens were negatively associated with birth weight (adjusted \u03b2, 95% CI: WBSe delivery: -26.6 (\u221244.3, -8.9); WBSe VC: -19.6 (\u221233.0, -6.1)); however, delivery SEPP1 levels (adjusted \u03b2: -37.5 (\u221273.0, -2.0)) and VC blood (adjusted \u03b2: 82.3 (30.0, 134.7)) showed inconsistent associations across biomarkers. We found small to moderate associations between infant growth and WBSe VC (LAZ \u03b2, 95% CI, at birth: -0.05 (\u22120.1, -0.01)); 12-months (\u03b2: -0.05 (\u22120.08, -0.007)). WAZ also showed weak negative associations with delivery WBSe (at birth: -0.07 (\u22120.1, -0.02); 12-months: -0.05 (\u22120.1, -0.005)) and in WBSe VC (\u03b2 at birth: -0.05 (\u22120.08, -0.02); 12-months: -0.05 (\u22120.09, -0.004)).\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-6\u0022\u003EMechanisms connected to redox biology and its antioxidant effects have been causally associated with selenium\u2019s protective properties. Given the fine balance between nutritional and toxic properties of selenium, it is possible that WB and serum selenium may negatively impact growth outcomes, both in utero and postpartum.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022section\u0022 id=\u0022sec-1\u0022\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\u0022\u0022\u003EIntroduction\u003C\/h2\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-19\u0022\u003ELinear growth, an important indicator of a child\u2019s present and future health, is influenced by a complex interaction of environmental factors including intrauterine growth restriction, household socioeconomic status, parental education levels, inadequate maternal and child nutrition, and frequent infections.\u003Csup\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-1-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-1\u0022\u003E1\u003C\/a\u003E-\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-2-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-2\u0022\u003E2\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/sup\u003E Global estimates (most recently from 2019) suggest that over 149 million children under the age of 5 years are stunted.\u003Csup\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-3-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-3\u0022\u003E3\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/sup\u003E According to the 2017-2018 Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey (DHS), indicators of malnutrition among children under 5 years of age declined between 2007-2018, with the most recent prevalence estimates for stunting in children at 31%, 22% for underweight, and 8% for wasting.\u003Csup\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-4-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-4\u0022\u003E4\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/sup\u003E\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-20\u0022\u003ESelenium (Se) is an essential trace element that is known for its role in redox biology.\u003Csup\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-5-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-5\u0022\u003E5\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/sup\u003E Due to adaptive changes in selenium metabolism that occur during pregnancy, requirements are higher due to its role in fetal growth, which manifests as lower maternal concentrations of blood selenium.\u003Csup\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-6-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-6\u0022\u003E6\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/sup\u003E Concentrations of this trace element are known to fall during pregnancy, with lowest levels observed at delivery.\u003Csup\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-7-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-7\u0022\u003E7\u003C\/a\u003E-\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-8-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-8\u0022\u003E8\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/sup\u003E Levels are lower because of increased fetal demands and alterations in intestinal absorption or renal handling.\u003Csup\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-7-2\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-7\u0022\u003E7\u003C\/a\u003E-\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-8-2\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-8\u0022\u003E8\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/sup\u003E Reduced selenium concentrations can have an adverse impact on antioxidant selenoproteins, which compromises the protection against placental oxidative stress during pregnancy, negatively impacting fetal growth.\u003Csup\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-7-3\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-7\u0022\u003E7\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/sup\u003E Selenium is known to play a protective role in many birth outcomes.\u003Csup\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-9-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-9\u0022\u003E9\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/sup\u003E A recent meta-analysis found that umbilical cord blood selenium concentrations (r: 0.08, 95% CI: 0.01-0.16) are correlated with birth weight; although similar results were not observed for associations between maternal blood selenium and birthweight.\u003Csup\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-6-2\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-6\u0022\u003E6\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/sup\u003E Other studies have demonstrated significant relationships between low birth weight (LBW) and lower selenium concentrations.\u003Csup\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-6-3\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-6\u0022\u003E6\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/sup\u003E Mechanisms for the associations between birth weight and selenium remain unclear; however its antioxidant properties play an important role in placental development and oxidative balance.\u003Csup\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-6-4\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-6\u0022\u003E6\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/sup\u003E Lower selenium levels are likely associated with reduced function of glutathione peroxidase (GPx); an antioxidant enzyme involved in protecting the placenta and fetus from oxidative stress.\u003Csup\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-5-2\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-5\u0022\u003E5\u003C\/a\u003E,\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-10-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-10\u0022\u003E10\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/sup\u003E In a similar manner, SEPP1 (selenoprotein P) is a selenoenzyme glycoprotein that protects against adverse pregnancy outcomes which can have an impact on fetal growth.\u003Csup\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-5-3\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-5\u0022\u003E5\u003C\/a\u003E,\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-10-2\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-10\u0022\u003E10\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/sup\u003E Selenium levels may also be correlated with small-for-gestational age (SGA) status; mechanistically these associations may function via reductions in glucose levels which subsequently impact fetal weight.\u003Csup\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-11-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-11\u0022\u003E11\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/sup\u003E Lower placental GPx activity has been observed in women with SGA compared to controls.\u003Csup\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-12-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-12\u0022\u003E12\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/sup\u003E Due to the effects of lowered Se levels and decreased GPx activity during pregnancy, placental antioxidant defense may be reduced which in turn may impact fetal growth, resulting in adverse birth outcomes including growth restriction and SGA.\u003Csup\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-12-2\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-12\u0022\u003E12\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/sup\u003E A comprehensive schematic of placental to fetal transfer of various selenometabolites and Se metabolism in the human body is presented in \u003Cstrong\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-fig-5-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-fig\u0022 href=\u0022#F5\u0022\u003ESupplementary Figure 1\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/strong\u003E.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\u0022F5\u0022 class=\u0022fig pos-float type-figure odd\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022highwire-figure\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022fig-inline-img-wrapper\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022fig-inline-img\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022https:\/\/www.medrxiv.org\/content\/medrxiv\/early\/2022\/11\/03\/2022.11.01.22281815\/F5.large.jpg?width=800\u0026amp;height=600\u0026amp;carousel=1\u0022 title=\u0022General additive models for associations between length-for-age z-scores and selenium biomarkers at delivery and in venous cord blood\u0022 class=\u0022highwire-fragment fragment-images colorbox-load\u0022 rel=\u0022gallery-fragment-images-1838543208\u0022 data-figure-caption=\u0022\u0026lt;div class=\u0026quot;highwire-markup\u0026quot;\u0026gt;General additive models for associations between length-for-age z-scores and selenium biomarkers at delivery and in venous cord blood\u0026lt;\/div\u0026gt;\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022hw-responsive-img\u0022\u003E\u003Cimg class=\u0022highwire-fragment fragment-image lazyload\u0022 alt=\u0022Supplementary Figure 1:\u0022 src=\u0022data:image\/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP\/\/\/yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7\u0022 data-src=\u0022https:\/\/www.medrxiv.org\/content\/medrxiv\/early\/2022\/11\/03\/2022.11.01.22281815\/F5.medium.gif\u0022 width=\u0022440\u0022 height=\u0022331\u0022\/\u003E\u003Cnoscript\u003E\u003Cimg class=\u0022highwire-fragment fragment-image\u0022 alt=\u0022Supplementary Figure 1:\u0022 src=\u0022https:\/\/www.medrxiv.org\/content\/medrxiv\/early\/2022\/11\/03\/2022.11.01.22281815\/F5.medium.gif\u0022 width=\u0022440\u0022 height=\u0022331\u0022\/\u003E\u003C\/noscript\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cul class=\u0022highwire-figure-links inline\u0022\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022download-fig first\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022https:\/\/www.medrxiv.org\/content\/medrxiv\/early\/2022\/11\/03\/2022.11.01.22281815\/F5.large.jpg?download=true\u0022 class=\u0022highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-download\u0022 title=\u0022Download Supplementary Figure 1:\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003EDownload figure\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022new-tab last\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022https:\/\/www.medrxiv.org\/content\/medrxiv\/early\/2022\/11\/03\/2022.11.01.22281815\/F5.large.jpg\u0022 class=\u0022highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-newtab\u0022 target=\u0022_blank\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003EOpen in new tab\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ul\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022fig-caption\u0022 xmlns:xhtml=\u0022http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1999\/xhtml\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022fig-label\u0022\u003ESupplementary Figure 1:\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cp id=\u0022p-97\u0022 class=\u0022first-child\u0022\u003EGeneral additive models for associations between length-for-age z-scores and selenium biomarkers at delivery and in venous cord blood\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022sb-div caption-clear\u0022\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-21\u0022\u003EIn addition to the effects of selenium on birthweight and birth outcomes, this micronutrient also plays an essential role in bone growth and development. Selenium inadequacy has been implicated in growth faltering and changes in bone metabolism which can impact bone and cartilage development.\u003Csup\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-13-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-13\u0022\u003E13\u003C\/a\u003E-\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-15-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-15\u0022\u003E15\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/sup\u003E Expression of selenoproteins by bone cells can contribute to protection against oxidative stress in the microenvironment of the bone.\u003Csup\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-15-2\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-15\u0022\u003E15\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/sup\u003E Selenium deficiency impacts bone formation and resorption, whereby the effects of selenium on bone are mediated through reduced antioxidative capacity, accumulation of reactive oxygen species, reduced osteoclast activation and osteoblast differentiation.\u003Csup\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-16-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-16\u0022\u003E16\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/sup\u003E Furthermore, selenium deficiency is known to impact cartilage and can reduce bone mineral content, as described in human and animal studies.\u003Csup\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-13-2\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-13\u0022\u003E13\u003C\/a\u003E-\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-14-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-14\u0022\u003E14\u003C\/a\u003E,\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-16-2\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-16\u0022\u003E16\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/sup\u003E\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-22\u0022\u003ESelenium metabolism and use in the bone is exclusively associated with selenoproteins. A total of nine selenoproteins have been identified in human fetal osteoblasts where they play a role in bone metabolism.\u003Csup\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-15-3\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-15\u0022\u003E15\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/sup\u003E SEPP1 is the primary transporter and storage selenoprotein from the liver to bones, where the Lrp8 receptor facilitates SEPP1-mediated Se uptake, particularly under conditions of Se deficiency. \u003Csup\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-17-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-17\u0022\u003E17\u003C\/a\u003E-\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-18-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-18\u0022\u003E18\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/sup\u003E Selenium therefore plays an important role in bone physiology and is tightly regulated by SEPP1 receptor, apolipoprotein receptor 2 (APOER2). Expression of this receptor is significantly influenced by SEPP1 levels in a negative feedback loop.\u003Csup\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-18-2\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-18\u0022\u003E18\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/sup\u003E Genetic ablation of SEPP1 has been shown to reduce serum Se concentrations by 25-fold, but only reduces bone Se levels by 2.5-fold, suggesting a protective effect.\u003Csup\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-18-3\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-18\u0022\u003E18\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/sup\u003E\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-23\u0022\u003EStudies have examined associations between selenium levels in mother-infant dyads and growth outcomes at birth and in the postnatal period.\u003Csup\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-6-5\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-6\u0022\u003E6\u003C\/a\u003E, \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-9-2\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-9\u0022\u003E9\u003C\/a\u003E, \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-19-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-19\u0022\u003E19\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/sup\u003E Given the mixed body of evidence on the association of selenium with birth weight and infant growth outcomes, we sought to understand whether selenium status measured in maternal and infant whole blood (WBSe), serum (serum Se) and a biomarker of functional status, selenoprotein P (SEPP1), at delivery and in venous cord blood are correlated with infant birth weight, growth outcomes (length-for-age, weight-for-age, weight-for-length and head circumference-for-age z-scores) at birth, in infancy, and up to 2 years of age. Our study will add to a growing body of evidence on the role selenium may play in in utero and postnatal infant growth and development.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022section\u0022 id=\u0022sec-2\u0022\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\u0022\u0022\u003EMethods\u003C\/h2\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\u0022sec-3\u0022 class=\u0022subsection\u0022\u003E\u003Ch3\u003EStudy Area \u0026amp; Subjects\u003C\/h3\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-24\u0022\u003EWe used observational selenium biomarker data collected as part of double-blinded, dose-varying, placebo-controlled, randomized trial of the effect of maternal vitamin D\u003Csub\u003E3\u003C\/sub\u003E supplementation during pregnancy and lactation conducted in Dhaka, Bangladesh for this secondary analysis. Details of the parent study (\u003Ca class=\u0022external-ref external-ref-type-clintrialgov\u0022 href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?link_type=CLINTRIALGOV\u0026amp;access_num=NCT01924013\u0026amp;atom=%2Fmedrxiv%2Fearly%2F2022%2F11%2F03%2F2022.11.01.22281815.atom\u0022\u003ENCT01924013\u003C\/a\u003E) are described elsewhere (Roth et al. 2018).\u003Csup\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-20-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-20\u0022\u003E20\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/sup\u003E Briefly, a total of 1,300 women, 18 years of age and older, with uncomplicated singleton pregnancies were enrolled between 17-24 weeks of gestation and randomized into one of five treatment groups (treatment group A = 0 IU\/week during pregnancy and postpartum, treatment group B = 4,200 IU\/week during pregnancy and placebo postpartum, treatment group C = 16,800 IU\/week during pregnancy and placebo postpartum, treatment group D = 28,000 IU\/week during pregnancy and placebo postpartum, and treatment group E = 28,000 IU\/week during pregnancy and postpartum).\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-25\u0022\u003EExclusion criteria included high risk pregnancies, women who had pre-existing medical conditions or those who were taking medications that could put them at risk of vitamin D sensitivity, altered vitamin D metabolism and hypercalcemia. Additional details are provided elsewhere.\u003Csup\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-20-2\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-20\u0022\u003E20\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/sup\u003E\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-26\u0022\u003EInclusion of participant samples for this secondary analysis were based on availability of at least one measurement of selenium and\/or selenoproteins at delivery in mothers or in venous cord blood of neonates. Infants for whom length and weight were not measured at birth or 12 months were excluded.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-27\u0022\u003ESelenium was measured as part of a panel of metals and minerals for which the primary study intent was to examine effects of vitamin D supplementation on heavy metal concentrations.\u003Csup\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-21-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-21\u0022\u003E21\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/sup\u003E Samples selected for Se quantification were not related to vitamin D treatment group and seasonal imbalances in specimen collection were observed for those selected to be a part of the sub-study.\u003Csup\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-21-2\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-21\u0022\u003E21\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/sup\u003E Additional sociodemographic characteristics of study participants were recorded using standardized data collection forms.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-28\u0022\u003EThe parent study (MDIG: 1000057297) was conducted according to the guidelines laid down in the Declaration of Helsinki and all procedures involving human subjects and secondary specimen use sub-studies including the heavy metals protocol were approved by ethical review committees at the Hospital for Sick Children (Canada) and the International Center for Diarrheal Disease Research, Bangladesh. All women in the study provided written informed consent which included the use of biological specimens for future research purposes. This sub-study was approved by the ethics review board at the Hospital for Sick Children. The MDIG Trials was registered with clinicaltrials.org, with trial registration number: \u003Ca class=\u0022external-ref external-ref-type-clintrialgov\u0022 href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?link_type=CLINTRIALGOV\u0026amp;access_num=NCT01924013\u0026amp;atom=%2Fmedrxiv%2Fearly%2F2022%2F11%2F03%2F2022.11.01.22281815.atom\u0022\u003ENCT01924013\u003C\/a\u003E (\u003Ca href=\u0022https:\/\/www.clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT01924013\u0022\u003Ehttps:\/\/www.clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT01924013\u003C\/a\u003E).\u003C\/p\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\u0022sec-4\u0022 class=\u0022subsection\u0022\u003E\u003Ch3\u003EBlood Collection\u003C\/h3\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-29\u0022\u003EMaternal and venous cord blood samples were collected at delivery by trained phlebotomists. Trace metal-free ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA)-coated tubes were used to draw maternal samples and whole-blood aliquots were drawn prior to centrifugation. Cord blood was collected within 30 min of delivery from a site on the umbilical cord attached to the placenta after wiping maternal blood away with dry gauze. The umbilical vein was cannulated to collect blood into a lavender top EDTA tube. Whole blood was stored at -70\u00baC or colder.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\u0022sec-5\u0022 class=\u0022subsection\u0022\u003E\u003Ch3\u003EMeasurement of selenium biomarkers\u003C\/h3\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-30\u0022\u003EWhole blood and serum selenium were measured at the US Centers for Disease Control \u0026amp; Prevention (CDC). Whole blood selenium was measured at delivery and in venous cord blood using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS).\u003Csup\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-22-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-22\u0022\u003E22\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/sup\u003E The lower limit of detection for this assay was 24.5 \u03bcg\/L. Serum selenium was measured at delivery using ICP-dynamic reaction cell-MS (ICP-DRC-MS) as described by Caldwell (2011-2012).\u003Csup\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-23-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-23\u0022\u003E23\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/sup\u003E The lower limit of detection was 4.5 \u03bcg\/L. No dilution factors were applied for these assays. Plasma SEPP1 was measured at delivery and in venous cord blood using a Selenotest ELISA colorimetric assay (STE, InVivo BioTech Services, Germany) performed at the Hospital for Sick Children. The lower limit of detection for the assay was 267.3 \u03bcg\/L, with a 33-fold dilution factor applied and intra and inter-assay coefficients of variation (CVs) measured at 4.5 and 10.1% respectively. At least one selenium biomarker was measured in a sub-sample of 1021 specimens collected from mothers or infants for inclusion in this study.\u003Csup\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-21-3\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-21\u0022\u003E21\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/sup\u003E\u003C\/p\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\u0022sec-6\u0022 class=\u0022subsection\u0022\u003E\u003Ch3\u003EOutcome Assessment\u003C\/h3\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-31\u0022\u003EDetails of outcome assessment have been elaborated on elsewhere.\u003Csup\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-20-3\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-20\u0022\u003E20\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/sup\u003E In brief, head-circumference, length, and weight were measured by trained professionals using standardized procedures adapted from the INTERGROWTH-21\u003Csup\u003Est\u003C\/sup\u003E (International Fetal and Newborn Growth Consortium for the 21\u003Csup\u003Est\u003C\/sup\u003E Century) Project.\u003Csup\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-24-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-24\u0022\u003E24\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/sup\u003E Infant length was measured using a ShorrBoard. Infant weight was measured using a digital scale. Length and weight were measured at birth, during visits at 1-2 months, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 21 and 24 months of age. For the purposes of our study, growth outcomes were assessed at birth, 12 and 24 months of age.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-32\u0022\u003ETwo independent personnel measured each child and repeated measurements were taken. Measurements that differed between the two personnel by 7 mm for length or 50 g for weight were taken again. Means of the final pairs were used in further analysis. Interrater reliability was high. Length, weight and weight-for-length, body mass index (BMI), and head circumference were converted to age standardized z-scores using INTERGROWTH-21\u003Csup\u003Est\u003C\/sup\u003E standards for newborn size, postnatal growth standards for preterm infants to 64-weeks of postmenstrual age (weight, length and head circumference only) or World Health Organization (WHO) child growth standards, as appropriate.\u003Csup\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-24-2\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-24\u0022\u003E24\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/sup\u003E All outcome variables were modelled continuously. We also examined three birth outcomes, namely LBW, classified as birth weight \u0026lt; 2500 grams, and SGA, defined as birthweight below the 10\u003Csup\u003Eth\u003C\/sup\u003E percentile of gestational age- and sex-matched healthy reference population, as dichotomous outcomes.\u003Csup\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-25-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-25\u0022\u003E25\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/sup\u003E Preterm birth (PTB) was defined as gestational age at birth less than 37 weeks.\u003Csup\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-26-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-26\u0022\u003E26\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/sup\u003E\u003C\/p\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\u0022sec-7\u0022 class=\u0022subsection\u0022\u003E\u003Ch3\u003ECovariates\u003C\/h3\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-33\u0022\u003ECovariates to be adjusted for in models included infant characteristics: sex, gestational age at birth and season of birth; maternal characteristics included age, education, height, body-mass index (BMI), gravidity, vitamin D treatment group, daily protein intake (kg), urinary cotinine levels, maternal smoking and tobacco use during pregnancy, C-reactive protein (CRP) concentrations at delivery, and household asset index.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-34\u0022\u003EGestational age was estimated at time of enrollment using a combination of the last menstrual period and ultrasound. Smoking status was described using urinary cotinine levels, where women with cotinine \u2264 50 ng\/mL were classified as non-smokers and women with levels \u0026gt; 50 ng\/mL were classified as smokers.\u003Csup\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-27-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-27\u0022\u003E27\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/sup\u003E An asset index was derived using principal components analysis on baseline household characteristic data collected on ownership of various assets, where each participant was assigned an asset score (lower scores reflect less wealth).\u003Csup\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-20-4\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-20\u0022\u003E20\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/sup\u003E The asset index was categorized into quintiles.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\u0022sec-8\u0022 class=\u0022subsection\u0022\u003E\u003Ch3\u003EStatistical Analysis\u003C\/h3\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-35\u0022\u003EAll analyses were conducted using SAS 9.4 (SAS Institute, Cary, NC). A p-value \u0026lt; 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Descriptive statistics were generated for all outcome variables (growth indices) and selenium biomarkers as mean (\u00b1 SD), median (IQR) depending on the shape of variable distributions. Bivariate correlations between all Se biomarkers were evaluated using Spearman correlation coefficients.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-36\u0022\u003EWe assessed normality of all variables in this analysis using histograms and kernel density plots in order to determine their distribution. Outliers were flagged and examined to determine their biological plausibility, using box plots. Data for this secondary analysis were restricted to those participants with any one of the Se biomarkers in maternal delivery or venous cord specimens for which a growth measure was also available, as presented in \u003Cstrong\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-fig-1-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-fig\u0022 href=\u0022#F1\u0022\u003EFigure 1\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/strong\u003E.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\u0022F1\u0022 class=\u0022fig pos-float type-figure odd\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022highwire-figure\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022fig-inline-img-wrapper\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022fig-inline-img\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022https:\/\/www.medrxiv.org\/content\/medrxiv\/early\/2022\/11\/03\/2022.11.01.22281815\/F1.large.jpg?width=800\u0026amp;height=600\u0026amp;carousel=1\u0022 title=\u0022Sample size chart for maternal and cord selenium biomarkers included in analysis of associations with growth outcomes 1Length-for-age (LAZ); weight-for-age (WAZ); weight-for-length (WFL); head-circumference for age z-score (HCAZ) 2Low birth weight (LBW); small for gestational age (SGA)\u0022 class=\u0022highwire-fragment fragment-images colorbox-load\u0022 rel=\u0022gallery-fragment-images-1838543208\u0022 data-figure-caption=\u0022\u0026lt;div class=\u0026quot;highwire-markup\u0026quot;\u0026gt;\u0026lt;div xmlns=\u0026quot;http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1999\/xhtml\u0026quot;\u0026gt;Sample size chart for maternal and cord selenium biomarkers included in analysis of associations with growth outcomes \u0026lt;sup\u0026gt;1\u0026lt;\/sup\u0026gt;Length-for-age (LAZ); weight-for-age (WAZ); weight-for-length (WFL); head-circumference for age z-score (HCAZ) \u0026lt;sup\u0026gt;2\u0026lt;\/sup\u0026gt;Low birth weight (LBW); small for gestational age (SGA)\u0026lt;\/div\u0026gt;\u0026lt;\/div\u0026gt;\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022hw-responsive-img\u0022\u003E\u003Cimg class=\u0022highwire-fragment fragment-image lazyload\u0022 alt=\u0022Figure 1:\u0022 src=\u0022data:image\/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP\/\/\/yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7\u0022 data-src=\u0022https:\/\/www.medrxiv.org\/content\/medrxiv\/early\/2022\/11\/03\/2022.11.01.22281815\/F1.medium.gif\u0022 width=\u0022440\u0022 height=\u0022219\u0022\/\u003E\u003Cnoscript\u003E\u003Cimg class=\u0022highwire-fragment fragment-image\u0022 alt=\u0022Figure 1:\u0022 src=\u0022https:\/\/www.medrxiv.org\/content\/medrxiv\/early\/2022\/11\/03\/2022.11.01.22281815\/F1.medium.gif\u0022 width=\u0022440\u0022 height=\u0022219\u0022\/\u003E\u003C\/noscript\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cul class=\u0022highwire-figure-links inline\u0022\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022download-fig first\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022https:\/\/www.medrxiv.org\/content\/medrxiv\/early\/2022\/11\/03\/2022.11.01.22281815\/F1.large.jpg?download=true\u0022 class=\u0022highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-download\u0022 title=\u0022Download Figure 1:\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003EDownload figure\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022new-tab last\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022https:\/\/www.medrxiv.org\/content\/medrxiv\/early\/2022\/11\/03\/2022.11.01.22281815\/F1.large.jpg\u0022 class=\u0022highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-newtab\u0022 target=\u0022_blank\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003EOpen in new tab\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ul\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022fig-caption\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022fig-label\u0022\u003EFigure 1:\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cp id=\u0022p-37\u0022 class=\u0022first-child\u0022\u003ESample size chart for maternal and cord selenium biomarkers included in analysis of associations with growth outcomes\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-38\u0022\u003E\u003Csup\u003E1\u003C\/sup\u003ELength-for-age (LAZ); weight-for-age (WAZ); weight-for-length (WFL); head-circumference for age z-score (HCAZ)\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-39\u0022\u003E\u003Csup\u003E2\u003C\/sup\u003ELow birth weight (LBW); small for gestational age (SGA)\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022sb-div caption-clear\u0022\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-40\u0022\u003EWe used linear regression and generated bivariate and multivariable models adjusting for covariates after generating directed acyclic graphs (DAGs) to account for hypothesized confounding and biological plausibility of associations. Biomarkers were scaled by a unit of 10 for whole blood and serum Se and unit of 1000 for SEPP1. Sensitivity analyses were conducted after including urinary cotinine as a covariate in adjusted models.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-41\u0022\u003EWe also examined associations between selenoproteins GPx (glutathione peroxidase) and TrxR (thioredoxin reductase) measured in maternal plasma at mid-gestation (17-24 weeks) and delivery and growth outcomes using linear regression, associations with birth weight, specifically (presented in \u003Cstrong\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-table-wrap-7-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-table\u0022 href=\u0022#T7\u0022\u003ESupplementary Tables 1\u003C\/a\u003E and \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-table-wrap-8-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-table\u0022 href=\u0022#T8\u0022\u003E2\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/strong\u003E). Multicollinearity between predictors and covariates in models was assessed using variance inflation factors (VIFs), tolerance and collinearity using \u2018proc reg\u2019.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\u0022T7\u0022 class=\u0022table pos-float\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022table-inline table-callout-links\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022callout\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EView this table:\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cul class=\u0022callout-links\u0022\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022view-inline first\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022##\u0022 class=\u0022table-expand-inline\u0022 data-table-url=\u0022\/highwire\/markup\/579170\/expansion?postprocessors=highwire_tables%2Chighwire_reclass%2Chighwire_figures%2Chighwire_math%2Chighwire_inline_linked_media%2Chighwire_embed\u0026amp;table-expand-inline=1\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003EView inline\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022view-popup\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/highwire\/markup\/579170\/expansion?width=1000\u0026amp;height=500\u0026amp;iframe=true\u0026amp;postprocessors=highwire_tables%2Chighwire_reclass%2Chighwire_figures%2Chighwire_math%2Chighwire_inline_linked_media%2Chighwire_embed\u0022 class=\u0022colorbox colorbox-load table-expand-popup\u0022 rel=\u0022gallery-fragment-tables\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003EView popup\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022download-ppt last\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/highwire\/powerpoint\/579170\u0022 class=\u0022highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-ppt\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003EDownload powerpoint\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ul\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022table-caption\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022table-label\u0022\u003ESupplementary Table 1:\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cp id=\u0022p-100\u0022 class=\u0022first-child\u0022\u003ESelenoprotein concentrations in mid-gestation and delivery specimens in the growth study\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022sb-div caption-clear\u0022\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\u0022T8\u0022 class=\u0022table pos-float\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022table-inline table-callout-links\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022callout\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EView this table:\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cul class=\u0022callout-links\u0022\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022view-inline first\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022##\u0022 class=\u0022table-expand-inline\u0022 data-table-url=\u0022\/highwire\/markup\/579169\/expansion?postprocessors=highwire_tables%2Chighwire_reclass%2Chighwire_figures%2Chighwire_math%2Chighwire_inline_linked_media%2Chighwire_embed\u0026amp;table-expand-inline=1\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003EView inline\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022view-popup\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/highwire\/markup\/579169\/expansion?width=1000\u0026amp;height=500\u0026amp;iframe=true\u0026amp;postprocessors=highwire_tables%2Chighwire_reclass%2Chighwire_figures%2Chighwire_math%2Chighwire_inline_linked_media%2Chighwire_embed\u0022 class=\u0022colorbox colorbox-load table-expand-popup\u0022 rel=\u0022gallery-fragment-tables\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003EView popup\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022download-ppt last\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/highwire\/powerpoint\/579169\u0022 class=\u0022highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-ppt\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003EDownload powerpoint\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ul\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022table-caption\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022table-label\u0022\u003ESupplementary Table 2:\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cp id=\u0022p-101\u0022 class=\u0022first-child\u0022\u003ELinear associations between selenoproteins \u2013 GPx and TrxR and birth weight\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022sb-div caption-clear\u0022\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\u0022sec-9\u0022 class=\u0022subsection\u0022\u003E\u003Ch4\u003ESe Biomarkers and Birth Outcomes\u003C\/h4\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-42\u0022\u003EDescriptive statistics for n (%) of children who were SGA, LBW, and PTB in this sample were also examined. We conducted additional analyses to examine associations between SGA, LBW and PTB as dichotomous outcomes using modified Poisson regression with robust standard errors to estimate risk ratios (RRs) for associations between birth outcomes and selenium biomarker concentrations in unadjusted and adjusted models.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\u0022sec-10\u0022 class=\u0022subsection\u0022\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EMediation Analysis\u003C\/h4\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-43\u0022\u003EIn addition to linear models for growth outcomes, we conducted mediation 1\u0022\u003E41\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/sup\u003E\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-89\u0022\u003ELinear growth has been implicated as a potential outcome of interest in relation to the role of selenium in bone growth. Kashin-Beck syndrome (KBD) is a chronic osteochondropathy known to result from inherited genetic polymorphisms in selenium-related genes which impair collagen synthesis.\u003Csup\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-53-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-53\u0022\u003E53\u003C\/a\u003E-\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-54-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-54\u0022\u003E54\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/sup\u003E The syndrome is endemic to regions with low soil selenium concentrations.\u003Csup\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-53-2\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-53\u0022\u003E53\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/sup\u003E A key feature of the condition is necrosis of chondrocytes in the growth plate of the bone and within the articular surface, which results in growth retardation and osteoarthritis.\u003Csup\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-55-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-55\u0022\u003E55\u003C\/a\u003E-\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-56-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-56\u0022\u003E56\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/sup\u003E In this condition, selenium status may modulate disease susceptibility because of its essential antioxidant activities. Three major environmental hypotheses have been postulated as part of the etiology of the condition and include, soil selenium deficiency, contamination of cereals by mycotoxigenic fungi and high humic acid concentrations in the drinking water supply in endemic areas including China and Tibet.\u003Csup\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-57-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-57\u0022\u003E57\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/sup\u003E In a clinical study conducted in Lhasa, Tibet, where KBD is endemic and selenium deficiency is common, authors found serum Se concentrations to be below detectable levels (\u0026lt; 5 \u03bcg\/L) in 38% of the study sample (n = 521 subjects). Geometric mean concentrations of serum selenium in this study sample for subjects who had KBD were as low as 10.3 (5.1-20.8) \u03bcg\/L. These values are significantly below those observed in our study from Bangladesh, where we found mean concentrations of maternal serum Se to be 69 \u00b1 13 \u03bcg\/L at delivery. These findings suggest that severe selenium deficiency may not be a problem in this Bangladeshi population (83.4% of our sample was \u0026lt; 80 \u03bcg\/L for serum Se at delivery and only 0.2% were selenium deficient [\u0026lt; 30 \u03bcg\/L]).\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-90\u0022\u003EIt is important to note that effect estimates for other growth outcomes in our study were negligible in magnitude and therefore do not suggest that selenium biomarkers measured in our study play a major role in birth and growth outcomes in this cohort of mother-infant pairs. We did however find meaningful and substantial effect sizes for the associations between birth weight and biomarkers of selenium status. These associations should be investigated further given that different selenium biomarkers may act differently on mechanisms of weight gain at birth and in early infancy.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-91\u0022\u003EEvidence exists to suggest that selenium has a U-shaped dose-response toxicity curve, with negative health impacts experienced due to deficiency and excess as is evidenced in our dose-response analyses as well.\u003Csup\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-58-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-58\u0022\u003E58\u003C\/a\u003E-\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-59-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-59\u0022\u003E59\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/sup\u003E Selenium deficiency may contribute to inflammation and pregnancy related complications, via pathways associated with oxidative stress and may also be associated with growth retardation.\u003Csup\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-60-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-60\u0022\u003E60\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/sup\u003E At high concentrations, selenium can become a pro-oxidant and cause cellular damage due to oxidative stress.\u003Csup\u003E\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-60-2\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-60\u0022\u003E60\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/sup\u003E In conclusion, we have found that selenium may play an important role in placental health and the growth and development of infants and young children in the peri-natal and postpartum period, up to two years of age. Future studies should examine in more detail, the role of selenium in linear growth over the infant and young child life course, particularly in relation to its important known functions in placental preservation and birth weight.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022section data-availability\u0022 id=\u0022sec-20\u0022\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\u0022\u0022\u003EData Availability\u003C\/h2\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-92\u0022\u003EAll data produced in the present study are available upon reasonable request to the authors\u003C\/p\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022section\u0022 id=\u0022sec-21\u0022\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\u0022\u0022\u003EContributions\u003C\/h2\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-93\u0022\u003ERM and CK designed the study, RM conducted analysis and wrote the manuscript. DHH provided conceptual inputs to this study and critical review of the manuscript. TM and AAM oversaw the implementation of the MDIG trial in Dhaka, Bangladesh. All authors have read and approved of the final version of this manuscript.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022section\u0022 id=\u0022sec-22\u0022\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\u0022\u0022\u003EConflict of Interest\u003C\/h2\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-95\u0022\u003EAuthors declare no conflicts of interest.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022section\u0022 id=\u0022sec-23\u0022\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\u0022\u0022\u003EFinancial Support\u003C\/h2\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-96\u0022\u003EThis secondary data analysis was funded through the Microbiome, Infections, Child Growth and Development Fellowship, Centre for Global Child Health, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Canada. The parent MDIG study and selenium biomarker analyses were funded through grants from the Bill \u0026amp; Melinda Gates Foundation.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022section ack\u0022 id=\u0022ack-1\u0022\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\u0022\u0022\u003EAcknowledgements\u003C\/h2\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-94\u0022\u003EWe wish to thank Dr. Daniel E. Roth, PI of the MDIG Trial for providing conceptual inputs to this study, review of methods and results and access to the MDIG data. We thank Huma Qamar, Ulaina Tariq and the SickKids team for their contributions to methods and review of findings and overall contributions to the MDIG study as well as Jithin Sam Varghese for consultation on analytical methods and interpretation. We wish to acknowledge the teams at ICDDR, B, and other MDIG collaborators in Bangladesh and internationally for all their contributions to the parent study. We also acknowledge the CDC for selenium biomarker analyses. Finally, we extend our gratitude to the Bangladeshi mothers and children who participated in this study.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022section fn-group\u0022 id=\u0022fn-group-1\u0022\u003E\u003Ch2\u003EFootnotes\u003C\/h2\u003E\u003Cul\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022fn-conflict\u0022 id=\u0022fn-1\u0022\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-1\u0022\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EConflicts of Interest:\u003C\/strong\u003E Authors declare no conflicts of interest\u003C\/p\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ul\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022section ref-list\u0022 id=\u0022ref-list-1\u0022\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\u0022\u0022\u003EReferences\u003C\/h2\u003E\u003Col class=\u0022cit-list ref-use-labels\u0022\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label\u0022\u003E1.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Ca class=\u0022rev-xref-ref\u0022 href=\u0022#xref-ref-1-1\u0022 title=\u0022View reference 1. in text\u0022 id=\u0022ref-1\u0022\u003E\u21b5\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal\u0022 id=\u0022cit-2022.11.01.22281815v1.1\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Ccite\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ERoth\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EDE\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ELeung\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EM\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EMesfin\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EE\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EQamar\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EH\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EWatterworth\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EJ\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EPapp\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EE.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-date\u0022\u003E2017\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-article-title\u0022\u003EVitamin D supplementation during pregnancy: State of the evidence from a systematic review of randomised trials\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cabbr class=\u0022cit-jnl-abbrev\u0022\u003EBMJ\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E359\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label\u0022\u003E2.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Ca class=\u0022rev-xref-ref\u0022 href=\u0022#xref-ref-2-1\u0022 title=\u0022View reference 2. in text\u0022 id=\u0022ref-2\u0022\u003E\u21b5\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal\u0022 id=\u0022cit-2022.11.01.22281815v1.2\u0022 data-doi=\u002210.1016\/S0140-6736(07)61692-4\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Ccite\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EVictora\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ECG\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EAdair\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EL\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EFall\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EC\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EHallal\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EPC\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EMartorell\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ER\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ERichter\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EL\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-etal\u0022\u003Eet al.\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-date\u0022\u003E2008\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-article-title\u0022\u003EMaternal and child undernutrition: Consequences for adult health and human capital\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cabbr class=\u0022cit-jnl-abbrev\u0022\u003EThe lancet\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E371\u003C\/span\u003E:\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-fpage\u0022\u003E340\u003C\/span\u003E\u2013\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-lpage\u0022\u003E357\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DThe%2Blancet%26rft.volume%253D371%26rft.spage%253D340%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Adoi%252F10.1016%252FS0140-6736%252807%252961692-4%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EOpenUrl\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=10.1016\/S0140-6736(07)61692-4\u0026amp;link_type=DOI\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-doi cit-ref-sprinkles-crossref\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003ECrossRef\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label\u0022\u003E3.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Ca class=\u0022rev-xref-ref\u0022 href=\u0022#xref-ref-3-1\u0022 title=\u0022View reference 3. in text\u0022 id=\u0022ref-3\u0022\u003E\u21b5\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal\u0022 id=\u0022cit-2022.11.01.22281815v1.3\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Ccite\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EKeats\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EEC\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EDas\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EJK\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ESalam\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ERA\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ELassi\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EZS\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EImdad\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EA\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EBlack\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ERE\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-etal\u0022\u003Eet al.\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-date\u0022\u003E2021\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-article-title\u0022\u003EEffective interventions to address maternal and child malnutrition: An update of the evidence\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cabbr class=\u0022cit-jnl-abbrev\u0022\u003EThe Lancet Child \u0026amp; Adolescent Health\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E5\u003C\/span\u003E:\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-fpage\u0022\u003E367\u003C\/span\u003E\u2013\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-lpage\u0022\u003E384\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DThe%2BLancet%2BChild%2B%2526%2BAdolescent%2BHealth%26rft.volume%253D5%26rft.spage%253D367%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EOpenUrl\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label\u0022\u003E4.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Ca class=\u0022rev-xref-ref\u0022 href=\u0022#xref-ref-4-1\u0022 title=\u0022View reference 4. in text\u0022 id=\u0022ref-4\u0022\u003E\u21b5\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal\u0022 id=\u0022cit-2022.11.01.22281815v1.4\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Ccite\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EKhan\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EMN\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EOldroyd\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EJC\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EChowdhury\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EEK\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EHossain\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EMB\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ERana\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EJ\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ERenzetti\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ES\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-etal\u0022\u003Eet al.\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-date\u0022\u003E2021\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-article-title\u0022\u003EPrevalence, awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension in Bangladesh: Findings from national demographic and health survey, 2017\u20132018\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cabbr class=\u0022cit-jnl-abbrev\u0022\u003EThe Journal of Clinical Hypertension\u003C\/abbr\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label\u0022\u003E5.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Ca class=\u0022rev-xref-ref\u0022 href=\u0022#xref-ref-5-1\u0022 title=\u0022View reference 5. in text\u0022 id=\u0022ref-5\u0022\u003E\u21b5\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal\u0022 id=\u0022cit-2022.11.01.22281815v1.5\u0022 data-doi=\u002210.3390\/nu7042209\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Ccite\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ECombs\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-suffix\u0022\u003EJr\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EF.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-date\u0022\u003E2015\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-article-title\u0022\u003EBiomarkers of selenium status\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cabbr class=\u0022cit-jnl-abbrev\u0022\u003ENutrients\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E7\u003C\/span\u003E:\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-fpage\u0022\u003E2209\u003C\/span\u003E\u2013\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-lpage\u0022\u003E2236\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DNutrients%26rft.volume%253D7%26rft.spage%253D2209%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Adoi%252F10.3390%252Fnu7042209%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Apmid%252F25835046%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EOpenUrl\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=10.3390\/nu7042209\u0026amp;link_type=DOI\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-doi cit-ref-sprinkles-crossref\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003ECrossRef\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=25835046\u0026amp;link_type=MED\u0026amp;atom=%2Fmedrxiv%2Fearly%2F2022%2F11%2F03%2F2022.11.01.22281815.atom\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-medline\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EPubMed\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label\u0022\u003E6.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Ca class=\u0022rev-xref-ref\u0022 href=\u0022#xref-ref-6-1\u0022 title=\u0022View reference 6. in text\u0022 id=\u0022ref-6\u0022\u003E\u21b5\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal\u0022 id=\u0022cit-2022.11.01.22281815v1.6\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Ccite\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EAtazadegan\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EMA\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EHeidari-Beni\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EM\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ERiahi\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ER\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EKelishadi\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ER.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-date\u0022\u003E2022\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-article-title\u0022\u003EAssociation of selenium, zinc and copper concentrations during pregnancy with birth weight: A systematic review and meta-analysis\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cabbr class=\u0022cit-jnl-abbrev\u0022\u003EJournal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E69\u003C\/span\u003E:\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-fpage\u0022\u003E126903\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DJournal%2Bof%2BTrace%2BElements%2Bin%2BMedicine%2Band%2BBiology%26rft.volume%253D69%26rft.spage%253D126903%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EOpenUrl\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label\u0022\u003E7.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Ca class=\u0022rev-xref-ref\u0022 href=\u0022#xref-ref-7-1\u0022 title=\u0022View reference 7. in text\u0022 id=\u0022ref-7\u0022\u003E\u21b5\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal\u0022 id=\u0022cit-2022.11.01.22281815v1.7\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Ccite\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EMistry\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EHD\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EKurlak\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ELO\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EYoung\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ESD\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EBriley\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EAL\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EPipkin\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EFB\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EBaker\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EPN\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-etal\u0022\u003Eet al.\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-date\u0022\u003E2014\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-article-title\u0022\u003EMaternal selenium, copper and zinc concentrations in pregnancy associated with small-for-gestational-age infants\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cabbr class=\u0022cit-jnl-abbrev\u0022\u003EMatern Child Nutr\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E10\u003C\/span\u003E:\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-fpage\u0022\u003E327\u003C\/span\u003E\u2013\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-lpage\u0022\u003E334\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DMatern%2BChild%2BNutr%26rft.volume%253D10%26rft.spage%253D327%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EOpenUrl\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label\u0022\u003E8.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Ca class=\u0022rev-xref-ref\u0022 href=\u0022#xref-ref-8-1\u0022 title=\u0022View reference 8. in text\u0022 id=\u0022ref-8\u0022\u003E\u21b5\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal\u0022 id=\u0022cit-2022.11.01.22281815v1.8\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Ccite\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth cit-collab\u0022\u003EEFSA Panel on Diet n\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EJD\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EKemp\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EFW\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EChen\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EX\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EStagnaro-Green\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EA\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EStein\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ETP\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EScholl\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ETO.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-date\u0022\u003E2006\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-article-title\u0022\u003ELow-normal serum selenium early in human pregnancy predicts lower birth weight\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cabbr class=\u0022cit-jnl-abbrev\u0022\u003ENutrition Research\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E26\u003C\/span\u003E:\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-fpage\u0022\u003E497\u003C\/span\u003E\u2013\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-lpage\u0022\u003E502\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DNutrition%2BResearch%26rft.volume%253D26%26rft.spage%253D497%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EOpenUrl\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label\u0022\u003E34.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal no-rev-xref\u0022 id=\u0022cit-2022.11.01.22281815v1.34\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Ccite\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EMistry\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EHD\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EKurlak\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ELO\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EYoung\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ESD\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EBriley\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EAL\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EPipkin\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EFB\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EBaker\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EPN\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-etal\u0022\u003Eet al.\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-date\u0022\u003E2014\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-article-title\u0022\u003EMaternal selenium, copper and zinc concentrations in pregnancy associated with small-for-gestational-age infants\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cabbr class=\u0022cit-jnl-abbrev\u0022\u003EMatern Child Nutr\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E10\u003C\/span\u003E:\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-fpage\u0022\u003E327\u003C\/span\u003E\u2013\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-lpage\u0022\u003E334\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DMatern%2BChild%2BNutr%26rft.volume%253D10%26rft.spage%253D327%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EOpenUrl\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label\u0022\u003E35.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal no-rev-xref\u0022 id=\u0022cit-2022.11.01.22281815v1.35\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Ccite\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ESun\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EH\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EChen\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EW\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EWang\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ED\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EJin\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EY\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EChen\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EX\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EXu\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EY.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-date\u0022\u003E2014\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-article-title\u0022\u003EThe effects of prenatal exposure to low-level cadmium, lead and selenium on birth outcomes\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cabbr class=\u0022cit-jnl-abbrev\u0022\u003EChemosphere\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E108\u003C\/span\u003E:\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-fpage\u0022\u003E33\u003C\/span\u003E\u2013\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-lpage\u0022\u003E39\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DChemosphere%26rft.volume%253D108%26rft.spage%253D33%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EOpenUrl\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label\u0022\u003E36.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal no-rev-xref\u0022 id=\u0022cit-2022.11.01.22281815v1.36\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Ccite\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ENazemi\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EL\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EShariat\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EM\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EChamari\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EM\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EChahardoli\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ER\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EAsgarzadeh\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EL\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ESeighali\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EF.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-date\u0022\u003E2015\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-article-title\u0022\u003EComparison of maternal and umbilical cord blood selenium levels in low and normal birth weight neonates\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cabbr class=\u0022cit-jnl-abbrev\u0022\u003EJournal of family \u0026amp; reproductive health\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E9\u003C\/span\u003E:\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-fpage\u0022\u003E125\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DJournal%2Bof%2Bfamily%2B%2526%2Breproductive%2Bhealth%26rft.volume%253D9%26rft.spage%253D125%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EOpenUrl\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label\u0022\u003E37.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal no-rev-xref\u0022 id=\u0022cit-2022.11.01.22281815v1.37\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Ccite\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EBerm\u00fadez\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EL\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EGarc\u00eda-Vicent\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EC\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EL\u00f3pez\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EJ\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ETorr\u00f3\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EMI\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ELurbe\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EE.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-date\u0022\u003E2015\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-article-title\u0022\u003EAssessment of ten trace elements in umbilical cord blood and maternal blood: Association with birth weight\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cabbr class=\u0022cit-jnl-abbrev\u0022\u003EJournal of translational medicine\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E13\u003C\/span\u003E:\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-fpage\u0022\u003E291\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DJournal%2Bof%2Btranslational%2Bmedicine%26rft.volume%253D13%26rft.spage%253D291%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EOpenUrl\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label\u0022\u003E38.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal no-rev-xref\u0022 id=\u0022cit-2022.11.01.22281815v1.38\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Ccite\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EKobayashi\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ES\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EKishi\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ER\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ESaijo\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EY\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EIto\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EY\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EOba\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EK\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EAraki\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EA\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-etal\u0022\u003Eet al.\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-date\u0022\u003E2019\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-article-title\u0022\u003EAssociation of blood mercury levels during pregnancy with infant birth size by blood selenium levels in the japan environment and children\u2019s study: A prospective birth cohort\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cabbr class=\u0022cit-jnl-abbrev\u0022\u003EEnvironment international\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E125\u003C\/span\u003E:\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-fpage\u0022\u003E418\u003C\/span\u003E\u2013\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-lpage\u0022\u003E429\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DEnvironment%2Binternational%26rft.volume%253D125%26rft.spage%253D418%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EOpenUrl\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label\u0022\u003E39.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal no-rev-xref\u0022 id=\u0022cit-2022.11.01.22281815v1.39\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Ccite\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EKlapec\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ET\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003E\u0106avar\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ES\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EKasa\u010d\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EZ\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ERu\u010devi\u0107\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ES\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EPopinja\u010d\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EA.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-date\u0022\u003E2008\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-article-title\u0022\u003ESelenium in placenta predicts birth weight in normal but not intrauterine growth restriction pregnancy\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cabbr class=\u0022cit-jnl-abbrev\u0022\u003EJournal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E22\u003C\/span\u003E:\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-fpage\u0022\u003E54\u003C\/span\u003E\u2013\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-lpage\u0022\u003E58\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DJournal%2Bof%2Btrace%2Belements%2Bin%2Bmedicine%2Band%2Bbiology%2B%253A%2B%2Borgan%2Bof%2Bthe%2BSociety%2Bfor%2BMinerals%2Band%2BTrace%2BElements%2B%2528GMS%2529%26rft.stitle%253DJ%2BTrace%2BElem%2BMed%2BBiol%26rft.aulast%253DKlapec%26rft.auinit1%253DT.%26rft.volume%253D22%26rft.issue%253D1%26rft.spage%253D54%26rft.epage%253D58%26rft.atitle%253DSelenium%2Bin%2Bplacenta%2Bpredicts%2Bbirth%2Bweight%2Bin%2Bnormal%2Bbut%2Bnot%2Bintrauterine%2Bgrowth%2Brestriction%2Bpregnancy.%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Apmid%252F18319141%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EOpenUrl\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=18319141\u0026amp;link_type=MED\u0026amp;atom=%2Fmedrxiv%2Fearly%2F2022%2F11%2F03%2F2022.11.01.22281815.atom\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-medline\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EPubMed\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label\u0022\u003E40.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal no-rev-xref\u0022 id=\u0022cit-2022.11.01.22281815v1.40\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Ccite\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EHu\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EX\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EZheng\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ET\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ECheng\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EY\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EHolford\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ET\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ELin\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ES\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ELeaderer\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EB\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-etal\u0022\u003Eet al.\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-date\u0022\u003E2015\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-article-title\u0022\u003EDistributions of heavy metals in maternal and cord blood and the association with infant birth weight in china\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cabbr class=\u0022cit-jnl-abbrev\u0022\u003EJ Reprod Med\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E60\u003C\/span\u003E:\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-fpage\u0022\u003E21\u003C\/span\u003E\u2013\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-lpage\u0022\u003E29\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DJ%2BReprod%2BMed%26rft.volume%253D60%26rft.spage%253D21%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EOpenUrl\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label\u0022\u003E41.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Ca class=\u0022rev-xref-ref\u0022 href=\u0022#xref-ref-41-1\u0022 title=\u0022View reference 41. in text\u0022 id=\u0022ref-41\u0022\u003E\u21b5\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal\u0022 id=\u0022cit-2022.11.01.22281815v1.41\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Ccite\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EZhang\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EX\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EFeng\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EY-J\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ELi\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EJ\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EHao\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EJ-H\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EZhu\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EP\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EXu\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ED-X\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-etal\u0022\u003Eet al.\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-date\u0022\u003E2021\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-article-title\u0022\u003EMaternal selenium deficiency during gestation is positively associated with the risks for lbw and sga newborns in a chinese population\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cabbr class=\u0022cit-jnl-abbrev\u0022\u003EEuropean Journal of Clinical Nutrition\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E75\u003C\/span\u003E:\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-fpage\u0022\u003E768\u003C\/span\u003E\u2013\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-lpage\u0022\u003E774\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DEuropean%2BJournal%2Bof%2BClinical%2BNutrition%26rft.volume%253D75%26rft.spage%253D768%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EOpenUrl\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label\u0022\u003E42.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Ca class=\u0022rev-xref-ref\u0022 href=\u0022#xref-ref-42-1\u0022 title=\u0022View reference 42. in text\u0022 id=\u0022ref-42\u0022\u003E\u21b5\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal\u0022 id=\u0022cit-2022.11.01.22281815v1.42\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Ccite\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ESol\u00e9-Navais\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EP\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EBrants\u00e6ter\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EAL\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ECaspersen\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EIH\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ELundh\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ET\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EMuglia\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ELJ\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EMeltzer\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EHM\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-etal\u0022\u003Eet al.\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-date\u0022\u003E2021\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-article-title\u0022\u003EMaternal dietary selenium intake during pregnancy is associated with higher birth weight and lower risk of small for gestational age births in the norwegian mother, father and child cohort study\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cabbr class=\u0022cit-jnl-abbrev\u0022\u003ENutrients\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E13\u003C\/span\u003E:\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-fpage\u0022\u003E23\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DNutrients%26rft.volume%253D13%26rft.spage%253D23%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EOpenUrl\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label\u0022\u003E43.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Ca class=\u0022rev-xref-ref\u0022 href=\u0022#xref-ref-43-1\u0022 title=\u0022View reference 43. in text\u0022 id=\u0022ref-43\u0022\u003E\u21b5\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal\u0022 id=\u0022cit-2022.11.01.22281815v1.43\u0022 data-doi=\u002210.1016\/S0306-5456(00)00030-9\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Ccite\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EZachara\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EBA\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EDobrzy\u0144ski\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EW\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ETrafikowska\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EU\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ESzyma\u0144ski\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EW.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-date\u0022\u003E2001\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-article-title\u0022\u003EBlood selenium and glutathione peroxidases in miscarriage\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cabbr class=\u0022cit-jnl-abbrev\u0022\u003EBritish Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E108\u003C\/span\u003E:\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-fpage\u0022\u003E244\u003C\/span\u003E\u2013\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-lpage\u0022\u003E247\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DBritish%2BJournal%2Bof%2BObstetrics%2Band%2BGynaecology%26rft.volume%253D108%26rft.spage%253D244%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Adoi%252F10.1016%252FS0306-5456%252800%252900030-9%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EOpenUrl\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=10.1016\/S0306-5456(00)00030-9\u0026amp;link_type=DOI\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-doi cit-ref-sprinkles-crossref\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003ECrossRef\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label\u0022\u003E44.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Ca class=\u0022rev-xref-ref\u0022 href=\u0022#xref-ref-44-1\u0022 title=\u0022View reference 44. in text\u0022 id=\u0022ref-44\u0022\u003E\u21b5\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal\u0022 id=\u0022cit-2022.11.01.22281815v1.44\u0022 data-doi=\u002210.1016\/j.lfs.2009.03.023\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Ccite\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EAnan\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EY\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EOgra\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EY\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ESomekawa\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EL\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ESuzuki\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EKT.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-date\u0022\u003E2009\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-article-title\u0022\u003EEffects of chemical species of selenium on maternal transfer during pregnancy and lactation\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cabbr class=\u0022cit-jnl-abbrev\u0022\u003ELife sciences\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E84\u003C\/span\u003E:\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-fpage\u0022\u003E888\u003C\/span\u003E\u2013\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-lpage\u0022\u003E893\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DLife%2Bsciences%26rft.stitle%253DLife%2BSci%26rft.aulast%253DAnan%26rft.auinit1%253DY.%26rft.volume%253D84%26rft.issue%253D25-26%26rft.spage%253D888%26rft.epage%253D893%26rft.atitle%253DEffects%2Bof%2Bchemical%2Bspecies%2Bof%2Bselenium%2Bon%2Bmaternal%2Btransfer%2Bduring%2Bpregnancy%2Band%2Blactation.%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Adoi%252F10.1016%252Fj.lfs.2009.03.023%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Apmid%252F19389411%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EOpenUrl\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=10.1016\/j.lfs.2009.03.023\u0026amp;link_type=DOI\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-doi cit-ref-sprinkles-crossref\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003ECrossRef\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=19389411\u0026amp;link_type=MED\u0026amp;atom=%2Fmedrxiv%2Fearly%2F2022%2F11%2F03%2F2022.11.01.22281815.atom\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-medline\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EPubMed\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=000267046300005\u0026amp;link_type=ISI\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-newisilink cit-ref-sprinkles-webofscience\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EWeb of Science\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label\u0022\u003E45.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Ca class=\u0022rev-xref-ref\u0022 href=\u0022#xref-ref-45-1\u0022 title=\u0022View reference 45. in text\u0022 id=\u0022ref-45\u0022\u003E\u21b5\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal\u0022 id=\u0022cit-2022.11.01.22281815v1.45\u0022 data-doi=\u002210.1146\/annurev-nutr-071714-034250\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Ccite\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EBurk\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ERF\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EHill\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EKE.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-date\u0022\u003E2015\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-article-title\u0022\u003ERegulation of selenium metabolism and transport\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cabbr class=\u0022cit-jnl-abbrev\u0022\u003EAnnual review of nutrition\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E35\u003C\/span\u003E:\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-fpage\u0022\u003E109\u003C\/span\u003E\u2013\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-lpage\u0022\u003E134\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DAnnual%2Breview%2Bof%2Bnutrition%26rft.volume%253D35%26rft.spage%253D109

