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data/part_4/0089a2d44f121f74354c9cfa60b2298e.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0089a2d44f121f74354c9cfa60b2298e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/793bea6c-3e1d-4641-a9cf-adb4bc5a5bf6/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Field evaluation of cassava varieties under drought stress in Kenya, Tanzania and Ghana","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"Cassava is a staple crop with remarkable tolerance to drought and great ability to survive uncertain rainfall patterns. Experiments are underway in Kenya, Tanzania and Ghana to identify the genetic and physiological traits that make cassava a particularly drought tolerant crop. The study also aims to identify molecular markers associated with drought tolerance genes for the application in breeding programs as well as identify cassava clones with outstanding drought tolerance."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"6e19180a-c344-4a11-92ab-eec794872bc0","abstract":"International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). Receiving, hardening and rapid micro propagation of in vitro mapping populations (MCOL 1734 x VEN 77; MCOL 1468 x BRA 255) and selfed progeny (MCOL 1734) developed by CIAT and EMBRAPA."}

data/part_4/00c53429244f2e8c260faccdddb3092d.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"00c53429244f2e8c260faccdddb3092d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/df9f40ca-23c9-4aff-8f71-30a884759207/retrieve"},"pageCount":9,"title":"Python Climate Predictability Tool (PyCPT) Training for improved Seasonal Climate Prediction over Ethiopia","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Acknowledgment","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"The Accelerating Impact of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) project is supported by a grant from the International Development Association (IDA) of the World Bank. IDA helps the world's poorest countries by providing grants and low to zero-interest loans for projects and programs that boost economic growth, reduce poverty, and improve poor people's lives. IDA is one of the largest sources of assistance for the world's 76 poorest countries, 39 of which are in Africa. Annual IDA commitments have averaged about $21 billion over circa 2017-2020, with approximately 61 percent going to Africa. "}]},{"head":"About the authors","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Background","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Training on weather forecasting tools and techniques is a fundamental requirement for meteorological services to improve the accuracy and reliability of weather and climate forecasts. These tools greatly support the generation and packaging of forecasts that are destined for private and public consumption."},{"index":2,"size":82,"text":"Ethiopia's National Meteorological Agency (NMA), under the support of the International Research Institute for Climate and Society (IRI), through the project Adapting Agriculture to Climate Today, for Tomorrow (ACToday), is working together with the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) -East Africa (EA) to address the needs and demands of different stakeholders including governmental, non-governmental organizations and other non-state actors by conducting staff training to improve the generation of reliable, timely and accurate weather and seasonal forecasts."},{"index":3,"size":48,"text":"With the support of the IRI and CCAFS -EA, training on the Next Generation (NextGen) seasonal forecasting was given from January 11-15, 2021, to 26 participants from the National Metrological Agency of Ethiopia (NMA). Participants were selected from NMA's Regional Meteorological Service Centers (RMSC's) and NMA head office."},{"index":4,"size":86,"text":"The Next Generation (NextGen) multi-model approach is a general systematic approach for designing, implementing, producing, and verifying objective climate forecasts. It involves identifying decision-relevant variables by stakeholders and analyzing the physical mechanisms, sources of predictability, and suitable candidate predictors (in models and observations) for key relevant variables. When prediction skill is high enough, NextGen helps select the best dynamic models for the region of interest through a process-based evaluation and automizes the generation and verification of tailored multi-model, statistically calibrated predictions at seasonal and sub-seasonal timescales."}]},{"head":"Training Objectives","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"The main objective of the training was strengthening the capacity of NMA's staff in the application and use of PyCPT to generate approved and accurate seasonal forecasts."},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"The specific objectives include:"},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"• strengthening the capacity of meteorologists at both regional and head offices of NMA;"},{"index":4,"size":41,"text":"• enhanced packaging of weather forecasts using flexible information by improving the packaging of seasonal forecasts using flexible format information; and • enabling NMA staff to access the predictability skill of the North American Multi-Model Ensemble over Ethiopia in different seasons."}]},{"head":"Training Tools and Modules","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"• Processing of dynamical forecasts using the Python Climate Predictability Tool (PyCPT) package. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"oo Introduction to CPT, the software operation and the purpose of calibration; o Downscaling of model outputs using Canonical Correlation Analysis (CCA); • Tailored forecasting for climate services; o Skill assessment of each real-time North American Multi-Model Ensemble (NMME) model, which includes (CMC1-CanCM3, CMC2-CanCM4, NCEP-CFSv2, COLA-RSMAS-CCSM4, GFDL-CM2p1-aer04, GFDL-CM2p5-FLOR-A06, GFDL-CM2p5-FLOR-B01, NASA-GEOSS2S); o Compare Principal Component Regression (PCR) and CCA with respect to non-calibrated model; Flexible representation of forecast; o Real-time forecast script; and o Use PyCPT for all the above. • Data formatting and analysis packages like grads and climate data operator tool /CDO/ Proceedings during the PyCPT training workshop Training Outcomes At the end of the workshop, participants had underpinned understanding of the principles of generating tailored forecasts for climate services and the development of skills to independently install and operate PyCPT to calibrate CHRIPS forecasts and apply seasonal forecasting procedures and techniques by using the PyCPT tool. In general, the participants were able to: • Independently, Install and operate PyCPT to calibrate CHRIPS forecasts • Understand the principles of generating tailored forecasts for climate services • Understand seasonal forecasting procedures and techniques by using the PyCPT tool. • Understand the whole process of the PyCPT scripts • Experience sharing of within their staff members regarding PyCPT tool The CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) brings together some of the world's best researchers in agricultural science, development research, climate science and Earth system science, to identify and address the most important interactions, synergies and tradeoffs between climate change, agriculture and food security. For more information, visit us at https://ccafs.cgiar.org/. Titles in this series aim to disseminate interim climate change, agriculture and food security research and practices and stimulate feedback from the scientific community. AICCRA is led by: AICCRA is supported by the International Development Association of the World Bank: "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" Jemal Seid is a Python Climate Predictability Tool (PyCPT) coordinator at the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research.Asaminew Teshome is a Senior Meteorologist at the National Meteorological Agency in Ethiopia.Teferi Demissie is a Scientist on Climate Information and Agro-Advisory at the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture, and Food Security East Africa.  "}],"sieverID":"41814b5d-8745-41d3-89e3-5e3b22196c9b","abstract":"Titles in this series aim to disseminate interim climate change, agriculture, and food security research and practices and stimulate feedback from the scientific community."}

data/part_4/00ee0c8b3a0952db11ab42e715d463ce.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"00ee0c8b3a0952db11ab42e715d463ce","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b30f386c-58c9-48eb-b808-591046ac9bb3/retrieve"},"pageCount":5,"title":"Study #3664 Contributing Projects: • P1597 -Place-based risk management tools to promote CSA in coffee value chains","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":357,"text":"Outcome story for communications use: Root Capital has long been a champion for integrating the latest science into their lending programs for lasting and meaningful impact in socially and environmentally vulnerable rural communities. An early adopter of the climate suitability maps, Root Capital has adapted these into their producer-facing information dashboards to provide information on their resilience status and opportunities to reduce vulnerability. To build on this, the Alliance Bioversity-CIAT working alongside Root Capital, adapted CGIAR innovations on land cover classification and change monitoring (collectively Terra-i+) into metrics that will help Root Capital deploy 105 million USD of climate action finance to at least 500,000 farmers and farm employees by 2025. These metrics work to target investment to where it counts through both a negative and positive screen. Root Capital uses the negative screen to filter out businesses degrading Protected Areas (PA), including via sourcing from farms within PAs. This is a particular concern in Central America, given the number of PAs and their proximity to important coffee-growing regions. To date, Root Capital have relied predominantly on third-party certification and internal GIS analysis to satisfy this screen. By providing detailed, sub-zone maps of PAs and analysis of deforestation risk within/close to PAs, Terra-i+ will both accelerate and strengthen Root Capital's due diligence processes. The deforestation risk metrics will enable Root Capital to identify farms and by extension businesses that may be driving PA degradation to inform potential interventions with businesses. Root Capital aims to use the carbon metrics provided by Terra-i+ to identify businesses likely sourcing from predominately multistrata agroforestry farms in Honduras, with the ultimate goal of identifying climate action leaders. By identifying climate action leaders, Root Capital seeks to attract more climate-focused investors to invest in our lending program. Specifically, Root Capital have designed a specialized investment product, whereby investors can earmark their funds toward climate action leaders. Root Capital launched the climate note in 2021 and seek to scale investment under the note in the coming years, as they work to double their lending portfolio by 2025. Accurate and cost-effective identification of climate action leaders using Terra-i+ will be critical to scaling this investment."}]},{"head":"Links to any communications materials relating to this outcome:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"• https://tinyurl.com/y24xzcr7"},{"index":2,"size":107,"text":"Part II: CGIAR system level reporting  1), Root Capital argues for the potential of small-and-growing agricultural enterprises, like coffee cooperatives, to serve as agents of climate action for rural communities; and calls for increased financial support to build the resilience of these businesses and communities. A core tenet of our argument is that many agricultural enterprises, especially those working in smallholder tree crop supply chains, already do more than \"their fair share\" to mitigate climate change through support for natural climate solutions like agroforestry. We call businesses likely driving reductions in atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations \"climate action leaders\" and highlight them for our climate-motivated donors and investors."},{"index":3,"size":86,"text":"Root Capital identifies mitigation-focused climate action leaders through a \"practice-as-proxy\" approach, looking for businesses using or supporting important \"drawdown solutions\" identified by Project Drawdown -currently: multistrata agroforestry and scaled reforestation. We currently rely on a mix of external certification (Smithsonian Bird Friendly Certification for multistrata agroforestry) and self-reported data (for reforestation) to determine business eligibility. This approach likely leads to an underestimate of climate action leaders in our portfolio, as internal data suggests many more businesses are sourcing from multistrata agroforestry farms associated with net-zero performance."},{"index":4,"size":114,"text":"Root Capital aims to use the carbon metrics provided by Terra-i+ to identify businesses likely sourcing from predominately multistrata agroforestry farms in Honduras, with the ultimate goal of identifying climate action leaders. By identifying climate action leaders, Root Capital seeks to attract more climate-focused investors to invest in our lending program. Specifically, we have designed a specialized investment product, whereby investors can earmark their funds toward climate action leaders. Root Capital launched the climate note in 2021 and seek to scale investment under the note in the coming years, as we work to double our lending portfolio by 2025. Accurate and cost-effective identification of climate action leaders will be critical to scaling this investment."},{"index":5,"size":89,"text":"By estimating actual carbon stocks, the Terra-i metrics go right to the heart of what Root Capital and our stakeholders care about: conserving high-carbon agroforestry systems that likely sequester more carbon than they emit each year. We recognize we cannot make a precise connection between carbon stock values and annual carbon flows. Rather, we seek to draw on the literature to make more general connections between carbon value ranges and likely categories of agroforestry management practices, and from there between agroforestry management practices and likelihood of operating at carbon-negative."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Link to Common Results Reporting Indicator of Policies : No Stage of maturity of change reported: Stage 1 Links to the Strategic Results Framework: Sub   "}],"sieverID":"2e14c22e-9734-42f4-bfd1-e60e6adb954f","abstract":"Root Capital designed and began fundraising for 105 million USD worth of climate action finance for borrowers following CSA and zero deforestation practices. The fund will use climate and environmental metrics from Aclimatar and Terra-i+ web tools to identify high adaptation need and high carbon stock climate action leaders to target for investment."}

data/part_4/014a55efff020ecdeed47aaa8e529a07.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"014a55efff020ecdeed47aaa8e529a07","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://apps.worldagroforestry.org/downloads/Publications/PDFS/BC22024.pdf"},"pageCount":21,"title":"Eco-certified Coffee Agroforestry in Indonesia: Reconciling Conflicting Goals?","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"Global supply chains are undergoing rapid transformations that change the way food is produced in developing countries and traded across the world. In recent years, there has been a proliferation of different certification schemes that require farmers to adopt certain production and quality standards in order for them to gain access to international markets for highervalue products. Such certification schemes (e.g. Fairtrade, Organic and others) are founded on ethical codes that try to address the social and economic conditions of farmers as well as contribute to environmental sustainability. However, there is still an ongoing debate on whether farmers in producing countries like Indonesia actually benefit. This chapter explores coffee eco-certification schemes in Indonesia and, in particular, does a cost-benefit assessment of local standards across the coffee certification value chain."},{"index":2,"size":135,"text":"The superseding chapter on \"Cocoa and coffee in Asia: contrasts and similarities in production and value addition\" (Chapter 26) touches briefly on the experience with various ecocertification schemes that operate globally and connect issues at the primary production level, wherever on the globe, to concerns of consumers. Indonesia has not been a front runner in these schemes (many of which originate in Central and South America), but several schemes are operational, and experience with them has been mixed. This chapter summarises a number of recent studies on coffee certification in Indonesia, anticipating that it provides relevant material for comparisons with African countries where these same schemes operate, but maybe still in earlier stages or with partial coverage. The chapter starts with a perspective on why and how these schemes have emerged in the first place."},{"index":3,"size":107,"text":"Certification of compliance with standards is relevant where trust by end-consumers is at stake (Mithöfer et al 2017). It can form an assurance, beyond the direct quality of the product, that the production process has avoided negative social and/or environmental impacts that have become a public concern but may not yet be sufficiently regulated and enforced in common practice. Beyond certification against global standards, there currently are alternatives to achieving certification via geographic branding of unique identities and locally declared social plus environmental standards. A focus on what problems certification is supposed to solve for whom may imply lower expectations for direct farmer benefits or poverty alleviation."},{"index":4,"size":44,"text":"Certification can implicitly communicate that blame for existing problems is shifted to noncertified 'others' but can also contribute to generic solutions and acceptance of the good practice in farming, processing and the whole subsequent value chain (Mithöfer et al 2017, Leimona et al 2018)."},{"index":5,"size":41,"text":"There has been significant debate on the 'impacts' of such certification schemes, mostly with a focus on whether or not participating farmers are better off than non-participating ones or whether environmental impacts of certified farms differ from those that are non-certified."},{"index":6,"size":47,"text":"A challenge to such studies is that certification cannot be expected to be randomly applied, and certification schemes may (initially) select farmers who met the standards anyway. There has been less focus on the underlying questions of when, where and how the certification as a process emerged."},{"index":7,"size":154,"text":"Indonesia, a historic leader in coffee exports, currently ranks fourth, after Brazil, Vietnam and Columbia, while being the number two producer of Robusta coffee (after Vietnam). Indonesia, with more than 17 thousand islands and high biodiversity values, may well represent the largest diversity in coffee-producing landscapes. Yet, the country has been relatively slow in participating in the various certification schemes for social and/or environmental aspects of its coffee production. A reason could be that there have not been major scandals or highprofile publications that threaten the global marketing of Indonesia's coffee and, as such, led to the emergence of locally attuned certification schemes. Actually, one of the early 'fair trade' schemes used the name 'Havelaar' that refers to a 19 th -century scandal that called attention to the plight of poor coffee producers, forced to cultivate this crop in a colonial economy (Salverda 2005); but Havelaar coffee did not get a foothold in Indonesia."},{"index":8,"size":71,"text":"In this chapter, we will synthesise a number of recent case studies on coffee certification in Indonesia (Ibnu et al 2015, 2018, Astuti et al 2015, Arifin 2021) to better understand the process of how smallholder coffee farmers view the eco-certification based on their daily practices, social-economic relations with other stakeholders and their institutional contexts in the overall global value chains (Bitzer andGlasbergen 2015, Glasbergen 2018). Our specific targets are to:"},{"index":9,"size":13,"text":"Examine the interrelations between coffee eco-certifications and smallholder livelihoods in Sumatra, Indonesia, and"},{"index":10,"size":22,"text":"Evaluate the cost-benefit accounting scheme of certification from the perspectives of producers, processors/traders, governments of exporting countries, certifiers, consumers and global citizens."}]},{"head":"Diversity of coffee certification schemes","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":130,"text":"Coffee eco-certification at the global level generally deals with sustainability standards and environmental governance (Arifin 2010, Neilson 2018). Fairtrade certification specifically focused on social issues, developed in parallel with eco-certification standards with an environmental focus such as organic and shade-grown or bird-friendly schemes. Over time, more inclusive and broader schemes that incorporate social, environmental, as well as economic perspectives emerged (Glasbergen and Schouten 2015). A synthesis of case studies of coffee certification from developing countries (DeFries et al 2017) suggested positive effects across the board, albeit in various ways such as income, demand-side market creation, supplyside production efficiency and quality improvement. Analysis disaggregated by certification schemes in Uganda found that one certification scheme contributed to the significant improvement in household living standards, while others did not (Chiputwa et al 2015)."},{"index":2,"size":156,"text":"Arabica coffee is produced in mountain ranges and on volcanic slopes in Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, Bali and Nusa Tenggara, and the eastern island of Papua. Robusta coffee is mostly derived from areas below 800 meters above sea level in the southern half of Sumatra and East Java. Both Robusta and Arabica coffee farmers generally harvest, pulp, ferment, wash, and dry the beans at their farms, before selling to traders who grade and sell to domestic and/or world markets. Coffee eco-certification in Indonesia started in the early 1990s, although at a very limited scale, about a decade after Northern coffee buyers adopted such schemes, mostly for produce from Central and South America. Sumatra produces more than 70% of Indonesia's coffee. Production in the provinces of Lampung, Sumatra and Bengkulu accounts for the largest share (49% combined, mostly marketed through the port in Lampung), followed by North Sumatra, Aceh and West Sumatra (21% combined, mostly marketed through Medan)."},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"Coffee production in Java contributes 14%, with the port of Surabaya also connecting produce from Bali, Sulawesi and adjacent islands to global markets (Arifin 2021). Coffee certification schemes in Indonesia differ in scope and history (Table 25.1). For Indonesia, coffee is generally acknowledged as the pioneering industry for sustainability standards and certifications, followed by palm oil, cocoa, tea, and others (Reinecke and van Hage 2012)."},{"index":4,"size":1,"text":"In "}]},{"head":"Agroforestry roots of eco-certification","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":220,"text":"Before the wide adoption of agroforestry in the 1990s, the expansion of coffee on steep slopes in Sumatra through migrant labour (often with local investors in the background) was often the major issue in terms of biodiversity conservation and watershed integrity. The migrant farmers lacked tenure security and were likely to stay with production systems geared to short-term returns, hoping they could avoid eviction before the first major harvest in year 4, rather than going for the more diversified systems that were actually superior in economic evaluations (as well as environmental ones), if the low discount rates of secure tenure were used (Budidarsono et al 2000, Gillison et al 2004). Where coffee farmers encroached into national parks after these have been established (there are also cases where the park was established after settlement, requiring a different type of policy response), environmental damage and rural poverty (driving migration) coincided -but the primary strategy for conservation must be to make such illegal farms less profitable (by increasing effectiveness of patrolling, e.g. involving more of the legal park neighbours in the effort), along with efforts to support sustainable land use surrounding the park. The basic need for certification is a 'legality' test -but with coffee bags easily transported at night and most control systems open to under-the-table payments, this is no easy task."},{"index":2,"size":120,"text":"The adoption of agroforestry systems by smallholder farmers was supported in conjunction with a government program on community-based forestry management (HKm). The presence of shade trees and MPTS is among the most important requirements to qualify as a legal recipient of HKm user-rights, in addition to rules and responsibilities of farmers' groups and other related institutional arrangements to secure the user-rights (van Noordwijk et al 2002, Arifin 2021). When eco-certification schemes were introduced in the 1990s, these coffee agroforestry adopters were among the first groups joining the certification programs, particularly those whose land status is clear and clean, not conflicting with protected forests and the national parks. They expected to gain recognition and higher prices without change in their practices."},{"index":3,"size":168,"text":"In a survey of 408 farmers in Tanggamus (Lampung Province), agroforestry adopters had 1,834 coffee trees per hectare plus 346 other trees, and non-adopters had 1,776 coffee trees per hectare with only 49 other trees. About half the farmers had achieved eco-certification (mostly 4C and some RFA, with more stringent certification criteria), while the others were in the process of adoption. Farm income analysis showed significant differences between agroforestry adopters and non-adopters (regardless of certification). The benefit to cost (B/C) ratio was 6.92 for agroforestry adopters and 5.76 for non-adopters. The price premium on high-quality coffee or the beans that meet the quality standards set by the coffee buyers has made a difference in the economic performance of farm-household joining sustainability certification, as have revenues from multipurpose trees and from other crops. The HKm scheme required farmers to establish farmers' groups, not only serving administrative purposes but also to develop institutional arrangements and solid organisations for the purpose of sustainable resources management (Arifin 2010, Neilson et al 2018)."}]},{"head":"Farmer preferences on eco-certification","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Our studies (Arifin 2021) showed that smallholder coffee farmers in the different groups did not differ much in terms of their preferences in adopting eco-certifications. Smallholders' preferences were comparable across the groups of 4C, RFA, UTZ, INOFICE (Local Organic)"},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"and non-certification. The average number of years of education of coffee farmers was 8.5 years, but more than 70% of coffee farmers had not completed high school education."},{"index":3,"size":58,"text":"Although the smallholder farmers have been cultivating coffee for an average of 15 years, they were relatively new participants in the certification programs, with on average only 2.3 years of participation at a time of data collection. Interestingly, coffee farmers who owned larger farms and were less dependent on non-coffee income were likely to join a certification program."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"Coffee farmers were asked eight attributes of (stated) preferences of eco-certification (Ibnu 2017)  "}]},{"head":"Governance of coffee value chains","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":179,"text":"Farm-level certification does not mean that all coffee is sold in certified channels and vice versa. In a study of Arabica coffee value chains in Aceh (Astuti et al 2015), more than half of the certified Arabica coffee was actually marketed to collector traders of certified coffee (simplified as 'certified traders') and the rest to collector traders of non-certified coffee (simplified as 'conventional traders'). Certified coffee was sold to conventional traders when farmers need direct cash payments. Certified traders also received non-certified coffee to meet minimum requirements set by certified exporters. Both certified traders and conventional traders sometimes also serve as a mixed channel in this coffee value chain as these traders also obtain coffee across the groups. The certified Arabica coffee beans are then sold to exporters either directly (75%) or through cooperatives and KUBE. Some cooperatives in Aceh are selling the certified coffee (about 10%) directly to the international markets, especially those that have historical trading partners, before the introduction of eco-certification. Only small parts of certified coffee are marketed to domestic coffee roasters and domestic markets."}]},{"head":"Domestic coffee roasters and domestic markets play very important roles in shaping the","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"Robusta coffee value chains. Exporters of Robusta coffee have obtained significantly higher profits in trading certified coffee, whereas for Arabica exporters, differences were not statistically significant, probably because the sample size was small. Certification schemes have led to increasing coffee quality produced by smallholder farmers so that such procedures and practices of certifications have indirectly improved the quality of economic performance of smallholder farmers. The low bargaining power of farmers relative to other actors in the coffee value chain did not change much by joining certification schemes (Astuti et al 2015). associations must be handled with extra care."}]},{"head":"Cross-scale benefits and costs of eco-certification","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"A minimum condition for eco-certification to emerge and survive is that it is at least neutral in overall benefits minus costs for six main stakeholders: producers (smallholder farmers), processors/traders, governments of exporting countries, certifiers, consumers and global citizens. The standards and eco-certification will remain contested unless all groups perceive net benefits from their accounting stance. Table 25.2 presents a matrix consisting of several cells of benefits and costs, which are synthesised from case studies of coffee eco-certification in Lampung and Aceh and from other relevant cases available in the literature. "}]},{"head":"From a producer perspective","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"From a smallholder farmer accounting stance, the recurrent costs of participation in certifications schemes can consist of increased labour demand (C1) and reduced yield (C4), while especially at the start transaction costs with certifiers (C3) and investments in documenting legality and existing practice (C2) take time. In the longer term, reduced expansion and constrained innovation (C5) play a role. On the positive side, these costs can be outweighed by exposure to improved practices leading to higher productivity (B3), improved relations with (local) government entities and associated benefits (B4) and increased market share and (potentially) enhanced competition amongst buyers if demand for certified products exceeds supply (B2)."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"The primary attraction, however, is expectations of a price premium for higher quality products and/or as direct recognition for the certification (B5). In specific cases where 'issues' became hot, regained trust (B1) can play a role (beyond B4). Whether or not the net balance can be positive depends on local context and existing constraints."},{"index":3,"size":107,"text":"Much of the early literature on these costs and benefits was based on coffee producers in Latin America (for example, Encroachment by migrant farmers into national parks has been a major issue, especially in Lampung on the southern edge of Sumatra (Philpott et al 2008), with past episodes of high world market prices linked to successive waves of influx (Verbist et al 2005). Certification may, first of all, prove the legality and escape a negative image, rather than benefitting from a positive incentive system. Roaster companies and coffee exporters usually pay the certification costs and membership fees to become part of global initiatives and avoid negative press."},{"index":4,"size":39,"text":"Although coffee yields are higher in the proximity of forests that provide nesting sites for bees that provide pollination services, the economic value of converting that forest exceeds the economic gain in form coffee yields (Olschewski et al 2006)."},{"index":5,"size":59,"text":"Case studies of 'relationship coffee' in Sulawesi, Bali and Java (Vicol et al 2018) concluded that benefits from value chain upgrading interventions by application of 'good agricultural practice' did not primarily benefit the otherwise marginalised rural communities. As benefits were captured by key individuals within the producer community who are able to accumulate wealth and consolidate their social position."},{"index":6,"size":159,"text":"In some cases, smallholder farmers joining certification schemes also continue to sell their beans to conventional traders as these traders directly pay their beans in cash. These traders also provide advance loans to cover production costs, using their right to purchase a specific volume of coffee beans in the future as the basis. High dependence on collector traders means that the bargaining position of coffee farmers is very weak. Coffee farmers tend to maintain such relationships with collector traders for 'social capital' reasons beyond economic rationality, relating to trust and socio-psychological factors. Local traders do not care about certification. They buy coffee from coffee farmers everywhere, including those who cultivate coffee in protected forest areas. Farmers who cultivate coffee in the forest areas are allowed by the government with an extendable contract system, but they are not able to participate in private certification. Hence, in the future, there will likely always be a substantial share of uncertified coffee farmers."}]},{"head":"From a processor/trader perspective","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":209,"text":"Global coffee traders play important roles in the value chain of coffee eco-certification in Sumatra, in particular, Lampung and Aceh. Beyond the costs and benefits for farmers, certification involves, from a processor/trade perspective, higher costs for processing and traceability (C6), but may have co-benefits (B6) for easier adherence to technical quality standards. Apart from the specific requirements for speciality and eco-certified coffee, the value chain for coffee in Indonesia consists of collector-traders at the village level, selling to larger traders at sub-district and district level, to be marketed to coffee exporters or local roasters. Market structures tend towards oligopsony, where collector traders have stronger market power in determining the farm gate price, although coffee quality influences the market-clearing price. Collector traders and middlemen sometimes conduct sorting and grading activities to set aside coffee beans that do not meet higher quality standards. These traders are also facing a weak bargaining position before the larger traders and coffee exporters, where the market structure tends to be an oligopsony or sometimes monopsony. Certification generally involves a shift in traders, with winners and losers at the local level. Roles of local middlemen as providers of credit are often seen as exploitative but can be deeply rooted in social structures and not easily replaced."},{"index":2,"size":158,"text":"Exporters that are affiliated directly with global roasting companies face simpler procedures with less space for negotiations. Under the coffee certification system, targeting speciality coffee markets, global coffee buyers and foreign companies usually establish subsidiary trading and roasting companies in coffee producing regions in Indonesia. Certification costs are generally considerable so that local coffee traders are reluctant to pay these costs and maintain memberships. Coffee traders affiliated with global coffee buyers generally take care of certification costs, which either transmits the costs to smallholder farmers or to consumers and retail coffee markets. If the local-based traders and global affiliated coffee traders are competing fairly, the farm gate price of coffee shall be high enough to provide adequate economic rents for smallholder farmers (Daviron and Vagneron 2011). Otherwise, smallholder farmers could be trapped in an inter-locking coffee value chain system either to local coffee traders or global affiliated coffee traders operated in rural areas of coffee-producing regions in Indonesia."},{"index":3,"size":120,"text":"There are no official statistics on coffee eco-certification in Indonesia as part of exports. An estimated 10-15% of the total 400 thousand tons of coffee was exported under the five major certification schemes. These global coffee traders and coffee roasters generally buy coffee from local traders in two ways: (1) simple open buying, (2) contract buying from farmer groups affiliated with eco-certification schemes. Both become the focus of attention of our analysis as they are significantly affecting the performance and market structure of global value chains in Indonesia. Nevertheless, one should note that these global coffee traders and roasters might also buy conventionally certified high-quality coffee beans, or beans that are not certified according to the major coffee eco-certification schemes."}]},{"head":"From an exporting country perspective","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"At the global trade level, coffee exporters are trying to obtain a fairer price from their overseas' partners. They may see the meddling with production standards as a breach of their sovereignty as regulators (C7) but may see benefits in increased market access and premium prices (B7). Indonesian coffee is mostly exported to Germany, Japan and the United States."},{"index":2,"size":249,"text":"However, increasing domestic demand due to growing coffee retails and café industries in big cities and changing lifestyles or urban population has been somehow affecting the coffee trade. Nevertheless, the global demand for high-quality coffee tends to increase in recent years, which has resulted in a rapid increase in the development of speciality coffee, such as Mandailing, Toraja/ Kalosi, Gayo, Lintong and Bali Kintamani coffee. These speciality coffee brands are from typical Arabica highlands, and more recently, have been associated with ecocertifications. Generally, the international price of Arabica coffee is relatively higher than that of Robusta. At the time of writing in May of 2018, the international price of Robusta was US$ 1.96 per kilogram, a significant decrease from US$ 2.23 per kilogram in May of 2017. Whereas the price of Arabica was US$ 2.99 per kilogram, which was also a decrease from US$ 3.30 per kilogram in May of 2017 (Commodity Prospects of the World Bank 2018). Some government initiatives to develop Arabica coffee are, however, not quite successful, mostly because of agronomic and other technical requirements. The government and coffee stakeholders are now developing Robusta specialities, starting from Lampung Specialty, Semendo, Washed Java, Flores and Papua Coffee. These typically have a full body and relatively low acidity. Each region is known for a typical cupping profile, although there is a great deal of diversity within each region. Such new initiatives and eco-certification shall contribute to the improvement of price premium and farm-gate price received by smallholder farmers."}]},{"head":"From a certifier perspective","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"Certification does provide employment (B8), business opportunities and income streams (B9) for those involved in the process. Coffee eco-certification started in Indonesia in 1992"},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"with Gayo Mountain Organic Coffee from the Takengon region of Central Aceh, followed by organic coffee cooperatives in East Timor, Utz Certified coffee in Aceh, Lampung, East Java, and in Sulawesi, and the Starbucks CAFÉ Practices scheme being introduced to suppliers in North Sumatra, Aceh and Toraja South Sulawesi (Mawardi 2014)."},{"index":3,"size":114,"text":"Certification standards encourage more sustainable land management practices in Aceh, Toraja, and Bali, where organic, low input, and shade-grown practices have been adopted by coffee farmers. After some years, the coffee eco-certification had somehow affected the price structure of coffee, where traders tend to be more open in explaining price information to the farmers. Collector traders selling the organic \"certified\" coffee to exporters could receive a higher price, compared to non-certified Arabica coffee, because of a rather direct link with the international coffee speciality market. Due to the cost of the traceability systems needed to ensure the integrity of the 'organic' branding, the farm-gate price premium received by Arabica farmers was small (Arifin 2021)."},{"index":4,"size":102,"text":"Standards that relate to the expansion of coffee production may be more difficult to enforce than those that relate to existing, on-farm production, as it relates to heavier coordinating efforts among stakeholders. The amount of coffee illegally harvested from the Bukit Barisan Selatan national park in Lampung is only a small percentage of the total for the province, but coffee expansion is a major threat to the park, and its publicity is a major issue for all coffee from the province. Existing standards are not water-tight in preventing illegal coffee from entering certified trading streams, risking trust in the certification scheme (C8)."}]},{"head":"From a consumer perspective","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":162,"text":"The buyer of certified coffee may experience the \"warm-glow\" effect that comes with making a voluntary donation (see for e.g., Elfenbein and McManus 2010), but can also expect an above-average technical quality of the product (B10), and gains in social standing in his or her direct environment (B11), justifying the price premium paid. CAFÉ, the Starbucks standard scheme, does not mention environmental governance as such but encourages natural resource conservation. The certification of Organic, RFA, FLO and Utz have a sustainability focus on environmental governance, covering a wide range of environmental conservation and biodiversity issues. The 4C scheme advocates the conservation of water, soil, and biodiversity, although its implementation in the field is not as simple as it is written. In terms of market access and networking, CAFÉ certification tends to serve as a single buyer and has market power of monopsony, while the other five certification schemes also have a limited number of buyers and might have an oligopsony market power."},{"index":2,"size":99,"text":"In industrialised countries, some evidence shows a substantial consumer's support for coffee eco-certification (C9), although a segment of price-sensitive consumers will not pay a large premium for the Fair-Trade label (Hainmuller et al 2014). Coffee consumers are only willing to pay a price increase of 1.1% for Fair Trade Certification (Carlson 2010), noting that demand for higher coffee is inelastic, which could be associated with brand loyalty and preferential tastes. Interestingly, the demand for lower price coffee is more elastic, where a 9% increase in retail price leads to a 30% decline, as buyers switch to low-price unlabeled alternatives."},{"index":3,"size":97,"text":"The suggestion has been made (Jongenburger 2016) that coffee roasters and retailers use consumer preference for certified coffee to differentiate their product, increasing mostly their own profits. Beyond 'willingness to pay' studies and recorded elasticities, there have been relatively few studies unpacking the motivation of buyers of certified coffee; a sense of responsibility for one's own actions is linked to concerns over global security (Jongenburger 2016). Trust whether (specific forms of) certification achieves its goals is critical (C10), but dependent on incomplete information (50). Competition between multiple certification schemes may undermine the trust in any of them."}]},{"head":"From a global citizen perspective","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"Global citizens, even if they do not involve in buying certified products, may benefit (as 'free riders') if the severity of global environmental and social issues is reduced (B12). However, it is possible that all attention given to certification of the parts of the sector that weren't causing problems deflects attention from solutions to the primary issues (C11) (Mithöfer et al 2017)."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"It could also be that reductions in physical yield due to 'more environment-friendly' production systems that can get certified induce a further expansion and opening up of remaining forest areas elsewhere. This potential cost (C12) is the equivalent of 'leakage' in the climate change mitigation debate and requires sector-wide accountability rather than rules that focus on the certification of specific producers."}]},{"head":"Geographical indication as a way forward?","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":149,"text":"A new mediated partnership model for sustainable coffee production in Indonesia (Wijaya et al 2017) starts from bottom-up agricultural development of practices of smallholders, focuses on the economic interests of farmers and connects to global sustainability certification. For applications in Bali, Flores and Java, they identified several critical factors that need to be addressed, rather than concluding that this approach can be easily scaled. Experience in Indonesia with 'Geographical indications' as an alternative to certification of individual farmers is growing rapidly (Neilson et al 2018). In contrast to the generally positive experience with this approach in India (Mithöfer et al 2017), the efforts in Indonesia were found not to provide tangible economic benefits to producers. They conclude that the inability to capture value is due to the poor alignment of the local institutional environment with lead firm strategies so that further technical support is unlikely to achieve value capture."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"Rather than by the economic rationality of Econs and status are primarily at the consumer end of the value chain, requiring producers to prove affiliation by adherence to 'rituals', identified as 'good agricultural practice', even though there is no guarantee that this practice is better in the local context than what had emerged locally as 'normal practice'. The direct reference to external power in the use of boycotts and additional requirements (beyond the direct quality of products), is easily interpreted by national governments as an encroachment into their sovereignty."},{"index":3,"size":114,"text":"In response to the self-regulation in markets, as started in oil palm with the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO), governments have created their own 'certification' bodies, such as the Indonesian Sustainable Palm Oil (ISPO) standard in palm oil (van Noordwijk et al 2017) and Indonesian Sustainable IS-Coffee standard for coffee, expecting markets to trust the government, where they wouldn't trust farmers. As government certification is primarily based on compliance with existing regulations, obliging all farmers to be certified implies an expectation that this new rule, in contrast with existing rules, will be followed. It may be optimistic that a positive 'geographical indication' can be achieved for a country like Indonesia as a whole."}]},{"head":"Tree Commodities and Resilient Green Economies in Africa","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":183,"text":"Even though private certification schemes are governed primarily by market mechanisms, the establishment of partnerships between private sectors and smallholder farmers also play an important role in establishing the basis of governance of eco-certifications. A clear legal framework, written codes of conduct and other necessary consensus provisions have further contributed to the improved benefits of smallholders, private sectors and other parties involved. Local institutions that shape the governance of eco-certification provide an incentive system for smallholders to perform well in meeting the quality standards of coffee production, hence the value chain and rural livelihood. This calls for further studies on the institutional arrangements of eco-certified coffee agroforestry in the global value chains, including the efficiency level of the chains, the sophistication of certification partnership, contracts and regulations that govern quality assurance and other empowerment programs. Mandating certification according to nationally determined standards for all coffee producers may increase administrative control and transaction costs with limited change in practice, and it may not add to global competitiveness nor farmer income unless consumers at the end of the value chain are convinced of its effectiveness."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"1 Certification aims to restore consumer trust in value chains, addressing social and environmental issues of public concern, but the global nature of certification may not provide a close match with local concerns of farmers and public governance agencies."}]},{"head":"2","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Indonesian policies support coffee farmers to follow 'good agricultural practice'"},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"to increase global market access, expecting its standards to gain global recognition addressing the generic global concerns and providing more detailed evidence on local responses."}]},{"head":"3","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"Cost-benefit evaluation of certification requires recognition of the separate accounting stands of producers, processors/ traders, governments of exporting countries, certifiers, consumers and global citizens; only when there are net benefits for all actors along the value chain can we expect certification to get effective support."}]},{"head":"4","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Farmers' preferences regarding eco-certification in Indonesia are primarily economically driven, as certification is weakly institutionalised in the farmer's context."}]},{"head":"5","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"Existing eco-certification schemes have increased the quality of coffee produced by smallholders, indirectly improving the economic performance of the farms; the primary benefits have been in knowledge transfer and in a stimulus to collective action."