https://www.medrxiv.org/panels_ajax_tab/article_tab_full_text/node:578128/1

United States v. Cueto-Sanchez, 22-cr-20282-BLOOM - Federal Cases - Case Law - VLEX 932444316 0: [object Object]. 1: [object Object]. 2: [object Object]. 3: [object Object]. 4: [object Object] Federal Cases United States v. Cueto-Sanchez, 22-cr-20282-BLOOM <table><tbody><tr><td> Court</td><td> United States District Courts. 11th Circuit. United States District Courts. 11th Circuit. Southern District of Florida</td></tr><tr><td> Writing for the Court</td><td> BETH BLOOM, UNITED STATES DISTRICT JUDGE</td></tr><tr><td> Parties</td><td> UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, Plaintiff, v. YOUANNY CUETO-SANCHEZ, REINALDO BARBOSA GUEBARA, and CARLOS GUZMAN-JAVIER, Defendants.</td></tr><tr><td> Decision Date</td><td> 29 August 2022</td></tr><tr><td> Docket Number</td><td> 22-cr-20282-BLOOM</td></tr></tbody></table> 1 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, Plaintiff, v. YOUANNY CUETO-SANCHEZ, REINALDO BARBOSA GUEBARA, and CARLOS GUZMAN-JAVIER, Defendants. No. 22-cr-20282-BLOOM United States District Court, S.D. Florida August 29, 2022 OMNIBUS ORDER ON MOTIONS TO DISMISS INDICTMENT BETH BLOOM, UNITED STATES DISTRICT JUDGE THIS CAUSEis before the Court upon Defendants Jose Yovanny Cueto-Sanchez's (“Cueto”) Motion to Dismiss Indictment, ECF No. [14], Carlos Guzman-Javier's (“Guzman”) Motion to Dismiss Indictment, ECF No. [16], Reinaldo Barbosa Guebara's (“Guebara”) (collectively, “Defendants”) Motion to Dismiss Indictment, ECF No. [17] (collectively, “Motions”). The Government filed a Response to Defendants' Motions, ECF No. [20] (“Response”), to which Cueto filed a Reply, ECF No.[22] (“Reply”). To date, Guzman and Barbosa have not replied. The Court has considered the Motions, the record, the applicable law, and is otherwise fully advised. For the reasons set forth below, the Motions are denied. I. BACKGROUND According to the Criminal Complaint, on or about June 2, 2022, a Maritime Patrol Aircraft (“MPA”) located a go-fast vessel (“GFV”) operating approximately 108 nautical miles northwest of Oranjestad, Aruba in international waters upon the high seas. SeeECF No. [1] (“Complaint”). The HNLMS GRONINGEN, manned by United States Coast Guard (“USCG”) Law Enforcement Detached Team (“LEDET”) 109, investigated the GFV. Defendants were on the GFV.During the 2 right of visit questioning, Cueto, who was the master of the vessel, claimed Dominican nationality for the vessel. Upon being contacted by U.S. authorities, the Government of the Dominican Republic could neither confirm nor deny registry of the vessel. See id.Accordingly, the vessel was treated as a stateless vessel under46 U.S.C. § 70502(d)(1)(C) of the Maritime Drug Law Enforcement Act (“MDLEA”). A full law enforcement boarding ensued, and law enforcement officials found 630 kilograms of cocaine. On June 28, 2022, Defendants were charged by Indictment with conspiracy to possess a controlled substance onboard a vessel in violation of46 U.S.C. § 70506(b)of the MDLEA and possession with intent to distribute a controlled substance onboard a vessel in violation of46 U.S.C. § 70503(a)(1) of the MDLEA and 18 U.S.C. § 2.ECF No. [6] (“Indictment”). Defendants now seek dismissal of the Indictment asserting that: (1) the MDLEA's definition of a “stateless” vessel in § 70502(d)(1)(C) is facially unconstitutional because it applies to vessels that are not “stateless” under customary international law and therefore exceeds Congress's authority under Article I, Section 8, Clause 10 (“Felonies Clause”); (2) the United States' authority pursuant to the MDLEA is limited to offenses occurring on the “high Seas,” and the alleged offenses did not take place on the “high Seas” because the offenses took place within the Exclusive Economic Zone (“EEZ”) of Venezuela; and (3) Congress's power under the Felonies Clause is limited to offenses bearing a nexus to the United States and the exercise of jurisdiction over Defendants violates Due Process. SeeECF Nos. [14], [16], [17]. With regard to Defendants' first argument, Defendants rely on United States v. Davila-Reyes,23 F. 4th 153(1st Cir.2022). There, the First Circuit held that46 U.S.C. § 70502(d)(1)(C) is facially unconstitutional because 3 the provision applies to vessels that are not “stateless” under customary international law and therefore exceeds Congress's authority under the Felonies Clause. [ 1] The Government responds that Defendants' arguments are foreclosed by binding Eleventh Circuit precedent. SeeECF No. [20] (citing United States v. Hernandez,864 F.3d 1292(11th Cir. 2017); United States v. Campbell,743 F.3d 802(11th Cir.2014)). That precedent expressly upholds MDLEA prosecutions in cases where the vessel's claimed nation of registry could not corroborate the registry claim and cases where vessels were deemed to be on the high seas because they were outside territorial waters. II. LEGAL STANDARD a. Motion to Dismiss Indictment A motion to dismiss an indictment is governed by Federal Rule of Criminal Procedure 12(b). A defendant may challenge an indictment on various grounds, including failure to state an offense, lack of jurisdiction, or constitutional reasons. See United States v. Kaley,677 F.3d 1316, 1325 (11th Cir.2012). “Under Fed. R. Crim. P. 12(b) an indictment may be dismissed where there is an infirmity of law in the prosecution; a court may not dismiss an indictment, however, on a determination of facts that should have developed at trial.” United States v. Torkington,812 F.2d 1347, 1354 (11th Cir.1987). Further, “[t]he sufficiency of a criminal indictment is determined from its face.” United States v. Critzer,951 F.2d 306, 307 (11th Cir.1992). “The indictment is sufficient if it charges in the language of the statute.” Id. “Constitutional requirements are fulfilled ‘by an indictment that tracks the wording of the statute, as long as the language sets forth the essential elements of the crime.'” Id.at 308; see also United States v. Cole,755 F.2d 748, 760 4 (11th Cir. 1985). The indictment's allegations are assumed to be true and are viewed in the light most favorable to the government. See Torkington, 812 F.2d at 1354. b. MDLEA The Felonies Clause of the U.S. Constitution grants Congress the power to “define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high Seas, and Offences against the Law of Nations[.]”U.S. Const. art. 1, § 8, cl. 10. Pursuant to the Felonies Clause, Congress enacted the MDLEA, which makes drug trafficking on certain vessels in the high seas subject to the jurisdiction of the United States. 46 U.S.C. §§ 70501 et seq.The MDLEA applies to all cases where the alleged trafficking occurs on a “vessel subject to the jurisdiction of the United States[.]”46 U.S.C. § 70503(e)(1). The MDLEA further defines a vessel subject to the jurisdiction of the United States to include “(C) a vessel aboard which the master or individual in charge makes a claim of registry and for which the claimed nation of registry does not affirmatively and unequivocally assert that the vessel is of its nationality.”46 U.S.C. § 70502(d)(1)(C). III. DISCUSSION a. MDLEA's Definition of a Stateless Vessel Defendants first argue that the Indictment must be dismissed because46 U.S.C. § 70502(d)(1)(C) of the MDLEA is facially unconstitutional. SeeECF Nos. [14] at 4-12, [16] at 5-14, [17] at 4-12. According to Defendants, Congress's authority under the Felonies Clause to “define and punish . . . Felonies committed on the high Seas” is limited by customary international law. SeeECF Nos. [14] at 5, [16] at 6, [17] at 5. International law only allows jurisdiction over stateless vessels. SeeECF Nos. [14] at 8, [16] at 9, [17] at 8 (citing Davila-Reyes, 23 F.4th at 180). When a master or individual in charge of a vessel makes a claim of nationality, international law considers the vessel to have established a prima facieshowing of nationality that does not render the vessel stateless, even if the claimed nation of registry does not confirm or deny the nationality 5 of the vessel. SeeECF Nos. [14] at 8, [16] at 10, [17] at 9. In contrast, § 70502(d)(1)(C) of the MDLEA confers jurisdiction over a vessel if the master or individual in charge makes a claim of registry and the claimed nation of registry does not affirmatively and unequivocally assert that the vessel is of its nationality. As such, Defendants submit that § 70502(d)(1)(C) of the MDLEA is facially unconstitutional because it extends beyond Congress's constitutional authority under the Felonies Clause. Defendants further argue that the Eleventh Circuit has not addressed the issue and the Court should consider the First Circuit's holding in Davila-Reyes. SeeECF Nos. [14] at 9-12, [16] at 1114, [17] at 10-12. According to Defendants, Hernandez,864 F.3d 1292, involved a statutory challenge pursuant to the MDLEA rather than a constitutional challenge of the MDLEA. SeeECF Nos. [14] at 9-10, [16] at 11, [17] at 10. Defendants claim that the defendants in Hernandezargued unavailingly that the Government failed to establish jurisdiction pursuant to § 70502(d)(1)(C) because the vessel was not actually stateless. SeeECF Nos. [14] at 10, [16] at 11, [17] at 10. The defendants in Hernandezdid not challenge the constitutionality of § 70502(d)(1)(C). The Government responds that Defendants misinterpret binding Eleventh Circuit precedent, namely Hernandez, 864 F.3d at 1303, where Guatemala “had not ‘affirmatively and unequivocally' asserted that [the vessel] was of Guatemalan nationality,” and Campbell, 743 F.3d at 809-810, where Haiti “could neither confirm nor deny the registry” claim. SeeECF No. [20] at 2. According to the Government, the two cases presented the identical criminal offense and factual circumstances as the instant case, and the Eleventh Circuit held that the MDLEA conferred jurisdiction over the defendants. See id.at 15-16. Further, in Hernandez, the Eleventh Circuit specifically held that “the MDLEA was a constitutional exercise of Congressional authority under the Felonies Clause.” See id.at 16 (citing 864 F.3d at 1303). In Campbell, the Eleventh Circuit rejected the defendant's “argu[ment] that Congress lacked the power under the Felonies Clause to 6 define his conduct as a criminal offense,” thereby upholding the constitutionality of the MDLEA under the Felonies Clause. See id.at 5 (citing 743 F.3d at 806). Given binding Eleventh Circuit precedent, the Government argues that Defendants' reliance on the First Circuit's decision in Davila-Reyesis misplaced. See id.at 6-7. In addition, the Government submits that, as a necessary predicate for the First Circuit's holding that the MDLEA violated the Felonies Clause by not complying with international law, the...

https://case-law.vlex.com/vid/united-states-v-cueto-932444316

Principles of Improvised Explosive Devices 0873642880, 9780873642880 - EBIN.PUB Paladin Press book 110pgs... Principles of Improvised Explosive Devices 0873642880, 9780873642880 Paladin Press book 110pgs. 135 100 7MB Author / Uploaded M.J. DeForest Citation preview PRINGIPLES OF IIT,IPROVISEDEXPLOSIVE DEVICESA PALADIN PRESS BOOKPRINCIPLES OF IMPROVISED EXPLOSIVE DEVICESKPALADIN PRESS BOOKPrinciples of Improuised Explosiae Deuices Copyright O 1984 by Paladin PressrsBN 0-87364-288-0 Printed in the United States of America Published by Paladin Press, a division of Paladin Enterprises, Inc., P.O. Box 1302, Boulder, Colorado 80306, USA.(303) 443-7250 Direct inquiries and/or orders to the above address.All rights reserved. Except for use in a review, no portion of this book may be reproduced in any form without the express written permission of the publisher. Neither the author nor the publisher assumes any responsibility for the use or misuse of information contained in this book.,ii+,il.r+:ii*gCONTENTSINTRODUCTIONiv1.PRINCIPLES OF IEDs2.ACCESS AND RENDER SAFE PROCEDURES APPLYING IN AN EOD (IOD) INCIDENT35THE USE OF DETONATING CORD IN THE OPENING OF IEDs57J.4.IUSE OF THE SHOTGUNIN THE DISPOSAL OFIEDS61iiiThe purpose of this manual is twofold. First and foremost it is to inform those individuals involved in EOD work of additional methods that may be employed by both terrorists and EOD operators in their respective areas.The second purpose is that of a dedication to the EOD operators of the Rhodesian Army. It was my good fortune to have served with them and learn with them from 1976-1978. I have not used the word "expert" but rather "operator." Our chief instructor, the late Captain Charles Small, maintained that there were no experts in EOD work, but those who were very careful and lucky might someday come close to that title. It is my sincere hope that the information imparted in the following pages will give the operators using it just a little more luck than they had before. M. J. DeForestFor Charlie, Frans, A. J., Craig, and all unremembered.ivI1. PRINCIPLES OF IEDs List of FiguresIntroductionExplosive DevicesElectrical Switches Chemical Switches Mechanical SwitchesFriction Switches27Special Components28Detonators and Accessories29ExplosivesIncendiary Devices31Switches31lgniters31lncendive Materials32Explosive/Incendiary DevicesComplete Devices342LIST OF FIGURES FigureFigureI 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 l5 16 17 18 19 20 2l 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 4l 42Basic IED CircuitSpring-Type Wooden Clothes Peg Misfired Nail Bomb with Clothes Peg Book Device with Clothes Peg Clothes Peg Pull/Trip Switch Clothes Peg Door Boobytrap Household Mousetrap Bared Wire Switch Cache Boobytrap Switch Cache Boobytrap Switch A/Open Switch in Parcel Wire Loop on Battery Toggle Switch and Pull-Wire Book Device with Foil Contacts Letter Bomb with Foil ContactsBamboo Pole Device Tube and Ball SwitchKnife Switch Clothes Peg PressureSwitch43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 5l 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59Mousetrap Pressure Switch60Microswitch Pressure Mat6tPressure Chamber Switch Pressure Board Switch Doorbell Push Switch62 6364Wooden Wedge Pressurised Beer Keg SwitchHacksaw BladeslTorch Bulb SwitchRocker Light Switch Suitcase Catch Switch Thermos Flask Device Clothes Peg Release Switch Suspended Device with Clothes Peg Clothes Peg Release Switch Mousetrap \elease Switch Suspended Dlvice with Mousetrap Mousetrap n/pnen SwitchMicroswitch A/Lift A/Lift Block and Plunger Hinged Base Device Mousetrap A/Lift Switch Ball-in-Tube Switch (Single)65 66 67 68 69Ball-in-Tube Switch (Double) Home-Made Mercury Switch Commercial Mercury SwitchAllways Switch Trembler Switch Pendulum Switch Relay Simple Relay CircuitDouble Interlocked Relays Reed Switch Solenoid and Contact Breaker Switch Doorbell Circuit A/Probe Switch Clockwork Switch-Hand and Pin Clockwork Switch-Hand and Wire Clockwork SwitchAlarm Winder and Wire Clockwork SwitchAlarm Winder and Microswitch Clockwork SwitchAlarm Winder and Toggle Switch Clockwork Switch-Parkway Timer Clockwork Switch-Clock and PO Fuze Clockwork Switch-Clock and Hairpin Clockwork SwitchElectric Clock Long Delay Rodent Delay74Water Drip Delay Expanding Seed Delay Clothes Peg Solder Delay Clothes Peg, String, and Cigarette Delay Mousetrap Solder Delay Mousetrap, String and Cigarette Delay Electronic Delayed Arming Electronic Integrated Circuit Delay Alka-Seltzer Electronic Delay75'E'Cell76 77 78 79 80Electrochemical Delay701t 12 IJTemperature Sensitive Switch Smoke/Gas Sensitive SwitchAcoustic Switch Light Sensitive SwitchFigure8tLight Sensitive Switch82 83Infra-Red Sensitive Switch X-Ray Sensitive Switch Barometric Pressure Can Switch Altimeter Switch Alka-Seltzer Tablet Humidity Switch Contact Plate Humidity Switch Glass Tube/Contraceptive Chemical Switch Table Tennis Ball Chemical Switch84 85 86 8788 89 909t 92 9394Hand Grenade with Fly-Off Lever Mousetrap Gun Typical Service Release Switch Cigarette Lighter Device Sandpaper Flap Switch and Devicel0lClock Friction Switch Needle in Detonator Thyristor Configurations Post Office Fuze PO Fuze as Arming Device FLN Electric Detonator Igniter Safety Fuze Electric102Powder Fuze 5 gr.95969l 98 99 100103 104 105 106t07 108Broken Torch Bulb Igniter Gas Lighter ElementHot Wire Igniter Double Anti-Lift Switch Device Doorbell Collapsing Circuit Device Complex Time/Anti-Handling Device4PRINCIPLES OF IMPROVISED EXPLOSIVE DEVICESINTRODUCTION1.For many years RAOC technical ammunition personnel have been involved in the neutralization of lmprovised Explosives Devices (IED), both in the United Kingdom and overseas.2.From this experience, and from that of various foreign agencies, a large amount of information on the principles of terrorist device construction and operation has been obtained.3.A high proportion of devices encountered are of relatively simple design, but there is evidence of a drift towards a greater degree of sophistication.AIM4.The aim of this precis is to describe the design principles of terrorist devices with emphasis on the methods of triggering and/or switching which may be encountered.CATEGORIES OF DEVICE5.There are four categories of device used by terrorists. These are:a.Non-ExplosiveAnti-PenonnelDevices Intended for local effect against one or more persons, these contain no explosives, but depend on the action of acids, chemicals, or sharp sections of materials such as broken razor blades, steel fragments, glass slivers, pointed stakes, etc., arranged so that they are projected by some initiating action. They are not necessarily contained in packages, but may also be found in the ground, oni I Iitrees, etc.This category of device is not an IED and is not dealt with in this precis.b.Explosive DevicesNormally designed to effect maximum injury to personnel and/or destructive damage to property, the2onsist of:/ ,4c.Initiation system-may be manual, chemical, mechanical or electrical.ii.Detonator.iii.Main explosive charge.Incendiary Devices These are normally designedto destroy property by burning and consist of:5d.i.Initiation System-May be manual, chemical, mechanical or electrical.ii.Detonator.iii.Explosive charge.iv.Incendiarymaterial.Not usually contained.Explosive/IncendiaryDevices These are multi-purpose devices designed to cause injury to personnel, and damage to property by a combination of blast and burning. They consist of :6.i.Initiation System-May be manual, chemical, mechanical or electrical.ii.Detonator.iii.Explosive charge.iv.Incendiarymaterial.IEDs are manufactured with the intention that they are sent to, or deposited in, locations where they can function at the appropriate time with the desired effect. Functioning can be triggered by one, or more, of the following actions: a.When the device is handled or disturbed. These are referred to as anti-handling actions.b.At a predetermined time.c.At the terrorist's command.d.By a change inambient conditions.These are referred to as delay or time actions. These are referred to as command actions.7.The list of devices and components described in this precis is not exhaustive and personnel engaged in render safe operations must be prepared to deal with other types.8.For ease ofreference, all initiation actions, electrical or otherwise, are referred to as switches.9.It a.b.is importantAto remember two facts:device may contain morethtn one switch or firing circuit.The.;witch is not necessarily in the device. It may be remotely connected by some means (e.g. cable, detonating cord, etc.).q{rtrf,PART 1_EX EXPLOSryE DEVICESINITIATION10. The initiationsystems of explosive devices may be electrical, chemical, mechanical,friction, or ignition bythe terrorist.SECTION 111.12.ELECTRICAL SWITCHESThe most common system of initiation is the electrical method using some form of dry battery, since these are both efficient and readily available.Initiation from main power supplies is not popular with the terrorist but13._ifasit limits the tacticaluse of devices,the situation is suitable, main power supplies may well be utilised.l. From this diagram it can be seen that the flow of current from the power supply to the detonator is controlled by:The basic electrical circuit of an explosive device is shown in Figurea.An Arming Switch Whilst open, ensures safety to the terrorist. Closed by some means after dispatch or placing of the device.b.A Firing Switch The final link in the circuit. When closed, the initiating current is passed to the detonator.14.The functions of arming and firing within a device may be carried out by several components or by onecomponent only. 15.From the functional aspect, electrical switches can be classified into four groups as shown below:a.Anti-Handling Pull Pressure ReleaseLift Tilt Trembler/Pendulum Colapsing Circuit/ThermalAnti-Probeb.DelayClockwork Thermal Collapsing CircuitElectronic Electro-ChemicalMaterial Fatigue Chemical Water DripExpanding Seed U.Ambient Conditions Temperature Sensitive Smoke/Gas Sensitive Metal SensitiveAcousticProximity Transient SensitiveLight/Infra-Red Sensitive X-Ray Sensitive BarometricHumidity d.CommandFM Transmission Command WireRadio Control Ultrasonic Control Infra-Red Beam Radar Beam Post Office System16. Certainelectrical components used in devices cannot be specifically classified. These are dealt with individual components in Part l, Section 5.asPULL The following switches and switching arrangements utilise a pullinga.Spring-Type Wooden Clothes Peg (Figure 2)An electric lead is connected to the inside face of each jaw by means of a drawing pin, the switch being kept in the open position by a piece of insulating material. When the insulator is removed, the spring forces the jaws to close and the circuit is completed. Some examples of useSimple arming switch in many devices.Misfired Nail Bomb (Figure 3)A piece of burnt safety fuze is inserted between the jaws allows device to function.as aninsulator, and when withdrawn,Book Device (Figure 4) Two clothes pegs are connected in parallel, one to act independently of the other if either the back or froni cover of the book is opened. The insulators are glued, one on the inside of each cover. lv.Fut{Trip Switch (Figure 5) pull/tripwire which protrudes through the outer casing of the device. When used with small devices, the wire is attached to some immoveable object nearby. With large, heavy devices the wire can be used as a true tripwire. With some car bombs the wire is secured to a part of the vehicle. Attached to the insulator isaDoor Boobytrap (Figure 6) The clothes peg is nailed to the door and kept open by an insulator attached to a pull wire secured to the door frame.A similar arrangement can be used for hinged windows,sashwindows, cupboards, drawers,etc. b.Household MousetraP (Figure 7) wooden One lead wire is connected to the flyover bar, the other to a drawing pin pushed into the to manner in similar pin. It used is drawing and bar base. An insulator is inserted between flyover the clothes peg.c.Bared Wires (Figure 8)This method utilises two pieces of insulated wire, from each of which a section of insulation is removed. When the bared sections are brought together, the circuit is completed. Examples are:d.i.Cache Boobytrap Switch (Figures 9 andii.Anti-Open Switch in Parcel (Figurel0)1l)Wire Loop on Battery (Figure 12) having the insulation One lead to the firing circuit is secured to one battery terminal, the other leadstripped off and formed into a loop placed around the other battery terminal. When pulled, the loop touches the terminal and the circuit is completed.9Toggle Switch and Pull-Wire (Figuree.l3)The toggle switch, secured inside or on the outside of the device, has a pull wire tied to the toggle. Can be used as anti-open, trip., etc.Foil Contacts with Insulatorf.The switch consists of two foil contacts separated by an insulator. When the insulator is withdrawn the foil contacts touch and the circuit is completed. Alternatively the contacts may be separated by an air gap. Used in:i.Book Devices (Figure 14)ii.Letter Bombs (Figure 15)NOTE:Some letter bombs have foil contacts at each end of the device, the two pairs being connected in parallel.iii.Bamboo Pole Device (Figure 16)Tube and Ball (Figure 17)o b.The switch consists of a fixed metal tube with one lead wire attached, and a metal object, e.g. bolt, ball-bearing, etc., suspended on a string which passes through the tube, the other lead wire being connected to the metal object. When the string is pulled, the metal object contacts the tube and the circuit is completed. Can be used as antiopen in devices, and on doors and windows, or as a trip-switch.Ituife Switch (Figure l8)h.A flexible dinner knife is secured to a base board which also has two contact nails (connected together). A pull or trip cord is tied to the knife blade. Ifthe cord is correctly tensioned, the blade will touch one of the contact nails on either pull or release thus completing the firing circuit.PRESSURE18.In general, pressure switches are mainly used in mines and boobytraps.19.The followin; switches and switching arrangements utilise pressure to operate: Spring-Type Wooden Clothes Peg (Figurel9)In this mode the leads are secured by drawing pins to the inside surfaces at the other end of the peg and the pressure of the spring must be overcome to complete the circuit. Used under vehicle wheels.l0b.Household Mousetrap (Figure 20) One lead is connected to the flyover bar, the other to a drawing pin pushed into the woodenat the end opposite to the normally closed position of the flyover bar. The flyover bar is held against the tension of its spring by a captive plunger in the lid of the device. When pressure is applied to the plunger via a pressure plate, the flyover bar is pushed, against its spring, on to the drawing pin and the circuit is completed. baseMicroswitch (Figure2l)The microswitch is designed to operate on pressure or release. A common contact is connected to a spring loaded plunger and is normally in contact with a normally closed (NC) contact. When pressure is applied to the plunger, it moves down against its spring and the common contact touches the normally open (NO) contact. These switches are very sensitive. Vehicle brakelight systems utilise microswitches and may be incorporated into the firing circuit of a car bomb.A microswitch can be used in the pressure mode as an arming switch, e.g. when the lid of a container is closed, the microswitch operates and the firing circuit is complete except for the firing switch, or it may be used when a pulse of current is required to trigger an electronic circuit. d.Pressure Mat (Figure 22) Pressure mats are available commercially for use in burglar alarm systems, and have been used by terrorists. A pressure mat consists of two sheets of metal foil, each with its own lead, separated by perforated fibreglass sheets, all ofwhich are contained in a watertight, airtight, plastic covering. Pressure on the mat causes the foil sheets to touch through the perforations and the firing circuit is completed. Can be used under doormats, stair carpets, etc., and in car seats.e.Pressure Chamber (Figure 23)This switch is comprised of a wooden block in which is a hollowed-out chamber and air tube. Over the chamber is glued a sheet of latex rubber on top of which rests a metal strip contact. The second contact is a screw mounted in a bridge over the block.A closed rubber tube is attached to the air tube. Pressure on the rubber tube causes air pressure in the chamber to increase and the strip contact is forced against the upper contact by the expansionof the latexsheet.This type of switch is ideal for vehicle ambush situations.ll i.Pressure Board (Figure 24)The make-up of this type of switch is shown in the diagram and is quite simple. It is normally used as a boobytrap in come-on situations and has an advantage in that it can be concealed beneath gravel, turf, etc. c b.Door-Bell Push (Figure 25) This switch can be used as a boobytrap switch, but its main use is as the command switch in a command wire system. Another use is as an arming switch, e.g., when the lid of a container is closed, the bell-push is depressed, and the firing circuit is complete except for the firing switch.h.Wooden Wedge (Figure 26)Two pieces of wood are glued and nailed together at an angle of approximately 45 degrees. Each piece of wood has a metal contact plate and lead wire on the inside of its free end. The wood is normally painted black so that it is not noticeable when placed under the forward edge of vehicle tyre. When the vehicle moves off, the wedge is squashed flat, the metal contacts come together and the device, placed beneath the vehicle, is initiated. Pressured Beer Keg Switch (Figure 27)The switch, as shown in the diagram, is part of the beer keg within which is the device. When the bar fitting is applied, the centre of the assembly (A) is pushed into (B) and the firing circuit is completed. k.Hacksaw Blades/Torch Buh (Figure 28)A lead wire is attached to each oftwo pieces ofhacksaw blade. The blades are held apart by the portion ofa torch bulb. Pressure on the switch causes the glass to break, and the contact is made between the two pieces of blade. The switch would normally be covered by a pressure board. glassl.Rocker Lightswitch (Figure 29) Many household lightswitches use a rocker action. These are relatively sensitive and suitable for many applications as pressure switches.m.Cigarette Packet The inside opposing surfaces of a cigarette packet or similar are coated with metal foil, one circuit wire being connected to each surface. Crushing the packet brings the foil surfaces together, thus completing the circuit.20.The following switches and switching auangements utilise a release action: a.Knife Switch (Figure 18)A flexible dinner knife is secured to a base board which also has two contact nails (connected together). A tension cord is secured to the knife blade. Ifthe coid is correctly tensioned, the blade will touch one of the contact nails on either release or pull thus completing the firing circuit. b.Suitcase Catch (Figure 30) When used as a switch, the suitcase catch is often used to energise a rclay circuit, thus when the catch is released, the magnetic circuit collapses and the device within the suitcase is fired. The catch may also be used as a simple arming switch. Vehicle Courtesy-Light SwitchMost vehicles utilise a microswitch to operate the courtesy light. This switch can be incorporated in a device circuit so that when a door is opened the device fires. d.Telephone SwitchAll telephonesuse a release switch which, when the handset is lifted, allows an energising current is insufficient to fire a detonator, but the phone power supply can be disconnected from the switch and a small 9 volt battery connected in its place.to flow. This currente.Microswitch (Figure2l)In the release mode, the microswitch can be used to energise a relay circuit, thus when the switch is released the magnetic circuit collapses and the device fires. It can also be used as an antiopen switch in thermos flasks, etc. (Figure 31)f.Spring-Type Wooden Clothes Peg The clothes peg is prepared in the usual manner, but the jaws are held apart by tension wires on jaw. Examples of this are:eachi.Release Wire (Figure 32)May be inside or outside device.l3ll.Suspended Device (Figure 33)In this mode, one jaw is secured to the base of the device, the tension wire on the other jaw passingthroughthelidofthecontainer andbeingusedtosuspendthedevice. Ifthetension is taken off of the upper wire, the clothes peg jaws are allowed to close and the firing circuit is complete. t1l.Release of Pressure (Figure 34)The clothes peg, prepared in the normal manner, has its jaws kept apart by pressure on the rear ends. This may be a weighted object or a vehicle wheel. When the peg is released, the spring causes the jaws to close and the device fires. Household Mousetrap Prepared in the normal manner, can be used as: l.Release Wire (Figure 3 5)May be within or outside device. 11.Suspended Device (Figure 36)In this mode, the mousetrapbase is secured to the inside of the device, either base or side. A tension wire on the flyover bar passes through the lid of the container and is used to suspend the device. When the tension is released, the flyover bar is allowed to touch the drawing-pin contact and the firing circuit is completed.ltl.Anti-Open (Figure 37) The flyover bar is held away from the drawing pin contact by the lid of the container. When the lid is opened, the flyover bar is released and the firing circuit is completed.LIFT21. A lifting movement can activate the following types of switches: a.Microswitch (Figure2l)Using the common and normally closed contacts, can be used as an extremely sensitive anti-lift switch. (Figure 38)b.Wooden Block and Plunger (Figure 39)A wooden block is secured to the inside base of the device. A hole passes through both the blockl4 and base, the top of the block accommodating a metal washer to which one lead wire is attached. Located within the hole is a wooden or plastic plunger through which is secured a contact wire and lead. When the device is lifted, the plunger is allowed to move downwards, the contact wire touches the washer, and the device fires. Devices have been encountered with two ofthese switches, one being concealed beneath a false base. (Figure 108)Hinged Base (Figure 40) When the container is lifted, the loose hinged d.,Mousetrap (Figurelid drops, and the contacts complete the firing circuit.4l)The mousetrap is prepared in the normal manner and attached to the underside of the device in and upside-down position with the flyover bar under tension. When the device is lifted, the flyover bar is allowed to contact the drawing pin and the device fires.l [! iiiTILT22. iiHliililCertain switches utilise a tilting action for their operation. Examples are: a.Ball-in-TubeiA metal ball-bearing is contained within a non-conducting glass or plastic tube. Contact wires protrude into one or both ends ofthe tube through cork, plasticine, etc., and when the device is tilted, the ball-bearing short-circuits across the contacts.l{,i i :,ib.i.Single-Ended (Figure 42)ii.Double-Ended (Figure 43)Mercury Switch Home-made and commercial mercury switches are similar to the single-ended switch in Figure 43,but the ball is replaced by a small amount of mercury.i.Home-Made (Figure 44)ii.Commercial (Figure 45)Microswitch (Figure2l)Due to its extreme sensitivity, a microswitch in the anti-lift mode can also be considered as a switch.tilt15d.Ball and Wire (Figure 46)A metal ball sits in a shallow depression in the centre of a wooden block. Two "U"-shaped bare wires, each with a lead attached, are used to cage the ball bearing (without touching it or each other). This switch is known as the "Allways" switch, because regardless of the direction of across the wires and complete the firing circuit.tilt, the ballwill short-circuit e.l Trembler (Figure 47) One side of the firing circuit terminates in a loop of bare wire, the other side terminating in a length of flexible metal positioned within the loop. Movement of the device causes the flexible metal to tremble and touch the loop whereupon the firing circuit is completed.A commercial version of this switch is the car burglar alarm system. Pendulum (Figure 48) The principle of operation is similar to that of the trembler switch but the moving component is suspended within the encircling contact.COLLAPSING CIRCUITS23.Many electromagnetic transducers will keep two contacts apart whilst an electric cunent is passing through an energising coil. When the energising current is cut off or becomes insufficient due to battery decay, the contacts will close to complete a separate firing circuit.24.This type of mechanism is known as a collapsing circuit and has a dual role: a.Anti-Handling When any part of the energising circuit is cut. The terrorist adopts many devious ways to entice the operator into cutting the circuit, e.g. a short-circuited clock or a dummy detonator in series with the energising circuit.It=-b.II IDelay Action When the battery runs down until it cannot supply sufficient energising current to hold the contacts apart. The life duration of the battery can be lengthened or shortened within certain limits by respectively connecting a suitable resistor in series or parallel with the energising coil.tIb F25.The most common electromagnetic transducers are: Relays (Figure 49) When current is passed through the relay coil a magnetic field is produced through the iron core, yoke, and armature. The lower end of the pivoted armature moves towards the iron core, the uppert6end of the armature moves the normally closed contact away from the common contact. The detonator is then connected into the firing circuit by some means. When the energising current is removed, the relay reverts to its normal condition and the common and normally closed contacts close to complete the firing circuit. A simple collapsing circuit is shown in Figure 50. The arming action is as follows:i.When arming switch'A'is closed manually, the relay coilrelay contacts'B' open.ii.is energised by battery'l'and theArming switch 'C'is then closed by some means. Relays are also used in some radio control receivers.b.Double Interlocked Relays (Figure 5l ) Arming is caried out as follows: l.Post office Fuze F2 is shorted and blown, Relay shorting link of Relay 'B' open circuit.'A' becomingll.Post Office Fuze F2 is shorted and blown. Relay'A'isRelay'B'. lll.energised and making theopen circuited at the contactsofPost Office Fuze F3 is shorted and blown and that part of the shorting link is completed. When any wire of either circuit is out, that circuit collapses and the shorting link of the other circuit is closed allowing that circuit to fire.c.Reed Switches (Figure 52) The reed switch consists of a small glass tube, containing a set of contacts, within an energising coil. The normally open and common contacts are made of a ferrous metal, and when the-coil is energised, are drawn together by a magnetic field. The external firing circuit is then connected to the normally closed and common contacts and the collapsing circuit principles then apply.d.Solenoids These are basically pieces of soft iron around which are wound energising coils. When energised, a solenoid produces a magnetic field which can be used to attract moveable parts. Examples are:i.Solenoid and Car Contact-Breaker (Figure 53)A bell solenoid is energised by Battery 'A'. The lever on the contact breaker is pulled against the solenoid, and the detonator connected into the firing circuited by the same means.l7 When the circuit collapses, the contact breaker spring causes the lever to fly back against contact 'B', thus completing the firing circuit.ll.Doorbell Circuit (Figure 54) The doorbell solenoid is energised by battery 'A'through switch 'B'and the contacts at 'C' are separated by movement of the striker. The detonator is then connected. When the circuit collapses, contact is made at 'C'and the firing circuit from battery 'D'is completed.TTIERMAL26.Bi-metal strips from thermostats of electric toasters and steam-irons can be used as switching mechanisms when heat or coldis applied. For example, if liquid nitrogen was applied as a device to de-energise batteries were affected.ANTI-PROBE27.These switches depend on two contacts being pushed together, but the materials used depend on the type of container into which the device is built, i.e.: a.For lightly constructed containers, e.g., cardboard boxes, a connecting lead is attached to each of the two sheets of metal foil which are separated by a non-conductive material or air space. The firing circuit iscompleted when the container is penetrated by a metal knife or probe.b.For more robust containers, such as wooden boxes, holes are deliberately left in the walls of the container. Inside the device, behind the holes, are flexible metal contacts which complete the firing circuit when pushed together by a probe. (Figure 55)DELAY SWITCHES28.In the ensuing paragraphs, various forms of time delay switch are discussed. They may be used for arming, firing, or both.a.Clockwork Delay Switchesi.Hand and Pin (Figure 56) One lead is secured to a drawing pin which protrudes through the plastic lens, the other lead being secured to the body ofclock or watch. Contact is made by the selected hand,theleadingsideofwhichisscrapedclearof paint.Theuseof thehourhandgivesII l/2hours max delay, the minute hand gives 58 minutes max. The hand not in use is normally removed.18ii.Hand and Wire (Figure 57) The glass front is removed from the clock and a lead wire, partly bared, is taped across the face. The other lead wire is secured to the casing of the clock. The clock hand which is not required is removed, the other hand has its front edge scraped and the end bent at right angles. Contact is made when the edge ofthe hand touches the bared wire. Depending on the hand used, it can give up to 30 minutes or 6 hours delay.ulAlarm Winder and Wire (Figure 58) One lead wire is taped to, but insulated from, the clock body. The other lead wire is similarly attached to the alarm winder after alarm has been wound. When the alarm operates, the winder revolves and the wires contact thus completing the circuit. This method can give up to I 1 1/2 hours delay.lv.Alarm Winder and Microswitch (Figure 59) The alarm is wound and the stop button is depressed. A microswitch, using the common and normally open contacts, is then glued to the back of the clock with its plunger beneath one end of the alarm winder. When the alarm operates, the winder revolves and depresses the nricroswitch plunger thus completing the circuit.Alarm Winder and Toggleswitch (Figure 60) The alarm is wound and the stop button is depressed. A thin pull wire is then attached to alarm winder and toggle switch. When alarm functions, the pull wire is wound in and the toggle switch is pulled to the 'on'position. vl.Parkway Timer This is a timer designed to give a motorist with a parked car an audible waming when maximum of two hours has elapsed. It is a mechanism which is automatically wound up when the central section is turned clockwise to the required time. The centre section then rotates anticlockwise as the time elapses. There are two methods of use:a(")Figure 6laA lead wire and contact lead are glued to the centre section, the other lead terminating on a nail at point 'A'. After setting to the required delay time, the timer unwinds until contact is made and the circuit is completed. (b)Figure6lbwhen this method is used, modifications must be made to the timer. A section of the plastic outer wall is cut away and an extension piece is soldered to an internal lever. At cut-off, this lever moves across to terminal 'A'and completes the circuit.t9vll.Other Mechanical TimersFrom electric crockers, etc. can be used in similar modes to those already described. v11.Clock and PO Fuze (Figure 62) The operation of the PO Fuze is described in Section 6. With this switching arrangement a maximum delay of 23 hours is possible. Two leads, 'A'and 'B', with their ends bared and bent upwards are laid on, but insulated from, the face of the clock from which the glass has been removed. The hour hand is utilised and has its leading edge scraped clear of paint. It begins its travel at point 'C'. The action of the circuit is as follows:(a) (b)The hand travels round and brushes over wire .A'. No reaction. The hand then brushes over wire 'B'and PO fuze blows, switching the circuit frompoint 'D'to point 'E'.(c)ix.The hand continues to travel round to wire 'A'again and when contact is made the firing circuit is completed from positive side of battery, through the detonator, wire 'A', clock body, Po fuze, point 'E', then to the negative side of the battery.Clock and Hairpin (Figure 63) The arrangement is as shown in the diagram. The hands are removed from the clock and replaced by a plastic arm, which starts its travel at 6 o'clock (a). After 1l hours, side .A' of the hairpin is slowly pushed to the left and the arm continues to travel (b). After 22 l12 hours, side 'B' of the hairpin is slowly pushed to the left (c) until, after 24 hours, side .A' of the hairpin shorts across wires 'c'and 'D', thus completing the firing circuit (d).x.Electric Clock Long Delay (Figure 64) This system, using a day and date indicating, battery operated clock, can give a maximum of 217 days delay. The selected day and date are covered by thin metal foil. The circuit is completed when wire contacts 'A'are shorted by the date and wire contacts 'B'are shorted by the day simultaneously.NOTE: The terminals for contacts 'A'and'B'are secured on b.aplastic insulating strip.Rodent Delay (Figure 65) This delay system utilises a rodent (rat or mouse), a mousetrap of clothes peg, and a length of string soaked in beef dripping or a similar substance. Before using this clever method, devised by the Chinese, which entails the rodent chewing through a release cord, the terrorist must ensure careful selection of his materials:201.Size and Origin of RodentThe rodent must be small enough to fit into the device without discomfort. Since Australian rodents prefer eating explosives to beef dripping, and American rodents eat canned food, the European rodent is most suitable. 11.Mousetrap or Clothes PegA clothes peg held open by a piece of fat-soaked string wrapped around its rear end is preferable to the use of a mousetrap. The reasons for this are two-fold:l:i,li(a)Rodents have an inherent dislike of mousetraps.(b)They prefer to stand on the base board of the trap when eating, and if the rump or tail is caught between the drawing pin and flyover bar, the circuit will not be completed.h, l11.Type of Fat The religion of the rodent must be determined before selecting the fat in which the string is to be soaked. The reasons for this are obvious. Similarly, if the device is to be laid on a Friday, fish fat should be used.d.Collapsing Circuit This type of switching arrangement is adequately explained in paragraphs 23 and 25 inclusive.e.Chemical Delay Whilst the chemical method of delay is normally employed in non-electrically initiated devices, is possible to construct an electrical switch using acid to erode a safety device holding a circuititopen.f.Water Drip Delay (Figure 66) The switch is constructed as shown in the diagram. When the water level is reduced by leakage through the small hole in the base of the container, the bare sections of wire make contact and the circuit is completed.o b'Expanding Seed Delay (Figure 67) The construction of this switch is shown in the diagram. The seed, peas or beans absorb water and push the contact plate upwards until it short circuits the two contacts and the circuit is completed.h.Clothes Peg DelaysTwo methods by which a clothes peg can be utilised as a delay switch are:21i.Mousetrap Solder Delay (Figure 70) The flyover bar is held away from the drawing pin by a piece ofsolder which is stretched and fully overcome, allowing the flyover bar to strike the drawing pin and complete the circuit. Delays can range from 4-8 hours.ii.Mousetrap, String and Cigarette (Figure7l)The flyover bar is held away from the drawing pin by a short length of string threaded through a cigarette. The cigarette (King-size) is lit by the tenorisl and after approximately ten minutes the string is burnt through and the mousetrap operates. k.Electronic Delays Electronic delays utilise the charging properties of a capacitor and may be used for delayed arming or delayed arming and firing. Examples of use are given below:i.Delayed Arming (Figure 72) The relays in radio-control receivers are notoriously unstable. The system shown allows the relay to stabilise without danger to the person arming the device. The RC receiver energising current is switched on. When switch I is closed, the capacitor C is charged by battery l, the rate ofcharging being governed by the ohmic value ofresistor. R. Closure of the relay contacts will only allow the firing circuit to initiate if capacitor C issufficiently charged.ii.Firing Delays(a)Integrated Circuit (Figure 73) The resistor/capacitor combination determines the time delay. when a trigger (arming) pulse is applied, the capacitor charges and after a predetermined time, the integrated circuit produces an electrical output which causes the thyristor to switch on the main firing current. This method can give reliable delays varying between five minutes andten days.(b)Commercial Firing DelaysElectronic Demolition Firing Delays are available commercially which give reliable I 112 hours and 32 days. They are expensive but extremely accurate.delays between(c)Alka-Seltzer Electronic Delay (Figure 74)22A coil of wire is wound around a full tube of A.S. tablets, the coil forming the inductive part of a transit oscillator tuned circuit. The oscillations are rectified and the resultant do is applied as a reverse bias to a second transistor which uses a relay or thyristor as its load. The devise is energised and the cap removed from the tube of A.S. The tablets gradually absorb moisture until sufficient water content is present to affect the tuned circuit and oscillation ceases. The bias is then removed from the second transistor and the relay or thyristor completes the firing circuit.This type of electronic delay is obviously dependent on ambient humidity and delays can vary between a few hours and several weeks.l.Electrochemical DelaysiirlThese delays relay on the electrochemical properties of certain components, the best-known of which is the 'E'cell or microcoulometer. (Figure 75)iltiWhen a current is passed from anode to cathode, silver from the case is deposited on the gold anode and the internal resistance of the cell is low.ilillr ilri iWhen the current flow is reversed, i.e. cathode to anode, the silver leaves the gold anode, and when it is all removed, the internal resistance is very high and a voltage is developed across the cell.ilir :!!In the circuit in Figure 76, this voltage is used to then triggered and the firing circuit is completed.ii.lcausetransistor TR2 to conduct, the thyristor isAMBIENT CONDITIONS29.Changes in ambient conditions can be used to trigger firing circuits, the sensors not necessarily being within the device. Most systems require delayed arming.a.Temperature Sensitive (Figure 77) This circuit uses a thermistor as a sensor. A thermistor is basically a resistor whose resistance changes with variations of temperature. In the circuit shown, as the temperature increases, the resistance of the thermistor decreases until eventually a triggering current is applied to the gateof the thyristor which then switches on the firing circuit.b.Smoke/Gas Sensitive (Figure 78) There is available commercially an electronic sensor which is sensitive to carbon monoxide and inflammable vapours. When the concentration of smoke or gas reaches a certain value an electrical output is applied to the gate of a thyristor or to a relay, and the firing circuit is completed. Many industrial installations use this method for alarm systems.z5Metal Sensitive There are many types of metal detector on sale, some costing as little as $3. These can be easily modified to fire a circuit in a device when metal is brought iito the proxi.nrty oi;; il;-' Sensitivity, and thus range, depends greatly on the cost Lf tne ,yste_.Metal sensitive systems normaily require a method of delayed arming. d.Acoustic (Figure 79) The circuit shown uses a loudspeaker as a sensor. It is sensitive to speech and other sounds at normal conversation levels up to approximately 30 feet, and to mechanicaf vibrations up to 10 feet. In practice, the sensor can vary from a miniature microphone to a large loudspeaker. The system requires delayed arming.e.Proximity Many commercial alarm systems are based on the capacitive effect of the human body. when a person approaches the sensor, which may be a length of wire or a metal plate, a tuned electronic circuit is unbalanced, thus causing an alarm to sound.It f.is possible to replace the alarm with a firing circuit.Transient Sensitive The effect oftransient currents from an unsuppressed vehicle engine on a television receiver is well known phenomenon. similarly, transienis are produced when electrical machinery and lights are switched on. aThe older models of radio control receiver of the regenerative type are affected by transients, which, receiver is energised, can cause an integral relay to function, thus completing the firingX,LTJtt o b'Light Sensitive The sensor in the circuit shown is a light-sensitive resistor whose ohmic resistance drops when exposed to white light. This allows a trigger current to flow to the gate of the thyristor thus switching the firing circuit on.other circuits may utilise light-sensitive diodes, transistors, integrated circuits, or photographic light meters. using a relay with change-over contacts as the switching device (Figure gl), the firing circuit can be made to function on application of either light or shadow.24h.Infra-Red Sensitive (Figure 82) There are many X-Ray-sensitive meters available which can be modified to fire a device, but most are relatively expensive.The circuit shown in Figure 83 is a simple and cheap alternative. The light-sensitive components are covered by a sheet of material which fluoresces when exposed to radiation (X or Gamma). This fluorescence is detected and the relay functions, thus completing the firing circuit. k.Barometric These are switches caused to function by changes in ambient air pressure. Examples are: 1.Pressure Can (Figure 84)When the ambient air pressure decreases, the air in the can expands and the plastic sheet rises to press contact 'A' against contact 'B'thus completing the circuit. This type of switch operates at approximately 5000 ft. a.s.r. 11.Altimeter Switch (Figure 85) This switch can be used to function at any required altitude in impressurised conditions. Depending on whether leading or rear edge ofneedle is scraped clear ofpaint, can be used to function on either rise or fall in altitude.Humidity Sensitive Two examples of humidity-sensitive switches are given below: l.Alka-Seltzer Tablet (Figure 86) The thyristor trigger lead is cut and the ends inserted into a A.S. tablet. When dry, the tablet has a high ohmic resistance. As it absorbs moisture, the resistance drops and a trigger current is applied to the thyristor which switches on and completes the firingcircuit.11.iContact Plats (Figure 87) The thyristor trigger lead is cut and the ends soldered to two adjacent strips on a piece of 'Veroboard' circuit board or similar. Moisture builds up and eventually bridges to gap between the strips, thus causing the thyristor to be triggered.COMMAND SYSTEMS30.The various types of command systems are outlined below:25a.Command Wire The IED is separated from the firing point by the required length of firing cable. The power supply may be at the firing point or contained within the IED. At the optimum moment, the firing line is completed by means of a manually-operated switch, e.g. a bell-push.b.FM Radio Link There are, readily available, commercial FM transmitters with a range of 500 meters. The output of any FM radio receiver can be modified to operate a small relay in place of its loudspeaker,ihe relay being used to complete a firing circuit in response to a transmission by the terroiist.At the time of writing the FM spectrum has several clear zones, and as the transmitter is tuneable, selection of a frequency free from commercial transmissions is relatively easy. [Jltrasonic Command Ultrasonic transducers are peizo-electric devices which have rather unique properties, i.e. when a low-voltage ac is applied, the transducer produces a radio frequency olapproxima tely 4O KHz, and conversely, when it detects a 40 KHz radio frequency, it can pioduce a low-voltage ac. Ranges are limited to a maximum of approximately 100 metres, but since large objects, such as it can also be used with a relay in the collapsing circuit mode. Ultrasonic systems are widely used and readily available.vehicles, will interrupt the beam,d.Radio Control The subject of radio control and its use in IEDs is dealt with comprehensively in Army SchoolAmmunition Precis AP 12. e.ofInfra-Red Command IR-sensitive switches are discussed in paragraph 29.h.The application of a command signal in the form of an IR beam is practical up to distances of approxi*.iety 100 metres. Radar CommandMiniature radar transmitters are commercially available for use in small boats, etc. Although expensive, they provide the facility for long-range command detonation of IEDs. ob.Post Office Bleeper System There is available on hire from the Post office a personal calling lystem whereby informed whenever he is required to contact his base organizati,on.aperson can beHe carries a small radio receiver and when a l0-digit number is dialed on any po telephone, a po transmitter transmits a selected frequency around 147 MHz which causes the personal receiver to emit a bleeping tone.26It may be possible for the receiver to be modified to activate an IED firing circuit, and thus a receiver and telephone number could be hired by a terrorist, the IED laid at the target and initiated by a telephone call hundreds of miles away.SECTION 231._CHEMICAL SWITCHESChemical switches in explosive devices are normally used to ignite a length of burning fuze inserted into a non-electric detonator. The chemical make-up of the substances used is given in Army School of Ammunition Precis AP 239C. Refer to notes.a.Glass Tube/Contraceptive (Figure 88)When the glass tube containing the acid is crushed, the acid eats through the contraceptive and reacts with the sugar chlorate mix. The resulting ignition then ignites the burning fuze. This type of switch may be used for delay strength and quality of contraceptive. There is also the possibility that slivers of glass may penetrate the rubber immediately.b.Table Tennis Ball (Figure 89)A table tennis ball is pierced, acid injected, and the hole taped over. The ball is then placed in a container of sugar chlorate mix, into which the end of the burning fuze is inserted. The acid eats through the plastic ball and ignition occurs. This method gives delays of between two and six hours. Longer delays (10-12 hours) can be obtained by using two table tennis balls as shown in figure 89.b.SECTION32.3-MECHANICAL SWITCHESMechanical switches are generally used in the boobytrap role, functioning when some form of handling the IED takes place. Some examples are described below.a.Hand Grenade with Fly-Offofkver (Figure 90)The grenade, with safety pin in position, is placed into a container with the fly-off lever upwards. The lid ofthe container is taped in position to hold the fly-offlever secure. The safety pin is then removed with a piece of thin wire through a hole in the side of the container, the hole being then taped over. Opening of the container releases the fly-off lever and the grenade detonates.b.Mousetrap Gun (Figure 91)A -22 inch rimfire cartridge, with the projectile removed,is inserted into a non-electric detonator.' The whole assembly is then secured to the baseboard of a mousetrap, the fly-over lever of which is27held back against spring tension by a length of solder. The solder eventually releases the fly-over bar which strikes the base of the cartridge. The cartridge fires and initiates tho detonator by flash. c.Service-Type Release Switches (Figure 92) These switches may originate from many countries, and although varying in appearance, their basic operation is identical.They consist ofan outer container, inside which is a spring-loaded striker, held under spring tension by a release catch and poised over a percussion cap and/or a non-electric detonator. When the release catch is operated by some means, the striker is driven on to the percussion cap or detonator by the tensioned spring, resulting in initiation.Another type uses a soft wire to restrain the striker. Adjacent to this wire is a glass phial containing acid. When the glass is crushed, the acid gradually weakens the wire until the striker spring overcomesit.Service-type pressure switches are similar in design to that shown in the diagram, but require theapplication ofpressure to fire. Very resistant to disruptors. d.Cigarette Lighter Device (Figure 93) This device, designed to maim rather than kill, has been encountered in many countries. When the wheel is rotated, a spark from the flink ignites a short length of burning fuze, which in turn igrrites a small quantity of confined low explosive.SECTION33.4 _ FRICTION SWITCHESWith the exception of manually initiated IEDs, e.g. nail bombs, the friction type of switch is not popular with terrorists. Examples of those encountered are given below: a.Sandpaper Flap (Figure 94) The device make-up is as shown in the diagram. When the hinged lid of the container is opened, the sandpaper flap attached to it is drawn across the matchheads and the burning fuze is ignited and in turn the detonator and explosive are initiated.b.Clock Friction Switch (Figure 95)At the timeset for alarm operation, the alarm winder rotates, and the matches attached to it are drawn across the sandpaper on the underside of the lid. The combustible material is ignited and the heat generated causes the detonator to initiate. The main charge may be explosive or petrol.28c.Needle in Detonator (Figure 96) When the card is withdrawn from its envelope,leverage is applied to the needle via the thin cord, and the needle is projected into the non-electric detonator.SECTION 534._SPECIAL COMPONENTSCertain components used in IEDs do not fall into any clear category. These components are dealt within this section.a.t,Thyristor (Silicon Controlled Rectified) (Figure 97)i, This component is a form of electronic switch. It has no moving components, its action being governed solely by electron flow.]riThe thyristor is connected into the positive supply lineofa device, butdoes not allow the passageof current. To make the thyristor conduct, a positive going pulse must be applied to its gate. This pulse can be generated by most eletronic circuits used in devices. Evenifthe gate pulse is removed, the thyristor continues to conduct until one or the other of the main supply lines is broken. tittr,r HInl {.lIb.Post Office Fuze (Figure 98) This fuze is used in PO telephone exchanges as a non-reversible switch to activate alarm systems in the event of equipment breakdown. In some countries it is known as a "grasshopper" fuze.i 1i,When sufficient current is passed through the fuze, the fuze wire melts and the metal fuze wire supports spring outwards. One or both of these can be used to complete another part of the electrical circuit by placing a contact in a suitable position. PO fuzes are normally used as arming devices, and a simple circuit showing its use is at Figure 99. The action is as follows:i.The device is placed so that the anti-lift microswitch is open.ii.When a metal object is placed across shorting links 'SS' current flows from the batterythrough the fuze'A'to 'B'.lll.The fuze-wire melts, the contacts move outwards, and the contact connected to point 'A' touches a contact at point 'C'. The line from 'B' to the shorting links is now out of circuit.lv.When the microswitch is operated by some means, current flows from battery negative to points A, C, the detonator, through the switch to battery positive and the device functions.2935Whilst, generally, batteries are easily recognisable as such, certain types can pose difficulties in identification.a.Polaroid Battery This battery is contained in cassettes of coloured Polaroid film to provide power for flash photography.b.i.Dimensions overall-4 inches x 3 inches x 0.1 inches in depth.ii.Voltage-6 Viii'Appearance-Contained in a protective envelope, one side of which is clear plastic, showing metal jacket of battery, the other side being of thick grey paper with two oval cut-outs exposing the contacts.iv'Is capable of firing an electric detonator even after use with entire cassette of film.v.Manufacturer-Ray-O-Vac,USAPhotovoltaic Solar Cell These cells were initially developed for space-work, but are now available commercially. They produce a small electrical current when exposed to light. For use in an IED about six of these cells would be required.i.Dimensions-I.5 inches square x 0.2 inches in depth.ii.Voltage-O.5 to 1.5 V, varying with type.iii.Current-Maximum of 20 mA, varying with type.iv'Appearance-Thin metalframe and backing. Front window of ribbed plastic. One wire to casing, and one to an insulated contact. Another type has metal backing, with a brownselenium facing and two lead wires connected at one corner.SECTION 36.6 _ DETONATORS AND ACCESSORIESIn the main, detonators and accessories used in IEDs are commercial types, originating from many countries. Full details of all commercial detonators and accessories known to have been used in IEDs are given in Army School of Ammunition precis Ap 5.31.There have been instances of improvised detonators being used in devices. Details of these are given below.30a.FLM Electric Detonator (Figure 100) Consists of a torch bulb having a hole in the glass and being filled with gunpowder, to which is taped a non-electric detonator.b.Modifi ed Electric lgniters The Igniter Safety Fuze Electric and Powder Fuze 5 gr. detailed in Part 2, Section 2 of this precis can be modified by taping a non-electric detonator on to them.SECTION 738._EXPLOSIVESExplosives used in IEDs are normally of the commercial or home-made types, very little service explosives being used. These will be covered in a separate precis.3tPART 239'-INCENDIARY DEVICESIncendiary devices are normally designed to destroy property by burning although exceptionally they may be used in the anti-personnel role.SECTION40.I _ SWITCHESSwitching components and arrangements used in incendiary devices are similar to those used in explosive devices and are detailed in part 1, Sections 1 -5 inclusive, oi this precis.SECTION 2 41'_IGNITERSIgniters used in incendiary devices may be of the simple chemical composition/burning fuze typeor of an electrical component type. Details of chemical ignitei compositions are given in Army School of Ammunition Precis AP 239C, with details of the electrical components being given ultow.a.Igniter Safety Fuze Electric (Figurel0l)This component is available from both service and commercial sources, being designed specifically to ignite burning fuzes but can also ignite incendive compositions.It consists of an open ended copper tube, 1.25 inches long and 0.25 inches diameter, containing an electrically initiated matchhead. The electrical lead wiies protrude through a rubber sealingplug crimped into one end of the tube.b.Powder Fuze, 5 gr. (Figure 102) This is a commercial electric igniter designed for the initiation of black powder.toas a'puffer'.Itis often referredIt consists of a cardboard tube, 1.25 inches long and 0.25 inches diameter, closed at both yellow waxlike composition. The tube contains an electric matchhead and 5 gr.aends byof black powder,the electrical lead wires protruding through the wax sealant at one end ofthe tube. c.Broken Torch Bulb (Figure 103) This is a normal torch bulb, the glass of which has been broken but the filament left intact. Electrical connection is either by leads soldered to the bulb or by the bulb being screwed into holder.d.Gas Lighter Element (Figure 104)a32This is a commercially available component designed for the ignition of gas cookers, etc. It consists of a slotted metal tube containing an igniter filament, one end of the tube being open, the other end accommodating a screw-threaded bulb-type connection. e.Hot Wire Igniter (Figure 105) A home-made igniter, consisting of a wooden block through which are driven two nails. A piece of thin wire is either wound on, or soldered to, the two nails, acting as a bridgewire igniter. The electrical lead wires are connected to the other ends of the nails. A variation of this type of igniter has the bridgewire cut. The small gap between the ends is bridged by wire wool which glows when power is applied. Sometimes referred to as "wire wool igniter".f.Post Office Fuze (Figure 99.b) When the bridgewire end of the new type PO fuze is inserted into an incendive composition also act as an igniter.SECTION 342._it willINCENDIVE MATERIALSIncendive materials are normally home-made chemical mixtures, the details of which are contained in separate precis. Additionally, lighter fuel in either plastic capsules or tins is sometimes included.aJJPART 3 43._EXPLOSIVE INCENDIARY DEVICESExplosive incendiary devices are similar in composition to the incendiary devices detailed in part 2 of this precis but in addition contain detonators or detonators or explosives, the detonators being initiated by the heat generated from the incendive materials.34PART 444.-COMPLETE DEVICESIt is impracticable to illustrate every type of device which may be encountered. As a compromise, number of the more complex devices have been selected to show the techniques employed by the terrorist.a.aDouble Anti-Lift Switch Device (Figure 106)A false bottom to the device conceals a second battery, antilift switch, detonator and explosive. If the container is opened and the exposed firing circuit neutralised, it was hoped by the terrorist that the container would then be lifted, thus causing the concealed firing circuit to function. b.Doorbell Collapsing Circuit Device (Figure 107) The electrical circuit was similar to that in Figure 55, but an electric detonator was connected in series with the solenoid energising coils.Whilst the relay, power supply and primary detonator were concealed beneath the explosive, the leads and part of the body of the series detonator were visible. The aim of this arrangement was obviously to encourage the cutting of these leads, thus causing the collapsing circuit to function. Variations on this theme which have been encountered in other devices are:c.i.Leads to the relay energising coil left exposed.ii.Leads to the relay energising coil passing through a short-circuited clock or watch.iii.Leads to the relay energising coil passing through a microswitch in the anti-lift mode.iv.Leads to the relay energising coil have formed a loom around the inner surfaces of the sides and top of the container.Complex Time/Anti-Handling Device (Figure I 08)A clock was used to give a delayed arming facility. Firing of the device could be caused by the functioning of one of several components connected in parallel. These components were:i.Clock-Time Switchii.Trembler-A/HandlingSwitchiii.Microswitch-A/Lift Switchiv.Microswitch-A/OpenSwitch4Etl/ileF/E///e-stt//TcHF/e.ZF/G. ZB'45/C/.stu/r4HE.D. O/_9t4//TCHBY'8,SotervotnCO/UTICr ARE/KERF/G.R, I /" 53 SOLE/VO/D2 ZONH'TgRE4KER23a ,tDETo/V/fop8y F/G.54b'BY 'A'DOOP BELL C/,?TU/T FLENELE AONTACT,O .A\6-t F/G.57HAND& W,

https://ebin.pub/principles-of-improvised-explosive-devices-0873642880-9780873642880.html

Masakatsu Ueda (blue trunks) vs. Ralph Acosta The industry pioneer in UFC, Bellator and all things MMA (aka Ultimate Fighting). MMA news, interviews, pictures, videos and more since 1997. Recommended Hotels for you: Popular Top Hits SEARCH SEARCH Search Results Go www.sherdog.com What are you looking for? Go NEWS ▼ FEATURES ▼ FIGHT FINDER ▼ PODCASTS ▼ VIDEOS RANKINGS ▼ FORUM ▼ BOXING ▼ MORE ▼ FIGHT ODDS UFC NEWS ONE NEWS PFL NEWS BELLATOR NEWS WOMEN'S MMA NEWS PREVIEWS OPINION INTERVIEWS UFC EVENTS BELLATOR EVENTS PFL EVENTS ONE CHAMPIONSHIP EVENTS FULL CALENDAR FIGHT FINDER GUIDE SHILLAN & DUFFY PODCAST THE SHEEHAN SHOW FIGHT BUSINESS PODCAST AFTER THE BELL DIVISIONAL RANKINGS POUND-FOR-POUND RANKINGS WOMEN'S POUND-FOR-POUND RANKINGS UFC DISCUSSION WORLDWIDE MMA DISCUSSION OFF TOPIC DISCUSSION PHOTOSHOPS BOXING NEWS BOXING DISCUSSION KICKBOXING AND MUAY THAI BARE KNUCKLE BOXING GRAPPLING PICTURES HOW TO WATCH CONTACT + NEWS UFC NEWS ONE NEWS PFL NEWS BELLATOR NEWS WOMEN'S MMA NEWS + FEATURES PREVIEWS OPINION INTERVIEWS + FIGHT FINDER UFC EVENTS BELLATOR EVENTS PFL EVENTS ONE CHAMPIONSHIP EVENTS FULL CALENDAR FIGHT FINDER GUIDE + PODCASTS SHILLAN & DUFFY PODCAST THE SHEEHAN SHOW FIGHT BUSINESS PODCAST AFTER THE BELL VIDEOS + RANKINGS DIVISIONAL RANKINGS POUND-FOR-POUND RANKINGS WOMEN'S POUND-FOR-POUND RANKINGS + FORUM UFC DISCUSSION WORLDWIDE MMA DISCUSSION OFF TOPIC DISCUSSION PHOTOSHOPS + BOXING BOXING NEWS BOXING DISCUSSION KICKBOXING AND MUAY THAI BARE KNUCKLE BOXING GRAPPLING + MORE PICTURES HOW TO WATCH CONTACT FIGHT ODDS MORE FROM OUR CHANNELS FIGHTER PICTURES Facebook Twitter Reddit WhatsApp Email Masakatsu Ueda (blue trunks) vs. Ralph Acosta Credit: Paul Benjamin Picture by: Paul Benjamin Add this picture to your site: « Back to "Ralph "The Spider Monkey" Acosta" Picture Gallery Subscribe to our Newsletter * indicates required Email Address * Latest News ALL UFC BELLATOR PFL ONE UFC 290 Bonuses: Pantoja, Moreno Take Home Fight of the Night Alexander Volkanovski Smashes Yair Rodriguez, Retains Title in UFC 290 Headliner UFC 290 ‘Volkanovski vs. Rodriguez’ Play-by-Play, Results & Round Scoring UFC 290 Prelims: Robbie Lawler Starches Niko Price in Memorable Swan Song Francesco Nuzzi Demolishes Farbod Iran Nezhad in PFL Europe 2 Main Event Rose Conceicao Outpoints Elaine Lopes to Claim Interim Strawweight Crown at LFA 162 UFC 290 Bonuses: Pantoja, Moreno Take Home Fight of the Night Alexander Volkanovski Smashes Yair Rodriguez, Retains Title in UFC 290 Headliner UFC 290 ‘Volkanovski vs. Rodriguez’ Play-by-Play, Results & Round Scoring UFC 290 Prelims: Robbie Lawler Starches Niko Price in Memorable Swan Song UFC 290 Weigh-in Results: 2 Title Fights Set; 1 Fighter Heavy Jon Jones vs. Stipe Miocic to Headline UFC 295 on Nov. 11 in New York Bellator’s Cris Lencioni Out of ICU, Faces Uncertain Road to Recovery Seven Preliminary Bouts Announced for Bellator 298 in South Dakota James Gonzalez Replaces Cris Lencioni, Meets James Gallagher at Bellator 298 Irish Favorites Added to Bellator 299 Lineup in Dublin Leandro Higo vs. Nikita Mikhailov Among 5 Fights Added to Bellator 298 Billing Bellator Veteran Cris Lencioni in ICU After Suffering Cardiac Arrest During Training Francesco Nuzzi Demolishes Farbod Iran Nezhad in PFL Europe 2 Main Event PFL Europe 2 Weigh-in Results: 3 Fighters Miss Weight Cedric Doumbe Showcase Bout to Headline PFL Europe Playoffs Event in Paris Conan Silveira Discusses Alexandre Pantoja’s Title Fight, Kayla Harrison’s PFL Status PFL Sets 10-Bout Lineup for First 2023 Playoffs Event on Aug. 4 2022 PFL Finalist Steven Ray Announces Retirement for Second Time Seo Hee Ham, Stamp Fairtex to Vie for Interim Title at One Fight Night 14 on Sept. 1 Regian Eersel Demolishes Challenger, Kade Ruotolo Retains at ONE Fight Night 11 ONE on Prime Video 11 ‘Eersel vs. Menshikov’ Play-by-Play & Results Demetrious Johnson Outfoxes Adriano Moraes in ONE on Prime Video 10 Headliner ONE on Prime Video 10 ‘Johnson vs. Moraes 3’ Play-by-Play & Results ONE on Prime Video 10 Weigh-in Results: Trio of Title Fights Get Green Light EVENTS / FIGHTS UFC BELLATOR PFL ONE MORE Jul 08 2023 UFC 290 Volkanovski vs. Rodriguez Jul 15 2023 UFC on ESPN 49 Holm vs. Bueno Silva Jul 22 2023 UFC Fight Night 224 Aspinall vs. Tybura Jul 29 2023 UFC 291 Poirier vs. Gaethje 2 Aug 05 2023 UFC on ESPN 50 Sandhagen vs. Nurmagomedov Jul 29 2023 Bellator MMA x Rizin Pitbull vs. McKee Aug 11 2023 Bellator 298 Storley vs. Ward Sep 23 2023 Bellator 299 Eblen vs. Edwards Jul 08 2023 Professional Fighters League PFL Europe 2: 2023 Regular Season Aug 04 2023 Professional Fighters League PFL 7: 2023 Playoffs Aug 18 2023 Professional Fighters League PFL 8: 2023 Playoffs Aug 23 2023 Professional Fighters League PFL 9: 2023 Playoffs Sep 30 2023 Professional Fighters League PFL Europe 3: 2023 Playoffs Jul 07 2023 One Championship One Friday Fights 24 Jul 14 2023 One Championship One on Prime Video 12: Superlek vs. Khalilov Aug 04 2023 One Championship One on Prime Video 13: Allazov vs. Grigorian Sep 01 2023 One Championship One on Prime Video 14: Stamp vs. Ham + MORE UFC FIGHTS + MORE BELLATOR FIGHTS + MORE PFL FIGHTS + MORE ONE FIGHTS POLL What was the most memorable part of UFC 290? Four knockouts in 38 seconds or less Du Plessis' upset of Whittaker Adesanya's dustup with Du Plessis All-time classic between Pantoja & Moreno Volkanovski's continued greatness Four knockouts in 38 seconds or less 16% Du Plessis' upset of Whittaker 43% Adesanya's dustup with Du Plessis 12% All-time classic between Pantoja & Moreno 14% Volkanovski's continued greatness 15% TOTAL: 312 VOTES {firstname} { "nickname" }{lastname} {firstname} { "nickname" }{lastname} {name} - {title} FIGHT FINDER TOP TRENDING FIGHTERS Alexander Volkanovski Alexandre Pantoja Garry Tonon Philip De Fries MORE FIGHTERS... Shamil Gasanov | Szymon Bajor | Mayra Bueno Silva | Francesco Nuzzi | Bo Nickal | Douglas Dedge + FIND MORE ✓ 感谢分享 AddToAny 更多… RESOURCES About Us Contact Us Advertising AdChoices Privacy Policy Terms & Conditions Sherdog is a property of Evolve Media (Australia) PTY LTD . © 2023 All Rights Reserved. | Affiliate Disclosure: Evolve Media (Australia) PTY LTD, and its owned and operated subsidiaries may receive a small commission from the proceeds of any product(s) sold through affiliate and direct partner links. X monitoring_string = "5eb5a0f65cbe346d74f978e14db1b00d"

https://www.sherdog.com/pictures/gallery/fighter/f_26876/121746/5/

Notice of copyright infringement | Statista Find statistics, consumer survey results and industry studies from over 22,500 sources on over 60,000 topics on the internet& #39;s leading statistics database Skip to main content statista.com statista.es statista.de statista.fr Prices & Access Single Accounts Business Solutions Academia and Government Statistics All Industries Consumer Goods & FMCG Internet Media & Advertising Retail & Trade Sports & Recreation Technology & Telecommunications Transportation & Logistics Travel, Tourism & Hospitality Most-viewed Statistics Recent StatisticsPopular Statistics Facebook: quarterly number of MAU (monthly active users) worldwide 2008-2023 Quarterly smartphone market share worldwide by vendor 2009-2023 Number of apps available in leading app stores Q3 2022 OPEC oil price annually 1960-2023 Big Mac index worldwide 2023 Topics Topic Overview Smartphones - statistics & facts Social media - Statistics & Facts Top Report View Report Industry Overview Reports Report Shop Search our report database Digital & Trend reports Overview and forecasts on trending topics Industry & Market reports Industry and market insights and forecasts Companies & Products reports Key figures and rankings about companies and products Consumer & Brand reports Consumer and brand insights and preferences in various industries Politics & Society reports Detailed information about political and social topics Country & Region reports All key figures about countries and regions Find your information in our database containing over 20,000 reports New Market Insights Market forecast and expert KPIs for 1000+ markets in 190+ countries & territories Explore Market Insights Consumer Digital Mobility Consumer Insights Insights on consumer attitudes and behavior worldwide 2,000,000+ interviews 15,000+ brandsExplore Consumer Insights Company Insights Business information on 70m+ public and private companies 100+ industries 200+ countries and territories Explore Company Insights eCommerce Insights Detailed information for 35,000+ online stores and marketplaces 70+ KPIs per store Revenue analytics and forecastsExplore eCommerce Insights Infographics Services The Statistics Portal Directly accessible data for 170 industries from 50 countries and over 1 million facts: About Statista Why trust Statista First Steps and Help Centre Live webinars & recordings Tools Business Plan Export Publication Finder Statista Services Statista Q Customized Research & Analysis projects:Statista Q askStatista Get quick analyses with our professional research serviceaskStatista Statista R The best of the best: the portal for top lists & rankings:Statista R Statista Content & Design Transforming Data into Design: Customized infographic service Presentation Design Animated videos Whitepapers, E-Books, etc. Statista Content & Design nxt statista Strategy and business building for the data-driven economy:nxt statista Single Accounts Business Solutions Academia and Government Popular Statistics Topics Markets Reports Market Insights Consumer Insights Company Insights eCommerce Insights Infographics Content & Design Research projects Ask Statista Business Plan Export Publication Finder Statista R DE ES FR Notice of copyright infringement Information on when we delete personal data, the countries where we save data (e.g., US, EU, Singapore), and the companies we collaborate with can be found in ourprivacy statement. Home About Statista Career Contact Help & FAQ Report Bug Our Media Partners Privacy Imprint Menu Prices & Access Popular Statistics Industries Infographics Content & Design projects Research projects AskStatista statista.de statista.es statista.fr Cookie Consent Manager General Information General Information When you visit any website, it may store or retrieve information on your browser, mostly in the form of cookies. This information might be about you, your preferences or your device and is mostly used to make the site work as you expect it to. The information does not usually directly identify you, but it can give you a more personalized web experience. Because we respect your right to privacy, you can choose not to allow some types of cookies. Click on the different category headings to find out more and change our default settings. However, blocking some types of cookies may impact your experience of the site and the services we are able to offer. More information Necessary Cookies Necessary Cookies Always Active These cookies are necessary for the website to function and cannot be switched off in our systems. They are usually only set in response to actions made by you which amount to a request for services, such as setting your privacy preferences, logging in or filling in forms. You can set your browser to block or alert you about these cookies, but some parts of the site will not then work. These cookies do not store any personally identifiable information. Functional Cookies Functional Cookies Functional CookiesInactive These cookies enable the website to provide enhanced functionality and personalisation. They may be set by us or by third party providers whose services we have added to our pages. If you do not allow these cookies then some or all of these services may not function properly. Performance Cookies Performance Cookies Performance CookiesInactive These cookies allow us to count visits and traffic sources so we can measure and improve the performance of our site. They help us to know which pages are the most and least popular and see how visitors move around the site. All information these cookies collect is aggregated and therefore anonymous. If you do not allow these cookies we will not know when you have visited our site, and will not be able to monitor its performance. Targeting Cookies Targeting Cookies Targeting CookiesInactive These cookies may be set through our site by our advertising partners. They may be used by those companies to build a profile of your interests and show you relevant adverts on other sites. They do not store directly personal information, but are based on uniquely identifying your browser and internet device. If you do not allow these cookies, you will experience less targeted advertising. Back Vendor Search ConsentLeg.Interest checkbox labellabel checkbox labellabel checkbox labellabel Name cookie name checkbox labellabel By clicking “Accept all,” you agree to the storage of cookies on your device to improve website navigation, analyze website usage, and assist with our marketing efforts. If you click on "Only necessary," only cookies that are required for technical reasons to operate the website will be used.Privacy Statement

https://www.statista.com/statistics/report-content/statistic/1089013

(PDF) Data Related to Late Quaternary Surface Faulting on the Eastgate Fault, Churchill County, Nevada PDF | Anthony J Crone and others published Data Related to Late Quaternary Surface Faulting on the Eastgate Fault, Churchill County, Nevada | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate Data Related to Late Quaternary Surface Faulting on the Eastgate Fault, Churchill County, Nevada Authors: <here is a image 7640a5f857c1b34d-def683600ffbde78> Anthony J. Crone United States Geological Survey <here is a image 1937ee36a50dd27a-fa33d150fae83bfe> Jai Bok Kyung Korea National University of Education <here is a image 1937ee36a50dd27a-fa33d150fae83bfe> Michael N. Machette U.S. Geological Survey, Denver, CO United States <here is a image 824f8e45cea0f812-755b75d9a99b13a7> David J. Lidke United States Geological Survey Figures <here is a image 469d2a9729053ff8-b80ee9f203a302ab> View of part of southeast wall of northern (NEG) trench across Eastgate fault showing traces of major faults and eroded free face (solid yellow lines, arrows indicated sense of movement) in main fault zone, secondary faults or fractures (dashed yellow lines) and stratigraphic units. See figure 6 for map of the entire wall. … <here is a image 048a7e500e3ad730-6f2d0c02d60a3901> View to the east-northeast of the 6.6-m-high fault scarp at the central (CEG) trench site. Orange fencing surrounds the CEG trench. … <here is a image fc2da6829745852e-ebf479bba2b91d00> View of part of south wall of central (CEG) trench across the Eastgate fault showing traces of major faults (solid yellow lines, arrows indicate sense of movement), secondary faults or fractures (dashed yellow lines) and stratigraphic units. K, krotovina (bioturbated sediment). See figure 7 for map of the entire wall. … Figures - uploaded by Shannon A Mahan Content uploaded by Shannon A Mahan <here is a image e991fff7f331e484-213b4789a1a0e76b> ... B r y l a c 0 0 5 , 5 1 . a c -t s o p s t n e v e 4 t s a e l t a e k a L d i m a r y P Piekarski (1980); m- Sack (1990); n- Machette (1990); o-Hecker (1993); p- Bucknam et al. (1989); q- Hanks et al. (1984); r- Sterr (1985); s- Anderson and Bucknam (1979); t- Oviatt (1989);u-Crone (1983); v- Bucknam andAnderson (1979a, 1979b); w- Colman and Watson (1983); x- Pierce and Colman (1986); y-Oviatt (1992); z- Witkind et al. (1987); A-Jackson (1991); B- Schwartz et al. (1983); C- Schwartz and Coppersmith (1984); D- Machette et al. (1992); E-dePolo and Ramelli (2003); F- Redwine (2003); G- Crone et al. (2006); H-Schell (1981 Figure 2, and a compilation of the synthetic and measured scarp profi les used in this study is given in the GSA Data Repository (Electronic Supplement 2 [see footnote 1]). The location of the profi les, estimated age for the earthquakes that created the scarps, and the measured vertical separations are cataloged in Table 2 and were used to estimate the cumulative vertical and horizontal displacement across the transect (shown in Tables 3 and 4). ... ... 15 ka earthquakes along the Pyramid Lake fault in the northern Walker Lane (Briggs and Wesnousky, 2004) and at least three Holocene events along the Nephi segment of the southern Wasatch fault in the Intermountain seismic belt (Jackson, 1991;Schwartz et al., 1983). Trench studies in the interior of the Great Basin indicate recurrence intervals of several tens of thousands of years (Crone et al., 2006; Machette et al., 2005;Wesnousky et al., 2005). The observations are similar to the pattern of deformation documented geologically across the Great Basin north of the 40th parallel (Wesnousky et al., 2005) and geodetically across the region (Chang et al., 2006;Hammond and Thatcher, 2004;Kreemer et al., 2009;Thatcher et al., 1999;Bennett et al., 2003). ... Late Pleistocene regional extension rate derived from earthquake geology of late Quaternary faults across the Great Basin, Nevada, between 38.5 N and 40 N latitude Article Full-text available Mar 2011 GEOL SOC AM BULL, GSA Bulletin <here is a image dc71b9ac8f59e8b6-fd6e90b827fe19d6> Rich Koehler <here is a image 1937ee36a50dd27a-fa33d150fae83bfe> Steven Wesnousky Maps showing Quaternary deposits and active fault traces, paleoseismic trenches, scarp diffusion analyses, and soil characteristics in displaced alluvial surfaces are combined with previous paleoseismic studies to examine the character of late Pleistocene earthquake recurrence and estimate the net extension rate across the interior of the Great Basin of the western United States at the latitude of similar to 39 degrees N. The study area includes faults bounding the Desatoya, Toiyabe, Monitor, Simpson Park, Toquima, Antelope, Fish Creek, Butte, Egan, and Schell Creek Ranges. The rate of earthquake recurrence is documented to be significantly less than observed within the Walker Lane-Central Nevada seismic belt and along the Wasatch, which respectively define the western and eastern boundaries of the interior of the Great Basin. Late Pleistocene extension across the interior of the Great Basin is calculated to equal similar to 1 mm/yr across the 450 km transect and is consistent with rates defined by recent geodetic studies. The agreement in extension rate estimates over different time scales indicates that tectonic deformation in the Great Basin has been characterized by relatively slow and consistent extension through the late Pleistocene to the present. The internal deformation of the Great Basin and the pattern of strain release may reflect a broad transition zone from northwest-directed shear in the west to extension along the eastern edge of the Pacific-North American plate boundary. Late Quaternary Slip-Rate Variations along the Warm Springs Valley Fault System, Northern Walker Lane, California-Nevada Border Article Full-text available Feb 2013 <here is a image b513af60013aa070-4192347fc697fd5c> Ryan D. Gold Craig M. dePolo <here is a image 1937ee36a50dd27a-fa33d150fae83bfe> Richard W. Briggs <here is a image 144d2befccf75d98-b3bbb9e35e7b9e09> John Gosse The extent to which faults exhibit temporally varying slip rates has important consequences for models of fault mechanics and probabilistic seismic hazard. Here, we explore the temporal behavior of the dextral-slip Warm Springs Valley fault system, which is part of a network of closely spaced (10-20 km) faults in the northern Walker Lane (California-Nevada border). We develop a late Quaternary slip record for the fault using Quaternary mapping and high-resolution topographic data from airborne Light Distance and Ranging (LiDAR). The faulted Fort Sage alluvial fan (40.06 degrees N, 119.99 degrees W) is dextrally displaced 98(-43)(+42) m, and we estimate the age of the alluvial fan to be 41.4(-4.8)(+10.0) ka to 55.7 +/- 9.2 ka, based on a terrestrial cosmogenic Be-10 depth profile and Cl-36 analyses on basalt boulders, respectively. The displacement and age constraints for the fan yield a slip rate of 1.8(-0.8)(+/- 0.8) mm/yr to 2.4(-1.1)(+1.2) mm/yr (2 sigma) along the northern Warm Springs Valley fault system for the past 41.4-55.7 ka. In contrast to this longer-term slip rate, shorelines associated with the Sehoo highstand of Lake Lahontan (similar to 15.8 ka) adjacent to the Fort Sage fan are dextrally faulted at most 3 m, which limits a maximum post-15.8 ka slip rate to 0.2 mm/yr. These relations indicate that the post-Lahontan slip rate on the fault is only about one-tenth the longer-term (41-56 ka) average slip rate. This apparent slip-rate variation may be related to co-dependent interaction with the nearby Honey Lake fault system, which shows evidence of an accelerated period of mid-Holocene earthquakes. Present-Day deformation across the basin and range province, western united states T.C. Feeley <here is a image 7640a5f857c1b34d-def683600ffbde78> Anthony J. Crone <here is a image 1937ee36a50dd27a-fa33d150fae83bfe> Michael N. Machette <here is a image 824f8e45cea0f812-755b75d9a99b13a7> David J. Lidke <here is a image 37b6a2097c52d2ff-f3df4b39099e060c> Stephen F. Personius <here is a image 7640a5f857c1b34d-def683600ffbde78> Anthony J. Crone <here is a image 1937ee36a50dd27a-fa33d150fae83bfe> Michael N. Machette <here is a image 9b846286e22a64f8-29fc22edd0e6225c> Shannon A Mahan <here is a image 37b6a2097c52d2ff-f3df4b39099e060c> Stephen F. Personius <here is a image 7640a5f857c1b34d-def683600ffbde78> Anthony J. Crone <here is a image 1937ee36a50dd27a-fa33d150fae83bfe> Michael N. Machette <here is a image 824f8e45cea0f812-755b75d9a99b13a7> David J. Lidke <here is a image 37b6a2097c52d2ff-f3df4b39099e060c> Stephen F. Personius <here is a image 7640a5f857c1b34d-def683600ffbde78> Anthony J. Crone <here is a image 1937ee36a50dd27a-fa33d150fae83bfe> Michael N. Machette