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" addition to Northern-based eco-certification schemes, Indonesia has also developed localbased certification schemes, such as INOFICE, which certifies coffee and agricultural products based on Indonesian National Standard (SNI) of organic criteria (since 2012 as member of IFOAM (International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements)), geographical indication (GI), and newly developed ISCoffee (Indonesian Standard Coffee). The GI certificates are generally associated with well-defined geographical identities, thereby providing assurance to consumers that the products are native and specific to a region. Potential barriers in the implementation of ISCoffee include the limited direct contact between traders and coffee farmers due to the strong roles of middlemen (Ibnu 2017). "},{"text":"Farmers' groups or cooperatives were in a part of the landscapes just set up for the sake of matching the traceability requirement of certification. Capacity development and institutional empowerment for these groups are generally very difficult. Experience of top-down formation of rural cooperatives and poor images on rural cooperatives during President Soeharto have become serious challenges in bridging between global initiatives and local interests. Although most farmers are well-aware of the need to improve the quality, increase market access, price transparency and fairness, any efforts to empower farmers through several groups or "},{"text":"Table 25  Organic-IFOAM Rainforest Alliance (since 2012 INOFICE (RFA) in Indonesia) Fair Trade (FLO) UTZ (became part of RFA in 2018) CAFÉ 4C Association Start (year) 1972 1993 1997 2002 2004 2006 Main focus Sustainability & social Sustainability Fairness Sustainability Responsible Sustainability change sourcing Standards Global and local Minimum Minimum and Minimum threshold Score cards (with Baseline, product- (sometimes set by compliance progress standard Good Inside Portal 74 indicators) specific standards, government) threshold towards compliance Verification Third-party auditors Local auditors Flo-Cert, third Third-party auditors SCS (Scientific Accredited third party auditors Certif. System) party auditors Key aspects Organic standard Sustainable resource Labour, Sustainable farming Production and Sustainable coffee management livelihood and quality manage practices participation Pricing system Market price Market Price Minimum Floor Market price Market price + Market price + Price Perform Premium perform premium Premium Not specific Quality Premium FLO Premium UTZ Premium Quality Premium Quality Premium Credit Financing Attached to some Through local banks Pre-finance (up to Not specific for coffee Farmer loan fund Not specific government programs 50% value) (mass balance cocoa) Technical Training, assisting Through sustainable Local farmers' Local farmers' Good agricultural Local farmers' assistance / organic development agriculture network organisation organisation practices (GAP) organisation Capacity building Community Facilitating production Linkage with Premium use Partnering with Projects in coffee Partnering with outreach and trade input suppliers & for community NGOs and businesses community NGOs and labourers program businesses Regions of Aceh, Lampung, South Aceh, Lampung, Aceh Lampung, Aceh Aceh, N. Sumatra, Lampung, South operation Sulawesi South Sumatra South Sulawesi Sumatra Coffee Majority Arabica, Robusta Robusta, Arabica Arabica, Robusta Robusta, Arabica Arabica Robusta Sources: Compiled from several sources: Ruben and Zuniga (2011), Potts et al (2014), from field observations by the authors (2013-2016) and from the websites of eco-certification, such as http://www.flo-cert.net, http://inofice.com/, http://www.utzcertified.org, http://www.starbucks.com, http://www.4c-cof- feeassociation.org, http://www.rainforest-alliance.org, https://www.rainforest-alliance.org/utz/ Organic-IFOAM Rainforest Alliance (since 2012 INOFICE (RFA) in Indonesia) Fair Trade (FLO) UTZ (became part of RFA in 2018) CAFÉ 4C AssociationStart (year) 1972 1993 1997 2002 2004 2006Main focus Sustainability & social Sustainability Fairness Sustainability Responsible Sustainabilitychange sourcingStandards Global and local Minimum Minimum and Minimum threshold Score cards (with Baseline, product-(sometimes set by compliance progress standard Good Inside Portal 74 indicators) specific standards,government) threshold towards complianceVerification Third-party auditors Local auditors Flo-Cert, third Third-party auditors SCS (Scientific Accredited thirdparty auditors Certif. System) party auditorsKey aspects Organic standard Sustainable resource Labour, Sustainable farming Production and Sustainable coffeemanagement livelihood and quality manage practicesparticipationPricing system Market price Market Price Minimum Floor Market price Market price + Market price +Price Perform Premium perform premiumPremium Not specific Quality Premium FLO Premium UTZ Premium Quality Premium Quality PremiumCredit Financing Attached to some Through local banks Pre-finance (up to Not specific for coffee Farmer loan fund Not specificgovernment programs 50% value) (mass balance cocoa)Technical Training, assisting Through sustainable Local farmers' Local farmers' Good agricultural Local farmers'assistance / organic development agriculture network organisation organisation practices (GAP) organisationCapacity buildingCommunity Facilitating production Linkage with Premium use Partnering with Projects in coffee Partnering withoutreach and trade input suppliers & for community NGOs and businesses community NGOs andlabourers program businessesRegions of Aceh, Lampung, South Aceh, Lampung, Aceh Lampung, Aceh Aceh, N. Sumatra, Lampung, Southoperation Sulawesi South Sumatra South Sulawesi SumatraCoffee Majority Arabica, Robusta Robusta, Arabica Arabica, Robusta Robusta, Arabica Arabica RobustaSources: Compiled from several sources: Ruben and Zuniga (2011), Potts et al (2014), from field observations by the authors (2013-2016) and from thewebsites of eco-certification, such as http://www.flo-cert.net, http://inofice.com/, http://www.utzcertified.org, http://www.starbucks.com, http://www.4c-cof-feeassociation.org, http://www.rainforest-alliance.org, https://www.rainforest-alliance.org/utz/  "},{"text":" and the number of levels as follows: (1) Price premium (Yes or No); (2) Certification target (Smallholders or Large estates); (3) Environmental focus (Conservation, Soil fertility target (Smallholders or Large estates); (3) Environmental focus (Conservation, Soil fertility or Organic input); (4) Marketing schemes (Contract with buyers or No); (5) Important goal or Organic input); (4) Marketing schemes (Contract with buyers or No); (5) Important goal (Fairness or Sustainability); (6) Credit options (Yes pre-finance or Cash only); (7) Price (Fairness or Sustainability); (6) Credit options (Yes pre-finance or Cash only); (7) Price differential between certified and non-certified coffee (Yes or No); and (8) Price differential differential between certified and non-certified coffee (Yes or No); and (8) Price differential based on the coffee bean sizes (Yes or No). The results of the conjoint analysis reveal that the based on the coffee bean sizes (Yes or No). The results of the conjoint analysis reveal that the most important attribute in the overall farmer preferences is the 'Price premium' with a relative most important attribute in the overall farmer preferences is the 'Price premium' with a relative importance of 21.9%, followed by 'Environmental focus' (14.1%) and 'Price differential importance of 21.9%, followed by 'Environmental focus' (14.1%) and 'Price differential between certified and uncertified coffee' (13.1%). between certified and uncertified coffee' (13.1%).  "},{"text":"Table 25 .   Producers Processors, transporters and intermediaries Government (exporting) Certifiers Consumers Global citizens ProducersProcessors, transporters and intermediariesGovernment (exporting)CertifiersConsumersGlobal citizens  B1. Restored (regained) trust  B8. Jobs, B10. Trustable B12. B1. Restored (regained) trustB8. Jobs,B10. TrustableB12.     profits choice for ethical Reduced profitschoice for ethicalReduced      consumption severity of consumptionseverity of      and poverty relevant and povertyrelevant      reduction issues reductionissues  B2. Increased (recovered) market share, B9. B11. Social B2. Increased (recovered) market share,B9.B11. Social  enhanced competition amongst buyers in the Business profiling to peers enhanced competition amongst buyers in theBusinessprofiling to peers Benefits early stages of certification schemes B3. B6. Technical B7. National opportunity  Benefitsearly stages of certification schemes B3. B6. Technical B7. Nationalopportunity  Learning quality standards reputation   Learningquality standardsreputation  improved as co-benefit restored   improvedas co-benefitrestored  practice     practice  B4. Compliance with (local)    B4. Compliance with (local)  government expectations    government expectations  B5. Share in premium price    B5. Share in premium price  exceeding additional costs    exceeding additional costs  "},{"text":" Bacon 2005, Barham et al 2011, Beuchelt and Zeller 2011, Ruben    Issues for smallholder coffee production systems in the context of the global value chain include low productivity, low quality of coffee beans and low bargaining positions relative to traders, coffee roasters and exporters. Coffee smallholders in many parts of Indonesia lack land tenure security and face pressures of land degradation. The image of coffee is negatively affected by publicity on encroachment of protection forests and national parks, especially the Leuser ecosystem in Aceh and the Bukit Barisan Selatan (BBS) National Park in Lampung. also experience a lack of family labour as they cannot pay hired labour, especially during land also experience a lack of family labour as they cannot pay hired labour, especially during land preparation and harvest times. Non-selective picking of coffee fruits (petik asalan), including preparation and harvest times. Non-selective picking of coffee fruits (petik asalan), including unripe (green) and ripe (red) cherries is common in Lampung, with a negative effect on product unripe (green) and ripe (red) cherries is common in Lampung, with a negative effect on product quality. Selected picking of red cherry or delaying strip picking when more fruits have ripened quality. Selected picking of red cherry or delaying strip picking when more fruits have ripened requires more labour and reduces labour productivity (in terms of quantity per day). Yet, requires more labour and reduces labour productivity (in terms of quantity per day). Yet, improved harvest practice is very important to achieving the product quality required for any improved harvest practice is very important to achieving the product quality required for any of the certification schemes. of the certification schemes. and Fort 2012, Utting-Chamorro 2005, Valkila 2009), but there now is an emerging body of and Fort 2012, Utting-Chamorro 2005, Valkila 2009), but there now is an emerging body of evidence from Africa (for example, Chiputwa and Qaim 2016, Jena et al 2012, Meemken evidence from Africa (for example, Chiputwa and Qaim 2016, Jena et al 2012, Meemken et al 2017). et al 2017).  "},{"text":" 1(Thaler and Sunstein 2009, van Noordwijk   et al 2012), human behaviour can be understood as that of 'social first, intelligent later' agents driven by groups, rituals, affiliation, status, and power(Hofstede 2017). Therefore, economic rationality or logical reasoning do not suffice when it comes to social intelligence. Where certification is trying to restore trust between consumers and producers, the social and cultural gaps between basic values on two ends of the value chain can be a constraint. Major consumer countries of coffee are high on the 'self-expression' and 'secular-rational' scales, as quantified in World Value Survey(Inglehart et al 2014), while coffee production is mostly in countries  "}],"sieverID":"13f9e303-caf5-412b-972a-6396cd8ae22e","abstract":"Certification aims to restore consumer trust in value chains, addressing social and environmental issues of public concern.• Indonesian policies support coffee farmers to follow 'good agricultural practice' to increase global market access, expecting its standards to gain global recognition.• Cost-benefit evaluation of certification requires accounting stands of producers, processors/ traders, governments of exporting countries, certifiers, consumers and global citizens.• Farmers' preferences regarding eco-certification in Indonesia are primarily economically driven, as it is weakly institutionalised in the farmer's context.• Eco-certification schemes have increased the quality of smallholder produced coffee, indirectly improving the economic performance."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"014f6f506bf9a25f0327235ebfdf3902","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/adca37e5-1edb-470c-a6b4-e3de0e9c91d6/retrieve"},"pageCount":24,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Requires:","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"1. Value chain analysis -Understand livestock production systems -Who are stakeholders and how do they behave 2. Risk analysis -Evaluate disease risks and control measures within the livestock production systems"},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"Value chain and risk analysis Key questions answered"},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"• Which processes carry risk for disease spread? -What are their relative contributions to overall risk?"},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"• Overall, which production systems carry more risk and economic impact?"},{"index":5,"size":28,"text":"-What should be prioritised? • What will be the impact of interventions (on disease, livelihoods, economics) and how will the value chain react (will trade by-pass controls, protests)?"},{"index":6,"size":12,"text":"• Who has most to gain or lose through risk reduction interventions?"},{"index":7,"size":11,"text":"• Who are affected by risky processes/points, and by how much?"},{"index":8,"size":18,"text":"• How can the state and/or the industry act to promote less risky operating environments for livestock production?"},{"index":9,"size":9,"text":"• Where in a country are the 'risk hotspots'?"},{"index":10,"size":8,"text":"• How does risk vary over the year?"},{"index":11,"size":28,"text":"• Where and when should surveillance be targeted? How do these actions affect FMD? (incentives, compensation, penalties, sanctions,..) Need to speak to the stakeholders (farmers, markets, slaughterhouses, etc...) "}]},{"head":"AND","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"• Assess impact of FMD infection on stakeholders"},{"index":2,"size":3,"text":"Identify \"risk hotspots\""},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"Risk hotspots: points in the value chain where the combined effect of the probability of FMD entry/spread and the consequences of FMD entry/spread are greatest. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" in Tehran wants meat -Local supplies cannot meet this demand -(or more expensive) -Low supply/high demand -> high prices -Attracts cattle from production centres in Pakistan -This is illegal but the incentives are too great Who is most important in the control spread of FMD? Where to focus limited control resources for maximum impact?ProcessWhat do the farmers do?(+ consider other stakeholders) "},{"text":" of introduction to an area -Risk of exposure of susceptible species -Risk of local spread -Risk of long distance spread 1) A car contaminated with FMD virus drives near the epi-unit twice a week 2)An animal is bought from an infected epi-unit once a week RISK Consequence Probability The car is less likely to spread the disease than a live animal So the consequences more severe for weekly live-animal movements Summary of potential risk hotspots Description: -No specific time -Vaccinations done about six times a year per epi-unit -No specific region -Visit several units each day -Carried out by private veterinarians (or their technicians?) -There is a risk of carrying the virus on the vaccinators equipment, clothes, vehicles, etc... -All FMD susceptible livestock species are affected by this Details of spread of FMD by vaccination teams -If vaccinating on an infected unit do not visit another unit for 3 days -Training of vaccinators on biosecurity -A vaccination team only visits one epi-unit per day -Define strict biosecurity measures to be followed -Villages: Have specific tools for each village, this must be disinfected or discarded after use -Dairy: Have personnel and tools for each dairy farm -Beef and sheep: should be as for dairy, otherwise treat as per villages Control options for spread of FMD by vaccination teams Better biosecurity: One set of equipment per epi-unit//do not visit another unit for three days if on infected unit//disinfect and change needles, clothing, etc... between premises. Issues: There will be a cost for the extra equipment Farmers will like it and will trust vet services more Best control option for spread of FMD by vaccination teams Convenience for the stakeholders: -Good; some problems for private -Will help gain credibility for the veterinary services from the farmers Can it be enforced: Yes Cost: Acceptable Effect on FMD incidence: Large effect Likelihood of success: High "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"f72cbc97-f4e1-4133-b4dc-38b536bd1624","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"01830bb4aa23f72adcbfac95e69db62b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/40ae163f-84c1-43b0-b427-c81ccf8c79b9/retrieve"},"pageCount":28,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"CIMMYT's Core Breeding Focus","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"CIMMYT's Strategy for Wheat Breeding","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Adopting new methods to allow rapid generation advancement  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"• Yield stability. Resilient germplasm is paramount under climate change • High yield potential • Durable diseases resistance. Also contributes to stability • "},{"text":"•• 2 • 3 • 4 • 5 •➢ No, or minimum, compromise with selection intensity and accuracy by selecting and phenotyping for various traits Integrating F3 sown under artificial rust epidemics • Extract head rows from F3 (300K) • Grain selection • Phenotypic selection of F4 Head rows (100K) Year Second round of phenotypic selection • Selection using GEBVs • Stage 1 Multi-environment testing + GEBVs (4.5K) • SR & YR Kenya (Field) Year Disease and quality phenotyping (Field, Lab & GH) • Stage 2 Multi-environmental testing in SE and TPEs (1K) Year Stage 3 Multi-environmental testing in SE (300) • International distribution Field screenhouses-Covering for Generation Advancement ΔG = r \uD835\uDC62, ො \uD835\uDC62 \uD835\uDF0E \uD835\uDC54 \uD835\uDC56 \uD835\uDC3F Breeder's equation Further Optimization of Rapid Generation Advancement: Field Based ➢ Some field sites can be used to grow wheat crop continuously ➢ In Obregon, we can grow two crops by sowing early Advancement of F1s in field in Obregon, Mexico. Sowing early (October 24 th , 2021) under managed water application Photo taken on Jan 20 th , 2022 Advancement of F2s in field in Obregon, Mexico by sowing on 17 Feb 22 Photo taken on 29 th Mar 22 Irrigation of F1s in field in Obregon, Mexico. Sowing on Oct 14 th , 2022 Initiated in 2013 (USAID supported Feed the Future Innovation Lab for Applied Wheat Genomics at KSU) ➢ ~8 to 9 thousand lines in yield trials genotyped each year with GBS markers ➢ Meta-GWAS studies conducted & published: "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Wheat Breeding Contributes to Climate Resilience  • Protecting yield against • Protecting yield against stresses is paramount stresses is paramount • More resilient germplasm can • More resilient germplasm can be developed through be developed through breeding. breeding.  "},{"text":"Germplasm Exchange is Central to CIMMYT's Wheat Breeding Program 50-170 sets of each yield trial/nurseries distributed annually worldwide t0 over 65 countries  Trial/Nursery Abbreviation Entries (No.) Target Environment Grain Trial/NurseryAbbreviationEntries (No.)Target EnvironmentGrain Yield Trials (Replicated):     Yield Trials (Replicated): Elite Spring Wheat Yield Trial ESWYT 50 ME1, ME2, ME5 White Elite Spring Wheat Yield TrialESWYT50ME1, ME2, ME5 White Semi Arid Wheat Yield Trial SAWYT 50 ME4 White Semi Arid Wheat Yield TrialSAWYT50ME4White High Rainfall Wheat Yield Trial HRWYT 50 ME2, ME4 Red High Rainfall Wheat Yield TrialHRWYT50ME2, ME4Red Heat Tolerance Wheat Yield Trial HTWYT 50 ME1, ME4, ME5 White Heat Tolerance Wheat Yield TrialHTWYT50ME1, ME4, ME5 White High Zinc Yield Trial HZYT 50 ME1 White High Zinc Yield TrialHZYT50ME1White High Zinc Yield Trial-Early Maturity HZYT-EM 50 ME5 White High Zinc Yield Trial-Early MaturityHZYT-EM50ME5White Screening nurseries:     Screening nurseries: Int. Bread Wheat Screening Nursery IBWSN 250-300 ME1, ME2, ME5 White Int. Bread Wheat Screening NurseryIBWSN250-300 ME1, ME2, ME5 White Semi Arid Wheat Screening Nursery SAWSN 150-200 ME4 White Semi Arid Wheat Screening NurserySAWSN150-200 ME4White High Rainfall Wheat Screening Nursery HRWSN 150-200 ME2, ME4 Red High Rainfall Wheat Screening NurseryHRWSN150-200 ME2, ME4Red High Zinc Advanced Nursery HZAN 100-150 ME1 White High Zinc Advanced NurseryHZAN100-150 ME1White Disease based nurseries:     Disease based nurseries: International Septoria Observation Nursery ISEPTON 100-150 ME2, ME4 White/Red International Septoria Observation NurseryISEPTON100-150 ME2, ME4White/Red Leaf Blight Resistance Screening Nursery LBRSN 100-150 ME4, ME5 White/Red Leaf Blight Resistance Screening NurseryLBRSN100-150 ME4, ME5White/Red Stem Rust Resistance Screening Nursery SRRSN 100-150 All MEs White/Red Stem Rust Resistance Screening NurserySRRSN100-150 All MEsWhite/Red Fusarium Head Blight Screening Nursery FHBSN 50-100 ME2, ME4 White/Red Fusarium Head Blight Screening NurseryFHBSN50-100 ME2, ME4White/Red  "}],"sieverID":"ee863021-b1d0-4faa-bac4-d6ec297addef","abstract":""}

data/part_4/01b54550db39a09d5c83440f29546fca.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"01b54550db39a09d5c83440f29546fca","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1bfe472d-26ed-4cd1-9de0-7c4a5ddd2ef4/retrieve"},"pageCount":10,"title":"DArT whole genome profiling provides insights on the evolution and taxonomy of edible Banana (Musa spp.)","keywords":["Musa acuminata","Musa balbisiana","Musa spp.","banana","DArT","domestication","taxonomy","classification","domestication"],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"Banana, including cooking banana, is a vegetatively propagated crop of great importance for the subsistence of small-scale farmers in developing countries. This fruit and starchy crop is grown in more than 130 countries, mainly tropical, and is a major staple food for millions of people. In addition, more than 19 million tonnes of bananas, i.e. 13 % of the total global production, are exported (http://faostat3.fao.org/faostat-gateway/go/to/ home/E). This makes banana critical for both the food security and the economy of many developing countries."},{"index":2,"size":133,"text":"Banana, Musa spp., is a monocotyledon. With the exception of Australimusa Fe'i banana, not considered in this paper, it carries four known genomes, A, B, S and T, which correspond to the species Musa acuminata, M. balbisiana, M. schizocarpa and M. textilis, respectively. No hybridization among B, T or S genomes has been observed independently of the A genome but M. acuminata hybridizes with any of the three other species. However, there are few cultivated bananas composed of S and T genomes. The two main progenitor species of the domesticated forms of bananas are thus M. acuminata and M. balbisisana. Although no subdivision exists within M. balbisiana taxonomy, based on different observed chromosome structures M. acuminata has been divided into at least seven subspecies with different geographical distributions (Simmonds and Shepherd, 1955;Shepherd, 1999)."},{"index":3,"size":357,"text":"The four species at the origin of cultivated bananas have combined to generate a wide diversity of diploid and triploid cultivars with diverse genetic make-ups varying from AA, AB, AS, AT, AAA, AAB, ABB, AAS to AAT. Within each of these genome groups, cultivars are classified into subgroups that are considered to correspond to groups of varieties clonally derived from each other after a single sexual event. The most well known of the subgroups of banana are seedless triploids, such as the commercially important Cavendish dessert banana (AAA) and the staple cooking African Plantains (AAB), which have importance for food security. However, quite a high number of diploid cultivars are also cultivated, especially in the centre of origin, i.e. the South-East Asia/Melanesia region (Simmonds, 1962;Lebot, 1999). The origin of modern bananas, especially of the commercial triploids, has been investigated and domestication schemes have been proposed (De Langhe et al., 2009;Perrier et al., 2011). The emergence of triploid cultivars is believed to have ensued from a multi-stepped process. Modern edible diploids may have been preceded by what De Langhe et al. (2009) named 'cultiwilds', i.e. pre-domesticated forms of bananas that might have been devoted to uses other than food, exhibiting intermediate levels of parthenocarpy and occasionally producing seeds. These cultiwilds, originating from different subspecies of M. acuminata, then probably diffused through exchanges between human communities and/or following human migrations. Once brought into contact, they are thought to have hybridized with local genepools and to have given rise to edible diploids. Due to parental chromosomal rearrangements and unbalanced meiosis in these hybrids, diploid gametes were sometimes formed, so that in some cases the occurrence of sexual reproduction between them led to the emergence of triploid cultivars (reviewed by Perrier et al., 2011). The most striking example is the likely resolution of the direct ancestry of the Cavendish AAA sub-groups: restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) and simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers have revealed that two AA landraces originating from the Mlali and Khai clusters were the most likely providers of their AA and A parental gametes, respectively (Carreel et al., 2002;Raboin et al., 2005;Perrier et al., 2009;Hippolyte et al., 2012)."},{"index":4,"size":149,"text":"A range of molecular markers have been used to characterize and study banana diversity: amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) (Ude et al., 2002), RFLP (Carreel et al., 2002;Raboin et al., 2005) and more recently microsatellites (Perrier et al., 2009;Christelov a et al., 2011;Hippolyte et al., 2012;de Jesus et al., 2013;Irish et al., 2014). Originally developed for rice, diversity arrays technology (DArT) markers (Jaccoud et al., 2001) are most widely used. They were designed to enable whole-genome profiling without the need of sequence information. Due to their high polymorphism information content (PIC), DArT has been successfully applied to various crops, from wheat (Akbari et al., 2006) and sorghum (Bouchet et al., 2012) to chickpea (Roorkiwal et al., 2014). In banana, DArT has already been used for a range of applications, from diversity studies (Amorim et al., 2009;Risterucci et al., 2009) to genetic mapping (Hippolyte et al., 2010;D'Hont et al., 2012)."},{"index":5,"size":164,"text":"In this study, we propose to use a batch of 498 polymorphic previously developed DArT markers (Risterucci et al., 2009) to explore the genetic diversity of a large sample composed of 575 accessions of bananas, covering most of the known diversity of wild and cultivated diploids and triploids from the section Eumusa. The accessions are conserved for distribution in Bioversity International's Global Collection of Banana, the International Transit Center (ITC), hosted in the Catholic University of Leuven, Belgium. These accessions originate from diverse field collections and collecting missions (accessed through MGIS, http://www.crop-diversity.org/banana/) and constitute a good representation of the existing diversity of Musa worldwide. The results obtained allowed us to provide a global image of Musa diversity and to validate the accuracy of DArT markers in detecting genome composition and revealing clustering in banana accessions. Secondly, we discuss the extent of the consecutive bottlenecks that underpinned banana domestication. Finally, we argue for the anchorage of the taxonomy of cultivated bananas within an evolutionary perspective."}]},{"head":"MATERIALS AND METHOD","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Plant material","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"A total of 575 accessions were obtained from the ITC's in vitro genebank. The sample set was composed of 94 wild accessions and of 481 cultivated accessions, including 208 diploids, 269 triploids and four mixoploids, i.e. accessions exhibiting diploid and triploid cells while measured with flow cytometry. The numbers of individuals per different species and genome groups are summarized in Table 1."},{"index":2,"size":211,"text":"DNA extraction and DArT procedure DNA was extracted from lyophilized samples provided by ITC following the protocol described at https://www.diversityar rays.com/files/DArT_DNA_isolation.pdf Development of the DArT assay and DArT array was described by Risterucci et al. (2009). Briefly, each DNA sample was digested with a combination of PstI and TaqI restriction enzymes, the adapter for PstI overhang was ligated and fragments with PstI ends that are missing the TaqI internal restriction site were amplified using primers targeted to the PstI adapter sequence. Genomic representations thus created in that manner (targets) were quality-checked through gel electrophoresis and then fluorescently labelled with either Cy3 or Cy5 fluorescent dye. Labelled targets and FAM-labelled internal control (polylinker of the cloning vector used for DArT library construction) were hybridized to a banana array containing 6144 DArT clones printed in duplicate for 16 h at 62 C. Slides were subjected to four washes of increasing stringency with a final rinse in water followed by drying. Slides were scanned using a Tecan laser scanner at three wavelengths matching emission of the three fluorescent dyes used in hybridization. The images generated by the scanner were stored in DArTdb (http://www.diversi tyarrays.com/dart-technology-package-dartDb) and used in marker data extraction. More detailed descriptions of the lab techniques are given by Kilian et al. (2012)."}]},{"head":"DArT analysis","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"Markers were scored '0' for absence and '1' for presence of the restriction fragment corresponding to DArT probe in the genomic representation. DArTsoft v.7.4 (Diversity Arrays Technoogy P/L, Canberra, Australia) was used to automatically identify and score polymorphic markers. The threshold criteria of call rate and reproducibility were set to be higher than 80 and 97 %, respectively."}]},{"head":"Statistical analysis of DArT data","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Global representation and structure of Musa diversity. Darwin 5.0 (Perrier and Jacquemoud-Collet, 2006;Perrier et al., 2003) was used to calculate genetic distances between pairs of the 575 accessions. To do so, both modalities (0,1) were given equal weight using the Sokal and Michener (1958) dissimilarity index as the proportion of unmatching markers. The dissimilarities matrix was first used to perform a principal coordinate analysis (PCoA)."},{"index":2,"size":194,"text":"A Bayesian Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) approach was then used to detect genetic clusters within diploids. This model-based analysis was run using the program STRUCTURE version 2.3.3. (Pritchard et al., 2000). We used the admixture model along with the assumption of correlated allele frequencies between groups (Falush et al., 2003) and the optimal value of K was then determined by examining the posterior probabilities Ln P(D), the partitioning of individuals across the K clusters and DK (Evanno et al., 2005) as implemented in the web software STRUCTURE HARVESTER (Earl and vonHoldt, 2012). STRUCTURE then partitioned individuals of the sample according to the membership coefficient Q, which ranges from 0 (lowest affinity to the group) to 1 (highest affinity to a group), across the pre-defined K groups. Taking into account that the models implemented within STRUCTURE pre-supposed panmixia, we first analysed seeded accessions and then the edible diploid accessions as they exhibit a higher chance to meet this criterion than triploids. For each analysis, we ran ten replicates of each value of K ranging from 1 to 10 with a burn-in length of 400 000 followed by 1 000 000 iterations of each chain."},{"index":3,"size":123,"text":"Clonal diversity of edible banana. The number of distinct multilocus genotypes (MLGs) present in the cultivated component of our sample (G) was determined using the software GenoType (Meirmans and Van Tienderen, 2004) based on the genetic distances matrix generated by DARwin. GenoType allows choosing a threshold (Th), i.e. the maximum pairwise genetic distance allowed between individuals to belong to the same clonal lineage, or to be clonemates, and then assigns a clonal identity to each individual. We ran two different datasets. The first involved cultivated diploid individuals only (208 samples) and led to the identification of 115 distance classes. The second involved cultivated triploid individuals only (273 samples including 269 triploids and four mixoploids) and led to the identification of 157 distance classes."},{"index":4,"size":28,"text":"We then followed Douhovnikoff and Dodd (2003) to determine the threshold that would enable us to delimit banana clonesets through the observation of the frequency histogram of distances."}]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Global structure of Musa diversity","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"The PCoA performed on the distance matrix between genotypes of the whole sample is presented in Fig. 1. Factors 1 and 2 represented 52.67 % of the total variation observed. Axis 1, counting for 44.92 % of the variation observed, clearly discriminates accessions according to the proportion of the B genome involved in their genomic composition, going from pure B at the left to pure A at the right."},{"index":2,"size":146,"text":"The discrimination displayed by Axis 2, accounting for 7.75 % of the variation observed, correlates to some extent with the geographical origins of the cultivated accessions, going from the North, e.g. ABB subgroups Pome and Mysore originating from India at the bottom of the graph, to the South with the cultivated AA originating from Papua at the top. However, this pattern does not fit with M. acuminata subspecies: if banksii is located at the top of the graph near the cultivated diploids from Papua New Guinea, the diversity of the main South-East Asia subspecies, zebrina from Java, malaccensis from the Malay-Thai peninsula and burmannica from Myanmar, is not structured according to geography. Interestingly, none of the subspecies included in this study clusters at the bottom of the graph where there is a large group of cultivated diploids and triploids including the AAA Cavendish and Gros Michel."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"Finally, the clustering of the main cultivated subgroups is consistent with the accepted taxonomy of the samples."}]},{"head":"Number of genetic clusters identified in the wild samples","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":270,"text":"The overall results obtained from STRUCTURE on the set of 93 wild samples are displayed in Fig. 2. Examining the posterior probabilities of the data for each K, here called Ln P(D), along with their variance across runs, and Evanno et al.'s (2005) DK (Fig. 2A), we noticed that the highest peak of DK appears for K ¼ 2. However, the occurrence of smaller peaks along the graph suggests additional levels of clustering, notably for K ¼ 3, K ¼ 4 and K ¼ 8, all corresponding to stable values of Ln P(D) across runs. As the over-representation of the subspecies banksii probably introduced some bias into the results, we investigated the partitioning of the individuals across genetic clusters for all these putative values of K (Fig. 2B). The first level of clustering allows a clear discrimination of M. balbisiana from the M. acuminata/M. schizocarpa samples. The second level of clustering, K ¼ 3, allows the further discrimination of M. acuminata burmannica/M. schizocarpa from M. acuminata banksii. The other subspecies from South-East Asia are considered as admixed accessions at this stage. For K ¼ 4, M. schizocarpa clusters apart from any M. acuminata subspecies while the South Asian subspecies appear as a homogeneous group with punctual banksii introgressions. The pattern displayed for K ¼ 8 is more complex but also allows the discrimination of South-East Asian M. acuminata subspecies burmannica, malaccensis and zebrina. In addition, it also provides three accessions classified as malaccensis with a hybrid status between malaccensis and zebrina. However, of the eight putative genetic clusters identified by STRUCTURE, only six display fully assigned individuals (Q > 0Á8)."}]},{"head":"Number of genetic clusters identified within the cultivated diploid sample","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":188,"text":"The Evanno et al. (2005) method applied to the results obtained from the analysis of the set of 208 cultivated diploid accessions with STRUCTURE (Fig. 3) suggests K ¼ 2 as the real value of K even though a secondary peak of DK exists at K ¼ 3. As we suspected a bias due to the probable overrepresentation of accessions collected in Papua, we also investigated the different clusters detected for K ¼ 3 (data not shown), but the pattern displayed for K ¼ 2 was the most convincing. The partitioning of individuals across the different clusters identified for K ¼ 2 according to their countries of origin is presented in Table 2. Cluster 1 is composed of 50 accessions, mostly originating from South-East Asia, and cluster 2 is composed of 84 accessions, of which 82 originate from Papua, the two other accessions being ITC0299 'Guyod' from the Philippines and ITC1253 'Mjenga' which probably originated from Zanzibar (J. P. Horry, CIRAD, pers. comm.). Seventyfour accessions are admixed between both groups, i.e. Q < 0Á8. A majority of these admixed accessions originate from Papua (42) and the Philippines (11)."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"Considering the accessions fully assigned to a given cluster only, South-East Asia countries exhibited mainly accessions belonging to cluster 1 while the majority of the accessions collected in Papua belonged to cluster 2."}]},{"head":"Clonal diversity of edible banana","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"We investigated the number of distinct MLGs, or clones, identified in the two cultivated datasets, diploids and triploids (including mixoploids)."},{"index":2,"size":250,"text":"At Th0, i.e. no difference allowed, GenoType identified 175 different MLGs out of the 208 cultivated diploids and 221 different MLGs out of the 273 cultivated triploids and mixoploids. However, this estimation of the number of different MLGs did not take into account genotyping errors and accumulation of mutations as putative sources of genetic divergence among the accessions. In addition, DArT detects not only DNA sequence variation, but also, at a lower frequency, methylation variation at the PstI site used for the complexity reduction step (Wittenberg et al., 2005;Kilian et al., 2012). Therefore, the distance estimated based on DArTs not only includes scoring errors, which correspond to a fraction of 1 % given the cutoff of 97 % technical reproducibility and clonal accumulation of mutations, but also epimutations which are likely to accumulate in the meristems of clonally propagated materials. Histograms of the distributions of the pairwise genetic distances for the 50 first classes of these distances (Fig. 4) revealed thresholds that appeared appropriate to evaluate the number of initial founding events, i.e. sexual events, at the origin of each of the sets. The histogram obtained for the cultivated diploids (Fig. 4A) exhibits a clear pattern, with the first peak located at the second distance class. This peak appears to end at the fifth distance class, which we considered to be the threshold value for the cultivated diploids. Therefore, the estimated number of different MLGs in this sample was 117 distinct MLGs out of 208 (see Supplementary Data Table S1)."},{"index":3,"size":82,"text":"Of these 117 MLGs, 36 were composed of 2-13 accessions while 81 were composed of unique accessions. However, we suspect that at least seven multi-accession MLGs are composed of duplicates or synonyms (Table S1). It is noticeable that the two AB accessions, in the accepted classification, are classified in the Ney Poovan subgroup, but here are not recognized as belonging to the same clone. Equally, cultivars ensuing from hybridization between M. acuminata and M. schizocarpa (AS) separate into two different clonal groups."},{"index":4,"size":192,"text":"The pattern of genetic distances for the cultivated triploids, including mixoploids, is different (Fig. 4B): the first peak is also reached at the second genetic distance class but stretches until the eighth distance class. In addition, it is higher than that observed in the diploid accessions, suggesting higher rates of clonal differentiation among the triploids. This first high peak is followed by two lower peaks that suggest the occurrence of Partitioning of the individuals according to their membership coefficient Q across the K groups for K ¼ 2, 3, 4 and 8. Cluster I is composed of 27 M. acuminata banksii; cluster II of six M. acuminata burmannica/burmannicoı ¨des; cluster III of one M. acuminata errans and three M. acuminata qualified as hybrids; cluster IV of 13 M. acuminata malaccensis; cluster V of two M. acuminata microcarpa; cluster VI of one accession qualified as hybrid, of two M. acuminata siamea, of one M. acuminata truncata and one M. acuminata without known subspecies; cluster VII of seven M. acuminata zebrina; cluster VIII of hybrids between M. acuminata and M. schizocarpa; cluster IX of 11 M. balbisiana; and cluster X of 11 M. schizocarpa."},{"index":5,"size":138,"text":"closely related accessions within the sample. We investigated the MLGs clustering at threshold 8 and observed that, for this value, the cultivated triploids displayed 78 different MLGs out of the 273 accessions of the sample (Table S1). Thirty-one of the identified MLGs were composed of 2-44 accessions while 47 were composed of unique accessions. For 27 of the unique MLGs, no taxonomy information was available while 20 were classified as belonging to known subgroups. Noticeably, ITC0686 'Pisang Umbuk', ITC0176 'Lacatan' and ITC0002 'Dwarf Cavendish' classified as Cavendish are here considered as unique clones when 37 accessions classified as Cavendish and Gros Michel are considered as belonging to the same clone. Equally, ITC0060 'Guineo', ITC0170 'Ingarama' and ITC0177 'Makara' are considered unique genotypes but are classified as Mutika/Lujugira when 37 other Mutika/Lujugira accessions are considered as a single clone."},{"index":6,"size":38,"text":"We also noted that AAB Plantain was considered here as a unique clone but Iholena and Silk were composed of two sets of clones each. Most of the Pome and Mysore accessions were considered as a unique clone."},{"index":7,"size":56,"text":"With few exceptions, the results obtained for ABB are consistent with the taxonomy for the subgroups Pisang Awak, Pelipita and Klue Teparod. However, they are not consistent for the accessions classified as Saba, Monthan, Bluggoe, Ney Mannan or Peyan, for which the accessions belong to several MLGs that are themselves a mix of the different subgroups."}]},{"head":"DISCUSSION","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":301,"text":"DArT markers and the characterization of the diversity in Musa Molecular markers have proved to be useful tools for the resolution of banana taxonomy and management of ex situ collections (Hippolyte et al., 2012;de Jesus et al., 2013;Irish et al., 2014). Here we analysed a wide sample of wild and cultivated bananas conserved in the more diverse of the Musa genebank, the ITC, with 498 DArT markers. Overall, the clustering of the accessions within our sample is consistent with the acknowledged taxonomy of banana. Compared to a previous study performed with SSR markers (Hippolyte et al., 2012), the clustering of the accessions is consistent and similar. However, the organization of the clusters differs as the tree built with SSR markers did not show an organization of these clusters according to their genomic composition, as is the case here, but according to their common ancestry. Therefore, DArT appears more robust in detecting the genomic composition of accessions, especially in estimating the number of B genomes displayed by each sample (Fig. 1). With regard to the dominant nature of the markers used, the hierarchical clustering of the accessions according to the number of B copies present in their genomic composition is surprising but the same pattern was observed with dominant AFLP markers (Ude et al., 2002). More surprising is the clustering of both accessions classified as Klue Teparod (ABB) within the wild M. balbisiana sample. Some authors have claimed the occurrence of parthenocarpic BBB cultivars (Valmayor et al., 2000). Ribosomal DNA analysed for one of these accessions, ITC0652 'Kluaı ¨Tiparot', indeed revealed a B genome component only (Boonruangrod et al., 2008) while internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequence and cytogenetic analyses of satellite DNA unambiguously confirmed   , 2013). Therefore, the potential occurrence of an incomplete A genome within this subgroup needs to be investigated."},{"index":2,"size":124,"text":"Several true duplicates were identified within the MLGs identified by GenoType (see Table S1). However, in most cases they did not cluster together as Th0 (data not shown) revealing that the amount of genetic variation generated by the 'genotyping error' may be equivalent to that between accessions clonally derived from each other. Therefore, although DArT is confirmed as providing reliable markers for estimating and studying the diversity present in a Musa germplasm collection, the issue of providing a molecular footprint that would enable the unambiguous discrimination of each particular cultivar cannot be resolved with DArT markers. In such a context, the platform and methodology using a set of SSR markers presented by Christelov a et al. ( 2011) is likely to be more accurate."},{"index":3,"size":273,"text":"DArT markers also highlighted discrepancies between the known genetic background of some of the accessions and their clustering in the diversity analysis. For example, ITC1253 'Mjenga' was considered on the basis of morphological and SSR data as a clone belonging to the Mshale subgroup (Hippolyte et al., 2012), whereas it clusters here within the Papuan cultivated accessions and not with the other Mshale. We thus suspect a mislabelling problem, either in the ITC or during the DNA processing. On the other hand, the discrepancies observed between the taxonomy of some wild accessions and their clustering in the STRUCTURE analysis may be due either to their erroneous classification or to their hybrid status as explained at K ¼ 8 for some of the wild samples (e.g. several burmannica accessions). Although such hybridization could be due to the occurrence of natural and regular gene flow between the different genepools of M. acuminata (Carreel et al., 1994), we cannot exclude that they hybridized and accidentally lost their genetic integrity when maintained in ex situ field genebanks (Visser and Ramanatha Rao, 2005) prior their introduction to the ITC. Equally, the patterns displayed by some of the ABB subgroups, in which memberships to sets of clones do not follow the taxonomy provided with the accessions, suggest the erratic classification of these accessions. Both types of discrepancy will be investigated through field verification that will allow the growth, characterization and documentation under standard conditions of the accessions concerned followed by expert consultation (Chase et al., 2016). Low cost, fast, accurate and applicable to the whole genome, DArT markers are good tools to help manage ex situ collections of banana."},{"index":4,"size":141,"text":"Organization of the diversity and implications for its origin Wild samples. Examining the successive partitioning displayed by STRUCTURE for the 94 wild accessions according to the number of clusters considered is particularly interesting. As postulated by Meirmans (2015), most of the wild species and   populations exhibit different levels of organization in their genetic structure that can be reflected by different possible values of K. With an increase of K, we progressively discriminate the different species and subspecies involved in this study consistently with the phylogenetic results published by Janssens et al. (2016), the only surprising pattern being the fusion of M. schizocarpa and M. acuminata burmannica at K ¼ 3. Equally, the species M. schizocarpa originates in Papua but in the PCoA (Fig. 1) it clusters closer to the South-East Asian subspecies of M. acuminata than to the banksii from Papua."},{"index":5,"size":279,"text":"Cultivated samples. The rise of cultivated triploid bananas from their direct wild ancestors, M. acuminata and M. balbisiana among others, can be seen as a three-step process in which the anthropogenic circulation of pre-domesticated forms of diploid bananas extracted from the different wild genepools (Step 1) led to the production of edible and diploid hybrids (Step 2) that occasionally produced unreduced gametes and resulted in the emergence of triploid varieties (Step 3). The founder event that is common to steps 2 and 3 is sexual reproduction. First, sexual recombination led, within cultivated plots, to the birth of diploid specimens suitable for food consumption; second, rare sexual events still occurring among the edible diploids gave birth to triploids (Perrier et al., 2011). Therefore, identification of the number of distinct MLGs in both edible diploid and triploid accessions provides an estimation of the number of founding events for each ploidy type of banana and allows us to thus estimate the extent of the two consecutive bottlenecks that gave birth to present-day bananas. Our estimation of the number of MLGs constitutes a straightforward method for such estimations: the sample is wide and takes into account the biological specificity of each sample according to ploidy levels. We estimate that the 208 cultivated diploids of our sample may have arisen from 117 distinct sexual events while 80 sexual events may be at the origins of the 273 triploid accessions. The scores we obtained, in particular for the triploids, are low and highlight the narrowness of the genetic basis of the triploid bananas, despite what was hypothesized by Li et al. (2013) based on the study of nucleotide diversity in the Waxy and Adh1 genes."},{"index":6,"size":222,"text":"Taking into account that the ITC is seeking the most diverse and rare cultivars for conservation purposes, the estimation given by Bakry and Horry (2016) that 95 % of world banana production relies on 7-14 sexual events is not challenged by our results. It merely highlights the extent of under-utilization of banana genetic resources. The identification, using STRUCTURE, of two main genepools within the diploid samples, one corresponding to South-East Asia and the other to Papua, is consistent with what was described for other vegetatively propagated crops in the region, such as taro (Colocasia esculenta Schott.) (Krieke et al., 2004) and great yams (Dioscorea alata L.) (K. Abraham, CTCRI, and G. Arnau, CIRAD, pers.comm.), and supports the hypothesis of an independent centre of domestication for some crops, including banana, in Papua (Lebot, 1999). This view therefore challenges the acknowledged representation of banana domestication, for which edible diploid cultivars arose from crosses between the different wild genepools, the structural heterozygosity of the genomes obtained being considered as a major force that underpinned the selection of unseeded cultivars (Perrier et al., 2011). We may therefore consider at least two different domestication centres for banana, one in South-East Asia and one in New Guinea, in which the selection forces that applied to domesticated bananas were probably different from the currently accepted representation of banana domestication."}]},{"head":"Molecular markers and taxonomic resolution","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":342,"text":"The results obtained when estimating the putative number of MLGs, i.e. of sexual events that occurred within our sample, are of particular interest for taxonomic purposes. This analysis supports the assumption that the subgroup Plantain originated from the vegetative diversification of a single seed (Noyer et al., 2005) as all Plantain are considered a single clone (Table S1). However, it does not discriminate Gros Michel from Cavendish, whereas these two subgroups were hypothesized as siblings with two different n gamete donors, 'Khai Nai On' and 'Pisang Pipit', respectively (Hippolyte et al., 2012). Despite this supposed difference, the level of genetic divergence assessed with DArT markers between Gros Michel and Cavendish is equivalent to that observed for a monoclonal subgroup. In contrast, subgroups such as AA Pisang Jari Buaya, AB Ney Poovan, AAA Cavendish, AAA Mutika/Lujugira, AAB Silk and AAB Iholena seem to be composed of several clonal entities each. We cannot exclude that this pattern partly results from the potential erroneous classification of some clones, although the recent study of Kagy et al. (2016) confirmed the occurrence of polyclonal subgroups. The question raised by such a pattern is the definition of subgroups. Do we consider only monoclonal sets as subgroups sensus stricto or do we accept that a subgroup is likely to be composed of different clonal entities? In their paper considering the Iholena subgroup, defined based on its particular fruit and bunch morphology, Kagy et al. (2016) observed that this Pacific AAB subgroup was indeed composed of at least two different but related genotypes and postulated that they probably arose from the same restricted subset of parental diploids. Therefore, we may acknowledge that a subgroup could arise from different sexual events that occurred within the same genepools, conditional to morphological similarity. In such a context, molecular markers are of great help in detecting evolutionary differences underlying the emergence of subgroups. However, revising the taxonomy of banana requires joint morphological and molecular characterization of ambiguous accessions to check their classification and, if necessary, to refine the morphological criteria delimitating the subgroups concerned."}]},{"head":"CONCLUSIONS","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":315,"text":"We have conducted one of the largest and most comprehensive studies of the genetic diversity of banana germplasm. We confirmed that DArT markers were good tools both for resolving the taxonomy of accessions and for identifying mislabelling problems. The identification of two main genepools in the cultivated diploid accessions suggests at least two main regions of domestication, one in New Guinea and one, if not more, in South-East Asia. If it is consistent to hypothesize that the Papuan cultivars were domesticated from the local subspecies M. acuminata banksii, the South-East Asian domestication scheme is probably far more complex as it involves several subspecies. These subspecies are far from well known. As we postulate here, many of the accessions conserved in the ITC, and thus in their source collection, are likely to be hybrids between two or more genepools rather than pure representatives of their taxa. Whether hybridization occurred during their conservation in field ex situ collections or in the wild prior to being collected is not clear. The poor representation of some of the M. acuminata subspecies in ex situ genebanks does not help to clarify this issue. A striking example is Musa acuminata errans that was described in the Philippines (Valmayor, 2001). Currently, the only available specimen affiliated to this subspecies is ITC1028 'Agutay' and it appears here that it may well be a banksii hybrid. It is thus not possible to strictly assess, from this given accession, if errans participated in the build-up of cultivated bananas. The large group of AA/AAA cultivated bananas that does not cluster with any of the M. acuminata subspecies present in our sample suggests in addition that not all the diversity of the wild M. acuminata has been studied. To fill these gaps in both our knowledge and in the available genetic resources, systematic prospecting coupled with thorough phylogenetics and population studies should be undertaken in the future."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"SUPPLEMENTARY DATA Supplementary data are available online at www.aob.oxfordjour nals.org and consist of Table S1: assignment of clonal IDs to the sample accessions."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" FIG. 1. PCoA performed on the Sokal and Michener dissimilarity matrix obtained from the genotyping of 575 Musa accessions with 498 DArT markers. "},{"text":" FIG.2. Results obtained from STRUCTURE for the analysis of the full wild sample (94 individuals) (A) Median Ln(K) and median DK(Evanno et al., 2005). (B) Partitioning of the individuals according to their membership coefficient Q across the K groups for K ¼ 2, 3, 4 and 8. Cluster I is composed of 27 M. acuminata banksii; cluster II of six M. acuminata burmannica/burmannicoı ¨des; cluster III of one M. acuminata errans and three M. acuminata qualified as hybrids; cluster IV of 13 M. acuminata malaccensis; cluster V of two M. acuminata microcarpa; cluster VI of one accession qualified as hybrid, of two M. acuminata siamea, of one M. acuminata truncata and one M. acuminata without known subspecies; cluster VII of seven M. acuminata zebrina; cluster VIII of hybrids between M. acuminata and M. schizocarpa; cluster IX of 11 M. balbisiana; and cluster X of 11 M. schizocarpa. "},{"text":" FIG. 3. Methodology fromEvanno et al. (2005) for the interpretation of STRUCTURE results obtained on a set of 208 cultivated diploids accessions genotyped with 498 DArT markers. Median Ln(K), its variance across runs and median DK are presented for each value of K. The two peaks of median DK at K ¼ 2 and 3 indicate two putatively correct values for K. "},{"text":"FIG. 4 . FIG. 4. Histograms of genetic distances for the first 50 classes calculated following the Sokal and Michener similarity index for (A) 208 cultivated diploids and (B) 269 cultivated triploids and four cultivated mixoploids. "},{"text":"TABLE 1 . Composition of the sample by species and genome groups Diploids Triploids Mixoploids* DiploidsTriploidsMixoploids*  "},{"text":"TABLE 2 . Partitioning of 208 edible diploid accessions for the two genetic clusters identified by STRUCTURE; an accession is considered belonging to a cluster when Q > 0Á8  Cluster 1 Cluster 2 Admixed Total Cluster 1Cluster 2AdmixedTotal India 2 0 0 2 India2002 Vietnam 2 0 1 3 Vietnam2013 Thailand 5 0 0 5 Thailand5005 Philippines 3 1 11 15 Philippines311115 Malaysia 15 0 5 20 Malaysia150520 Indonesia/Malaysia 2 0 2 4 Indonesia/Malaysia2024 Indonesia 6 0 5 11 Indonesia60511 Papua 10 82 42 134 Papua108242134 Madagascar 1 0 0 1 Madagascar1001 Comoros 0 0 2 2 Comoros0022 Zanzibar 0 1 0 1 Zanzibar0101 Tanzania 0 0 2 2 Tanzania0022 Brazil 1 0 0 1 Brazil1001 Trinidad & Tobago 0 0 1 1 Trinidad & Tobago0011 Origin not known 3 0 3 6 Origin not known3036 Total 50 84 74 208 Total508474208  "}],"sieverID":"6cc21f4a-d70b-4180-ae81-fc97cb77a1d5","abstract":"Background and Aims Dessert and cooking bananas are vegetatively propagated crops of great importance for both the subsistence and the livelihood of people in developing countries. A wide diversity of diploid and triploid cultivars including AA, AB, AS, AT, AAA, AAB, ABB, AAS and AAT genomic constitutions exists. Within each of this genome groups, cultivars are classified into subgroups that are reported to correspond to varieties clonally derived from each other after a single sexual event. The number of those founding events at the basis of the diversity of bananas is a matter of debate.Methods We analysed a large panel of 575 accessions, 94 wild relatives and 481 cultivated accessions belonging to the section Musa with a set of 498 DArT markers previously developed.Key Results DArT appeared successful and accurate to describe Musa diversity and help in the resolution of cultivated banana genome constitution and taxonomy, and highlighted discrepancies in the acknowledged classification of some accessions. This study also argues for at least two centres of domestication corresponding to South-East Asia and New Guinea, respectively. Banana domestication in New Guinea probably followed different schemes that those previously reported where hybridization underpins the emergence of edible banana. In addition, our results suggest that not all wild ancestors of bananas are known, especially in M. acuminata subspecies. We also estimate the extent of the two consecutive bottlenecks in edible bananas by evaluating the number of sexual founding events underlying our sets of edible diploids and triploids, respectively.Conclusions The attribution of clone identity to each sample of the sets allowed the detection of subgroups represented by several sets of clones. Although morphological characterization of some of the accessions is needed to correct potentially erroneous classifications, some of the subgroups seem polyclonal."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"024cf505a9aebc196eeeb10ff9bb3088","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/fd6c1397-2bdf-4e9e-9f1f-65ded10f5a92/retrieve"},"pageCount":61,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"LAND DISCOVERY","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"e I A T Individuals can use decision support, but ir is of most value when used to share information among many groups representing different perspectives, whose own infom1ation about a situation in the watershed is only partial."},{"index":2,"size":115,"text":"That is why we describe this approach as decision support based in discovery: because it is built around providing the tools and technologies that help to build capacity for the research and information management needed for making good decisions about watershed resource rnanagement. The local people or organizations themselves choose the tools they feel are required for their particular purpose and area, having first been trained in their use . We supply the training and tools; we do not make recommendations. Our approach helps people in ¡he capacity of discoveringwhat it is that (hey ought lo do. We suppOli their process offinding out what the options are, evaluating the options, and making well-informed decisions ."},{"index":3,"size":47,"text":"The approach offered in this booklet (Box 4 offers a surnmary) is not exhaustive and is in a continuing process of developrnent and growth. lt covers sorne key decision poinls and actions in the process of planning and implementing a learning process approach to stakeholder watershed management. "}]},{"head":"INTRODUCTIt","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":127,"text":"Water and the sustainable management of watersheds are vital to the welfare of humanity. Even more than food, water has become a cIitical limiting factor in human development and the elimination of poverty. Massive urbanization in the developing world is putting huge strains on the capacity of lhe rural landscape, and in particular its watersheds, to provide burgeoning cities with healthy and adequate supplies of water. The elimination ofmral poverty depends critically on intensifying agriculture on smallholdings, and on sustaining adequate stream flow to meet basic domestic, agIicultural, and small-scale agroenterpIise requirements. Rural and urban poverty is connected and interdependent through the need for water. Water is a product of the rural landscape and depends on sound land management just as much as does the production offood."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"The CIAT approach to watershed management is not centered on the water ¡tself, but rather on the relationship of people with natural resources. lt is important to motivate the comrnunity and give the raise local interest in conserving their natural resources. We seek sustainable development at the local leve!. This means addressing lhe immediale needs of the people (increasing production) while dealing with, and making local people aware ofpossibility to, the need to care forthe environment."},{"index":3,"size":76,"text":"For the farm families managing the natural resources, sustainability may be more closely associated with their livelihoods and the survival of the :Jimily than with the natural resource base itself. At the worst, increasing population, decreasing farm size, and declining labor producti vity could combine to lead to a set of farmer decisions that result in soil erosion and fertility decline, deforestation, pesticide abuse, surface and ground water contamination, and eventual deeertification (Ashby et al. 1994)."},{"index":4,"size":59,"text":"Individual farmers on their own farms cannot solve problems of land degradation in tropical America. Ihis reql1ires a landscape perspective. CIAI has developed a suite of tools lin.ked to geographic information systems (GIS) and partieipatory methods as components of deeision support (DS) systems that help stakeholders with eonflicting interests identify eornmon problems at the landscape sea le (CLAI 1999a)."},{"index":5,"size":119,"text":"Projects of the partieipatory watershed type have greatly increased at national, intemational, and bilateral levels over the past 10 years. Ihis approach appeals in its promise to satisfy Agenda 21 's complex demands with a single coherent strategy of involving local stakeholders and communities at multiple sea les and zones while addressing cross-ecosystem issues and interactions related to fanning and narural resource conservation. However, the newness, complexity, and ambition of multi-purpose, multiscale watershed approaches make success elusive even in the best circumstances. Organization is highly complex, and co-leaming methods and eomputer-based tools are needed to deal with plural stakeholders with conflieting goals operating at levels and time scales usually alien to most agricultural and natural resouree scientists (Rhoades 1998)."},{"index":6,"size":239,"text":"In a watershed, crops, livestock, and forestry products are all marketable and paid foro Water is another produet of a watershed yet is almost never paid for, although it is sold onwards by a water authority to downstreallL users. Traditionally, the foeus ofwatershed management has eentered on the water itself, ofien only as a product for eonsumption outside the watershed even though it is intrinsieally tied up with lhe other watershed produets. Existing problems are addressed rather than any attempt being made to devel op the resouree. In the past, a top-down planning approach was based on land capability, rather than on lhe capacities and needs of local people, and typically promoted activities that were forced upon residents and cornrnunities from outside. This lack of fit between human and biophysical boundaries has caused tensions and antagonisms between local populations and outside watershed project managers (Datta and Virgo 1998). The other extreme was to assume that participation would solve the failure of centrally control!ed, extemal!y driven watcrshed projects with no local ownership (Farrington and Lobo 1997). Presumably, respecting local views and tapping into local knowledge in making decisions on research and management questions can help design and have accepted more sustainable, locally-relevant management systems (Hufschmidt 1986). Neither of these extremes works well. We need a synergetic point between ¡he perception and actions ofboth lhe local people and the specialists, a combination ofboth the technical and scientific aspects with local participation."}]},{"head":"People and natural resources","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":250,"text":"The essential component of an agro-ecosystem is its people producers and with al! tbe dimensions that accompany them socially, IAconlorrlÍc,llly, and environmentally (Waltner-Toews 1993). The people we ost want to help tend to be concemed with daily problems; they may not k too far ahead. Their children are hungry lJOW, production must be creased lJOW, the effect on their natural resources líes in the future. We leam about situations, draw principIes to develop the tools needed, then can extrapolate results and upsca le them . Box 1 shows how the CIPASLA organization (a local consortium of watershed stakeholders in Colombia), Box 1. CIPASLA: P.,'ncnhlp. d .. wlng using the CIAT approach, has helped • on ,'.o'cale •• d applied .. ,e.reh Self-financed budget USS300,OOO increase the resources available to its A leaming proeess approaeh is used rather than a \"blueprint\" approaeh beeause an understanding of the situation is required if the eommunity is going to undertake watershed resouree management. This leaming approaeh is not new, it has been used suecess fully in other afeas, and it has begun to be used in watershed management over the past deeade. The ~ oftooll1sed in training is new, ineorporating scientifie elements, GIS, collaborative work, models , et cetera in an aecessible and usable form at municipality leve!. The approach can also be used as a complement to top-down management approaches to inform, adjust, and aid in decision making. Research management involves a series of deeisions, we support people in making good decis ions."},{"index":2,"size":262,"text":"A watershed can be as large as the Amazon basin, accounting for a large slice of a continent, or as small as the runoff from a few fields into a stream (see Appendix 1). Why then do we in CIAT use a watershed as a unit ofanalysis for research , as a framework for organizing training, and as a foundation for the research and development of partnerships needed to do this research and training? Beeause, when combined with other issues of scale, it is a usefiJI, demarcated, agro-ecological mosaic in which agriculntral activity affects the yield and quality ofwater. The working size of a CIAT watershed is delimited by rhe groupings of farmers, foresters, and orher enterprise owners that interact in its management. To a large extent, the stakeholders in a watershed define the boundaries ofthe geographieal space in which it is meaningful to take decisions in order to improve their management of the watershed resourees. Stakeholder interests define who is \"in\" the watershed and who is outside or off-site. The biophysíeal boundaries ¡hat define the watershed as a functional hydrological system are also essential to this approach. The watershed allows biophysical seientists to clearly delimit the study unit, making it easier to eonduct input-output studies, decision-making and simulation models, and expet1 systems (EI-Swaify and Yakowitz 1997, cited in Rhoades 1998). A watershed is no! a \"natural\" socioeconomic uni!. Ofien a cornmunity \"domain\" covcrs different watersheds, and usually the same watershed is shared by different cornmunities Ihat also use the neighboring watersheds. This poses problems that should be addressed through collective action:"},{"index":3,"size":70,"text":"CIAT facilitates this process through the fonnation and support to local consonia ofwatershed stakeholders provided in this approach. We combine the geographical unit (watershed, subcatchments) where water flows , with social units (communities, municipalities) where decisions are made. The social boundaries for decision making ofien overlap the watershed boundaries (see Figure 6). This is essential, because managing the multiple natural processes of a watershed requires dealing with multiple social actors."}]},{"head":"How watershed actívítíes affect water yíeld, qllalíty, and stream peak flows","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":148,"text":"The many activities taking place within a watershed affect water quality, quantity, and stream peak flows. Cultivation affects sediment load and infiltration rates, thus changing water quality and soil/subsoil water storage. Good, economically viable, soil conservation measures can increase water quality and smooth stream flow peaks. Tree planting usually (but not always) reduces peak run-off and hence lowers flood risk and evens out water flow rates. Pastures planted for livestock often stabilize against erosion, but animal effiuent can a rrect water quality (nitrates plus disease organisms). Both forestry and permanent pastures actually iocrease water consumption wilhin the watershed. Rapid changes of land use can have unforeseen effects on water quality, yield, and stream flow peaks if the full functioning of tbe watershed is not well known. For example, large-scale plowing of old pastures can resul t in a flush o f ni tra tes to the stream flow."},{"index":2,"size":133,"text":"Pesticide and herbicide residues may wash directly into flowing water (e.g., from inappropriate washing of application machinery, or dumping of residues), 01' may leach through the soil to ground waters. Box 3 shows an example of one project where farmers are farrning organically in arder to reduce agrochemical pollution of grotind water. Postharvest processing can be a source of stream polllltion ir residues are allowed to drain directly to streams (e.g., in cassava starch production and sisal processing). Fish farming, although local, may be a majar water user within the watershed; it is also a maj ar polluter ifthe tank and processing effiuents are not treated. Even smal! areas of dense vegetation acting as stream flow buffer zones along stream bOllndaries can ameliorate the effects of dirty nlnoff where it is unavoidab le."}]},{"head":"Box 3. Reducing agrochemical pollution through","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"an integrated approach to NRM In sorne areas of the Andean zone, farrners spray their crops as ofien as once a week. The \"chemical culture\" these farmers embrace is reinforced by habit and rooted in their fear of crop failure. Under a CIPASLA-sponsored project, extension workers from Colombia's Servicio Nacional de Aprendizaje (SENA) are helping farmers establish organic gardens of aromatic and medicinal herbs, among other crops, for sale in nearby urban markets.  The booklet suggests, for the different work areas ofthis process, when and how stakeholder can make use of a number of too1s fo r deci sion support, collecting and orgallizing information, organizing, and rnonitoring and eva luation."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"The CIAT publication \"Decision making for sustainable natural resource rnanagernent: Nine tools !hat help\" (CIAT 1 999a) describes the rnain rools used in tbe process up lO presento"},{"index":3,"size":62,"text":"The glossary at!he end ofthis booklet explains sorne ofthe terminologyused !hat is spec iftc to thi s subject. The sustainable management of natural resources depends on people's capacity to take \"sustainable\" decisions, wbether tbe level of decision making is the municipality, the watershed, or the village. Thus, the CIAT Methodological Guides are support lools for decision taking and not resource managementtoolsper se."},{"index":4,"size":60,"text":"With this in mind, the focus of attention moves , for example, from the problem of tbe quantity and quality of water available for human consumption to the exploration of future scenarios that tbe community wisbes to construct to guarantee sufficient quality and quanti ty ofwater for the next 20 years, based on present decision taking (Knapp et al. 1999)."},{"index":5,"size":47,"text":"The approach offered in this booklet (Box 4 offers a sUITunary) is not exhaustive and is in a continuing process of development and growth. It covers sorne key decision points and actions in the process of planning and implementing a leaming process approach to stakeholder watershed management."},{"index":6,"size":64,"text":"Box4. The CIAT learning process approach is aimed at stimulating its users to identify new work areas and new tools that they need lo inelude in their process, to develop their own applications of methodological tools, and to systematize their experience into guides like those we provide. People have to make decisions, we aim to help them. The CIAT approach addresses the following questions."},{"index":7,"size":21,"text":"• Where are we going to work? We need to define the physical boundaries and the decision-making or social • units."},{"index":8,"size":15,"text":"Who are the key people for the key problems in this our • priority area?"},{"index":9,"size":18,"text":"What is the vision of tbe future for this watershed? How • should we organize for better management?"},{"index":10,"size":9,"text":"• What technological options do we have for change?"},{"index":11,"size":102,"text":"How do we monitor and evaluate and check that the watercourse is really becoming a better place to live in, that conservation is occurring, and the watershed is being managed for the long-terrn? We train and help in the use oftools to answer these questions. Then we go through the process ofthe five components below, and the tools we have developed fit in as and where required. Finally, we hold a forum where the people of the watershed address tbe questions together and the process is worked through witb the tools that they choose to u ' \" e I A T"},{"index":12,"size":73,"text":"The main elements ofthe process here descri ,d are called componenls. It is an iterative process and canoot be carried tone component al a time, or with one component following another; us lIy several components will be implemented at a time. Sorn e might be s ed before others are fini shed. At any one time, tbe user may need to go ackward or forward in tbe list of co mponents outlined below.  "}]},{"head":"Stakeho/der analysís","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"Grimble et al., 1995 define stakeholder analysis as: \"An approach for understanding a system by identifying the key actors or stakeholders in the system and assessing their respective interests in that system. Stakeholders include all those who affect, and are affected by, the policies, decisions, and actions of the system; they can be individuals, communities, social grou ps or institutions of any size, aggregation,or level in society. The terms thus inelude policymakers, planners and administrators in government and other organizations, as well as commercial and subsistence user groups.\""},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"Stakeholder analysis is relevant for NRM because: • What is the poverty or wealth of different stakeholder groups? Depending on the \"systern\" or the issues in question we rnay need to know the levels ofpoverty existing and tbe spatial distribution ofpoverty orwell-being in the watershed."},{"index":3,"size":81,"text":"For that purpose we have developed a rnethodological tool to identifY local indicators of well-being and to construct regional profiles for rural poverty. This is integrated with and cornplernentary to dernographic databases such as census data with variables relating to, for exarnple, the accessibility of services, type ofhouse construction, and levels of education. With this kind of data, we can begin to draw profiles ofthe basic resources available to farmers and can get sorne idea ofwhat people have attheir disposition ."},{"index":4,"size":57,"text":"• What are the ownership and usufruct rights and customs that guide how different stakeholders use these resources? Ownership is sornetirnes available on census data, but can be a delicate subject on which people do not always speak frankly or truthfully, and this should be borne in mind. At present, CIAT does not research these topics ."},{"index":5,"size":47,"text":"• What are the formal and informal organizations active in the watershed and their objectives? How do they work together? Organizations can work together through consortia. Inter-institutional consortia should involve at least the fom1al organizations. Workshops help bring together different organizations and have them define their objectives."},{"index":6,"size":106,"text":"The rnain stakeholder with whorn CIAr works is the local organization at socioeconomic leve!. In the technological sense, stakeholders are much more diverse. Producers continue in participatory research (e.g., the Hillsides Options Supermarket or SOL, its Spanish acronyrn, where strategic research also takes place and different types ofpartners are involved, see Box 6) . There are stakeholders at watershed and higher levels (rnunicipalities), and we should al so consider those stakeholders beyond tbe watershed who are decision makers and should be involved. All ofthese are connecled 00 separate questions. The vision is not limited to the watershed , but goes beyond, those ourside are also importan!."},{"index":7,"size":108,"text":"For sra keholder management of watersh ed resources, lbe relevant stake hold ers need ro be brought togeth er to decide on lhe appropriate management innovations, bow to enforce tbern, how to reward or sanction thern, how to monitor cornpliance, who is better orworse off as a result ofthe changes, and whether these are having the desired effect on lhe watershed. Sorne stakeholders rnay like these changes, sorne may be opposed, and olhers may be indifferent. Thestakeholders ofa collective decision-rnaking process need to decide w ho are rhe relevant people who need 10 meet for this nlllmc,.e' Leaving our so me srakeholder group could be fatal to success."}]},{"head":"Local knowledge and experímentatíon","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"Scien ti sts and technicians know their subject, but farme rs ha ve local knowledge and traditions. Jt is important to get to know them in order to work with them, we cannot assume that anyone's knowledge is comp lete. Thus, on arrival in a work area, a quick sounding is taken to interact with the hnm \" ,r< find out rheir customs, way ofworking, socioeconomic factors, tbe too1s they use , rhe crops rbey grow, and so forth . Through di alogue, tbose farmers can he1p and rbose wbo ha ve problerns are identified. Producer and technician share their know1ed ge to identify local indicators of soil use, p1ants, fertil ity, physicochernic al propelii es of land el cetera througb local terminology and classificarion."},{"index":2,"size":118,"text":"This makes it possible ro take berrer decisions on th e managemenr ofnatural resources in re1ation with their stare of degradation. The Committees for Local Agricultura1 Resea rch (CIALs, rhe Spani sh acronym) are a good example of how rhis works. These commirrees of four or more farmers, elected by their communi ty, carry out adaptive technology resting in the local environment, combining local knowledge and exotie technologi es , on topi es chosen by the co mmuni ty (Ashby et al. (995). Collecting local infonnation and knowledge can be done in rnany ways, from a participatory diagnostic to sorne type of formal interviewing. The use of a maqueta is helpful for bringing the information IOgether (Box 5)."},{"index":3,"size":164,"text":"Box 5. Maquetas. The people with local interestare those who best know the countryside. A tool we have found highly useful in gathering local knowledge is the \"maqueta\", a threedimensional structure made of the watershed out of papier-ma ché or other locally found materials. The community puts it together, using sorne GIS information such as altitudes, but mostly their own knowledge of the area. They put houses, schools, roads, et cetera in place then work out the land uses, in effect constructing their watershed. The great advantage ofthis is that they become sensitized, are made aware of, the larger environment beyond the small boundary of the farm, and that they look at the larger picture. They come to realize that their problems relate to what happens outside their own small sphere. They visualize the actual natural resources ofthe region and are thus able to better understand project possibilities. The maqueta is a powerful tool for stimulating group discussion and creating a sense of community."},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":"Local knowledge and information is an important input to decision making involving the natural resources of a watershed."}]},{"head":"PRIORITY SETTING DECISIONS","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":131,"text":"At the end of the diagnostic process, a synthesis can be made of the actual present situation. Problems and opportunities, their relationships, and their causes and effects are identified. Both the human aspect and natural resources are included. These three types also represent a gradation from success ro failure, implying that using local knowledge, building on indigenous worldviews , and encouraging ownership are the best predictors of long-term sustainable success. The importance ofthe CIAT focus is that it is not based on rhe usual top-down methods used in watershed management. With them identify what is in place, rhen mobilize local institutions so that they deal with problems or take advantage of oppottunities. We do not make decisions for people, give support and training so that they can make their own decisions."}]},{"head":"Príorítízíng the problems and opportunítíes to address","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":126,"text":"In every case, CIAT aims to increase tbe natural resources and improve the quality of life for producers. Both these aspects are being worked upon, generating sustainable uses and giving technological help at the small-scale level and moving outwards lo watershed leve!. The priority is that the producers use the tools developed, that rhe whole group involved in the watershed can collaborate, and that CIAT complements the work being undertaken. Demand-driven research and development means that stakeholders will talk about all problems, notjust water and crops (Rboades 1998), which may lead to the pitfall of unrealistic expectations. However, planning from local demand through the participatory planning by objective helps to identifY further strategic research and researeh for collaborators or for opportunities in adaptive researeh (Figure 1)."}]},{"head":"Program Planning","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"IARC., CIALs.. The organizational idea is to support the basie users producers, campesinos."}]},{"head":"AROs, NARS","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"CommuDicy","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"NGOs","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"GO. NGO. ud Fanner","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"NGO. univeristies .• ti","index":15,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Strategic","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"The focus is to get them to look towards the organizations that are becoming more cooperative. The CIAT strategy is 10 strengthen existing local eonsortia, or help form new ones if necessary, to keep the sustainability of natural resources at a higher level (e.g., Campos Verdes see Box 7) . Impact cannot be immediate, a period of 5 years is more realistic, when the consortia has become strong enough to rnanage projects and when clients in the projects have resouree eonservation in mind as well as produetivity. Figure 2 shows what demand-driven researeh is being conducted to date using the CIAT approach to watershed management."},{"index":2,"size":95,"text":"Decisions have to be made on what are the priorities and opportunities that can be realistieally addressed. The approach supports those collaborating in making these decisions.  A theoretical framework is established using a simplified model ofthe origin of soils. It is applied borh to modem concepts of pedology and lo soil c1assification so Ihal the producer and technician can share their knowledge lo understand and analyze Ihe origin, evolution, and distribution of soils. In this way it is possible to take better decisions on the management of soils in relation with their state of degradation."},{"index":3,"size":72,"text":"Wben choosing combinalions of technology options to test for cropping systems, agroforestry, agrosilvopastoral systems et cetera, the use of soil quality indicators (SQ!s) impacts on choices more to do with the timing of certain managemenl options. For example, if we have a system to recover degraded soil (e.g., green manure systems), identifying orusing certain SQIs guide us as to when the soil has fully recovered before retuming to the croppi ng phase."},{"index":4,"size":74,"text":"is important in lhe efficiency ofusing time and space in an agricultural ser-•up. The LSQ! (Local Soil Quality Indicators) Guide also covers the issue of upscaling. This links with how LSQI at plot scale are affected by management at the farm scale, and how the collective management of several farms within a watershed can provide an impacl al the watershed scale that can be meas ured or synthesized in the water quality for example."},{"index":5,"size":33,"text":"We are now aiming at establishing a link between water and soil quality ~.:\"--• indicators. These types of indicalors help in making decisions on the best options for the use of the land."},{"index":6,"size":171,"text":"[n choosing options for crop diversification, an institution within tbe watershed undertakes a marker study. The prodllcts identified are evaluated to find out which are the most promising options incllldingparticipation wilh farmers. Introduction ofhigh value crops can inerease farmers' benefits in the long mn, making it worthwhile for farmers to use Ihe resouree eonserving praetices (figure 3). Evaluation is made with tbe farmers using a concept board outlining in simple form what the best options offer (already screened for their agronomic and eeonomic viab ilities), including profits. It beco mes a joint decision-making process as to which options the farmers develop as projeets. lt ends in a portfolio ofpossible produets. The system has been used in Cabuyal-Colombia, Yoro-Honduras, and Pueallpa-Pem with good results. For example, in Cabuyal, the growing ofblackberries was shown to be viable and through its own dynamism , this is now a principal erop in the area. Dairy prodllets were also identified throllgh this approach; a small processing plan! has been set up producing yogurt and cheese (Figure4).   "}]},{"head":"DECISIONS ABOUT IMPLEMENTATION","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"At this stage, an Action Plan comes about as a result of planning and synthesis (prioritization). Tbe \"Methodology for decision taking for multiple interest groups\" (Knapp et al. 1999) calls in data from the information technology tools. It is a goal-oriented as opposed to problem-oriented methodology. A forum or worksbop is held to go through the activities (see page 30). Goals are defined by desired future conditions giving specific targets. This is useful for planning acti vities, because specific information is needed for planning, and the models are naturally called into process to give concrete quantitative infonnation about system variables."},{"index":2,"size":144,"text":"Decision makers need to come together, have as much information available as possible, and discuss and compare in order to make valid decisions. The decision support system (DSS) is a methodology designed 10 help multiple stakeholder groups come to terms with the future oftheir landscapes. Tbe methodology is accompanied by a user friendly computer program that is able to record all infolmation that is colleeted and eondensed during group discussions . The DSS is ab le to bring fOlward all infonnation that bas been obtained through the use ofthe otherCIAT Guides. They should not be used in the sp irit of a central planner who \"knows better\", but in the spirit of helping the different stakeholders in their negotiation process. Most watershed uses are conflictive and one wants to support al! the groups who have a stake in the watershed, especially the weaker ones."}]},{"head":"Experímentíng wíth optíons and evaluatíng them","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"There now exist different types of models that can compare altemative scenarios. CIAT has been testing several of these model types such as biophysical watershed models, optimization models, and cellular automata. Most ofthese tools are made user friendly so as to allow local technicians to run them and explain the results in an easy way."},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"Sorne ofthe applications include 3-D presentation ofthe watershed so as to see in quasi real-Ji fe how the landscape would change under different decisions or extemal driving forces. CIAT's objective is now to make these tools available to local organizations that are involved in watershed management or in conflict resolution to help in their decision making. "}]},{"head":"Fíeld tdals","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"From 1982-88, the Crap Systems Uníts ofthe CIAT Programs ran many field tríals evaluatíng germplasm and exploring aspects such as varíetíes , fertilizatíon , and planting density. Verificatíon tríals took place with the partícipation of producers. Demonstration work was also undertaken and was similar to later work wíth the CTALs. Research was workíng on how to select work areas/farms/number of places ín which to conduct trials to be taken ínto account for trustworthy statistics."},{"index":2,"size":94,"text":"CTAT has the expertise to help farmers ín running theír own Irials or in fOtming organizations that do so. The SOL sites províde another area for farmer-run and scíentific tríals. The SOL (Box 6) ís an ínítiative ofthe CTAT-Híllsides project to develop technological options and offer these to poor farmers, technicíans, producers, and institutions. The aim is to develop technologíes that establish profitable, sustainable production systems through multi-institutional alliances, using a participatory approach (design, planning, monitoring, and assessment), which ineludes shared responsibilíty at all decision-making levels. The SOL links farmer experimentation with formal research."},{"index":3,"size":115,"text":"Box 6. The SOL (Supermercado de Opciones para Ladera, or Hillsides Options Supermarket) aims to develop technological options that are economically viable and environmentally sustainable. A participatory approach is used lhat ineludes shared responsibility at all decision-making levels. Strategic principIes allow for extrapolation and upscaling. In Honduras, the SOL site is the Tascalapa River watershed, in Nicaragua, lhe Wibuse-Jicara watershed. Men and women of the communities actively participate in different activities (e.g., alternative grass species, seed production for grass and legume spp., soil conservation, natural regeneration of native species, and identification ofmarket products). While still in the initiating stages, the SOL sites are expected lO help develop technological options that small-scale farmers will readily adop!. "}]},{"head":"Farmer experímentatíon and eva/uatíon","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"The CJA Ls are a method for experimenting with options and they use tools such as the crAL Primers. A committee offour farrners, elected by their own cornmunity, analyze and execute research themes deterrnined or identified by their community in different places ofthe same. Eight steps are followed: "}]},{"head":"Postha'fwst and va/ue-added processíng","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":148,"text":"the CIAT Seeds Unitgave training and investigated and generated seed handling technology. This first began with industry in mind, to supporting small-scaIe producers. Small-scale technology generated including equipment for seed cleaning, selection, drying, storag,e, and treatment. The equipment was of wooden construction and artisanal type, but equally as efficient as industrial equipment. Within watersheds, consortia (e.g., CLODEST and CIPASLA) identified diversification and marketing as being necessary to be able to reach sustainable production systems. When new crops are identified, diversification occurs, incorporating higher value crops into the production system with or without processing; or value may be added through postharvest handling and processing of existing and introduced crops. These generate ineome and employment in the region , leading to reduction in poverty, then farmers beeome motivated to invest in their resource base, breaking the vieious eirele of mining their resourees . This can lead to more sustainable landseapes."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"Experimenting with options and evaluating them is a necessary basis OIl which lo make decisions on !and use."}]},{"head":"Organízíng a decísíon-makíng fOrum fOr stakeho/ders","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"Six tasks have been identified as critical for community-Ievel organization (Knapp et al. 2000) : l.Identifying stakeholders and ensunng their representation ID management effort. 2.Providing forums for analysis and negotiation ofdiverse interests. Organizing a fornm could be ad hoc. It may include stakeholders who do not have a real commitment to what is under discussion. Once their positions are made clear and they approve ofthe project, they may not want 10 take actual parto The method ofparticipatory planning by objectives method helps in the organization of a forum or workshop."},{"index":2,"size":104,"text":"In organizing a network for GIS information exchange, the Intelligent TeamIDecision Support System (lT/DSS) synthesizes the six tasks identified aboye. The \"Intelligent Team\" modifier connotes that our DSS is designed to support a team ofmultiple-goal-pursuing stakeholders as opposed to singleproblem, single stakeholder decisions. The most important part is forum management. The lTlDSS electronic forum workbook is now complete and in the process of publication in a similar format to the DS tools. The electronic fornm solicits information and adds a further dimension to the work model used by the Hillsides team. The forum componen! motivates and compels participants towards making decisions for sustainable NRM."},{"index":3,"size":162,"text":"Box7. Campos Verdes This association was formed in 1997 in the Calico River watershed, Nicaragua and has successfully obtained funding for cornrnunity projects through national and international institutions and nongovernment organizations. lt has established direct links with three NGOs (CARE, PRODESSA, PNUD), three GOs (the Mayor's Office, MAGFOR, UNA) and three local organizations (Cooperativo Sueños Realizados, UCOSD, CJALs), about 38% oflhe 27 entities involved in the San Dionisio Municipality. The association contri bu tes etTectively to community developrnent in such a way that GOs and NGOs find it an efficient support for their programs, demonstrating the convenience of its permanency and actions in the ditTerent communities. Organizing a forum could be ad hoc. It may include stakeholders who do not have a real com.mitment to what is under discussion. Once their positions are made clear and they approve ofthe project, they may not want to take actual parto The method ofparticipatory planning by objectives method helps in the organization ora forum orworkshop."},{"index":4,"size":105,"text":"In organizing a network for GIS information exchange, the Intelligent TeamlOecision Support System (IT/OSS) synthesizes the six tasks identified aboye. The \"Intelligent Team\" modifier connotes that our OSS is designed to support a tea m ofmultiple-goal-pursuing stakeholders as opposed to singleproblem, single stakeholder decisions. The most important part is forum management. The ITIDSS electronic forum workbook is now complete and in the prócess of publication in a similar format to the OS tools. The electronic forum solicits information and adds a further dimension to the work model used by the Hillsides team. The forum component motivates and compels participants towards making decisions for sustainable NRM."},{"index":5,"size":123,"text":"Box 7. Campos Verdes This association was forroed in 1997 in the Calico River watershed, Nicaragua and has successfully obtained funding for community projects through national and international institutions and nongovernment organizations. lt has established direct Imks with three NGOs (CARE, PROOESSA, PNUD), three GOs (the Mayor's Office, MAGFOR, UNA) and three local organizations (Cooperativo Sueiios Realizados, UCOSO, CIALs), about 38% ofthe 27 entities involved in the San Dionisio Municipality. The association contributes efTectively to community development in such a way that GOs and NGOs find it an efficient support for their programs, demonstrating the convenience of its perroanency and actions in the difTerent communities. The support of associalions, local organizations, institutions, and govemment create space for better planning and decision making municipallevel."}]},{"head":"Capacíty buílding","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"Capacity building is done thJOugh a series of workshops in which the Guides are brought together and validated. First an Induction Workshop is held for decision makers and candidates and trainers from institutions who have expressed interest in applying one or more of the melhodological Guides or in helping others apply them . This is an opportunity for explaining more about lhe Guides and c1arifyi and responsibilities. Action Plans and their important role are explained. AIl candidates are interviewed forthe final selection of 16 to make up a national team oftrainers who are given copies ofthe Guides to study."},{"index":2,"size":133,"text":"Later, a Training ofTrainers Workshop takes place after a meeting with CIAT instructors to go over the trainees' knowledge ofthe Guides. In the workshop, trainees work in groups with instructors, going through the Guides and how to use them. The new trainers can then bold national Workshops, with some supervision at first from CIAT iostructors. At these workshops, Action Plans are elaborated (Box 8). These are smal! projects through which people commit themselves at institutionallevel to use what they have leamed during training with the Guides. Organizatioos participating io Workshops are asked to write down their mission and vision so that everyone in the forum can understand exactly with whom they are going to work. The Action Plans identify wbo could be affected and who should be involved in what is being planned."}]},{"head":"Box 8 Action","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Plan s cover in simple tabular form:"},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"I.The character oftbe institution involved, its address, mission, and reason for wanting to use the tools."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"2.1dentification of the desired situation, who will be affected, and how decisions will be taken."},{"index":4,"size":53,"text":"3.Methodological tools to be applied and the environment or areas where tbey are to be applied. The training in the use of the Guides leads to the making of Action Plans, which are decisions taken by participants on what needs to be done and how to do it in their specific areas ."}]},{"head":"Documentatíon and díssemínatíon orínf'ormatíon","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"It is highly impOItant to maintain an efficient infonnation system within a project and with its partners, and palticularly so in situations of multiple collaboration such as occur in watershed management. It is also highly important to exchange infolmation with other projects ro share experiences, lea m from our mistakes, and provide assessments.  The erAL Primers are aimed directly for farmer use. During 2001, Primers are to be developed corresponding to each of the Guides so that members of the organizing groups ofilie community can use them as workbooks."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"At locallevel, interviewing to gain local information can work both ways, the occasion being used to inform farrners of what is being done or may be done in the watershed and of projects that are underway. The Workshops to which they are invited also disseminate infonnation at the locallevel."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"Good decision making depends upon access to good and ample infOlmation."}]},{"head":"DECIDING WHAT C OUNTS IN MONITORING AND EVALUATION","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"Project monitoring is considered both as a tool for measuring the impacts of the activities carried out and as providing ongoing opportunities for analysis and reflection about the progress made toward achieving the project's objectives. This in tum provides feedback to improve the monitoring system. Figure 5 illustrates the process."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"This goes together with lhe implementation componen!. lt needs to be a tool for reflection on what has been and is being done, giving the experience of those involved. It is a feedback and improvement ofthe process. At this stage we work on the most important aspects for follow up and later define the indicators to use. We determine the initial situation or base line then follow up the implementation and howthis influences the indicators ofprocess."},{"index":3,"size":82,"text":"We use this information for motivating people's reflection on whether they are doing well, the results are as expected, why or why not, what to do next, and so on. This is a \"learning by doing\" approach (Implementation), which Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) promotes. Including the M&E of the process of implementing our approach is vital to its success, th at is, M&E both looks at the outcomes of improving resource management and improves the process. It also improves people's decision-making abiliries. "}]},{"head":"CONCLUSIONS","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"When confronted with multiple stakeholders with the sanctioned right to press for their needs, grass-roots workers need not only a \"paradigm shift\" but good science, appropriate methods, organizational skills, workable technologies, su fficient funding, and donor patience (Rhoades 1998)."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"Since its inception over 30 years ago, CLAT has accumulated a great deal of information and experience and is well placed for strong impact at watershed leve!. We also take into account what other entities are doingthis aspect is important and needs constant verifYing. In Central America many other institutions are working at watershed leve! , but more on rural development and less on research, training, and the use of lools. Concenlrating on these aspects, CIAT is filling a void."},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"It is importan! to involve other partners (research and development institutions) with comparative complementary advantages who can contribute in making up a package Ihat satisfies the expectations of the technological component for the management of natural resources. In an ongoing research process, CIAT contiulIes lO design and validate new methodological guides."},{"index":4,"size":38,"text":"Amongst these are the \"Des ign, use, and updating ofa GIS at locallevel\" , \"Use of tbree-dimensional models for the development of a holislic understanding of the environment-maquetas\", and \"A decision support system for groups of multiple interests\"."},{"index":5,"size":124,"text":"Also planned are guides on the ITIDSS , the SOL, organic matter and soil management, ami soil macrofauna (in collaboration with the CGIAR SWNM, www.swnm-org, systemwide program on Soil, Water and Nutrient Management), maquetas, site similarity analysis, and gender analysis. As work continues, olher needs wil! emerge and further guides will be developed. The CIAT approach of decision support to stakeholder watershed resource management has been used with sorne success for local sustainable development in small areas. lt takes ioto account socioeconomic and environmental aspects. The results of this approach can be seen relatively quickly from the socioeconomic perspective (Box 9); its effects on natural resources will take longer to quantify. CIAT can readily apply its ample experiences and this methodology to watershed management."},{"index":6,"size":18,"text":"Box 9. What results can we expect of using this learning process approach? We can expect changes in:"},{"index":7,"size":88,"text":"• Resources both natural and human (welfare) • Management • Skills and knowledge • Organization These can be seen in the success ofthe CIPASLA Although watersheds are a useful unit for organizing research, this does not imply that theobjective will always result in management plan s thatoptimize water resources (Knapp et al. 2000). Rather, the objective is lO inelude the analysis of water as well as soil and vegetation in the family of indicators that provide a \"feedback mechanism\" for stabilizing and sustaining hillside production systems (CGIAR 1996)."},{"index":8,"size":52,"text":"When poor farmers seize Ihe chance to make decisions themselves, to exploit the besl oftraditional wisdom and formal science, they take a crucial step on the slow path to prosperity. CIAT continues working to empower poor fanners, presenting them with wider choices, new opportunities, and hope for a better life (CIAT 1999b). "}]},{"head":"APPENDIC ES","index":28,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"TYPESOFWATERSHED","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"Watersheds can be described in very specific geographic terms using the walercalchmenl (ridgeline) as Ihe dividing line on a diagram ofrivers. Where Ihe river goes inlo Ihe sea is then the primary watershed, where the river di vides beco mes the secondary one, and so forih. Thi s is a theoretical way of dividing the rivers into a graph, but it does not give an idea ofwatershed size."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"There is a hierarchy of different sizes ofwatershed depending upon the type oflerraio."},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"A hierarchy of communities also exists. CIAT work s in watersheds because they often coincide with communities of people who work together, or interact, in terms ofwhat goes on in the physical area ofthe watershed. The community sizes are much related to the hierarchy of watersheds country boundaries, regional organizations, local govemment, veredas (local parishes). These overlie a physical watershed in different ways."},{"index":4,"size":49,"text":"The pbysical watersbed interacts with the community depending upon the teITain and scale. How the river networkl terrainl watershed reacts with the comrmmity mainly depends upon the type of countryside. Figure 6 is intended to give some idea of the complexity of scales and the overlays of different boundaries."},{"index":5,"size":112,"text":"Communications tend to run in the same pattems as ri vers. In some areas, the ri ver system is used as transport and becomes the form of communications, whereas in other areas the rivers may be fastrunning or difficult to cross in the wet season and therefore impede communication. In mountainous terrain, the ridgeline of very high mountains is often an impediment, while in lhe mid-elevalion Andes the community of a municipality is ofien on both sides of the ridge between the rivers . In the forest margins, in many cases communications mn along the tivers, and deforestation and colonization tend to spread out from either a ti ver or a road."},{"index":6,"size":73,"text":"If a valley is shallow with good agricultural ground on either side, then lhe community forros by the river and is demarcated by the ridges. There may even be a different community on either side ofthe tiver. Yoro and Yorito are examples of fluvial communities (in the valley and going up the side of the hill), while Cauca, Cabuyal, and Ovejas tend lO be interfluvial as the rivers cut deeply into the hills."},{"index":7,"size":139,"text":"The size of cornmunity we can manage to work with is what defines the watershed. We try to find a community that fits into a communication catchment area and that is defined by a watershed pattem. We try as much as possible to capture !he human interaction in the area, thus it is natural to stop at a boundary to communications. The idea is that ifwe can define a particular type of catchment area where people fonu a coherent unit, then when we find another similar area results can be extrapolated to it by using site similatity analyses. . aking an Atlas . . arreto H, Jiménez P, Lamy F. 1998. Atlas of Yorilo and Sulaco, Yoro Honduras). Guide 6 (in Spanish) of the series \"Methodological instruments for decision taking in natural resource management\". ClAT, Cali, Colombia. 79 p."},{"index":8,"size":115,"text":"~entifying Market Opportunities. stertag CF. 1999. Identifying and evaluating market opportunities for small-scale rural producers. Guide 7 (in Spanish) of the series \"Methodological inslruments for decision taking in natural resource management\". CIAT, Cali, Colombia. 182 p. sing Simulation Models. strada RD, Chaparro 0, Rivera B. 1998. Use of simulation models for ex-ante evaluation. Guide 8 (in Spanish) of the series \"Methodological instruments for decision taking in natural resource management\". CIAT,Cali,Colombia. 194 p. eveloping Organizing Processes. eltrán lA, Tijerino D, Vemooy R. 1999 Developi ng orgal1lzmg processes at local level for collective management of natural resources. Guide 9 (in Spanish) of the series \"Methodological instruments for decision taking in natural resource management\". CIAT, Cali, Colombia. 147p."},{"index":9,"size":4,"text":"e I A T"}]},{"head":"Tools related to the ínIVrmatíon technology sector","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"Ihese include humanlsocialleconomic/productive mapping, and the use of remote sensing, aerial photos, and other G[S tools. Water/hydrological modeling is also useful, bu! should be calibrated; CIAT has models for the Central American and Andean regions. We can do model aspects of water management, e.g. estimate how much water is produced, when it is produced, the times of cleanest water, times of shortage et cetera."