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264843549_Data_Related_to_Late_Quaternary_Surface_Faulting_on_the_Eastgate_Fault_Churchill_County_Nevada

NaTHNaC - Search Results for 怀宁找小姐【在浏览器打开 678kb.com 】< -复制打开怀宁 -》K24169 Period Last month Last 6 months Last year Country All Afghanistan Albania Algeria American Samoa, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands (India) Andorra Angola Anguilla Antarctica Antigua and Barbuda Argentina Armenia Ascension, St Helena, Tristan da Cunha Australia Austria Azerbaijan Azores (Portugal) Bahamas Bahrain Bangladesh Barbados Belarus Belgium Belize Benin Bermuda Bhutan Bolivia Borneo (Indonesia) Borneo (Malaysia) Bosnia and Herzegovina Botswana Brazil Brunei Bulgaria Burkina Faso Burundi Cambodia Cameroon Canada Cape Verde Caribbean Islands (France) Caribbean Islands (Netherlands) Cayman Islands Central African Republic Chad Chile China Christmas Island (Australia) Colombia Comoros Congo Cook Islands, Niue, Tokelau Costa Rica Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast) Croatia Cuba Cyprus Czech Republic Democratic Republic of the Congo Denmark Djibouti Dominica Dominican Republic Easter Island (Chile) Ecuador Egypt El Salvador Equatorial Guinea Eritrea Estonia Eswatini Ethiopia Falkland Islands Faroe Islands (Denmark) Fiji Finland France French Guiana French Polynesia Gabon Galapagos (Ecuador) Georgia Germany Ghana Gibraltar Greece Greenland Grenada Guatemala Guinea Guinea-Bissau Guyana Haiti Honduras Hong Kong (China) Hungary Iceland India Indonesia Iran Iraq Ireland Israel Italy Jamaica Japan Jordan Kazakhstan Kenya Kiribati Kosovo Kuwait Kyrgyzstan Laos Latvia Lebanon Lesotho Liberia Libya Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Macao (China) Madagascar Madeira (Portugal) Malawi Malaysia Maldives Mali Malta Marshall Islands Martinique Mauritania Mauritius Mayotte Mexico Micronesia Moldova Monaco Mongolia Montenegro Montserrat Morocco Mozambique Myanmar (Burma) Namibia Nauru Nepal Netherlands New Caledonia New Zealand Nicaragua Niger Nigeria North Korea North Macedonia Norway Oman Pakistan Palau Palestinian Territories Panama Papua New Guinea Paraguay Peru Philippines Pitcairn Islands Poland Portugal Puerto Rico Qatar Reunion Romania Russia Rwanda Samoa San Marino Sao Tome and Principe Saudi Arabia Senegal Serbia Seychelles Sierra Leone Singapore Slovakia Slovenia Solomon Islands Somalia South Africa South Korea South Sudan Spain Sri Lanka St Kitts and Nevis St Lucia St Pierre and Miquelon St Vincent and the Grenadines Sudan Suriname Svalbard and Jan Mayen (Norway) Sweden Switzerland Syria Taiwan Tajikistan Tanzania Thailand The Gambia Tibet (China) Timor-Leste Togo Tonga Trinidad and Tobago Tunisia Turkey Turkmenistan Turks and Caicos Islands Tuvalu Uganda Ukraine United Arab Emirates United Kingdom Uruguay USA Uzbekistan Vanuatu Venezuela Vietnam Virgin Islands (British) Virgin Islands (USA) Wake Island Wallis and Futuna Islands Western Sahara Yemen Zambia Zimbabwe Disease All Acinetobacter baumanii Acute diarrhoeal syndrome Acute febrile syndrome Acute fever and rash syndrome Acute haemorrhagic fever syndrome Acute jaundice syndrome Acute neurological syndrome Acute respiratory syndrome Acute watery diarrhoeal syndrome Aflatoxin poisoning Alkhurma haemorrhagic fever Altitude illness Anaplasmosis Angiostrongyliasis Anthrax Arcanobacterium haemolyticum Arenavirus Australian bat lyssavirus Avian influenza (bird flu) Babesiosis Barmah forest virus Bartonellosis Blastomycosis Bolivian haemorrhagic fever Borna disease virus (BVD) infection Botulism Brazilian spotted fever Brucellosis Brush Fires Capillariasis Chickenpox Chikungunya virus infection Cholera Coccidiomycosis Congenital Zika Syndrome Conjunctivitis - Trachoma COVID-19 Cowpox Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever Cryptococcus gattii infection Cryptosporidiosis Cyclosporiasis Cysticercosis Dengue Diphtheria Diphyllobothriasis Dirofilariasis Dracunculiasis (Guinea worm) Dysentery E. coli Eastern equine encephalitis Ebola virus disease Echinococcosis Elizabethkingia anophelis Encephalitis Enterovirus Eosinophilic pneumonia Epidemic typhus Erlichiosis European bat lyssavirus Fascioliasis Filariasis Food poisoning Gastroenteritis Giardiasis Gnathostomiasis Gonorrhoeae Haemolytic-Uremic Syndrome Haemorhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) Hand, foot and mouth disease Hantavirus Hendra virus Henipavirus Hepatitis (unspecified) Hepatitis A Hepatitis B Hepatitis C Hepatitis D Hepatitis E Heterophyiasis Histoplasmosis HIV/AIDS Human Bocavirus Human coxsackievirus B Indian tick typhus Influenza (strain unknown) Influenza A (all) Influenza A (Avian - suspected) Influenza A(H10N3) Influenza A(H10N7) Influenza A(H10N8) Influenza A(H1N1) Influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 - Confirmed Influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 - Suspected Influenza A(H1N2) Influenza A(H3N2) Influenza A(H3N8) Influenza A(H5) Influenza A(H5N1) Influenza A(H5N2) Influenza A(H5N3) Influenza A(H5N4) Influenza A(H5N5) Influenza A(H5N6) Influenza A(H5N8) Influenza A(H6N1) Influenza A(H7) Influenza A(H7N1) Influenza A(H7N3) Influenza A(H7N4) Influenza A(H7N6) Influenza A(H7N7) Influenza A(H7N9) Influenza A(H9) Influenza A(H9N2) Influenza B Japanese encephalitis Klebsiella pneumoniae Kyasanur forest disease Lassa fever Legionnaires disease Leishmaniasis Leishmaniasis - cutaneous Leishmaniasis - visceral (Kala Azar) Leprosy Leptospirosis (Weil's disease) Listeriosis Louse-borne relapsing fever Lyme borreliosis (Lyme disease) Lymphatic filariasis Lymphogranuloma venereum Malaria Marburg virus disease Mayaro virus Measles Melioidosis Meningitis Meningitis (viral) Meningococcal disease Methanol / alcohol poisoning Microcephaly Microsporidia infections Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus Mpox (Monkeypox) Mucormycosis Mumps Murine typhus Murray valley encephalitis Mycobacterium ulcerans (Buruli ulcer) Myiasis Myocarditis Naegleria fowleri infections Necrotising cellulitis Nipah viral disease Norovirus Onchocerciasis Opisthorchiasis Oropouche fever Orthopoxvirus (novel) Outdoor air quality Paramyxoviruses (novel) Parasitic worms (soil-transmitted helminths) Paratyphoid Pertussis Pharyngocongunctival fever Plague Pneumonia Polio Poxvirus (novel) Pseudomonas aeruginosa Psittacosis Q fever Rabies Red tide toxicity Rickettsiosis Rift Valley fever Rocky mountain spotted fever Ross river virus Rotavirus infection Rubella Salmonellosis Sarcocystosis Scarlet fever Schistosomiasis Scrub typhus (Tsutsugamushi disease) Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) Shigellosis Skin infections Spider bite St Louis encephalitis Staphylococcal infection Streptococcus suis Tetanus Tick paralysis Tick-borne disease (viral) Tick-borne encephalitis Tick-borne lymphadenopathy Tick-borne relapsing fever Toscana virus Toxic blue-green algae Toxic poisoning Toxoplasmosis Trichinellosis Trypanosomiasis Trypanosomiasis - African (sleeping sickness) Trypanosomiasis - American (Chagas disease) Trypanosomiasis - Other Tuberculosis Tularaemia Typhoid fever Undiagnosed illness Usutu virus Various vCJD Venezuelan haemorrhagic fever Vibrio infections Vibrio parahaemolyticus Viral encephalitis West Nile virus Wound infections Yellow fever Yersiniosis Zika virus Search

https://travelhealthpro.org.uk/search.php?s=%E6%80%80%E5%AE%81%E6%89%BE%E5%B0%8F%E5%A7%90%E3%80%90%E5%9C%A8%E6%B5%8F%E8%A7%88%E5%99%A8%E6%89%93%E5%BC%80%20678kb.com%20%E3%80%91%3C-%E5%A4%8D%E5%88%B6%E6%89%93%E5%BC%80%E6%80%80%E5%AE%81%20-%E3%80%8BK24169

Materials | Free Full-Text | Surface Analysis of TMCTS-Based SiOC(H) Low-k Dielectrics in Post-Etch Strip of ACL Hardmask The miniaturization of devices requires the introduction of a high aspect ratio through patterning in the Damascene copper interconnect process. The high aspect ratio etch process employs hardmasks, such as amorphous carbon, that can withstand high-powered plasma exposure. When an etch hardmask is removed after patterning, the properties of the underlying film can be altered by the effect of plasma exposure during the strip process. In this study, surface properties of SiOC(H) are investigated after an amorphous carbon strip with O2/Ar plasma. Since the low-k film of SiOC(H) structure shows characteristics according to the Si-O internal bonding structure, the Si-O bonding ratio of the ring, network and cage structure was analyzed through Fourier-transform infrared (FT-IR) analysis to measure changes in thin film properties. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) was also used to add reliability to the SiOC(H) film structure. In addition, the end point of the strip process was obtained using an optical emission spectroscopy sensor and variations in thin film characteristics over the plasma exposure time were analyzed. These results revealed the structural modification of the SiCO(H) thin film in the post-etch strip of the amorphous carbon layer (ACL) hardmask. Surface Analysis of TMCTS-Based SiOC(H) Low- k Dielectrics in Post-Etch Strip of ACL Hardmask by Min Kyu Park , Wan Soo Song , Min Ho Kim and Sang Jeen Hong * Department of Electronics Engineering, Myongji University, Yongin 17058, Korea Author to whom correspondence should be addressed. Materials 2021 , 14 (5), 1144; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14051144 Received: 29 January 2021 / Revised: 21 February 2021 / Accepted: 25 February 2021 / Published: 28 February 2021 (This article belongs to the Special Issue The Composition and Photoelectrochemical Performance of Thin Films ) Abstract 2 /Ar plasma. Since the low-k film of SiOC(H) structure shows characteristics according to the Si-O internal bonding structure, the Si-O bonding ratio of the ring, network and cage structure was analyzed through Fourier-transform infrared (FT-IR) analysis to measure changes in thin film properties. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) was also used to add reliability to the SiOC(H) film structure. In addition, the end point of the strip process was obtained using an optical emission spectroscopy sensor and variations in thin film characteristics over the plasma exposure time were analyzed. These results revealed the structural modification of the SiCO(H) thin film in the post-etch strip of the amorphous carbon layer (ACL) hardmask. Keywords: surface analysis ; strip process ; OES ; amorphous carbon ; SiOC(H) ; hardmask ; low- k 1. Introduction Device miniaturization over the last several decades has improved semiconductor technology performance and reduced power requirements. For example, graphics processing units designed for accelerated computing outperform conventional single-thread central processors [ 1 ]. However, delay caused by the interconnects in highly integrated devices for rapid computing is a significant problem. Cu and low- k dielectrics were adopted in the late 1990s to mitigate interconnect delay. Efforts to reduce the dielectric constants of interlayer dielectric materials by introducing pores are ongoing [ 2 ]. The k-value of a dielectric film with weakly polar bonds and a porous structure can be reduced by annealing it at an elevated temperature, but the thermal budget for back-end-of-line (BEOL) interconnects remains an obstacle to process integration. Organosilicate glass (OSG), also known as carbon-doped silicon glass, fluorinated silicon glass, and spin-on dielectrics are conventional low- k dielectric materials. However, the flexibility of gas-phase processing makes plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) the preferred fabrication method for low-k dielectric films consisting of dual-phase SiOCH–CH x materials. Skeletal precursors, such as tetramethylcyclotetrasiloxane (TMCTS), have suitable electrical and mechanical properties for porous low- k dielectrics [ 3 , 4 ], but plasma-induced damage to low-k interlayer dielectrics (ILDs) designed as interconnects for semiconducting logic devices should be minimized [ 5 ]. Plasma-induced damage to porous SiOC(H) low- k dielectrics following the etching process has been reported. The application of hard SiON/TiN/SiON masks and pulsed plasma etching have been reported to reduce damage to porous SiOC(H) thin films [ 6 , 7 ]. Etches introduced during the BEOL process are extremely narrow (<45 nm), so if continuous wave plasma is used for etching, ultraviolet (UV), vacuum ultraviolet (VUV), and high-energy ion irradiation seriously damage the sidewalls. Pulsed radiofrequency (RF) plasma creates more isotropic etches in porous SiOC(H) and causes less damage. The dual damascene process used to prepare copper interconnects can generate vias with high aspect ratios, and the use of hardmasks has become routine. Torazawa et al. integrated extremely low-k dielectric films and used a hard metal masking process to form copper interconnects. The SiOC(H) films were deposited via PECVD, then irradiated under UV light to remove the porogens [ 8 ]. Lai et al. used amorphous carbon ( a -C) to enhance hard masking and lithography capability, and they found that C 2 H 2 -based a -C provided better sidewall step coverage than conventional C 3 H 3 -based a -C [ 9 ]. However, applying an amorphous carbon layer (ACL) as a hardmask interferes with overlay alignment, so efforts to develop hard masking schemes are ongoing [ 10 , 11 ]. A variety of low- k dielectric deposition and etching processes exist, and hardmasks can be employed to create patterns with high aspect ratios. However, studies on removing hardmasks from low- k dielectrics after etching have been limited. The dielectric constant of a low-k dielectric depends on the structural characteristics of the material, and the dielectric constant of a deposited low-k dielectric may differ from that of pristine material. Many factors can affect the dielectric constants of low-k dielectrics, such as the hardmask deposition temperature, UV/VUV radiation emitted by the plasma during deposition, ion bombardment, and surface reactions that occur during post-etch stripping. Depending on the type of hardmask used and the structural properties of a material, gases generated after stripping may contain fluorinated species that cause undesired multi-step chemical reactions [ 12 ]. In this research, we prepared TMCTS-based low-k dielectric films via PECVD and deposited ACLs to serve as hardmasks. We then stripped off the hardmasks and analyzed the surfaces of the films to investigate changes in their structures and surface chemical compositions. We postulated that the ACL hardmask deposition process and post-etch stripping could alter the characteristics of the pristine material. 2. Experimental Fourier-transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and hardness measurements were performed to identify changes in the surface properties of the films. After each process integration step, we analyzed the chemical composition and hardness of each low- k thin film, as well as processes that occurred on the surface. Schematic diagrams of the XPS process, an FT-IR spectrometer, and a field emission scanning electron microscope (FE-SEM) are shown in Figure 1 . FT-IR was performed to analyze Si–O bonds, which provided information about structural changes on the surfaces of the films due to plasma ion bombardment. The intensity of the peak associated with Si–CH 3 bonds was also investigated to determine the internal carbon contents of the processed low- k films. XPS was conducted to investigate the atomic distributions and chemical compositions on the surfaces of the films. We investigated surface conditions after depositing the ACL hardmasks on the TMCTS-based SiOC(H) low- k dielectric films; after exposing the ACL hardmasks to plasma; and after plasma stripping of the ACL hardmasks for an extended period of time to induce surface damage. Structural changes in the thin films were also investigated to identify the binding state of Si after fitting the results. Figure 1. Illustrations of the analytical tools used to characterize the film surfaces: ( a ) Fourier-transform infrared (FT-IR), ( b ) X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and ( c ) field emission scanning electron microscope (FE-SEM). Low- k dielectrics tend to be softer and more porous than conventional dielectrics. We wondered whether plasma ion bombardment would modify surface hardness, which would indicate that the plasma physically damaged the low- k dielectrics. We performed surface indentation tests to investigate the hardness and modulus of each thin film. Hardness can vary due to differences in the physical and chemical characteristics of films, such as their chemical bonding structures and grain sizes. We also performed endpoint detection (EPD) via optical emission spectroscopy (OES) to assess the suitability of the ACL hard masking conditions. Changes in the intensities of the optical emission peaks corresponding to CO and O were monitored to identify changes in the chemical species present in the plasma. Finally, we collected cross-sectional FE-SEM images and compared the ACL stripping process times and thin film thicknesses according to the applied RF power. The dielectric films were deposited on six-inch test grade <100> silicon wafers via capacitively coupled plasma (CCP) PECVD at an RF power of 13.56 MHz. SiOC(H) low- k films were deposited on the tetramethylcyclotetrasiloxane (TMCTS, Si 4 C 4 H 16 O 4 ) precursor (DNF, Daejeon, Korea) in a multipurpose six-inch PECVD chamber. The TMCTS precursor was passed through a heated 10 mL bubbler at 50 °C using He as the carrier gas and O 2 as the reactive gas, which were mixed at the shower head. A schematic diagram of the PECVD system is presented in Figure 2 . Figure 2. A schematic diagram of the plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) apparatus used to deposit the low- k dielectrics and the amorphous carbon layer (ACL) hardmasks. Once the low- k dielectrics were deposited, ACL hardmasks were directly deposited onto the films using the same PECVD apparatus. The chamber was flushed with NF 3 for an extended time between the deposition steps to prevent cross-contamination. The ACL films were deposited in a mixture of C 3 H 6 and He gases. The characteristics of the TMCTS-based low- k films, including their structures, were sensitive to the post-deposition annealing temperature. Annealing had to be performed at a specific temperature for a certain amount of time to achieve the desired material composition. The annealing temperature (400 °C) and time were selected based on the subsequent ACL deposition process, which was also performed at 400 °C, to limit physical changes in the low- k dielectric and obtain thin films with characteristics consistent with high-temperature deposition [ 13 ]. The properties of hydrogenated amorphous carbon were evaluated by determining the sp 3 and sp 2 orbital ratio and the amount of hydrogen in the films. A hydrogen content of 20–40% and a low sp 3 content were indicative of a C–C sp 3 bond structure, like that of diamond, which afforded good resistance to plasma ion bombardment. However, attempting to increase the deposition rate by raising the process temperature to over 400 °C reduced the hydrogen concentration and transformed the sp 3 network into a sp 2 network, which compromised etching resistance. Subsequent plasma stripping to remove the deposited ACL hardmasks was conducted using the CCP system. The stripping system consisted of a 13.56 MHz power source that supplied power through the top of the electrode. The main process control knobs were used to regulate the RF source power, pressure, chuck temperature, and gas flow. Generating photolithography patterns on the ACLs would mimic the actual semiconductor integration process. However, we etched the backs of the ACL hardmasks to investigate changes in the characteristics of the underlying material after plasma stripping. The 400 nm thick ACL hardmasks were blanket-etched with 50 sccms of an O 2 /Ar gas mixture for 300 s at a base pressure of 300 mTorr. RF source powers of 200, 250, and 300 W were applied during the ACL stripping process to investigate the effect of RF power on the bond structures of the low- k thin films. FE-SEM images of pristine and over-etched samples stripped at 200, 250, and 300 W are shown in Figure 3 . Figure 3. SEM images of a pristine sample and over-stripped samples. To establish an appropriate stripping endpoint, film etching rates based on processing time were determined by analyzing the FE-SEM images and the OES data. The total areas of the C=C and Si–O peaks and their intensities after stripping under each set of conditions were compared to evaluate the characteristics of the ACL hardmasks. Decreases in the intensity of the CO peak appearing at 288 nm over time were also monitored. The endpoint was measured in the range from 250 to 260 s while applying a source power of 200 W, and the endpoints became shorter as the source power increased. Increasing the plasma exposure time and source power were expected to significantly alter the properties of the thin films. 3. Results 3.1. Endpoint Detection (EPD) Before analyzing the stripped specimens, we determined the stripping endpoints. One quarter of a single amorphous carbon layer on a Si wafer was analyzed to find an appropriate wavelength for EPD. This is illustrated schematically in Figure 4 a. Multiple amorphous carbon layers were also deposited and stripped under the same conditions. Changes in intensity at 288 nm over time are shown in the OES spectrum in Figure 5 a. We initially assumed that the CO signal would disappear at the stripping endpoint. After measuring ACL thickness several times and comparing the signal intensities at the selected wavelength, we found that the endpoint corresponded to a wavelength gradient of zero and an average intensity within a certain range. Figure 4. ( a ) Schematic illustration showing a wafer with one quarter coated by a single amorphous carbon layer and ( b ) the location of a coupon wafer on a multilayered specimen used to determine the ACL stripping endpoint. Figure 5. ( a ) OES spectrum acquired during stripping of a single amorphous carbon layer. Ninth-order polynomial fitting was performed to draw the regression line. The endpoint was detected at t = 255 s; ( b ) OES spectra of multilayered samples stripped at 200, 250, and 300 W with endpoints of 258 s, 227 s, and 167 s, respectively. Ninth-order polynomial fitting was performed to draw the regression lines. We assessed multilayer stripping using our EPD algorithm. As shown in Figure 4 b, the coupon wafer was located in the center of the carrier wafer. This made it difficult to detect the CO signal, because we could not focus the optical fiber on that location. We wondered whether methyl elimination from SiOC(H) would generate a noise signal that would indicate that damage was caused by plasma ion bombardment or sputtering. Exposure to the O 2 /Ar plasma transformed some methyl groups into CO, which ostensibly could be monitored at the same wavelength. However, changes in the signal at 288 nm in the spectra collected at 200, 250, and 300 W were similar, and the corresponding endpoints occurred at 258 s, 227 s, and 167 s, respectively, as shown in Figure 5 b. These phenomena indicated that OES was not sensitive enough to detect noise resulting from methyl elimination. The plasma would thus damage the low-k films after stripping for 42 s, 73 s, and 133 s at 200 W, 250 W, and 300 W, respectively. 3.2. FT-IR Analysis Depending on the Si–O bond angle, several peaks may appear in the FT-IR spectra of low-k thin films. Changes in the intensities of four peaks due to changes in bond structure, including Si–CH 3 bonds, were monitored in the interval from 930 to 1330 cm −1 [ 14 , 15 ]. Si–O bonds with bond angles of less than 144° could be considered linear, and they generated a peak appearing at 1023 cm −1 . The peak at 1063 cm −1 was indicative of a network structure with bond angles near 144°, while the peak at 1135 cm −1 reflected a cage structure with bond angles greater than 144° [ 14 , 15 ]. A peak attributed to Si–CH 3 bonds appeared at 1273 cm −1 , and peaks ascribed to C=C and C–O bonds in the ACLs were detected in the range from 1600 to 1700 cm −1 and at 1100 cm −1 [ 16 ]. The Si–O peaks in the FT-IR spectra of a multilayered sample were monitored after separating the Si substrate, the SiOC(H) low- k dielectric, and the ACL hardmask, as shown in Figure 6 . Most of the Si–O bonds were linear prior to stripping. Changes in the Si–O bond composition and a decrease in the number of Si–CH 3 bonds were evident after stripping. The decrease in the number of linear Si–O bonds corresponded to an increase in the proportions of other structures. Plasma exposure during stripping also induced internal structural changes, such as the elimination of methyl groups. A peak attributed to C=C vibrations appeared at 1600 cm −1 after deposition, but it was not observed in the spectrum acquired after stripping. This confirmed that the ACL hardmask had been removed. The spectra in Figure 7 show the de-convoluted Si–O peaks after each process. Figure 6. FT-IR spectra of a reference (as deposited) sample and samples stripped at 200, 250, and 300 W. Figure 7. De-convoluted FT-IR spectra showing different Si–O peaks. Changes in the Si–O bond structure and the number of Si–CH 3 bonds due to changes in the source power are illustrated in Figure 8 . The network structure appeared to become more prevalent as the number of Si–CH 3 bonds and linear structures decreased. Exposure to UV light emitted by the plasma and radial oxygen exposure can cause oxygen atoms in low- k films to diffuse [ 17 ]. Therefore, the increase in the proportion of network structures in the films may have been due to the removal of methyl radicals from linear structures. The removal of methyl groups or carbon and the formation of new bonds with Si or O atoms must be verified using additional analytical methods. Increasing the source power can increase the density of oxygen atoms in plasma [ 18 ]. Oxygen that diffuses into a film is reactive if ion bombardment does not occur [ 19 ]. This increases the oxygen concentration in the film and increases the probability of reactions with methyl groups within the film. Thus, an increase in the source power is accompanied by a decrease in the intensity of carbon peaks. This is also thought to be caused by additional plasma exposure after stripping. Figure 8. Percentages of carbon in rings, networks, cages, and methyl groups based on the deconvoluted FT-IR spectra. 3.3. XPS Analysis The XPS results for samples stripped at 200 W, 250 W, and 300 W are shown in Figure 9 , Figure 10 and Figure 11 . The atomic ratio of Si and O was approximately 1:2, which indicated the presence of a SiO 2 skeleton structure. The proportion of carbon on the surface was 7.76 % after stripping at 200 W and 5.09 % after stripping at 300 W. This was consistent with a reduction in the number of Si–CH 3 bonds as indicated by the FT-IR results. Therefore, the carbon peaks in the XPS spectra could be attributed to methyl groups within pores exposed on the surfaces of the films. Figure 9. XPS survey spectra of a reference (as-deposited) sample and samples stripped at 200, 250, and 300 W. Figure 10. Atomic ratios based on XPS analysis. Figure 11. ( a ) C1s; ( b ) O1s and ( c ) Si2p spectra of samples stripped at 200 W, 250 W, and 300 W. The de-convoluted C1s, O1s, and Si2p spectra are shown in Figure 12 a–c, respectively. The C1s peak was de-convoluted into peaks that were ascribed to carbon in C≡O bonds, C–H bonds, and a-C. The O1s peaks were attributed to oxygen in C–O–C and Si–O–Si bonds. The proportions of O and C atoms that were bound to Si atoms could be determined by comparing the binding energies in the Si2p spectra of SiO 2 C 2 and SiO 2 or SiO 3 C [ 20 , 21 ]. Carbon in C–H bonds accounted for more than half of the peak intensity in the de-convoluted C1s spectra. The intensity of the peak attributed to oxygen in Si–O–Si bonds in the O1s spectra increased by approximately 4%, and the intensity of the Si2p peak was 5 % higher. This may have been due to the replacement of methyl groups or carbon atoms by Si atoms, which was consistent with the FT-IR results. Thus, the increase in the number of Si–O bonds on the surface could be attributed to a higher degree of network bonding. Figure 12. De-convoluted spectra of samples processed under different conditions: ( a ) C1s; ( b ) O1s; and ( c ) Si2p. 3.4. Mechanical Properties Mechanical strength was measured using a UNHT 3 indentation tester (Anton Paar GmbH, Graz, Austria). The indentation results for a reference sample and samples subjected to stripping at 200 W, 250 W, and 300 W are shown in Figure 13 . The hardness values and Young’s moduli of the samples are plotted in Figure 14 and Figure 15 , respectively. The hardness of the thin films could be measured only after their surfaces were exposed by stripping. The hardness and modulus of the reference sample were those of the ACL surface prior to stripping. The hardness and modulus of the SiOC(H) thin film stripped at 200 W were approximately 0.3 and 11.8 GPa, respectively. The modulus was 16.2 GPa after stripping at 300 W, which represented an increase of ~37 %. Hardness and the Young’s moduli increased as the source power increased. A previous study determined [ 22 ]. The increase in Young’s modulus was due to an increase in the proportion of Si–O network bonds. Increasing the network structure and decreasing the suboxide structure can result in increasing mechanical strength, such as Young’s modulus [ 23 ]. In the results of FT-IR, we analyze the decrease in ring structure and the increase in network structure. Compared to previous studies, the higher the amount of energy applied to the thin film in experimental conditions that increase to 200–300 W, the greater the change in the mechanical properties of the thin film. Therefore, changes in chemical bonding indicated that plasma exposure caused internal structural changes, which confirmed that plasma exposure could alter the physical properties of the films. Figure 13. Nano-indentation results for an as-deposited sample and samples stripped at 200 W, 250 W, and 300 W. Figure 14. Hardness values of a reference (as-deposited) sample and samples stripped at 200 W, 250 W, and 300 W. Figure 15. Young’s moduli of a reference (as-deposited) sample and samples stripped at 200 W, 250 W, and 300 W. 4. Conclusions In this study, SiOC(H) low- k dielectric thin films on silicon substrates were coated with amorphous carbon masks, and the effects of ACL stripping on the underlying films were evaluated. Optical information about the plasma was collected via OES during the ACL stripping process. FT-IR analysis, XPS analysis, and indentation measurements were also performed to characterize the thin films. The FT-IR results showed that the number of Si–O network bonds was higher after stripping the films, and the XPS results indicated that stripping at 200 W increased the number of Si–O–Si bonds by 5%. Increasing the source power applied during stripping resulted in a higher degree of network bonding. This was indicated by an approximately 37% increase in Young’s modulus. These changes indicated that the internal chemical structures of the SiOC(H) films could be altered by subsequent processes, such as plasma exposure during ACL stripping. Changes in the properties of SiOC(H) thin films caused by such processes should be considered when devices are designed. Therefore, in-situ endpoint detection to diagnose sensors should be performed using a technique, like OES. Since SiCO(H) thin films are used as an ILDs, their electrical properties must also be analyzed. Since heat can alter their characteristics, as well, changes induced by heat treatment, along with changes in the electrical properties of SiOC(H) thin films, should be evaluated in follow-up studies. The limitation of the proposed research is the measurement of the dielectric constant of the TMCTS-based SiCOH to investigate the effect of RF power, as well as other process parameters, and the raised limitation of this research will be continued for up-coming research objective. Conceptualization, S.J.H. and M.K.P.; methodology, M.K.P.; validation, W.S.S. and M.H.K.; formal analysis, M.K.P.; investigation, M.K.P. and M.H.K.; data curation, W.S.S.; writing—original draft preparation, M.K.P.; writing—review and editing, S.J.H. and W.S.S.; supervision, S.J.H.; project administration, W.S.S.; funding acquisition, S.J.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Acknowledgments Authors are grateful to S. Lee at DNF Co. Kr for the low- k precursor material supply and Min and Ha for their wonderful support for the cleanroom management. Conflicts of Interest The authors declare no conflict of interest. References IEEE International Roadmap for Device and System 2018 Edition ; IEEE: Piscataway, NJ, USA, 2019. Cheng, Y.-L.; Lee, C.-Y. Porous Low-Dielectric-Constant Material for Semiconductor Microelectronics. In Nanofluid Flow in Porous Media ; Kandelousi, M.S., Ed.; IntechOpen: London, UK, 2018; pp. 1–24. [ Google Scholar ] Jung, I.-S.; Hong, S. Characterization of Plasma Deposited TMCTS Based low- k Thin Film Deposition Process. Sci. Adv. Mater. 2018 , 19 , 522–526. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Bilodeau, S.M.; Borovik, A.S.; Ebbing, A.A.; Vestyck, D.J.; Xu, C.; Roeder, J.F.; Baum, T.H. Chemical Routes to Improved Mechanical Properties of PECVD Low K Thin Film. In MRS Online Proceedings Library ; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2004; Volume 812, p. F6.18.1-6. [ Google Scholar ] Miyajima, H.; Ishikawa, K.; Sekine, M.; Hori, M. Review of Methods for the Mitigation of Plasma-Induced Damage to Low-Dielectric-Constant Interlayer Dielectrics Used for Semiconductor Logic Device Interconnects. Plasma Process. Polym. 2019 , 16 , 1–20. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Lopaev, D.V.; Zyryanov, S.M.; Zotovich, A.I.; Rakhimova, T.V.; Mankelevich, Y.A.; Voronia, E.N. Damage to Porous SiOCH low- k Dielectrics by O, N and F atoms at lowered temperatures. J. Phys. D Appl. Phys. 2020 , 53 , 175203. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Jang, J.K.; Tak, H.W.; Yang, K.C.; Shin, Y.J.; Hyeon, J.Y.; Hyeon, J.Y.; Kang, M.G.; Ahn, J.H.; Yeom, G.Y. Etch Damage Reduction of Ultra low- k Dielectric by Using Pulsed Plasmas. ESC Trans. 2019 , 89 , 79–86. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Torazawa, N.; Matsumoto, S.; Harada, T.; Molinearaga, Y.; Inagaki, D.; Kabe, T.; Hirao, S.; Seo, K.; Suzuki, S.; Korogi, H.; et al. High-Performance Extremely low- k Film Integration Technology with Metal Hardmask Process for Cu Interconnects. ESC J. Solid State Sci. Technol. 2016 , 5 , 578–583. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Lee, D.; Tatti, P.; Lee, R.; Chang, J.; Cho, W.; Bae, S. Study for New Hardmask Process Scheme. In Proceedings of the Advanced in Patterning Materials and Processes XXXIV, San Jose, CA, USA, 27 February–3 March 2017; p. 1146. [ Google Scholar ] Payne, M.; Lippy, S.; Lieten, R.; Kesters, E.; Le, Q.T.; Murdoch, G.; Gonzalez, V.V.; Holsteyns, F. Evaluation of Post Etch Residue Cleaning Solution for the Removal of Tin Hardmask after Dry Etch of low- k Dielectric Materials on 45 nm Pitch Interconnects. Solid State Phenom. 2016 , 255 , 232–236. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Lai, C.C.; Chang, Y.H.; Chien, H.J.; Lu, M.C. Amorphous Carbon Process Optimization to Increase Hardmask and Lithographic Capabilities by Its Step Coverage Improvement. In Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Next Generation Electronics, Keelung, Taiwan, 23–25 May 2017; pp. 1–2. [ Google Scholar ] Mankelevich, Y.A.; Voronina, E.N.; Rakhimova, T.V.; Palov, A.P.; Lopaev, D.V.; Zyryanov, S.M.; Baklanov, M.R. Multi-step Reaction Mechanism for F atom interactions with organosilicate glass and SiOx films. J. Phys. D Appl. Phys. 2016 , 49 , 345203. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Kim, K.P.; Song, W.S.; Park, M.K.; Hong, S. Surface Analysis of Amorphous Carbon Thin Film for Etch Hardmask. J. Nanotechnol. Nanomater. 2021 , in press. [ Google Scholar ] Grill, A.; Neumayer, D.A. Structure of low dielectric constant to extreme low dielectric constant SiCOH films: Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy characterization. J. Appl. Phys. 2003 , 94 , 6697–6707. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Baklanov, M.R.; de Marneffe, J.-F.; Shamiryan, D.; Urbanowicz, A.M.; Shi, H.; Rakhimova, T.V.; Huang, H.; Ho, P.S. Plasma processing of low- k dielectrics. J. Appl. Phys. 2013 , 113 , 041101. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Ţucureanu, V.; Matei, A.; Avram, A.M. FTIR Spectroscopy for Carbon Family Study. Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem. 2016 , 46 , 502–520. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] Li, G.; Zheng, G.; Ding, Z.; Shi, L.; Li, J.; Chen, Z.; Wang, L.; Tay, A.A.O.; Zhu, W. High-performance ultra-low- k fluorine-doped nanoporous organosilica films for inter-layer dielectric. J. Mater. Sci. 2018 , 54 , 2379–2391. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Kitajima, T.; Noro, K.; Nakano, T.; Makabe, T. Influence of driving frequency on oxygen atom density in O2radio frequency capacitively coupled plasma. J. Phys. D Appl. Phys. 2004 , 37 , 2670–2676. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Takeda, K.; Miyawaki, Y.; Takashima, S.; Fukasawa, M.; Oshima, K.; Nagahata, K.; Tatsumi, T.; Hori, M. Mechanism of plasma-induced damage to low- k SiOCH films during plasma ashing of organic resists. J. Appl. Phys. 2011 , 109 , 033303. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Hamdan, A.; Abdul Halim, R.; Anjum, D.; Cha, M.S. Synthesis of SiOC:H nanoparticles by electrical discharge in hexamethyldisilazane and water. Plasma Process. Polym. 2017 , 14 , 1700089. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Meškinis, Š.; Vasiliauskas, A.; Andrulevičius, M.; Peckus, D.; Tamulevičius, S.; Viskontas, K. Diamond Like Carbon Films Containing Si: Structure and Nonlinear Optical Properties. Materials 2020 , 13 , 1003. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ][ Green Version ] Gourhant, O.; Gerbaud, G.; Zenasni, A.; Favennec, L.; Gonon, P.; Jousseaume, V. Crosslinking of porous SiOCH films involving Si–O–C bonds: Impact of deposition and curing. J. Appl. Phys. 2010 , 108 , 124105. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Huang, C.H.; Huang, H.L.; Hung, C.I.; Wang, N.F.; Wang, Y.H.; Houng, M.P. Bond Structure in Porous SiOCH low- k Film Fabricated by Ultraviolet Irradiation. Jpn. J. Appl.Phys. 2008 , 47 , 1532–1535. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Figure 1. Illustrations of the analytical tools used to characterize the film surfaces: ( a ) Fourier-transform infrared (FT-IR), ( b ) X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and ( c ) field emission scanning electron microscope (FE-SEM). Figure 2. A schematic diagram of the plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) apparatus used to deposit the low- k dielectrics and the amorphous carbon layer (ACL) hardmasks. Figure 3. SEM images of a pristine sample and over-stripped samples. Figure 4. ( a ) Schematic illustration showing a wafer with one quarter coated by a single amorphous carbon layer and ( b ) the location of a coupon wafer on a multilayered specimen used to determine the ACL stripping endpoint. Figure 5. ( a ) OES spectrum acquired during stripping of a single amorphous carbon layer. Ninth-order polynomial fitting was performed to draw the regression line. The endpoint was detected at t = 255 s; ( b ) OES spectra of multilayered samples stripped at 200, 250, and 300 W with endpoints of 258 s, 227 s, and 167 s, respectively. Ninth-order polynomial fitting was performed to draw the regression lines. Figure 6. FT-IR spectra of a reference (as deposited) sample and samples stripped at 200, 250, and 300 W. Figure 7. De-convoluted FT-IR spectra showing different Si–O peaks. Figure 8. Percentages of carbon in rings, networks, cages, and methyl groups based on the deconvoluted FT-IR spectra. Figure 9. XPS survey spectra of a reference (as-deposited) sample and samples stripped at 200, 250, and 300 W. Figure 10. Atomic ratios based on XPS analysis. Figure 11. ( a ) C1s; ( b ) O1s and ( c ) Si2p spectra of samples stripped at 200 W, 250 W, and 300 W. Figure 12. De-convoluted spectra of samples processed under different conditions: ( a ) C1s; ( b ) O1s; and ( c ) Si2p. Figure 13. Nano-indentation results for an as-deposited sample and samples stripped at 200 W, 250 W, and 300 W. Figure 14. Hardness values of a reference (as-deposited) sample and samples stripped at 200 W, 250 W, and 300 W. Figure 15. Young’s moduli of a reference (as-deposited) sample and samples stripped at 200 W, 250 W, and 300 W. Share and Cite MDPI and ACS Style Park, M.K.; Song, W.S.; Kim, M.H.; Hong, S.J. Surface Analysis of TMCTS-Based SiOC(H) Low- kDielectrics in Post-Etch Strip of ACL Hardmask. Materials 2021, 14, 1144. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14051144 AMA Style Park MK, Song WS, Kim MH, Hong SJ. Surface Analysis of TMCTS-Based SiOC(H) Low- kDielectrics in Post-Etch Strip of ACL Hardmask. Materials. 2021; 14(5):1144. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14051144 Chicago/Turabian Style Park, Min Kyu, Wan Soo Song, Min Ho Kim, and Sang Jeen Hong. 2021. "Surface Analysis of TMCTS-Based SiOC(H) Low- kDielectrics in Post-Etch Strip of ACL Hardmask" Materials14, no. 5: 1144. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14051144 Article Metrics

https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/14/5/1144

HOWARD v. AEROTEK STAFFIN | No. 1:14CV951. | By... | 20150303a91| Leagle.com MEMORANDUM OPINION ORDER AND RECOMMENDATION OF UNITED STATES MAGISTRATE JUDGE L. PATRICK AULD Magistrate Judge. This case comes...20150303a91 HOWARD v. AEROTEK STAFFING AGENCY No. 1:14CV951. View Case Cited Cases BELINDA HOWARD, Plaintiff, v. AEROTEK STAFFING AGENCY, et al., Defendants. United States District Court, M.D. North Carolina. https://leagle.com/images/logo.png March 2, 2015. March 2, 2015. Attorney(s) appearing for the Case BELINDA HOWARD, Plaintiff, Pro Se. MEMORANDUM OPINION, ORDER, AND RECOMMENDATION OF UNITED STATES MAGISTRATE JUDGE L. PATRICK AULD , Magistrate Judge . This case comes before the Court on Plaintiff's Application for Leave to Proceed In Forma Pauperis (Docket Entry 1), filed in conjunction with Plaintiff's pro se Complaint (Docket Entry 3). The Court will grant Plaintiff's request to proceed as a pauper for the limited purpose of recommending dismissal of her federal claims under 28 U.S.C. § 1915(e)(2)(B) and dismissal without prejudice of her state-law claims under 28 U.S.C. § 1367(c)(3). LEGAL BACKGROUND "The federal in forma pauperis [`IFP'] statute, first enacted in 1892 [and now codified at 28 U.S.C. § 1915], is intended to guarantee that no citizen shall be denied access to the courts `solely because his poverty makes it impossible for him to pay or secure the costs.'" Nasim v. Warden, Md. House of Corr. , 64 F.3d 951 , 953 (4th Cir. 1995) (en banc) (quoting Adkins v. E.I. DuPont de Nemours & Co. , 335 U.S. 331 , 342 (1948)). "Dispensing with filing fees, however, [is] not without its problems. Parties proceeding under the statute d[o] not face the same financial constraints as ordinary litigants. In particular, litigants suing [IFP] d[o] not need to balance the prospects of successfully obtaining relief against the administrative costs of bringing suit." Nagy v. Federal Med. Ctr. Butner , 376 F.3d 252 , 255 (4th Cir. 2004). To address this concern, the IFP statute provides, in relevant part, that "the court shall dismiss the case at any time if the court determines that — . . . (B) the action . . . (ii) fails to state a claim on which relief may be granted. . . ." 28 U.S.C. § 1915(e)(2). A complaint falls short when it does not "contain sufficient factual matter , accepted as true, to `state a claim to relief that is plausible on its face.'" Ashcroft v. Iqbal , 556 U.S. 662, 678 (2009) (emphasis added) (internal citations omitted) (quoting Bell Atl. Corp. v. Twombly , 550 U.S. 544, 570 (2007)). This standard "demands more than an unadorned, the-defendant-unlawfully-harmed-me accusation." Id. In other words, "the tenet that a court must accept as true all of the allegations contained in a complaint is inapplicable to legal conclusions. Threadbare recitals of the elements of a cause of action, supported by mere conclusory statements, do not suffice." Id. 1 DISCUSSION Plaintiff's Complaint names Aerotek Staffing Agency, as well as Jason Pritchard and Megan Goode (both Aerotek employees), as Defendants. (Docket Entry 3 at 1-2, 8.) It states that Defendant Aerotek placed Plaintiff in a position with ConvaTec, Inc., where she allegedly suffered race discrimination, violations of wage-and-hour laws, and retaliation for reporting her concerns as to each of the foregoing. (Id. at 3-6.) 2In support of Plaintiff's claims, the Complaint presents the following factual allegations: 1) "[o]n Monday, May 12, 2014[,] [Plaintiff] became employed with [Defendant] Aerotek [] and placed on a two year assignment with Conva[T]ec Inc." ( id. at 4); 2) "Annette Holloway (Assistant Plant Manager) . . . offered [Plaintiff] a shift position of 7-3 Monday thru Friday" ( id. ); 3) during that employment, Plaintiff reported two incidents of racial discrimination suffered by her co-workers: i) first, "there were occasions when Aerotek employees did not want to rotate [according to] department policies and [were] not forced to do so by Marty Martin (Department Lead) because of discriminatory reasons" ( id. at 3); however, "[s]ubsequently, Tanice House (Aerotek [e]mployee) reported the situation to Crystal Long (Department Supervisor) and soon after proper procedures [were] followed" ( id. ); and ii) second, Plaintiff "reported a discriminatory incident against a ConvaTec mechanic . . . which occurred on or around May 26, 2014, to Crystal Long" ( id. at 4); 4) "[o]n June 2, 2014[,] as [Plaintiff] approached the time clock at approximately 3:10pm having difficulty punching out[,] Annette Holloway (Assistant Plant Manager) said, `You should still be working'" ( id. ); 5) "[Plaintiff] replied by asking `Why employees[] are not paid for the extra 10 minutes [they] are required to work every day?'" ( id. ) 6) "[a]fter posing a question about pay[,] from June 3, 2014[,] until June 11, 2014[,] [Plaintiff] experienced retaliation [] by Annette Holloway" ( id. ), as demonstrated by the following incidents: i) "[Plaintiff] was followed at 10am ([Plaintiff's] first 20 minute break) and at 1pm ([Plaintiff's] second 20 minute break)" ( id. ); ii) "[o]n or before June 5, 2014, upon returning from [her] 10am break, Annette stood in front of [her] work station in [her] personal space leaving [her] with just about an inch to squeeze by her, watching the time when [Plaintiff] returned" ( id. at 5); iii) "[l]ater, [Plaintiff] was approached at [her] work station by supervisor Crystal Hall[] [who] stated she was told by Annette Holloway (Crystal's [s]upervisor) [that] [Plaintiff] returned from [her] 10am break late" ( id. ); iv) Plaintiff responded that "[she] was unaware the other four ladies had left for break, so [Plaintiff] left a couple of minutes later . . . [and] therefore [Plaintiff] was not late returning two minutes after the group returned" ( id. ); and v) "Crystal Hall ([s]upervisor) stated [Plaintiff] must leave and return with the group every day [and] [Plaintiff] responded [that] [she] [would] make sure [to do so]" ( id. ); 7) "[o]n June 10, 2014[,] Jean [Plaintiff's coworker] and [Plaintiff] had a conversation that upset Tanice [and] [l]ater on that day Tanice and [Plaintiff] began to talk, [a] general conversation[,] [and] [Plaintiff] tried to be the peace maker" ( id. at 6); 8) "[Plaintiff] talked about the news mentioning the shooting in Washington, DC in which [Plaintiff's] mother has a close friend. . . [and] [Plaintiff] mentioned [her] 31 year old son who is a little wild and crazy and what he would do in a situation related to the one in DC" ( id. ); 9) "[o]n June 11, 2014[,] Tanice House [r]eported to Marty Martin [that] [Plaintiff] was going home to get a gun and [Plaintiff] was terminated a few hours later by [a] telephone [call] from [Defendant] Goode" ( id. ); 10) "[a]n investigation was performed by [Defendant] Pritchard (Employees Relations Specialist) for the Aerotek Staffing Agency. . . [which] determined [that] [Plaintiff] was still eligible to be employed by [Defendant] Aerot[e]k, but as of November 11, 2014[,] additional employment has not been offered" ( id. at 7); and 11) "[Plaintiff] ha[s] contacted [Defendant Aerotek] on several [occasions] concerning emails [she] [] receive[d] for employment but the job was either filled or did not meet [Plaintiff's] qualifications" ( id. ). In that regard, Plaintiff's Complaint asserts that she "has established prima facie cases of wrongful termination, retaliation, discrimination, defamation of character, hostile work environment, and back pay wages." ( Id. at 7.) The Complaint further states that, "[t]o shift the charge of whistleblowing and retaliation to the charge of threatening someone with a gun is unprofessional, [and] committed out of anger and hatred for [Plaintiff]." ( Id. ) Plaintiff reportedly filed charges with the EEOC in July of 2014 and received her notice-of-right-to-sue letter on October 4, 2014. ( Id.; see also Docket Entry 3-1.) Based on the foregoing, Plaintiff seeks $5,000 each from Defendants Goode and Prichard. (Docket Entry 3 at 8.) Plaintiff's Complaint further indicates that she seeks damages from ConvaTec and several of its employees (who she has named as defendants in a separate complaint) but does not specify the amount of damages she hopes to obtain from Defendant Aerotek. ( See id. ) Plaintiff's Complaint appears to assert possible claims under both Title VII and the Fair Labor Standards Act ("FLSA") against Defendant Aerotek. However, as an initial matter, Plaintiff's Complaint does not identify, nor do the facts alleged therein appear to support, any federal cause of action against the two individual Defendants. Title VII does not provide for a cause of action against an individual supervisor. See Lissau v. Southern Food Serv., Inc. , 159 F.3d 177 , 181 (4th Cir. 1998) ("Congress only intended employers to be liable for Title VII violations.") Although the FLSA contemplates liability against individuals with "extensive managerial responsibilities and `substantial control of the terms and conditions of the work of [] employees,'" Roman v. Guapos III, Inc. , 970 F.Supp.2d 407 , 416 (D. Md. 2013) (quoting Falk v. Brennan , 414 U.S. 190 , 195 (1973)), Plaintiff's Complaint fails to provide any facts to support an inference that Defendants Pritchard and Goode bore such responsibilities ( see Docket Entry 3 at 1-8). Specifically, the Complaint describes Defendant Pritchard as an "Aerotek Employment Relation Specialist" and Defendant Goode as a "Aerotek Representative" ( see id. at 8), job titles that do not suggest their involvement in the company's management, see Pearson v. Professional 50 States Protection, LLC , Civ. No. RDB-09-3232, 2010 WL 4225533, at *4 (D. Md. Oct. 26, 2010) (unpublished) (collecting cases, reflecting circumstances not present here, where courts have held individual officers, directors, or owners liable under FLSA). Under these circumstances, the Court should dismiss the claims under Title VII and the FLSA against Defendants Pritchard and Goode. As to Defendant Aerotek, Plaintiff has not stated a claim for race discrimination under Title VII because she has failed to allege facts to support that she suffered any discrimination based on race. The Complaint's only reference to racially discriminatory practices concern discrimination allegedly suffered by her co-workers. ( See Docket Entry 3 at 1-8.) An employer violates Title VII by "discriminat[ing] against any individual with respect to h[er] compensation, terms, conditions, or privileges of employment, because of such individual's race. . . ." 42 U.S.C. § 2000e-2(a)(1). Accordingly, Title VII generally does not allow an employee to recover based on violations of another person's civil rights. See, e.g., Krasner v. HSH Nordbank AG , 680 F.Supp.2d 502 , 515 (S.D.N.Y. 2010) ("[Plaintiff's] concern for a woman's right to be free of workplace discrimination, and offense taken upon being surrounded by conduct believed to impinge on that right, admirable as it may be, does not make [Plaintiff] himself a victim of gender-based discrimination within the scope of Title VII's protections."). In that regard, Plaintiff's Complaint first baldly asserts that "discriminatory reasons" resulted in the lack of enforcement of task-rotation policies. (Docket Entry 3 at 3.) The lack of factual matter supporting any such assertion renders it insufficient to support a claim. See Iqbal , 556 U.S. at 678. Further, the Complaint states that a co-worker reported the problem to management and that "soon after proper procedures w[ere] followed." (Docket Entry 3 at 3.) Second, the Complaint asserts in a conclusory fashion — and without further details — that Plaintiff "also reported a discriminatory incident against a ConvaTec mechanic." ( Id. at 4.) Such allegations do not support a Title VII claim for race discrimination. See Iqbal , 556 U.S. at 678. Although an employee may bring a Title VII retaliation claim "because [s]he has opposed any practice made an unlawful employment practice by [Title VII]," 42 U.S.C. § 2000e-3(a), Plaintiff's Complaint likewise fails to state a claim for retaliation under Title VII. To establish retaliation in employment under Title VII, [Plaintiff] may proceed in one of two ways. First, [s]he may present direct evidence of h[er] superiors' [retaliatory] intent. Second, [s]he may attempt to satisfy the test specified in McDonnell Douglas Corp. v. Green, 411 U.S. 792, 802 (1973), which allows h[er] to raise an inference of [retaliatory] intent by showing that [s]he was treated worse than similarly situated employees of other [relevant groups]. Defendants are then entitled to respond by presenting a legitimate, non[retaliatory] reason for their actions. Sterling v. Tenet , 416 F.3d 338 , 345 (4th Cir. 2005) (internal citations omitted). 3 Plaintiff's Complaint does not allege factual matter indicating the existence of direct evidence of retaliatory intent. ( See Docket Entry 3 at 1-8.) Accordingly, Plaintiff must rely on the McDonnell Douglas test, which first requires establishment of a prima facie case. See Coleman v. Maryland Ct. of App. , 626 F.3d 187 , 190 (4th Cir. 2010). "The elements of a prima facie retaliation claim under Title VII are: (1) engagement in a protected activity; (2) adverse employment action; and (3) a causal link between the protected activity and the employment action." Id. The Complaint's first allegation of racial discrimination — discrimination in the assignment of job tasks — does not satisfy the protected activity element because Plaintiff states that a co-worker reported a problem concerning another co-worker. ( See Docket Entry 3 at 3.) Thus, Plaintiff herself did not engage in a protected activity under Title VII. See Coleman , 626 F.3d at 190. As to the second allegation — the conclusory reference to Plaintiff's reporting of "a discriminatory incident against a ConvaTec mechanic" (Docket Entry 3 at 4) — the Complaint fails to allege sufficient facts to show protected activity or to warrant an inference of a causal connection between that incident and an adverse employment consequence suffered by Plaintiff ( see id. at 1-8). See Iqbal , 556 U.S. at 678. Plaintiff's Complaint similarly lacks adequate factual material to support a claim under the FLSA. "The [FLSA] sets forth employment rules concerning minimum wages, maximum hours, and overtime pay." Kasten v. Saint-Gobhain Performance Plastics Corp. , ___ U.S. ___, ___, 131 S.Ct. 1325 , 1329 (2011). Under that statute, a covered employer must compensate a nonexempt employee "at a rate not less than one and one-half times the regular rate" for any hours worked beyond forty hours in a given week. 29 U.S.C. § 207(a)(1). "To state a claim for unpaid overtime wages under FLSA, [a] [p]laintiff must allege (1) that [she] worked overtime hours without compensation; and (2) that the employer knew or should have known that [she] worked overtime but failed to compensate [her] for it." Sanchez v. Truse Trucking, Inc. , No. 1:13CV415, 2014 WL 3784109, at *3 (M.D.N.C. July 31, 2014) (unpublished) (Beaty, S.J.) (internal quotation marks omitted). "In the wake of the Iqbal and Twombly decisions, courts across the country have expressed differing views as to the level of factual detail necessary to plead a claim for overtime compensation under [the] FLSA." Butler v. DirectSat USA, LLC , 800 F.Supp.2d 662 , 667 (D. Md. 2011). District courts in the Fourth Circuit have adopted a comparatively lenient approach, see Sanchez , 2014 WL 3784109, at *3 (collecting cases), under which a "plaintiff[] need not provide a running list of specific work days for which [she was] not paid; it is enough that [she has] provided a clear factual statement charging as much," Davis v. Skylink LTD. , Civ. No. 3:11-0094, 2011 WL 2447113, at *4 (S.D. W. Va. June 15, 2011) (unpublished) (emphasis added); see also Alston v. Becton, Dickinson & Co. , No. 1:12CV452, 2014 WL 4539634, at *4 (M.D.N.C. Aug. 27, 2013) (unpublished) (concluding that complaint alleging 310 hours of unpaid overtime over two years stated claim under FLSA); Long v. CPI Sec. Sys., Inc. , No. 3:12CV396-RJC-DSC, 2012 WL 3777417, at *4 (W.D.N.C. Aug. 30, 2012) (unpublished) (finding sufficient allegations of work averaging 50-60 hours per week over four-year period without overtime pay). Thus, at a minimum, an FLSA overtime complaint must state a rough estimate of overtime hours worked or total hours worked each week, without proper compensation. Plaintiff's Complaint alleges that Annette Holloway "offered [her] a 1st shift position of 7-3 Monday thru Friday" (Docket Entry 3 at 4) and that, on one day, "as [Plaintiff] approached the time clock at approximately 3:10pm having difficulty punching out[,] Annette Holloway (Assistant Plant Manager) said, `You should still be working' . . . [and] "[Plaintiff] replied by asking "Why employees[] are not paid for the extra 10 minutes [they] are required to work every day?" ( id. ). The Complaint further states: "[W]e were not receiving time and a half pay for the 10 minutes we were required to work each day." ( Id. at 5.) Notwithstanding the foregoing, Plaintiff's Complaint fails to allege that she actually worked more than forty hours in any week. In that regard, the regulations promulgated under the FLSA do not consider all paid time as working time. See Johnson v. City of Columbia, S.C. , 949 F.2d 127 , 129 (4th Cir. 1991) ("Generally speaking, the FLSA clearly requires employers to pay employees overtime for all hours worked over forty in one week. There are, however, certain exceptions and exclusions. . . ."). For instance, if Convatec afforded Plaintiff a paid 30-minute daily lunch break, such time would not count toward her total hours worked that week, and Plaintiff would have no entitlement to overtime pay. See 29 C.F.R. § 785.19 ("Bona fide meal periods are not worktime. . . . Ordinarily 30 minutes or more is long enough for a bona fide meal period. A shorter period may be long enough under special conditions."). Moreover, Plaintiff has not stated that she consistently arrived on time for work. ( See Docket Entry 3 at 1-8.) Simply put, given that Plaintiff has not alleged that she actually accrued over forty hours of working time in a given week, or provided a total estimate of the number of hours of overtime she worked without additional compensation, the Complaint does not contain sufficient factual information to state a claim for failure to pay overtime compensation. The FLSA further "contains an antiretaliation provision that forbids employers `to discharge or in any other manner discriminate against any employee because such employee has filed any complaint . . . under or related to [the FLSA]. . . .'" Kasten , ___ U.S. at ___, 131 S. Ct. at 1329 (quoting 29 U.S.C. § 215(a)(3)) (emphasis in original). Moreover, the Supreme Court has concluded that "the statutory term `filed a complaint' includes oral as well as written complaints within its scope." Id. As with Title VII, "[an] [FLSA] plaintiff may show retaliation by direct evidence or indirectly through a McDonnell Douglas type proof scheme." Strickland v. MICA Info. Sys. , 800 F.Supp. 1320 , (M.D.N.C. 1992). Again, Plaintiff's Complaint lacks factual matter suggesting the existence of direct evidence of retaliatory intent ( see Docket Entry 3 at 1-8) and, thus, she must follow the relevant proof scheme. "A plaintiff asserting a prima facie claim of retaliation under the FLSA must show that (1) [s]he engaged in an activity protected by the FLSA; (2) [s]he suffered adverse action by the employer subsequent to or contemporaneous with such protected activity; and (3) a causal connection exists between the employee's activity and the employer's adverse action." Darveau v. Detecon, Inc. , 515 F.3d 334 , 340 (4th Cir. 2008). The Fourth Circuit has looked to Title VII to interpret the FLSA's retaliation provision and found "no significant differences in either the language or intent of the two statutes regarding the type of adverse action their retaliation provisions prohibit." Id. at 342. "[A] plaintiff asserting a retaliation claim under the FLSA need only allege that his employer retaliated against him by engaging in an action `that would have been materially adverse to a reasonable employee' because the `employer's actions . . . could well dissuade a reasonable worker from making or supporting a charge [under the FLSA].'" Id. at 343 (quoting Burlington N. & Santa Fe Ry. Co. v. White , 548 U.S. 53 , 57 (2006)). That said, "the Supreme Court in White was clear that, generally, `petty slights, minor annoyances, and simple lack of good manners,' which are not uncommonly found in the workplace, do not qualify as materially adverse employment actions." Wilcoxon v. DECO Recovery Mgmt., LLC , 925 F.Supp.2d 725 , 731 (D. Md. 2013) (quoting White , 548 U.S. at 68). Plaintiff's Complaint alleges that, after she raised concerns with a supervisor about overtime pay, "[Plaintiff] came under personal attack and the workplace was being used to execute a vindictive behavior, because [of] [Plaintiff's] knowledge [of] the fact that [employees] were not receiving time and a half pay for the 10 [additional] minutes we were required to work each day." (Docket Entry 3 at 5.) As examples of retaliation she suffered, Plaintiff states that one supervisor reprimanded her for not taking her break at the same time as her coworkers and that another supervisor monitored her breaks to ensure she did not take more than the allotted time. ( See id. ) Nonetheless, "[e]ven under the more generous standard that governs retaliation claims, a reprimand without more is not an adverse employment action." Chaib v. Indiana , 744 F.3d 974 , 987 (7th Cir. 2014) (emphasis added) (internal quotation marks omitted); see also Wilcoxon , 925 F. Supp. 2d at 731 ("[Employee] speaks of her embarrassment and discomfort at being berated by [her employer] in front of her sales team, but this is not enough to elevate her maltreatment to the level of a materially adverse employment action." (internal citation omitted)). Similarly, "monitoring of [an employee's] performance [and] breaks . . . are, at most, `petty slights, minor annoyances, and simple lack of good manners' that cannot be classified as materially adverse employment actions." Lindsey-Grobes v. United Airlines, Inc. , No. GJH-14-00857, 2014 WL 5298030, at *10 (D. Md. Oct. 14, 2014) (unpublished) (quoting White , 548 U.S. at 68) (internal citation omitted). Plaintiff's Complaint then appears to claim some connection between the alleged retaliatory acts and her termination approximately two weeks later, stating: "[t]o shift the original charge of whistleblowing and retaliation to the charge of threat[en]ing someone with a gun is unprofessional [and] committed out of anger and hatred for me" (Docket Entry 3 at 7). However, this conclusory assertion alone does not support a reasonable inference that Plaintiff's oral complaint about overtime caused her termination. See Iqbal , 556 U.S. at 678 ("Threadbare recitals of the elements of a cause of action, supported by mere conclusory statements, do not suffice."). Furthermore, even assuming that Plaintiff had established a prima facie case for retaliation under Title VII or the FLSA, her claim would fail because she has acknowledged "a legitimate, non-retaliatory reason for the adverse action [i.e., her termination]," Mould v. NJG Food Serv. Inc. , Civ. No. JKB-13-1305, 2014 WL 3943693, at *12 (D. Md. Aug. 12, 2014) (unpublished) (citing Anderson v. G.D.C., Inc. , 281 F.3d 452 , 458 (4th Cir. 2002)). According to Plaintiff, the day following her conversation with co-worker Tanice House regarding a shooting in Washington, D.C., "[Ms.] House [r]eported to [supervisor] Marty Martin that [Plaintiff] was going home to get a gun, and [Plaintiff] was terminated a few hours later by telephone from [Defendant] Goode." (Docket Entry 3 at 6.) In that regard, the face of the Complaint indicates that a co-worker's report of alleged comments by Plaintiff resulted in her firing. Even considering these facts in a light most favorable to Plaintiff — and assuming that Ms. House misunderstood Plaintiff — the circumstances would not entitle Plaintiff to relief under Title VII or the FLSA because Plaintiff's own allegations show that something other than conduct protected under those acts caused Plaintiff's termination. Further, according to Plaintiff, Ms. House allegedly suffered racial discrimination in the workplace and Ms. House — not Plaintiff — reported that incident to a supervisor. (Docket Entry 3 at 3.) Accordingly, no reason exists to believe Ms. House played some part in a plot to retaliate against Plaintiff for engaging in protected activity. Finally, Plaintiff's Complaint names Annette Holloway as the perpetrator of the alleged acts of retaliation ( id. at 4), but it assigns Ms. Holloway no role in Plaintiff's termination beyond her alleged failure to intervene ( see id. at 6-9). In sum, Plaintiff has failed to allege any facts which would establish a plausible causal relationship between conduct protected by Title VII or the FLSA and her firing to support a claim for retaliation. 4 Plaintiff's only remaining claims arise under state law. "[I]n any civil action of which the district courts have original jurisdiction, the district courts have supplemental jurisdiction over all other claims that are so related to claims in the action within such original jurisdiction that they form part of the same case or controversy under Article III of the United States Constitution." 28 U.S.C. § 1367(a). However, "the district courts may decline to exercise supplemental jurisdiction over a claim under subsection (a) if . . . the district court has dismissed all claims over which it has original jurisdiction." 28 U.S.C. § 1367(c)(3). "It has consistently been recognized that pendent jurisdiction is a doctrine of discretion, not of plaintiff's right.... [I]f the federal claims are dismissed before trial, even though not insubstantial in a jurisdictional sense, the state claims should be dismissed as well." United Mine Workers of Am. v. Gibbs , 383 U.S. 715 , 726 (1966). In light of the recommended dismissal of the federal claims at the pleading stage and the absence of grounds for the exercise of diversity jurisdiction, 5 the Court should decline to exercise supplemental jurisdiction over Plaintiff's state-law claims and, instead, should dismiss those claims without prejudice. CONCLUSION Plaintiff's federal claims fall short as a matter of law. IT IS THEREFORE ORDERED that Plaintiff's Application for Leave to Proceed In Forma Pauperis and Affidavit/Declaration in Support (Docket Entry 1) is GRANTED FOR THE LIMITED PURPOSE OF ALLOWING THE COURT TO CONSIDER A RECOMMENDATION OF DISMISSAL. IT IS RECOMMENDED that Plaintiff's federal claims be dismissed pursuant to 28 U.S.C. § 1915(e)(2)(B) and that her state claims be dismissed without prejudice pursuant to 28 U.S.C. § 1367(c)(3). FootNotes 1. Although "[a] document filed pro se is to be liberally construed and a pro se complaint, however inartfully pleaded, must be held to less stringent standards than formal pleadings drafted by lawyers," Erickson v. Pardus , 551 U.S. 89, 94 (2007) (internal citations and quotation marks omitted), the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit has "not read Erickson to undermine Twombly 's requirement that a pleading contain more than labels and conclusions," Giarratano v. Johnson , 521 F.3d 298 , 304 n.5 (4th Cir. 2008) (internal quotation marks omitted) (dismissing pro se complaint); accord Atherton v. District of Columbia Office of Mayor , 567 F.3d 672 , 681-82 (D.C. Cir. 2009) ("A pro se complaint. . . `must be held to less stringent standards than formal pleadings drafted by lawyers.' But even a pro se complainant must plead `factual matter' that permits the court to infer `more than the mere possibility of misconduct.'" (quoting Erickson , 551 U.S. at 94, and Iqbal , 556 U.S. at 679, respectively)). 2. Plaintiff also filed a nearly identical Complaint against ConvaTec and several of its employees. See Howard v. ConvaTec Inc. , No. 1:14CV952-CCE-LPA (Docket Entry 3) (M.D.N.C.). 3. Although McDonnell Douglas arose in the discrimination context, its framework also applies to retaliation claims. See Hawkins v. Pepsico, Inc. , 203 F.3d 274 , 281 n.1 (4th Cir. 2000). see Docket Entry 3 at 7), such claim fails for all the same reasons identified above as to Plaintiff's other claims of discrimination and/or retaliation. 5. The Complaint identifies Plaintiff and Defendant Aerotek as residents of Guilford County, North Carolina. (Docket Entry 3 at 1.) Such circumstances cannot satisfy the diversity jurisdiction statute. See 28 U.S.C. § 1332(a). Privacy Statement

https://www.leagle.com/decision/infdco20150303a91

ESTRELLA PALMARES v. CA GR No. 126490, (1998-03-31) DIVISION [ GR No. 126490, Mar 31, 1998 ] ESTRELLA PALMARES v. CA + DECISION 351 Phil. 664 SECOND DIVISION [ G.R. No. 126490, March 31, 1998 ] ESTRELLA PALMARES, PETITIONER, VS. COURT OF APPEALS AND M.B. LENDING CORPORATION, RESPONDENTS.D E C I S I O N REGALADO, J.: Where a party signs a promissory note as a co-maker and binds herself to be jointly and severally liable with the principal debtor in case the latter defaults in the payment of the loan, is such undertaking of the former deemed to be that of a surety as an insurer of the debt, or of a guarantor who warrants the solvency of the debtor? Pursuant to a promissory note dated March 13, 1990, private respondent M.B. Lending Corporation extended a loan to the spouses Osmeña and Merlyn Azarraga, together with petitioner Estrella Palmares, in the amount of P30,000.00 payable on or before May 12, 1990, with compounded interest at the rate of 6% per annum to be computed every 30 days from the date thereof. [1] On four occasions after the execution of the promissory note and even after the loan matured, petitioner and the Azarraga spouses were able to pay a total of P16,300.00, thereby leaving a balance of P13,700.00. No payments were made after the last payment on September 26, 1991. [2] Consequently, on the basis of petitioner's solidary liability under the promissory note, respondent corporation filed a complaint [3] against petitioner Palmares as the lone party-defendant, to the exclusion of the principal debtors, allegedly by reason of the insolvency of the latter. In her Amended Answer with Counterclaim, [4] petitioner alleged that sometime in August 1990, immediately after the loan matured, she offered to settle the obligation with respondent corporation but the latter informed her that they would try to collect from the spouses Azarraga and that she need not worry about it; that there has already been a partial payment in the amount of P17,010.00; that the interest of 6% per month compounded at the same rate per month, as well as the penalty charges of 3% per month, are usurious and unconscionable; and that while she agrees to be liable on the note but only upon default of the principal debtor, respondent corporation acted in bad faith in suing her alone without including the Azarragas when they were the only ones who benefited from the proceeds of the loan. During the pre-trial conference, the parties submitted the following issues for the resolution of the trial court: (1) what the rate of interest, penalty and damages should be; (2) whether the liability of the defendant (herein petitioner) is primary or subsidiary; and (3) whether the defendant Estrella Palmares is only a guarantor with a subsidiary liability and not a co-maker with primary liability. [5] Thereafter, the parties agreed to submit the case for decision based on the pleadings filed and the memoranda to be submitted by them. On November 26, 1992, the Regional Trial Court of Iloilo City, Branch 23, rendered judgment dismissing the complaint without prejudice to the filing of a separate action for a sum of money against the spouses Osmeña and Merlyn Azarraga who are primarily liable on the instrument. [6] This was based on the findings of the court a quothat the filing of the complaint against herein petitioner Estrella Palmares, to the exclusion of the Azarraga spouses, amounted to a discharge of a prior party; that the offer made by petitioner to pay the obligation is considered a valid tender of payment sufficient to discharge a person's secondary liability on the instrument; that petitioner, as co-maker, is only secondarily liable on the instrument; and that the promissory note is a contract of adhesion. Respondent Court of Appeals, however, reversed the decision of the trial court, and rendered judgment declaring herein petitioner Palmares liable to pay respondent corporation: 1. The sum of P13,700.00 representing the outstanding balance still due and owing with interest at six percent (6%) per month computed from the date the loan was contracted until fully paid; 2. The sum equivalent to the stipulated penalty of three percent (3%) per month, of the outstanding balance; 3. Attorney's fees at 25% of the total amount due per stipulations; 4. Plus costs of suit. [7] Contrary to the findings of the trial court, respondent appellate court declared that petitioner Palmares is a surety since she bound herself to be jointly and severally or solidarily liable with the principal debtors, the Azarraga spouses, when she signed as a co-maker. As such, petitioner is primarily liable on the note and hence may be sued by the creditor corporation for the entire obligation. It also adverted to the fact that petitioner admitted her liability in her Answer although she claims that the Azarraga spouses should have been impleaded. Respondent court ordered the imposition of the stipulated 6% interest and 3% penalty charges on the ground that the Usury Law is no longer enforceable pursuant to Central Bank Circular No. 905. Finally, it rationalized that even if the promissory note were to be considered as a contract of adhesion, the same is not entirely prohibited because the one who adheres to the contract is free to reject it entirely; if he adheres, he gives his consent. Hence this petition for review on certiorariwherein it is asserted that: A. The Court of Appeals erred in ruling that Palmares acted as surety and is therefore solidarily liable to pay the promissory note. 1. The terms of the promissory note are vague. Its conflicting provisions do not establish Palmares' solidary liability. 2. The promissory note contains provisions which establish the co-maker's liability as that of a guarantor. 3. There is no sufficient basis for concluding that Palmares' liability is solidary. 4. The promissory note is a contract of adhesion and should be construed against M.B. Lending Corporation. 5. Palmares cannot be compelled to pay the loan at this point. B. Assuming that Palmares' liability is solidary, the Court of Appeals erred in strictly imposing the interests and penalty charges on the outstanding balance of the promissory note. The foregoing contentions of petitioner are denied and contradicted in their material points by respondent corporation. They are further refuted by accepted doctrines in the American jurisdiction after which we patterned our statutory law on suretyship and guaranty. This case then affords us the opportunity to make an extended exposition on the ramifications of these two specialized contracts, for such guidance as may be taken therefrom in similar local controversies in the future. The basis of petitioner Palmares' liability under the promissory note is expressed in this wise: ATTENTION TO CO-MAKERS: PLEASE READ WELL I, Mrs. Estrella Palmares, as the Co-maker of the above-quoted loan, have fully understood the contents of this Promissory Note for Short-Term Loan: That as Co-maker, I am fully aware that I shall be jointly and severally or solidarily liable with the above principal maker of this note; That in fact, I hereby agree that M.B. LENDING CORPORATION may demand payment of the above loan from me in case the principal maker, Mrs. Merlyn Azarragadefaults in the payment of the note subject to the same conditions above-contained. [8] Petitioner contends that the provisions of the second and third paragraph are conflicting in that while the second paragraph seems to define her liability as that of a surety which is joint and solidary with the principal maker, on the other hand, under the third paragraph her liability is actually that of a mere guarantor because she bound herself to fulfill the obligation only in case the principal debtor should fail to do so, which is the essence of a contract of guaranty. More simply stated, although the second paragraph says that she is liable as a surety, the third paragraph defines the nature of her liability as that of a guarantor. According to petitioner, these are two conflicting provisions in the promissory note and the rule is that clauses in the contract should be interpreted in relation to one another and not by parts. In other words, the second paragraph should not be taken in isolation, but should be read in relation to the third paragraph. In an attempt to reconcile the supposed conflict between the two provisions, petitioner avers that she could be held liable only as a guarantor for several reasons. First, the words "jointly and severally or solidarily liable" used in the second paragraph are technical and legal terms which are not fully appreciated by an ordinary layman like herein petitioner, a 65-year old housewife who is likely to enter into such transactions without fully realizing the nature and extent of her liability. On the contrary, the wordings used in the third paragraph are easier to comprehend. Second, the law looks upon the contract of suretyship with a jealous eye and the rule is that the obligation of the surety cannot be extended by implication beyond specified limits, taking into consideration the peculiar nature of a surety agreement which holds the surety liable despite the absence of any direct consideration received from either the principal obligor or the creditor. Third, the promissory note is a contract of adhesion since it was prepared by respondent M.B. Lending Corporation. The note was brought to petitioner partially filled up, the contents thereof were never explained to her, and her only participation was to sign thereon. Thus, any apparent ambiguity in the contract should be strictly construed against private respondent pursuant to Art. 1377 of the Civil Code. [9] Petitioner accordingly concludes that her liability should be deemed restricted by the clause in the third paragraph of the promissory note to be that of a guarantor. Moreover, petitioner submits that she cannot as yet be compelled to pay the loan because the principal debtors cannot be considered in default in the absence of a judicial or extrajudicial demand. It is true that the complaint alleges the fact of demand, but the purported demand letters were never attached to the pleadings filed by private respondent before the trial court. And, while petitioner may have admitted in her Amended Answer that she received a demand letter from respondent corporation sometime in 1990, the same did not effectively put her or the principal debtors in default for the simple reason that the latter subsequently made a partial payment on the loan in September, 1991, a fact which was never controverted by herein private respondent. Finally, it is argued that the Court of Appeals gravely erred in awarding the amount of P2,745,483.39 in favor of private respondent when, in truth and in fact, the outstanding balance of the loan is only P13,700.00. Where the interest charged on the loan is exorbitant, iniquitous or unconscionable, and the obligation has been partially complied with, the court may equitably reduce the penalty [10] on grounds of substantial justice. More importantly, respondent corporation never refuted petitioner's allegation that immediately after the loan matured, she informed said respondent of her desire to settle the obligation. The court should, therefore, mitigate the damages to be paid since petitioner has shown a sincere desire for a compromise. [11] After a judicious evaluation of the arguments of the parties, we are constrained to dismiss the petition for lack of merit, but to except therefrom the issue anent the propriety of the monetary award adjudged to herein respondent corporation. At the outset, let it here be stressed that even assuming arguendothat the promissory note executed between the parties is a contract of adhesion, it has been the consistent holding of the Court that contracts of adhesion are not invalid per seand that on numerous occasions the binding effects thereof have been upheld. The peculiar nature of such contracts necessitate a close scrutiny of the factual milieu to which the provisions are intended to apply. Hence, just as consistently and unhesitatingly, but without categorically invalidating such contracts, the Court has construed obscurities and ambiguities in the restrictive provisions of contracts of adhesion strictly albeit not unreasonably against the drafter thereof when justified in light of the operative facts and surrounding circumstances. [12] The factual scenario obtaining in the case before us warrants a liberal application of the rule in favor of respondent corporation. The Civil Code pertinently provides: Art. 2047. By guaranty, a person called the guarantor binds himself to the creditor to fulfill the obligation of the principal debtor in case the latter should fail to do so. If a person binds himself solidarily with the principal debtor, the provisions of Section 4, Chapter 3, Title I of this Book shall be observed. In such case the contract is called a suretyship. It is a cardinal rule in the interpretation of contracts that if the terms of a contract are clear and leave no doubt upon the intention of the contracting parties, the literal meaning of its stipulation shall control. [13] In the case at bar, petitioner expressly bound herself to be jointly and severally or solidarily liable with the principal maker of the note. The terms of the contract are clear, explicit and unequivocal that petitioner's liability is that of a surety. Her pretension that the terms "jointly and severally or solidarily liable" contained in the second paragraph of her contract are technical and legal terms which could not be easily understood by an ordinary layman like her is diametrically opposed to her manifestation in the contract that she "fully understood the contents" of the promissory note and that she is "fully aware" of her solidary liability with the principal maker. Petitioner admits that she voluntarily affixed her signature thereto; ergo, she cannot now be heard to claim otherwise. Any reference to the existence of fraud is unavailing. Fraud must be established by clear and convincing evidence, mere preponderance of evidence not even being adequate. Petitioner's attempt to prove fraud must, therefore, fail as it was evidenced only by her own uncorroborated and, expectedly, self-serving allegations. [14] Having entered into the contract with full knowledge of its terms and conditions, petitioner is estopped to assert that she did so under a misapprehension or in ignorance of their legal effect, or as to the legal effect of the undertaking. [15] The rule that ignorance of the contents of an instrument does not ordinarily affect the liability of one who signs it also applies to contracts of suretyship. And the mistake of a surety as to the legal effect of her obligation is ordinarily no reason for relieving her of liability. [16] Petitioner would like to make capital of the fact that although she obligated herself to be jointly and severally liable with the principal maker, her liability is deemed restricted by the provisions of the third paragraph of her contract wherein she agreed "that M.B. Lending Corporation may demand payment of the above loan from me in case the principal maker, Mrs. Merlyn Azarraga defaults in the payment of the note," which makes her contract one of guaranty and not suretyship. The purported discordance is more apparent than real. A surety is an insurer of the debt, whereas a guarantor is an insurer of the solvency of the debtor. [17] A suretyship is an undertaking that the debt shall be paid; a guaranty, an undertaking that the debtor shall pay. [18] Stated differently, a surety promises to pay the principal's debt if the principal will not pay, while a guarantor agrees that the creditor, after proceeding against the principal, may proceed against the guarantor if the principal is unable to pay. [19] A surety binds himself to perform if the principal does not, without regard to his ability to do so. A guarantor, on the other hand, does not contract that the principal will pay, but simply that he is able to do so. [20] In other words, a surety undertakes directly for the payment and is so responsible at once if the principal debtor makes default, while a guarantor contracts to pay if, by the use of due diligence, the debt cannot be made out of the principal debtor. [21] Quintessentially, the undertaking to pay upon default of the principal debtor does not automatically remove it from the ambit of a contract of suretyship. The second and third paragraphs of the aforequoted portion of the promissory note do not contain any other condition for the enforcement of respondent corporation's right against petitioner. It has not been shown, either in the contract or the pleadings, that respondent corporation agreed to proceed against herein petitioner only if and whenthe defaulting principal has become insolvent. A contract of suretyship, to repeat, is that wherein one lends his credit by joining in the principal debtor's obligation, so as to render himself directly and primarily responsible with him, and without reference to the solvency of the principal. [22] In a desperate effort to exonerate herself from liability, petitioner erroneously invokes the rule on strictissimi juris, which holds that when the meaning of a contract of indemnity or guaranty has once been judicially determined under the rule of reasonable construction applicable to all written contracts, then the liability of the surety, under his contract, as thus interpreted and construed, is not to be extended beyond its strict meaning. [23] The rule, however, will apply only after it has been definitely ascertained that the contract is one of suretyship and not a contract of guaranty. It cannot be used as an aid in determining whethera party's undertaking is that of a surety or a guarantor. Prescinding from these jurisprudential authorities, there can be no doubt that the stipulation contained in the third paragraph of the controverted suretyship contract merely elucidated on and made more specific the obligation of petitioner as generally defined in the second paragraph thereof. Resultantly, the theory advanced by petitioner, that she is merely a guarantor because her liability attaches only upon default of the principal debtor, must necessarily fail for being incongruent with the judicial pronouncements adverted to above. It is a well-entrenched rule that in order to judge the intention of the contracting parties, their contemporaneous and subsequent acts shall also be principally considered. [24] Several attendant factors in that genre lend support to our finding that petitioner is a surety. For one, when petitioner was informed about the failure of the principal debtor to pay the loan, she immediately offered to settle the account with respondent corporation. Obviously, in her mind, she knew that she was directly and primarily liable upon default of her principal. For another, and this is most revealing, petitioner presented the receipts of the payments already made, from the time of initial payment up to the last, which were all issued in her name and of the Azarraga spouses. [25] This can only be construed to mean that the payments made by the principal debtors were considered by respondent corporation as creditable directly upon the account and inuring to the benefit of petitioner. The concomitant and simultaneous compliance of petitioner's obligation with that of her principals only goes to show that, from the very start, petitioner considered herself equally bound by the contract of the principal makers. In this regard, we need only to reiterate the rule that a surety is bound equally and absolutely with the principal, [26] and as such is deemed an original promisor and debtor from the beginning. [27] This is because in suretyship there is but one contract, and the surety is bound by the same agreement which binds the principal. [28] In essence, the contract of a surety starts with the agreement, [29] which is precisely the situation obtaining in this case before the Court. It will further be observed that petitioner's undertaking as co-maker immediately follows the terms and conditions stipulated between respondent corporation, as creditor, and the principal obligors. A surety is usually bound with his principal by the same instrument, executed at the same time and upon the same consideration; he is an original debtor, and his liability is immediate and direct. [30] Thus, it has been held that where a written agreement on the same sheet of paper with and immediately following the principal contract between the buyer and seller is executed simultaneously therewith, providing that the signers of the agreement agreed to the terms of the principal contract, the signers were "sureties" jointly liable with the buyer. [31] A surety usually enters into the same obligation as that of his principal, and the signatures of both usually appear upon the same instrument, and the same consideration usually supports the obligation for both the principal and the surety. [32] There is no merit in petitioner's contention that the complaint was prematurely filed because the principal debtors cannot as yet be considered in default, there having been no judicial or extrajudicial demand made by respondent corporation. Petitioner has agreed that respondent corporation may demand payment of the loan from her in case the principal maker defaults, subject to the same conditions expressed in the promissory note. Significantly, paragraph (G) of the note states that "should I fail to pay in accordance with the above schedule of payment, I hereby waive my right to notice and demand." Hence, demand by the creditor is no longer necessary in order that delay may exist since the contract itself already expressly so declares. [33] As a surety, petitioner is equally bound by such waiver. Even if it were otherwise, demand on the sureties is not necessary before bringing suit against them, since the commencement of the suit is a sufficient demand. [34] On this point, it may be worth mentioning that a surety is not even entitled, as a matter of right, to be given notice of the principal's default. Inasmuch as the creditor owes no duty of active diligence to take care of the interest of the surety, his mere failure to voluntarily give information to the surety of the default of the principal cannot have the effect of discharging the surety. The surety is bound to take notice of the principal's default and to perform the obligation. He cannot complain that the creditor has not notified him in the absence of a special agreement to that effect in the contract of suretyship. [35] The alleged failure of respondent corporation to prove the fact of demand on the principal debtors, by not attaching copies thereof to its pleadings, is likewise immaterial. In the absence of a statutory or contractual requirement, it is not necessary that payment or performance of his obligation be first demanded of the principal, especially where demand would have been useless; nor is it a requisite, before proceeding against the sureties, that the principal be called on to account. [36] The underlying principle therefor is that a suretyship is a direct contract to pay the debt of another. A surety is liable as much as his principal is liable, and absolutely liable as soon as default is made, without any demand upon the principal whatsoever or any notice of default. [37] As an original promisor and debtor from the beginning, he is held ordinarily to know every default of his principal. [38] Petitioner questions the propriety of the filing of a complaint solely against her to the exclusion of the principal debtors who allegedly were the only ones who benefited from the proceeds of the loan. What petitioner is trying to imply is that the creditor, herein respondent corporation, should have proceeded first against the principal before suing on her obligation as surety. We disagree. A creditor's right to proceed against the surety exists independently of his right to proceed against the principal. [39] Under Article 1216 of the Civil Code, the creditor may proceed against any one of the solidary debtors or some or all of them simultaneously. The rule, therefore, is that if the obligation is joint and several, the creditor has the right to proceed even against the surety alone. [40] Since, generally, it is not necessary for a creditor to proceed against a principal in order to hold the surety liable, where, by the terms of the contract, the obligation of the surety is the same as that of the principal, then as soon as the principal is in default, the surety is likewise in default, and may be sued immediately and before any proceedings are had against the principal. [41] Perforce, in accordance with the rule that, in the absence of statute or agreement otherwise, a surety is primarily liable, and with the rule that his proper remedy is to pay the debt and pursue the principal for reimbursement, the surety cannot at law, unless permitted by statute and in the absence of any agreement limiting the application of the security, require the creditor or obligee, before proceeding against the surety, to resort to and exhaust his remedies against the principal, particularly where both principal and surety are equally bound. [42] We agree with respondent corporation that its mere failure to immediately sue petitioner on her obligation does not release her from liability. Where a creditor refrains from proceeding against the principal, the surety is not exonerated. In other words, mere want of diligence or forbearance does not affect the creditor's rights vis-à-vis the surety, unless the surety requires him by appropriate notice to sue on the obligation. Such gratuitous indulgence of the principal does not discharge the surety whether given at the principal's request or without it, and whether it is yielded by the creditor through sympathy or from an inclination to favor the principal, or is only the result of passiveness. The neglect of the creditor to sue the principal at the time the debt falls due does not discharge the surety, even if such delay continues until the principal becomes insolvent. [43] And, in the absence of proof of resultant injury, a surety is not discharged by the creditor's mere statement that the creditor will not look to the surety, [44] or that he need not trouble himself. [45] The consequences of the delay, such as the subsequent insolvency of the principal, [46] or the fact that the remedies against the principal may be lost by lapse of time, are immaterial. [47] The raison d'êtrefor the rule is that there is nothing to prevent the creditor from proceeding against the principal at any time. [48] At any rate, if the surety is dissatisfied with the degree of activity displayed by the creditor in the pursuit of his principal, he may pay the debt himself and become subrogated to all the rights and remedies of the creditor. [49] It may not be amiss to add that leniency shown to a debtor in default, by delay permitted by the creditor without change in the time when the debt might be demanded, does not constitute an extension of the time of payment, which would release the surety. [50] In order to constitute an extension discharging the surety, it should appear that the extension was for a definite period, pursuant to an enforceable agreement between the principal and the creditor, and that it was made without the consent of the surety or with a reservation of rights with respect to him. The contract must be one which precludes the creditor from, or at least hinders him in, enforcing the principal contract within the period during which he could otherwise have enforced it, and which precludes the surety from paying the debt. [51] None of these elements are present in the instant case. Verily, the mere fact that respondent corporation gave the principal debtors an extended period of time within which to comply with their obligation did not effectively absolve herein petitioner from the consequences of her undertaking. Besides, the burden is on the surety, herein petitioner, to show that she has been discharged by some act of the creditor, [52] herein respondent corporation, failing in which we cannot grant the relief prayed for. As a final issue, petitioner claims that assuming that her liability is solidary, the interests and penalty charges on the outstanding balance of the loan cannot be imposed for being illegal and unconscionable. Petitioner additionally theorizes that respondent corporation intentionally delayed the collection of the loan in order that the interests and penalty charges would accumulate. The statement, likewise traversed by said respondent, is misleading. In an affidavit [53] executed by petitioner, which was attached to her petition, she stated, among others, that: 8. During the latter part of 1990, I was surprised to learn that Merlyn Azarraga's loan has been released and that she has not paid the same upon its maturity. I received a telephone call from Mr. Augusto Banusing of MB Lending informing me of this fact and of my liability arising from the promissory note which I signed. 9. I requested Mr. Banusing to try to collect first from Merlyn and Osmeña Azarraga. At the same time, I offered to pay MB Lending the outstanding balance of the principal obligation should he fail to collect from Merlyn and Osmeña Azarraga. Mr. Banusing advised me not to worry because he will try to collect first from Merlyn and Osmeña Azarraga. 10. A year thereafter, I received a telephone call from the secretary of Mr. Banusing who reminded that the loan of Merlyn and Osmeña Azarraga, together with interest and penalties thereon, has not been paid. Since I had no available funds at that time, I offered to pay MB Lending by delivering to them a parcel of land which I own. Mr. Banusing's secretary, however, refused my offer for the reason that they are not interested in real estate. 11. In March 1992, I received a copy of the summons and of the complaint filed against me by MB Lending before the RTC-Iloilo. After learning that a complaint was filed against me, I instructed Sheila Gatia to go to MB Lending and reiterate my first offer to pay the outstanding balance of the principal obligation of Merlyn Azarraga in the amount of P30,000.00. 12. Ms. Gatia talked to the secretary of Mr. Banusing who referred her to Atty. Venus, counsel of MB Lending. 13. Atty. Venus informed Ms. Gatia that he will consult Mr. Banusing if my offer to pay the outstanding balance of the principal obligation loan (sic) of Merlyn and Osmeña Azarraga is acceptable. Later, Atty. Venus informed Ms. Gatia that my offer is not acceptable to Mr. Banusing. The purported offer to pay made by petitioner can not be deemed sufficient and substantial in order to effectively discharge her from liability. There are a number of circumstances which conjointly inveigh against her aforesaid theory. 1. Respondent corporation cannot be faulted for not immediately demanding payment from petitioner. It was petitioner who initially requested that the creditor try to collect from her principal first, and she offered to pay only in case the creditor fails to collect. The delay, if any, was occasioned by the fact that respondent corporation merely acquiesced to the request of petitioner. At any rate, there was here no actual offer of payment to speak of but only a commitment to pay if the principal does not pay. 2. Petitioner made a second attempt to settle the obligation by offering a parcel of land which she owned. Respondent corporation was acting well within its rights when it refused to accept the offer. The debtor of a thing cannot compel the creditor to receive a different one, although the latter may be of the same value, or more valuable than that which is due. [54] The obligee is entitled to demand fulfillment of the obligation or performance as stipulated. A change of the object of the obligation would constitute novation requiring the express consent of the parties. [55] 3. After the complaint was filed against her, petitioner reiterated her offer to pay the outstanding balance of the obligation in the amount of P30,000.00 but the same was likewise rejected. Again, respondent corporation cannot be blamed for refusing the amount being offered because it fell way below the amount it had computed, based on the stipulated interests and penalty charges, as owing and due from herein petitioner. A debt shall not be understood to have been paid unless the thing or service in which the obligation consists has been completely delivered or rendered, as the case may be. [56] In other words, the prestation must be fulfilled completely. A person entering into a contract has a right to insist on its performance in all particulars. [57] Petitioner cannot compel respondent corporation to accept the amount she is willing to pay because the moment the latter accepts the performance, knowing its incompleteness or irregularity, and without expressing any protest or objection, then the obligation shall be deemed fully complied with. [58] Precisely, this is what respondent corporation wanted to avoid when it continually refused to settle with petitioner at less than what was actually due under their contract. This notwithstanding, however, we find and so hold that the penalty charge of 3% per month and attorney's fees equivalent to 25% of the total amount due are highly inequitable and unreasonable. It must be remembered that from the principal loan of P30,000.00, the amount of P16,300.00 had already been paid even before the filing of the present case. Article 1229 of the Civil Code provides that the court shall equitably reduce the penalty when the principal obligation has been partly or irregularly complied with by the debtor. And, even if there has been no performance, the penalty may also be reduced if it is iniquitous or leonine. In a case previously decided by this Court which likewise involved private respondent M.B. Lending Corporation, and which is substantially on all fours with the one at bar, we decided to eliminate altogether the penalty interest for being excessive and unwarranted under the following rationalization: Upon the matter of penalty interest, we agree with the Court of Appeals that the economic impact of the penalty interest of three percent (3%) per month on total amount due but unpaid should be equitably reduced. The purpose for which the penalty interest is intended - that is, to punish the obligor - will have been sufficiently served by the effects of compounded interest. Under the exceptional circumstances in the case at bar, e.g., the original amount loaned was only P15,000.00; partial payment of P8,600.00 was made on due date; and the heavy (albeit still lawful) regular compensatory interest, the penalty interest stipulated in the parties' promissory note is iniquitous and unconscionable and may be equitably reduced further by eliminating such penalty interest altogether. [59] Accordingly, the penalty interest of 3% per month being imposed on petitioner should similarly be eliminated. Finally, with respect to the award of attorney's fees, this Court has previously ruled that even with an agreement thereon between the parties, the court may nevertheless reduce such attorney's fees fixed in the contract when the amount thereof appears to be unconscionable or unreasonable. [60] To that end, it is not even necessary to show, as in other contracts, that it is contrary to morals or public policy. [61] The grant of attorney's fees equivalent to 25% of the total amount due is, in our opinion, unreasonable and immoderate, considering the minimal unpaid amount involved and the extent of the work involved in this simple action for collection of a sum of money. We, therefore, hold that the amount of P10,000.00 as and for attorney's fee would be sufficient in this case. [62] WHEREFORE , the judgment appealed from is hereby AFFIRMED, subject to the MODIFICATION that the penalty interest of 3% per month is hereby deleted and the award of attorney's fees is reduced to P10,000.00. SO ORDERED. Melo, Puno, Mendoza, and Martinez, JJ., concur . [1] Annex C, Petition; Rollo, 49. [2] Rollo, 38. [3] Annex D, id., ibid., 51. [4] Annex H, id., ibid., 69. [5] Rollo, 76. [6] Annex I, Petition; Rollo, 73; penned by Presiding Judge Tito G. Gustilo. [7] Annex A, id., ibid., 36; Associate Justice Jose C. de la Rama, ponente, with Associate Justices Emeterio C. Cui and Eduardo G. Montenegro, concurring. [8] Rollo, 50. [9] Art. 1377. The interpretation of obscure words or stipulations in a contract shall not favor the party who caused the obscurity. [10] Article 1229, Civil Code. [11] Citing Article 2031, id. [12] Philippine Airlines, Inc. vs. Court of Appeals, et al., G.R. No. 119706, March 14, 1996, 255 SCRA 48. [13] Abella vs. Court of Appeals, et al., G.R. No. 107606, June 20, 1996, 257 SCRA 482. [14] Inciong, Jr. vs. Court of Appeals, et al.,G.R. No. 96405, June 26, 1996, 257 SCRA 578. [15] 72 CJS, Principal and Surety, § 83, 565. [16] Churchill vs. Bradley, 5 A. 189. [17] Northern State Bank of Grand Forks vs. Bellamy, 125 N.W. 888. [18] Shearer vs. R.S. Peele & Co., 36 N.E. 455. [19] W.T. Rawleigh Co. vs. Overstreet, et al., 32 S.E. 2d 574. [20] Manry vs. Waxelbaum Co., 33 S.E. 701. [21] 40A Words and Phrases 429. [22] Erbelding vs. Noland, Co., Inc., 64 S.E. 2d 218. [23] Covey, et al. vs. Schiesswohl, 114 P. 292. [24] Article 1371, Civil Code. [25] Rollo, 67-68. [26] 18A Words and Phrases 657. [27] Hall, et al. vs. Weaver, 34 F. 104. [28] Howell vs. Commissioner of Internal Revenue, 69 F.2d 447. [29] Shores-Mueller Co. vs. Palmer, et al., 216 S.W. 295. [30] Treweek vs. Howard, et al., 39 P. 20. [31] W.T. Rawleigh Co. vs. Overstreet, et al., 32 S.E. 2d 574. [32] Liquidating Midland Bank vs. Stecker, et al.,179 N.E. 504. [33] Article 1169, Civil Code. [34] Rowe, et al. vs. Bank of New Brockton, 92 So. 643. [35] 74 Am Jur 2d, Principal and Surety, § 35, 36. [36] Smith vs. US, 8 L Ed 130. [37] Rouse, et al. vs. Wooten, 53 S.E. 430. [38] Hall vs. Weaver, 34 F. 104. [39] Christenson vs. Diversified Builders, Inc., et al., 331 F.2d 992. [40] 74 Am Jur 2d, Principal and Surety, § 144, 103. [41] Standard Accident Insurance Co. vs. Standard Oil Co., 133 So.2d 539; School District No. 65 of Lincoln County vs. Universal Surety Co., 135 N.W.2d 232; Depot Realty Syndicate vs. Enterprise Brewing Co., 171 P. 223. [42] 72 CJS, Principal and Surety, § 287, 744-745. [43] 74 Am Jur 2d, Principal and Surety, § 68, 53-54. [44] First National Bank of Huntington vs. Williams, et al., 26 N.E. 75. [45] National Bank of Commerce vs. Gilvin, 152 S.W. 652. [46] Kerby, et al. vs. State ex rel. Frohmiller, 157 P.2d 698. [47] 72 CJS, Principal and Surety, § 208, 673. [48] Scott vs. Gaulding, et al., 122 ALR 200. [49] 74 Am Jur 2d, Principal and Surety, § 68, 53. [50] Ibid., id., § 59, 48-49. [51] 72 CJS, Principal and Surety, § 173, 651. [52] Op. cit., § 270, 723. [53] Annex E, Petition; Rollo, 54. [54] Article 1244, Civil Code. [55] Padilla, A., Civil Code Annotated, Vol. IV, 1987 ed., 434. [56] Article 1233, Civil Code. [57] Tolentino, A., Commentaries and Jurisprudence on the Civil Code of the Philippines, Vol. IV, 1986 ed., 280. [58] Article 1235, Civil Code. [59] Magallanes, et al. vs. Court of Appeals, et al., G.R. No. 112614, May 16, 1994, Third Division, Minute Resolution. [60] Security Bank & Trust Co., et al. vs. Court of Appeals, et al., G.R. No. 117009, October 11, 1995, 249 SCRA 206. [61] Medco Industrial Corporation, et al. vs.The Hon. Court of Appeals, et al., G.R. No. 84610, November 24, 1988, 167 SCRA 838. [62] Supra, fn. 59. tags