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"1. The Accessibility Wizard -We have developed computer-based tools Ihat produce, for example, accessibility maps that allow us lO make maps oftime to marketsetc."},{"index":3,"size":82,"text":"2. Soil-water budget model (SWBM). Ihis model allows simulation of future scenarios as fitness tests for the water component, the ability ofthe landscape to regulate water. We can then app ly scenarios as stresses to the watershed to see what reaction ensues. palticipating institutions or other participants write up small pro in the form of Action Plans, in whieh one or more ofthe tools are 1 If approved, these plans are then eamed out by the institution eva!ualed as paltofthe training seheme."},{"index":4,"size":106,"text":"Decision support system: This is a system of support fordeeision taking. It ineludes an oper eomplementary group of methodologíes (whieh in their tum ine proeesses and tools) and of information tools (software and di and numeriea! data) . These are of permanent aeeess to people groups, allowing lhe support of their deeisions of inversion polities about the area withi n their arnbit of responsibility Decision support tooVinstrument: Used in or for lhe support ofdeeision taking . Each ofthe nine rnethodologieal lools described in \"Informed dee l rnaking for sustainable natural resource managernent: Nine too!! help\" can be a decision support tool when used towards that end."}]},{"head":"Ecosystem:","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"A system of organisrns oeeupying a habitat, together with t aspeets ofthe physieal environment with whieh they ¡nterae\\. Thus agro-ecosystem : agriculture and ecosystem.  The nine tools produced lo date contain the essential components of each decision support tool and materials to accompany the training (e.g., questionnaires, objectives, and exercises). The leaming model used by the Guides sustains that practice is the most important aspect of leaming in helping develop the abilities and attitudes needed for decision taking."}]},{"head":"Methodological too\\:","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"A tool for application of a method in a particular field."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"In developing the CIAT Guides, the terrn methodological tool has been used with the same meaning as methodological instrument."},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"When it is incorporated in a decision-making system, it takes on the cbaracter of\"decision support too\\\"."}]},{"head":"Stakebolder:","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"A person or a group with an interest or concem in the process of watershed management including farmers , researchers, planners, technical experts, community development workers, different agency professionals or others in volved in the use and man agement ofnatural resources.ln tbe process ofplanning and implementing this approach: TI1e rcsearchers, planners, technical experts, community development workers or other agency professionals or those involved in the use ofnatural resources."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"Sustainable: Able to be maintained at a certain rate or leve!."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"Sustainable development: Is a permanent process, a perpetual search for a balance between the demands generated to satisfy human needs and the capacity ofNature to cover these demands without irreversible degradation. Because human demands change with time, tbi s balance is not static, bul has 10 be redefined constantly."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"CIAl• NRM problems cross boundaries thus involving a range of different decision makers, • Cause and effects/gains and losses are not Iimited to the individual decision makers in question, • Appropriation of natural resources affects future availability of production, and • Natural resources tend to have multiple uses that are not compatible or at least must be managed by multi pIe users acting com peti tively. Th us NRM ofien involves issues of conflict.Stakeholder analysis addresses the following points.• Who are the stakeholders in relation to watershed resources like land, water, flora, and fauna and what is their relationship in terms of gender, ethnicity et cetera? Which stakeholders capture benefits on-site, and which off-si te? Answers to these questions depend upon the issue addressed and what the goal is. "},{"text":" Figure l.The demand-driven planning process. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2.Examples of demand-driven research being conducled using the C1AT approach to srakeholder watershed management. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. An example of an ex~ante assessment showing positive off-site efforts of adopling soil conservation (green curve), but nO! much bene!it for famlers witb traditionalland use (bluecurve) in Cabuyal, Colombia. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Example of market options, showing yogul1 and frozen blaekberry pulp identified as highly promising complementary aetivities to the existing artisanal eassava slareh industry, Cabuyal, Colombia. "},{"text":" missions ofthe different stakeholders, o Their stakes in a gi ven watersbed or municipa 1 i ty, o Goal fonnulation, • Analysis ofindicators for goal achievement, • ldentification of problems to achieve the goals, • Development ofdecision altematives and their evaluation, and • Selection of a final decision , setting tbe stage for decision implementation. "},{"text":" through integrated cassava projects eventually led into the development of Guide 7 (Identifying Market Opportunities), broadening out and being applied to a wider range of products. The final section of Guide 7 deals with the design of integrated production projects. Afrer training, national institutions can do all ofthis work. Others are taking the document and adapting il to their own situations. "},{"text":" 3 .Defining rules and norms for the use ofresourees within the watershed. 4.Initiating a proeess ofloeal-Ievel resouree monitoring research. 5.Formulating and exerting demand for services from \"xl•\"n,.instirutions in support ofloea! management efforts. 6.Negotiating interna! vs. externa! watershed inlerests. "},{"text":" 4.Specific objectives and strategies for their achievement. 5.lnstitutional commitment for the Plan's application and what resources are offered. Participants at Training Workshops are from NGOs and GOs and are those who then write up the Action Plans and make commitments, thus this is an important part of tbe implementation of the training Guides at local leve!. Action Plans open the way for integrated production projects and other research approaches (e.g., SOL). The trainers ofthe workshops later monitor the results ofthe Action Plans that come out ofthe training, derive principies and lessons leamed, and use them for extrapolation andlor upscaling. "},{"text":" Figure 5.Planning (P), monitoring (111) and eva luation (E) in the project managemen! cycle "},{"text":"I Figure 6. An example of the way in which different Municipality boundaries may overlay the watershed "},{"text":" 3. \"Melhodology for decision taking for multiple interest groups\" ca lis in data from the information techno[ogy too[s. Jt is a goal-oriented as opposed to problem-oriented methodology. 4. The ITIDSS is a computer version ofthe aboye methodology that gives more time to do the analysis needed for planning. e/AL Pnmers l. El Ensayo (The rhal) 2. Los Comités de Investigación Agricola Local (The Local Agricultural Research ComnúlIees) 3. El Diagnóstico (The Diagnosis) 4. El Objetivo del Ensayo (Planning ¡he Tria!) 5. La Planeación del Ensayo (Designillg the Tria/) training on how to use the methodo logical t. "},{"text":" ofinstruction on a specified subject. The CIAT Guides are didactie rnaterials to help train (a) traine countries interested in teehnology transfer to distinet types of 1 and (b) those sarne users. "},{"text":"AND DISCOVERY CIAT  Deforestation usually results in raised stream flow peaks and increased Deforestation usually results in raised stream flow peaks and increased sediment load. These effects can sometimes be improved if correct sediment load. These effects can sometimes be improved if correct countenneasures are planned. Domestic and livestock water supply is often a countenneasures are planned. Domestic and livestock water supply is often a cause of conflict within the watershed, and domestic sewage effiuent is a cause of conflict within the watershed, and domestic sewage effiuent is a serious problem both within the watershed and downstream. Community serious problem both within the watershed and downstream. Community planning and consultation can ofien resolve these problems. planning and consultation can ofien resolve these problems. lrrigation needs to be carefully planned in consultation with all stakeholders lrrigation needs to be carefully planned in consultation with all stakeholders as it is probably the largest potential use for water in many watersheds. Even as it is probably the largest potential use for water in many watersheds. Even small-scale trickle irrigation for hOl1icultural products may have a serious small-scale trickle irrigation for hOl1icultural products may have a serious effect on other water users. Spring line movement is often a consequence of effect on other water users. Spring line movement is often a consequence of water use policies within the community, although more natural variation can water use policies within the community, although more natural variation can be expected as Global Climate Change takes effect.lt can result in accessible be expected as Global Climate Change takes effect.lt can result in accessible water (especially for stock, although other uses are significant) moving off a water (especially for stock, although other uses are significant) moving off a fanner's property. fanner's property. Eventually, everything within the watershed (e.g., land use, deforestation, Eventually, everything within the watershed (e.g., land use, deforestation, use of fertilizers, and soil erosion) affects the water. It is important to use of fertilizers, and soil erosion) affects the water. It is important to recognize Ihat human activity is the main cause behind environmental recognize Ihat human activity is the main cause behind environmental problems, including problems of quality and quantity of water. The CIAT problems, including problems of quality and quantity of water. The CIAT lools and training approach are used lo help stakeholders plan the use oftheir lools and training approach are used lo help stakeholders plan the use oftheir watershed resources and resolve any conflicts of interest that may arise in watershed resources and resolve any conflicts of interest that may arise in implementation. implementation. This booklet aims to provide an overall guide lo the process of planning and This booklet aims to provide an overall guide lo the process of planning and implementing an approach to stakeholder-based watershed resource implementing an approach to stakeholder-based watershed resource management. By stakeholders are defined as a person or a group with an management. By stakeholders are defined as a person or a group with an interest or concem in the process of watershed management including interest or concem in the process of watershed management including farrners, researchers, planners, lechnical experts, community development farrners, researchers, planners, lechnical experts, community development workers, different agency professionals or otbers involved in the use and workers, different agency professionals or otbers involved in the use and management ofnatural resources. management ofnatural resources.  "},{"text":"Prioritizing the problem an d opportunities to address Priori tizing options (ar Sorne oflhe components (e.g., implementation which might be promoling Ihe use of recommended conservation practices) may be wel! advanced in a watershed when users start iotroducing a stakeholder-based approach, while most of the other components may not have been done at al! , and users need to start Ihem. L AND DISCOVERY CIAT HILLSIDE S 2 O O O L ANDDISCOVERYCIATHILLSIDE S2 O O O     Monitoring, Monitoring,     Evaluation Evaluation     and Impact and Impact    mplementation ElIpenmentlOg with options and evatva ting lhem Assessment Diagnosis Resource mapping Stakeholders analysis mplementation ElIpenmentlOg with options and evatva ting lhemAssessmentDiagnosis Resource mapping Stakeholders analysis    Organizlng a decision-making forum lor stakehOlders  Local knowledge and experimentatio Organizlng a decision-making forum lor stakehOldersLocal knowledge and experimentatio    Capacity building  Capacity building    Oocumentation and  Oocumentation and    disseminatiofl 01 inrormaf  disseminatiofl 01 inrormaf    Planning Synthesis PlanningSynthesis     Priority setting Priority setting     Feed back Feed back  "},{"text":" This component brings together all the gathered information to analyze tbe situation, ro understand what is happening, and to propose and prioritize solutions and innovations. This is an important decision-making point at which stakeholders reflect on what the real priori ti es are and how rhey should be addressed. Specific information is needed for successful deci sion making and planning. DEC ISIONS IN THE PL A NN ING STAGE DEC ISIONS IN THE PL A NN ING STAGE Sharma and Krosschel1 (nd, cited in Rhoades 1998) delineate Sharma and Krosschel1 (nd, cited in Rhoades 1998) delineate approaches in watershed projects: approaches in watershed projects: 1 )Indigenous in situ, 1 )Indigenous in situ, 2)Building on local cultures by projects, and 2)Building on local cultures by projects, and 3)Implementation without regard to local culture. 3)Implementation without regard to local culture.  "},{"text":" Simulations are not predictions but are \"coherent stories\" that can help a group to envision what woul d be the effect of different courses of actions. Simulations are less \"decision support tools\" than \"negotiation support tools\". lAND DISCOVER Y e lA T Hll l SIDES 2 o o O H ILlSIDES 2 o o o lANDDISCOVER Ye lA THll l SIDES2 o o OH ILlSIDES2 o o o  Símulatíon and modelíng      Símulatíon and modelíng  Watershed models are computerized tools that pennit    Watershed models are computerized tools that pennit  simulations under different assumptions within the    simulations under different assumptions within the  different simulations draw different \"wbat if\" scenarios.    different simulations draw different \"wbat if\" scenarios.  population continues to inerease in the next 20 years?    population continues to inerease in the next 20 years?  intemational eommunity will start to pay watersbed users    intemational eommunity will start to pay watersbed users  sequestration or for clean water production? Wbat ifthecolnmlu    sequestration or for clean water production? Wbat ifthecolnmlu  plant trees around springs? What if relati ve prices ehange    plant trees around springs? What if relati ve prices ehange  new erops more at1raetive than the current ones? What ir crop l\"jdllCtJVlty    new erops more at1raetive than the current ones? What ir crop l\"jdllCtJVlty  inereases by 20%? The models can give orders ofrnagnitude what these    inereases by 20%? The models can give orders ofrnagnitude what these  changes would have on production, ineomes, and the environment. Sorne of Digital Model Evaluation these models ean prediet likel y changes in erosionand watercontarnination. Yoro Watershed    changes would have on production, ineomes, and the environment. Sorne of Digital Model Evaluation these models ean prediet likel y changes in erosionand watercontarnination. Yoro Watershed   Honduras     Honduras  50 mts.pixels     50 mts.pixels  "},{"text":" e I A T Organizing a semi-stable organization such as CIPASLA is especially important for the local monitoring ofresearch. Using the local organizations leads to greater and fas ter impacto The organizations of CIPASLA in Colombia, Campos Verdes in Nicaragua (Box 7) , and CLODEST in Honduras are already in place and functioning. CIAT helped fonn them and helped them start working through strengthening local organizations. This happens spontaneously. F or example, a new group has recently been fonned in Bolivar -Valle, Colombia following Training Workshops on the methodologicallools.The Action Plans that came out of the training all corresponded to areas in central and northern Valle del Cauca, and discussions suggested the need for a new organization. A planning workshop was he Id and strategy discussed al various meetings fonning the basis of an interinstitutional Consortium that has puttogether CORPOCUENCAS, (the government agency forwatershed management in Valle del Cauca), EcoFuturo (I2 grass-roots groups for ecological management ofnatural resources),and CIAT. An interinstitutional cooperation agreement was signed by these organizations lO carry oul a pilot project throught which tbe decision support tools will be applied in 10 agroecological sites of Valle del Cauca. As of about March, this is now another new mechanism through which CIAT can slrengthen and catalyze watershed management decision making.  "},{"text":" Hillsides work is accessible on www. ciat.c giar.org ro which the Community Management of Hillside Resources will soon be connected. Existing infonnation and experiences of CIAT in Honduras and Nicaragua are compiled and centralized rhrough a user-friendly sysrem on the CIAT-Hillsides Web page at http://www.inrertel. hnlorg/ciarhill. For those wirhout access to this technology, a 2-monthly bulletin is produced and has been circul ated ro over 30 institutions in Honduras and Nicaragua to date.The published Guides give training materials for trainers to use with the community. The Guides are also lO be published on two CD-ROMs with a user manual. Engli sh editions of the Guides will be avai lable by lhe end of 2000. Countries in Africa and Asia (e.g., Vietnam, Uganda) have so licited training with tbe Guides for technicians, professionals, and researchers.  "}],"sieverID":"669c2438-a341-4a2d-bf69-0b146838bb4c","abstract":"1. Types ofwatershed ll . Tools developed by Ciat and our eollaboratol> The nioe Ciat guides Tools relaled lo the informalioo technology sector Cial primers 1f1. Olher eiat Manuals aod Methodological Documents IV. Glossary of terms used References"}

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Among the food legumes grown in Zambia, common bean ranks second (after groundnuts) in terms of its economic importance. It constitutes about 32.1% of the total area under food legume crops (roughly 85,469 ha) cultivated annually (CSO, 2012), is an important source of proteins and micronutrients (especially Iron (Fe) and Zinc (Zn)) for children, and is increasingly becoming an important cash crop, shifting from a womendominated crop to a joint enterprise where both men and women are producers."},{"index":2,"size":137,"text":"Until the beginning of the 1990s, agricultural policies in Zambia were biased towards maize and not very favorable for food legume crops, such as beans. Large-scale marketing support coupled with extensive fertilizer and input subsidies induced farmers to devote everlarger tracts of land to maize production (Wood et al., 1985;IESR, 1999;Zulu et al., 2000) at the expense of crop diversification. In 1991, the decades of large-scale maize subsidies came to an abrupt end, with a change in government. In response, farmers diversified out of maize production and reduced fertilizer use by over two-thirds, as availability diminished and input prices escalated (Haggblade & Tembo, 2003). The agricultural policies were adjusted and refocused to lay emphasis on crop diversification and to include low-input crops like food legumes, which have proven to be more appropriate for resource-poor small scale farmers."},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"Despite a favorable policy environment, the growth in bean production has been modest"},{"index":4,"size":158,"text":"as indicated in the Zambia Agriculture Sector Profile report of 2011 (CSO, 2012). Zambia still remains a net importer of bean grain compared to its neighbors, such as Tanzania and Mozambique, who are net bean exporters. The constraints affecting bean production in Zambia are well documented (CIAT, 1989) and broadly include poor agronomic practices, soil infertility, lack of improved cultivars, moisture stress, weed competition and stress caused by weed competition as well as pests and diseases. To date, the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock, in collaboration with non-governmental and international organizations (e.g., International Center for Tropical Agriculture-CIAT) and the United Nations organizations (e.g., Food and Agriculture Organization-FAO, United Nations Development Programme-UNDP), have devoted efforts to solve these problems with the objective of ensuring household food security and increased incomes among smallholder farmers. One such effort includes working on the development and promotion of improved cultivars with high yield potential so that farmers can increase output and agricultural income."},{"index":5,"size":152,"text":"The National Agriculture Research Systems (NARS) in Zambia have released ten improved bean varieties to date, seven of them are bush varieties, two are semi-climbers and one is of climbing type. These varieties have high yield potential (1-2 tons/ha) and bush-type varieties only take two to three months to mature. The earliness of bush varieties has enabled many bean growers in the high-rainfall northern region of Zambia to grow at least two bean crops in a single season. In terms of management, most of the varieties developed so far are adapted to relatively low soil fertility conditions. However, additional breeding research is still needed in terms of nutritional content as well as pest and disease resistance. The improved varieties (IVs) have been disseminated through a number of channels that include on-farm variety demonstration plots, bean utilization demonstrations, off-season production, and the production and distribution of brochures containing bean production and utilization information."}]},{"head":"Historical perspectives of bean technology development and dissemination","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"The common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is an ancient new-world domesticated crop."},{"index":2,"size":90,"text":"Literature indicates that beans spread widely in post-Columbian times and came to Africa from Brazil with the slave trade (CIAT, 1989). In Zambia, the production of beans could be traced back to before the colonial era. The breeding research on beans in Zambia started way back in the 1950s at the Lunzuwa Research Station of the Mbala district in the Northern Province. Prior to this, most smallholder farmers relied on local seeds characterized by low quality, susceptibility to pests and diseases, poor yields, low germination rates and lack of uniformity."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"The main objective of bean breeding was to develop varieties tolerant and resistant to pests and diseases so as to increase farmers' yields (MAFF, 1993)  "}]},{"head":"Purpose of the study","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"The main purpose of this study was to provide estimates of the rates of adoption of improved bean varieties in northern Zambia, particularly, in the Northern and Muchinga provinces. The increasing trend in the outputs of bean research in terms of the number of improved varieties developed and released in Zambia is clear. However, less clear isknowing how widely these varieties are adopted in this region. This study aims to bridge this information gap and thus provides an analysis of the access, adoption and diffusion of improved varieties, the drivers of adoption, gender perspectives in bean production and marketing, and benefits derived from adopting the improved varieties (IVs)."}]},{"head":"Research methods and materials","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"This section provides an overview of the data collection process and analysis used in this study."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"Specifically, it outlines key issues pertaining to the research strategy, study sites (i.e., target population) and sampling, study design, data collection methods, and analysis strategies."}]},{"head":"Research strategy 1","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"Two types of data collection strategies were used. : 1) a desk review of information pertaining to bean production and 2) a household survey of smallholder bean producers. was also accompanied with a village-level questionnaire that allowed us to understand macro factors affecting sampled bean producers."}]},{"head":"Study sites and sampling","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Study area","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"The study was conducted in Muchinga and Northern provinces of Zambia. These provinces were purposively selected because of their high importance in bean production, accounting for about 70% of the area under beans in Zambia (Table 2). The crop production is relatively higher in the northern and Eastern Provinces of Zambia because the environmental conditions are favorable."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"Accordingly, most of the dissemination efforts have concentrated in the Northern Province, further justifying our focus on these regions for this study."},{"index":3,"size":121,"text":"In the Northern Province bean is an important cash crop for small farmers. Cultivation is mainly under a practice locally termed as \"Fundikila System\", which involves the formation of mounds of grass (predominantly Hyparrhenia filipendula and Pennisetum purpureum) covered by earth, on a previously fallowed site towards the end of the rainy season to minimize on input expenditure. Compared to other countries in the region, particularly Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania, Zambia is at a competitive disadvantage due to the relatively high cost of production (Odhiambo et al., 1996). The cost of labour is very high and agriculture is less mechanized in the northern region of the country, thereby increasing the cost of production compared to other regions where mechanization is common."},{"index":4,"size":75,"text":"The Northern and Muchinga provinces fall in the high-rainfall agro-ecological region III of Zambia. The Region III has an average precipitation of 1,000 mm per annum, a growing season of 120-180 days long, and an average temperature of 16-25 o C. The major crop production constraints include soil acidity (making only 53% of the land suitable for cultivation), poor market access, large areas of wetlands, dambos, rivers and lakes, and lack of irrigation during production. "}]},{"head":"Sampling","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"A total of seven districts were purposively selected (because of the importance of the bean crop) from the two provinces: four districts (Kasama, Mbala, Mporokoso, Mpulungu) in the Northern Province and three (Chinsali, Mpika, Nakonde) in the Muchinga Province, which represents 86% and 78% of the total area planted in each province, respectively (Table 2)."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"Further, the area planted to beans in the seven districts represents 59% of the total bean area of Zambia (Table 2)."},{"index":3,"size":316,"text":"After the districts were selected, a two-stage cluster sample selection method was used. In the first stage, villages were randomly selected from each district according to the proportion of villages within the selected districts in each province. In the second stage, households were systematically selected within each village. To be able to implement this two-stage sampling, the following steps were followed. First, the total number of villages to include in the study was determined mostly based on the available budget, which allowed sampling about 402 households. Further, it was decided that six households would be sampled per village. This information was used to obtain a total of 67 villages (402/6=67) to include in the study. There were a total of 13 districts in the two provinces, eight and five districts in the Northern and Muchinga provinces, respectively. The proportion of districts (i.e., 8/13 and 5/13) was used to determine how many villages would be selected from each province (within the seven selected districts). Thus, 41 and 26 villages were selected in the Northern and Muchinga provinces, respectively (Table 3). In total, 67 villages were sampled for the study. The villages were randomly selected proportionally to the number of villages in each district within each province (i.e., this step was repeated for each province). 2 This implies that different numbers of villages were included in the sample for each district, as indicated in Table 3. Once the villages were identified, six households were randomly selected within each village for the survey. Although it was expected that from the 402 sampled households, 246 would come from the Northern and 156 from the Muchinga provinces, in reality, 241 households were sampled in the Northern and 161 in the Muchinga provinces; Table 3). This was because one extra village from the Mpika district was sampled and a few households from several villages within the Mpulungu district could not be sampled."},{"index":4,"size":71,"text":"To select the households, a systematic random sampling procedure was followed. The enumerators requested a village register from the local headman or in some cases, the village secretary. This register served as the sampling frame and each household in this list was numbered sequentially. The total number of households was divided by six (the number of sampled households per village) to get a fixed interval that was used for household selection."},{"index":5,"size":26,"text":"While the first household was selected at random from the list, the remaining five households were chosen at fixed intervals after the first household was selected."}]},{"head":"Survey materials, data collection, variety identification","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"To collect the necessary data, three questionnaires were developed: a household level questionnaire and a village level questionnaire. The household and village level questionnaires were administered via face-to-face interviews. The 19-page household level questionnaire (available from the authors upon request) was used to elicit information on the household composition, socioeconomic characteristics, land holdings, bean production and its use, sales and use of revenues, decision-making, current and past use of bean varieties, varietal preferences and demand for seed, social capital and networking, access to services, importance of beans and other crops in the household economy, and dietary diversity."},{"index":2,"size":222,"text":"The six-page village level questionnaire (available from the authors upon request) contained questions to collect general information of the people interviewed, general information about the village, market access, services available, and major shocks/events experienced in the village in the last five years. The third instrument (also available upon request) was prepared to record key information about the bean vendors and market grain samples collected from two local markets in Kasama. Further, three of the six experts were female. Collaborators from ZARI and MSU participated in this elicitation process, which was done in March 2014. If the experts could not name a variety, \"no name\" was recorded as their answer. This happened in few cases. The computer used to show the pictures was different from the computer used to record the answers, which speeded up the process. In another round, the supervisors passed one seed envelope to the experts, who observed the seed sample, and after some exchange of opinions, reached a consensus about the name of the variety. If they could not identify a variety by name, \"no name\" was recorded as their answer (which also happened in few cases). At this moment, when a variety was identified as a \"mixture\" (which is common in Zambia), each of the varieties within this mixture were evaluated separately (i.e., each was given a name."}]},{"head":"Overview of the data analysis strategy","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"Most of the results presented in this report are based on descriptive analysis using t-test statistic, ANOVA and Chi-Square statistics. The descriptive analysis is anchored on the livelihoods framework. As defined by Ellis (2000), a livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets (including both material and social resources) and activities required for a means of living. O'Donnell (2004) has argued recently that the livelihood framework can provide a clear basis for understanding how technologies such as crop hybrids can impact various aspects of livelihoods in different ways at the household level. Econometric analysis was also used to provide insights into factors that influence the decision on whether or not to adopt improved varieties."}]},{"head":"Econometric framework","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"A two-step sequential econometric estimation approach was applied to study the factors that influence the adoption of improved bean varieties in northern Zambia. In first step, the analysis focuses on factors that influence the likelihood that farmer i becomes aware of an improved bean variety modeled as binary probit. Conditional on awareness, we distinguish farmers in terms of their adoption decisions on whether or not to allocate plot j to the improved bean variety(s)."},{"index":2,"size":92,"text":"Bean producers in Zambia reside in remote rural areas connected to urban centers by poorly developed road networks. Hence, the cost of transportation and lack of access to markets constrain some farmers from access to full information and production inputs like seed of the new crop varieties (Shiferaw et al., 2008). In such conditions, decision makers are assumed to choose varieties that maximize their expected utility given their knowledge on available stock of varieties, household characteristics, conditions in the physical production environment and market conditions (Sigh et al., 1986;Sadoulet and deJanvry, 1995)."},{"index":3,"size":67,"text":"Let lj L U be the utility farmer i derives from a local variety cultivated in plot j and ij V U the utility from cultivating improved variety in plot j. The farmer is assumed to compare the expected utility he/she derives from the improved variety with the expected utility from a local variety and decides to adopt improved variety if the net benefit is positive i.e."},{"index":4,"size":35,"text":". The net benefit ij Y * from an improved variety is latent unobserved variable determined by household, plot and village level factors (X) as well as unobserved characteristics ( ij  ) expressed as:"},{"index":5,"size":20,"text":"Where Beta (  ) is a vector of coefficients to be estimated. The latent unobservable variable ij Y *"},{"index":6,"size":26,"text":"; is observable for plots j of household i whose decision to cultivate improved bean variety is positive and remains unobserved represented as dummy indicator 0"},{"index":7,"size":4,"text":"for non-adoption decision outcomes."},{"index":8,"size":201,"text":"The zero responses can result from some farmers who are aware of the varieties but are unable to adopt because they lack access to seed of improved varieties as was the case in Shiferaw et al. Consistent estimates can be obtained by estimating equation 2 with a selection, that allows for different mechanisms to the outcome of decision to cultivate the improved variety or not and information acquisition. While it is easy to collect data on adopters, specific data on those who do not adopt is rarely detailed enough. Through the survey, each farmer was asked to list all the improved varieties known to him/her. From these responses, we derive a variable that captures the household awareness of the improved varieties and the number of varieties known to the households. We use a dummy of awareness as an indicator of access to information about the stock of the improved varieties to identify factors that constrain and facilitate access to information, a prerequisite to adoption were investigated. Based on this variable, bean producers in rural Zambia are assumed to have unequal access to information. Some have obtained information on the availability of the improved varieties and others lack information on improved varieties."}]},{"head":"If *","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"A denotes unobservable variable describing the possibility that individual i accesses information on improved bean varieties, we can express the selection equation as a function of observable ( Z ) factors on demand and supply sides of technology access and unobservable factors (  ): Then the probit model with a selection can be expressed as follows:"},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"Where Vector i  and vector ij  consist of error terms that are assumed to have bivariate normal distribution with a covariance matrix given as:"},{"index":3,"size":82,"text":"Vector Z and X are sets of explanatory variables that enter into model 1 (our selection model) and model 2 (the outcome equation). The relevant explanatory variables in the empirical models are selected based on the previous empirical adoption studies, theoretical consideration in this section as well as our knowledge of the empirical context of the study area. The hypothesized factors that influence adoption of improved bean varieties can be categorized as: individual and household, farm characteristics, market conditions and villages context."}]},{"head":"Descriptive results","index":17,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Importance of common bean and cropping system","index":18,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Bean production, intercrops and harvesting","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":152,"text":"In the study area, a household owns on average 9.64 ha of land, 2.35ha of which are cropped. A multiple of crops including common bean are cultivated in the cropping season that occurs between March and July. Nearly every household cultivated bean in the study season (2012/2013), but maize is the most important crop in terms of area planted for 64.3 percent of the households, followed by cassava (15 percent), and common bean (12 percent). Common bean is also ranked the second most important by majority (46.6 percent) of the households followed by maize (19.3 percent). Per agricultural season, a typical household allocates 0.46 ha of land to bean production, which constitutes about 31 percent of the total land cultivated in the season 2012/2013 (Table 4). Common bean, mainly of bush type is frequently grown in association with other crops, maize being the dominant intercrop (51.2 percent), followed by cassava (40 percent)."},{"index":2,"size":146,"text":"Important regional patterns exist (Table 4). In terms of area, common bean is more important in Northern Province-cultivated on 0.74Ha (about 31 percent of cropped area) compared to 0.35ha (27 percent of total cropped area) in Muchinga (Table 4). Source: Own survey Farmers in the Northern Province also cultivate more bean plots, about 1.42 per household of 0.55 hectares average size, compared to farmers in Muchinga where bean plots are fewer and of smaller size (about 0.34ha). However, bean plots are more frequently intercropped in Muchinga, where slightly more than a half of the bean plots are mixed, compared to only 37 percent in the Northern Province (Table 4). Maize is the most important bean intercrop in Muchinga accounting for 80 percent of cases while beans are commonly intercropped with maize (45 percent of mixed plots) and cassava (47 percent of mixed plots) in Northern Province."},{"index":3,"size":141,"text":"Bean harvesting is mainly staggered (reported on about 69 percent of bean plots) and begins when the grain is still at green stage. By the time the grain matures to dry stage, about 25 percent or more of the bean yield in a plot is already harvested and mainly used for home consumption (91 percent), but a few can be sold outside the farm (Table 4). However, for most of the plots (52.4 percent), pods harvested greens account for 25% or less of bean produced (Appendix A1.3). When bean is fully dry, it is all uprooted and put to different uses. On average, households in the study area harvest a total of 209.0 kg of dry bean grain, about 133.2 kg of which is sold, 31.4kg kept as seed for planting next season and 26.7 kg used as food (Table 4)."}]},{"head":"3.1.2: Common bean marketing and gender perspectives","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"A big proportion of households 973.6 percent) sell part of the bean after harvest but this percentage is significantly lower (63.13 percent) in Muchinga (Table 5). Much of the bean sales occur in about one transaction of about 96 kg size (Table 5). Producers receive average price of about K3.9 per kg for dry bean grain which varies between from K.1 to K.40 per kg depending on the time and location of sale. Bean grain producer price is higher in   "}]},{"head":"Common bean production constraints","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Common bean is prone to a number of biotic and abiotic stresses that hinder production. The insect infestation, disease and climate related production constraints are frequent and increasing."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"Compared to previous season, majority of farmers reported having experienced more insects, diseases and drought problems in the 2012/2013 cropping season. Insects and diseases were common across all study districts and were reported as being severe problems by over 60 percent of the households (Fig. 3). Drought was also reported to be severe and relatively higher than the  "}]},{"head":"Common bean management: production inputs, intensity of use and gender roles","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"Main agricultural inputs used in common bean production by Zambian farmers are land, labor, and to a small extent chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Labor, mainly contributed by the family members, is the main input used in bean production. Hired labor contribution is small, about 27 percent of the total, with no significant difference between the two provinces (26% vs. 28%)."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"Both men and women are seasonally hired to prepare, plant, and weed the land. A greater percent of hired labor constituted by men is spent on land preparation, followed by weeding (Fig 4), 20 perhaps because these activities involve more drudgery and require more strength compared to other types of labor activities. Harvesting and threshing are rarely conducted by paid labor."},{"index":3,"size":48,"text":"Division of unpaid labor between male, female and children varies between cropping activities but not across provinces. Overall, women contribute a bigger proportion of the family's unpaid labor and mostly devoted to land preparation, weeding and harvesting. Contribution of unpaid labor by men mainly goes to land preparation."},{"index":4,"size":80,"text":"Overall, about 9 percent of bean plots are treated with chemical fertilizers but only 5 percent of these applications are directly targeted to bean while in 3.6 percent of the plots, the application is done on the intercrops. Neither manure nor mulch is used on beans; while less than 2 percent of the bean plots were treated with insecticide; though a majority of farmers (about 78.5 percent) reported having experienced increased insect problem relative to the previous season (Fig. 3). "}]},{"head":"Gender perspectives in bean production decision making","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":162,"text":"Across many countries in sub-Saharan Africa, bean production has been known to be dominated by women, hence it is often referred as a woman's crop. Contrast to this view, we found men to be the major decision makers in bean production in the study area (Fig 5). They make most of the decisions for land preparation, input use, crop management and use of harvest. In most of the households (about 60%), men also control income from bean sales (Fig 5). When compared with the labor contribution in Figure 3, a pattern of gender disparities emerge in both provinces. In Northern Province, overall family labor used in bean production is contributed equally by men and women, but men dominate the decision making. Gender disparities are more visible in case of Muchinga Province, where women contribute most of the unpaid labor (Fig. 4), but men decide on the use of the harvest and control the income for most of the households (Fig 5 ). "}]},{"head":"Bean varieties grown, diversity and geographical spread","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"In Zambia, bean is commonly grown as varietal mixtures with the most cultivated types being the bush bean produced in rotation with other crops. Recent crop production statistics show that about 472,757 households in Zambia grow mixed bean varieties (CSO, 2003). Consistent with this information, a number of distinct common bean varieties are identified in the study areas of Zambia. They comprise of improved, landraces and varieties imported through cross border trade of Tanzania. In 2012/2013 cropping season, the most important bean variety category in terms of planting frequency and area planted as categorized by the farmers were the landraces, cultivated on 84.3 percent of the bean plots and occupying an area share of 88.4 percent."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"Overall and within provinces, Kabulangeti local is the most popular variety accounting for 21.5percent of the bean plots cultivated in 2012/2013 cropping season (Fig. 6). Kabulangeti bean variety exists in two forms, the local and improved variety, which ranks fifth popular variety in terms of number of plots planted (9.1 percent of the bean plots). The two versions are similar in phenotypic appearance; thereby difficult for farmers to differentiate between them 3 ."},{"index":3,"size":85,"text":"Lusaka and Mandima also landraces rank second popular varieties after Kabulangeti in Muchinga provinces, while Mandima and mixture are next popular in the Northern Province after Kabulengati local (Fig. 6). These varieties are highly preferred because they are high yielding and competitive on the market. Local varieties are grown across all wards and no geographical clustering seems to emerge for the two provinces (Fig. 7). Within most of the wards, over 50% of the bean plots are cultivated with local varieties in a cropping season. "}]},{"head":"Awareness, adoption and dis adoption of improved varieties","index":25,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Awareness, uptake and dis adoption of improved varieties","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":146,"text":"In this study, we also gathered information on farmers' histories of variety use and reasons for not planting the known improved varieties. By the time of the survey in 2013, many varieties listed in table 1 had been introduced to farmers and were registered with the Seed Control and Certification Institute (SCCI). During interviews, each farmer was asked to list all improved varieties he/she knows about irrespective whether or not the variety was grown or the year it was introduced. Further information was elicited on the source of information and reasons for none adoption if the variety was not grown. Based on responses, the sample is divided into three categories: 1) farmers who know and have ever grown the variety; 2) farmers who know but have never grown the variety and 4) farmers who do not know any improved bean variety and have never used it."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"About 71 percent of the farmers are aware of at least one improved variety. Among those who know, 28.9 percent know only one improved variety and 20.3 percent are aware of two improved beans varieties (Fig 8). Overall, six improved bean varieties were known and grown by at least some farmers. The varieties included: Chambeshi, Lukupa, Kapisha, Luangeni,"},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"Lyambai and improved Kabulangeti. The improved Kabulengeti was released in 2007 and is so far the most known and frequently grown improved variety across the study area (Fig. 6)."},{"index":4,"size":239,"text":"Information about improved bean varieties was frequently accessed between 2000 and 2012 when bean research and technology dissemination has been more active. percent of the households have ever grown an improved variety and 28.4 percent of the households are aware but have never grown an improved bean variety (Figure 9). Lack of access to seed of improved variety is the most frequent reason for none adoption or abandonment after first planting (Appendix 1.1). Appendix 1.1 also shows that the unavailability of seed is the main underlying constraint to seed accessibility that hinders farmers from trying out a new variety. Other reasons for dis-adoption were variety specific; such as poor performance in terms of consumption or production attributes. The incidence of ever grown a new variety increases with the number of varieties known, perhaps because farmers are more motivated to try out and learn more about improved varieties when they know many (Figure 9). Hence, there is need to multiply and disseminate a diversity of varieties to farmers.  6). The estimated adoption rate per cropping season is far below the rate of experimentation with the technology which was reported to be 42.3 percent of the households (Fig. 9). This is partly because some households abandon cultivation of the variety after experimentation and partly implies that adoption is dynamic. Some farmers may interchange varieties by season (i.e. they grow an improved variety in one season and local varieties in another season)."},{"index":5,"size":53,"text":"At plot level, improved varieties are mainly grown in a mixture with local varieties. Out of 479 bean plots in the sample, 26.3 percent were cultivated with improved varieties; about 8.14 percent of the plots planted only improved varieties and 15.87 percent planted both local and improved varieties in a mixture (Table 6).   "}]},{"head":"Household profile","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"In this section, we describe the demographic composition and household asset endowments while comparing the adopters with non-adopters of improved bean varieties based on simple ttest and chi-square statistics. Some of these characteristics are the explanatory variables of the estimated models in equations 3 and 4, presented further on."}]},{"head":"Household demographic characteristics","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":136,"text":"Data was elicited on different household categories by type of headship that represents the existing vulnerability context of the households. Statistics presented in Table 7 show that of the 405 sampled households, 88% were headed by males with a female spouse as a joint decision maker (i.e., had both male and female spouses as decision makers), 8% were female-headed without any adult male decision-maker, and 3% also were female headed but had an adult male decision-maker. All other households had a male head (with or without an adult female decision maker). The distribution of these household types is not statistically different between the adopters and non-adopters. Source: Survey data Adopters and non-adopters of improved bean varieties also have similar household demographic characteristics. A household comprises of about 6 people, with the ratio of children (0-5 years)"},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"and elderly (+65years of age) to household members between 15 and 65 being about 0.75 (Table 8). Household heads, the majority of whom are males, tend to be in their middle age (43.2 years old), about 8.6 years older than their spouses (average 35.6 years)."}]},{"head":"Household assets","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Possession of assets enhances the productive capacity of the farm, propensity to absorb new ideas and take risks. In accordance with the livelihoods framework, households are regarded as possessing five types of assets (an asset pentagon) that are essential to the pursuit of livelihoods:"},{"index":2,"size":227,"text":"human capital, natural capital, physical capital, financial capital, and social capital. The study results indicate that majority (90%) of the male household heads have received some form of education compared to the female household heads (65%). The average years of formal education of the household head (7.0 years) is significantly higher than that of the spouse (5.6 years) but no difference exist between adopters and non-adopters (Table 8). In Zambia, learners who leave school at primary level have problems of reading and writing English (the official language). Consequently, low levels of education constrain their ability to participate effectively in development programs including adopting new technologies as well as acquiring formal skills to pursue different livelihood options (ZARI, 2004) Traditionally, the farming systems in Northern and Muchinga provinces of Zambia are non-pastoral. Accordingly, the size of livestock per household is small valued at an average of K.2834.4 and much smaller for non-adopters than adopters (Table 8). The average land cropped per household is about 2.5 ha using a hand hoe technology, but varies greatly and is relatively smaller for 25 percent of the households whose land holding is below 2 ha. These households cultivate one hectare or less and are at a higher risk of land degradation. No statistical difference emerged between adopters and non-adopters with regard to the size of the landholding or that of cultivated land."},{"index":3,"size":146,"text":"Furthermore, we elicited information on the number of farm implements and value of each in its current status. Previous studies have shown that ownership of agricultural implements notably oxen, ploughs and carts are strongly associated with use of inputs such as improved seed and fertilizer in maize production for Zambia (Kumar, 1994). Unlike the study of Kumar (1994), our study did not find any significant difference between the average value of farm equipment for adopters (K.1703.3) and that possessed by non-adopters (K.852.7). The average value of consumer durable assets such as bicycles, television sets and solar panels is also the same for all household categories according to the adoption status. However, male headed households are more endowed with this kind of assets than female headed households, implying that the former are in a better position to easily access improved bean technologies than the female headed households."