https://lawyerly.ph/juris/view/c8b7d?opinions=1&user=gbDViWlpxWXM1emx6SW90cllJblJkaEVFcGo5d2RETWs2VDBjeEVHMERLRT0=

Global Small Solutions to Three-Dimensional Incompressible Magnetohydrodynamical System | SIAM Journal on Mathematical Analysis In this paper, we consider the global wellposedness of three-dimensional incompressible magneto-hydrodynamical (MHD) system with small and smooth initial data. The main difficulty of the proof lies... Authors : Li Xu and Ping Zhang Authors Info & Affiliations https://doi.org/10.1137/14095515X Get Access BibTeX Tools Add to favorites Download Citations Track Citations Contents PREVIOUS ARTICLE Ground States for Diffusion Dominated Free Energies with Logarithmic Interaction Previous NEXT ARTICLE A Simple Proof of Global Existence for the 1D Pressureless Gas Dynamics Equations Next Abstract References Information & Authors Metrics & Citations Get Access References Media Tables Share Abstract In this paper, we consider the global wellposedness of three-dimensional incompressible magneto-hydrodynamical (MHD) system with small and smooth initial data. The main difficulty of the proof lies in establishing the global in time L 1 estimate for gradient of the velocity field due to the strong degeneracy and anisotropic spectral properties of the linearized system. To achieve this and to avoid the difficulty of propagating anisotropic regularity for the transport equation, we first write our system in the Lagrangian formulation. Then we employ anisotropic Littlewood--Paley analysis to establish the key L 1 in time estimates to the velocity and the gradient of the pressure in the Lagrangian coordinate. With those estimates, we prove the global wellposedness of the Lagrangian formulation with smooth and small initial data by using the energy method. Toward this, we will have to use the algebraic structure of the Lagrangian formulation in a rather crucial way. The global wellposedness of the original system then follows by a suitable change of variables together with a continuous argument. We should point out that compared with the linearized systems of two-dimensional MHD equations of F. Lin, L. Xu, and P. Zhang [ Global Small Solutions to 2 -D MHD System , arXiv:1302.5877] and that of the three-dimensional modified MHD equations of F. Lin and P. Zhang [ Comm. Pure Appl. Math. , 67 (2014), pp. 531--580] our linearized system here is much more degenerate and moreover, the formulation of the initial data for the Lagrangian formulation is more subtle than that of F. Lin, L. Xu, and P. Zhang. Keywords inviscid MHD system anisotropic Littlewood--Paley theory dissipative estimates Lagrangian coordinates MSC codes 35Q30 76D03 Get full access to this article View all available purchase options and get full access to this article. Get Access Already a Subscriber? Sign in as an individual or via your institution References 1. H. Abidi and M. Paicu, Global existence for the magnetohydrodynamic system in critical spaces , Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh Sect. A, 138 (2008), pp. 447--476. Crossref ISI Google Scholar 2. H. Bahouri, J. Y. Chemin, and R. Danchin, Fourier Analysis and Nonlinear Partial Differential Equations, Grundlehren Math. Wiss., Springer, Berlin, 2011. Crossref Google Scholar 3. J. M. Bony, Calcul symbolique et propagation des singularités pour les q́uations aux dérivées partielles non linéaires , Ann. Sci. École Norm. Sup., 14 (1981), pp. 209--246. Crossref Google Scholar 4. H. Cabannes, Theoretical Magnetofludynamics , Academic Press, New York, 1970. Google Scholar 5. C. Cao and J. Wu, Global regularity for the 2 D MHD equations with mixed partial dissipation and magnetic diffusion , Adv. Math., 226 (2011), pp. 1803--1822. Crossref ISI Google Scholar 6. C. Cao, D. Regmi, and J. Wu, The 2 D MHD equations with horizontal dissipation and horizontal magnetic diffusion , J. Differential Equations, 254 (2013), pp. 2661--2681. Crossref Google Scholar 7. J. Y. Chemin, B. Desjardins, I. Gallagher, and E. Grenier, Fluids with anisotropic viscosity , M2AN Math. Model. Numer. Anal., 34 (2000), pp. 315--335. Crossref ISI Google Scholar 8. J. Y. Chemin, M. Paicu, and P. Zhang, Global large solutions to 3 -D inhomogeneous Navier-Stokes system with one slow variable , J. Differential Equations, 256 (2014), pp. 223--252. Crossref ISI Google Scholar 9. J. Y. Chemin and P. Zhang, On the global wellposedness to the 3 -D incompressible anisotropic Navier-Stokes equations , Comm. Math. Phys., 272 (2007), pp. 529--566. Crossref ISI Google Scholar 10. Y. Chen and P. Zhang, The global existence of small solutions to the incompressible viscoelastic fluid System in general space dimensions , Comm. Partial Differential Equations, 31 (2006), pp. 1793--1810. Crossref ISI Google Scholar 11. F. Califano and C. Chiuderi, Resistivity-independent dissipation of magnetohydrodynamic waves in an inhomogeneous plasma , Phys. Rev. E, 60 (1999), pp. 4701--4707. Crossref ISI Google Scholar 12. R. Danchin, Global existence in critical spaces for compressible Navier-Stokes equations , \nobreakInvent. Math., 141 (2000), pp. 579--614. Google Scholar 13. T. G. Cowling, Magnetohydrodynnamics , Institute of Physics Publishing, 1976. Google Scholar 14. G. Duvaut and J. L. Lions, Inéquations en thermoélasticité et magnétohydrodynamique , Arch. Ration. Mech. Anal., 46 (1972), pp. 241--279. Crossref ISI Google Scholar 15. G. Gui, J. Huang, and P. Zhang, Large global solutions to the 3 -D inhomogeneous Navier-Stokes equations , J. Funct. Anal., 261 (2011), pp. 3181--3210. Crossref ISI Google Scholar 16. D. Iftimie, The resolution of the Navier-Stokes equations in anisotropic spaces , Rev. Mat. Iberoam., 15 (1999), pp. 1--36. Crossref ISI Google Scholar 17. L. D. Landau and E. M. Lifshitz, Electrodynamics of Continuous Media , 2nd ed., Pergamon, New York, 1984. Google Scholar 18. Z. Lei, C. Liu, and Y. Zhou, Global solutions for incompressible viscoelastic fluids , Arch. Ration. Mech. Anal., 188 (2008), pp. 371--398. Crossref ISI Google Scholar 19. F. Lin, Some analytical issues for elastic complex fluids , Comm. Pure Appl. Math., 65 (2012), pp. 893--919. Crossref ISI Google Scholar 20. F. Lin, C. Liu, and P. Zhang, On the hydrodynamics of visco-elasicity , Comm. Pure Appl. Math., 58 (2005), pp. 1437--1471. Crossref ISI Google Scholar 21. F. Lin and P. Zhang, Global small solutions to MHD type system (I): 3 -D case , Comm. Pure Appl. Math., 67 (2014), pp. 531--580. Crossref ISI Google Scholar 22. F. Lin and T. Zhang, Global Small Solutions to a Complex Fluid Model in 3 D , arXiv:1403.1085, 2014. Google Scholar 23. F. Lin, L. Xu, and P. Zhang, Global Small Solutions to 2 -D MHD system , arXiv:1302.5877, 2013. Google Scholar 24. A. Majda, Compressible Fluid Flow and Systems of Conservation Laws in Several Space Variables, Appl. Math. Sci. 53, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1984. Crossref Google Scholar 25. M. Paicu, Équation anisotrope de Navier-Stokes dans des espaces critiques , Rev. Mat. Iberoam., 21 (2005), pp. 179--235. Crossref Google Scholar 26. M. Paicu and P. Zhang, Global solutions to the 3 -D incompressible anisotropic Navier-Stokes system in the critical spaces , Comm. Math. Phys., 307 (2011), pp. 713--759. Crossref ISI Google Scholar 27. X. Ren, J. Wu, Z. Xiang, and Z. Zhang, Global existence and decay of smooth solution for the 2 -D MHD equations without magnetic diffusion , J. Funct. Anal., 267 (2014), pp. 503--541. Crossref ISI Google Scholar 28. M. Sermange and R. Temam, Some mathematical questions related to the MHD equations , Comm. Pure Appl. Math., 36 (1983), pp. 635--664. Crossref ISI Google Scholar 29. L. Xu, P. Zhang, and Z. Zhang, Global solvability to a free boundary 3 -D incompressible viscoelastic fluid system with surface tension , Arch. Ration. Mech. Anal., 208 (2013), pp. 753--803. Crossref ISI Google Scholar 30. T. Zhang, Erratum to: Global wellposed problem for the 3 -D incompressible anisotropic Navier-Stokes equations in an anisotropic space , Comm. Math. Phys., 295 (2010), pp. 877--884. Crossref ISI Google Scholar 31. T. Zhang, An Elementary Proof of the Global Existence and Uniqueness Theorem to 2 -D Incompressible Non-resistive MHD System , arXiv:1404.5681, 2014. Google Scholar Show all references Information & Authors Information Authors Information Published In SIAM Journal on Mathematical Analysis Volume 47 • Issue 1 • January 2015 Pages : 26 - 65 DOI : 10.1137/14095515X ISSN (online) : 1095-7154 Copyright © 2015, Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics. History Submitted : 31 January 2014 Accepted : 27 August 2014 Published online : 8 January 2015 Keywords inviscid MHD system anisotropic Littlewood--Paley theory dissipative estimates Lagrangian coordinates MSC codes 35Q30 76D03 Authors Affiliations Expand All Li Xu View all articles by this author Ping Zhang View all articles by this author Metrics & Citations Metrics Citations Metrics Metrics Downloads Citations No data available. 0 10 20 30 Jan 2015 Jan 2016 Jan 2017 Jan 2018 Jan 2019 Jan 2020 Jan 2021 Jan 2022 Jan 2023 558 76 Total 6 Months 12 Months Total number of downloads Citations If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download. Format Please select one from the list RIS (ProCite, Reference Manager) EndNote BibTex Medlars RefWorks Direct import Cited By Non-uniform continuous dependence and continuous dependence for the non-resistive MHD equations Advances in Mathematics, Vol. 426 | 1 Aug 2023 Cross Ref Global Smooth Solutions to the 3D Compressible Viscous Non-Isentropic Magnetohydrodynamic Flows Without Magnetic Diffusion The Journal of Geometric Analysis, Vol. 33, No. 8 | 16 May 2023 Cross Ref On the Temporal Decay for the 2D Non-resistive Incompressible MHD Equations Annales Henri Poincaré, Vol. 24, No. 6 | 16 January 2023 Cross Ref Nonlinear stability for the 2D incompressible MHD system with fractional dissipation in the horizontal direction Journal of Evolution Equations, Vol. 23, No. 2 | 12 April 2023 Cross Ref Global solutions to the damped MHD system Mathematische Nachrichten, Vol. 296, No. 2 | 21 December 2022 Cross Ref Asymptotic stability of the 2D MHD equations without magnetic diffusion Journal of Mathematical Physics, Vol. 64, No. 1 | 1 Jan 2023 Cross Ref Asymptotic stability of the 2D MHD equations without resistivity on a flat strip domain Journal of Mathematical Physics, Vol. 64, No. 1 | 1 Jan 2023 Cross Ref On Some Recent Results from the Theory of MHD Equations Fluids Under Control | 6 February 2023 Cross Ref On three-dimensional Hall-magnetohydrodynamic equations with partial dissipation Boundary Value Problems, Vol. 2022, No. 1 | 24 January 2022 Cross Ref Local existence for the non-resistive magnetohydrodynamic system with fractional dissipation in the L p framework Partial Differential Equations and Applications, Vol. 3, No. 6 | 18 October 2022 Cross Ref Global well-posedness and time-decay for the full compressible non-resistive MHD equations in a 3D infinite slab Nonlinear Analysis: Real World Applications, Vol. 68 | 1 Dec 2022 Cross Ref Global Solutions of the Three-Dimensional Incompressible Ideal MHD Equations with Velocity Damping in Horizontally Periodic Domains Fei Jiang , Song Jiang , and Youyi Zhao SIAM Journal on Mathematical Analysis, Vol. 54, No. 4 | 15 August 2022 Abstract PDF (704 KB) Global Regularity of Solutions for the 3D Non-resistive and Non-diffusive MHD-Boussinesq System with Axisymmetric Data Acta Applicandae Mathematicae, Vol. 180, No. 1 | 22 June 2022 Cross Ref Lagrangian regularity of the electron magnetohydrodynamics flow on a bounded domain Journal of Mathematical Analysis and Applications, Vol. 511, No. 2 | 1 Jul 2022 Cross Ref Global well-posedness for axisymmetric MHD equations with vertical dissipation and vertical magnetic diffusion Nonlinearity, Vol. 35, No. 5 | 20 April 2022 Cross Ref Stability and exponential decay for magnetohydrodynamic equations Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh: Section A Mathematics, Vol. 34 | 25 April 2022 Cross Ref Global Well-Posedness for the Three-Dimensional Full Compressible Viscous Non-resistive MHD System Journal of Mathematical Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 24, No. 1 | 22 February 2022 Cross Ref Global well‐posedness and asymptotics of full compressible non‐resistive magnetohydrodynamics system with large external potential forces Mathematical Methods in the Applied Sciences, Vol. 45, No. 1 | 18 September 2021 Cross Ref Global well-posedness of 2D incompressible Magnetohydrodynamic equations with horizontal dissipation Discrete and Continuous Dynamical Systems, Vol. 42, No. 9 | 1 Jan 2022 Cross Ref Determining modes and determining nodes for the 3D non-autonomous regularized magnetohydrodynamics equations Discrete and Continuous Dynamical Systems - B, Vol. 0, No. 0 | 1 Jan 2022 Cross Ref Regularity criteria of axisymmetric weak solutions to the 3D MHD equations Journal of Mathematical Physics, Vol. 62, No. 12 | 1 Dec 2021 Cross Ref Asymptotic behaviors of global solutions to the two-dimensional non-resistive MHD equations with large initial perturbations Advances in Mathematics, Vol. 393 | 1 Dec 2021 Cross Ref Global weak solutions to a 2D compressible non-resistivity MHD system with non-monotone pressure law and nonconstant viscosity Journal of Mathematical Analysis and Applications, Vol. 502, No. 1 | 1 Oct 2021 Cross Ref On the rigidity from infinity for nonlinear Alfvén waves Journal of Differential Equations, Vol. 283 | 1 May 2021 Cross Ref Low Regularity Well-Posedness for the 3D Viscous Non-resistive MHD System with Internal Surface Wave Journal of Mathematical Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 23, No. 1 | 23 November 2020 Cross Ref On Global-in-Time Weak Solutions to a Two-Dimensional Full Compressible NonResistive MHD System Yang Li and Yongzhong Sun SIAM Journal on Mathematical Analysis, Vol. 53, No. 4 | 22 July 2021 Abstract PDF (716 KB) Uniform regularity and vanishing viscosity limit for the incompressible non-resistive MHD system with TMF Communications on Pure & Applied Analysis, Vol. 20, No. 7-8 | 1 Jan 2021 Cross Ref Global well-posedness for the 2D incompressible magneto-micropolar fluid system with partial viscosity Science China Mathematics, Vol. 63, No. 7 | 7 August 2019 Cross Ref On the Ideal Magnetohydrodynamics in Three-Dimensional Thin Domains: Well-Posedness and Asymptotics Archive for Rational Mechanics and Analysis, Vol. 236, No. 1 | 8 November 2019 Cross Ref Global regularity for the 212 D incompressible Hall-MHD system with partial dissipation Journal of Mathematical Analysis and Applications, Vol. 484, No. 1 | 1 Apr 2020 Cross Ref Global Smooth Axisymmetic Solutions of the Boussinesq Equations for Magnetohydrodynamics Convection Journal of Mathematical Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 22, No. 1 | 26 December 2019 Cross Ref Local Well-Posedness of Strong Solutions for the Nonhomogeneous MHD Equations with a Slip Boundary Conditions Acta Mathematica Scientia, Vol. 40, No. 2 | 15 April 2020 Cross Ref On global-in-time weak solutions to the magnetohydrodynamic system of compressible inviscid fluids Nonlinearity, Vol. 33, No. 1 | 20 November 2019 Cross Ref Strong solutions for the steady incompressible MHD equations of non-Newtonian fluids Electronic Journal of Qualitative Theory of Differential Equations, No. 23 | 1 January 2020 Cross Ref Space-Time Regularity for the Three Dimensional Navier–Stokes and MHD Equations Acta Applicandae Mathematicae, Vol. 163, No. 1 | 12 October 2018 Cross Ref Global Weak Solutions for the Cauchy Problem to One-Dimensional Heat-Conductive MHD Equations of Viscous Non-resistive Gas Acta Applicandae Mathematicae, Vol. 163, No. 1 | 12 October 2018 Cross Ref Global weak solutions to a two-dimensional compressible MHD equations of viscous non-resistive fluids Journal of Differential Equations, Vol. 267, No. 6 | 1 Sep 2019 Cross Ref On Magnetic Inhibition Theory in Non-resistive Magnetohydrodynamic Fluids Archive for Rational Mechanics and Analysis, Vol. 233, No. 2 | 12 March 2019 Cross Ref Global weak solutions and long time behavior for 1D compressible MHD equations without resistivity Journal of Mathematical Physics, Vol. 60, No. 7 | 1 Jul 2019 Cross Ref On the asymptotic stability of stratified solutions for the 2D Boussinesq equations with a velocity damping term Mathematical Models and Methods in Applied Sciences, Vol. 29, No. 07 | 24 June 2019 Cross Ref On the dynamical stability and instability of Parker problem Physica D: Nonlinear Phenomena, Vol. 391 | 1 Apr 2019 Cross Ref Global well-posedness for the 2D non-resistive MHD equations in two kinds of periodic domains Zeitschrift für angewandte Mathematik und Physik, Vol. 70, No. 1 | 18 December 2018 Cross Ref Large time behavior of strong solutions to the 1D non-resistive full compressible MHD system with large initial data Zeitschrift für angewandte Mathematik und Physik, Vol. 70, No. 1 | 2 January 2019 Cross Ref Justification of Prandtl Ansatz for MHD Boundary Layer Cheng-Jie Liu , Feng Xie , and Tong Yang SIAM Journal on Mathematical Analysis, Vol. 51, No. 3 | 27 June 2019 Abstract PDF (713 KB) The 3D incompressible magnetohydrodynamic equations with fractional partial dissipation Journal of Differential Equations, Vol. 266, No. 1 | 1 Jan 2019 Cross Ref Global strong solutions of the MHD system with zero resistivity in a bounded domain Mathematische Nachrichten, Vol. 291, No. 17-18 | 7 August 2018 Cross Ref Large Time Behavior of Solutions to 3-D MHD System with Initial Data Near Equilibrium Archive for Rational Mechanics and Analysis, Vol. 230, No. 3 | 2 June 2018 Cross Ref A remark on the existence of a class of stretched 212D Magnetohydrodynamics flow Nonlinear Analysis: Real World Applications, Vol. 44 | 1 Dec 2018 Cross Ref Global well-posedness for the density-dependent incompressible magnetohydrodynamic flows in bounded domains Acta Mathematica Scientia, Vol. 38, No. 6 | 1 Nov 2018 Cross Ref Global classical solutions of 2D MHD system with only magnetic diffusion on periodic domain Journal of Mathematical Physics, Vol. 59, No. 8 | 1 Aug 2018 Cross Ref Remark on the global regularity of 2D MHD equations with almost Laplacian magnetic diffusion Journal of Evolution Equations, Vol. 18, No. 2 | 14 December 2017 Cross Ref Global strong solutions to the one-dimensional heat-conductive model for planar non-resistive magnetohydrodynamics with large data Zeitschrift für angewandte Mathematik und Physik, Vol. 69, No. 3 | 25 May 2018 Cross Ref Global Well-Posedness of the Incompressible Magnetohydrodynamics Archive for Rational Mechanics and Analysis, Vol. 228, No. 3 | 29 January 2018 Cross Ref On Global Dynamics of Three Dimensional Magnetohydrodynamics: Nonlinear Stability of Alfvén Waves Annals of PDE, Vol. 4, No. 1 | 18 December 2017 Cross Ref Global well-posedness to the one-dimensional model for planar non-resistive magnetohydrodynamics with large data and vacuum Journal of Mathematical Analysis and Applications, Vol. 462, No. 2 | 1 Jun 2018 Cross Ref Global wellposedness of magnetohydrodynamics system with temperature-dependent viscosity Acta Mathematica Scientia, Vol. 38, No. 3 | 1 May 2018 Cross Ref Global wellposedness of magnetohydrodynamics for Boussinesq system with partial viscosity and zero magnetic diffusion Journal of Mathematical Analysis and Applications, Vol. 461, No. 1 | 1 May 2018 Cross Ref Global strong solutions to the 3D incompressible MHD equations with density-dependent viscosity Computers & Mathematics with Applications, Vol. 75, No. 8 | 1 Apr 2018 Cross Ref Global Classical Solutions of Three Dimensional Viscous MHD System Without Magnetic Diffusion on Periodic Boxes Archive for Rational Mechanics and Analysis, Vol. 227, No. 2 | 18 September 2017 Cross Ref Global Well-Posedness of an Initial-Boundary Value Problem for Viscous Non-Resistive MHD Systems Zhong Tan and Yanjin Wang SIAM Journal on Mathematical Analysis, Vol. 50, No. 1 | 22 February 2018 Abstract PDF (601 KB) Equations for Viscoelastic Fluids Handbook of Mathematical Analysis in Mechanics of Viscous Fluids | 6 April 2018 Cross Ref A class of large solutions to the 3D incompressible MHD and Euler equations with damping Acta Mathematica Sinica, English Series, Vol. 34, No. 1 | 5 December 2016 Cross Ref Initial-boundary value problem to 2D Boussinesq equations for MHD convection with stratification effects Journal of Differential Equations, Vol. 263, No. 12 | 1 Dec 2017 Cross Ref On the Global Solution of a 3-D MHD System with Initial Data near Equilibrium Communications on Pure and Applied Mathematics, Vol. 70, No. 8 | 10 May 2016 Cross Ref Global regularity to the 3D generalized MHD equations with large initial data Applied Mathematics Letters, Vol. 68 | 1 Jun 2017 Cross Ref Global regularity to the 2D incompressible MHD with mixed partial dissipation and magnetic diffusion in a bounded domain Acta Mathematica Scientia, Vol. 37, No. 2 | 1 Mar 2017 Cross Ref On the global solvability and the non-resistive limit of the one-dimensional compressible heat-conductive MHD equations Journal of Mathematical Physics, Vol. 58, No. 3 | 1 Mar 2017 Cross Ref On the local <i>C</i>^{1, <i>α</i>} solution of ideal magneto-hydrodynamical equations Discrete & Continuous Dynamical Systems - A, Vol. 37, No. 4 | 1 Jan 2017 Cross Ref Global existence and decay of smooth solutions for the 3-D MHD-type equations without magnetic diffusion Science China Mathematics, Vol. 59, No. 10 | 7 April 2016 Cross Ref Global existence and uniqueness theorem to 2-D incompressible non-resistive MHD system with non-equilibrium background magnetic field Journal of Differential Equations, Vol. 261, No. 6 | 1 Sep 2016 Cross Ref On 2-D Boussinesq equations for MHD convection with stratification effects Journal of Differential Equations, Vol. 261, No. 3 | 1 Aug 2016 Cross Ref Well-posedness for compressible MHD systems with highly oscillating initial data Journal of Mathematical Physics, Vol. 57, No. 8 | 1 Aug 2016 Cross Ref Global regularity to the 3D MHD equations with large initial data in bounded domains Journal of Mathematical Physics, Vol. 57, No. 8 | 1 Aug 2016 Cross Ref On the global well-posedness to the 3-D incompressible anisotropic magnetohydrodynamics equations Discrete and Continuous Dynamical Systems, Vol. 36, No. 10 | 1 Jul 2016 Cross Ref Global well-posedness for the 2D MHD equations without magnetic diffusion in a strip domain Nonlinearity, Vol. 29, No. 4 | 9 March 2016 Cross Ref Equations for Viscoelastic Fluids Handbook of Mathematical Analysis in Mechanics of Viscous Fluids | 27 November 2016 Cross Ref Global regularity to the 3D incompressible MHD equations Journal of Mathematical Analysis and Applications, Vol. 432, No. 2 | 1 Dec 2015 Cross Ref On the blow-up criterion and small data global existence for the Hall-magnetohydrodynamics with horizontal dissipation Journal of Mathematical Physics, Vol. 56, No. 5 | 1 May 2015 Cross Ref Media Figures Other Figures Other Tables Share Share Copy the content Link https://epubs.siam.org/doi/10.1137/14095515X Copy Link Copied! Copying failed. Share with email Email a colleague Share on social media Facebook Twitter Linkedin email Get Access Get Access Get Access Purchase Save for later Item saved, go to cart Article Pay-Per-View $36.75 Add to cart Article Pay-Per-View Checkout References References 1. H. Abidi and M. Paicu, Global existence for the magnetohydrodynamic system in critical spaces , Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh Sect. A, 138 (2008), pp. 447--476. Crossref ISI Google Scholar 2. H. Bahouri, J. Y. Chemin, and R. Danchin, Fourier Analysis and Nonlinear Partial Differential Equations, Grundlehren Math. Wiss., Springer, Berlin, 2011. Crossref Google Scholar 3. J. M. Bony, Calcul symbolique et propagation des singularités pour les q́uations aux dérivées partielles non linéaires , Ann. Sci. École Norm. Sup., 14 (1981), pp. 209--246. Crossref Google Scholar 4. H. Cabannes, Theoretical Magnetofludynamics , Academic Press, New York, 1970. Google Scholar 5. C. Cao and J. Wu, Global regularity for the 2 D MHD equations with mixed partial dissipation and magnetic diffusion , Adv. Math., 226 (2011), pp. 1803--1822. Crossref ISI Google Scholar 6. C. Cao, D. Regmi, and J. Wu, The 2 D MHD equations with horizontal dissipation and horizontal magnetic diffusion , J. Differential Equations, 254 (2013), pp. 2661--2681. Crossref Google Scholar 7. J. Y. Chemin, B. Desjardins, I. Gallagher, and E. Grenier, Fluids with anisotropic viscosity , M2AN Math. Model. Numer. Anal., 34 (2000), pp. 315--335. Crossref ISI Google Scholar 8. J. Y. Chemin, M. Paicu, and P. Zhang, Global large solutions to 3 -D inhomogeneous Navier-Stokes system with one slow variable , J. Differential Equations, 256 (2014), pp. 223--252. Crossref ISI Google Scholar 9. J. Y. Chemin and P. Zhang, On the global wellposedness to the 3 -D incompressible anisotropic Navier-Stokes equations , Comm. Math. Phys., 272 (2007), pp. 529--566. Crossref ISI Google Scholar 10. Y. Chen and P. Zhang, The global existence of small solutions to the incompressible viscoelastic fluid System in general space dimensions , Comm. Partial Differential Equations, 31 (2006), pp. 1793--1810. Crossref ISI Google Scholar 11. F. Califano and C. Chiuderi, Resistivity-independent dissipation of magnetohydrodynamic waves in an inhomogeneous plasma , Phys. Rev. E, 60 (1999), pp. 4701--4707. Crossref ISI Google Scholar 12. R. Danchin, Global existence in critical spaces for compressible Navier-Stokes equations , \nobreakInvent. Math., 141 (2000), pp. 579--614. Google Scholar 13. T. G. Cowling, Magnetohydrodynnamics , Institute of Physics Publishing, 1976. Google Scholar 14. G. Duvaut and J. L. Lions, Inéquations en thermoélasticité et magnétohydrodynamique , Arch. Ration. Mech. Anal., 46 (1972), pp. 241--279. Crossref ISI Google Scholar 15. G. Gui, J. Huang, and P. Zhang, Large global solutions to the 3 -D inhomogeneous Navier-Stokes equations , J. Funct. Anal., 261 (2011), pp. 3181--3210. Crossref ISI Google Scholar 16. D. Iftimie, The resolution of the Navier-Stokes equations in anisotropic spaces , Rev. Mat. Iberoam., 15 (1999), pp. 1--36. Crossref ISI Google Scholar 17. L. D. Landau and E. M. Lifshitz, Electrodynamics of Continuous Media , 2nd ed., Pergamon, New York, 1984. Google Scholar 18. Z. Lei, C. Liu, and Y. Zhou, Global solutions for incompressible viscoelastic fluids , Arch. Ration. Mech. Anal., 188 (2008), pp. 371--398. Crossref ISI Google Scholar 19. F. Lin, Some analytical issues for elastic complex fluids , Comm. Pure Appl. Math., 65 (2012), pp. 893--919. Crossref ISI Google Scholar 20. F. Lin, C. Liu, and P. Zhang, On the hydrodynamics of visco-elasicity , Comm. Pure Appl. Math., 58 (2005), pp. 1437--1471. Crossref ISI Google Scholar 21. F. Lin and P. Zhang, Global small solutions to MHD type system (I): 3 -D case , Comm. Pure Appl. Math., 67 (2014), pp. 531--580. Crossref ISI Google Scholar 22. F. Lin and T. Zhang, Global Small Solutions to a Complex Fluid Model in 3 D , arXiv:1403.1085, 2014. Google Scholar 23. F. Lin, L. Xu, and P. Zhang, Global Small Solutions to 2 -D MHD system , arXiv:1302.5877, 2013. Google Scholar 24. A. Majda, Compressible Fluid Flow and Systems of Conservation Laws in Several Space Variables, Appl. Math. Sci. 53, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1984. Crossref Google Scholar 25. M. Paicu, Équation anisotrope de Navier-Stokes dans des espaces critiques , Rev. Mat. Iberoam., 21 (2005), pp. 179--235. Crossref Google Scholar 26. M. Paicu and P. Zhang, Global solutions to the 3 -D incompressible anisotropic Navier-Stokes system in the critical spaces , Comm. Math. Phys., 307 (2011), pp. 713--759. Crossref ISI Google Scholar 27. X. Ren, J. Wu, Z. Xiang, and Z. Zhang, Global existence and decay of smooth solution for the 2 -D MHD equations without magnetic diffusion , J. Funct. Anal., 267 (2014), pp. 503--541. Crossref ISI Google Scholar 28. M. Sermange and R. Temam, Some mathematical questions related to the MHD equations , Comm. Pure Appl. Math., 36 (1983), pp. 635--664. Crossref ISI Google Scholar 29. L. Xu, P. Zhang, and Z. Zhang, Global solvability to a free boundary 3 -D incompressible viscoelastic fluid system with surface tension , Arch. Ration. Mech. Anal., 208 (2013), pp. 753--803. Crossref ISI Google Scholar 30. T. Zhang, Erratum to: Global wellposed problem for the 3 -D incompressible anisotropic Navier-Stokes equations in an anisotropic space , Comm. Math. Phys., 295 (2010), pp. 877--884. Crossref ISI Google Scholar 31. T. Zhang, An Elementary Proof of the Global Existence and Uniqueness Theorem to 2 -D Incompressible Non-resistive MHD System , arXiv:1404.5681, 2014. Google Scholar Recommended Content Global Small Solutions for the Navier–Stokes–Maxwell System Slim Ibrahim , Sahbi Keraani Abstract We consider a full system of magnetohydrodynamic equations. The system does not enjoy any property of scaling invariance and, at least formally, has an energy estimate. Nevertheless, the existence of a global weak solution seems to remain an interesting open problem in both two and three space dimensions. In three dimensions, we show the existence of global small mild solutions. In two dimensions, we prove the same result in a space “close” to the energy space. Global Solution to the Three-Dimensional Compressible Flow of Liquid Crystals Xianpeng Hu , Hao Wu Abstract The Cauchy problem for the three-dimensional compressible flow of nematic liquid crystals is considered. Existence and uniqueness of the global strong solution are established in critical Besov spaces provided that the initial datum is close to an equilibrium state $(1,{\bf 0}, \hat{{\bf d}})$ with a constant vector $\hat{{\bf d}}\in S^2$. The global existence result is proved via the local well-posedness and uniform estimates for proper linearized systems with convective terms. Almost Sure Existence of Global Weak Solutions for Supercritical Navier--Stokes Equations Andrea R. Nahmod , Nataša Pavlović , Gigliola Staffilani Abstract In this paper we show that after suitable data randomization there exists a large set of supercritical periodic initial data, in $H^{-\alpha}(\boldsymbol{T}^d)$ for some $\alpha(d) > 0$, for both two- and three-dimensional Navier--Stokes equations for which global energy bounds hold. As a consequence, we obtain almost sure large data supercritical global weak solutions. We also show that in two dimensions these global weak solutions are unique. Global Existence of Strong Solution for Equations Related to the Incompressible Viscoelastic Fluids in the Critical $L^p$ Framework Ting Zhang , Daoyuan Fang Abstract We investigate the global strong solutions for a system of equations related to the incompressible viscoelastic fluids of Oldroyd--B type with the initial data close to a stable equilibrium. We obtain the existence and uniqueness of the global solution in a functional setting invariant by the scaling of the associated equations, where the initial velocity has the same critical regularity index as the incompressible Navier--Stokes equations, and one more derivative is needed for the deformation tensor. Like the classical incompressible Navier--Stokes equations, one may construct the unique global solution for a class of large highly oscillating initial velocity. Our result also implies that the deformation tensor $F$ has the same regularity as the density of the compressible Navier--Stokes equations. Global Solutions to the Three-Dimensional Full Compressible Navier--Stokes Equations with Vacuum at Infinity in Some Classes of Large Data Huanyao Wen , Changjiang Zhu Abstract We consider the Cauchy problem for the full compressible Navier--Stokes equations with vanishing of density at infinity in $\mathbb{R}^3$. Our main purpose is to prove the existence (and uniqueness) of global strong and classical solutions and study the large-time behavior of the solutions as well as the decay rates in time. Our main results show that the strong solution exists globally in time if the initial mass is small for the fixed coefficients of viscosity and heat conduction, and can be large for the large coefficients of viscosity and heat conduction. Moreover, large-time behavior and a surprisingly exponential decay rate of the strong solution are obtained. Finally, we show that the global strong solution can become classical if the initial data are more regular. Note that the assumptions on the initial density do not exclude that the initial density may vanish in a subset of $\mathbb{R}^3$ and that it can be of a nontrivially compact support. To our knowledge, this paper contains the first result so far for the global existence of solutions to the full compressible Navier--Stokes equations when density vanishes at infinity (in space). In addition, the exponential decay rate of the strong solution is of independent interest. Download PDF back Previous article Next article Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics

https://epubs.siam.org/doi/10.1137/14095515X?cookieSet=1

Phase III Trial of Sirolimus in IBM - Full Text View - ClinicalTrials.gov Phase III Trial of Sirolimus in IBM The safety and scientific validity of this study is the responsibility of the study sponsor and investigators. Listing a study does not mean it has been evaluated by the U.S. Federal Government. Know the risks and potential benefits of clinical studies and talk to your health care provider before participating. Read our disclaimer for details. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT04789070 Recruitment Status : Recruiting First Posted : March 9, 2021 Last Update Posted : April 13, 2023 See Contacts and Locations Sponsor: University of Kansas Medical Center The Perron Institute Information provided by (Responsible Party): University of Kansas Medical Center Study Details Study Description Top of Page Study Description Study Design Arms and Interventions Outcome Measures Eligibility Criteria Contacts and Locations More Information Brief Summary: The hypothesis is that Sirolimus, (Rapamycin (R)) which is currently used in organ transplantation and works by blocking the activity of T effector cells but preserving T regulatory cells, as well as by inducing autophagy (protein degradation), will be effective in IBM to slow or stabilize disease progression, helping to maintain patient function and independence. This phase III trial will confirm pilot data showing statistically significant clinical outcomes. Condition or disease Intervention/treatment Phase Inclusion Body Myositis Drug: Sirolimus Drug: Placebo Phase 3 Study Design Top of Page Study Description Study Design Arms and Interventions Outcome Measures Eligibility Criteria Contacts and Locations More Information Layout table for study information Study Type : Interventional  (Clinical Trial) Estimated Enrollment : 140 participants Allocation: Randomized Intervention Model: Parallel Assignment Masking: Quadruple (Participant, Care Provider, Investigator, Outcomes Assessor) Primary Purpose: Treatment Official Title: A Double-Blind Randomised Controlled Trial (dbRCT) Phase III Trial Investigating the Effect of Sirolimus on Disease Progression in Patients With Inclusion Body Myositis (IBM) as Measured by the IBM Functional Rating Scale (IBM-FRS) Actual Study Start Date : July 1, 2022 Estimated Primary Completion Date : February 1, 2024 Estimated Study Completion Date : February 1, 2024 MedlinePlus Genetics related topics: Idiopathic inflammatory myopathy MedlinePlus related topics: Myositis Drug Information available for: Sirolimus Genetic and Rare Diseases Information Center resources: Inclusion Body Myositis Idiopathic Inflammatory Myopathy U.S. FDA Resources Arms and Interventions Top of Page Study Description Study Design Arms and Interventions Outcome Measures Eligibility Criteria Contacts and Locations More Information Arm Intervention/treatment Active Comparator: Sirolimus 2mg capsules once daily Drug: Sirolimus Sirolimus is a currently licensed drug primarily used for immunosuppression post-kidney transplantation to prevent organ rejection. Sirolimus was initially considered as a treatment in IBM for its immunosuppressive action and beneficial effects in an experimental myositis mouse model.(11) Transfer of effector T cells from affected to healthy animals resulted in myositis, but the presence of Treg cells were protective against development of myositis. As Sirolimus, which acts to deplete effector T cells but preserving the Treg cells, was effective in this mouse model of myositis, it was therefore postulated that it may also be effective in IBM, not only for its effects on effector T cells and Treg cells, but also for its additional effects on protein degradation. Other Name: Rapamune Placebo Comparator: Placebo 2mg capsules once daily Drug: Placebo Placebo Outcome Measures Top of Page Study Description Study Design Arms and Interventions Outcome Measures Eligibility Criteria Contacts and Locations More Information Primary Outcome Measures : Change in IBM Functional Rating Scale (IBM-FRS) from Baseline to Week 84 [ Time Frame: Baseline, Week 84 ] The IBM-FRS is a concise and quick (~10 minute), clinician-administered ordinal rating scale used to determine participants' assessment of their capability and independence. It includes 10 measures (swallowing, handwriting, cutting food and handling utensils, fine motor tasks, dressing, hygiene, turning in bed and adjusting covers, changing position from sitting to standing, walking, and climbing stairs), graded on a Likert scale from 0 (being unable to perform) to 4 (normal). The sum of the 10 items gives a value between 0 and 40, with a higher score representing less functional limitation. Secondary Outcome Measures : Change in 6 Minute Walk Test (6MWT) from Baseline to Week 84 [ Time Frame: Baseline, Week 84 ] The 6MWT measures the distance an individual is able to walk over a total of six minutes on a hard, flat surface. The 6MWT is a sub-maximal exercise test used to assess aerobic capacity and endurance in patients with cardiopulmonary disease. It is now a commonly used and validated test to estimate the functional walking capacity in patients with a range of chronic diseases including IBM. Change in Modified Timed Up and Go (mTUG) from Baseline to Week 84 [ Time Frame: Baseline, Week 84 ] The Timed Up and Go (mTUG) was initially developed as a tool to determine falls risk, mobility, balance and walking ability in an elderly population. It has since been adopted as an outcome measure in a broader clinical setting including myositis. Change in Manual Muscle Testing (MMT) from Baseline to Week 84 [ Time Frame: Baseline, Week 84 ] Manual Muscle Testing (MMT) is a relatively simple method of assessing a patient's strength in a muscle or group of muscles. There is however a degree of subjectivity when assigning a score. MMT will be used to assess change in strength throughout the study period. This method is routinely performed in a clinical setting and has been shown to be reliable. This tool assesses muscle strength using a 0 - 10 point scale. Eligibility Criteria Top of Page Study Description Study Design Arms and Interventions Outcome Measures Eligibility Criteria Contacts and Locations More Information Information from the National Library of Medicine Choosing to participate in a study is an important personal decision. Talk with your doctor and family members or friends about deciding to join a study. To learn more about this study, you or your doctor may contact the study research staff using the contacts provided below. For general information, Learn About Clinical Studies. Layout table for eligibility information Ages Eligible for Study: 45 Years and older   (Adult, Older Adult) Sexes Eligible for Study: All Accepts Healthy Volunteers: No Criteria Inclusion Criteria: Adults able to read and understand the Participant Information Sheet, and who freely provide written Informed Consent for the study; Males or females aged 45 years or older; Diagnosis of IBM according to the criteria proposed by the ENMC criteria 2011; Able to walk a minimum distance of 200m within 6 minutes (walking aids, including frames, may be used); Evidence of disease progression over the previous 12 months, as determined by a neuromuscular specialist through patient history, physical examination, MMT, IBM-FRS or other metrics. Exclusion Criteria: Inability to complete a 6MWT with a minimum distance of 200m achieved; Inability to complete a mTUG or any other study procedure, including inability to swallow study drug, or clinical suspicion that the participant will become unable to swallow the study drug during the study period; Unwillingness or inability to comply with study interventions or study schedule; Hypersensitivity to Sirolimus, Everolimus or any compound of the oral solution; Any prior exposure to Sirolimus or Everolimus within the last 6 months; Presence of any other clinically significant disease that might interfere with patients ability to comply with study procedures, or places the patient at greater risk for SAEs; Clinical suspicion of moderate or severe respiratory insufficiency based on history, clinical examination or respiratory function tests with an FVC < 50% of predicted; Nocturnal NIV is allowed for sleep-disordered breathing; Severe chronic kidney disease or renal insufficiency with proteinuria (e.g Estimated Glomerular Filtration Rate < 30 ml/min and/or proteinuria as defined by spot urine protein/creatinine ratio > 100mg/mmol; Chronic liver disease (cirrhosis and/or ALT/AST > 3 times the upper limit of normal (ULN)) , excluding cases in which raised ALT/AST are deemed to be due to underlying muscle disease. Patients can be re-screened within the window if a one-off measurement is elevated due to an acute injury such as a viral infection; History of cancer (Except localised skin cancers including BCC/SCC) during the past 5 years; Systemic autoimmune or rheumatological disease not in remission and/or necessitating specific treatment during the last 12 months. This includes significant organ-specific autoimmune disorder (e.g Grave's disease) not in remission and/or necessitating specific treatment during the past 12 months; Any unhealed wounds or active infections at the time of screening; If patient has received a live vaccine within the last 12 weeks; Participants must be HIV negative, and Hepatitis C Virus Ribonucleic Acid (HCVRNA) Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) negative, and Hep B surface antigen negative and Hep B core antibody negative; One or more the following blood test results at screening: Total cholesterol > 8 mmol/l (304mg/dl) Triglycerides > 5 mmol/l (>194 mg/dl) Haemoglobin < 110 g/L (11g/dl) Platelet count < 100 x 109/L Neutrophils < 1.5 x 109/L Lymphocytes < 1.0 x 109/L Presence at screening of any medically significant cardiac, neurological, pulmonary, gastrointestinal, musculoskeletal or psychiatric illness (including uncontrolled anxiety and/or depression) that in the Investigator's opinion might interfere with the patient's ability to comply with study procedures or that might confound the interpretation of clinical safety or IBM-FRS; Has taken any investigational study drug within 30 days or five half-lives of the prior agent (whichever is longer) prior to the Baseline visit; Patient taking any other immunosuppressive or immunomodulatory medication (including but not limited to prior high dose prednisolone (>10mg/day) in the last 4 weeks, Intravenous Immunoglobulin (IVIG) within the last 3 months, methotrexate, mycophenolate, Sirolimus, Everolimus, calcineurin inhibitors, (cyclosporine or tacrolimus) or azathioprine within the last 6 months, and rituximab, alemtuzumab or other biologics within the last 12 months); Other medications or products that may affect the metabolism of Sirolimus (See concomitant medications in Section 27) such as the following at time of screening: Strong inhibitors of CYP3A4 and/or P-gp (eg ketoconazole, voriconazole, itraconazole, telithromycin, erythromycin or clarithromycin) Strong inducers of CYP3A4 and/or P-gp (eg rifampicin, rifabutin, Phenytoin, Phenobarbitol, St John's Wort); Use of any investigational drug other than study medication; Pregnancy or planning a pregnancy: Women of child-bearing potential (WOCBP) must have a negative serum pregnancy test prior to randomisation, and must have a negative urine pregnancy test within 24 hours prior to the start of study drug. WOCBP must agree to use 'highly effective' contraception (MHRA guidelines, 2014) for the duration of the study and for 12 weeks post-treatment completion. Men who are sexually active with a WOCBP must agree to use barrier contraception (condom) for the duration of treatment with study drug and for 30 days post-treatment completion. Contacts and Locations Information from the National Library of Medicine To learn more about this study, you or your doctor may contact the study research staff using the contact information provided by the sponsor. Please refer to this study by its ClinicalTrials.gov identifier (NCT number): NCT04789070 Contacts Layout table for location contacts Contact: Andrew J Heim 9139459926 [email protected] Locations Layout table for location information United States, Kansas University of Kansas Medical Center Recruiting Kansas City, Kansas, United States, 66160 Contact: Ali Ciersdorff [email protected] Principal Investigator: Mazen Dimachkie, MD United States, Maryland Johns Hopkins University Not yet recruiting Baltimore, Maryland, United States, 21218 Contact: Ellen Eline [email protected] Principal Investigator: Thomas Lloyd Australia, New South Wales Concord Repatriation Hospital Not yet recruiting Sydney, New South Wales, Australia Contact: Alison Craig [email protected] Principal Investigator: Stephen Reddel Royal Northshore Hospital Not yet recruiting Sydney, New South Wales, Australia Contact: Sharon Leaver [email protected] Principal Investigator: Christina Liang Australia, Queensland Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital Not yet recruiting Brisbane, Queensland, Australia Contact: Kathryn Thorpe [email protected] Principal Investigator: Robert Henderson Australia, South Australia Royal Adelaide Hospital Recruiting Adelaide, South Australia, Australia Contact: Helen Birkin [email protected] Principal Investigator: Roula Ghaoui Australia, Victoria Austin Health Not yet recruiting Melbourne, Victoria, Australia Contact: Elise Heriot [email protected] Principal Investigator: Gayatri Jain St Vincent's Hospital Recruiting Melbourne, Victoria, Australia Contact: Iveta Krivonos [email protected] Principal Investigator: Katrina Reardon Australia, Western Australia Perron Institute Recruiting Perth, Western Australia, Australia Contact: Kelly Beer [email protected] Principal Investigator: Merrilee Needham, MD Sponsors and Collaborators Investigators Layout table for investigator information Principal Investigator: Mazen Dimachkie University of Kansas Medical Center Layout table for additonal information Responsible Party: University of Kansas Medical Center ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT04789070 History of Changes Other Study ID Numbers: Optimism in IBM First Posted: March 9, 2021 Key Record Dates Last Update Posted: April 13, 2023 Last Verified: April 2023 Individual Participant Data (IPD) Sharing Statement: Plan to Share IPD: No U.S. National Library of Medicine

https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/study/NCT04789070

Electronics | Free Full-Text | Disturbance and Signal Filter for Power Line Communication Today, to use home automation, intelligent home controls or remote controls in the office, electronic equipment is moving away from wireless communication in favor of Power Line Communication (PLC). In the standard PLC solutions, the corrections that result from error transmissions are based on complex digital modulation methods and algorithms for validating the transmitted data without paying attention to the causes of the errors. This article focuses on the implementation of a filtering system for interference and signals in the 120–150 kHz band (CENELEC band C), which is injected into the network by transmitters. Such a filter separates the desired signal from the interference that is occurring in the network, which can result in communication errors. Moreover, when used properly, the filter can be used as a subsystem separation element. The paper presents the requirements, design, construction, simulation and test results that were obtained under actual operating conditions. It is possible to use less complex methods for correcting errors in transmission signals and to guarantee an improvement in the transmission rate using the proposed filter system. Disturbance and Signal Filter for Power Line Communication Dominik Wybrańczyk 1 , Marcin Zygmanowski 2 , Andrzej Latko 2 , Jarosław Michalak 2 and Zbigniew Rymarski 1 1 Institute of Electronics, Faculty of Automatic Control, Electronics and Computer Science, Silesian University of Technology, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland 2 Department of Power Electronics, Electrical Drives and Robotics, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland * Author to whom correspondence should be addressed. Electronics 2019 , 8 (4), 378; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics8040378 Received: 23 December 2018 / Revised: 21 March 2019 / Accepted: 23 March 2019 / Published: 28 March 2019 (This article belongs to the Special Issue Filter Design Solutions for RF systems ) Abstract : Today, to use home automation, intelligent home controls or remote controls in the office, electronic equipment is moving away from wireless communication in favor of Power Line Communication (PLC). In the standard PLC solutions, the corrections that result from error transmissions are based on complex digital modulation methods and algorithms for validating the transmitted data without paying attention to the causes of the errors. This article focuses on the implementation of a filtering system for interference and signals in the 120–150 kHz band (CENELEC band C), which is injected into the network by transmitters. Such a filter separates the desired signal from the interference that is occurring in the network, which can result in communication errors. Moreover, when used properly, the filter can be used as a subsystem separation element. The paper presents the requirements, design, construction, simulation and test results that were obtained under actual operating conditions. It is possible to use less complex methods for correcting errors in transmission signals and to guarantee an improvement in the transmission rate using the proposed filter system. Keywords: ; conducted disturbances ; anti-interference filter ; smart home 1. Introduction Power line communication systems have been used for various purposes within a broad range of fields, including telephony [ 1 ], street lighting controls, intercoms [ 2 ] and power transmission systems for almost 100 years [ 3 , 4 ]. Currently, Power Line Communications (PLCs) have a wide range of applications in smart grids [ 5 , 6 ]. The smart building market is in an early stage of its development and has great potential for future growth. According to the report “Smart Building Market Industry Analysis, Size, Growth, Trends, Segment and Forecast 2016–2021” that was prepared by MarketsandMarkets, the value of this market will increase from 7.26 billion dollars to 36.40 billion dollars by 2021 and the expected annual growth rate will be 38% [ 7 ]. The idea of an intelligent building has already taken root in developed Asian countries and in the USA, and its rapid development in Europe is also predicted. The fact that this trend is supported by a European Union policy is not without significance and the promotion of energy efficiency and pro-ecological solutions, including intelligent constructions, has been mentioned among the priorities for the coming years [ 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 ]. As the current market for intelligent home management systems is heavily dominated by companies that only sell their products to individuals with a high property status, smart home furnishings are an expression of luxury and prestige [ 12 , 13 , 14 ]. However, there are innovative systems that are becoming available at an affordable price, whose target group will be households with a good or medium financial standing, including both the owners of newly built houses/flats as well as existing homes/apartments. Intelligent building systems come in three forms. The first is comprised of wired systems that use a dedicated communication cable whose big advantage is its stability. However, due to the use of this dedicated communication cable, these systems require a rethinking of the deployment and a definition of the desired functionalities at the beginning of the investment. Therefore, choosing this system for apartments in the secondary market requires a costly renovation. Other disadvantages are their complicated configuration and high price. An alternative solution is a wireless system [ 15 ]. The advantages of wireless systems include the ability to adapt the intelligent system to any building and to ensure price competitiveness. On the other hand, due to electromagnetic interference in the buildings as well as difficulties in data transmission in the event of obstacles in the signal path and directives that limit the maximum allowable transmitting powers, these wireless systems do not always work stably. Systems that work in a mesh topology can compensate for the effects of unstable operations; however, due to their characteristics, if one of the elements fails, the system may cease to function completely. It should also be noted that the use of wireless solutions may become problematic in the near future due to the number of devices that operate in a wireless mode. IoT solutions should also be distinguished [ 16 ]. However, IoT solutions may encounter the same problems that were mentioned earlier for wireless products. The third possible solution is wired systems that have no additional communication cable. Such PLC systems communicate via power lines; thus, they combine stability with ease of use and can easily be adapted to existing buildings. A hybrid solution that uses both wired and wireless communication (such as PLC and wireless) [ 17 , 18 , 19 ] is a more expensive solution. Particular attention should be paid to the Power Line Communication systems that communicate on the 230 VAC/50 Hz and 110 VAC/ 50–60Hz power lines, which can be easily adapted—each element that is connected to the power supply can simultaneously be connected to an intelligent building system [ 20 , 21 ]. Depending on the end application, broadband PLC [ 22 ] and low-frequency narrowband PLC will be discussed. Broadband PLC (also BPL—Broadband over Power Line) permits a >100 Mbps data rate and usually works on the 2–30 MHz band (also with the possibility to use 30–86 MHz as an additional bandwidth). BPL is usually used in applications for which a relatively high data rate (such as for PLC capabilities) is required, for example, for the in-home distribution of IPTV, HDTV, VoIP, internet content or for communication between electrical systems and appliances. The BPL standards usually define a protocol-dependent MAC layer. Advanced encryption such as a 128-bit AES (Advanced Encryption Standard) encryption for HomePlug AV can also be included. Although the end applications that use BPL offer a relatively high data rate, there are a few limitations such as a limited effective range, an unpredictable response time, an expensive large filter and matching circuits and relatively high processing needs (process encryption, PHY, MAC and IPv4/IPv6 layers). What is more, BPL can potentially cause electromagnetic interference problems in situations in which some of the energy is radiated as radio frequency interference. As for low-frequency narrowband PLCs, according to European CENELEC standard, few frequency bands have been defined for power line communication use. Frequency band A (9 to 95 kHz) is limited to use by energy providers. Although frequency band B (95 to 125 kHz) and frequency band D (140 to 148.5 kHz) are open for end-user applications, no access protocol has been defined. Frequency band C (125 to 140 kHz) is also open for end-user applications but CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance) [ 23 ] protocol for the 132.5 kHz frequency has been defined. PRIME and G3 specifications, which are suitable for smart-metering applications [ 24 ] and have defined and structured PHY and MAC layers, should also be mentioned. There are also transceivers that are fully configurable. For a low-frequency narrowband PLC that has a scarifying data rate (up to 128 kbps) but has a large effective range (compared to BPL) and a fast response time, its filters and matching circuits are less expensive, and its processing needs are significantly less demanding—simple encryption and the possibility of defining its own MAC layer. The end application was defined as a power line communication home automation system in which short frames (commands) are exchanged between the nodes and for which the effective range and fast system response time is critical. Autonomous nodes are distributed in the system, and therefore a small form factor and low power consumption must be guaranteed. Inexpensive nodes and accompanying elements are also desirable. Therefore, a low-frequency narrowband power line communication opened for end-user applications with defined medium access control and advantageously without any protocol-dependent MAC was selected as one of the possible application scenarios. In this case, a ready-made STEVAL-IHP005V1 development board with an ST7540 was used to perform the PLC communication tests. The line coupling interface was modified to allow the ST7540 device to transmit and receive on the AC mains line using the available FSK and PSK [ 25 , 26 ] modes within the European CENELEC EN50065-1 standard C band, which is specified for home network systems with the mandatory access protocol CSMA/CA. Customized software was developed for the STM32 microcontroller, which was included in the reference design in order to make it more flexible and suitable for use as a standalone smart PLC node [ 27 ]. Currently, many electric energy receivers are strongly non-linear. Unfortunately, these types of receivers often add disturbances to the power supply network in the frequency band that is used for PLC communication [ 28 ]. Under certain circumstances, these may interfere with system communication, thereby leading to delays in executing a command. In extremely unfavorable cases, they can prevent communication completely. One of the ways to avoid such problems with a connection is to create an appropriate communication protocol using the appropriate modulation for the signal transmission [ 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 ]. Unfortunately, in many cases [ 33 ], the application of even the most sophisticated communication protocol does not solve the problems connected with the transmission of a useful signal. An additional element of such a system operating using PLC technology should be a filter that separates the undesirable signals (noise, interference, disturbances, signals from other PLC network) from the desired signal in the transmission medium. There are many EMI filters [ 34 , 35 ] on the market, but only few fulfill PLC specific requirements. Usually, PLC EMI filters are relatively large and expensive three-phase filters that are intended to be placed in an electrical switchboard next to the main electricity switch. The cost and form factor of the available PLC EMI filters means that they are not suitable for distributed PLC home automation systems. What is more, in the event that the disturbance source is located after the EMI filter, the communication frequencies are vulnerable to disturbances. An example of such a disturbance source that is located inside the PLC network might be the LED power supply or a fluorescent lamp that is controlled by the home automation system. There is a need for a compact, single-phase, low-current (5 A), cost-effective filter for the distributed PLC home automation applications that work in CENELEC band C. The main goal is to filter a disturbance source inside the home grid as well as to filter a disturbance source that is located near the communication node. 2. Filter Design From the point of view of the application of a given electronic system, the basic task of filters is to suppress the undesirable component frequencies that may occur in the control signal. Filter systems are divided into different groups by considering the appropriate criteria. One of the most important of these divisions is the frequency band that is to be suppressed by the filter. Thus, there are different filters—low-pass, high-pass, band-pass including broadband and narrowband (selective) and band-stop—that suppress the signals in a specific frequency band [ 36 ]. Other criteria that are considered in the classification of the filters are, for example, the shape of the frequency characteristics: the amplitude and phase, the type of elements that are used and the technology in the system execution. Another important feature of a filter is its level. Filters at I, II and higher levels are used when the higher the filter level, the steeper the edges at the ends of the frequency response are and the frequency response (amplitude) is ideal (rectangular). The article will focus on the design of an LC filter with chokes in the longitudinal branch and capacitors in the transverse branch as is shown with a diagram in Figure 1 a. The role of the inductors is to increase the impedance for a high frequency differential mode component (current or voltage) and the capacitors constitute a low impedance path for differential disturbances at Terminals B 1 and B 2 . In addition, the LC parameters were selected so that the resonance frequency was smaller than the 133 kHz communication frequency that had been selected for the purposes of the study and were of an inductance L = 66 μH and a capacity C = 200 nF, respectively. The influence of the change of the inductor parameters was also taken into account [ 37 , 38 , 39 ]. The impedance characteristics as seen from Terminals A 1 , A 2 and Terminals B 1 , B 2 are shown in Figure 2 . For the communication frequency f com = 133 kHz, the impedance module was Z AA = 49.17 Ω and Z BB = 6.71 Ω. Such impedance values effectively contribute to the filtering of high frequency disturbances in the communication band when the source of the disturbances is connected to Terminals B 1 , B 2 . The paper will focus on an analysis of an LC filter with a structure as is shown in Figure 1 b. Figure 1 c presents parasitic resistance occurring in L and C . These values are dependent on the components and magnetic materials being used [ 38 ]. The solution uses two chokes with the toroidal core DTMSS-20/0.033/8.0-V with the inductance L 1 = 33 μH (which gives inductance L = 66 μH) with an allowable current of 8 A and a resistance for the direct current of 15.9 mΩ (total R Ldc = 31.8 mΩ). Two WIMA MKS 100 nF/630 V capacitors with a capacity of 100 nF were used. The filter schemes with a view of the printed circuit are shown in Figure 3 . 3. Insertion Loss Filter In order to determine the insertion loss of the topology LC the filter in Figure 1 , filter impedance was measured as a function of the frequency using an Agilent 4294 A Impedance Analyzer in a frequency range of 40 Hz to 2 MHz. Figure 1 c shows the parasitic resistances of the reactors and capacitors, which, due to the impedance analyzer measurements, led to the determination of the actual parameters as a function of the frequency. The measurements were taken for Figure 3 of the filter. The filters for the SMD inductors were not analyzed because they had a different substitute pattern in which significant self-capacitances of the inductor winding were revealed. Using the toroid core revealed a relatively low self-capacitance of the inductor winding, and therefore, these inductors were taken into consideration for the filter design. Figure 4 presents the frequency characteristics of inductance L and resistance R L of the inductors as well as the capacitance C and resistance R C of the capacitor. The inductance of the inductor was practically constant as a function of frequency, but the capacity of the capacitor changed significantly. According to the LC filter equivalent parameters, the insertion loss was determined from Terminals A 1 , A 2 and from Terminals B 1 , B 2 . Both insertion losses were determined analytically for circuits as is shown in Figure 5 . The insertion loss was defined as in Equation (1) A T ( d B ) = 20 log | V 1 V 2 | . (1) Voltage V 1 is the voltage that occurs on the standard resistor R w = 50 Ω in a case in which there is no filter in the system ( Figure 6 a); and V 2 is the output voltage on a standard resistor in a case in which the analyzed LC filter is connected between the R w resistors ( Figure 6 b). According to Figure 6 , the following dependences on the voltages V 1 and V 2 can be determined as follows: V 1 = V S 2 , (2) V 2 = ( V S Z C R w Z C + R w R w + Z L + Z C R w Z C + R w ) , (3) where Z C = 1 j ω C + R C ; Z L = j ω L + R L , thus Equation (3) can be rewritten into Equation (4): A T AB ( d B ) = 20 log | V S 2 = Z R R R Z R (4) For the insertion loss that was measured from terminals B to A, the scheme is shown in Figure 5 applies. Voltage V 1 was the same as in the previous case V 1 = V S /2. Voltage V 2 was determined according to Equation (5) and the filter insertion loss is given as Equation (6). Z Z LCR R R w + w , (5) where Z LCR = ( Z L + R w ) Z C Z L + R w + Z C thus the filter insertion loss is given as A T AB ( d B ) = 20 log | V S 2 V S ( Z LCR Z LCR + R w ) R w + Z L R w | = 20 log | 1 2 ( Z LCR Z LCR + R w ) R w + Z L R w | . (6) Equations (4) and (6) are simplified to the same form, which means that the insertion loss of the filter on the side of Terminals A and B are equal and can be described by Equation (7). The characteristics of the insertion loss are presented as the frequency function in Figure 7 . A T AB ( d B As can be seen in Figure 8 , the insertion loss for the 133 kHz frequency that was determined was about 16 dB. Figure 7 shows the characteristics of the filter insertion loss along with the insertion loss of the lossless filters with different inductances and capacitances as a function of the frequency. The insertion loss characteristics are presented for the different inductance values assuming that the rated value was L = 66 μH and the characteristics are given for 0.1 L , 0.5 L , L , 2 L , 5 L . For the ideal filters, insertion loss values at f = 133 kHz were 12.5, 13.3, 15.4, 19.7 and 27.1 dB. shows the filter insertion loss characteristics of the LC filter together with the ideal characteristics that were obtained for filters with different capacitance values with the assumption that C = 200 nF for 0.1 C , 0.5 C , C , 2 C and 5 C . With such insertion loss characteristics for the frequency f = 133 kHz, they were 0.9, 9.3, 15.4, 21.6 and 29.7 dB. Based on the actual characteristics, it can be seen that this solution is ideal for frequencies up to 350 kHz. The reason for the discrepancy between the actual insertion loss characteristics and the ideal characteristics was a decrease in the capacitor capacitance for the frequencies above 350 kHz ( Figure 4 ), while the inductance of the chokes in the frequency range from 40 Hz to 2 MHz remained practically constant. The developed filter is a differential filter and the insertion loss for this filter will never be high as is the case with a common filter in which the common currents component are small. 4. Thermal Testing of the Filter If the designed filter is applied next to the disturbance source, it might be exposed to difficult operating conditions such as a constant maximum current flow and poor air circulation. Therefore, heat tests were carried out at a rated current equal to 5 A. The solutions used elements whose rated currents exceeded a 5 A r.m.s. value. The tests were carried out with a load consisting of a set of power supplies with LED lighting that were connected in parallel with a fluorescent lamp and additionally with a thermoregulator with a thyristor voltage controller with an applied phase control. The sum of the currents of the load for the tests was set at 5.4 A. The measurements were performed at an ambient temperature of 19.3 °C. The temperature was measured using a ThermoGear G-30 InfReC thermal imaging camera and a universal meter with an APPA-305 temperature measurement. In each case, the temperature sensor was attached to the surfaces. Therefore, the value from the meter with the temperature sensor was taken as the actual value. A thermal camera was used to determine the points with highest temperature as well as the temperature distribution. In the case of a filter with toroidal throttles, the temperature at a current of 5.4 A in the steady state was 44 °C. The photograph from the thermal camera with the toroidal choke ( Figure 10 ) for the steady state after heating the filter elements with the 5.4 A current indicated the temperature distribution on the individual elements. From this, it can be seen that the highest operating temperatures in the filter were observed in the inductors because they conducted the entire load current. However, their operating temperature remained relatively low. 5. Verification of the Correct Operation of the Developed Filter The measurements were carried in five variants. The schematic of the measurement system is shown in Figure 11 , Figure 12 , Figure 13 , Figure 14 and Figure 15 where: the AC source symbol together with yellow noise symbol represents real-life power grid connection, F—the designed filter, EMI—Schafner interference attenuation filter EMI FN 3256 [ 40 ], T PLC —transmitter (switch) of the PLC communication system, R PLC —communication system executive (receiver) and ChX—probe connection voltage differentials to the respective oscilloscope channels. The voltage spectra were measured using the FFT function. The scale of X: 50 kHz/div and Y: 10 dB/div was set and the offset was X: 0 Hz and Y: −30 dB. The load consisted of: - At the end of the supply line: 3 × 12 V/100 W halogen power supplies (each one) and 2 × 12 V/50 W halogen bulbs (each one); - In the middle of the power line: 1 × fluorescent lamp 2 × 36 W with an electronic ballast. Additional tests without EMI filters were carried out. The schematic of the measurement system is shown in Figure 14 and Figure 15 . Voltage waveforms and voltage harmonics spectra for the two variants configurations is shown in Figure 17. Based on the results of the measurements ( Figure 16 and Figure 17 and Table 1 and Table 2 ), it was found that: non-linear type receivers and power supplies weakened the communication signal of the developed system significantly due to the capacitive filter in the input circuits of the power supplies; the developed filter significantly improved the communication signal level of the developed system in each of the considered cases; comparing the results for f 1 and the measurements for the variant at U CH1 and U CH2 , the difference in the signal levels at the input and output of the filter was about 5 dBV; however, it must be added that it is difficult to interpret this difference as an insertion loss because sources of interference were present on both sides of the filter; by comparing the results for f 2 and the measurements for the variant at U CH1 and U CH2 , the difference in the signal levels was about 20 dBV; adding a fluorescent luminaire in the middle of the model circuit line introduced additional disturbances; these disturbances occurred in the immediate vicinity of 133 kHz, which is used for the transmissions in the developed system; it is reasonable to also use the filter for devices that are not controlled by a home automation system that has all types of power supplies installed in the immediate vicinity of the operating system; however, such receivers introduce disturbances that may interfere with the transmissions of the developed system; by comparing the relevant cases, a significant reduction of interference at the level of 5 dBV and an improvement of the signal with a transmission frequency of 133 kHz at the level of 20 dBV can be observed, which proves the need to use correctly designed filters for communication in a PLC; the use of an EMI filter at the input of the system also resulted in a very strong insertion loss of the communication signal of the developed system, due to the large capacity of the EMI filter; obtained attenuation level is sufficient to filter both disturbances and communication signals around 133 kHz; with specific filter applications, an independent communication subnetwork can be created (before and after designed filter), such application might be advantageous for PLC home automation system throughput and response time; 6. Statistical Tests Used to Verify the Correct Operation of the Filter in a Model System In order to verify the correct operation of the filters in the model system, a series of statistical tests were performed with different topologies of the model system. Nonetheless, the topology was always based on the layout shown in Figure 13 . In each case, the same board, ST7540 configuration, software, 20-byte frame and transmission scheme were used. The transmission scheme was a series of 50 switches ON and 50 switches OFF commands that were sent with one second delay in between transmissions. A carrier frequency of 132.5 kHz was used with a 2.4 kHz frequency deviation (131.348 kHz for “1” and 133.626 kHz for “0”) and 2400 Baud. To improve the robustness, Manchester coding was used. The Forward Error Correction (FEC) technique was used as the error correction mechanism. Situations of correct switching without the need for error correction (CS), correct switching after FEC correction (with FEC) and unsuccessful switching (US) were observed. The series of tests was performed for the following topologies of the model system: TEST1—an EMI filter was connected at the model system input and a fluorescent lamp with a power supply system was connected in the middle of the wires, while LED lighting systems with power supply units, a fluorescent lamp and LED lighting were connected behind the proposed filter system ( Figure 13 ). TEST2—an EMI filter was present at the input of the model system and a fluorescent lamp with a power supply system was connected in the middle of the wires, LED lighting systems with power supplies worked as the receiver, a fluorescent lamp with no filter was connected and LED lighting was connected with the proposed filtering system ( Figure 12 ). TEST3—an EMI filter was present at the input of the model system, while LED lighting systems with power supplies and a fluorescent lamp with a power supply system worked as the receiver and the receivers were connected with the proposed filtering system ( Figure 18 ). TEST4—an EMI filter was present at the input of the system, while the receiver was used to work with the LED lighting systems with the power supplies and a fluorescent lamp with a power supply system and the receivers operated without the proposed filtering system ( Figure 19 ). Based on the statistical tests that were performed ( Table 3 ), the following can be concluded: in the case of the switch OFF tests, there were more problems with the transmission and cases in which there was no response to the signal from the transmitter more often. This was because the receivers generated interference that hindered the reception of the signals; the absence of additional filters in the system made it practically impossible to control the receivers when connecting in the middle of wires or as a controlled receiver of the fluorescent lamp (TEST2 and TEST4); in the case of an EMI filter and the use of the developed filters, full system efficiency was obtained from the point of view of controlling the receivers. 7. Conclusions Today, PLC communication is being used more and more to implement home automation solutions as well as in intelligent homes and remote controls for electronic equipment. In the standard solutions, corrections resulting from error transmissions are based on complex digital modulation methods and algorithms for validating the transmitted data without paying attention to the origin of the errors. In this article, we have focused on the implementation of a filtering system for interference in the 120–150 kHz band that is introduced into the network by receivers. Such a filter separates the desired signal from the interference that occurs in a network, which can result in communication errors. An additional advantage of the developed solution is the ability to provide physical signal separation between two PLC sub-systems (before and after the filter system). This approach might possibly make the response faster and increase the throughput of PLC sub-systems. The entire project cycle was presented beginning with specifying the requirements, through the design, simulation, execution and testing under operating conditions. All of the tests were carried out in real life working conditions with an additional load and the validity and impact of using the EMI filter on the efficiency of information transmissions in the PLC was considered. Through these efforts, it was shown that by using an appropriate filtering system, it is possible to use less complex methods of error correction in the transmission of signals, thus enabling an increase in the transmission speed. In addition, due to the reduction in the complexity of the corrective methods, it is possible to use the computed savings in the capacities to implement other important functionalities or to improve the transmission security without affecting the transmission delay and user experience. Author Contributions Conceptualization, K.B. and D.W.; Methodology, D.W., K.B. and M.Z.; software, D.W. and K.B.; Validation, D.W., K.B., M.Z., A.L., J.M.; Formal analysis, D.W. and K.B.; Investigation, K.B., D.W.; Resources, D.W., K.B. and M.Z., Writing—original draft preparation, K.B.; Writing—review and editing D.W., K.B. and Z.R.; Visualization, K.B. and D.W.; Supervision, Z.R.; Funding acquisition, K.B. Funding This research was partially supported by the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education funding for statutory activities (BK, BKM) of the Institute of Electronics, Silesian University of Technology. Acknowledgments The calculations were performed using the IT infrastructure that was funded by the GeCONiI project (POIG.02.03.01-24-099/13). Conflicts of Interest The authors declare no conflict of interest. References Schwartz, M. Carrier-wave telephony over power lines: Early history. IEEE Commun. Mag. 2009 , 47 , 14–18. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Whiffen, T.; Naylor, S.; Hill, J.; Smith, L.; Callan, P.; Gillott, M.; Wood, C.; Riffat, S. A concept review of power line communication in building energy management systems for the small to medium sized non-domestic built environment. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2016 , 64 , 618–633. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Alanne, K.; Cao, S. An overview of the concept and technology of ubiquitous energy. Appl. Energy 2019 , 238 , 284–302. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Arcia-Garibaldi, G.; Cruz-Romero, P.; Gómez-Expósito, A. Future power transmission: Visions, technologies and challenges. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2018 , 94 , 285–301. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Sendin, A.; Pena, I.; Angueira, P. Strategies for Power Line Communications Smart Metering Network Deployment. Energies 2014 , 7 , 2377–2420. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ][ Green Version ] Sharma, K.; Saini, L.M. Power-line communications for smart grid: Progress, challenges, opportunities and status. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2017 , 67 , 704–751. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Available online: http://www.marketresearchstore.com/report/global-building-automation-systems-market-industry-analysis-73569 (accessed on 20 March 2019). Ikpehai, A.; Adebisi, B.; Rabie, K.; Haggar, R.; Baker, M. Experimental Study of 6LoPLC for Home Energy Management Systems. Energies 2016 , 9 , 1046. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Ikpehai, A.; Adebisi, B.; Rabie, K. Broadband PLC for Clustered Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI) Architecture. Energies 2016 , 9 , 569. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Mlynek, P.; Misurec, J.; Koutny, M. Modeling and evaluation of power line for Smart grid communication. Przegląd Elektrotechniczny 2011 , 87 , 228–232. [ Google Scholar ] Lesek, F.; Petr, F. A Multiconductor Model of Power Line Communication in Medium-Voltage Lines. Energies 2017 , 10 , 816. [ Google Scholar ] Galli, S.; Scaglione, A.; Wang, Z. For the grid and through the grid: The role of power line communications in the smart grid. Proc. IEEE 2011 , 99 , 998–1027. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Rastegar, M.; Fotuhi-Firuzabada, M.; Lehtonenb, M. Home load management in a residential energy hub. Electr. Power Syst. Res. 2015 , 119 , 322–328. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Zhu, Y.; Wu, J.; Wang, R.; Lin, Z.; He, X. Embedding Power Line Communication in Photovoltaic Optimizer by Modulating Data in Power Control Loop. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 2019 , 66 , 3948–3958. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Elazhary, H. Internet of Things (IoT), mobile cloud, cloudlet, mobile IoT, IoT cloud, fog, mobile edge and edge emerging computing paradigms: Disambiguation and research directions. J. Netw. Comput. Appl. 2019 , 128 , 105–140. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Kamal, M.; Parvin, S.; Saleem, K.; Al-Hamadi, H.; Gawanmeh, A. Efficient low cost supervisory system for Internet of Things enabled smart home. In Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Communications Workshops, Paris, France, 21–25 May 2017; pp. 864–869. [ Google Scholar ] Li, M.; Lin, H. Design and Implementation of Smart Home Control Systems Based on Wireless Sensor Networks and Power Line Communications. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 2015 , 62 , 4430–4442. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Mendes, T.; Godina, R.; Rodrigues, E.; Matias, J.; Catalão, J. Smart home communication technologies and applications: Wireless protocol assessment for home area network resources. Energies 2015 , 8 , 7279–7311. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Han, J.; Choi, C.; Park, W.; Lee, I.; Kim, S. Smart home energy management system including renewable energy based on ZigBee and PLC. IEEE Trans. Consum. Electron. 2014 , 60 , 198–202. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Fernandes, V.; Poor, H.; Ribeiro, M. Analyses of the Incomplete Low-Bit-Rate Hybrid PLC-Wireless Single-Relay Channel. IEEE Internet Things J. 2018 , 5 , 917–929. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Zhao, X.; Zhang, H.; Lu, W.; Li, L. Approach for modelling of broadband low-voltage PLC channels using graph theory. IET Commun. 2018 , 12 , 1524–1530. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Pinto-Benel, F.; Cruz-Roldán, F. Exploring the performance of prototype filters for broadband PLC. In Proceedings of the IEEE International Symposium on Power Line Communications and its Applications (ISPLC), Madrid, Spain, 3–5 April 2017; pp. 1–6. [ Google Scholar ] Choi, H.; Moon, J.; Lee, I.; Lee, H. Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Resolution. IEEE Commun. Lett. 2013 , 17 , 1284–1287. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Lopez, G.; Moreno, J.I.; Amaris, H.; Salazar, F. Paving the road toward Smart Grids through large-scale advanced metering infrastructures. Electr. Power Syst. Res. 2015 , 120 , 194–205. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Peck, M.; Alvarez, G.; Coleman, B.; Moradi, H.; Forest, M.; Aalo, M. Modeling and Analysis of Power Line Communications for Application in Smart Grid. In Proceedings of the 15th LACCEI International Multi-Conference for Engineering, Education and Technology, Boca Raton, FL, USA, 19–21 July 2017; pp. 1–6. [ Google Scholar ] Cavdar, I.H. Performance analysis of FSK power line communications systems over the time-varying channels: Measurements and modeling. IEEE Trans. Power Deliv. 2004 , 19 , 111–117. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Available online: https://www.st.com/resource/en/data_brief/steval-ihp005v1.pdf (accessed on 20 March 2019). Lampe, L.; Rahman, M.; Saffar, H. Characteristics of power line networks: Diversity and interference alignment. In Proceedings of the IEEE International Symposium on Power Line Communications and its Applications (ISPLC), Madrid, Spain, 3–5 April 2017; pp. 1–6. [ Google Scholar ] Juwono, F.; Guo, Q.; Chen, Y.; Xu, L.; Huang, D.; Wong, K. Linear Combining of Nonlinear Preprocessors for OFDM-Based Power-Line Communications. IEEE Trans. Smart Grid 2016 , 7 , 253–260. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Cui, Y.; Liu, X.; Cao, J.; Xu, D. Network Performance Optimization for Low-Voltage Power Line Communications. Energies 2018 , 11 , 1266. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Nombela, F.; García, E.; Ureña, J.; Hernández, A.; Poudereux, P. Robust synchronization algorithm for broadband PLC based on Wavelet-OFDM. In Proceedings of the IEEE 20th Conference on Emerging Technologies & Factory Automation, Luxembourg, 8–11 September 2015; pp. 1–7. [ Google Scholar ] Mathur, A.; Bhatnagar, M.; Panigrahi, B. Maximum likelihood decoding of QPSK signal in power line communications over Nakagami-m additive noise. In Proceedings of the IEEE International Symposium on Power Line Communications and its Applications, Austin, TX, USA, 29 March–1 April 2015; pp. 7–12. [ Google Scholar ] Okazima, N.; Baba, Y.; Nagaoka, N.; Ametani, A.; Temma, K.; Shimomura, T. Propagation Characteristics of Power Line Communication Signals Along a Power Cable Having Semiconducting Layers. IEEE Trans. Electromagn. Compat. 2010 , 52 , 756–769. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Ozenbaugh, R.L. EMI Filter Design , 2nd ed.; Marcel Dekker Inc.: New York, NY, USA, 2001. [ Google Scholar ] Verma, R.; Maity, T.; Hofsajer, I. Multipath conductors for EMI filter: Recent developments. Iet Sci. Meas. Technol. 2018 , 12 , 575–580. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Das, J. Passive filters-potentialities and limitations. Ieee Trans. Ind. Appl. 2004 , 40 , 232–241. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Bernacki, K.; Rymarski, Z.; Dyga, Ł. Selecting the coil core powder material for the output filter of a voltage source inverter. Electron. Lett. 2017 , 53 , 1068–1069. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Rymarski, Z. Measuring the real parameters of single-phase voltage source inverters for UPS systems. Int. J. Electron. 2017 , 104 , 1020–1033. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] Rymarski, Z.; Bernacki, K.; Dyga, Ł. The influence of the properties of magnetic materials on a voltage source inverter control. In Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Control Applications (CCA), Nice/Antibes, France, 8–10 October 2014; pp. 1127–1132. [ Google Scholar ] Available online: https://www.schaffner.com/product-storage/datasheets/fn-3256/ (accessed on 20 March 2019). Figure 1. Scheme of the LC single-phase filter with two 33 μH inductor chokes and two 100 nF capacitors: ( a ) scheme, ( b ) a substitute scheme of the ideal filter, ( c ) a filter scheme with the resistive parasitic elements indicated. Figure 1. Scheme of the LC single-phase filter with two 33 μH inductor chokes and two 100 nF capacitors: ( a ) scheme, ( b ) a substitute scheme of the ideal filter, ( c ) a filter scheme with the resistive parasitic elements indicated. Figure 2. Magnitudes of the impedances seen from terminals A 1 , A 2 , Z AA and B 1 , B 2 , Z BB given as the functions of the frequency for the designed filter. Figure 2. Magnitudes of the impedances seen from terminals A 1 , A 2 , Z AA and B 1 , B 2 , Z BB given as the functions of the frequency for the designed filter. Figure 3. LC filter with two THT 33 μH chokes: ( a ) filter scheme, ( b ) 3D view of the board (57.5 mm width and 31.0 mm height, nominal current 5 A). Figure 4. Measured inductance, resistance of the filter inductor, capacitance and its series equivalent resistance of the filter capacitor. Figure 4. Measured inductance, resistance of the filter inductor, capacitance and its series equivalent resistance of the filter capacitor. Figure 5. Schematics (circuits) in which the V 1 and V 2 voltages were obtained in order to calculate the insertion loss of the filter from Terminals B to A: ( a ) system without a filter—determination of the voltage V 1 and ( b ) system with a filter—determination of the voltage V 2 . Figure 5. Schematics (circuits) in which the V 1 and V 2 voltages were obtained in order to calculate the insertion loss of the filter from Terminals B to A: ( a ) system without a filter—determination of the voltage V 1 and ( b ) system with a filter—determination of the voltage V 2 . Figure 6. Circuit schemes for which the V 1 and V 2 voltages were required to determine the filter insertion loss from Terminals A to B: ( a ) system without a filter to determine voltage V 1 and ( b ) system with a filter to determine voltage V 2 . Figure 6. Circuit schemes for which the V 1 and V 2 voltages were required to determine the filter insertion loss from Terminals A to B: ( a ) system without a filter to determine voltage V 1 and ( b ) system with a filter to determine voltage V 2 . Figure 7. Insertion loss characteristics of the experimental LC filter with the ideal characteristics given for different inductance values and a fixed capacitance of C = 200 nF. Figure 7. Insertion loss characteristics of the experimental LC filter with the ideal characteristics given for different inductance values and a fixed capacitance of C = 200 nF. Figure 8. Insertion loss of the LC filter with two 33 μH inductions. Figure 8. Insertion loss of the LC filter with two 33 μH inductions. Figure 9. Insertion loss characteristics of the experimental LC filter with the ideal characteristics given for different values of the capacitances and a fixed inductance of L = 66 μH. Figure 10. Thermographic photograph of the filter. Figure 10. Thermographic photograph of the filter. Figure 11. Connection schematic of the model with an EMI filter and without an additional receiver connected in the middle of the line—Variant 1. Figure 11. Connection schematic of the model with an EMI filter and without an additional receiver connected in the middle of the line—Variant 1. Figure 12. Connection schematic of the model with an EMI filter and an additional receiver connected in the middle of the line (without an F filter)—Variant 2. Figure 12. Connection schematic of the model with an EMI filter and an additional receiver connected in the middle of the line (without an F filter)—Variant 2. Figure 13. Connection schematic of the model with an EMI filter and an additional receiver connected in the middle of the line by an F filter—Variant 3. Figure 13. Connection schematic of the model with an EMI filter and an additional receiver connected in the middle of the line by an F filter—Variant 3. Figure 14. Connection schematic of the model without an EMI filter and with an additional receiver connected in the middle of the line (without the F filter)—Variant 4. Figure 14. Connection schematic of the model without an EMI filter and with an additional receiver connected in the middle of the line (without the F filter)—Variant 4. Figure 15. Connection schematic of the model without an EMI filter and with an additional receiver connected in the middle of the line by the F filter—Variant 5. Figure 15. Connection schematic of the model without an EMI filter and with an additional receiver connected in the middle of the line by the F filter—Variant 5. Figure 16. Voltage waveforms and voltage harmonics spectra for the various configurations of the system with the developed filter (X: 50 kHz/div and Y: 10 dB/div). System status: T PLC : broadcast ON; R PLC : ON, measured/analyzed voltages U CH1 and U CH2 ; measured frequency signal level f 1 is the intersection of the black lines and the measured frequency signal level f 2 is the intersection of the red lines. Figure 16. Voltage waveforms and voltage harmonics spectra for the various configurations of the system with the developed filter (X: 50 kHz/div and Y: 10 dB/div). System status: T PLC : broadcast ON; R PLC : ON, measured/analyzed voltages U CH1 and U CH2 ; measured frequency signal level f 1 is the intersection of the black lines and the measured frequency signal level f 2 is the intersection of the red lines. Figure 17. Voltage waveforms and voltage harmonics spectra for the various configurations of the system with the developed filter (X: 50 kHz/div and Y: 10 dB/div). System status: T PLC : broadcast ON; R PLC : ON, measured/analyzed voltages U CH1 and U CH2 ; measured frequency signal level f 1 is the intersection of the black lines and the measured frequency signal level f 2 is the intersection of the red lines. Figure 17. Voltage waveforms and voltage harmonics spectra for the various configurations of the system with the developed filter (X: 50 kHz/div and Y: 10 dB/div). System status: T PLC : broadcast ON; R PLC : ON, measured/analyzed voltages U CH1 and U CH2 ; measured frequency signal level f 1 is the intersection of the black lines and the measured frequency signal level f 2 is the intersection of the red lines. Figure 18. Connection schematic of the model with an EMI filter while LED lighting systems with power supplies and a fluorescent lamp with a power supply system working as the receiver, the receivers were connected with the proposed filtering system (TEST 3). Figure 18. Connection schematic of the model with an EMI filter while LED lighting systems with power supplies and a fluorescent lamp with a power supply system working as the receiver, the receivers were connected with the proposed filtering system (TEST 3). Figure 19. Connection schematic of the model with an EMI filter while LED lighting systems with power supplies and a fluorescent lamp with a power supply system working as the receiver, the receivers were connected without the proposed filtering system (TEST 4). Figure 19. Connection schematic of the model with an EMI filter while LED lighting systems with power supplies and a fluorescent lamp with a power supply system working as the receiver, the receivers were connected without the proposed filtering system (TEST 4). Table 1. List of the signal level measurements for the frequency f 2 = 133 kHz and for the highest disturbance components f 1 . Table 1. List of the signal level measurements for the frequency f 2 = 133 kHz and for the highest disturbance components f 1 . Table 2. List of the signal level measurements for the frequency f 2 = 133 kHz and for the highest disturbance components f 1 . Table 2. List of the signal level measurements for the frequency f 2 = 133 kHz and for the highest disturbance components f 1 . Number Variant f 1 [kHz] U f1 [dBV] f 2 [kHz] U f2 [dBV] 1. 4a/U CH1 84 −17.2 133 −11.6 2. 4b/U CH2 74 −13.8 133 −36.5 3. 5c/U CH1 82 −22.8 133 −4.1 4. 5d/U CH2 82 −15.6 133 −35.0 Table 3. Results of the statistical tests, correct switching (CS), unsuccessful switching (US) and correct switching with Forward Error Correction (FEC). Table 3. Results of the statistical tests, correct switching (CS), unsuccessful switching (US) and correct switching with Forward Error Correction (FEC). Number Setting the Model Switch ON Switch OFF CS With FEC US CS With FEC US 1. TEST1 30 20 0 35 15 0 2. TEST2 0 2 48 0 2 48 3. TEST3 26 24 0 30 20 0 4. TEST4 0 50 0 0 2 48 Bernacki, Krzysztof, Dominik Wybrańczyk, Marcin Zygmanowski, Andrzej Latko, Jarosław Michalak, and Zbigniew Rymarski. 2019. "Disturbance and Signal Filter for Power Line Communication" Electronics8, no. 4: 378. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics8040378 Article Metrics Bernacki, K.; Wybrańczyk, D.; Zygmanowski, M.; Latko, A.; Michalak, J.; Rymarski, Z. Disturbance and Signal Filter for Power Line Communication. Electronics 2019, 8, 378. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics8040378 Bernacki K, Wybrańczyk D, Zygmanowski M, Latko A, Michalak J, Rymarski Z. Disturbance and Signal Filter for Power Line Communication. Electronics. 2019; 8(4):378. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics8040378 Bernacki, Krzysztof, Dominik Wybrańczyk, Marcin Zygmanowski, Andrzej Latko, Jarosław Michalak, and Zbigniew Rymarski. 2019. "Disturbance and Signal Filter for Power Line Communication" Electronics8, no. 4: 378. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics8040378