},{"index":4,"size":87,"text":"Beyond individual household endowments, households in the study area are connected to social networks built around social organizations, where 66.2 percent of the households hold membership. In Zambia, organized farmer cooperatives, women associations and church based organizations have been used as conduits for agricultural input distribution and technology dissemination by most agricultural organizations. However, we found no statistically significant difference between adopters and non-adopters. In addition, each household has lived in the village for about 19 years, further contributing to the interconnectedness among households in the community."}]},{"head":"Econometric results","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":130,"text":"In this section, we discuss the results of the econometric analysis that examine the factors that influence knowledge and adoption of improved bean varieties. Probit model with selection was used to estimate the probability that a randomly selected farmer in the study area cultivates an improved bean variety conditional on being aware of their existence. We included a dummy for extension contact as the variable excluded from the adoption equations. We expect no direct effect of extension on adoption of improved bean varieties other than through the information dissemination. Indeed, the variable is highly significant in the equation for awareness but statistically insignificant in the adoption equation. A dummy for province is also included in the awareness equation to capture the differences if any in exposure to the dissemination effort."},{"index":2,"size":92,"text":"Diagnostic test results presented in Table 9 indicate that the model was significant at 1%, with Wald statistic chi 2 (14) of 80.66. The Wald test of independence of equations has a chi square value of 3.88 that is significant at 5 % level suggesting that awareness of improved bean varieties (our treatment) is endogenous in the adoption equation. These results indicate sample selectivity bias and evidence that both observed and unobserved factors influence the probability of being aware of improved bean varieties and the decision to adopt the improved variety outcome."}]},{"head":"Determinants of probability of awareness","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"The estimates of the factors that affect the probability of being aware and adopting improved bean varieties are provided in Table 9 along with standard errors clustered at the household-level. As expected, the probability of being aware about the improved varieties varies among households according to their geographical location (Muchinga vs Northern Province), household characteristics and degree of remoteness. Households in the Muchinga Province are more likely to acquire information on improved bean varieties than their counterparts in the Northern Province, perhaps reflecting the intensity of exposure in the former. The study results"},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"are consistent with the literature that the cost of information acquisition reduces with education of the decision maker (see Feder et al., 1985). The likelihood of being aware of at least one improved bean variety is higher among households headed by individuals with more years of schooling. A one more year spent schooling from the mean increases the probability that a household is aware of improved bean variety by 1.2 percentage points (Table 9)."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"Demand side effects as well as supply factors emerged as important determinants in information access. Results indicate that a one point increase in the ratio of dependents (i.e."},{"index":4,"size":194,"text":"household members below 15 years and those above 64 years of age) to the number of household members aged 16 to 64 years (productive members) positively and significantly increases the probability of knowing improved bean varieties by 6.7 percentage points, which can probably be attributed to the risk of food insecurity and hence the desire to increase bean production that drives decision makers to seek information. On the other hand, households with access to alternative strategies for soil fertility management such as chemical fertilizers were 17.3 percent less likely to be aware of improved bean varieties, which is not surprising since improved varieties were developed to adapt to poor soil conditions and serves as substitutes to non-varietal options. On the supply side, information dissemination mechanisms notably extension services and membership in farmer association dummies were found to be positively correlated with access to information about improved varieties, which is expected since these two factors facilitate the diffusion of information on agriculture technologies. Market conditions, captured by distance to nearest tarmac road and urbanity, though significantly correlated with the likelihood of knowing an improved bean variety, their effect was too small and hence less important."}]},{"head":"Conclusions and Discussion","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"In Zambia, bean is an important crop that provides food and cash income to the producers but crop productivity is constrained by insect pests, diseases and drought which seem to be on the rise. Bean research to address these constraints started way back in 1950s and intensified in 1982 by a grain legumes research program with financial support from FAO/UNDP and CIAT."},{"index":2,"size":90,"text":"This effort has since resulted in several varieties adapted to pests and diseases, low soil fertility and acidity while accounting for user preferences. This study has analyzed the adoption and diffusion of these varieties. The study also describes the bean management systems of Zambia, severity of production constraints, crop ranking, marketing and varieties grown. A probit model with selection was used to estimate the factors that influence access to information on these technologies and the probability that conditional on being aware, the farmer chooses the improved variety over local ones."},{"index":3,"size":128,"text":"The study found a number of varieties released by the ZARI known and used by farmers in the study communities but their adoption in terms of percentage of bean producing households and area occupied is modest. In aggregate, about 27 percent of bean producers are cultivating improved varieties, allocating a total of 15.6 percent of the area pre-allocated to the production of these varieties. A number of factors explain the observed adoption of improved varieties. In particular, the importance of information acquisition facilitating factors such as extension, social capital in form of membership in association, in the awareness equation highlight uneven access to technology that constrain adoption. Hence, there is need to expand on variety dissemination targeting a range of varieties to provide farmers with a wide choice."},{"index":4,"size":117,"text":"In addition, a significant percentage of farmers that are aware of the improved bean varieties have not adopted largely because seed is either not available to facilitate experimentation and eventual adoption or unaffordable for some farmers. More surprising is the finding that lack of seed is also a frequent reason provided for dis-adoption. The problem of seed access can be partly attributed to the fact that most of the farmers add new varieties to the existing mixtures, which limits the area allocated to seed of improved variety and consequently constrains the ability of early adopters from bulking sufficient seed to facilitate subsequent diffusion on the farm as well as community through farmer to farmer exchange of seed."},{"index":5,"size":25,"text":"Results also show that variety specific characteristics and adaptability to physical environment play an important role in the adoption. The significant reduction in the probability"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" List of figures ............................................................................................................................................................................... 1.0 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 1.1 Background information ................................................................................................................................................. 1.2 Historical perspectives of bean technology development and dissemination ............................................ "},{"text":" VILLAGES AND FARMERS SAMPLED, BY PROVINCE AND DISTRICT IN ZAMBIA, 2013. ........................................................... TABLE 4: COMMON BEANS PRODUCTION (HA), INTERCROPPING, HARVESTING AND UTILIZATIONS..................................................... TABLE 5: DRY BEAN GRAIN MARKETING ................................................................................................................................. TABLE 6: PERCENTAGE OF HOUSEHOLDS, PLOTS; AND AREA PLANTED WITH IMPROVED BEAN VARIETIES, BY PROVINCE .......................... TABLE 7: TYPE AND FREQUENCY OF HOUSEHOLDS ................................................................................................................... TABLE 8: HOUSEHOLD DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS AND ASSETS, 2013 ................................................................................ TABLE 9: ESTIMATES OF PROBIT WITH SELECTION OF THE PROBABILITY OF AWARENESS OF IMPROVED VARIETIES AND CONDITIONAL ADOPTION ............................................................................................................................................................. "},{"text":"FIGURE 1 : FIGURE 1: DISTANCE (KM) FROM THE TARMAC ROAD AND DISTRICT TOWN ................................................................................... 20 FIGURE 2. TYPE OF HOUSEHOLD MEMBER INVOLVED IN BEAN TRANSACTIONS AT THE FIRST POINT OF SALE .......................................... FIG 3. BEAN PRODUCTION CONSTRAINT SEVERITY IN SEASON 2012/2013 RELATIVE TO PREVIOUS SEASON ........................................ FIGURE 4: LABOR (MAN-DAYS/HA) INTENSITY IN BEAN MAJOR PRODUCTION ACTIVITIES BY TYPE AND GENDER IN 2012/2013, ZAMBIA .. FIGURE 5: GENDER OF THE PRINCIPAL DECISION MAKER IN BEAN PRODUCTION AND USE OF BEAN INCOME .......................................... FIGURE 6: FIVE POPULAR VARIETIES AND THEIR FREQUENCY (%) OF OCCURRENCE IN EACH PROVINCE ................................................ FIGURE 7: PERCENT OF BEAN PLOTS PLANTED WITH LOCAL VARIETIES IN EACH WARD ...................................................................... FIGURE 8: NUMBER OF VARIETIES KNOWN BY THE SAMPLED HOUSEHOLDS ACROSS STUDY DISTRICTS IN MUCHINGA AND NORTHERN PROVINCE .............................................................................................................................................................. FIGURE 9: PERCENTAGE OF HOUSEHOLDS WHO ARE WARE, HAVE EVER GROWN THE VARIETIES BY NUMBER OF VARIETIES KNOWN .......... FIGURE 10A: PERCENT OF BEAN PLOTS PLANTED WITH PURE IMPROVED VARIETIES......................................................................... FIGURE 10B: PERCENTAGE OF BEAN PLOTS PLANTED WITH IMPROVED & LOCAL VARIETIES MIXTURE .................................................. FIGURE11. PERCENT OF FARMERS USING THE SOURCES FOR IMPROVED BEAN SEED AT FIRST PLANTING AND 2012/2013 CROPPING SEASON, ZAMBIA .................................................................................................................................................... "},{"text":" The survey was implemented between August 1 st and September 10 th of 2013 and the information collected refers to the 2012-2013 agricultural season(December 2012-April 2013).A total of 20 enumerators were trained at the Zambia College of Agriculture located in Mpika, Muchinga province, on July 22-25, 2013. Collaborators from ZARI, CIAT and MSU participated in this training. The enumerators learned how to use the instruments for household-and villagelevel data collection and also how to collect seed samples (including proper labeling) that was later identified by experts in a workshop convened by the ZARI. Each survey team included a supervisor and six enumerators. Farmers' participation in the survey was voluntary and they were fully informed on the survey objectives and how they were selected to participate in the survey.Each enumerator received a set of seed samples representing (ten) different varieties that was presented to the farmer to facilitate in variety identification. Each small plastic bag containing these seeds had a code and only the supervisors knew which code belonged to which variety. Additionally, the enumerators received a camera which was used to take photos of seeds and enough manila envelopes and stick labels to collect seed samples from farmers. The photos and seed sampled collected from farmers were later used in variety identification by a panel of six bean experts who were familiar with the varieties grown in the study districts and who worked for the extension service of the Ministry of Agriculture. These were invited to ZARI's Misamfu Research Station in Kasama to participate in the identification of varieties using photos and seed samples. Regarding their education level, four of the experts had a Diploma (3 years post-secondary/tertiary education) and two had a Certificate (2 years post-secondary/tertiary education). "},{"text":"( 2008)  who demonstrated that poor access to seed constrains adoption of improved legume varieties in Tanzania. The zero response can also be unobserved responses associated with lack of information about the availability of improved bean varieties and reflect sample selection problem due to study design. Yet for other farmers, the zeros might reflect a zero seed demand for the improved varieties by household i if outperformed by local ones as perceived by the decision maker. In case of the first explanations, analysis of equation 2 with a binary probit without correcting for selection bias can result in biased and inconsistent estimates. This will happen if individuals who belong to the informed group (treatment group) systematically differ from those in the uninformed group (the unaware of improved bean varieties) in terms of their observed and unobserved characteristics. "},{"text":" Muchinga (average of K4.4/kg) than in Northern Province (average of K3.6/kg) and in the months of July and August that follow immediately after harvest. Farm gate is the most common point of first sale accounting for 65.5 percent of the transactions since most of the households have no market in the villages of their residences. Only 14.5 percent of the households reported having a market within their village. Although farmers are located in remote areas far from the urban or tarmac road (Fig1), several categories of buyers including urban based traders participate in farm gate markets. At farm gate, rural brokers/middlemen are the most important buyers accounting for 52 percent of the transactions, followed by consumers (31. 4 percent) and then urban wholesalers 13.9 percent (Appendix A1.2). "},{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Distance (km) from the tarmac road and district town "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Type of household member involved in bean transactions at the first point of sale "},{"text":" previous season by the majority of the households in the Muchinga province in all the three districts, Mpika, Chinsali and Nakonde (Fig 3). Generally, too much rainfall as a constraint in the study area is less severe with the exception of Kasama district in the Northern Province where 50% of the households seem to have experienced excessive rain in 2012 compared to the previous seasons. "},{"text":"Fig Fig 3. Bean production constraint severity in season 2012/2013 relative to previous season "},{"text":"Figure Figure 4: Labor (man-days/ha) intensity in bean major production activities by type and gender in 2012/2013, Zambia a) paid labor "},{"text":"Figure 5 : Figure 5: Gender of the principal decision maker in bean production and use of bean income "},{"text":"Figure 6 :Figure 7 : Figure 6: Five popular varieties and their frequency (%) of occurrence in each province "},{"text":"Figure 8 : Figure 8: Number of varieties known by the sampled households across study districts in Muchinga and Northern Province "},{"text":"Figure Figure 9: Percentage of households who are ware, have ever grown the varieties by number of varieties known "},{"text":" Across districts, geographical patterns in the adoption of improved varieties emerge, which might imply physical specificity or bias in dissemination that has favored these districts.The adoption of improved varieties are clustered in three districts of Mbala (32.4 percent), Nakonde (30.6 percent) and Chinsali (25.5 percent) while the districts of Mpika and Mpulungu show very low adoption rate; 6.3 and 4.8 percent respectively. Overall, cultivation of improved bean varieties is widespread across wards (Fig.10a & b), but none of the wards have the highest adoption level for pure improved varieties though few of the wards have adoption rates estimated at 51-75 percent for improved varieties in mixtures (Fig.10 b). "},{"text":"Figure Figure 10a: Percent of bean plots planted with pure improved varieties "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"TABLE . 1 . BEAN VARIETIES DEVELOPED AND/OR SCREENED FROM LANDRACES AND RELEASED IN ZAMBIA BETWEEN 1970 -2012. ............ TABLE 2. TOTAL AREA (HA) PLANTED WITH BEANS IN THE 2011/12 PRODUCING SEASON IN THE STUDY SITES, ZAMBIA. ........................  "},{"text":"TABLE 3 .   "},{"text":"Variety CGIAR code/Source Year of release Title holder/Agent ). These successes were however not followed and efforts to come up with new varieties proved fruitless. For instance, two varieties (BAT85 and BAT331) released between 1977 and 1983 were only short-lived and have since disappeared. Later in the mid-1980s, a high yielding variety called Carioca was released but received limited acceptance due to its poor palatability, small size and poor cooking quality. Table.1. Bean varieties developed and/or screened from landraces and released in Zambia Table.1. Bean varieties developed and/or screened from landraces and released in Zambia between 1970 -2012.   between 1970 -2012. Mexican 142 Not available Not available Zambia Seed Company Ltd Mexican 142Not availableNot availableZambia Seed Company Ltd Boroti Not available 1970 Zambia Seed Company Ltd BorotiNot available1970Zambia Seed Company Ltd Misamfu Stringless Not available 1973 Zambia Seed Company Ltd Misamfu StringlessNot available1973Zambia Seed Company Ltd Misamfu Speckled Sugar Not available Research on bean improvement intensified in 1982, by a grain legumes research team 1979 Zambia Seed Company Ltd Bat 331 Not available 1984 Zambia Seed Company Ltd Misamfu Speckled Sugar Not available Research on bean improvement intensified in 1982, by a grain legumes research team 1979 Zambia Seed Company Ltd Bat 331 Not available 1984 Zambia Seed Company Ltd based in Chipata district for the Eastern Province, with financial assistance from FAO/UNDP Carioca Not available 1984 Zambia Seed Company Ltd based in Chipata district for the Eastern Province, with financial assistance from FAO/UNDP Carioca Not available 1984 Zambia Seed Company Ltd Contender Not available 1984 Zambia Seed Company Ltd ContenderNot available1984Zambia Seed Company Ltd and CIAT. Diagnostic studies (particularly in the Northern Province) were done to better Glamis Not available 1984 Zambia Seed Company Ltd and CIAT. Diagnostic studies (particularly in the Northern Province) were done to better Glamis Not available 1984 Zambia Seed Company Ltd NEP 2 understand farmer preferred variety traits and production constraints. These studies conducted by Not available 1984 Zambia Seed Company Ltd Top Crop Not available 1984 Zambia Seed Company Ltd NEP 2 understand farmer preferred variety traits and production constraints. These studies conducted by Not available 1984 Zambia Seed Company Ltd Top Crop Not available 1984 Zambia Seed Company Ltd Chambeshi ZARI confirmed high susceptibility of local landraces to pests and diseases, low soil fertility and A 197, Rwanda 1998 Zambia Seed Company Ltd/ZARI Lukupa PEF 14, CIAT 1999 Zambia Seed Company Ltd/ZARI Chambeshi ZARI confirmed high susceptibility of local landraces to pests and diseases, low soil fertility and A 197, Rwanda 1998 Zambia Seed Company Ltd/ZARI Lukupa PEF 14, CIAT 1999 Zambia Seed Company Ltd/ZARI soil acidity. Lyambai CAL 143, CIAT 1999 Zambia Seed Company Ltd/ZARI soil acidity. LyambaiCAL 143, CIAT1999Zambia Seed Company Ltd/ZARI Bounty Not available 2004 SeedCo International (Z) Ltd BountyNot available2004SeedCo International (Z) Ltd Kalungu SPS2 4P 24 2004 Zambia Agricultural Research KalunguSPS2 4P 242004Zambia Agricultural Research    Institute (ZARI) Institute (ZARI) PAN 148 Not available 2006 Pannar Seeds (Z) Ltd PAN 148Not available2006Pannar Seeds (Z) Ltd Cardinal Not available 2007 Progeny Seeds CardinalNot available2007Progeny Seeds Kabale KID 31 2007 Zambia Agricultural Research KabaleKID 312007Zambia Agricultural Research    Institute (ZARI) Institute (ZARI) Kabulangeti* Local Markets 2007 Zambia Agricultural Research Kabulangeti*Local Markets2007Zambia Agricultural Research    Institute (ZARI) Institute (ZARI) Kapisha C30-P20 2007 Zambia Agricultural Research KapishaC30-P202007Zambia Agricultural Research    Institute (ZARI) Institute (ZARI) Speckled Ice Not available 2007 Progeny Seeds Speckled IceNot available2007Progeny Seeds PAN 116 Not available 2008 Pannar Seeds (Z) Ltd PAN 116Not available2008Pannar Seeds (Z) Ltd PAN 128 Not available 2008 Pannar Seeds (Z) Ltd PAN 128Not available2008Pannar Seeds (Z) Ltd PAN 185 Not available 2009 Pannar Seeds (Z) Ltd PAN 185Not available2009Pannar Seeds (Z) Ltd Lwangeni OPS-KW1 2009 Zambia Agricultural Research LwangeniOPS-KW12009Zambia Agricultural Research    Institute (ZARI) Institute (ZARI) PAN 123 Not available 2010 Pannar Seeds (Z) Ltd PAN 123Not available2010Pannar Seeds (Z) Ltd Kalambo VTTT 923/10-3 2011 Zambia Agricultural Research KalamboVTTT 923/10-32011Zambia Agricultural Research    Institute (ZARI) Institute (ZARI) Sadzu (Climber type) MAC 23 2011 Zambia Agricultural Research Sadzu (Climber type)MAC 232011Zambia Agricultural Research    Institute (ZARI) Institute (ZARI) Mbereshi NUA 45 2012 Zambia Agricultural Research MbereshiNUA 452012Zambia Agricultural Research    Institute (ZARI) Institute (ZARI) Local screened varieties   Local screened varieties Mbala Local* Mbala farmer 1985 ZARI Mbala Local*Mbala farmer1985ZARI Chipata Local* Chipata farmer 1986 ZARI Chipata Local*Chipata farmer1986ZARI ZPv 292 * Eastern province 1986 ZARI ZPv 292 *Eastern province1986ZARI in several communities particularly in Kasama and Mbala districts in Northern and Mpika Solwezi Rose* Solwezi -farmer 1994 ZARI in several communities particularly in Kasama and Mbala districts in Northern and Mpika Solwezi Rose* Solwezi -farmer 1994 ZARI Pembela* Kasama -farmer 1996 ZAR Pembela*Kasama -farmer1996ZAR district in Muchinga Provinces. Sources: Zambia Seed Control and Certification Institute Register, 2013; * Means that these district in Muchinga Provinces. Sources: Zambia Seed Control and Certification Institute Register, 2013; * Means that these varieties were developed from screening local varieties.  varieties were developed from screening local varieties.  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Total area (ha) planted with beans in the 2011/12 producing season in the study sites, Zambia.   Share (%) of total national Share (%) of total national Province/Selected Districts Area (ha) under beans bean area Province/Selected Districts Area (ha) under beansbean area Muchinga 11,074 12.5 Muchinga11,07412.5 Mpika 2,325 2.6 Mpika2,3252.6 Chinsali 2,895 3.3 Chinsali2,8953.3 Nakonde 3,455 3.9 Nakonde3,4553.9 Other districts 2,399 2.7 Other districts2,3992.7 Northern 50,984 57.5 Northern50,98457.5 Mbala 25,550 28.8 Mbala25,55028.8 Mpulungu 6,386 7.2 Mpulungu6,3867.2 Kasama 4,978 5.6 Kasama4,9785.6 Mporokoso 6,827 7.7 Mporokoso6,8277.7 Other districts 7,243 8.2 Other districts7,2438.2 Zambia 88,673 100 Zambia88,673100 Source: CSO, 2011/12 Crop Forecast Survey.  Source: CSO, 2011/12 Crop Forecast Survey.  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Villages and farmers sampled, by province and district in Zambia, 2013. Province/District Total # of villages Intended # of farmers Province/DistrictTotal# of villagesIntended#offarmers  villages selected sample interviewed  villagesselectedsampleinterviewed Muchinga 1,146 26 156 161   Muchinga1,14626156161 Chinsali 287 7 42 42   Chinsali28774242 Mpika 674 15 90 95   Mpika674159095 Nakonde 185 4 24 24   Nakonde18542424 Northern 798 41 246 241   Northern79841246241 Mbala 245 12 72 72   Mbala245127272 Mpulungu 288 15 90 86   Mpulungu288159086 Kasama 12 1 6 6   Kasama12166 Mporokoso 253 13 78 77   Mporokoso253137877 Muchinga + Northern 1,944 67 402 402   Muchinga + Northern1,94467402402  "},{"text":"Table 4 : Common beans production (Ha), intercropping, harvesting and utilizations Muchinga Northern All sample MuchingaNorthernAll sample Province Province  ProvinceProvince  "},{"text":"Table 5 : Dry bean grain marketing Marketing of beans Muchinga Province Northern Province All sample Marketing of beansMuchinga Province Northern ProvinceAll sample  Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD MeanSDMeanSDMeanSD Number of transactions 0.8 1.1 1.1 0.9 1.0 1.0 Number of transactions0.81.11.10.91.01.0 quantity sold per transaction 42.5 75.0 124.9 224.2 96.4 190.5 quantity sold per transaction42.575.0124.9224.296.4190.5 Producer price (Kwacha/kg) 4.5** 4.2 3.6** 1.5 3.9 2.8 Producer price (Kwacha/kg)4.5**4.23.6**1.53.92.8   Percentage of households   Percentage of households Sell dry bean grain 63.13  80.41**  73.58  Sell dry bean grain63.1380.41**73.58 Share of dry harvest marketed 35.87  53.02**  46.25  Share of dry harvest marketed35.8753.02**46.25 Point of first sale       Point of first sale  Farm gate/home 49.62  73.91  65.54   Farm gate/home49.6273.9165.54  Village market 21.8  10.67  14.51   Village market21.810.6714.51  Main/district market 28.57  15.42  19.95   Main/district market28.5715.4219.95  "},{"text":"Table 6 : Percentage of households, plots; and area planted with improved bean varieties, byThe incidences of full vs partial adoption per plot also does not differ significantly between Provinces. In the Northern Province, about 8.33 percent of the bean plots are cultivated exclusively with improved varieties and 15.97 percent of the plots are planted with both improved and local varieties while 75.69 percent of the plots are cultivated with pure local varieties. Similarly, majority of bean plots in Muchinga are planted with local varieties while improved varieties account for 23.56 percent of the plots, 7.85 percent of which are occupied by pure improved varieties (Table6). province       province Variable Muchinga Northern Province All Sample VariableMuchingaNorthern ProvinceAll Sample  N Percent N Percent N Percent NPercentNPercentNPercent Households level adoption 162 27.78 243 26.34 405 26.91 Households level adoption16227.7824326.3440526.91 Plots level adoption       Plots level adoption No adoption 146 76.44 218 75.69 364 75.99 No adoption14676.4421875.6936475.99 Full adoption 15 7.85 24 8.33 39 8.14 Full adoption157.85248.33398.14 Partial adoption 30 15.71 46 15.97 76 15.87 Partial adoption3015.714615.977615.87 Percent of area under 191 14.7 288 16.20 479 15.6 Percent of area under19114.728816.2047915.6 improved varieties       improved varieties Source: Survey data       Source: Survey data  "},{"text":"Table 7 : Type and frequency of households Non-adopters Adopters All Sample Non-adoptersAdoptersAll Sample  "},{"text":"Table 8 : Household demographic characteristics and assets, 2013  Non-adopters Adopters All Sample Non-adoptersAdoptersAll Sample  Mean SD Mean SD Means SD MeanSDMeanSDMeansSD Age (years) 43.4 15.4 44.3 15.3 43.6 15.4 Age (years)43.415.444.315.343.615.4 dependency ratio 0.7 0.6 0.8^ 0.8 0.7 0.7 dependency ratio0.70.60.8^0.80.70.7 Household size 5.9 2.3 6.1 2.5 6.0 2.4 Household size5.92.36.12.56.02.4 Education of household head       Education of household head (Yrs of formal schooling 6.8*** 3.1 5.9 3.3 6.6 3.2 (Yrs of formal schooling6.8***3.15.93.36.63.2 Gender of household head (1=       Gender of household head (1= male, 0=female) 0.9 0.3 0.9 0.3 0.9 0.01 male, 0=female)0.90.30.90.30.90.01 Education of the spouse (yrs of       Education of the spouse (yrs of formal schooling) 5.8** 2.8 5.1 2.8 5.6 2.8 formal schooling)5.8**2.85.12.85.62.8 Landholding (Ha) 8.9 19.9 11.6 25.9 9.6 21.7 Landholding (Ha)8.919.911.625.99.621.7 cropped area (ha) 2.2 2.6 2.7 2.6 2.4 2.6 cropped area (ha)2.22.62.72.62.42.6 Household assets       Household assets Value of livestock (Kwacha) 1089.3 3329.8 4110.7*** 19901.2 1902.4 10759.8 Value of livestock (Kwacha)1089.33329.84110.7*** 19901.2 1902.4 10759.8 Value of farm equip (Kwacha) 852.7 6770.3 1703.3 14172.9 1081.6 9344.1 Value of farm equip (Kwacha)852.76770.31703.314172.9 1081.69344.1 Consumer durables (Kwacha) 921.1 1293.1 1088.0 1911.9 966.1 1484.5 Consumer durables (Kwacha)921.11293.11088.01911.9966.11484.5 Membership in association       Membership in association (1=yes, 0=No) 0.7 0.5 0.6 0.5 0.7 0.5 (1=yes, 0=No)0.70.50.60.50.70.5 distance from tarmac road (km) 26.9 28.6 35.9 32.6 29.4 30.0 distance from tarmac road (km)26.928.635.932.629.430.0 Distance from urban center       Distance from urban center (km) 55.0 38.2 55.0 29.2 55.0 35.9 (km)55.038.255.029.255.035.9 Years spent in the village 19.7 14.9 19.7 15.5 19.7 15.0 Years spent in the village19.714.919.715.519.715.0 Number of observations 296  109  405  Number of observations296109405  "}],"sieverID":"33e247be-2b07-4db9-8ec5-ca9943ea0e06","abstract":"Appendix A1.1: Reasons provided by farmers for never adopted or dis-adopting improved varieties Appendix A1.2: Proportion of bean harvested as green pods (%) ."}

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In AWD, irrigation water is applied a few days after the disappearance of the ponded water. Hence, the field is alternately flooded and non-flooded."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"Low-emission technologies can often also save farmers money through more efficient use of water and other inputs, upwards of $150 per hectare, without sacrificing yield."}]},{"head":"$$","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"Incorporate?"},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"Significant source of GHG emissions, especially in double/triple cropping systems with short time between seasons"},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"Source: Ryan R. Romasanta, et al. (2017) Sustainable straw management to reduce GHGs Burn?"},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"Significant source of air pollution with major implications for human health, especially respiratory diseases"}]},{"head":"What to do with rice straw?","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":" Mechanized straw collection using balers offers new use options "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Linquist et al. (2012) Global Change Biology https://19january2017snapshot.epa.gov/globalmitigation-non-co2-greenhouse-gases/globalmitigation-non-co2-greenhouse-gases-rice_.html "},{"text":" Avoids burning and reduces field emissions  Innovative uses of rice straw that provide additional income to farmers, reduce waste of resources, and contribute to circular agroIncreasing efficiency reduces the relative emissions per grain  Assessing the economic and climate impacts of improved cultivation and postharvest practices along the rice value chain Losses are unnecessary emissions  Convert losses into equivalent GHG emissions  Calculate the economic value of the losses  Win-win: More efficient value chain, lower CDifferent technologies are associated w/ different amounts of GHGs (blue) and losses (red) "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"2009 Mitigation options across the rice production cycle UP TO 10% Timing of residue incorporation in field UP TO 7% Planting short- duration rice varieties Average 33% Alternate Wetting & Drying, Efficient use of fertilizer UP TO 15% Amount of residue left after harvest, no straw burning  can reduce as much as 65% -mostly methane  can reduce as much as 65% -mostly methane Different rice cultivars have different CH 4 emission potentials Water-saving technologies adapting rice production to climate change while reducing emissions a) Mushroom production Nutritious, profitable product b) Mechanized composting to produce organic fertilizer Different rice cultivars have different CH 4 emission potentialsWater-saving technologies adapting rice production to climate change while reducing emissionsa) Mushroom production Nutritious, profitable product b) Mechanized composting to produce organic fertilizer  "},{"text":"Reducing methane while saving water -AWD Keep the water level at 3-5 cm above the soil surface Keep the soil dry (developing hairline cracks) while maintain appropriate soil moisture) Applied for rice varieties with growing cycle from 90-100 days   "}],"sieverID":"c1760358-e463-4cfc-aeac-1e2ac5aae77d","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"038155aa08724df3768ac9940f96b7e4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b0bbc6cd-dfb9-49a9-856f-f4cdfd67e3d5/retrieve"},"pageCount":7,"title":"ACERCAMIENTO A LA SITUACION SOCIOECONOMICA DE LAS COMUNIDADES CAMPESINAS DEL DEPARTAMENTO DE SUCRE DESDE LA PERSPECTIVA DEL PROGRAMA YUQUERO Part1cipantes o","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"1","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"ANTECEDENTES","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"Entre los d,as 16 y 20 de Febrero de 1987 un grupo de tAcnicos representantes de distintas instituciones latinoamericanas se di6 a la tarea de observar y emitir juicios sobre la situaci6n socio-econ6mica de las comunidades campesinas del Departamento de Sucre en que se desarrolla un programa de secado de yuca Este trabajo se inscribe como parte de un taller sobre experiencias agroindustriales auspiciado por FUNDAEC. CIAT. CELATER y RETADAR Como resultado de este trabajo. el grupo en menci6n ha preparado un breve informe que incluye la percepci6n global sobre la situa-ci6n de las comunidades visitadas 2"},{"index":2,"size":227,"text":"LA PLANIFICACION DEL DESARROLLO HICROREGIONAL Aún ex1stiendo un esfuerzo de planificaci6n del desarrollo integral para el distrito de Sincelejo (Diagn6stico realizado en 1983 por el Departamento Nacional de Planeaci6n y la Direcci6n Regional DRI-PAN de Sucre. y la correspondiente priorizaci6n de proyectos para el distrito). no comprobamos que se realicen proyectos espec,ficos que den ese caracter integral al desarrollo de la regi6n. vale decir. que incorporen programas productivos. agrfcolas. pecuarios. agroindustriales y de caracter social que permitan el mejoramiento de las condiciones de v1da de los pobladores del distrito y de las comunidades campesinas La integraci6n de actividades de desarrollo no se perciben. quedando aisladas un conjunto de esfuerzos institucionales que parecieron no obedecer a obJetivos comunes. por ejemplo. nos resulta extrano que habiAndose realizado por parte del CIAT investigaciones tendientes a favorecer el desarrollo agroindustr1al a partir del cultivo de la yuca no se hayan tomado en consideraci6n dichos trabajos al momento de elaborar el D1agn6stico del Distrito y la proposici6n de las alternativas de desarrollo Un ejercicio participativo de planificaci6n permitir,a recoger sugerencias de acci6n institucional en diversos campos. y se desencadenarfa la movilizaci6n y el compromiso de los campesinos y pobladores de la zona para la materializaci6n de los proyectos 3 LA PRODUCCION LOCAL 3 1 En lo agrfcola Hasta el presente existe una practica agr,cola basada en actividades tradicionales en materia de producci6n"},{"index":3,"size":57,"text":"Observamos una tendencia dominante al monocult1vo de la yuca -a pesar de realizarse cultivos asociados de este tubArculo con granos u otros tubérculos df la zona-y la proposici6n del desarrollo agroindustrial basado en este mismo cultivo. sin haber tomado en cuenta hasta el momento la complementacift y diversificaci6n que apoye el encadenamiento vertical de la actividad yuquera"},{"index":4,"size":105,"text":"El logro de una explotaci6n mls racional del 6rea agrfcola, la generaci6n de empleo rural y la satisfacci6n de las necesidades alimentarias de la poblaci6n se ven como objetivos aQn no alcanzados La divers1f1cac16n agrfcola debe realizarse en cuenta -no solamente la futura provisión de materias primas para procesamiento agroindustrial-sino preferentemente la satisfacci6n de las necesidades blsicas alimentarias de la población Una planta mezcladora de alimentos para consumo animal que satisfaga la demanda local y aproveche la materia prima ya disponible (yuca seca), debe instalarse con la previsi6n del futuro abastecimiento de otros productos que la planta requiera (especialmente fuentes prot~icas y otras de carbohidratos)"},{"index":5,"size":21,"text":"3 1 1 Aspectos t~cnicos de la producción agrfcola Entre los aspectos técnicos observados a nivel de la producci6n agrfcola anotamos"},{"index":6,"size":225,"text":"A pesar de que los campesinos del lugar afirman que hay falta de disponib1lidad de maquinaria agrfcola, y ex1ste una tendencia a adquirir maquinaria a trav~s de los excedentes generados con el proceso de secado de yuca, creemos que debe apoyarse un proceso de planificación del uso de la maquinaria existente y experimentar la utilización de tracc1ón an1mal para las labores agrfcolas Desde el punto de v1sta de dism1nufr los riesgos y opt1m1zar el uso del suelo agrfcola, en funci6n de la d1vers1f1cación productiva antes menc1onada, creemos conveniente fomentar la investigación y experimentación aplicada de prActicas asociativas de cultivos Según las prActicas tradicionales de cultivo de yuca, se siembran aproximadamente 5000 plantas por hectArea, mientras que las recomendaciones de instituciones de investigación y promoción agrfcola indican que podrfan sembrarse hasta 7700 plantas Este hecho incide negativamente en los rend1mientos, y siendo la disponibil1dad de tierra un factor limitante de mucha importancia, el incremento de la productiv1dad (logrado a trav~s del aumento en la densidad de siembra) puede convertirse en un factor que aporte mejores 1ngresos a los productores Esta posibilidad debe l1garse con otras acciones que repercutan en el incremento de la productiv1dad, tales como el estudio de nuevas variedades, prActicas culturales adecuadas, un mejor control de plagas y una asistencia t~cnica que durante los primeros aftos, acompafte de cerca este esfuerzo de meJoramlento tecnológico"},{"index":7,"size":49,"text":"TeniAndose una producci6n de yuca considerada no como la Optima para la zona, esta actividad general actualmente beneficios del orden del 48S en relaci6n a los costos Esta significativa relaci6n es posible gracias al mecanismo regulador del precio originado con el establecimiento de las plantas de secado de yuca"},{"index":8,"size":80,"text":"Los margenes de utilidad obtenidos en la comercializaci6n de los productos agrfcolas en los mercador urbanos son significativos Lamentablemente no se pudo conocer detalles para establecer el beneficio que reporta esta actividad, pero la diferencia de precios pagados por consumidores urbanos en Sincelejo o Barranquilla en relaci6n a los que percibe el agricultor dan cuenta de un proceso de acumulaci6n mas acelerado (en dichas ciudades se tienen precios 2 5 a 3 75 mayores a los pagados a los agricultores)"},{"index":9,"size":108,"text":"El factor limitante mas serio para lograr el incremento de la producciOn actual, radica en la poca disponibilidad de tierra para las familiar campesinas y la subutilizaciOn actual de dicho recurso por los actuales propietarios Este hecho, que tiene una soluci6n polftica antes que técnica, podrA derivar una serie de conflictos sociales de no ser encarado adecuadamente 3 2 En lo pecuario La zona visitada, como la mayor parte del Departamento de Sucre, es una importante regiOn ganadera para Colombia Las actividades pecuarias en San Juan de Betulia y alrededores t1enen como caracterfstica el desarrollo de prActicas extensivas de ganaderfa bovina con bajos niveles de producciOn y product1vidad"},{"index":10,"size":342,"text":"A nivel familiar -J como parte de las d1versas estrategias de sobrev1vencia de los campesinos parcelarios* y arrendatarios-la crfa de ganado (bovino, porcino y aviar) juega un rol econOmico y social muy importante De la anterior constataciOn puede inferirse el caracter integral que debiera tener un programa de desarrollo impulsado en la regiOn 3 3 En lo agroindustrial rural A cont1nuaci6n se anotan una serie de juicios sobre el funcionamiento de 3 de las plantas de secado de yuca que operan en el Distr1to a AQn cuando las plantas no funcionan como debiera ser (por cuanto en ningún lugar puede ser rentable una planta que funcione cuatro meses por ano), pensamos que las plantas estAn cumpliendo su * Propietarios y adJudicatarios de muy pequenas extensiones de terrenos • su cometido, pero falta una dfversfffcac16n urgente, tanto en maquinarias como en los productos que pueda procesar Referentemente al primer punto, cabrfa mencionar que es de suma 1mportanc1a la 1mplementac16n de un molino, picadora, desgranadora que aprovechara el mismo motor de la picadora de yuca, ya que es posible Instalar un gran eje con una serie de poleas en el mismo motor, y con ayuda de fajas podrfan ser puestos en funcionamiento dichos nuevos Implementos Un molino de martillos, creemos que podrfa ser de suma ut111dad, esto blindado con acero Inoxidable, por cuanto nos permftfrfa en algún momento en el futuro una molienda húmeda para la extracc16n de alm1d6n, o para la-producc16n de harinas para consumo humano b En relac16n a la picadora de yuca, creemos que debe ser meJorada con la implementac16n de una tolva de salida para que el producto picado no se dispare por todos los lados y caiga directamente sobre las carretillas, ahorrando de esta manera el esfuerzo de dos obreros encargados de cargar las carretillas e Referente al segundo punto podrfamos decir que las plantas al tener los equipos adecuados, podrfan producirR -harinas de mafz, sorgo, yuca, soya y otras leguminosas -almid6n de yuca dulce y agrio -harinas de sangre y huesos -harinas de hoJaS -carne seca salada, etc"},{"index":11,"size":260,"text":"El destino de estos productos seria preferentemente para mejor la alimentaci6n de las fam1lias, y la incorporaci6n de estas actividades a nivel comunal traerfa un trabajo mas racional en las \"plantas hasta ahora existentes\" Los productos sugeridos podrfan usarse como insumos para otro tipo de actividades, tales como panif1caci6n, producci6n de pastas, conf1terfa, fermentados, etc d Es necesario que paralelo a la diversificaci6n propuesta, se trabaje en la capacitaci6n y educaci6n nutricional para un Optimo aprovechamiento de las acciones, pues est! demostrado que una correcta complementaci6n de amino!cidos presentes en leguminosas y tubérculos, ofrecen alimentos de alta calidad nutritiva e Las plantas de secado de yuca carecen de servicios higiénicos primarios tales como aprovechamiento de agua potable, instalaciones sanitarias y postas de atenci6n de salud de emergencia f En cuanto a la seguridad industrial, no existen carteles, equipos de protecci6n para el trabajador, ropas apropiadas, equipos y herramientas apropiadas g No existe ningún tipo de control de calidad y es urgente dotar a las plantas de equipos con el ffn de estandarizar la producci6n, por lo menos en el aspecto de humedad LA ORGANIZACION CAMPESINA EN FUNCION DE LOS OBJETIVOS Partiendo de la idea que uno de los logros que pudiera derivarse de la organizaci6n campesina ser,a la colectivizaci6n plena de los recursos en general, la estructura con la que se han dotado los grupos campesinos visitados, aunque representa una fase de desarrollo primaria tendiente a ese objetivo, vemos como prevalecen prActicas gerenciales o administrativas que inhiben la participaci6n de los asociados y limitan las aspiraciones de la organizaci6n existente"},{"index":12,"size":38,"text":"La tradiciOn histOrfca del movimiento campesino de la zona, presenta condiciones como para desarrollar cierto tipo de organi-zaciOn superior, en el que la participaci6n en el proceso de toma de decisiones tenga caracter,sticas mAs democrAticas que las actuales"}]},{"head":"LOS SERVICIOS DE APOYO A LA PRODUCCION Y ORGANIZACION CAMPESINA","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":192,"text":"Tal como lo ind1caramos con anterioridad, es de vital importancia que los aspectos t~cnicos en cuanto a asistencia se refiere, se conv1ertan en una prioridad para aquellas instituc1ones responsables de hacer llegar ~sta a las comun1dades campesinas Creemos que uno de los motivos que han impedido la asistencia t~cnica adecuada ha sido, el concebir como una primera prioridad el proceso de secado de yuca, sin haber tenido una perspectiva de desarrollo mas integral, en func16n de la potenciaci6n agr,_ cola y pecuaria a nivel de la parcela campesina La capacitaci6n ha estado orientada a paoyar los pasos previos de organizaci6n de los asociados y a ciertas actividades administrativas y de gestiOn dé las unidades de secado, sin embargo observamos lagunas en las actividades agr,colas de campo ya que no fu~ posible detectar la adopci6n de innovaciones tecno16gicas que apoyen en proceso productivo en general Asi mismo, es necesario empezar a trabaJar paralelamente al desarrollo tecnol6gico en transformaci6n de yuca y otros productos locales, en actividades comunitarias y familiares que t1endan a mejorar principalmente aspectos de salud, nutrici6n, saneamiento y otros en los que se conciba prioritariamente la satisfacci6n de las necesidades alimentarias"}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"8a34b157-720b-4dc2-92f7-67c851eddd83","abstract":"Visita a 4 plantas de secado de yuca Participaci6n en jornada de ad1estramiento empresar1al a cargo del SENA en la comunidad de Albania Reuni6n de 6 socios de la Cooperativa COOAPROBE Reuni6n con 14 socios de las Cooperativas COAGROALBANIA y COPAIPROL Reun16n de trabaJO con 4 soc1os de COAGROALBANIA Entrevista con 4 productores individuales de yuca no asociados Entrevista con personal a cargo de unidad de n1nos en edad pre-escolar V1sitas personales a cinco hogares de socios de las distintas cooperativas Entrevista con un t~cnico extensionista del ICA"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03a0cc195dfc98e3dea9ca43a724e72e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e1baa539-1fae-47a5-b559-53d16499b1f3/retrieve"},"pageCount":75,"title":"","keywords":["Andean Potato Weevil","Premnotrypes suturicallus","biological control","carabids","predators","potato","andean agriculture"],"chapters":[{"head":"CAPCHA, R. 2010. Evaluacion de Carabidos como Enemigos Naturales del","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Gorgojo de los Andes (Premnotrypes suturicallus Kuschel). Lima, Peru. Tesis Mag. Sc., Lima, Peru, 66 p."}]},{"head":"RESUMEN","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":449,"text":"El Gorgojo de los Andes es una de las plagas claves de la papa en la region Andina, la aplicaci6n de insecticidas es el metodo mas usado por los agricultores, por lo que es necesario la busqueda de otras altemativas biol6gicas. El objetivo fue determinar la capacidad de predaci6n de carabidos en los diferentes estados de desarrollo del gorgojo de los Andes en condiciones de laboratorio y campo. En laboratorio se expusieron, 50 huevos, 50 larvas L 1, 20 larvas L4 y 20 pupas, a uno y 5 carabidos durante 24 horas en placas petri, los tratamientos fueron repetidos 3 veces y el experimento tuvo 3 repeticiones en el tiempo. El experimento de campo fue instalado en terrenos infestados con gorgojo, con 4 tratamientos: Parcela con barrera de plastico, parcela con barrera de plastico mas la introducci6n de carabidos, parcela con insecticida y el testigo. Semilla de variedades nativas de papa fueron sembrados en estas parcelas y repetido en 5 campos. En condiciones de campo se realizaron 2 experimentos: (1) Evaluaci6n de la exposici6n de los gorgojos a la predaci6n natural de los carabidos y (2) Evaluaci6n del efecto de los carabidos en el dafio a los tuberculos por los gorgojos a la cosecha. Para el experimento (1) se expusieron durante 24 horas, 20 huevos, 10 larvas L4, 5 pupas y 3 adultos en placas petri, con 5 repeticiones en cada parcela. Estas exposiciones se realizaron cada 2 semanas durante el desarrollo del cultivo. Para el experimento (2), al momento de la cosecha se evalu6 el numero y peso de tuberculos sanos y dafiados por gorgojo y la infestaci6n larval en cada parcela. De los resultados, a nivel de laboratorio se hallo que la predaci6n de huevos y larvas I fue mayor que en los estados de larva 4 y pupa con 33.87 % y 34.01 % en relaci6n a 4.79 y 2.83 % respectivamente. A nivel de campo, en el experimento (1) cuando se expusieron los gorgojos en las parcelas de papa, hubo una mayor predaci6n de huevo con 50.8 %, en comparaci6n a larva 4, pupa y adulto con valores de 9.1; 8.0; 1.0 % respectivamente. En el experimento (2), a la cosecha las parcelas con insecticidas presentaron el menor dafio (21 % ), seguido de las parcelas con barreras de plastico y los carabidos introducidos (30 %), las parcelas con poblaci6n natural de carabidos con el mismo resultado (30 %), mientras que el testigo presento el mayor porcentaje de dafio (54 %). Nose hallaron diferencias en el nivel de infestaci6n larval entre los tratamientos. Estos primeros resultados indican el potencial que pueden tener los carabidos en la regulaci6n de la poblaci6n de gorgojos en el campo."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"Palabras claves: Gorgojo de los Andes, Premnotrypes suturicallus, Control biol6gico, Carabidos, predatores, papa, agricultura andina.  Capacidad de predaci6n de canibidos en diferentes estados de desarrollo del gorgojo de los Andes a nivel de laboratorio (Santa Ana, Huancayo y La Molina);"},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"2. Evaluaci6n de la exposici6n de diferentes estados de desarrollo del gorgojo de los Andes a la predaci6n por carabidos en campos de papa de la zona de Aymara;"},{"index":4,"size":31,"text":"3. Evaluaci6n del efecto de los carabidos en los dafios del gorgojo de los Andes y densidad poblacional de gorgojos y carabidos en campos de papa de la zona de Aymara."},{"index":5,"size":40,"text":"Por lo tanto, la estructura de la tesis quedara de la siguiente manera: Introducci6n, objetivos generales, revision bibliografica, materiales y metodos ( ordenados por apartados ), resultados y discusiones (por apartados ), resultados generales y discusi6n general, conclusiones y bibliografia."}]},{"head":"INTRODUCCION","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"El gorgojo de los Andes (Premnotrypes suturicallus Kuschel) es la plaga mas importante del cultivo de papa en las zonas altas de Peru (2800-4500 msnm). El adulto se alimenta de las hojas de la planta, pero el dafio mas severo lo ocasionan las larvas que barrenan los tuberculos, ocasionando perdidas hasta del 30% de la producci6n. El uso de insecticidas ( organofosforados y carbamatos) aplicados al follaje y al suelo, es el principal metodo de control por parte de los agricultores."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"Sin embargo, en muchos casos un exceso de sus aplicaciones contribuye a incrementar los costos de producci6n y los impactos negativos al medioambiente (Nifio et al, 2004; Gallegos et al., 1997)."},{"index":3,"size":103,"text":"Debido a que, en todos los campos agricolas existe cierto grado de control biol6gico natural, el control biol6gico es un componente clave dentro de las estrategias de un manejo integrado de plagas, que nos permite reducir el uso de pesticidas quimicos (Symondson et al, 2002). Los predadores invertebrados como los carabidos, conforman un importante factor bi6tico que determina la mortalidad de cualquier especie presa, por lo que algunas veces pueden ser utilizados como controladores biol6gicos y frecuentemente el agricultor no esta conciente de su gran importancia como enemigos naturales en la represi6n de las plagas como el gorgojo de los Andes (Cisneros, 1995)."},{"index":4,"size":126,"text":"La familia carabidae representada por mas de 3 0 mil especies agrupadas en 9 subfamilias, 50 tribus y 366 generos, corresponde a uno de los grupos de cole6pteros mas importantes, debido a que abarcan a los predadores invertebrados mas comunes de los campos agricolas considerados como agentes de biocontrol de un gran numero de plagas agricolas (Erwin, 1981;Erwin, 1985;Reichardt, 1977). Algunos estudios han determinado que algunas especies de carabidos actuan como predadores de huevos, larvas y en algunos casos de adultos del gorgojo de los Andes (Lovey and Sundderland, 1996). En el Peru, se han reportado a Harpalus turmalinus y Hylitus sp. en la Sierra Central (Alcazar, 2004); Notiobia schunusei y Meotachis sp. en la Sierra Sur; como predadores del gorgojo de los Andes (Ludwig, 1999)."},{"index":5,"size":46,"text":"Considerando lo antes mencionado y teniendo la necesidad de buscar nuevas altemativas biol6gicas para el manejo integrado del gorgojo de los Andes que considere factores de mortalidad natural, se propone evaluar la capacidad de predaci6n de los carabidos en el control del gorgojo de los Andes."}]},{"head":"OBJETIVOS GENERALES","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Determinar la capacidad de predaci6n de carabidos en los diferentes estados de desarrollo del gorgojo de los Andes en condiciones de laboratorio."},{"index":2,"size":82,"text":"Determinar la eficiencia de predaci6n de carabidos en el control del gorgojo de los Andes en condiciones de campo. introducen en el suelo para empupar (generalmente en una camara pupal a base de tierra), donde permanecen por 42 dias como pre-pupa, 54 dias como pupa y 115 dias como adulto invernante. La emergencia de los adultos se produce pocos dias despues del inicio de la temporada de lluvias, posteriormente los adultos migran y colonizan a los nuevos cultivos de papa (Alcazar, 1997)."}]},{"head":"REVISION DE LITERATURA","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"2.1.3.-Ocurrencia estacional","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"Premnotrypes suturicallus presenta una extraordinaria sincronizaci6n biol6gica con su hospedante y medioambiente. Se puede distinguir claramente una fase migrante activa, que coincide con la campafia agricola; y una fase invernante que coincide con la epoca seca y fria (Alcazar, 1997). En el Peru, la emergencia de los adultos de P. suturicallus ocurre a partir de los meses de octubre a febrero; las larvas son frecuentes desde febrero hasta agosto; las pupas desde junio hasta setiembre; y el estado de adulto invemante de agosto a diciembre (Kuhne et al, 2007)."}]},{"head":"2.1.4.-Distribucion espacial de la poblacion","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":122,"text":"Desde la cosecha hasta el almacenamiento el agricultor realiza una sene de labores que le permiten amontonar los tuberculos en diferentes lugares y areas del suelo. Durante este tiempo las larvas abandonan los tuberculos para introducirse en el suelo y completar su desarrollo biol6gico hasta el estado adulto (Alcazar y Cisneros, 1999). Los campos recien cosechados, las areas de amontonamiento en la cosecha, los campos de papa abandonados, las areas de pre-almacenamiento y las areas de almacenamiento definitivo constituyen las principales fuentes de infestaci6n de la poblaci6n invemante del gorgojo de los Andes. La migraci6n de los gorgojos adultos puede ocurrir de un campo a otro, del almacen al campo ya partir de las plantas voluntarias (Kuhne et al, 2007; Alcazar, 1997)."}]},{"head":"2.1.5.-Control del gorgojo de los Andes","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"La estrategia de control esta orientada a reducir la poblaci6n de gorgojos invemantes en campo y almacen, a interceptar las migraciones de las fuentes de infestaci6n hacia el campo de cultivo y finalmente a controlar la poblaci6n dentro del cultivo (Alcazar, 1997). No existen metodos satisfactorios para su monitoreo debido a que los adultos son dificiles de detectar en el campo, y solo se observa dafto foliar si su densidad poblacional es alta. Aun asi, las revisiones noctumas de las plantas o SUS alrededores es el metodo mas eficaz para detectar adultos (Kuhne"},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"La medida de control mas comun es el uso de insecticidas que contienen en su estructura metamidophos, carbofuran (polvo mojable o granulados), cypermethrina y aldicar. Carbofuran es el insecticida mas frecuentemente usado, protegiendo y evitando una reducci6n del dafio de los tuberculos del 30 -50% (Calderon et al, 2004)."}]},{"head":"Dentro del control biol6gico el pat6geno mas probado hasta la fecha es el hongo","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Beauveria brogniartii, reportado como Beauveria sp. en 1976 infectando a P."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"suturicallus (Cisneros y Vera, 2001). Mientras que, los nematodos entomopat6genos Steinernema carpocapsae, Neoplectana carpocapsae, colectados de larvas de tuberculos almacenados, bajo condiciones de laboratorio muestran prometedores resultados controlando larvas de P. suturicallus en tuberculos antes que produzcan dafios significativos (Parsa et al, 2006)."},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"Por otra parte, se recomiendan metodos mas simples como amontonamiento de los tuberculos cosechados sobre una capa de plastico, para evitar que las larvas que abandonan los tuberculos ingresen al suelo para empupar. Las larvas del ultimo estado de desarrollo del gorgojo de los Andes, tienden a abandonar los tuberculos cuando son expuestos a la luz del sol por unas pocas horas (Carrazco Zamora, 1991)."},{"index":4,"size":58,"text":"La implementaci6n de diferentes estrategias del manejo integrado del gorgojo de los Andes, conllevan a reducciones de hasta un 45 a 80% de dafio (Estrella et al, 1998), dependiendo de la orientaci6n recibida por los agricultores. Dentro de un manejo integrado, la combinaci6n de estrategias recomendadas varian dependiendo del pais y las condiciones agro-ecol6gicas (Kiihne et al, 2007)."}]},{"head":"Enemigos naturales del Gorgojo de los Andes","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":155,"text":"En el Peru, existe muy poca informaci6n con respecto a los enemigos naturales del gorgojo de los Andes, la bibliografia menciona a los siguientes: Carabidos:  En los carabidos existe una clasica division: los carabidos que se desarrollan en la epoca de primavera y los que se desarrollan en la epoca de otofio. Los que se desarrollan en primavera tienen un corto periodo larval, mientras que, los que se desarrollan en otofio generalmente poseen periodos larvales muy extendidos. Sin embargo, estos ciclos de vida han mostrado ser extremadamente variables en la mayoria de las especies. Se especula que los estados de desarrollo de la mayoria de las especies estan pre-adaptadas a condiciones medioambientales de verano o inviemo, periodos en los cuales frecuentemente ocurre el desarrollo de la mayoria de las especies. El periodo larval, siempre es el mas largo dentro de los estados de desarrollo yes aun mas largo en las larvas de inviemo (Luff, 2003)."}]},{"head":"2.2.2.1.-Huevo","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"En los carabidos, el tamafio y nillnero de huevos son importantes biol6gicamente."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"Son tipicamente de color crema pa.lido y de forma ovoidal (Luff, 2003). El tamafio de los huevos varia entre tribus y sub-familias. Por ejemplo dentro de la tribu"},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"Harpalini los huevos tienden a ser mas largos en proporci6n al tama:fio del cuerpo."},{"index":4,"size":55,"text":"Pero dentro de un grupo cercanamente relacionado como Carabus, existe una relaci6n positiva entre el tamafio del cuerpo de un adulto y el tamafio de sus huevos. Se ha demostrado que los huevos de mayor tamafio esta correlacionado con una mayor duraci6n del periodo larval y una menor duraci6n del estado adulto (Luff, 2003 )."},{"index":5,"size":107,"text":"El tamafio de los huevos tambien es afectado por las vanac1ones medioambientales. En Notiophilus biguttatus, se ha mostrado que el tamafio de los huevos se encuentra inversamente relacionado a las temperaturas que se han expuesto los adultos. En Pterostichus melanarius y Poecilus cupreus, el tipo de dieta afecta inversamente el tamafio y m'.imero de sus huevos. Carabidos con una dieta rica en carbohidratos producen huevos mas largos, pero en menor cantidad, conllevando a la producci6n de larvas grandes que tendran mejor oportunidad de supervivencia. Dentro de las dietas en general, el tamafio de los huevos, se encuentra solo ligeramente relacionado al peso de la larva (Luff, 2003)."}]},{"head":"-Larva","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"Funcionalmente las larvas de carabidos son del tipo campodeiformes, diferenciandose claramente la cabeza con estructuras de alimentaci6n esclerosadas, segmentos meso y meta-toraxicos definidos y el abdomen, con estructuras sensoriales y algunas veces defensivas (los urogomphi y tubo anal o placa anal) (Luff, 2003 ). Las principales form.as de vida de las larvas de carabidos se presentan en el Cuadro 1."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"En las larvas, las form.as de vida de los carabidos, se encuentran relacionadas a la estructura de sus mandibulas. Mandibulas mas amplias para las que se alimentan de semillas, largas y delgadas para los que se alimentan de colembolos (predadores) y aserrada intemamente para helicofagos. Hay incluso especializaci6n especifica para los que se alimentan de semillas de diferentes especies de plantas. Sin embargo, hay muchas estructuras de alimentaci6n unicas para un taxa en particular (Luff, 2003)."},{"index":3,"size":82,"text":"Cuadro N° 1: Principales formas de vida de larvas de carabidos (Luff, 2003). Las pupas de los carabidos son mas o menos identicas, generalmente se encuentran apoyadas sobre su lado dorsal y cubiertas por un substrato (generalmente suelo ). Como en los primeros estados de desarrollo, el tiempo del desarrollo de la pupa es dependiente principalmente de la temperatura, y no del tipo de sustrato. Incluso bajo condiciones aparentemente favorables, muchas pupas de carabidos como las de Nebria brevicolis desarrollan adultos deformados."},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"El peso pupal es dependiente de las condiciones alimenticias de las larvas, pupas pequefias indican que las larvas tuvieron limitaciones en su alimentaci6n (Luff, 2003)."}]},{"head":"2.2.2.4.-Adulto","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"La mayoria de las espec1es adultas presentan coloraci6n corporal negra, cafe oscuro, amarilla, azul metalica, verde o purpura (Dillon and Dillon, 1972) y la coloraci6n de sus patas va desde monocromatica a bicolor. La reflexion metalica es comun en grupos como Lebiini y Callistini mas que en otros (Erwin, 1981 )."},{"index":2,"size":115,"text":"Todos los adultos presentan tres rasgos que los distinguen de otros escarabajos terrestres: sus coxas traseras se encuentran fijos en su sitio, y dividen el estemito del abdomen; poseen un par de glandulas intemas en el abdomen utilizadas para producir sustancias quimicas defensivas. Estas glandulas no se pueden observar extemamente; sin embargo, su utilizaci6n produce olores y chorritos distintivos y poderosos en muchos linajes de carabidos. Dos de estos linajes, los Brachinini y los Paussinae, son conocidos como \"escarabajos bombarderos\", ya que poseen la habilidad de descargar sustancias quimicas defensivas en forma explosiva, a temperaturas de 55°C a 100°C (Erwin et al, 1981). Este tipo de sistema defensivo es unico entre los escarabajos (Dillon, 1972)."}]},{"head":"2.2.3.-Alimentacion","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":127,"text":"Los carabidos se encuentran entre los predadores invertebrados mas comunes de los campos agricolas y son considerados como enemigos naturales de diferentes plagas. Por lo tanto su habitat, biologia y ecologia de alimentaci6n han sido intensivamente estudiados. Son mayormente polifagos, consumen una gran variedad de animales vivos o muertos, ademas de material vegetal. Sin embargo, la especializaci6n alimenticia ha evolucionado varios grupos de carabidos, como los que se alimentan de moluscos, gusanos de tierra, semillas y especialistas cazadores de insectos. Algunos carabidos camivoros tienen dietas extremadamente amplias; mientras que, los que se alimentan de insectos, gusanos de tierra y moluscos varian en proporci6n, y su beneficio varia dependiendo del aporte de cada uno de estos componentes y no todos son bien conocidos (F awki et al, 2003)."}]},{"head":"2.2.4.-Habitats y distribucion","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"Los carabidos viven en todos los habitas imaginables, desde el subsuelo hasta la cima de los arboles, lugares secos y calidos, habitats con escasa o abundante vegetaci6n, biotopos humedos, playas marinas, grietas de rocas y debajo de glaciares de altas montafias, jardines, prados y campos de cultivos (Reichholf-Riehm, 1986; Edwin, 1981 ). Geograficamente, se encuentran distribuidos entre los 78°56' de latitud norte y 55° de latitud sur. La mayoria de islas oceanicas remotas tiene una o mas especies. La cuenca del amazonas es el lugar mas rico en especies y linajes (Erwin, 1991)."}]},{"head":"2.2.5.-La efectividad de los carabidos como enemigos naturales","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":165,"text":"Los estudios sobre la interacci6n predador-presa son tradicionalmente focalizados sobre interacciones predadores especialistas y su presa. Aunque Calosoma Sycophanta L., uno de los primeros insectos introducidos en el control biol6gico es un especialista, la mayoria de los carabidos no pertenecen a esta categoria. La exploraci6n de las condiciones bajo el cual, los predadores generalistas pueden limitar a su presa han revelado que tales predadores son altamente polffagos y que su ciclo de vida no esta en sincronologia con su presa. Los escarabajos de suelo se ajustan a este criterio; se depredan asf mismos durante su estado larval, son polffagos y tiene un largo ciclo de vida, normalmente no son ubicados junto a su presa. Pueden suprimir plagas, pero en general su mayor beneficio se da en prolongar el perfodo entre plagas de la misma especie. Para incrementar la efectividad de los carabidos, los especialistas del control biol6gico deberian de considerar el habitat requerido y adecuado para el desarrollo de los carabidos (Lovey and Sundderland, 1996)."},{"index":2,"size":189,"text":"La efectividad de un enemigo natural puede establecerse por varios pasos secuenciales: 1. Evaluaciones de la dinamica poblacional y correlacionando la densidad de predadores y plagas, 2. Obteniendo evidencia directa de un enlace tr6fico entre la presa y el predator, 3. Experimentalmente manipulando la densidad del predator y su efecto sobre las plagas, 4. Integrando la anterior informaci6n para cuantificar el efecto del predator sobre su presa. La mayoria de los estudios de los carabidos y su presa son del primer y segundo tipo; pocos autores han considerado los pasos 3 y 4. A partir de estudios sobre predadores polffagos ( carabidos, arafias, Staphylinidos ), de cereal es en Inglaterra, se dan evidencias acerca de los carabidos como enemigos naturales, donde demostraron que pueden disminuir significativamente la densidad de afidos. La predaci6n fue mas significativa a inicio de la campafia cuando la densidad de afidos es baja. La relativa importancia de estos predadores varia entre zonas y afios; frecuentemente el efecto no puede ser atribuido a un grupo de predadores en particular. En los ultimos afios los carabidos son el grupo de predadores mas significativos (Lovey and Sundderland, 1996)."}]},{"head":"Los carabidos como enemigos naturales del gorgojo de los Andes en el","index":17,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Peru","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"La mayor parte de estudios sobre carabidos en el mundo esta orientado a su taxonomia y diversidad (Erwin, 1991;Erwin, 1985;Alvis, 2003). En el Peru, los trabajos reportados referentes al control biol6gico del gorgojo de los Andes con carabidos son muy escasos (Alcazar, 1976;Ludwig, 1999). Hay algunos pocos ejemplos del manejo de enemigos biol6gicos entre ellos el uso tradicional de hormigas del genero Eciton para controlar al gorgojo de los Andes, en almacenes rusticos de algunas comunidades del Cusco (Garmendia, 1961)."}]},{"head":"2.3.-Estadistica no parametrica (Kruskal-W allis)","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":120,"text":"Las tecnicas estadisticas de estimaci6n de parametros, intervalos de confianza y pruebas de hip6tesis son, en conjunto, denominadas estadistica parametrica y son aplicadas basicamente a variables continuas. En la estadistica parametrica, se asume que la poblaci6n de la cual la muestra es extraida es normal o aproximadamente normal. Esta propiedad es necesaria para realizar un analisis de varianza. Sin embargo, en un gran numero de casos no se puede determinar la distribuci6n normal, por lo que en realidad no tenemos parametros a estimar, sino solo distribuciones que comparar, esto se llama estadistica no parametrica. Por lo tanto, cuando el analisis de varianza no es aplicable debido a incumplimientos de las suposiciones del modelo, es necesario aplicar la prueba de Kruskal-Wallis."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"Esta prueba es una ampliaci6n de la prueba de Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney para dos muestras o mas de dos muestras (Chan and Walmsley, 1997)."}]},{"head":"MATERIALES Y METODOS","index":20,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"3.1.-Ubicacion del area experimental.","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"Los ensayos para evaluar a los carabidos como enemigos naturales del gorgojo de los Andes fueron conducidos durante la campafia 2006 -2007 en condiciones de laboratorio (Santa Ana, Huancayo -Junina 3200 msnm) y campo (comunidad de Aymara, 3925 -4081 msnm, Huancavelica) donde la presi6n de carabidos es alta."}]},{"head":"3.2.-Coleccion de carabidos","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Se colectaron varias especies o morfotipos de carabidos en los campos de papa, de los cuales se seleccion6 un morfotipo que pertenece a la tribu Pterostichini del genero Blennidus sp. probablemente por su agresividad y predominancia en la comunidad (Fig. 6A)."}]},{"head":"3.3.-Evaluacion de los carabidos como enemigos naturales del gorgojo de los","index":23,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Andes","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"Para desarrollar adecuadamente el trabajo experimental bajo condiciones de laboratorio y campo, y satisfacer los objetivos generales. La estructura de la presente ha sido dividida en 3 experimentos, cada uno con sus propios objetivos especificos."}]},{"head":"3.3.1.-EXPERIMENTO 1:","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Capacidad de predacion de los carabidos en los diferentes estados de desarrollo del gorgojo de los Andes en condiciones de laboratorio (Santa Ana, Huancayo y La Molina)."}]},{"head":"3.3.1.1.-Objetivo especifico.","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"Determinar la capacidad predadora de los carabidos en cada estado de desarrollo de gorgojo en condiciones de laboratorio.  cm de diametro y/o tapers de plastico de 250 ml (en el caso de placas y taperes se utilizo para verificar silos carabidos pudieran salir y si su efecto es ser predator o no), conteniendo suelo del mismo cultivo, gorgojos y carabidos segun los tratamientos del cuadro 2, por ejemplo en el caso de huevo estos fueron contados con la ayuda de un estereoscopio. El ensayo se repiti6 por 3 veces."}]},{"head":"3.3.1.4.-Analisis estadistico","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Los parametros evaluados fueron analizados utilizando la prueba de Kruskal-Wallis y comparaci6n de medias (LSD, P<0.05) mediante el software SAS 8.0 (SAS Institute, Cary, NC)."}]},{"head":"3.3.1.5.-Parametros evaluados","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Cada 24 horas se determin6 los siguientes parametros: numero de huevos, larvas y pupas parcial o completamente predatados cada 24 horns."}]},{"head":"3.3.2.-EXPERIMENTO 2:","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Evaluacion de la exposicion de los diferentes estados de desarrollo del gorgojo de los Andes a la predacion por carabidos en Campos de papa de la zona de Aymara"}]},{"head":"3.3.2.1.-Objetivo Especifico","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"-Evaluar la capacidad de predaci6n de los diferentes estados de desarrollo del gorgojo de los Andes expuestos a poblaciones naturales de carabidos en condiciones de campo."}]},{"head":"3.3.2.2.-Metodologia","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"Se seleccionaron 5 campos representativos del cultivo de papa, ubicados entre 3925 y 4081 m.s.n.m; los campos seleccionados tenian un historial de cultivo de papa de por lo menos 5 afios de siembras continuas (para asegurar la presencia de gorgojos y presencia de canibidos en la zona). Cada campo tuvo un area de 400 m 2 y se dividi6 en 4 parcelas de 100 m 2 c/u, que constituyeron los tratamientos (Cuadro 3)."}]},{"head":"Tratamientos:","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":202,"text":"Cada tratamiento consisti6 en la siembra de 10 surcos con semilla de papa de las variedades denominadas \"Shajru\". Dentro y alrededor de cada campo experimental se colocaron 32 trampas pitfall (envases de plastico de 1 L de capacidad cuyas dimensiones fueron de 15 cm. de alto x 12 cm. de diametro, en el interior del cual se coloc6 un envase de 250 ml de capacidad cuyas dimensiones fueron 5 cm. de alto x 10 de diametro y un embudo de plastico) con el fin de capturar y cuantificar los carabidos y gorgojos de la zona. Se colocaron 5 trampas por tratamiento y 12 alrededor del campo., como se muestra en la Figura 2. Los carabidos colectados en las 6 trampas pitfall colocadas fuera de las parcelas rodeadas por la barrera de plastico fueron adicionados al momento de cada evaluaci6n a la poblaci6n de carabidos ya existentes del tratamiento con barrera fisica + carabidos (la descripci6n completa de cada tratamiento se muestra en el cuadro 3). La evaluaci6n de gorgojos y carabidos caidos en las trampas pitfall se realizaron semanalmente. En el tratamiento sin barrera fisica + insecticida (betacyfluthrin, 0.4 L/ha), la aplicaci6n del insecticida se realiz6 a la emergencia, aporque y floraci6n."}]},{"head":"Capacidad de predacion","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":167,"text":"Para evaluar la capacidad de predaci6n de los carabidos, los gorgoJOS fueron obtenidos de una crianza masal del laboratorio del CIP; estas fueron colocados en placas Petri enterradas al nivel del suelo y cubiertas con una malla metalica de 10 mm de luz, con en fin de evitar la predaci6n por parte de los roedores, aves u otros insectos. En cada placa se acondiciono por separado: 20 huevos, 10 larvas (L4), 5 pupas y 3 adultos. Las placas con el material biol6gico acondicionado fueron ubicadas en los tratamientos, se utilizaron cuatro repeticiones por tratamiento como se muestra en la Fig. 3. Las evaluaciones se realizaron a las 24 horas de iniciada la exposici6n cuantificando el nfunero de gorgojos predatados y m'.imero de carabidos encontrados. La exposici6n se realiz6 cada 2 semanas (total de 15 exposiciones) como se muestra en la Fig. 1. Se consider6 como gorgojo predatado a cualquier estado de desarrollo biol6gico, cuando parte del insecto o en forma total ha sido consumida por los carabidos."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"i Exposiciones de los diferentes estadios de P. suturimllus (20huevos, 10 larvas."},{"index":3,"size":5,"text":"5 pupas y 3 adultos)"},{"index":4,"size":5,"text":"Crecimiento Vegetativo 60dds 90dds 120dds"},{"index":5,"size":24,"text":") . Andes en placas petri en las parcelas de papa, para evaluar la capacidad predadora de los canibidos en la zona de Aymara."},{"index":6,"size":24,"text":"Cuadro 3: Tratamientos para determinar la eficiencia de predaci6n de carabidos en el control del gorgojo de los Andes en la zona de Aymara."}]},{"head":"Tratamientos Descripcion","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Sin carabidos Sin carabidos, con barrera fisica (rodeado con plastico de polietileno de color verde de 50 cm de alto) y sin adicionar carabidos Con carabidos "}]},{"head":"3.3.2.3.-Parametros evaluados","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Se evalu6 los siguientes parametros: nfunero de huevos, larvas, pupas y adultos predatados cada 24 horas; los valores fueron expresados en porcentaje."}]},{"head":"3.3.2.4.-Analisis estadistico","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Los parametros evaluados fueron analizados usando procedimientos de Kruskal-Wallis y comparaci6n de medias (LSD, P<0.05) mediante el software SAS 8.0 (SAS Institute, Cary, NC) ."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"Fig. 3: Croquis de la distribuci6n de las placas petri en las parcelas de papa para evaluar la capacidad predadora de los carabidos a los distintos estados de desarrollo del Gorgojo de los Andes, expuestos en campos de papa de la zona de Aymara. -Evaluar el dafio de tuberculos a la cosecha y la poblaci6n de larvas de gorgojos de acuerdo a los tratamientos"}]},{"head":"3.3.3.2.-Metodologia","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"En las mismas parcelas utilizadas en el experimento 2, se evalu6 el efecto de los carabidos en los dafios del gorgojo de los Andes y la densidad poblacional de gorgojos y carabidos en campos de papa de la zona de Aymara"}]},{"head":"3.3.3.3.-Evaluacion de la poblacion","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"La evaluaci6n de gorgojos y carabidos se realiz6 semanalmente cuantificando el numero de insectos capturados y luego exponiendolos nuevamente al campo."}]},{"head":"3.3.3.4.-Evaluacion a la cosecha a.-Danos","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"Las evaluaciones en cada tratamiento se realizaron en 4 zonas. En cada zona, se tomaron 3 surcos, con 10 plantas por surco (30 plantas por zona), segun como se muestra en la Fig. 4. Para la cosecha se tomo en consideraci6n el nilmero y peso total de tuberculos cosechados ( sanos y dafiados) de las 4 zonas seleccionadas, y los resultados fueron expresados en porcentaje de tuberculos dafiados. Los tuberculos dafiados por otras plagas nose tuvieron en cuenta."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"b.-Rendimiento."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"El rendimiento se determin6 en base al nfunero total de tuberculos cosechados ( sanos y dafiados ), y los resultados fueron expresados en Kg /planta."}]},{"head":"c.-Poblacion de carabidos y gorgojos","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"Al momento de la cosecha y con la ayuda de una malla metalica se procedi6 a cemir el contenido del suelo de los 3 surcos seleccionados hasta una profundidad de 30 cm., momento en el cual se realiz6 el conteo de carabidos y gorgojos en sus diferentes estadios."}]},{"head":"3.3.3.5.-Analisis estadistico","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"Los parametros evaluados fueron analizados usando procedimientos de Kruskal-Wallis y comparaci6n de medias (LSD, P<0.05) mediante el software SAS 8.0 (SAS Institute, Cary, NC).   "}]},{"head":"RESULTADOS Y DISCUSIONES","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Para facilitar la comprensi6n y seguimiento a los diferentes experimentos desarrollados en la presente tesis, los resultados y discusiones se presentaran por apartados, siguiendo el mismo orden que los mencionados en la metodologia."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"Finalmente se presentara una discusi6n general del trabajo y las conclusiones respectivas."}]},{"head":"4.1.-RESULTADOS DEL EXPERIMENTO 1:","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Capacidad de predaci6n de carabidos en diferentes estados de desarrollo del gorgojo de los Andes a nivel de laboratorio (Santa Ana, Huancayo y La Molina)."},{"index":2,"size":234,"text":"En el cuadro 4, se observa que todos los tratamientos (50H/1C, 50H/5C, 50Ll/1C, 50Ll/5C, 20L4/1C, 20L4/5C, 20P/1C y 20P/5C) mostraron predaci6n por parte de los carabidos en los distintos estados de desarrollo del gorgojo de los Andes. Los tratamientos pr<?bados con los estados huevo (50H/1 C y 50H/5C) y larva 1 (50Ll/1C y 50Ll/5C) de P. suturicallus mostraron diferencias estadisticas significativas (P<0.05). Mientras que, los tratamientos probados dentro de los estados de desarrollo larva 4 (20L4/1 C y 20L4/5C) y pupa (20L4/1 C y 20L4/5C) no mostraron diferencias estadisticas significativas (P<0.05) (Fig. 5 y 7). Por otra parte, los promedios de capacidad de predaci6n de los carabidos a nivel de huevos y larva 1 de P. suturicallus con valores de 33.87 % (X 2 = 0.0163) y 34.01 % (X 2 = 0.0029) respectivamente, fueron superiores significativamente a los estadios larva 4 y pupa con valores de 4. 79 y 2.83 % respectivamente (Fig. 6). ... ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------  Capacidad predadora de carabidos en cada estado de desarrollo de Premnotrypes suturicallus en condiciones de laboratorio.  predador-presa y usan sus mandibulas bien desarrolladas para matar y fragmentar en piezas el estado de vida mas vulnerable (menos esclerotizado) de su presa (Niemela, 2001 ); tambien pueden paralizar previamente a sus presas, ya que se ha reportado que algunas especies de carabidos controladoras de plagas, paralizan a su presa mediante una mordedura previa (Niemela, 2001;Lovei and Sunderland, 1996)."},{"index":3,"size":56,"text":"Por otra parte, hay que considerar que existen varios reportes bien documentados, donde comprueban que los carabidos poseen una nutrici6n polifaga, predatora y son considerados alimentadores voraces ( capaces de consumir diariamente su propio peso); motivos por el cual, son potencialmente considerados como importantes agentes naturales del control de plagas (Kromp, 1999;Niemela, 2001;Lovei and Sunderland, 1996)."},{"index":4,"size":93,"text":"La variabilidad en la capacidad de predaci6n de los carabidos, podria deberse a que en el ensayo se utiliz6 un morfotipo de carabido que es un poco gregario en su alimentaci6n, el cual probablemente tenga mas de una especie. Al respecto se ha reportado que la capacidad de predaci6n de los carabidos varia con la especie (Y abar et al, 2006). La falta de informaci6n taxon6mica, ecol6gica y faunistica en carabidos neotropicales ha sido resaltada por varios estudios y dicha informaci6n restringe el uso de carabidos como agentes de biocontrol (Niemela, 2001 )."},{"index":5,"size":82,"text":"Por otra parte, hay que considerar que los resultados obtenidos estan basados sobre carabidos que se alimentaron linicamente con individuos de P. suturicallus, sin ofrecerles fuentes alimenticias altemativas. Por lo tanto, los resultados que se podrian obtener en condiciones de campo podrian no reflejar los obtenidos en condiciones de laboratorio. Tambien hay que considerar que el rol de un predador como agente de control de plagas involucra mucho mas que de simples observaciones alimenticias sobre una especie plaga en particular (Kromp, 1999)."}]},{"head":"4.2.-RESULTADOS DEL EXPERIMENTO 2:","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Evaluacion de la exposicion de diferentes estados de desarrollo del gorgojo de los Andes a la predacion por carabidos en campos de papa de la zona de"}]},{"head":"Aymara","index":45,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"Los valores de los cuadros 5 -8, indican que existe buena efectividad de predaci6n de los distintos estados del gorgojo de los Andes por parte de los carabidos en condiciones de campo (Figs. 8 -12). En los campos del 1 al 5, la capacidad de predaci6n de los carabidos hacia P. suturicallus fue significativamente mas efectiva (P<0.05) ha nivel de huevo (50.8 %), en comparaci6n a los estadios larva 4 (9.1 %), pupa (8.0 %) y adulto (1.0 %). El tratamiento mas efectivo fue CC (con carabidos) en todos los estados probados de P. suturicallus con valores promedios de 59.5, 11. 6.6 5.9"}]},{"head":"1.0","index":46,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":133,"text":"Promedios seguidos con una letra diferente, difieren estadisticamente (LSD, P<0.05) Cuadro 7. Capacidad de predaci6n (%) en el tratamiento con insecticida (Cl) de poblaciones naturales de carabidos hacia diferentes estados de desarrollo de Premnotrypes suturicallus expuestos en condiciones de campo (Aymara -Huancavelica).     Los resultados obtenidos tuvieron relaci6n con los observados bajo condiciones de laboratorio. Al exponer los diferentes estados del gorgojo de los Andes en los campos de cultivo de papa, se obtuvo una buena capacidad de predaci6n por parte de los carabidos hacia P. suturicallus solo a nivel de huevo; mientras que, en los demas estados evaluados (larva 4, pupa y adulto) se obtuvieron valores bajos de predaci6n. Esto probablemente se deba a que, en condiciones naturales el huevo es considerado, el estado de vida mas vulnerable, aun cuando las hembras de"}]},{"head":"Estado de desarrollo","index":47,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":224,"text":"Premnotrypes ovipositan en micro-habitats como el interior de tallitos de varias especies de plantas, para evadir la acci6n de sus depredadores y asegurar su supervivencia (Lovei and Sunderland, 1996; Y abar, 2006). Sin embargo, en el ciclo de vida de los gorgojos el estado de huevo es generalmente corto y se reproducen una sola vez al afio (Lovei, and Sunderland, 1996), esto podria tener algun efecto adverso en el control del gorgojo de los andes en condiciones de campo, ya que seria el estado de vida expuesto por menor tiempo a los depredadores. El estado de pupa es igualmente susceptible, pero es construida en una camara pupal en el interior del suelo, ademas de que se encuentra fuertemente esclerotizada (Lovei and Sunderland, 1996). Por otra parte, los niveles de predaci6n de la larva 1 fueron superiores a los de larva 4, pupa y adulto. Esto probablemente se deba a que, posee una limitada movilidad y una quitinizaci6n muy debil (Lovei, and Sunderland, 1996; Kromp, 1999). En condiciones de campo, para buscar a su presa, los carabidos presentan un modelo de busqueda comiln a los predadores invertebrados y utilizan sus mandibulas para atacar exitosamente (Overhollzer, 2003; Lovei and Sunderland, 1996), por lo tanto, considerando que los carabidos son depredadores generalistas su eficiencia en campo esta condicionado en gran parte a su comportamiento (Y abar, 2006)."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"Ademas, se ha reportado que, la naturaleza predadora de los carabidos en campo es la raz6n principal para estudiar esta familia de insectos en los habitats agricolas (Kromp, 1999); y algunas especies de carabidos como Harpalus turmalinus, Hylitus sp., Metius sp., Notiobia schunusei, Notiobia sp. y Meotachis sp. son considerados enemigos naturales del gorgojo de los Andes (Ludwig, 1999;Frank et al, 2006)."},{"index":3,"size":95,"text":"Por otra parte, el tratamiento mas efectivo fue CC (con carabidos) en todos los estadios probados de P. suturicallus (huevo, larva 4, pupa y adulto) seguido de los tratamientos T, CI y SC. Esto probablemente se deba a que las barreras de polietileno que se utilizaron para manipular el numero de carabidos, permitieron que los carabidos mantengan e incrementen sus poblaciones en dichas parcelas. El aislamiento mediante el uso de barreras fisicas es un metodo muy efectivo para demostrar algun rol de los enemigos naturales, y regular el numero de presas. (Carrillo, et al 2007)."},{"index":4,"size":158,"text":"Por otro lado, tambien hay que considerar que en las parcelas sin carabidos, la barrera fisica impidi6 el ingreso de carabidos y en consecuencia se observo un menor porcentaj e de predaci6n. Con respecto a las parcelas con insecticida y testigo, observamos que el porcentaje de predaci6n es variable, esto probablemente se deba a que hubo una migraci6n de gorgojos y carabidos entre estas parcelas cada vez que se alteraba su ecosistema por las practicas agron6micas en el manejo del campo. Tambien hay que considerar que el gorgojo de los andes se encuentra constantemente sometido a tratamientos frecuentes de pesticidas, y probablemente hayan desarrollado tolerancia a estos en diversos grados. Ademas, se ha reportado que algunas dosis de insecticidas puede causar un marcado incremento en la actividad de los carabidos (Lovei, and Sunderland, 1996). Tambien se ha demostrado que el uso de pesticidas en la agricultura convencional tiene un fuerte impacto sobre la fauna de carabidos (Kromp, 1989)."},{"index":5,"size":239,"text":"En general, los predadores generalistas pueden tener una ventaj a so bre los especialistas debido a que ellos son capaces de retener tamafios poblacionales moderados cuando la densidad poblacional de la presa es baja alimentandose sobre presas altemativas (Overhollzer, 2003) Cuadro 10. Densidad poblacional de carabidos y gorgojo de los andes en la prueba de la capacidad de predaci6n de poblaciones naturales de carabidos hacia Premnotrypes suturicallus, expuestos en condiciones de campo (Aymara -Huancavelica). Cuadro 11. Comparaci6n de la densidad poblacional de carabidos y gorgojo de los andes a nivel de campos, en la prueba de la capacidad de predaci6n de poblaciones naturales de carabidos hacia Premnotrypes suturicallus, expuestos en condiciones de campo (Aymara -Huancavelica).  Densidad poblacional en el campo 5, de carabidos y gorgojo de los andes en la prueba de la capacidad de predaci6n de poblaciones naturales de carabidos hacia el gorgojo de los andes, expuestos en condiciones de campo (Aymara -Huancavelica).  1,0 0,3 : 0,5 0,1 0,6 0,2 : 0,5 0,4 junio 0,3 0,2 : 0,1 0,0 0,2 0,0 : 0,2 0,1 julio 0,2 0,1 : 0,1 0,0 '0,1 0,1 : 0,1 0,1 Coeficiente de relaci6n (R 2 ) entre carabidos y gorgojos: CC=O. l; SC= 0.4; CI= 0.2; T=0.5 Fig. 18. Tendencia de la poblaci6n de gorgojos VS. carabidos en la prueba de la capacidad de predaci6n de poblaciones naturales de carabidos hacia el gorgojo de los andes, expuestos en condiciones de campo (Aymara -Huancavelica)."}]},{"head":"4.3.2.","index":48,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"-Efecto de los carabidos en el dafio ocasionado por el gorgojo de los and es."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"En todos tratamientos evaluados el porcentaje de tuberculos daft.ados por P."},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"suturicallus fue inferior al porcentaje de tuberculos sanos a excepci6n del campo 1 ( cuadro 13 ), esto nos indica que hubo control por parte de los carabidos, probablemente en los distintos estados del gorgojo de los Andes (Figs. 19 -23)."},{"index":4,"size":235,"text":"Entre los tratamientos evaluados, en promedio en todos los campos evaluados (1 -5); el testigo (T) obtuvo el mayor numero de tuberculos daft.ados (54 %) en comparaci6n a los tratamientos CC (30 %), SC (30 %) y CI (21 %). En el campo 1, entre los tratamientos con carabidos y sin carabidos con 50 y 50 % respectivamente no hay diferencia, pero con el insecticida 10 % y con el testigo 70 % de dafio hay diferencias. En el campo2, los tratamientos con carabidos y sin carabidos con valores de 20 y 20% respectivamente no difieren estadisticamente, pero si difieren estadisticamente con los tratamientos con insecticida y testigo con valores de 10 y 50%, respectivamente. En el campo 3, no existe diferencias estadisticas significativas entres los tratamientos con carabidos, sin carabidos y con insecticida con val ores de 10, 10 y 10 % de dafio respectivamente, en comparaci6n al testigo con 30% de dafio. En el campo 4, no hay diferencias estadisticas significativas entre los tratamientos con carabidos, sin carabidos y con insecticida con valores de 30, 40 y 30% de dafio respectivamente en comparaci6n al tratamiento testigo con 60 % de dafio. En el campo 5, no existe diferencias estadisticas significativas entre los tratamientos con carabidos y sin carabidos con valores de 40 y 40 % de dafio en comparaci6n a los tratamientos con insecticida y testigo con 50 y 60% de dafio respectivamente."},{"index":5,"size":83,"text":"Cuadro 13. Efecto del gorgojo de los andes en el dafio de los tuberculos (%) en la prueba de la capacidad de predaci6n de poblaciones naturales de carabidos hacia el gorgojo de los andes, expuestos en condiciones de campo (Aymara -Huancavelica).  Efecto del gorgojo de los andes en el dafio de los tuberculos (%) del campo 1, en la prueba de la capacidad de predaci6n de poblaciones naturales de carabidos hacia el gorgojo de los andes, expuestos en condiciones de campo (Aymara -Huancavelica)."},{"index":6,"size":54,"text":"-:::R. ~  c con carabidos sin carabidos con insecticida testigo Fig. 23. Efecto del gorgojo de los andes en el dafio de los tuberculos (%) del campo 5, en la prueba de la capacidad de predaci6n de poblaciones naturales de canibidos hacia el gorgojo de los andes, expuestos en condiciones de campo (Aymara -Huancavelica)."}]},{"head":"DISCUSIONES EXPERIMENTO 3","index":49,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":157,"text":"Densidad y ocurrencia poblacional de carabidos y gorgojo de los andes En la mayoria de campos evaluados existi6 mayor densidad y ocurrencia poblacional de carabidos que de P. suturicallus a excepci6n del campo 2, esto probablemente en la zona los carabidos tambien predatan sobre otros insectos de suelo y/o se encuentran en habitats cercanos de los cuales migran al cultivo en busqueda de huevos y larvas de gorgojos ya que tambien se deba a que en este campo existieron fuentes de variabilidad desconocidas que alteraron los resultados finales. La poblaci6n de carabidos fue superior en el tratamiento CC; esto nos indica que efectivamente la barrera colocada al horde de los tratamientos CC y SC influy6 en la densidad poblacional de los carabidos y gorgojo de los Andes. Se ha reportado que la densidad poblacional de los carabidos depende de diferentes factores medioambientales intrinsicos y extrinsecos como temperatura, humedad extrema, condiciones alimenticias, presencia y distribuci6n de competidores, etc."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"(Lovei, and Sunderland, 1996; Kromp, 1999); las cuales pudieron varian en las diferentes parcelas tratadas. Ademas, los carabidos reaccionan susceptiblemente a cambios antropogenicos y son considerados de valor bioindicativo en el impacto de cultivos (Kromp, 1999;Niemela, 2001;Lovei, and Sunderland, 1996)."},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":"Tambien hay que considerar que la eficiencia de las trampas de caida (pitfall) utilizadas para determinar la densidad poblacional varian de acuerdo a la especie y actividad de los carabidos (Kromp, 1999)."},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"Ocurrencia poblacional de los carabidos y gorgojos durante el desarrollo del cultivo."},{"index":5,"size":83,"text":"Durante los meses de evaluaci6n ( diciembre a julio ), la poblaci6n de carabidos disminuy6 en todos los tratamientos, lo cual probablemente se deba a las constantes e involuntarias alteraciones de sus micro-habitats, debido a las frecuentes evaluaciones realizadas durante el desarrollo del experimento, provocando que los carabidos migren a lugares con micro-habitats menos alterados. Estos meses corresponden a la mayor prevalencia de adultos de gorgojo, y en consecuencia al existir menor predaci6n sobre adultos de gorgojo las poblaciones de los carabidos disminuyen."},{"index":6,"size":132,"text":"Mientras que, hubo un ligero incremento de su poblaci6n durante los meses de febrero y marzo, lo cual podria ser explicado por las constantes exposiciones realizadas de los distintos estados de desarrollo del gorgojo de los Andes, lo que habria atraido una mayor cantidad de carabidos durante dichos meses. Por otra parte, la poblaci6n de gorgojos se increment6 entre los meses de diciembre a enero. Este comportamiento corresponde a queen dichos meses se logra la mayor puesta de huevos de gorgojo de los andes y en consecuencia tambien la mayor predaci6n de carabidos. Cuadro 16. Efecto del gorgojo de los andes en el dafio de los tuberculos (%) en la prueba de la capacidad de predaci6n de poblaciones naturales de carabidos hacia el gorgojo de los andes, expuestos en condiciones de campo "}]},{"head":"DISCUSION GENERAL","index":50,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":170,"text":"La capacidad de predaci6n de los carabidos en condiciones de laboratorio a nivel de huevos y larva 1 de P. suturicallus fueron superiores a los estados larva 4 y pupa. Esto probablemente se debe a que, el tamafio de los estados huevo y larva 1 son sumamente pequefios, y para suplir sus necesidades alimenticias, el predador requieren consumir mayor cantidad de individuos; mientras que, los estados L4 y pupa que son de mayor tamafio ( casi proporcional al tamafio del adulto de los carabidos ), el predador requerira de pocos individuos para suplir sus necesidades alimenticias. Ademas, el huevo es considerado el estado de vida mas vulnerable del gorgojo de los andes y su larva 1 posee una debil esclerotizaci6n, a diferencia de los estadios larva 4, pupa y adulto los cuales poseen una esclerotizaci6n mas fuerte (Lovei and Sunderland, 1996). Algunos estudios han demostrado que las especies de carabidos predadores de P. suturicallus muestran cierta preferencia por sus estados inmaduros como huevos y larvas (Y abar et al, 2006)."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"Por otra parte, hay que considerar que existen varios reportes bien documentados, donde comprueban que los carabidos poseen una nutrici6n polifaga, predatora y son considerados alimentadores voraces ( capaces de consumir diariamente su propio peso); motivos por el cual, son potencialmente considerados como importantes a agentes naturales del control de plagas (Kromp, 1999;Niemela, 2001;Lovei and Sunderland, 1996)."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"Tambien hay que considerar que los resultados obtenidos estan basados sobre carabidos que se alimentan unicamente con los diferentes estadios de P."},{"index":4,"size":60,"text":"suturicallus, sin ofrecerles fuentes alimenticias altemativas. Por lo tanto, los resultados que se podrian obtener en condiciones de campo podrian no reflejar los obtenidos en condiciones de laboratorio. Tambien hay que considerar que el rol de un predador como agente de control de plagas involucra mucho mas que de simples observaciones alimenticias sobre una especie plaga en particular (Kromp, 1999)."},{"index":5,"size":232,"text":"Para clarificar esta probabilidad se hicieron las pruebas de campo donde los resultados obtenidos tuvieron relaci6n con los observados bajo condiciones de laboratorio. Al exponer los diferentes estados del gorgojo de los Andes en los campos de cultivo de papa, se obtuvo una buena capacidad de predaci6n por parte de los carabidos hacia P. suturicallus solo a nivel de huevo; mientras que, en los demas estadios evaluados (larva 4, pupa y adulto) se obtuvieron valores bajos de predaci6n. Esto probablemente se deba a que, en condiciones naturales el huevo es considerado, el estado de vida mas vulnerable, aun cuando las hembras de Premnotrypes ovipositan en micro-habitats como el interior de tallitos de varias especies de plantas para evadir la acci6n de sus depredadores y asegurar su supervivencia (Lovei and Sunderland, 1996;Y abar, 2006). Por otra parte, los niveles de predaci6n de la larva 1 fueron superiores a los de larva 4, pupa y adulto; y probablemente se deba a que, posee una limitada movilidad y una quitinizaci6n muy debil (Lovei, and Sunderland, 1996; Kromp, 1999). En condiciones de campo, para buscar a su presa los carabidos presentan un modelo de busqueda comun a los predadores invertebrados y utilizan sus mandibulas para atacar exitosamente (Overhollzer, 2003;Lovei and Sunderland, 1996), por lo tanto, considerando que los carabidos son depredadores generalistas su eficiencia en campo esta condicionado en gran parte a su comportamiento (Yabar, 2006)."},{"index":6,"size":62,"text":"Ademas, se ha reportado que, la naturaleza predadora de los carabidos en campo es la raz6n principal para estudiar esta familia de insectos en los habitats agricolas (Kromp, 1999); y algunas especies de carabidos como Harpalus turmalinus, Hylitus sp., Metius sp., Notiobia schunusei, Notiobia sp. y Meotachis sp. son considerados enemigos naturales del gorgojo de los Andes (Ludwig, 1999;Frank et al, 2006)."},{"index":7,"size":87,"text":"El tratamiento mas efectivo fue CC (con carabidos) en todos los estados probados de P. suturicallus (huevo, larva 4, pupa y adulto) seguido de los tratamientos T, CI y SC; probablemente las barreras de polietileno que se utilizaron para manipular el numero de carabidos, permitieron que los carabidos mantengan e incrementen sus poblaciones en dichas parcelas. El aislamiento mediante el uso de barreras fisicas es un metodo muy efectivo para demostrar algun rol de los enemigos naturales, y regular el numero de presas. (Carrillo, et al 2007)."},{"index":8,"size":159,"text":"Por otro lado, tambien hay que considerar que en las parcelas sin carabidos, la barrera fisica impidi6 el ingreso de carabidos y en consecuencia se observo un men or porcentaj e de predaci6n. Con respecto a las parcelas con insecticida y testigo, observamos que el porcentaje de predaci6n es variable, esto probablemente se deba a que hubo una migraci6n de gorgojos y carabidos entre estas parcelas cada vez que se alteraba su ecosistema por las practicas agron6micas en el manejo del campo. Tambien hay que considerar que el gorgojo de los andes se encuentra constantemente sometido a tratamientos frecuentes de pesticidas, y probablemente hayan desarrollado tolerancia a estos en diversos grados. Ademas, se ha reportado que algunas dosis de insecticidas puede causar un marcado incremento en la actividad de los carabidos (Lovei, and Sunderland, 1996). Tambien se ha demostrado que el uso de pesticidas en la agricultura convencional tiene un fuerte impacto sobre la fauna de carabidos (Kromp, 1989)."},{"index":9,"size":50,"text":"En general, los predadores generalistas pueden tener una ventaja sobre los especialistas debido a que ellos son capaces de retener tamafios poblacionales moderados cuando la densidad poblacional de la presa es baja alimentandose sobre presas altemativas (Overhollzer, 2003) En todos los campos evaluados el porcentaje de tuberculos dafiados por P."},{"index":10,"size":88,"text":"suturicallus fue inferior al porcentaje de tuberculos sanos, esto indica que hubo control por parte de los carabidos. Esto puede deberse a que, se ha determinado que altas poblaciones de carabidos reducen efectivamente el dafio ocasionado por algunas plagas, lo cual se refleja en un incremento de su rendimiento (Overhollzer, 2003;Frank et al, 2006). Ademas, los carabidos pueden suprimir a las plagas, pero en general su principal rol benefico es prolongar el umbral de dafio de una misma plaga entre dos campafias de cultivo (Lovei, and Sunderland, 1996)."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"5. 3 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 . 8 . 9 . 11 . 14 . 15 . 16 . FiguraPag. "},{"text":" para la Sierra Central (Huancayo): Harpalus turmalinus, Hylitus sp. y Metius sp.(Alcazar, 1976); para la Sierra Sur (Puno ): Notiobia schunusei, Notiobia sp. y Meotachis sp.(Ludwig, 1999); hormigas: el genero Eciton (Garmendia, 1961); bongos: Beauveria bassiana(Alcazar, 1976), Beauveria brongniartii(Torres, 1993;Vera, 1992 Vera,   y 2001)), Metarhizium anisopliae, Paecilomycesfumosoroseus y Fusarium oxysporum(Rodriguez, 1986); bacterias: Bacillus thuringiensis(Andrew, 1996); virus: Baculoviridae(Rodriguez, 1986); nematodos: Steinernema sp.(Garzon, et. al, 1996), Mermitidae (Velasquez y Espinoza, 2001 ), Heterorhabditis(Alcazar & Kaya, 2003); y pollos, sapos(Alcazar, 1997). "},{"text":"2. 2 .-Familia Carabidae 2 . 2 . 1 . Ubicacion taxonomica: (Comstock 1996, Richards y Davies 1984, Nieto y Mier 1985 y Metcalf y Flint 1991 ). "},{"text":"3. 3 . 1 . 2 . -Tratamientos: Los tratamientos se muestran en el Cuadro 2. "},{"text":"Cuadro 2 : Tratamientos para determinar la capacidad predadora de los carabidos en los distintos estados de desarrollo del gorgojo de los Andes en condiciones de de desarrollo del gorgojo de los Andes (huevo, L4, pupa y adulto ), fueron obtenidos de la crianza masal del CIP (Centro Internacional de la Papa -Lima). La metodologia utilizada fue determinada en base a experiencias previas al trabaj o y en las cuales se determin6 el comportamiento predador so bre huevos, larvas y pupas.Para determinar la capacidad predadora de los canibidos en los distintos estados de desarrollo del gorgojo de los Andes, las condiciones del Laboratorio fueron acondicionados a bajas temperaturas de 15 a 18°C y una humedad relativa de 40 a 60%. Para los ensayos de los diferentes tratamientos se utilizaron placas Petri de 9 "},{"text":"Fig. 1 : Fig. 1: Fechas de exposici6n de los distintos estados de desarrollo del Gorgojo de los "},{"text":"Fig. 2 . Fig.2. Distribuci6n de las parcelas experimentales y ubicaci6n de las trampas de caida modificada por Kune (2007) para la captura de gorgojos y carabidos (circulos con lineas discontinuas), para determinar la eficiencia de predaci6n de canibidos en el control del gorgojo de los Andes en la zona de Aymara. "},{"text":"3. 3 . 3 .-EXPERIMENTO 3 :Evaluacion del efecto de los carabidos en los daiios del gorgojo de los Andes y densidad poblacional de gorgojos y carabidos en campos de papa de la zona de Aymara 3 . 3 . 3 . 1 . -Objetivos Especificos-Evaluar la ocurrencia poblacional de carabidos durante el desarrollo del cultivo de acuerdo a los tratamientos -Evaluar la ocurrencia poblacional de gorgojos durante el desarrollo del cultivo. "},{"text":" I •:!°•-.-.~;;;;.~ --------\"\"' 8 : .......... . . 1 "},{"text":"Fig. 4 . Fig. 4. Croquis de las 4 zonas muestreadas (120 plantas) por tratamiento. "},{"text":"Fig. 6 .Fig. 7 . Fig.6. Promedios de la capacidad predadora de canibidos en cada estado de desarrollo de Premnotrypes suturicallus en condiciones de laboratorio.Promedios seguidos con una letra diferente, difieren estadisticamente (LSD, P<0.05). Las lineas verticales indican Ia desviaci6n estandar de los promedios "},{"text":"suturicallus 4 . 1 . 1 .-DISCUSIONES DEL EXPERIMENTO 1 La capacidad de predaci6n de los carabidos colectados a nivel de huevos y larva 1 de P. suturicallus fueron superiores a los estadios larva 4 y pupa. Esto probablemente se debe a que, el tamafio de los estados huevo y larva 1 son sumamente pequefios, y para suplir sus necesidades alimenticias, el predador requieren consumir mayor cantidad de individuos (Fig.7B y 7C). Por el contrario, y debido a que los estados L4 y pupa son de mayor tamafio ( casi proporcional al tamafio del adulto de los carabidos) el predador requerira de pocos individuos para suplir sus necesidades alimenticias. Ademas, el huevo es considerado el estado de vida mas vulnerable del gorgojo de los andes y su larva 1 posee una debil esclerotizaci6n, a diferencia de los estadios larva 4, pupa y adulto los cuales poseen una esclerotizaci6n mas fuerte (Lovei and Sunderland, 1996). Algunos estudios han demostrado que las especies de carabidos predadores de P.suturicallus muestran cierta preferencia por sus estados inmaduros como huevos y larvas (Y abar et al, 2006). Al respecto, se ha reportado que una vez que los carabidos localizan a sus presas, activan un comportamiento bien definido "},{"text":"2 , 9 .2 y 1 . 2 %Cuadro 5 .Cuadro 6 . para los estadios huevo, larva 4, pupa y adulto respectivamente (Cuadro 5 y Fig.8 -12); seguido de los tratamientos T (H = 52.5 %, L4 = 10.1 %, P = 8.8 % y A= 1.0 %), CI (H = 48.4 %, L4 = 8.4 %, P = 8.4 % y A= 2.2 %) y SC (H = 42.7 %, L4 = 6.6 %, P = 5.9 % y A = 1.0 %) (Cuadro 6 -8). En general, el porcentaje de predaci6n promedio entre campos no difieren estadisticamente (P<0.05); donde el campo 1 obtuvo los valores mas altos de porcentaje de predaci6n con 62.2, 10.0, 8.5 y 2.2 % para los estados huevo, larva 4, pupa y adulto del gorgojo respectivamente (Cuadro 9). Capacidad de predaci6n (%) en el tratamiento con carabidos (CC) de poblaciones naturales de carabidos hacia diferentes estados de desarrollo de Premnotrypes suturicallus expuestos en condiciones de campo (Aymara -Huancave lica).Promedios seguidos con una letra diferente, difieren estadisticamente (LSD, P<0.05) Capacidad de predaci6n (%) en el tratamiento sin aumento de carabidos (SC) de poblaciones naturales de carabidos hacia diferentes estados de desarrollo de Premnotrypes suturicallus expuestos en condiciones de campo (Aymara - "},{"text":"Fig. 8 .Fig. 9 . Fig.8. Capacidad de predaci6n (%) en el campo 1 de poblaciones naturales de carabidos hacia diferentes estados de desarrollo de Premnotrypes suturicallus expuestos en condiciones de campo (Aymara -Huancavelica). Promedios seguidos con una letra diferente, difieren estadisticamente (LSD, P<0.05). CC = con carabidos, CI = con insecticida, T = testigo, SC = sin carabidos "},{"text":"Fig. 10 . Fig.10. Capacidad de predaci6n (%) en el campo 3 de poblaciones naturales de carabidos hacia diferentes estados de desarrollo de Premnotrypes suturicallus expuestos en condiciones de campo (Aymara -Huancavelica). Promedios seguidos con una letra diferente, difieren estadisticamente (LSD, P<0.05). CC = con carabidos, CI = con insecticida, T = testigo, SC = sin carabidos "},{"text":"Fig. 11 .Fig. 12 . Fig.11.Capacidad de predaci6n (%) en el campo 4 de poblaciones naturales de carabidos hacia diferentes estados de desarrollo de Premnotrypes suturicallus expuestos en condiciones de campo (Aymara -Huancavelica). Promedios seguidos con una letra diferente, difieren estadisticamente (LSD, P<0.05). CC = con carabidos, CI = con insecticida, T = testigo, SC = sin carabidos "},{"text":"4. 3 .-RESULTADOS APARTADO 3 :densidad poblacional de gorgojos y carabidos en campos de papa de la zona de Aymara 4 . 3 . 