https://www.mdpi.com/2079-9292/8/4/378/htm

Titles | C | FRASER | St. Louis Fed All books, data publications, reports, collections, and other titles available on FRASER. Browse by Title # A B B.816 Industrial Advances by Federal Reserve Banks : Summary of Applications, Approvals, Rejections and Commitments B.817 Industrial Advances and Commitments Under Section 13(b) of the Federal Reserve Act : Summary by Federal Reserve Banks Background Facts on Women Workers in the United States Back Injuries Associated With Lifting : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 2144 The Balance of Payments: Free Versus Fixed Exchange Rates Bank Acceptances Bank and Quotation Record Bank Holding Company Act Amendments of 1970 Bank Holding Company Act of 1955 : Report (To Accompany H.R. 6227) Bank Holding Company Act of 1955 : Report (To Accompany S. 2577), Calendar No. 1107 Bank Holding Company Act of 1956 Banking Act of 1933 : Conference Report (To Accompany H.R. 5661) Banking Act of 1933 (Glass-Steagall Act) Banking Act of 1933 : Report (To Accompany H.R. 5661) Banking Act of 1935 Banking Act of 1935 : Conference Report (To Accompany H.R. 7617) Banking Act of 1935 : Hearings Before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Banking and Currency, United States Senate, Seventy-Fourth Congress, First Session, on S. 1715 and H.R. 7617, April 19 to June 3, 1935 Banking Act of 1935 : Hearings Before the Committee on Banking and Currency, House of Representatives, Seventy-Fourth Congress, First Session, on H.R. 5357, February 21, 22, 26, 27, 28, March 1, 4, 5, 6, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 25, 26, 27, 28, April 2, 8, 1935 Banking Act of 1935 : Hearings Before the Committee on Banking and Currency, House of Representatives, Seventy-Fourth Congress, First Session, on H.R. 5357, February 21, 22, 26, 27, 28, March 1, 4, 5, 6, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 25, 26, 27, 28, April 2, 8, 1935, Box 1, Folder 7, Item 5 Banking Act of 1935 : Report (To Accompany H.R. 7617) Banking Act of 1935 : Report (To Accompany H.R. 7617), Calendar No. 1053 Banking and Community Perspectives (Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas) Banking and Currency Bill : Comparative Print, H.R. 7837 Banking and Currency : Hearings Before the Committee on Banking and Currency, United States Senate, Sixty-third Congress, First Session, on H.R. 7837 (s. 2639) ... in Three Volumes Banking and Currency : Report No. 133 (to Accompany H.R. 7837), Calendar No. 107 Banking and Currency : Report of the Committee of Conference of the Two Houses of Congress on the Bill (H.R. 7837) to Provide for the Establishment of Federal Reserve Banks, to Furnish an Elastic Currency, to Afford Means of Rediscounting Commercial Paper, to Establish a More Effective Supervision of Banking in the United States, Sixty-Third Congress, Second Session Banking and Monetary Statistics, 1914-1941 Banking and Monetary Statistics, 1941-1970 Banking Groups and Chains Banking Holiday of 1933 Banking in Russia, Austro-Hungary, the Netherlands, and Japan Banking Problems Banking Profits, 1890-1931 Banking Reform The Banking Reform Act of 1971 : Hearings Before the Committee on Banking and Currency, House of Representatives, Ninety-Second Congress, First Session, on H.R. 5700, H.R. 3287, H.R. 7440 (1971) Banking Regulatory Agencies' Enforcement of the Equal Credit Opportunity Act and the Fair Housing Act : Hearings Before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Government Operations, House of Representatives, Ninety-Fifth Congress, Second Session, September 12, 14, and 15, 1978 Banking Studies The Banking System of Mexico Bank Lending to Farmers in the Sixth District : Borrowing During 1950; Current Livestock Lending Policies; Community Capital Accumulation and Farm Financing Bank Loans and Stock Exchange Speculation Bank Management Bank Merger Act (Federal Deposit Insurance Act, Amendment) Bank of America : Press Releases Relating to the Financial Crisis of 2007-2009 The Bank of France in Its Relation to National and International Credit Bank of the United States : Letter from the Secretary of the Treasury Transmitting the Monthly Statements of the Bank of the United States for the Year 1830 Bank of the United States, March 1, 1833 : Report and Resolution Bank of the United States : Report Bank of the United States : Report of the Majority Bank Participation Plan : War Production, Contract Termination, Reconversion and other Business Loans Bank Protection Act of 1968 Bank Robbery Act Bankruptcy Abuse Prevention and Consumer Protection Act of 2005 Bankruptcy Act of 1800 Bankruptcy Act of 1841 Bankruptcy Act of 1898 (Nelson Act) Bankruptcy Act of 1938 Bankruptcy Filing : Bear Stearns High-Grade Structured Credit Strategies Master Fund, LTD and Bear Stearns High-Grade Structured Credit Strategies Enhanced Leverage Master Fund, LTD. Bankruptcy Reform Act of 1978 Bankruptcy Reform Act of 1994 Bank Secrecy Act Bank Service Company Act Bank Service Corporations : Report (To Accompany H.R. 8874) Banks in the District of Columbia : Letter from the Secretary of the Treasury Transmitting Returns of the Incorporated Banks of the District of Columbia, Showing the State of Their Affairs at the Close of the Year 1833 The Banks of Issue in Italy Banks That Used the Small Business Lending Fund to Exit TARP, SIGTARP-13-002 Bank Supervision Bank Suspensions, 1892-1935 Bank Suspensions, 1921-1936, (December 1937) Bank Suspensions, 1921-1936, (September 1937) Bank Suspensions in the United States, 1892-1931 Bank Suspension Study Bargaining Calendar Basic Business News Beneficial Activities of American Trade Unions : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 465 Bibliography on Labor in Africa, 1960-64 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1473 Biennial Report of the Missouri Relief Commission [Bill Summary] : [Public Law 110-343: Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008], H.R. 1424 Black Americans: A Chartbook : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1699 Black Americans: A Decade of Occupational Change : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1731 Black Americans: A Decade of Occupational Change : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1760 BLS Economic Growth Model System Used for Projections to 1990 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 2112 BLS Handbook of Methods : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 2134 BLS Handbook of Methods : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 2285 BLS Handbook of Methods for Surveys and Studies : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1458 BLS Handbook of Methods for Surveys and Studies : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1711 BLS Handbook of Methods for Surveys and Studies : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1910 BLS Measures of Compensation : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1941 BLS Measures of Compensation : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 2239 BLS Publications, 1886-1971 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1749 BLS Publications, 1972-1977 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1990 A BLS Reader on Productivity : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 2171 The Blue Book : A Brief Account of the Lending Operation of Home Owners' Loan Corporation with Special Reference to the Examination of Land Titles and the Conduct and Closing of Real Estate Loans BNP Paribas Investment Partners Temporarily Suspends the Calculation of the Net Asset Value of the Following Funds : Parvest Dynamic ABS, BNP Paribas ABS EURIBOR and BNP Paribas ABS EONIA Board Approves Corporate Stabilization Efforts Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System : Documents Relating to the COVID-19 Pandemic Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System : Documents Relating to the Financial Crisis of 2007-2009 Bookkeepers, Stenographers and Office Clerks in Ohio, 1914 to 1929 : Women's Bureau Bulletin, No. 95 Booms and Depressions : Some First Principles Boot and Shoe Industry in Massachusetts as a Vocation for Women : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 180 The Border Economy Branch and Group Banking Branch Banking in California Branch Banking in Canada Branch Banking in England Branch Banking in the United States Branch Banking in the United States [1937] Branch, Chain, and Group Banking : Hearings Before the Committee on Banking and Currency, House of Representatives, Seventy-First Congress, Second Session, Under H. Res. 141 (1930) Bretton Woods Agreements Act Bretton Woods Agreements Act Amendment : Hearings Before the Committee on Banking and Currency, House of Representatives, Eighty-Seventh Congress, Second Session, on H.R.10162, February 27 and 28, 1962 Bretton Woods Agreements Act Amendment : Hearings Before the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate, Eighty-Seventh Congress, Second Session, on H.R. 10162, March 30 and April 3, 1962 Bretton Woods Agreements Act : Hearings Before the Committee on Banking and Currency, United States Senate, Seventy-Ninth Congress, First Session, on H.R. 3314, June 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 25, and 28, 1945 Bridges (Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis) A Brief History of Panics and Their Periodical Occurrence in the United States Brief History of the American Labor Movement : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1000 A Brief History of the National Banking System Briefing on Operation Independence : Hearing Before the Subcommittee on International Trade, Investment and Monetary Policy of the Committee on Banking, Currency and Housing, House of Representatives, Ninety-Fourth Congress, First Session, March 12, 1975 British National Insurance Act, 1911 : Bulletin of the Bureau of Labor, No. 102 British Policies and Methods in Employing Women in Wartime : Women's Bureau Bulletin, No. 200 British System of Labor Exchanges : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 206 Broker's Loans : Hearings Before the Committee on Banking and Currency, United States Senate, Seventieth Congress, First Session, on S. Res. 113, February 9, 29, and March 7, 1928 Budget and Accounting Act of 1921 The Budgetary Impact and Subsidy Costs of the Federal Reserve The Budgetary Impact and Subsidy Costs of the Federal Reserve's Actions During the Financial Crisis Budget Baselines, Historical Data, and Alternatives for the Future Budget Highlights Budget in Brief Budget of the United States Government Budget of the United States Government - Analytical Perspectives Budget of the United States Government - Appendix Budget of the United States Government Series Budget of the United States Government, Special Analyses Budget of the United States Government : War Supplement Budget Revisions Budget System and Concepts of the United States Government Building Construction Building Operations in Representative Cities, 1920 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 295 Building Permits in the Principal Cities of the United States Building Permit Survey, 1939 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 689 Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor, Nos. 1 - 100 Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics : Miscellaneous Series Bulletin of the Women's Bureau Bulletins and Articles Published by Bureau of Labor Statistics: A Selected List of References : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 614 Bulletins, Circulars, Regulations, Etc., 1913-1914 Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) News Releases Bureau of Labor Statistics, United States Department of Labor: Its History, Activities, and Organization : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 319 Burgundy Book Business Booms and Depressions Since 1775 : An Accurate Charting of the Past and Present Trend of Price Inflation, Federal Debt, Business, National Income, Stocks and Bond Yields with a Special Study of Postwar Periods Business Conditions Digest Business Conditions (Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago) Business Cycles Business Frontier Business Review (Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia) Business Trends Butter Prices, From Producer to Consumer : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 164 By-Laws of the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis, Mo. C C.2 Aggregate Summaries of Annual Surveys of Securities Credit Extension C.4 Insured Bank Income by Size of Bank C.5 Bank Debits and Demand Deposits C.5 Bank Holding Companies and Subsidiary Banks, Domestic C.6 Bank Holding Companies and Subsidiary Banks, Domestic and Foreign C.7.3 Department Store Trade, United States C.8 Distribution of Bank Deposits by Counties and Standard Metropolitan Areas C.9 Balance Sheets for the U. S. Economy Calendar of William McChesney Martin, Jr. Calendars and Telephone Messages of Paul A. Volcker Calendars of Federal Reserve Chairs Call Reports The Canadian Banking System Canadian Banking System, Box 5, Item 5 Capital Flow Matrix, 1958 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1601 Capital Issues and Municipal Debts and Their Relation to War Financing Capital Issues Committee (Created By the War Finance Corporation Act) Rules and Regulations The Capital Issues Committee of the Federal Reserve Board : [An Address Before the City Treasurers and Collectors Association of Massachusetts At Boston, Mar. 23, 1918] Capital Purchase Program Report Capital Stock Estimates for Input-Output Industries: Methods and Data : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 2034 Carbon-Monoxide Poisoning : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 291 Careers for Women as Technicians : Women's Bureau Bulletin, No. 282 Careers for Women in Retailing : Women's Bureau Bulletin, No. 271 Careers for Women in the Biological Sciences : Women's Bureau Bulletin, No. 278 Careers for Women in the Physical Sciences : Women's Bureau Bulletin, No. 270 Care of Aged Persons in the United States : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 489 Care of Tuberculous Wage Earners in Germany : Bulletin of the Bureau of Labor, No. 101 Cargo Handling and Longshore Labor Conditions : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 550 Carlyle Capital Corporation Limited Issues Update on Its Liquidity Cascade (Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia) Cascade Focus (Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia) Case Studies in Equal Pay for Women Case Studies in Union Leadership Training, 1951-52 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1114 Case Studies of Displaced Workers: Experiences of Workers After Layoff : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1408 Cash Discount Act Catalogue of Coins of the United States Causes and Prevention of Accidents in the Iron and Steel Industry, 1910-1919 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 298 Causes of Absence for Men and for Women in Four Cotton Mills : Women's Bureau Bulletin, No. 69 Causes of Death by Occupation : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 507 Causes of Death by Occupation: Occupational Mortality Experience of the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, Industrial Department, 1911-1913 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 207 The Causes of the Present Depression and Possible Remedies The CBO Multipliers Project : A Methodology for Analyzing the Effects of Alternative Economic Policies CBO Study CBO Technical Analysis Paper Celler-Kefauver Anti-Merger Act Census Atlas of the United States, 2000 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention : Documents Relating to the COVID-19 Pandemic Central Bank Cooperation : 1924-31 Central Banker Community Affairs Series (Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis) Central Banker : News and Views for Eighth District Bankers Central Banking under the Federal Reserve System : With Special Consideration of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York Central Western Banker Chair Janet Yellen's Calendar Chair Jerome Powell's Calendar Chairman Bernanke's Schedule Chairman Greenspan : Appointments The Change From Manual to Dial Operation in the Telephone Industry : Women's Bureau Bulletin, No. 110 Changes in Cost of Living In Large Cities In the United States, 1913-41 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 699 Changes in Machinery and Job Requirements in Minnesota Manufacturing, 1931-, Report No. L-6 Changes in Retail Prices of Electricity, 1923-38 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 664 Changes in Retail Prices of Gas, 1923-36 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 628 Changes in the Banking and Currency System of the United States : Report (To Accompany H.R. 7837) Changes in the Number and Size of Banks In the United States, 1834-1931 Changes in the Number of National and State Banks during 1921-1936 Changes in the Rural Relief Population Through October 1935, H-6 Changes in Women's Occupations, 1940-1950 : Women's Bureau Bulletin, No. 253 Changes Since 1921 in State Laws Affecting Women's Hours and Wages : Women's Bureau Bulletin, Supplement to Bulletin No. 16 Changing Aspects of Rural Relief, Research Monograph XIV Changing Jobs: A Study Made by Students in the Economics Course at the Bryn Mawr Summer School Under the Direction of Prof. Amy Hewes : Women's Bureau Bulletin, No. 54 Changing Status of Bituminous-Coal Miners, 1937-46 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 882 The Changing Structure of the Dealer Market in Government Securities : Staff Study Characteristics of Agreements in State and Local Governments Characteristics of Company Unions, 1935 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 634 Characteristics of Construction Agreements, 1972-73 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1819 Characteristics of Major Collective Bargaining Agreements Characteristics of Minimum Wage Workers Charles S. Hamlin Papers Charter Authorizing Commencement of Business by the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Charter for an International Trade Organization : Message from the President of the United States Transmitting the Charter for International Trade Organization, Prepared by a Conference of the United Nations, Habana, 1948, Together with a Memorandum from the Secretary of State Check Clearing for the 21st Century Act (Check 21) The Check Exchange : News and Views on Check Services Chicago Fed Letter Child Care Services Provided by Hospitals : Women's Bureau Bulletin, No. 295 Children of Working Mothers : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 2158 China : Awakening Giant China's Churn China Travel Advisory, February 2, 2020 Chinese Migrations, with Special Reference to Labor Conditions : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 340 A Christmas Present for the President Chronological Development of Labor Legislation for Women in the United States : Women's Bureau Bulletin, No. 66-II Chronology of The Federal Emergency Relief Administration : May 12, 1933, to December 31, 1935, Research Monograph VI Cigar Makers-After the Lay-Off : A Case Study of the Effects of Mechanization on Employment of Hand Cigar Makers, Report No. L-1 Cipher Code (FDIC) Circular No. 1 of the War Finance Corporation Circulars of the National Monetary Commission Circulars of the Reconstruction Finance Corporation CIT Bankruptcy Filing - Tyco Capital Holding Citigroup and the Troubled Asset Relief Program : Hearing Before the Congressional Oversight Panel, One Hundred Eleventh Congress, Second Session, March 4, 2010 Citigroup : Press Releases Relating to the Financial Crisis of 2007-2009 A Citizen's Guide to the Federal Budget Citizens' Report on the Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP) : Summary of Performance and Financial Results City Worker's Family Budget for a Moderate Living Standard: Autumn 1966 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1570-1 City Worker's Family Budget Pricing, Procedures, Specifications, and Average Prices: Autumn 1966 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1570-3 Civil Rights Act of 1964 Clark County, NV: Ground Zero of the Housing and Financial Crisis : Field Hearing Before the Congressional Oversight Panel, One Hundred Tenth Congress, Second Session, Hearing Held in Las Vegas, Nevada, December 16, 2008 Classifications of Banks in Operation on December 31, 1935 Classroom Activity: Attacking Financial Panics: The Panic of 1893 Classroom Activity: Chosen Places Classroom Activity: Historical Inquiry with 75 Years of American Finance Classroom Lesson: Abraham Lincoln and the $5 Note Classroom Lesson: Barbie® in the Labor Force Classroom Lesson: Ben Franklin: Highlighting the Printer Classroom Lesson: Constitutionality of a Central Bank Classroom Lesson: Credit History and Equal Opportunity Classroom Lesson: Currency and the Fed Classroom Lesson: Eminent Domain: Should Private Property Be Taken for Public Use? Classroom Lesson: Everything Including the Kitchen Sink: Progressive Reforms and Economic Wealth in the 1920s Classroom Lesson: Family Budgets and the Great Depression Classroom Lesson: From Raw Materials to Riches: Mercantilism and the British North American Colonies Classroom Lesson: Hamilton's National Bank Classroom Lesson: Jekyll Island and the Creation of the Fed Classroom Lesson: Measuring the Great Depression Classroom Lesson: Money for Nothing: Economic Affluence in Postwar America Classroom Lesson: Myths, Tall Tales, and Urban Legends: Facts Behind the Fed Classroom Lesson: Removing the "Punch Bowl" : Inflation and the Federal Reserve’s Use of Contractionary Monetary Policy Classroom Lesson: Scraps of Time: Abby Takes a Stand Classroom Lesson: Sojourner Truth: Ain't I a Woman? Classroom Lesson: The Acceleration of the Great Migration, 1916-17 Classroom Lesson: The Arsenal of Democracy: The United States in World War II Classroom Lesson: The Free Silver Movement and Inflation Classroom Lesson: The Panic of 1907: J.P. Morgan and the Money Trust Clearing House Loan Certificates and Substitutes for Money Used During the Panic of 1907 : With Suggestions for an Emergency Currency Based Upon Such Loan Certificates Clearing House Methods and Practices Clerical Occupations for Women: Today and Tomorrow : Women's Bureau Bulletin, No. 289 Cleveland Brief Presented to Reserve Bank Organization Committee, February 17,1914 Closed for the Holiday : The Bank Holiday of 1933 Closing the Digital Divide : A Framework for Meeting CRA Obligations Clothing for Urban Families: Expenditures Per Member by Sex and Age, 1960-61 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1556 Code for Identification of Gas-Mask Canisters : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 512 Code of Lighting: Factories, Mills and Other Work Places : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 331 Code of Lighting: Factories, Mills and Other Work Places : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 556 Code of Lighting School Buildings : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 382 Coinage Act of 1834 Coinage Act of 1849 Coinage Act of 1873 Coinage Act of 1965 Collective Agreements in the Men's Clothing Industry : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 198 Collective Bargaining Agreements for Police and Firefighters : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1885 Collective Bargaining Agreements for State and County Government Employees : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1920 Collective Bargaining Agreements in the Federal Service, Late 1971 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1789 Collective Bargaining Agreements in the Federal Service, Late Summer 1964 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1451 Collective Bargaining by Actors : A Study of Trade-Unionism Among Performers of the English-Speaking Legitimate Stage in America : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 402 Collective Bargaining Clauses: Company Pay for Time Spent on Union Business : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1266 Collective Bargaining Clauses: Dismissal Pay : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1216 Collective Bargaining Clauses: Labor-Management Safety, Production, and Industry Stabilization Committees : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1201 Collective Bargaining Clauses: Layoff, Recall, and Work-Sharing Procedures : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1189 Collective Bargaining in Paper and Allied Products Industry : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 709 Collective Bargaining in the Anthracite Coal Industry : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 191 Collective Bargaining in the Chemical Industry, May 1942 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 716 Collective Bargaining in the Meat-Packing Industry : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1063 Collective Bargaining Provisions: Apprentices and Learners : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 908-4 Collective Bargaining Provisions : Discharge, Discipline, and Quits ; Dismissal Pay Provisions : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 908-05 Collective Bargaining Provisions : General Wage Provisions : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 908-08 Collective Bargaining Provisions : Grievance and Arbitration Provisions : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 908-16 Collective Bargaining Provisions : Guaranteed Employment and Wage Plans : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 908-15 Collective Bargaining Provisions : Health, Insurance, and Pensions : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 908-17 Collective Bargaining Provisions : Hours of Work, Overtime Pay, Shift Operations : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 908-18 Collective Bargaining Provisions : Incentive Wage Provisions; Time Studies and Standards of Production : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 908-03 Collective Bargaining Provisions : Leave of Absence, Military Service Leave : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 908-06 Collective Bargaining Provisions : Preamble, Scope of Bargaining Unit, Duration of Agreements : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 908-19 Collective Bargaining Provisions : Promotion, Transfer, and Assignment, Lay-Off, Work-Sharing, and Reemployment : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 908-07 Collective Bargaining Provisions : Safety, Health, and Sanitation : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 908-14 Collective Bargaining Provisions : Seniority : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 908-11 Collective Bargaining Provisions : Strikes and Lock-outs, Contract Enforcement : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 908-13 Collective Bargaining Provisions : Union and Management Functions, Rights and Responsibilities : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 908-12 Collective Bargaining Provisions: Union-Management Cooperation, Plant Efficiency, and Technological Change : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 908-10 Collective Bargaining Provisions : Vacations, Holidays and Weekend Work : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 908-02 Collective Bargaining Provisions : Wage Adjustment Plans : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 908-09 Collective Bargaining: Radio, Television, and Electronics Industry : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1089 Collective Bargaining with Associations and Groups of Employers : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 897 College Educated Workers, 1968-80: A Study of Supply and Demand : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1676 College Women Go To Work: Report on Women Graduates Class of 1956 : Women's Bureau Bulletin, No. 264 College Women Seven Years After Graduation: Resurvey of Women Graduates - Class of 1957 : Women's Bureau Bulletin, No. 292 Colorado Foreclosure Hotline (Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City) Commercial and Financial Chronicle Commercial Banking Practice Under the Federal Reserve Act : The Law and Regulations, the Informal Rulings of the Federal Reserve Board, and the Opinions of Counsel Governing Bank Acceptances, Rediscounts, Advances, and Open Market Transactions of the Federal Reserve Banks The Commercialization of the Home Through Industrial Home Work : Women's Bureau Bulletin, No. 135 Commercial Real Estate : Field Hearing, Congressional Oversight Panel, One Hundred Eleventh Congress, Second Session, Hearing Held in Atlanta, Georgia, January 27, 2010 Commercial Real Estate Losses and the Risk to Financial Stability : Congressional Oversight Panel February Oversight Report Commercial Real Estate's Impact on Bank Stability : Hearing Before the Congressional Oversight Panel, One Hundred Twelfth Congress, First Session, February 4, 2011 Committee on the History of the Federal Reserve System Commodity Exchange Act Commodity Futures Modernization Act Commodity Futures Trading Commission Act of 1974 Communities and Banking (Federal Reserve Bank of Boston) Community Credit Needs : Hearings Before the Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs, United States Senate, Ninety-Fifth Congress, First Session on S. 406, March 23, 24, and 25, 1977 Community Credit Needs : Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Financial Institutions Supervision, Regulation and Insurance of the Committee on Banking, Finance and Urban Affairs, House of Representatives, Ninety-Fifth Congress, Second Session Community Development Credit Union Revolving Loan Fund Transfer Act Community Dividend (Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis) Community Household Employment Programs : Women's Bureau Bulletin, No. 221 Community Investments (Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco) Community Outlook Series (Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas) Community Outlook Survey (Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas) Community Reinvestment Act : Hearings Before the Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs, United States Senate, One Hundredth Congress, Second Session on if Federally or Insured Lenders Have Fulfilled Their Affirmative Obligations to Make Loans in Their Communities and if the Federal Regulations Met Their Legal Responsibilities, March 22 and 23, 1988 Community Reinvestment Act : Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Financial Institutions and Consumer Credit of the Committee on Banking and Financial Services, House of Representatives, One Hundred Fourth Congress, First Session, March 8, 9, 1995 Community Reinvestment (Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City) Community Reinvestment Forum (Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland) Community Reinvestment Report (Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland) Comparative Digest of Labor Legislation for the States of Alabama, Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, Tennessee: To Be Used at the Georgia Conference on Labor Legislation, December 13, 1933, Atlanta, Ga : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 603 Comparative Growth in Manufacturing Productivity and Labor Costs in Selected Industrialized Countries : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1958 Comparative Job Performance by Age : Large Plants in the Men's Footwear and Household Furniture Industries : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1223 Comparative Job Performance by Age: Office Workers : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1273 Comparative Study of Rural Relief and Non-Relief Households, Research Monograph II Comparison of Workmen's Compensation Insurance and Administration : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 301 Comparison of Workmen's Compensation Laws of the United States and Canada Up to January 1, 1920 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 275 Comparison of Workmen's Compensation Laws of the United States as of January 1, 1925 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 379 Comparison of Workmen's Compensation Laws of the United States Up to December 31, 1917 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 240 Comparisons of United States, German, and Japanese Export Price Indexes : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 2046 Compendium on Monetary Policy Guidelines and Federal Reserve Structure : Pursuant to H.R. 11, Subcommittee on Domestic Finance of the Committee on Banking and Currency, Ninetieth Congress, Second Session, December 1968 Compensation Expenditures and Payroll Hours: Air Transportation, 1964 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1571 Compensation Expenditures and Payroll Hours: Motor Passenger Transportation Industries, 1964 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1561 Compensation Expenditures and Payroll Hours: Pipelines, 1964 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1528 Compensation Expenditures and Payroll Hours: Water Transportation, 1964 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1577 Compensation for Accidents to Employees of the United States: Report of Operations Under the Act of May 30, 1908 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 155 Compensation in the Construction Industry: Employment Patterns, Union Scales, and Earnings : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1656 Compensation Legislation of 1914 and 1915 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 185 Competitive Equality Banking Act of 1987 Compilation of Basic Banking Laws Compilation of Federal and State Laws Relating to Branch Banking within the United States Complete Bibliography for Allan Meltzer's A History of the Federal Reserve : Volume 1: 1913-1951 and Volume 2: 1951-1986 Complexities of Banking Laws and Practices Associated with Multiple Banking Jurisdictions Composition of Payroll Hours in Manufacturing. 1958 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1283 Comprehensive Thrift and Bank Fraud Prosecution and Taxpayer Recovery Act of 1990 Compromise Tariff of 1833 Computer Manpower Outlook : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1826 Conciliation and Arbitration in the Building Trades of Greater New York : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 124 Conciliation, Arbitration, and Sanitation in the Dress and Waist Industry of New York City : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 145 Concordance of Statistics Available in Selected Federal Reserve Publications Conditions in the Millinery Industry in the United States : Women's Bureau Bulletin, No. 169 Conditions in the Shoe Industry in Haverhill, Mass., 1928 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 483 Conditions of Work in Spin Rooms : Women's Bureau Bulletin, No. 72 Conference on Measuring Progress in Participation by Minority and Female Contractors in Federal Procurement : Report of the Joint Economic Committee, Congress of the United States Confessions of a Central Banker Confirmation of Thomas B. McCabe : Hearings Before the Committee on Banking and Currency, United States Senate, Eightieth Congress, Second Session, March 3, 10, 11, 24, and 30, 1948 Conflicting Official Views on Monetary Policy: April 1956 : Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Economic Stabilization of the Joint Committee on the Economic Report, Congress of the United States, Eighty-Fourth Congress, Second Session, June 12, 1956 Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974 Congressional Documents Congressional Hearings Regarding the Financial Crisis of 2007-2009 Congressional Materials Related to the Freedman's Savings and Trust Company Congressional Oversight Commission Reports Congressional Oversight of the Federal Reserve System : Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Domestic Finance of the Committee on Banking and Currency, House of Representatives, Ninety-Second Congress, First Session, September 27, 1971 Congressional Oversight Panel Hearings Congressional Oversight Panel Reports Congressional Record Congressional Testimony of Board Members and Staff of the Federal Reserve System, 1913-1964 Consolidated Appropriations Act : Part 1, 2021 Consolidation of Federal Supervision of Commercial Banks Construction and Housing, 1946-47 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 941 Construction During Five Decades: Historical Statistics, 1907-1952 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1146 Construction Industry in the United States : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 786 Construction in the War Years 1942-45 : Employment, Expenditures, and Building Volume : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 915 Consumer and Community Context Consumer Cooperatives : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1211 Consumer Cooperatives in the United States: Recent Developments : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1158 Consumer Credit Control : Hearings Before the Committee on Banking and Currency, United States Senate, Eightieth Congress, First Session, on Regulation W, June 25 and July 2, 1947 Consumer Credit Protection Act and Truth in Lending Act Consumer Credit Reporting Reform Act of 1996 and Economic Growth and Regulatory Paperwork Reduction Act of 1996 Consumer Debt Study Consumer Expenditures and Income: Survey Guidelines : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1684 Consumer Expenditures in... Consumer Expenditure Survey Anthology Consumer Expenditure Survey : Diary Survey Consumer Expenditure Survey: Diary Survey, July 1972-June 1974 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1959 Consumer Expenditure Survey: Integrated Diary and Interview Survey Data, 1972-73 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1992 Consumer Expenditure Survey : Interview Survey Consumer Expenditure Survey: Interview Survey, 1972-73 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1997 Consumer Expenditure Survey Series: Interview Survey, 1972-73: Annual Expenditures and Sources of Income Cross-Classified by Family Characteristics, (1972 and 1973 Combined) : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1985 Consumer Leasing Act of 1976 Consumer Price Index The Consumer Price Index: A Layman's Guide : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1140 The Consumer Price Index : History and Techniques : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1517 Consumer Price Index: Technical Notes, 1959-63 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1554 Consumer Prices in the United States, 1949-1952: Price Trends and Indexes : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1165 Consumer Prices in the United States 1953-58 : Price Trends and Indexes : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1256 Consumer Prices in the United States, 1959-68: Trends and Indexes : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1647 Consumers' Cooperation in the United States, 1936 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 659 Consumers' Cooperation in the United States in 1941 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 725 Consumers' Cooperatives and Credit Unions: Operations in 1946 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 922 Consumers' Cooperatives in 1941 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 703 Consumers' Cooperative Societies in the United States in 1920 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 313 Consumers' Cooperatives : Operations In Consumers' Credit and Productive Cooperation in 1933 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 612 Consumers', Credit, and Productive Cooperative Societies, 1929 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 531 Consumers' Prices in the United States, 1942-48 : Analysis of Changes in Cost of Living : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 966 Continental Illinois National Bank : Report of an Inquiry Into Its Federal Supervision and Assistance : Staff Report to the Subcommittee on Financial Institutions Supervision, Regulation, and Insurance of the Committee on Banking, Finance, and Urban Affairs, House of Representatives, Ninety-Ninth Congress, First Session Continuation of Present Debt Ceiling : Hearing Before the Committee on Ways and Means, House of Representatives, Eighty-Eighth Congress, First Session, on the President's Request for Continuation of $308 Billion Public Debt Ceiling Through June 30, 1963, February 27, 1963 Continuation of the Nomination of G. William Miller : Hearings Before the Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs, United States Senate, Ninety-Fifth Congress, Second Session, February 27 and 28, 1978 The Continued Risk of Troubled Assets : Congressional Oversight Panel August Oversight Report Contract Clauses in Construction Agreements : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1864 Controls and Inflation : The Economic Stabilization Program in Retrospect Convict Labor in 1923 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 372 Cooperative Associations in Europe and Their Possibilities for Post-War Reconstruction : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 770 Cooperative Credit Societies (Credit Unions) in America and in Foreign Countries : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 314 Cooperative Housing in the United States, 1949 and 1950 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1093 Cooperative Movement in the United States in 1925 (Other Than Agricultural) : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 437 Cooperatives in Postwar Europe: Survey of Developments in Scandinavian Countries and Eastern, Central, and Western Europe : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 942 Coping with the Foreclosure Crisis: State and Local Efforts to Combat Foreclosures in Prince George's County, Maryland : Hearing Before the Congressional Oversight Panel, One Hundred Eleventh Congress, First Session, February 27, 2007 Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security Act Coronavirus Preparedness and Response Supplemental Appropriations Act [Correspondence--United States Bank] Cost of American Almshouses : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 386 Cost of Clothing for Moderate-Income Families, 1935-44 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 789 Cost of Living in 1941 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 710 Cost of Living in the United States ... May, 1924 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 357 Costs and Benefits of Exchange Rate Stability : Canada's Interwar Experience Counselor's Guide to Manpower Information: An Annotated Bibliography of Government Publications : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1598 Counselor's Guide to Occupational and Other Manpower Information: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Government Publications : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1421 A Counselor's Guide to Occupational Information: A Catalog of Federal Career Publications : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 2042 COVID-19 Congressional Oversight Commission (COC) COVID-19 : Resources for Tracking Federal Spending COVID-19 : The Financial Industry and Consumers Struggling to Pay Bills CPI Detailed Report CPI Issues Creating Jobs Through Energy Policy : Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Energy of the Joint Economic Committee, Congress of the United States, Ninety-Fifth Congress, Second Session, March 15 and 16, 1978 Creation of a System of Federal Home Loan Banks : Hearings Before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Banking and Currency, House of Representatives, Seventy-Second Congress, First Session, on H.R. 7620, March 16, 17, 18, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 28, 29, 30, 1932 Credit and Capital Formation : A Report to the President's Interagency Task Force on Women Business Owners Credit Cards in the U.S. Economy : Their Impact on Costs, Prices, and Retail Sales The Credit Crisis and Small Business Lending : Hearing Before the Congressional Oversight Panel, One Hundred Eleventh Congress, First Session, April 29, 2009 The Credit of Nations and The Trade Balance of the United States Credit Policies : Hearings Before the Joint Committee on the Economic Report, Congress of the United States, Eightieth Congress, Second Session, Pursuant to SEC. 5 (A) of Public Law 304, 79th Congress, April 13, 16, May 12, 13, 27, 1948 Credit Rating Agency Reform Act of 2006 Credit Reports: Consumers' Ability to Dispute and Change Inaccurate Information : Hearing Before the Committee on Financial Services, U.S. House of Representatives, One Hundred Tenth Congress, First Session, June 19, 2007 Crisis and Response : An FDIC History 2008-2013 Crop Production : Outlook for Post-Drought Recovery During 1989 : Briefing Report to the Chairman, Subcommittee on Agricultural Research and General Legislation, Committee on Agriculture, Nutrition, and Forestry, U.S. Senate Crossroads : Economic Trends in the Desert Southwest Currency and Coin Responsibilities of the Federal Reserve : A Historical Perspective Currency Bill : Comparative Print, H.R. 7837 Currency in U.S. History Currency Problem and the Present Financial Situation Current Changes in the Urban Relief Population, August 1935 : Trend of Employable Persons on Relief in Thirteen Cities by Occupational Groups, Series I, No. 17 Current Data on Nonwhite Women Workers Current Issues in Economics and Finance Current Status of the Community Reinvestment Act : Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Housing and Urban Affairs of the Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs, United States Senate, One Hundred Second Congress, Second Session, September 15, 1992

https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/title/press-releases-united-states-department-treasury-6111/volume-394-587237/secretary-paul-o-neill-remarks-national-academy-public-administration-strategic-human-resources-conference-university-maryland-554258?browse=C