1 . Evaluacion del efecto de los carabidos en los dafi.os del gorgojo de los Andes y -Densidad poblacional de carabidos y gorgojo de los andes Los valores de densidad poblacional (total de individuos adultos de carabidos o larva 4 + adultos de gorgojos segun sea el caso) mostrados en el cuadro 10, indican que en todos los campos evaluados, existi6 mayor densidad poblacional de carabidos que de P. suturicallus a excepci6n del campo 2 (Figs.13 -17). La poblaci6n de carabidos fue significativamente superior (P<0.05) en el tratamiento CC, en comparaci6n a los tratamientos SC, CI y T; esto nos indica que la barrera colocada al horde de los tratamientos CC y SC tuvieron efecto en la densidad poblacional de los carabidos; ademas, hay que considerar que se increment6 el numero se carabidos semanalmente en las parcelas CC. La densidad poblacional de carabidos y gorgojos entre campos tuvieron diferencias estadisticas significativas (P<0.05) en todos los tratamientos evaluados (Cuadro 11 ). Ademas, en el cuadro 11 se observa claramente que el tratamiento con carabidos (CC), obtuvo los valores mas altos de densidad poblacional de carabidos, en comparaci6n a los demas tratamientos (SC, T y CI). "},{"text":"Fig. 13 .Fig. 14 .Fig. 15 .Fig. 16 . Fig.13. Densidad poblacional en el campo 1, de carabidos y gorgojo de los andes en la prueba de la capacidad de predaci6n de poblaciones naturales de carabidos hacia el gorgojo de los andes, expuestos en condiciones de campo (Aymara -Huancavelica).Promedios seguidos con una letra diferente, difieren estadisticamente (LSD, P<0.05). CC = con carabidos, CI = con insecticida, T = testigo, SC = sin carabidos "},{"text":" Fig.17.Densidad poblacional en el campo 5, de carabidos y gorgojo de los andes en la prueba de la capacidad de predaci6n de poblaciones naturales de carabidos hacia el gorgojo de los andes, expuestos en condiciones de campo (Aymara -Huancavelica). "},{"text":" Fig.19. Efecto del gorgojo de los andes en el dafio de los tuberculos (%) del campo 1, en la prueba de la capacidad de predaci6n de poblaciones naturales de carabidos hacia el gorgojo de los andes, expuestos en condiciones de campo (Aymara -Huancavelica). "},{"text":"Fig. 20 .Fig. 21 . Fig.20. Efecto del gorgojo de los andes en el dafio de los tuberculos (%) del campo 2, en la prueba de la capacidad de predaci6n de poblaciones naturales de canibidos hacia el gorgojo de los andes, expuestos en condiciones de campo (Aymara -Huancavelica). "},{"text":"-Fig. 22 . Fig.22. Efecto del gorgojo de los andes en el dafio de los tuberculos (%) del campo 4, en la prueba de la capacidad de predaci6n de poblaciones naturales de carabidos hacia el gorgojo de los andes, expuestos en condiciones de campo (Aymara -Huancavelica). "},{"text":" Promedios seguidos con una letra diferente, difieren estadisticamente (LSD, P<0.05). "},{"text":"1 . Fechas de exposici6n de los distintos estados de desarrollo del Gorgojo de los Andes en placas petri en las parcelas de papa, para evaluar la capacidad predadora de los carabidos en la zona de Aymara .......................................... 172. Distribuci6n de las parcelas experimentales y ubicaci6n de las trampas pitfall ( circulos con lineas discontinuas ), para determinar la eficiencia de predaci6n de carabidos en el control del gorgojo de los Andes en la zona de Aymara ............................................................................................................ 18 Capacidad de predaci6n (%) en el campo 5 de poblaciones naturales de carabidos hacia diferentes estados de desarrollo de Premnotrypes suturicallus expuestos en condiciones de campo (Aymara -Huancavelica) ...................... 30 13. Densidad poblacional de carabidos y gorgojo de los andes en la prueba de la capacidad de predaci6n de poblaciones naturales de carabidos hacia el gorgojo de los andes, expuestos en condiciones de campo (Aymara -Huancavelica) .................................................................................................. 34 Huancavelica) ................................................................................ 39 20. Efecto del gorgojo de los andes en el dafio de los tuberculos (%) del campo 2, en la prueba de la capacidad de predaci6n de poblaciones naturales de carabidos hacia el gorgojo de los andes, expuestos en condiciones de campo (Aymara -Huancavelica) ................................................................................ 40 21. Efecto del gorgoj o de los andes en el dafio de los tuberculos (%) del campo 3, en la prueba de la capacidad de predaci6n de poblaciones naturales de carabidos hacia el gorgojo de los andes, expuestos en condiciones de campo (Aymara -Huancavelica) ................................................................................ 40 Huancavelica) ..................................................................... 41 ESTRUCTURA DE LA TESIS ESTRUCTURA DE LA TESIS Debido a que el desarrollo del trabajo de tesis involucra trabajos experimentales Debido a que el desarrollo del trabajo de tesis involucra trabajos experimentales de campo y laboratorio, se ha visto por conveniente estructurar su presentaci6n en de campo y laboratorio, se ha visto por conveniente estructurar su presentaci6n en tres apartados, cado uno con su propia metodologia, resultados y discusiones: 1. tres apartados, cado uno con su propia metodologia, resultados y discusiones: 1. 22. Efecto del gorgojo de los andes en el dafio de los tuberculos (%) del campo 22. Efecto del gorgojo de los andes en el dafio de los tuberculos (%) del campo 4, en la prueba de la capacidad de predaci6n de poblaciones naturales de 4, en la prueba de la capacidad de predaci6n de poblaciones naturales de carabidos hacia el gorgojo de los andes, expuestos en condiciones de carabidos hacia el gorgojo de los andes, expuestos en condiciones de campo (Aymara -23. Efecto del gorgojo de los andes en el dafio de los tuberculos (%) del campo campo (Aymara -23. Efecto del gorgojo de los andes en el dafio de los tuberculos (%) del campo 5, en la prueba de la capacidad de predaci6n de poblaciones naturales de 5, en la prueba de la capacidad de predaci6n de poblaciones naturales de carabidos hacia el gorgojo de los andes, expuestos en condiciones de campo carabidos hacia el gorgojo de los andes, expuestos en condiciones de campo (Aymara -Huancavelica) ................................................................................ 41 (Aymara -Huancavelica) ................................................................................ 41 24. Capacidad predadora de carabidos en los distintos estado de desarrollo de 24. Capacidad predadora de carabidos en los distintos estado de desarrollo de Premnotrypes suturicallus evaluados en condiciones de laboratorio ............ 45 Premnotrypes suturicallus evaluados en condiciones de laboratorio ............ 45  "},{"text":"2.1.-Premnotrypes suturicallus  El complejo de los gorgojo de los Andes comprende 12 especies pertenecientes El complejo de los gorgojo de los Andes comprende 12 especies pertenecientes todas ellas al genero Premnotrypes. Se encuentran distribuidas en los andes de todas ellas al genero Premnotrypes. Se encuentran distribuidas en los andes de Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina y Chile entre los 2100 a Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina y Chile entre los 2100 a 4500 msnm (Yabar, 1994). P. suturicallus es la especie dominante de la zona 4500 msnm (Yabar, 1994). P. suturicallus es la especie dominante de la zona central del Peru, y se encuentra distribuido entre los 2500 a 4 700 msnm. Es la central del Peru, y se encuentra distribuido entre los 2500 a 4 700 msnm. Es la plaga mas importante en los cultivos de papa sembrados a estas altitudes y plaga mas importante en los cultivos de papa sembrados a estas altitudes y ocasiona perdidas en su producci6n del 20 -25%, las cuales se incrementan entre ocasiona perdidas en su producci6n del 20 -25%, las cuales se incrementan entre los 3000 y 4000 msnm y disminuyen sobre los 4000 msnm (Ewell et al, 1990). los 3000 y 4000 msnm y disminuyen sobre los 4000 msnm (Ewell et al, 1990). Los adultos que poseen habitos noctumos, se alimentan de los hordes de las hojas Los adultos que poseen habitos noctumos, se alimentan de los hordes de las hojas produciendo dafios en forma de media luna (Alcazar, 1997); ovipositan cerca del produciendo dafios en forma de media luna (Alcazar, 1997); ovipositan cerca del tallo de la planta y las larvas se alimentan de los tuberculos pasando por 4 estadios tallo de la planta y las larvas se alimentan de los tuberculos pasando por 4 estadios larvales. Las larvas maduras abandonan los tuberculos para empupar en el suelo, y larvales. Las larvas maduras abandonan los tuberculos para empupar en el suelo, y cuando los adultos emergen migran a nuevos campos de papa (Alcala y Alcazar, cuando los adultos emergen migran a nuevos campos de papa (Alcala y Alcazar, 1976). 1976).  "},{"text":"2.1.1. Ubicacion taxonomica: (Kuhne et al, 2007). Phylum: Arthropoda Subphylum: Uniramia = Mandibulata Infraphylum: Atelocerata Clase: Insecta = Hexapoda Sub-Clase: Euentomata = Pterigota Serie: Neoptera Orden: Coleoptera Familia: Curculionidae Tribu: Premnotrypini Sub-Familia: Entiminae Genero: Premnotrypes Especie: Premnotrypes suturicallus 2.1.2.-Biologia y comportamiento  Premnotrypes suturicallus presenta 4 estados de desarrollo: huevo, larva, pupa y Premnotrypes suturicallus presenta 4 estados de desarrollo: huevo, larva, pupa y adulto. En el estado adulto se distinguen dos fases, una invernante en el suelo y adulto. En el estado adulto se distinguen dos fases, una invernante en el suelo y otra migrante, activa en la planta. El adulto es un gorgojo de color marr6n oscuro otra migrante, activa en la planta. El adulto es un gorgojo de color marr6n oscuro de 8.5 mm de largo x 3.8 mm de ancho. Los huevos son de forma capsular y de 8.5 mm de largo x 3.8 mm de ancho. Los huevos son de forma capsular y miden 1.2 mm de largo por 0.54 mm de ancho. Las larvas que son del tipo miden 1.2 mm de largo por 0.54 mm de ancho. Las larvas que son del tipo curculioniforme, presentan una coloraci6n blanco-cremoso, carecen de patas y curculioniforme, presentan una coloraci6n blanco-cremoso, carecen de patas y pueden Hegan a medir hasta 10 mm de largo. Las pupas son del ti po libre, de color pueden Hegan a medir hasta 10 mm de largo. Las pupas son del ti po libre, de color blanco y miden 8.2 mm de largo x 4.9 mm de ancho (Alcala y Alcazar, 1976). blanco y miden 8.2 mm de largo x 4.9 mm de ancho (Alcala y Alcazar, 1976). Su ciclo de vida varia considerablemente entre las diferentes regiones de siembra Su ciclo de vida varia considerablemente entre las diferentes regiones de siembra de papa, pero generalmente presenta una generaci6n por afio. En general, debido a de papa, pero generalmente presenta una generaci6n por afio. En general, debido a que en condiciones de campo factores como temperatura pueden influenciar su que en condiciones de campo factores como temperatura pueden influenciar su desarrollo; el tiempo de desarrollo de huevo a adulto varia entre 185 y 300 dias desarrollo; el tiempo de desarrollo de huevo a adulto varia entre 185 y 300 dias (Kuhne et al, 2007). Las hembras que ovipositan 630 huevos en promedio, (Kuhne et al, 2007). Las hembras que ovipositan 630 huevos en promedio, colocan sus huevos al interior de rastrojos de tallos de gramineas cerca del cuello colocan sus huevos al interior de rastrojos de tallos de gramineas cerca del cuello de la planta. Cuando emergen las larvas al cabo de 32 dias de incubaci6n, se de la planta. Cuando emergen las larvas al cabo de 32 dias de incubaci6n, se introducen al suelo en busca de tuberculos, donde permanecen por 45 dias ( 4 introducen al suelo en busca de tuberculos, donde permanecen por 45 dias ( 4 estadios larvales ). Posteriormente, las larvas abandonan el tuberculo y se estadios larvales ). Posteriormente, las larvas abandonan el tuberculo y se  "},{"text":" Exploradoras de suelo Tamafio media a pequefio, no Se mueve dentro de la Pterostichus, Benbidion. Tipos caracteristicas  habitats Ejemplos TiposcaracteristicashabitatsEjemplos 1. 2. Corredoras de superficie especializada Tamafio medio a pequefio, cercos estructura del suelo Corre sobre Trechus la Nebria, Notiophilus 1. 2. Corredoras de superficieespecializada Tamafio medio a pequefio, cercosestructura del suelo Corre sobreTrechus la Nebria, Notiophilus  y piernas largas, frecuentemente superficie del suelo y piernas largas, frecuentementesuperficie del suelo  con cuello    con cuello 3. Caminadoras de Tamafio de mediano a grande, Camina sabre la Carabus, Calosoma 3. Caminadoras deTamafio de mediano a grande,Caminasabrela Carabus, Calosoma superficie frecuentemente oscura o aplanada, superficie del suelo superficiefrecuentemente oscura o aplanada,superficie del suelo  cercos cortos    cercos cortos 4. Digestoras de arena Tamafio de mediano a grande, Escarba en sustratos Scarites, Omophron 4. Digestoras de arenaTamafio de mediano a grande,Escarba en sustratos Scarites, Omophron  cilindrica, cercos cortos  flojos cilindrica, cercos cortosflojos 5. Comedoras de semilla Tamafio mediano, cabeza Vive sobre la superficie Harpalus, Amara 5. Comedoras de semillaTamafiomediano,cabezaVive sobre la superficie Harpalus, Amara  alargada, con mandibulas robustas, del suelo o en cuevas alargada, con mandibulas robustas,del suelo o en cuevas  cercos cortos    cercos cortos 6. Atrapadoras-escabadoras Parte anterior del cuerpo grande, Cuevas verticales en Cicindela 6. Atrapadoras-escabadorasParte anterior del cuerpo grande, Cuevas verticales en Cicindela  cercos reducidos, pueden tener suelos arenosos cercos reducidos, pueden tener suelos arenosos  ganchos abdominales   ganchos abdominales 7-9. larvas reducidas (3 Fisogastrica, por lo menos en los Parasiticos o en nidos Lebia, Brachinus, 7-9. larvas reducidas (3Fisogastrica, por lo menos en losParasiticos o en nidosLebia,Brachinus, tipos) ultimos estadios  de hormigas y familias Paussus, Carterus tipos)ultimos estadiosde hormigas y familiasPaussus, Carterus     relacionadas relacionadas 2.2.2.3.-Pupa     2.2.2.3.-Pupa  "},{"text":" Cuadro 8. Capacidad de predaci6n (%) en el tratamiento testigo (T) de poblaciones naturales de carabidos hacia diferentes estados de desarrollo de Premnotrypes suturicallus expuestos en condiciones de campo (Aymara -Huancavelica). Estado de desarrollo campo 1 campo2 campo3 campo 4 campo 5 promedio Estado de desarrollocampo 1campo2campo3campo 4campo 5promedio Huevo 74.4 a 31.6 a 55.1 a 60.9 a 40.4 a 52,5 Huevo74.4 a31.6 a55.1 a60.9 a40.4 a52,5 Larva4 10.9 b 9.9 b 11.8 b 11.8 b 6.2 c 10,1 Larva410.9 b9.9 b11.8 b11.8 b6.2 c10,1 Pupa 8.6 b 8.1 c 8.5 c 8.8 c 9.7 b 8,8 Pupa8.6 b8.1 c8.5 c8.8 c9.7 b8,8 Adulto 1.5 c 0.8 d 0.4 d 1.8 d 0.0 d 0,9 Adulto1.5 c0.8 d0.4 d1.8 d0.0 d0,9 Promedios seguidos con una letra diferente, difieren estadisticamente (LSD, P<0.05)  Promedios seguidos con una letra diferente, difieren estadisticamente (LSD, P<0.05) Cuadro 9. Promedios de los tratamientos de la capacidad de predaci6n (%) de Cuadro 9. Promedios de los tratamientos de la capacidad de predaci6n (%) de poblaciones naturales de carabidos hacia diferentes estados de desarrollo de poblaciones naturales de carabidos hacia diferentes estados de desarrollo de Premnotrypes suturicallus expuestos en condiciones de campo (Aymara - Premnotrypes suturicallus expuestos en condiciones de campo (Aymara - Huancavelica ).      Huancavelica ).  cam po huevo Larva4 pupa adulto  cam pohuevoLarva4pupaadulto Campo 1 66.2 a 10.0 a 8.5 a 2.2 a  Campo 166.2 a10.0 a8.5 a2.2 a Campo2 37.9b 8.7 a 7.5 a 1.2 a  Campo237.9b8.7 a7.5 a1.2 a Campo 3 52.8 a 9.8 a 7.8 a 0.5 b  Campo 352.8 a9.8 a7.8 a0.5 b Campo4 54.6 a 10.1 a 8.4 a 1.2 a  Campo454.6 a10.1 a8.4 a1.2 a Campo 5 42.4 a 6.9 a 8.1 a 0.2 a  Campo 542.4 a6.9 a8.1 a0.2 a 90       90 80       80 70       70 60       60 ~ 50. c: •O •c:; ns 40 \"O ~ a.       ~ 50. c: •O •c:; ns 40 \"O ~ a. 30       30 20       20 10       10 0       0       1,1 1,1  "},{"text":"4.3.2.-Ocurrencia poblacional de los carabidos y gorgojos durante el desarrollo del cultivo Fluctuaciones poblacionales de carabidos y Gorgojo de los Andes durante los meses que se desarroll6 el experimento, en la prueba de la capacidad de predaci6n de poblaciones naturales de carabidos hacia el gorgojo de los andes, expuestos en condiciones de campo (Aymara -Huancavelica). Las fluctuaciones poblacionales mensuales de carabidos y gorgojos por Las fluctuaciones poblacionales mensuales de carabidos y gorgojos por tratamiento, se muestran en el cuadro 12 y Fig. 18. Se observa que entre tratamiento, se muestran en el cuadro 12 y Fig. 18. Se observa que entre diciembre (2006) a febrero (2007) la poblaci6n de carabidos disminuy6 en todos diciembre (2006) a febrero (2007) la poblaci6n de carabidos disminuy6 en todos los tratamientos (promedios de los 5 campos ); mientras que se increment6 los tratamientos (promedios de los 5 campos ); mientras que se increment6 ligeramente entre febrero y marzo, para volver a disminuir hasta el final del ligeramente entre febrero y marzo, para volver a disminuir hasta el final del experimento. Por otra parte, la poblaci6n de gorgojos se increment6 entre los experimento. Por otra parte, la poblaci6n de gorgojos se increment6 entre los meses de diciembre a enero, para posteriormente disminuir constantemente hasta meses de diciembre a enero, para posteriormente disminuir constantemente hasta el final del experimento.    el final del experimento. Cuadro 12. Meses cc SC CI T Cuadro 12. MesesccSCCIT (2006 -2007) carabidos gorgojos carabidos gorgojos carabidos gorgojos carabidos gorgojos (2006 -2007) carabidos gorgojos carabidos gorgojos carabidos gorgojos carabidos gorgojos diciembre 12,3    diciembre12,3  "},{"text":"de los carabidos en el da.fio ocasionado por el gorgojo de los andes. Esto concuerda con KUhne et al(2007), quienes determinaron que la emergencia de adultos del gorgojo de los Andes en el Pen'.i se produce entre los meses de octubre a marzo. Mientras que, la constante disminuci6n de la densidad poblacional de gorgojos durante los meses posteriores, comprueban el efecto de los distintos tratamientos evaluados en el control del gorgojo de los Andes.En todos los campos evaluados el porcentaje de tuberculos da:fiados por P. Se debe de considerar que los carabidos son predadores polifagos y pueden suprimir otros antagonistas tales como aracnidos y a traves de este mecanismo incrementan la densidad poblacional de la plaga ocasionando un mayor dafio(Carrillo, et al 2007). RESULTADOSGENERALES RESULTADOSGENERALES Efecto suturicallus fue inferior al porcentaje de tuberculos sanos, esto indica que hubo Efecto suturicallus fue inferior al porcentaje de tuberculos sanos, esto indica que hubo control por parte de los carabidos. Entre los tratamientos evaluados, el testigo (T) control por parte de los carabidos. Entre los tratamientos evaluados, el testigo (T) obtuvo el mayor numero de tuberculos dafiados en comparaci6n a los tratamientos obtuvo el mayor numero de tuberculos dafiados en comparaci6n a los tratamientos CC, SC y CL Esto puede deberse a que, se ha determinado que altas poblaciones CC, SC y CL Esto puede deberse a que, se ha determinado que altas poblaciones de carabidos reducen efectivamente el dafio ocasionado por algunas plagas, lo de carabidos reducen efectivamente el dafio ocasionado por algunas plagas, lo cual se refleja en un incremento de su rendimiento (Overhollzer, 2003; Frank et cual se refleja en un incremento de su rendimiento (Overhollzer, 2003; Frank et al, 2006). Ademas, los carabidos pueden suprimir a las plagas, pero en general su al, 2006). Ademas, los carabidos pueden suprimir a las plagas, pero en general su principal rol benefico es prolongar el umbral de dafio de una plaga entre dos principal rol benefico es prolongar el umbral de dafio de una plaga entre dos campafias de cultivo (Lovei, and Sunderland, 1996). La diferencia del dafio entre campafias de cultivo (Lovei, and Sunderland, 1996). La diferencia del dafio entre los tratamientos con carabidos y sin carabidos no vari6 significativamente, tal vez los tratamientos con carabidos y sin carabidos no vari6 significativamente, tal vez debido a que bastaba la minima poblaci6n del gorgojo para que el dafio al debido a que bastaba la minima poblaci6n del gorgojo para que el dafio al tuberculo proceda, y como se consider6 para este apartado tuberculos sanos y tuberculo proceda, y como se consider6 para este apartado tuberculos sanos y tuberculos dafiados los resultados las diferencias son minimas; tal vez si hubiera tuberculos dafiados los resultados las diferencias son minimas; tal vez si hubiera  "},{"text":"Capacidad de predaci6n de carabidos en los diferentes estados de desarrollo del gorgojo de los Andes en condiciones de laboratorio En la figura 24, se muestra que la capacidad de predaci6n de los canibidos a nivel de huevos y larva 1 de P. suturicallus con valores de 33.87 y 34.01 % Capacidad predadora de los carabidos en los distintos estado de desarrollo de Premnotrypes suturicallus evaluados en condiciones de laboratorio. Promedios seguidos con una letra diferente, difieren estadisticamente (LSD, P<0.05). respectivamente, fueron significativamente superiores (P<0.05) a los estadios respectivamente, fueron significativamente superiores (P<0.05) a los estadios larva 4 y pupa con valores de 4.79 y 2.83 % respectivamente. larva 4 y pupa con valores de 4.79 y 2.83 % respectivamente. 40,0    40,0 35,0 a a  35,0aa 30,0    30,0 @: 25,0.    @: 25,0. '0 20,0 •c::; ro \"O ~ 15,0 a..    '0 20,0 •c::; ro \"O ~ 15,0 a.. 10,0    10,0 5,0    5,0 0,0    0,0  huew larva 1 larva 4 pupa huewlarva 1larva 4pupa Fig. 24. Capacidad    Fig. 24. Capacidad  "},{"text":"de predaci6n de carabidos en el control del gorgojo de los Andes en condiciones de campo. El cuadro 15 nos indica que, el porcentaje de predaci6n entre los distintos campos evaluados no difieren estadisticamente (P<0.05), pero en general, tambien se observa un mayor porcentaje de predaci6n a nivel de huevo en comparaci6n a los estados pupa y adulto. Por otra parte, el cuadro 16 muestra que en todos los campos evaluados el porcentaje de tuberculos dafiados por P. suturicallus fue superior estadisticamente en el testigo (T) en comparaci6n a los tratamientos CC, SC y CI; lo cual comprueba el efecto de los carabidos en el control del gorgojo de los Andes en condiciones de campo. Capacidad de predaci6n (%) de poblaciones naturales de carabidos hacia diferentes estados de desarrollo de Premnotrypes suturicallus expuestos en condiciones de campo (Aymara -Huancavelica).Promedios seguidos con una letra diferente, difieren estadisticamente (LSD, P<0.05) Cuadro 15. Capacidad de predaci6n (%) de poblaciones naturales de carabidos hacia diferentes estados de desarrollo de Premnotrypes suturicallus expuestos en condiciones de campo.Promedios seguidos con una letra diferente, difieren estadisticamente (LSD, P<0.05) Estado de desarrollo Con carabidos Sin carabidos Con insecticida Testigo absoluto Estado de desarrolloCon carabidosSin carabidosCon insecticidaTestigo absoluto Huevo  59.5 a  42.7 a 48,4 a 52,5 a Huevo59.5 a42.7 a48,4 a52,5 a Larva4  11.2 b  6.6 b 8,4 b 10,1 b Larva411.2 b6.6 b8,4 b10,1 b Pupa  9.2 c  5.9 b 8,4 b 8,8 b Pupa9.2 c5.9 b8,4 b8,8 b Adulto  1.2 d  1.0 c 1,1 c 0,9 c Adulto1.2 d1.0 c1,1 c0,9 c cam po huevo  Larva4 pupa adulto cam pohuevoLarva4pupaadulto Campo 1 66.2 a 10.0 a 8.5 a 2.2 a Campo 166.2 a10.0 a8.5 a2.2 a Campo2 37.9 b 8.7 a 7.5 a 1.2 a Campo237.9 b8.7 a7.5 a1.2 a Campo 3 52.8 a 9.8 a 7.8 a 0.5 b Campo 352.8 a9.8 a7.8 a0.5 b Campo4 54.6 a 10.1 a 8.4 a 1.2 a Campo454.6 a10.1 a8.4 a1.2 a En general, los resultados indican que existe buena efectividad de predaci6n del Campo 5 42.4 a 6.9 a 8.1 a 0.2 a En general, los resultados indican que existe buena efectividad de predaci6n del Campo 5 42.4 a 6.9 a 8.1 a 0.2 a gorgojo de los Andes por parte de los carabidos en condiciones de campo. En el gorgojo de los Andes por parte de los carabidos en condiciones de campo. En el cuadro 14, se observa que en todos los tratamientos evaluados, la capacidad de cuadro 14, se observa que en todos los tratamientos evaluados, la capacidad de predaci6n de los carabidos hacia P. suturicallus fue significativamente mas predaci6n de los carabidos hacia P. suturicallus fue significativamente mas efectiva (P<0.05) ha nivel de huevo, en comparaci6n a los estadios larva 4, pupa efectiva (P<0.05) ha nivel de huevo, en comparaci6n a los estadios larva 4, pupa y adulto. El tratamiento que obtuvo los valores mas altos de predaci6n fue CC y adulto. El tratamiento que obtuvo los valores mas altos de predaci6n fue CC  "}],"sieverID":"5cedf514-e81d-45e5-890e-a9a49fff2956","abstract":"Region, and the use of contaminant, expensive residual soil insecticides is the most popular method for its control among farmers; this situation poses the need of research of other environmentally sound and cheaper control alternatives, among them the biological control. The objective of this study was to determine the predatory capacity of carabids or ground beetles on different stages in the development of that weevil, under lab and field conditions.In the lab a total of 50 eggs, 50 L 1 larvae, 20 L4 larvae and 20 pupae of the weevil were exposed to one to five adult carabids for 24 hours in Petri dishes under lab conditions. All treatments were repeated three times and the experiment itself was repeated three times as well. The results showed that predation was higher at egg stage (34 %) and Ll larvae instar (34 %) than in L4 larvae (4.8 %) and pupae (2.8 %).The field experiment was carried out in an historically weevil infested site, by using the following four treatments: plot isolated with plastic barriers to prevent weevil infestation and with natural carabids, plot with plastic barriers, natural and artificially infested with carabids, open plot treated with insecticides, and a control open untreated plot. Uninfested potato tubercles of some native varieties were planted in these plots, with replications in five fields. Under these field conditions, two objectives were planned: (1) to measure the impact of carabid predation on the pest population, and (2) the assessment of carabid and insecticide effects of weevils on tuber damage at harvest. To reach the objective (1) 20 eggs, 10 L4 larvae, 5 pupae and 3 adults of the weevil were exposed at soil level in the field for 24 hours in Petri dishes, with 5 repetitions in each plot; these exposures were repeated every 2 weeks during the crop development. For the objective (2), the number and weight of healthy and damaged tubers, as well as larvae infestation in each plot were assessed at harvest. For the objective (1) the results demonstrated that egg predation was higher (50.8 %) than the L4 larvae instar (9.1 %), pupae (8.0 %) and adult (1.0 %). For the objective (2), plots treated with insecticide showed the least tubercle damage (21 % ), followed by plot isolated with plastic barriers and natural and artificially infested carabids (30 %) and plots with natural carabid population (30 %); the control plot showed the highest percentage of damage in tubercles (54%). No differences in larvae numbers infesting tubercles were found among the treatments. These first results indicate the potential value of carabids to mitigate the weevil tubercle infestation under field conditions."}

data/part_4/03a9fb0e9231915e99ed425a4b12eb8e.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03a9fb0e9231915e99ed425a4b12eb8e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c8ae037b-3cfc-4ee0-809d-755e62fe4156/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"Using the life cycle assessment approach to assess the environmental impacts of fish production","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Overview","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"LCA dates back to the 1970s and was built around the need for a framework that could quantify the environmental impacts of different production chains and aggregate these towards a unit of reference (functional unit). Today the tool is supported by its own ISO standard (ISO 14044 2006), a number of different software packages (e.g. SimaPro and openLCA) and databases (e.g. ecoinvent), and numerous detailed guidelines (e.g. ILCD 2010)."},{"index":2,"size":72,"text":"LCA is flexible in that it can evaluate a wide variety of environmental impacts for most value chains using different impact assessment methods, including: global warming, eutrophication, acidification, water use, land use, freshwater ecotoxicity, human toxicity, among others. There are also some impact categories developed more specifically for food production systems, including biotic resource use that captures the required underlying net primary production needed to support production chains (Papatryphon et al. 2004)."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"In accordance with ISO, an LCA consists of four phases: 1) goal and scope; 2) life cycle inventory; 3) life cycle impact assessment; and 4) interpretation."},{"index":4,"size":31,"text":"In the goal and scope, the reasons for carrying out a study and its intended audience are presented, alongside methodological choices, assumptions and other relevant information necessary for a transparent interpretation."},{"index":5,"size":104,"text":"Next, the life cycle inventory describes the environmental and economic flows that enter and exit the product lifecycle. This could be, for example, kg of methane, kg of phosphorus, m 3 of freshwater or m 2 of annual land (m 2 a). However, since the technosphere is reliant on all of its components (e.g. a factory is reliant on other factories to build it, which in turn is reliant on a new set of factories, etc.), and since modelling the whole technosphere would be impossible, a system boundary is set. The system boundary, thus, defines which processes are included in the life cycle inventory."},{"index":6,"size":55,"text":"In the subsequent lifecycle impact assessment, the inventory flows are classified and characterized into environmental impacts (Figure 1). These impacts can be either midpoint or endpoint indicators, with accumulating uncertainty along the cause and effect chain. This could be, for instance, methane into global warming, phosphorus into eutrophication or m 3 into water scarcity footprints."},{"index":7,"size":20,"text":"Finally, the outcomes are interpreted with regards to environmental hotspots in the production chain, and/or comparisons of products or services."}]},{"head":"Constraints of LCA","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"Although LCA applies a comprehensive vertical coverage and addresses a wide set of impact categories, it also has many shortcomings. Inventory flows are, for example, usually scaled to a functional unit consistent with a volume (e.g. kg) or a service (e.g. transporting a tonne one km), meaning that the temporal scales of impacts are largely lost. Impacts also rarely take spatial considerations into account, thus generally disregarding the sensitivity of the receiving environment."},{"index":2,"size":85,"text":"Even in cases where geographically specific characterization factors are available (Pfister et al. 2009;Brandão and Canals 2013), the origin of many products entering the production chain will remain unknown. For instance, many feed resources are traded on global markets, with exports and re-exports at best limiting the traceability back to the country of origin. It would be impossible to trace the origin of the products used on a farm, as for example for the fertilizers used on agricultural farms from which the feed resources come."},{"index":3,"size":103,"text":"LCA also has limitations in capturing interactions between the techno-and biosphere, resulting in difficulties in addressing many food production systems in developing countries. For example, grazing cattle may only have limited impacts on grazing land, as their manure may in part act as fertilizers in proximate aquaculture ponds. In such situations, it remains difficult to attribute impacts to a functional unit. It may similarly be difficult to attribute the impacts of inorganic fertilizers between integrated agricultural crops and fish as they benefit disproportionally, or the impacts of pelleted feed between pellet-fed fish and filter feeders in polyculture systems (e.g. tilapia and bighead carp)."},{"index":4,"size":43,"text":"With the many user-friendly software and inventory databases available today, new users could perform an LCA in a day or less. However, the quality of such LCAs would be poor given the reliance on generic data and lack of insight into methodological decisions."},{"index":5,"size":93,"text":"An inherent trait of LCA is also that the scale of impacts is directly correlated with the detail of the model, as more processes are being included within the system boundary. Choices in data sourcing may result in large uncertainties, as may methodological choices. Collectively, these discrepancies easily aggregate into an order of magnitude difference of results describing the same product of the same origin. Thus, despite extensive efforts towards a harmonized framework (e.g. the Product Environmental Footprint initiative by the European Commission), LCA results will always remain relative (Henriksson et al. 2015)."},{"index":6,"size":17,"text":"Figure 1: Relationship between inventory/elementary flows, midpoint and endpoint impact assessment indicators. From: Hauschild and Huijbregts (2015)."},{"index":7,"size":47,"text":"Potential uses of the framework LCA has already extensively been used for livestock, aquaculture and a range of other food commodities. Its strength in these analyses has been its ability to highlight the most environmentally relevant processes throughout value chains and eventual trade-off among different environmental impacts."},{"index":8,"size":100,"text":"While no consensus has been reached around a number of methodological choices, with no solution in sight, the long history of the tool means that the pivotal choices have been identified and explored in literature. For example, coproduct allocation (the division of impacts among several products originating from the same process) of environmental impacts has a strong influence on many food relevant processes, including livestock and aquaculture. Thus the process 'farming of cow' would yield milk, meat, leather and calves, and 'processing of fish' would yield fillets and by-products. Moreover, many feeds used in both the systems are agricultural by-products."},{"index":9,"size":72,"text":"As no consensus can be expected for this choice that is strongly influenced by personal preferences, one can only require the solution to be applied consistently and using an established allocation factor. To date, the most commonly used allocation methods are based on mass, monetary value, gross energy content and system substitution (Flysjö et al. 2011). The latter builds upon a more elaborate set of assumptions that also factor in market changes."},{"index":10,"size":26,"text":"Read a related brief explaining how LCA was used by WorldFish as part of its work on fish value chains in Egypt (Henriksson and Dickson 2016)."}]},{"head":"Credits and more information","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"This brief was produced as part of a synthesis activity of the CGIAR Research Program on Livestock and Fish. It focuses on ex-ante environment impact assessment work carried out between 2012 and 2016 and supported by the Program and other investors."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"26006234-830f-4954-9ec0-dfe0ecbd68eb","abstract":"Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a well-established ISOcertified bottom-up environmental framework designed to quantify impacts at product level.  LCA was originally intended for industrial systems, detailing economic and environmental flows throughout value chains, thus largely disregarding socio-ecological conditions.  Meaningful LCA results are resource demanding."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03de5b3e83fa70f760911e07119451ae","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6539ef27-585a-430e-93c9-376f5213bb03/retrieve"},"pageCount":3,"title":"ISPC commentary on the EoI for a Cross-Cutting Platform on Gender","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"[Score: Dpurely for the reason given in paragraph 1]"}]},{"head":"Excellence and quality of the proposed coordination of Lead Center and partners","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"The Expression of Interest was submitted by IFPRI, CIAT and ICRAF as lead CGIAR Centers. The Principal Investigator and co-PIs from IFPRI/PIM have international reputations in this area and are well placed to lead a platform which aims to contribute to the three specific system-level IDOs and sub-IDOs that relate directly to gender equity and women:"}]},{"head":"","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":120,"text":"Gender equitable control of productive assets and resources  Technologies that reduce women's labor and energy expenditure developed and disseminated  Improved capacity of women [and young people] to participate in decision-making CIAT's contribution is to build on their current role in \"communications, knowledge sharing, and data and information management\" for the CGIAR gender network. These are all areas that CIAT has gained a strong reputation in, and CIAT now has a very distinct niche specializing in cross-cutting topics within the CGIAR that is very distinctive and different from all other 14 CGIAR Centers. ICRAF's contribution is through their extensive connections in communities, particularly in Africa, through long-standing partnerships and field experience. Together, these three Centers bring very complementary expertise."},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"The proposal to include a mentoring program is linked with AWARD, an organization well-positioned to coordinate building the capacity of local partners in Africa, and AWARD is providing a Co-PI to the platform. Similar regionally-focused partners would be valuable for all regions. Given the need for mentoring more broadly throughout the CGIAR system, the ISPC ask whether consideration has been given to forming a mentoring team comprised of AWARD alongside other similar regionally-focused partners?"},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"Given the centrality of natural resource issues across the CRPs and in this Platform proposal, it would seem necessary to include at least one CGIAR senior biophysical scientist for whom gender has not been such a central concern in their research career to date in the team. This should not be regarded simply as a token appointment and could add valuable insight into constraints and opportunities for influence in the system."}]},{"head":"Level of ambition described in the collaboration/network and the commitment of the participants/partners","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"This EOI is proposing an ambitious program of co-ordination and support, although in large part it is directed at very specific capacity-building activities: around sex-disaggregated data collection; qualitative data methods (for investigating, for example, gender norms and dynamics); and asking gender questions."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"There is nevertheless a planto be developed further -for addressing the 'bigger questions', and gap-filling in 'high priority areas' although there is no detail provided in the EOI of what these might be."},{"index":3,"size":57,"text":"The time commitments of the PI and co-PIs are small considering the planned activities and workplan arrangements. However, almost all the CRP pre-proposals include working with the planned gender platform, and there is some indication that they will bear the costs of this collaboration. Much of the collaborative effort, including capacity-building, is presumed to take place online."}]},{"head":"Strategy for system wide networking","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"The proposal is well focused on system-wide networking and the agri-food systems CRP pre-proposals suggest that there is considerable support and enthusiasm for the support proposed to be provided by the platform. Although the strategy is not yet finalized or settled in the sense of detailed activities, the ISPC would challenge whether influencing through 'focal points' alone is likely to be successful."}]},{"head":"Quality and efficiency of the implementation including strategy for strengthening expertise across the system","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"The implementation plan is thus far limited to identifying leads for different objectives amongst the PIs. All the CRP pre-proposals include some aspect of capacity strengthening, and networking and the initial activities should include a review of their strategies and their perspectives on impact. This is particularly important for implementation of Objectives 4 and 5. The platform does not plan to conduct outreach or capacity development themselves, recognizing that it should be the domain of the CRPs."},{"index":2,"size":136,"text":"The strategy for strengthening expertise across the system, including that of partners, presently covers a wide range of options (see Platform Objective 5). Much of the expertise being strengthened is very specific, and has a major focus on sex-disaggregated data sets (Objective 3), which have been the centre of the gender research within IFPRI. It is to be noted that this proposal, and especially Objective 3, will depend on the results of Objective 1, to assess priorities for gender research across the system. This review is intended to cover methods, presentations and papers as evidence of work already completed, and presumably levels of competence in the system (although this is not highlighted in the proposal). Finally, it would be helpful if the term \"Transformative Agricultural Development Approaches\" that is used in this proposal could be defined."}]},{"head":"Potential impact","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"The underlying theory of change is that the CGIAR's portfolio can be more effective if it consciously and deliberately draws on analysis of the gendered patterns of social and economic behaviourrelated to both production and consumption. This premise has been made explicit and central to the current round of CGIAR planning and the CRP proposals. This Platform will support the implementation of a gender-aware portfolio and therefore should have enhance the potential for impact at the System level.."}]},{"head":"Contribution to establishing and strengthening a durable cooperation between the partners that will contribute to the CRPII Portfolio and the SRF","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":184,"text":"All the CRP pre-proposals, and indeed each of the flagship sections, have produced statements of their gender relevance and gender-related activities. It is essential to take stock of the potential overlaps, and to identify areas of commonality in the questions, methods, and data that will be needed. Some agreement on common metrics would be useful, and if the platform were able to achieve a degree of coordination on research plans could be a very useful contribution to the effectiveness of the System in relation to gender. In some cases, this might point towards a strategy of pursuing similar research in multiple Centers and CRPs, with an idea of developing comparable findings. In other cases, there might be a need to agree on diversification of research so as to avoid duplication. With regards all of the considerations outlined here, the ISPC believes that the greatest chance of success lies with the complementary activities described in this Expression of Interest being incorporated into the Flagship Project 6 of the PIM CRP, which has a similar focus and draws on a number of the same research personnel."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" The Gender Platform would have presented a stronger case if it were to have: (a) a well-defined mandate to carry out research; and (b) a well-defined role in providing feedback to the CRPs on gender aspects of their proposed research programs. As currently configured, no original research will take place under the auspices of the platform. Were a research program to be developed, it should differ from that carried out under individual CRPs and might focus on data and methodsfor example, a program of data experiments, related to rigorously testing alternative means of collecting sex-disaggregated data or of various gender metrics. Well-chosen and carefully implemented data experiments could provide a useful source of information about what to collect and when / why / how the choice of collection method might matter. The Platform could reasonably coordinate multi-locational data experiments to be carried out by individual Centers and CRPs. A role for the Platform in providing feedback to CRPs might allow for collegial consultation, to complement the more formal evaluations of the IEA.  "}],"sieverID":"dc1395f2-22f1-48de-a2c3-c31d0f33dccc","abstract":"The expression of interest for a coordinating platform on gender outlines a number of worthwhile activities and does a good job of explaining how they will be implemented and to what purpose. A strong, culturally grounded gender perspective on agricultural production and consumption should play a prominent role in informing the priorities and activities of all CRPs. However, the ISPC notes the overlap in objectives and personnel with the 2 nd cluster of activities in FP 6 of PIM. The ISPC considers there needs to be a strong case (added value over what already exists) to justify the creation of a new platform and considers that the case has not been made by the EoI proponents as to why the activities described in the expression of interest need to be implemented by a separate gender platform.The ISPC recommends that the functions proposed in the EoI which are complementary to those proposed in PIM Flagship project 6 are folded into the full proposal for the PIM CRP. PIM is an integrating CRP for the System as a whole, and as such should be well positioned to assume the mandate for pioneering good practice on gender based around a community of researchers.The remainder of the comments presented here are therefore targeted towards ensuring an efficient integration of the materials presented in the EoI with the FP 6 of PIM, rather than supporting the concept of a separate entity being created."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0417efdbb11694143f4c573ca74094a2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/76c37276-f695-4034-8535-f041932289be/retrieve"},"pageCount":24,"title":"Les Systèmes d'Innovation Agricoles (AIS)","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Living Lab","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Open Innovation (Lichtenthaler et al, 2009  "}]},{"head":"Avantages confirmés des Living Labs","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Test et validation dans des conditions réelles: contribuer à réduire le risque d'échec et à améliorer les chances de réussite pour de nouveaux produits et services."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"Amélioration de la durabilité: tester et mettre en oeuvre des solutions qui réduisent la consommation de ressources, promouvoir l'économie circulaire, solution à faible émission de carbone."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"Développement économique: intégrer les entreprises et l'entrepreunariat dans le développement et la mise à l'echelle des innovation."}]},{"head":"Quelques Difficultés et Risques","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"1.Coûts élevés: infrastructure technologique 2.Difficultés de coordination (qui va jouer le rôle de coordinateur)."}]},{"head":"3.Limitations en termes de généralisation (génèrent des solutions très contextuelles).","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"4.Risques de perturbation de l'environnement (nécessite une gestion attentive des risques et des impacts potentiels)."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"5.Biais potentiels (problèmes de sélection, en particulier si les participants ne sont pas représentatifs ou si les conditions du living lab diffèrent trop des conditions réelles)."}]},{"head":"6.Institutionalization difficile dans les pays en développement (nécessite un profonde changement de paradigms)","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Exemple de la Mise en Place d'un ALL pour une Transformation Agroécologique","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Initiative en Agroécologique (CGIAR, 2022-2024)"}]},{"head":"Transformer les Systèmes Alimentaires par l'Agroécologie (AE-i)","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Valoriser les biens et services fournis par la nature, tout en encourageant l'inclusion sociale et la coopération, pour un avenir alimentaire durable."}]},{"head":"Contacts:","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Marcela Quintero ([email protected]) Chris Dickens ([email protected])   Thank you !"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Comment appliquer les principes universels à des contextes spécifiques ?Wezel A, Gemmill Herren B, Bezner Kerr R, Barrios E, Gonçalves ALR et Sinclair F (2020). Principes et éléments agroécologiques et leurs implications pour la transition vers des systèmes alimentaires durables. A review. Agronomie pour le développement durable 40 : 40 13pp. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-020-00646 "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"action Quelques mots clés pour caractériser un Living Lab au travers une revue rapide… Multiple definitions des Living laboratories (ou Living Labs ou laboratoires vivants) • Plateforme de collaboration pour la recherche  technology organization-environment (TOE) framework (Ruijet et al 2020) 'Open Innovation', 'User Innovation', 'user-centered design' and 'participatory design' (Shuurman et al 2015) Methodologies de Recherche Recherche pour l'• \"Plateforme collaborative de recherche, de développement et ('potential end users') & Users centered Focus (question) Spontaneity/value (fit to societal and social Vision of AE/context& representatives of grass roots initiatives needs) Realism (real-life d'expérimentation dans des contextes réels, basée sur des méthodologies et situations and des outils spécifiques, et mise en oeuvre par le biais de projets d'innovation behaviours) spécifiques et d'activités de renforcement communautaire\" (traduction) (Gascó technology organization-environment (TOE) framework (Ruijet et al 2020) 'Open Innovation', 'User Innovation', 'user-centered design' and 'participatory design' (Shuurman et al 2015) Methodologies de Recherche Recherche pour l'• \"Plateforme collaborative de recherche, de développement et ('potential end users') & Users centered Focus (question) Spontaneity/value (fit to societal and social Vision of AE/context& representatives of grass roots initiatives needs) Realism (real-life d'expérimentation dans des contextes réels, basée sur des méthodologies et situations and des outils spécifiques, et mise en oeuvre par le biais de projets d'innovation behaviours) spécifiques et d'activités de renforcement communautaire\" (traduction) (Gascó niches processes (articulation of expectations, networking and learning) (Ruijer et al 2020) theories of policy innovation diffusion Strategic Niche Management (SNM)with 3 2017, p. 91). based Theoretical ation between Partnerships/collabor  (desired direction active partners) Empowerment of users/influence collaboration, trust) Continuity/sustainability (cross-border niches processes (articulation of expectations, networking and learning) (Ruijer et al 2020) theories of policy innovation diffusion Strategic Niche Management (SNM)with 3 2017, p. 91).based Theoreticalation between Partnerships/collabor(desired direction active partners) Empowerment of users/influence collaboration, trust) Continuity/sustainability (cross-border   citizens, civil society   citizens, civil society User-Driven innovation (Stahlbrost) Collaborative platform for research, Dev and Definition and public sector (Gasco, 2017 cited by Wolfert et al 2010)  \"Innovation champion\" \"Innovation agents\" User needs User-Driven innovation (Stahlbrost) Collaborative platform for research, Dev andDefinitionand public sector (Gasco, 2017 cited by Wolfert et al 2010)\"Innovation champion\" \"Innovation agents\" User needs experimentation (Gasco)    Learning process (appropriation) experimentation (Gasco)Learning process (appropriation)     Tech/orga barriers Tech/orga barriers Ecosystem/landscape of innovation(Gasco)   Schuurman et al, cited by Lack/quality of data Limited user-friendliness Ecosystem/landscape of innovation(Gasco)Schuurman et al, cited byLack/quality of data Limited user-friendliness Qualitative (satisfaction, perception of results, attractiveness, viability (budget, working plan),   2015)) Interaction between Data Qualitative (satisfaction, perception of results, attractiveness, viability (budget, working plan),2015))Interaction between Data learning process, alignment with the common    providers/data users learning process, alignment with the commonproviders/data users AE vision..) Usability, utility and acceptability Assessment (Bronson et al 2021) Openness (améliorer l'accès libre Open Data innovation (ICT The context/scale of data AE vision..) Usability, utility and acceptabilityAssessment (Bronson et al 2021)Openness (améliorer l'accès libreOpen Data innovation (ICTThe context/scale of data   à technology) for  àtechnology) for   l'innovation) scaling up  l'innovation)scaling up    (Fuglsang et al  (Fuglsang et al    2021)  2021)  "},{"text":"de conduire la recherche et l'innovation → Méthode/Approche de recherche  • « Les laboratoires vivants font généralement référence à la co-création et à • « Les laboratoires vivants font généralement référence à la co-création et à l'appropriation d'innovations par les utilisateurs (…)» (traduction) (Ballon et l'appropriation d'innovations par les utilisateurs (…)» (traduction) (Ballon et Schuurman, 2015). Schuurman, 2015).  "},{"text":"definitions des Living laboratories (suite…) Un objet complexe mais avec des principes communs  Ouverture (Innovation ouverte & données ouvertes) 1. Appropriation de l'innovation Ouverture (Innovation ouverte & données ouvertes)1. Appropriation de l'innovation Réalité & réalisme Engagement multipartite (alliance, Avantages Confirmés des LL Living Labs Co-création & utilisateurs centrés Confiance & Spontanéité Collaboration et co-creation : rassemblent des parties prenantes diverses en 2. Durabilité dans le temps 3. Contextualization 4. Facilitation de la mise en place de l'innovation plus des membres de la communauté pour concevoir et mettre en oeuvre des solutions qui répondent à des défis sociaux et environnementaux complexes. Réalité & réalisme Engagement multipartite (alliance, Avantages Confirmés des LL Living LabsCo-création & utilisateurs centrés Confiance & Spontanéité Collaboration et co-creation : rassemblent des parties prenantes diverses en 2. Durabilité dans le temps 3. Contextualization 4. Facilitation de la mise en place de l'innovation plus des membres de la communauté pour concevoir et mettre en oeuvre des solutions qui répondent à des défis sociaux et environnementaux complexes. partenariats)  partenariats)  "},{"text":"Principes Directeurs pour l'Engagement des Parties Prenantes Locales et Nationales dans le ALL (Triomphe et al, 2022)    Living labs comme une Living labs comme une   plateforme plateforme continu de l'innovation pour les TAE dans les systèmes alimentaires ciblés Machinery suppliers Comment on le Fait en Tunisie? modèles économiques et des stratégies de financement inclusifs dans les LL base de connaissances qui soutient la mise en oeuvre d'innovations AE adaptées au contexte Partenariat Privé-Public (PPP) le Long 2. Aim for inclusiveness, diversity, representativeness & legitimacy of stakeholders to maintain it over time consumers, markets) Seed suppliers (COTUGRAIN) Value chain (with traders, dimension motivation from each member initially and find ways Milk processors Collaborative/network 3. Ensure there is \"real\" willingness, interest & WP2. Co-développer une basés sur les connexions) 13 principes FIDA (et sociologiques car pour les acteurs TAPE/HOLPA adapté du spaces and mechanisms if they already exist WP3. Développer des acteurs Évaluation continue IRESA (Research &High school) 1. Build on existing relevant & functional multi-STH d'apprentissage multi-WP1. Appuyer le développement d'interaction et 'Influencers' continu de l'innovation pour les TAE dans les systèmes alimentaires ciblés Machinery suppliers Comment on le Fait en Tunisie? modèles économiques et des stratégies de financement inclusifs dans les LL base de connaissances qui soutient la mise en oeuvre d'innovations AE adaptées au contexte Partenariat Privé-Public (PPP) le Long 2. Aim for inclusiveness, diversity, representativeness & legitimacy of stakeholders to maintain it over time consumers, markets) Seed suppliers (COTUGRAIN) Value chain (with traders, dimension motivation from each member initially and find ways Milk processors Collaborative/network 3. Ensure there is \"real\" willingness, interest & WP2. Co-développer une basés sur les connexions) 13 principes FIDA (et sociologiques car pour les acteurs TAPE/HOLPA adapté du spaces and mechanisms if they already exist WP3. Développer des acteurs Évaluation continue IRESA (Research &High school) 1. Build on existing relevant & functional multi-STH d'apprentissage multi-WP1. Appuyer le développement d'interaction et 'Influencers' des Chaînes de Valeur   des Chaînes de Valeur Initiative en Agroécologique (CGIAR, 2022-2024) OPA1 WP5. Créer une compréhension des Initiative en Agroécologique (CGIAR, 2022-2024) OPA1WP5. Créer une compréhension des WP4. Promouvoir des principes AE requise pour intégrer les politique intersectorielle effectuer l'intégration recommandations pour 5. Ensure capacity building and collective learning transformation AE en oeuvre la nécessaires pour mettre consommateurs agriculteurs et des mécanismes pour conduire le changement de comportement des demand-driven 4. Ensure the collective agenda is \"sufficiently\" OPA2 WP4. Promouvoir des principes AE requise pour intégrer les politique intersectorielle effectuer l'intégration recommandations pour 5. Ensure capacity building and collective learningtransformation AE en oeuvre la nécessaires pour mettre consommateurs agriculteurs et des mécanismes pour conduire le changement de comportement des demand-driven 4. Ensure the collective agenda is \"sufficiently\" OPA2 Dialogue du PPP avec les Politiques 6. gradual \"local\" ownership, empowerment and leadership Changement de Comportment Social and physical landscape dimension Dialogue du PPP avec les Politiques6. gradual \"local\" ownership, empowerment and leadershipChangement de Comportment Social and physical landscape dimension www.cgiar.org   www.cgiar.org  "},{"text":"Build on an existing institutional landscape (relevant institutions for AE-i)  Défis     Défis  Media Policy dialogue& Ministère de l'Agriculture, des Ressources Hydrauliques et de la Pêche/DG ACTA, DG FIOP… MediaPolicy dialogue&Ministère de l'Agriculture, des Ressources Hydrauliques et de la Pêche/DG ACTA, DG FIOP…   sustained   sustained OneCG CIRAD financial support. (WP4) UTAP (Syndicat) ONAGRI OneCGCIRADfinancial support. (WP4)UTAP (Syndicat)ONAGRI WB   OEP NGO / Civil society WBOEPNGO / Civil society  Swiss    Swiss  Contact   Inclusive ContactInclusive GIZ    business GIZbusiness UE Other   models (WP3) UEOthermodels (WP3) AFD     AFD FAO     FAO   PPP (co-   PPP (co-   investment in   investment in   knowledge and   knowledge and NARS & Ag School (ESA Kef, station)  infrastructure) (WP3) Co-design (WP1)  NARS & Ag School (ESA Kef, station)infrastructure) (WP3)Co-design (WP1) OEP local station    Co-learning and Innovation co -design dimension OEP local stationCo-learning and Innovation co -design dimension     Baseline & Baseline & CRDA+CTV+AFVA  services suppliers Household+good and Assessment for (value) (WP2) acceptability CRDA+CTV+AFVAservices suppliers Household+good andAssessment for (value) (WP2) acceptability    Household+good and services Household+good and services Media   suppliers  Mediasuppliers  "},{"text":"dans la construction et développement d'un Living Lab/Landscape… o Basé sur un engagement plus moral qu'institutionnel… Un environnement fluctuant dont les contours sociaux et physiques bougent en permanence (entrée et sortie du ALL) o Un environnement soumis aux influences et facteurs extérieurs qui demandent un réajustement permanent des innovations choisies o Un environnement pas forcément 'reconnu' dans la configuration administrative du milieu Développer une vision commune => voies de transition adaptées pour des systèmes paysagers complexes soumis à des facteurs incontrôlables (non influençables, 'externes') o Besoin de renouveler en permanence les voies/moyens de coordination intégrés entre la Coconception pour l'innovation (WP1), le modèle d'affaires (WP3) et les métriques/KPI (WP2) (métriques locales) pour conserver une approche holistique et inclusive o Tout ALL induit des changements de comportements…. Comment les capturer et mesurer pour l'évaluation de l'impact?. o Reconfiguration permanente des contours sociaux et institutionnels o Reconfiguration permanente des contours sociaux et institutionnels o Un environnement 'non stable'… o Un environnement 'non stable'…  "}],"sieverID":"d44beab5-58b0-40e7-83f6-10049183ebdb","abstract":"Années 90. Dispositifs de partenariat pour favoriser un environnement réel (ou réaliste) d'expérimentation 1991: Trois chercheurs (William J. Mitchell, Kent Larson et Alex Pentland) fondent aux États-Unis le premier living lab, géré par un consortium de recherche . Institut de technologie du Massachusetts. Objectif: stimuler les partenariats coopératifs et d'essais réels sur le terrain Années 2000. Dispositif centré sur les approches méthodologies permettant d'innover dans un environnement réel 2006: la Commission européenne lance des projets visant à faire avancer, coordonner et promouvoir un système d'innovation européen commun basé sur des laboratoires vivants (Dutilleul et al., 2011). 2014. plus de 340 Living Labs dans le Monde 2020. Plus de 480 membres historiquement labellisés en Europe et dans le monde dans le cadre du réseau européen des laboratoires vivants ENoLL Engouement pour les Living Laboratories (ou Living Labs) www.cgiar.org"}

data/part_4/0456a6cb51aaa548c1d63b71e93cb4c3.json

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data/part_4/04e8ccb3d462a622ce986178374a874c.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"04e8ccb3d462a622ce986178374a874c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d5fbb92b-6b55-44d0-af52-e07b573df35e/retrieve"},"pageCount":30,"title":"Introduction to 'Cahiers de Phaséologie' -section Digitati Freytag","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":242,"text":"each department/ province/ state the specimens are presented by alphabetical order of names of collectors, the first family name coming first when applicable. If there are many specimens by the same collector(s), the lowest collecting numbers will come first; the specimens without collection number will precede. When there are many specimens with the same collecting number, the alphabetical order of the Herbaria keeping these specimens is followed. The specimens used as types (with indications in red and in bold face about the kind of types) immediately follow the introduction of the species name. There are two reasons for this: for the taxonomist the type contributes to the validation of the species, and if a user looks for the type(s) it will be faster to look for it (them) at a specific location in the files throughout the sections rather than to look for it (them) by geographical area. Logically the holotype comes first. The types of species put in synonymy will logically follow, in alphabetical order of the names of these species, unless they were not validly published, and in this case these specimens will be in the general list (as Curators of Herbaria usually proceed). In a few cases, the type specimens are followed by specimens for which there is no geographical information. In cases where only the country has been indicated, then the specimens will be at the top of the list before the first department/ province/ state listed alphabetically."}]},{"head":"Presentation of the data:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":401,"text":"All notes found on the voucher specimen on the day of visit are taken in the way they have been written (trying to respect the original text to the extent possible), and written down along a time sequence starting with the oldest annotation (sometimes deciding which is the oldest annotation is an educated guess, but color of labels and inks and kinds of typewriters or printers help). For easy reference, the information starts with the number of the voucher with the acronym of the Herbarium visited when applicable. Please note that some Herbaria did not number their voucher specimens. In this case there might be only a stamp indicating where the specimen is currently kept. Each piece of information found on a label or written directly on the cardboard is separated from the next one by a slash sign repeated three times (///). Please note that a stamp might be included in the sequence of information, since it can provide useful information about the date of a specimen if this date is not indicated in the main label. The most recent labels in the sequence usually refer to the identification of the specimen by taxonomists and are presented in chronological order, the earliest identification coming first. The sequence of sets of data finishes with the author's identification (introduced by author's initials), with a few notes about the specimen. In the notes, attention is drawn on the size/ richness of the specimens, usually through the number of racemes. In view of possible future collecting (e.g. matching with the date of collection), there is an indication about the phenology, whether the specimen was seen with flowers and/ or young/ green/ dry pods and/ or seeds. The notes end with the acronym of the visited Herbarium and the date (in the format day/ month/ year) when the specimen was studied (that date can be validated by consulting the records of visitors of each Herbarium); so the reader knows where that specimen can be studied or asked on loan for study. A specimen might have been seen on two visits, and thus two dates will be indicated in chronological order. The indication [x2] or [x3] means that the specimen exists as two or three sheets; if there is anything noteworthy, then the second or third sheet will be treated as another specimen. Usually the data provided refer to the voucher with more useful plant parts."},{"index":2,"size":255,"text":"Because the coordinates could be critical for studies in phytogeography or in evaluation against abiotic stresses, if the coordinates were given on the (main) label, they are reported directly. If there are none and if the location is precise enough, an estimate is provided, usually for the first collecting number; because it is an indirect data provided by the author, it will be written down in square brackets []. Similarly, given its importance in order to see the material one more time in its original habitat, if provided in abbreviated form or numerical form that could lead to confusion, the date might be reconfirmed in square brackets (in format day/ month/ year), usually for the first collecting number. This confirmation is often possible because the author has explored the same area for the same species. Other notes such as appreciation/ interpretation of anything relevant on the labels will appear also in square brackets, so that the reader understands that this is not an original data. In some cases it was felt necessary to add [col.] to indicate clearly the name of the collector; similarly [det.] was added to indicate clearly the name of the taxonomist identifying the specimen. If both indications are without square brackets, it means that they were written as such on the label(s). Sometimes critical information, for example the name of the species or the collecting number might be missing and the author has seen a void space; this situation is reflected in the notes by [blanc] 'void' or without number [s.n.]."},{"index":3,"size":93,"text":"For easy reference only and tracking, the name of the state/ department/ province will appear green (the black font of the original name has been turned green), and the name of the (main) collector and his/ her collecting number will appear blue (the black font of the original name has been turned blue). Note that the original black font can be reversed easily, so the user sees the original data as they were on the label(s). Similarly, all back slash signs could be eliminated to restore the original information found on the label(s)."},{"index":4,"size":88,"text":"One should keep in mind that the author deals with specimens as individual cases and single sets of data, and on every visit as a novel case. This explains why specimens by the same collector(s) with the same collecting number are repeated in the list. The opinion of other taxonomists on the studied specimen is theirs, and the way Curators mounted plant parts and presented the labels is theirs too. That stated, the reader will notice some interesting convergences (or discrepancies) in the works of these different professionals."}]},{"head":"Notes on this Section:","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":189,"text":"The reader will find the specimens seen by the author in alphabetical order of the species: P. albicarminus, P. albiviolaceus, P. altimontanus, P. neglectus, and P. trifidus. Three species have been validated in the work by Delgado- Salinas et al. 2006 in Syst. Bot. 31 (4): 782-786). There, P. albiviolaceus and P. trifidus have been put in synonymy of P. neglectus, a move that is not done for the former now, pending on more material to be collected and studied. As the reader will see, the author has doubts about the validity of P. trifidus on the sole basis of the lobation of primary bracts. Given the morphology of the floral buds, this section has been maintained as such and not merged with other taxa of the Pedicellati section (see T.G. Porch, J.S. Beaver, D.G. Debouck, S. Jackson, J.D. Kelly & H. Dempewolf. 2013. Use of wild relatives and closely related species to adapt common bean to climate change. . Further, this section seems to be restricted to mountainous regions of northeastern Mexico. There are no domesticated species in this section, and the species are vulnerable to human disturbance. "}]},{"head":"Propósito:","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":214,"text":"Mientras con el Dr. George F. Freytag estábamos finalizando la monografía (Freytag, G.F. & D.G. Debouck. 2002. Taxonomy, distribution, and ecology of the genus Phaseolus (Leguminosae-Papilionoideae) in North America, Mexico and Central America. SIDA , se acordó mutuamente con el Editor del Botanical Research Institute of Texas que el texto final no debería sobrepasar el límite de 300 páginas. Teníamos muchos especímenes que habíamos examinado y anotado conjuntamente en Mayagüez, o de manera independiente. Acordamos con el Editor que por lo menos una lista de los especímenes con las identificaciones estuviera en la monografía (páginas 291-294), para que los Curadores de los Herbarios tuvieran las identificaciones de los especímenes que amablemente nos permitieron estudiar. Desde 2002 más Herbarios fueron visitados (véase una lista completa al final de esta nota aclaratoria) de mi parte y más especímenes fueron anotados. Por razones obvias pocas revistas científicas aceptarían de publicar estos registros de manera completa. La publicación de estos 'Cuadernos de Faseología' en el sitio internet del banco de germoplasma del CIAT donde se conserva actualmente la mayor colección de fríjoles, era una manera lógica de meter esta información al alcance del público. El presente archivo es actualizado periódicamente cuando nuevas visitas a los Herbarios aumentan el número de especímenes de las especies perteneciendo a esta sección."}]},{"head":"Contenido y organización de los especímenes:","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":520,"text":"La lista de los especímenes examinados por el autor en los Herbarios viene organizada de acuerdo con las secciones del género Phaseolus tales como se las reconoce en la monografía (op. cit.). La razón detrás de esta organización de los datos es práctica, por los números de especímenes estudiados, especialmente para las secciones que incluyen el fríjol común (es decir los Phaseoli) o el fríjol Lima (es decir los Paniculati). Para dar una información actualizada a los usuarios, la fecha del documento (la cual se encuentra al final del archivo) es la fecha de la cargada de los datos de cualquier espécimen de esta sección estudiado en el último Herbario visitado. Directamente después del título se encuentra la lista de los Herbarios y Museos de Historia Natural que conservan especímenes de esta sección en sus colecciones; estos Herbarios y Museos vienen mencionados en orden alfabético con los acrónimos del 'Index Herbariorum'. Dentro de cada sección, la información se presenta por cada especie reconocida actualmente como válida, y en orden alfabético de las especies para esta sección. Para cada especie la presentación sigue el orden alfabético de los países donde esta especie crece naturalmente (este cuaderno trata únicamente de las especies y formas silvestres, no de los fríjoles sembrados a propósito por la gente en cualquier parte del mundo, tampoco figuran los escapes de cultivo). Para cada país, se sigue el orden alfabético de los departamentos/ estados/ provincias actualmente reconocidos para este país. Dentro de cada departamento/ estado/ provincia, los especímenes se presentan en el orden alfabético de los apellidos de los colectores, considerando el primer apellido cuando aplica. Si se reporta varios especímenes de un mismo colector, el reporte arranca con los números de colecta menores; los que no tienen número de colecta vienen primero. Cuando hay varios especímenes con el mismo número de colecta, estos se presentan en el orden alfabético de los Herbarios (por sus acrónimos) que conservan estos especímenes. Los especímenes que fueron usados como tipos (indicados en rojo reforzado y según la categoría de tipos, el holotipo siendo el primero) se presentan directamente después del nombre de la especie. Hay dos razones detrás de esta presentación: primero, para el taxónomo el tipo es parte de la validación de la especie (y por lo tanto se sabe de cuál especie se trata), y segundo, en el caso que un usuario busca un tipo, será más rápido buscarlo en un lugar preciso del archivo (y esto para todas las secciones) en comparación a una búsqueda por área geográfica. Los tipos de las especies que fueron puestas en sinonimia siguen, en orden alfabético de los nombres de las especies, a menos que no hayan sido publicados de manera válida. En este último caso, los especímenes se ubican en la lista general (de la misma manera como lo hacen los Curadores). En algunos casos, los especímenes tipo vienen seguidos por aquellos especímenes por los cuales no hay información geográfica. En los casos donde sólo aparece el nombre del país, entonces estos especímenes vienen al inicio (en espera de más información) antes del primer departamento/ estado/ provincia mencionado en orden alfabético."}]},{"head":"Presentación de los datos:","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":414,"text":"Todas las notas que se encontraron escritas sobre cada espécimen en el día de la visita fueron registradas de la manera más cercana al texto original, y vienen reportadas en una secuencia temporal arrancando con la anotación más antigua. Decidir cuál era la anotación más antigua no fue siempre fácil, pero el color de las etiquetas y de las tintas y los tipos de máquinas de escribir y de las impresoras ayudaron. Para una referencia rápida, la información arranca con el número del ejemplar con el acrónimo del Herbario visitado cuando aplica. Hay que mencionar que algunos Herbarios no numeran sus especímenes. En este caso puede haber sólo el sello del Herbario donde el espécimen está conservado. Cada elemento de información que se encuentra escrito en una etiqueta o directamente sobre la cartulina viene separado del siguiente por una barra oblicua repetida tres veces (///). Favor notar que un sello puede ser incluido en la secuencia de informaciones porque puede dar una información útil sobre la edad de un espécimen si ésta no viene indicada en la etiqueta principal. Las etiquetas más recientes en la secuencia se refieren usualmente a la identificación del espécimen por parte de los taxónomos, y vienen en orden cronológico, la identificación más temprana siendo la primera. La secuencia de grupos de datos termina con la identificación de parte del autor (introducida por sus iniciales), con algunas notas sobre el espécimen. En estas notas, se llama la atención sobre el tamaño/ riqueza del espécimen, usualmente mediante el número de racimos. Con miras a futuras colectas y en correspondencia con la fecha de la colecta, se da una indicación de fenología, si el espécimen tiene flores y/o vainas jóvenes y/o vainas verdes y/o vainas secas y/o semillas. Las notas terminan con el acrónimo del Herbario visitado y con la fecha (en formato día/mes/ año) del estudio del espécimen durante la visita (esta fecha puede ser comprobada consultando los libros de registro de visitantes de cada Herbario). En consecuencia el lector sabe dónde un espécimen preciso puede ser estudiado o solicitado en préstamo para estudio. Un espécimen puede haber sido estudiado en dos fechas, y en consecuencia dos fechas aparecen, en orden cronológico. La indicación [x2] o [x3] significa que el espécimen existe como dos o tres ejemplares; si existe cualquier detalle que amerita ampliación de notas, entonces el segundo o tercer ejemplar será tratado como cualquier otro espécimen. Usualmente se usará el espécimen con partes más útiles/ abundantes para dar información."},{"index":2,"size":487,"text":"Porque las coordenadas geográficas pueden ser de importancia crítica para los estudios de fitogeografía o evaluación contra estrés abióticos, en el caso que las coordenadas fueron escritas en la etiqueta (principal), se las reporta directamente. Si no hay coordenadas y en el caso que el lugar de colecta esté suficientemente preciso, se dan unas coordenadas estimadas, usualmente para el primer número de colecta. Porque se trata de datos indirectos dados por el autor, estarán escritos entre corchetes cuadrados []. De igual manera, por su importancia para volver a ver el material en su sitio original, especialmente si ha sido dada de manera abreviada o en forma numérica que puede prestarse a confusiones, la fecha puede ser re-confirmada en corchetes cuadrados (en formato día/ mes/ año), usualmente para el primer número de colecta. Esta confirmación ha sido posible en varios casos porque el autor ha explorado la misma área para la misma especie. Otras notas tales como apreciaciones o interpretaciones de cualquier palabra escrita sobre la etiqueta y que sea relevante aparecerán también entre corchetes cuadrados, de tal manera que el lector entiende que no son datos originales. En algunos casos se vio la necesidad de añadir la abreviación [col.] para indicar claramente el nombre del colector de la muestra; de igual manera a veces fue necesario añadir la abreviación [det.] para indicar claramente el nombre del taxónomo quien identificó el material. En el caso que ambas abreviaciones estén sin corchetes cuadrados, esta situación significa que fueron escritas como tales en la etiqueta. A veces una información crítica, por ejemplo el nombre de la especie o el número de colecta puede estar faltando y el autor ha visto un espacio dejado en blanco; esta situación viene reflejada en las notas con la indicación [blanc] 'blanco' donde corresponde, o [s.n.] 'sin número'. Para referencia rápida solamente, el nombre del departamento/ estado/ provincia aparecerá en verde (la letra original negra ha sido cambiada a verde), y el nombre del colector (principal) y su número de colecta aparecerán en azul (la letra original negra ha sido cambiada a azul). Favor notar que la letra original negra puede revertirse fácilmente, para que el usuario vea los datos originales tales como estaban en la(s) etiqueta(s). De igual manera, todas las barras en oblicuo pueden ser eliminadas para volver a la información original de la(s) etiqueta(s). Es importante guardar en mente que el autor trata los especímenes como casos individuales y como conjuntos de datos por separado, y en cada visita como casos nuevos. Esta aproximación explica por qué los especímenes colectados por el mismo colector y con el mismo número de colecta se repiten en la lista. La opinión de otros taxónomos sobre el espécimen estudiado les pertenece, y la manera como los Curadores montan la muestra y presentan los datos igualmente pertenece a ellos. Bajo este entendimiento, el lector observará unas convergencias (o diferencias) interesantes en el trabajo de estos diferentes profesionales."}]},{"head":"Notas sobre esta sección:","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":419,"text":"El lector encontrará los especímenes estudiados por el autor en el orden alfabético de las especies: P. albicarminus, P. albiviolaceus, P. altimontanus, P. neglectus, y P. trifidus. Tres especies han sido validadas en el trabajo de Delgado- Salinas et al. 2006 en Syst. Bot. 31 (4): 782-786). En este último trabajo, P. albiviolaceus y P. trifidus fueron puestos en sinonimía de P. neglectus, un movimiento que no se hace ahora para la especie anterior, en espera de más material colectado y estudiado. Como el Lector se dará cuenta, el autor tiene dudas sobre la validez de P. trifidus apoyándose únicamente en la lobación de las brácteas primarias. Considerando la morfología de los botones florales, se ha mantenido esta sección aparte y no fusionada con los demás taxa de la sección Pedicellati (ver T.G. Porch, J.S. Beaver, D.G. Debouck, S. Jackson, J.D. Kelly & H. Dempewolf. 2013. Use of wild relatives and closely related species to adapt common bean to climate change. . Como información adicional, esta sección tiene su distribución restringida a las zonas montañosas del nororiente de México. No hay especies domesticadas en esta sección, y éstas son vulnerables frente a la intervención humana. Taxonomy, distribution, and ecology of the genus Phaseolus (Leguminosae-Papilionoideae) in North America, Mexico and Central America. SIDA Bot. Misc. 23: 1-300), un accord avait été conclu avec l'Editeur du Botanical Research Institute of Texas que la monographie ne devrait pas compter plus de 300 pages. Il y avait cependant un grand nombre de spécimens sur lesquels nous avions des observations et des notes prises soit ensemble à Mayagüez, soit séparément. Nous étions d'accord avec l'Editeur qu'au moins une liste des identifications soit présente dans la monographie (pages 291-294), afin que les Curateurs des Herbiers puissent avoir les identifications des spécimens qu'ils avaient eu l'amabilité de soumettre à notre examen. Depuis 2002 j'ai eu l'occasion de visiter d'autres Herbiers (la liste complète se trouve à la fin de cette note explicative) et de prendre des notes sur un plus grand nombre de spécimens. Pour des raisons évidentes peu de revues scientifiques accepteraient de publier ces notes dans leur entièreté. La publication de ces 'cahiers de phaséologie' sur le site internet de la banque de gènes du CIAT où la plus grande collection de haricots est actuellement conservée, était une façon logique de mettre ces informations à la disposition du public. Ce fichier est mis à jour périodiquement quand de nouvelles visites aux Herbiers permettent d'augmenter le nombre de spécimens des espèces appartenant à cette section."}]},{"head":"Contenu et organisation des spécimens:","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":280,"text":"La liste des spécimens étudiés dans les Herbiers par l'auteur est organisée en suivant les sections du genre Phaseolus telles qu'elles sont reconnues dans la monographie (op. cit.). La raison pour cette organisation des données est d'ordre pratique, étant donné le grand nombre de spécimens étudiés, particulièrement pour les sections qui contiennent le haricot commun (c'est-à-dire les Phaseoli) ou le haricot de Lima (c'est-à-dire les Paniculati). Dans le but de donner une information actualisée aux usagers, la date du document (qui se trouve à la fin du fichier) est celle du transfert des données de n'importe quel spécimen de cette section après la dernière visite d'un Herbier. Directement après le titre se trouve la liste des Herbiers et Muséums d'Histoire Naturelle qui conservent des spécimens de cette section dans leurs collections; ces Herbiers sont signalés en ordre alphabétique par les acronymes signalés dans l''Index Herbariorum'. Dans chaque section, l'information est présentée pour chacune des espèces actuellement valide, et dans l'ordre alphabétique des espèces de cette section. Pour chaque espèce la présentation suit l'ordre alphabétique des pays où l'espèce croît naturellement (ce cahier se réfère seulement aux espèces et formes sauvages de haricot, et non aux haricots plantés à dessein où que ce soit par les humains; les échappés de culture sont aussi exclus). Pour chaque pays, l'ordre alphabétique des départements/ états/ provinces actuellement connu(e)s est suivi. Pour chaque département/ état/ province, les spécimens sont présentés dans l'ordre alphabétique des noms des collecteurs, le premier nom de famille étant considéré en premier lieu. Au cas où plusieurs spécimens ont été collectés par le(s) même(s) collecteur(s), les moindres numéros de collecte viennent en premier lieu; les spécimens sans numéro de collecte précèdent."},{"index":2,"size":220,"text":"Dans le cas où plusieurs spécimens sont présents avec le même numéro de collecte, l'ordre alphabétique des Herbiers conservant ces spécimens sera suivi. Les spécimens qui ont été utilisés comme types (avec indication en caractères gras et rouges pour la nature des types) viennent directement après la mention du nom de l'espèce. Il y a deux raisons pour cette situation: pour le taxonomiste le type contribue à la validation de l'espèce (et par conséquent on sait directement de quelle espèce il s'agit), et d'autre part dans le cas où un usager cherche un type la recherche sera plus rapide si le type occupe un endroit déterminé dans les fichiers des sections plutôt que de devoir le chercher par origine géographique. Logiquement l'holotype vient en premier lieu. Les types des espèces placées en synonymie viendront ensuite, dans l'ordre alphabétique des noms d'espèces, à moins qu'elles n'aient pas été publiées de façon valide, et dans ce cas les spécimens se trouveront dans la liste générale (comme le font d'habitude les Curateurs des Herbiers). Dans quelques cas, les spécimens type sont suivis par les spécimens pour lesquels il n'y a pas d'information géographique. Dans les cas où le pays est indiqué sans plus d'information, ces spécimens suivent l'indication du pays et sont placés avant ceux avec département/ état/ province connu(e), par ordre alphabétique."}]},{"head":"Présentation des données:","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":449,"text":"Toutes les notes trouvées sur chaque planche d'herbier le jour de la visite ont été enregistrées comme elles ont ét�� écrites, en respectant le texte original le plus fidèlement possible, et ont été présentées en séquence chronologique en commençant par la note la plus ancienne. Décider quelle était la note la plus ancienne fut parfois un choix difficile, mais les couleurs des étiquettes et des encres et le type de machines à écrire ou imprimantes ont aidé. Pour une référence facile, l'information rapportée commence par le numéro de la planche d'herbier avec l'acronyme ou le nom de l'Herbier visité suivant le cas. Il faut noter que certains Herbiers ne numérotent pas leurs planches. Dans ce cas il peut y avoir seulement un cachet indiquant où le spécimen est actuellement conservé. Chaque groupe d'informations sur une étiquette ou écrites directement sur la planche est séparé du suivant par une barre oblique répétée trois fois (///). Il convient de noter qu'un cachet peut être inclus dans la séquence d'informations, car il peut apporter une information utile sur l'âge d'un spécimen si ce renseignement ne figure pas sur l'étiquette principale. Les étiquettes les plus récentes dans la séquence se réfèrent généralement à l'identification du spécimen par les taxonomistes et cette identification est présentée dans l'ordre chronologique, la plus ancienne identification venant en premier. La séquence des groupes d'informations se termine par l'identification de la part de l'auteur (introduite par ses initiales), avec quelques notes sur le spécimen. Dans ces notes, l'attention se porte sur la taille/ abondance du spécimen, mesurée d'habitude par le nombre de racèmes. En vue d'une collecte future éventuelle et en correspondance avec la date de collecte, il y a une indication de phénologie, si le spécimen provient d'une plante en floraison, et/ ou avec des jeunes gousses (jgo), et/ ou avec des gousses vertes (go vertes), et/ ou avec des gousses sèches (go sèches) et/ ou avec des graines (gr). Ces notes se terminent avec l'acronyme de l'Herbier visité et la date (en format jour/ mois/ année) de l'étude du spécimen (cette date peut être validée en consultant le registre des visiteurs de chaque Herbier). De cette façon le lecteur sait où un spécimen peut être étudié ou demandé en prêt pour étude. Un spécimen peut avoir été étudié au cours de deux visites, et par conséquent deux dates en ordre chronologique seront indiquées. L'indication [x2] or [x3] signifie que le spécimen a été trouvé monté sur deux ou trois planches; au cas où il y a quoique ce soit d'intéressant, la seconde ou la troisième planche sera considérée comme un autre spécimen. Le spécimen le plus riche en parties informatives est généralement choisi pour la première description."},{"index":2,"size":272,"text":"Comme les coordonnées géographiques peuvent être de valeur critique pour des études de phytogéographie ou d'évaluation pour les stress abiotiques, si ces coordonnées ont été écrites sur l'étiquette (principale), elles seront rapportées directement. Au cas où les coordonnées sont absentes et si le lieu de collecte est suffisamment précis, une estimation des coordonnées est fournie, d'habitude pour le premier numéro de collecte; comme il s'agit d'une donnée indirecte fournie par l'auteur, cette estimation des coordonnées sera écrite entre crochets []. Pareillement, étant donné son importance pour retrouver le matériel dans son site original, la date de collecte, surtout si elle se trouve sous forme abréviée ou sous une forme qui peut prêter à confusion, peut être reconfirmée entre crochets (dans le format jour/ mois/ année), d'habitude pour le premier numéro de collecte. Cette confirmation est souvent possible parce que l'auteur a exploré la même zone géographique pour la même espèce. D'autres notes comme des appréciations ou interprétations d'écritures sur les étiquettes figureront aussi entre crochets, de sorte que le lecteur comprend qu'il ne s'agit pas de données originales. Dans quelques cas il s'est avéré nécessaire d'ajouter l'abréviation [col.] pour indiquer clairement le nom du collecteur; pareillement l'abréviation [det.] a été ajoutée pour indiquer clairement le nom du taxonomiste qui a identifié le spécimen. Si ces deux abréviations existent sans crochets, cela signifie qu'elles ont été écrites comme telles sur l'étiquette. Parfois une information critique, comme par exemple le nom de l'espèce ou le numéro de collecte, est manquante, et l'auteur a trouvé un espace blanc à cet endroit; cette situation est reflétée dans les notes par l'indication [blanc] ou [s.n.] sans numéro."},{"index":3,"size":186,"text":"Pour la facilité de référence et détection, le nom du département/ état/ province apparaîtra en vert (la lettre originale en noir a été convertie en vert), et le nom du collecteur et son numéro de collecte apparaîtra en bleu (la lettre originale en noir a été convertie en bleu). La conversion à la lettre originale en noir est facile et permet de retrouver les données originales comme sur l'étiquette. Pareillement, toutes les barres obliques peuvent être éliminées pour retrouver les informations originales trouvées sur l'(les) étiquette(s). Il convient de se souvenir que l'auteur traite chaque spécimen comme un cas particulier et chaque groupe d'informations sur une étiquette comme un groupe de données indépendant, et à chaque visite comme un nouveau cas. Ceci explique pourquoi les spécimens trouvés par le(s) même(s) collecteur(s) avec le même numéro de collecte sont répétés dans la liste. L'opinion d'autres taxonomistes sur le spécimen étudié est leur opinion, et la façon dont les Curateurs présentent les étiquettes et montent les matériels leur appartient également. Ceci précisé, le lecteur constatera des convergences (ou des différences) intéressantes dans le travail de ces différents professionnels."}]},{"head":"Notes sur cette Section:","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":192,"text":"Le lecteur trouvera ci-après les spécimens étudiés par l'auteur dans l'ordre alphabétique des espèces: P. albicarminus, P. albiviolaceus, P. altimontanus, P. neglectus, et P. trifidus. Trois espèces ont été validées dans le travail de Delgado- Salinas et al. 2006 dans Syst. Bot. 31 (4): 782-786). Dans ce dernier travail, P. albiviolaceus et P. trifidus ont été placés en synonymie de P. neglectus, un transfert que nous ne faisons pas pour la première espèce, en attendant de pouvoir étudier plus de collectes récentes. Comme le Lecteur verra, l'auteur a des doutes sur la validité de P. trifidus en se basant uniquement sur la lobation des bractées primaires. Considérant la morphologie des boutons floraux, cette section est maintenue à part des autres espèces de la section Pedicellati (voir T.G. Porch, J.S. Beaver, D.G. Debouck, S. Jackson, J.D. Kelly & H. Dempewolf. 2013. Use of wild relatives and closely related species to adapt common bean to climate change. Agronomy 3: 433-461). Comme information supplémentaire, il convient de noter la distribution limitée aux zones montagneuses du nord-est du Mexique. Il n'y a pas d'espèces domestiquées dans cette section, et les espèces sont vulnérables à l'intervention humaine.  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"updated 7 -  Introducción a los 'Cahiers de Phaséologie' -sección Digitati Freytag.D.G. DebouckPrograma de Recursos Genéticos Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) AA 6713 Cali COLOMBIA; [email protected] NOTA ACLARATORIA "},{"text":" actualizado el 7/03/2018.Introduction aux 'Cahiers de Phaséologie' -section Digitati Freytag. D.G. Debouck Programme de Ressources Génétiques Centre International d'Agriculture Tropicale (CIAT) AA 6713 Cali COLOMBIA; [email protected] EXPLICATIVEObjet:Au moment de finir la monographie avec George F. Freytag(Freytag, G.F. & D.G. Debouck. 2002.    "},{"text":"actualisé 7 / 03/2018.    "},{"text":"ARIZ, BM, BR, BRIT, CHAPA, COL, ENCB, F, G, GH, IEB, K, M, MEXU, MICH, MO, NA, NY, PH, SI, TEX, US Cahiers de Phaséologie -section Digitati Freytag. Trabajo de Recolección de Germoplasma de Phaseolus patrocinado por el Consejo Internacional de Recursos Fitogenéticos. Misión colaborativa entre el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical, la Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León y el Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrícolas de México. Phaseolus neglectus Hermann, det.DG  Debouck, 6 Julio 1986. N.V. desconocido. México, Nuevo León, General Ignacio Zaragoza, en Palo Bola, 11   km S de Zaragoza, en la terraceria a la Encantada. Long. 99 o 47'W. Lat.23  Trabajo de Recolección de Germoplasma de Phaseolus patrocinado por el Consejo Internacional de Recursos Fitogenéticos. Misión colaborativa entre el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical, la Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León y el Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrícolas de México. Phaseolus neglectus Hermann, det.DG Debouck, 6 Julio 1986. N.V. desconocido. México, Nuevo León, General  Ignacio Zaragoza, en Palo Bola, 11  km S de Zaragoza, en la terraceria a la Encantada. Long. 99 o 47'W. Lat. 23 o 56'N. Alt. 2,060 m. Fecha: 8 Septiembre 1985. Obs: bosque semi denso de Encino y Pino. Suelo orgánico pedregoso derivado de esquistos, con drenaje normal. En grupo pequeño donde no hay animales. En floración (flor blanca). Bejuco de gran vigor vegetativo, los tallos alcanzan 3 m de largo. Vainas verdes Sanmiguel 1517./// Herbario Nacional Colombiano. COL000058796 [code barre]. /// DGD: albiflorus, 2 racèmes, en floraison, spécimen peu fourni. [COL; 7-VI-2007]. Trabajo de Recolección de Germoplasma de Phaseolus patrocinado por el Consejo Internacional de Recursos Fitogenéticos. Misión colaborativa entre el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical, la Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León y el Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrícolas de México. Phaseolus neglectus Hermann, det. DG Debouck, 6 Julio 1986. N.V. desconocido. México, Nuevo León, Galeana, 10 km W de Puerto Pastores, en Mex 55 del tramo Puerto Pastores-Iturbide, 0.5 km de La Colorada. Long. 99 o 56'W. Lat. 24 o 44'N. Alt. 1650 m. Fecha 15 Septiembre 1985. Bosque claro de Encino perturbado cambiandose a Chaparral con Micrófilos, con Compuestas e Ipomoea. Suelo orgánico pedregoso derivado de calizas, con drenaje normal a excesivo. En grupos pequeños, en floración (flor blanca). Muchas inflorescencias transformadas en pequeñas tumores por insectos Cynipoidea. Col. DG Debouck, M Rodríguez C., S Rodríguez T. & M Aguilar Sanmiguel 1517. /// Herb. Hort. Kew. [cachet]. /// Royal Botanic Gardens Kew. Code barre K001041766. /// DGD: albiflorus, 2 racèmes, en floraison (1 fleur), 1 jgo, 'scrappy'. [K; 10-III-2005; 2-III-2018].Trabajo de Recolección de Germoplasma de Phaseolus patrocinado por el Consejo Internacional de Recursos Fitogenéticos. Misión colaborativa entre el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical, la Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León y el Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrícolas de México. Phaseolus neglectus Hermann, det. DG Debouck, 6 Julio 1986. N.V. desconocido. México, Nuevo León, Galeana, 10 km W de Puerto Pastores, en Mex 55 del tramo Puerto Pastores-Iturbide, 0.5 km de La Colorada. Long. 99 Sobre suelos derivados de rocas calcáreas. Col. DG Debouck, Mauro Rodríguez Cabrera, Sergio Rodríguez Tijerina & Mario Aguilar Sanmiguel no. 1520. /// Herb. Horti Bot. Nat. Belg. Acc. 1989. /// Loan from BR to TAA 4495/98 sheet no. 16. /// DGD: albiflorus, 3 racèmes, en boutons floraux, spécimen pauvre. [BR; 30-VI-2005]. Herbario Nacional Colombiano 324923 [cachet à l'encre violette]. /// Trabajo de Recolección de Germoplasma de Phaseolus patrocinado por el Consejo Internacional de Recursos Fitogenéticos. Misión colaborativa entre el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical, la Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León y el Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrícolas de México. Phaseolus neglectus Hermann, det. DG Debouck, 20 Noviembre 1985. N.V. desconocido. México, Nuevo León, Galeana, Cañón de las Placetas, 0.6 km al N de San Lucas. Long. 100 o 11'W. Lat. 24 . /// Herbario Nacional Colombiano. COL000058798 [code barre]. /// DGD: albiflorus, 2 racèmes, en début de floraison. [COL; 7-VI-2007]. Trabajo de Recolección de Germoplasma de Phaseolus patrocinado por el Consejo Internacional de Recursos Fitogenéticos. Misión colaborativa entre el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical, la Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León y el Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrícolas de México. Phaseolus neglectus Hermann, det. DG Debouck, 20 Noviembre 1985. N.V. desconocido. México, Nuevo León, Galeana, Cañón de las Placetas, 0.6 km al N de San Lucas. Long. 100 o 11'W. Lat. 24 o 56'N. Alt. 1860 m. Fecha 16 Septiembre 1985. Cañón al W del rancho, también llamado Peñon del Ojo del Agua. Pinar muy perturbado convirtiendose en un matorral micrófilo. Bejuco de gran vigor vegetativo (los tallos alcanzan los 3 m de alto). Crece donde hay protección contra el ganado. Flor balnca en la antesis. En grupos. Sobre suelos derivados de rocas calcáreas. Col. DG Debouck, Mauro Rodríguez Cabrera, Sergio Rodríguez Tijerina & Mario Aguilar Sanmiguel no. 1520. /// Herb. Hort. Kew. [cachet]. /// Royal Botanic Gardens Kew. Code barre K001041768. /// DGD: albiflorus, 8 racèmes, en go vertes. [K; 10-III-2005; 2-III-2018]. Trabajo de Recolección de Germoplasma de Phaseolus patrocinado por el Consejo Internacional de Recursos Fitogenéticos. Misión colaborativa entre el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical, la Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León y el Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrícolas de México. Phaseolus neglectus Hermann, det. DG Debouck, 20 Noviembre 1985. N.V. desconocido. México, Nuevo León, Galeana, Cañón de las Placetas, 0.6 km al N de San Lucas. Long. 100 o 11'W. Lat. 24 o 56'N. Alt. 1,860 m. Fecha: 16 Septiembre 1985. Obs: Cañón al W del rancho, también llamado Peñon del Ojo del Agua. Pinar muy perturbado convirtiendose en un matorral micrófilo. Bejuco de gran vigor vegetativo (los tallos alcanzan los 3 m de alto). Crece donde hay protección contra el ganado. Flor blanca en la antesis. En grupos. Sobre suelos derivados de rocas calcáreas. Col. DG Debouck, Mauro Rodríguez Cabrera, Sergio Rodríguez Tijerina & Mario Aguilar Sanmiguel no. 1520. /// DGD: albiflorus, 6 racèmes dénudés, en go sèche, spécimen pauvre. [M; 14-X-2005]. Herbario Nacional Colombiano 324922 [cachet à l'encre violette]. /// Trabajo de Recolección de Germoplasma de Phaseolus patrocinado por el Consejo Internacional de Recursos Fitogenéticos. Misión colaborativa entre el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical, la Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León y el Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrícolas de México. Phaseolus neglectus Hermann, det. DG Debouck, 21 Noviembre 1985. N.V. desconocido. México, Nuevo León, Santiago, Puerto Genovevo, 14 km al N de Laguna de Sánchez. Long. 100 o 12'W. Lat. 25 o 22'N. Alt. 1,380 m. Fecha 18: Septiembre 1985. Obs: Bosque semi denso de Pino y Encino; barranco de terraceria con pendiente muy fuerte. Suelo arcilloso pedregoso derivado de esquistos. Bejuco de gran vigor vegetativo, los tallos alcanzan 3 m de largo. En grupos pequeños. En floración (flor blanca en la antesis). Col. DG Debouck, M Rodríguez C., S Rodríguez T. & M Aguilar Sanmiguel 1522. /// Herbario Nacional Colombiano. COL000058797 [code barre]. /// DGD: albiflorus, 4 racèmes, en floraison, jgo. [COL; 7-VI-2007]. Trabajo de Recolección de Germoplasma de Phaseolus patrocinado por el Consejo Internacional de Recursos Fitogenéticos. Misión colaborativa entre el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical, la Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León y el Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrícolas de México. Phaseolus neglectus Hermann, det. DG Debouck, 21 Noviembre 1985. N.V. desconocido. México, Nuevo León, Santiago, Puerto Genovevo, 14 km al N de Laguna de Sánchez. Long. 100 o 12'W. Lat. 25 o 22'N. Alt. 1380 m. Fecha 18 Septiembre 1985. Bosque semi denso de Pino y Encino; barranco de terraceria con pendiente muy fuerte. Suelo arcilloso pedregoso derivado de esquistos. Bejuco de gran vigor vegetativo, los tallos alcanzan 3 m de largo. En grupos pequeños. En floración (flor blanca en la antesis). Col. DG Debouck, M Rodríguez C., S Rodríguez T. & M Aguilar Sanmiguel 1522. /// Herb. Hort. Kew. [cachet]. /// Royal Botanic Gardens Kew. Code barre K001041769. /// DGD: albiflorus, 6 racèmes, en floraison, go vertes. [K; 10-III-2005; 2-III-2018]. Trabajo de Recolección de Germoplasma de Phaseolus patrocinado por el Consejo Internacional de Recursos Fitogenéticos. Misión colaborativa entre el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical, la Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León y el Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrícolas de México. Phaseolus neglectus Hermann, det. DG Debouck, 21 Noviembre 1985. N.V. desconocido. México, Nuevo León, Santiago, Puerto Genovevo, 14 km al N de Laguna de Sánchez. Long. 100 o 12'W. Lat. 25 o 22'N. Alt. 1,380 m. Fecha: 18: Septiembre 1985. Obs: bosque semi denso de Pino y Encino; barranco de terraceria con pendiente muy fuerte. Suelo arcilloso pedregoso derivado de esquistos. Bejuco de gran vigor vegetativo, los tallos alcanzan 3 m de largo. En grupos pequeños. En floración (flor blanca en la antesis). Col. DG Debouck, M Rodríguez C., S Rodríguez T. & M Aguilar Sanmiguel 1522. /// DGD: albiflorus, 1 racème, en floraison, spécimen pauvre. [M; 14-X-2005]. Trabajo de Recolección de Germoplasma de Phaseolus patrocinado por el Consejo Internacional de Recursos Fitogenéticos. Misión colaborativa entre el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical, la Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León y el Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrícolas de México. Phaseolus neglectus Hermann, det. DG Debouck, 20 noviembre 1985. N.V. desconocido. México, Nuevo León, Monterrey, Cerro de las Mitras, cañón de la Mina de la Voladora, abajo del Périco, 8 km al W de Monterrey. Long. 100 o 36'W. Lat. 25 o 50'N. Alt. 1,040 m. Fecha: 22 Septiembre 1985. Bosque semi denso de Encino, Tilia y Ugnadia; carpeta de Ipomoea, Desmodium, Solanum, Comelina. Suelo orgánico pedregoso derivado de calcáreos; en cañoncitos donde se concentra el agua. Flor blanca; bejuco trepador de 2 m de alto. Presencia de Trips, Conchuela y Piojo. Col. DG Debouck, M Rodríguez C., S Rodríguez T. & M Aguilar Sanmiguel 1527. /// Herb. Horti Bot. Nat. Belg. Acc. 1989. /// Loan from BR to TAA 4495/98 sheet n o . 15. /// DGD: albiflorus, 2 racèmes, en floraison. [BR; 30-VI-2005]. Herbario Nacional Colombiano 324921 [cachet à l'encre violette]. /// Trabajo de Recolección de Germoplasma de Phaseolus patrocinado por el Consejo Internacional de Recursos Fitogenéticos. Misión colaborativa entre el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical, la Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León y el Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrícolas de México. Phaseolus neglectus Hermann, det. DG Debouck, 20 noviembre 1985. N.V. desconocido. México, Nuevo León, Monterrey, Cerro de las Mitras, cañón de la Mina de la Voladora, abajo del Périco, 8 km al W de Monterrey. Long. 100 o 36'W. Lat. 25 o 50'N. Alt. 1,040 m. Fecha: 22 Septiembre 1985. Obs: Bosque semi denso de Encino, Tilia y Ugnadia; carpeta de Ipomoea, Desmodium, Solanum, Comelina. Suelo orgánico pedregoso derivado de calcáreos; en cañoncitos donde se concentra el agua. Flor blanca; bejuco trepador de 2 m de alto. Presencia de Trips, Conchuela y Piojo. Col. DG Debouck, M Rodríguez C., S Rodríguez T. & M Aguilar Sanmiguel 1527. /// Herbario Nacional Colombiano. COL000058794 [code barre]. /// DGD: albiflorus, 4 racèmes, en début de floraison. [COL; 7-VI-2007]. Trabajo de Recolección de Germoplasma de Phaseolus patrocinado por el Consejo Internacional de Recursos Fitogenéticos. Misión colaborativa entre el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical, la Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León y el Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrícolas de México. Phaseolus neglectus Hermann, det. DG Debouck, 20 noviembre 1985. N.V. desconocido. México, Nuevo León, Monterrey, Cerro de las Mitras, cañón de la Mina de la Voladora, abajo del Périco, 8 km al W de Monterrey. Long. 100 o 36'W. Lat. 25 o 50'N. Alt. 1040 m. Fecha 22 Septiembre 1985. Bosque semi denso de Encino, Tilia y Ugnadia; carpeta de Ipomoea, Desmodium, Solanum, Comelina. Suelo orgánico pedregoso derivado de calcáreos; en cañoncitos donde se concentra el agua. Flor blanca; bejuco trepador de 2 m de alto. Martínez 2063. Se colectaron semillas bajo el no. 2063. /// DGD: albiviolaceus, 7 racèmes, en go verte, go sèches, graines; c'est l'isotype. [M; 14-X-2005]. University of Michigan -Herbarium [cachet en relief]. /// University of Michigan Herbarium [code barre] 1179904. /// Trabajo de Recolección de Germoplasma de Phaseolus patrocinado por el Consejo Internacional de Recursos Fitogenéticos. Misión colaborativa entre el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical, y la Unidad de Recursos Fitogenéticos del Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Agrícolas y Pecuarias de México (Chapingo). Phaseolus. N.V. desconocido. México, Tamaulipas, Ciudad Victoria, 17 km SW de Ciudad Victoria, Km 162 de Mex 101 a San Luís Potosí, 1 km antes de Altas Cumbres. Long. 99 o 08'W. Lat. 23 o 36'N. Alt. 900 m. Fecha 11 Noviembre 1986. Obs: Zona de transición entre matorral espinoso tamaulepico y bosque de Encino; flora de barranco con Compuestas y Lamiaceae. Barranco de calcáreos; suelo pedregoso orgánico con buen drenaje. Soleado con neblinas frecuentes. En grupos abundantes (sube hasta 1180 m). En principio de madurez. Alas y estandarte lila claro. Col. DG Debouck & José S Muruaga Martínez 2063. Se colectaron semillas bajo el no. 2063. /// Tropical Agriculture Research Station, ARS-USDA, Mayagüez, Puerto Rico 00708. Phaseolus leucoviolatus Freytag & Debouck, det. George F Freytag, Dec 8 1986. /// DGD: albiviolaceus, 6 racèmes, en floraison, go vertes en transition à go sèches; c'est un isotype. [MICH; 20-IX-2007]. Trabajo de Recolección de Germoplasma de Phaseolus patrocinado por el Consejo Internacional de Recursos Fitogenéticos. Misión colaborativa entre el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical, y la Unidad de Recursos Fitogenéticos del Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Agrícolas y Pecuarias de México (Chapingo). Phaseolus (especie cercana a Phaseolus neglectus Hermann), det. D.G. Debouck, 8 diciembre 1986. N.V. desconocido. México, Nuevo León, Zaragoza, 1 km S de Zaragoza, en el camino hacia La Encantada. Long. 99 o 47'W. Lat. 23 o 57'N. Alt. 1,430 m. Fecha: 8 Noviembre 1986. Obs: Zona del bosque mesófilo con Nogal convertida en pasturas y huertos de Cítricos y Aguacates. Planta aislada creciendo en los cercos. Alcanza 3 m de alto. En vainas verdes; estandarte y alas de color lila claro. Mi soleado; suelo arcilloso franco, al lado de una acequia. Daños de Picudo. Col. DG Debouck & José S Muruaga Martínez 2059. Se colectaron semillas bajo el no. 2059. /// Herb. Horti Bot. Nat. Belg. Acc. 1989. Trabajo de Recolección de Germoplasma de Phaseolus patrocinado por el Consejo Internacional de Recursos Fitogenéticos. Misión colaborativa entre el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical, y la Unidad de Recursos Fitogenéticos del Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Agrícolas y Pecuarias de México (Chapingo). Phaseolus (especie cercana a Phaseolus neglectus Hermann), det. D.G. Debouck, 8 diciembre 1986. N.V. desconocido. México, Nuevo León, Zaragoza, 1 km S de Zaragoza, en el camino hacia La Encantada. Long. 99 o 47'W. Lat. 23 o 57'N. Alt. 1,430 m. Fecha: 8 Noviembre 1986. Obs: Zona del bosque mesófilo con Nogal convertida en pasturas y huertos de Cítricos y Aguacates. Planta aislada creciendo en los cercos. Alcanza 3 m de alto. En vainas verdes; estandarte y alas de color lila claro. Mi soleado; suelo arcilloso franco, al lado de una acequia. Daños de Picudo. Col. DG Debouck & José S Muruaga Martínez 2059. Se colectaron semillas bajo el no. 2059. /// Herb. Hort. Kew. [cachet]. /// Tropical Agriculture Research Station, ARS-USDA, Mayagüez, Puerto Rico 00708. Phaseolus neglectus Hermann), det. D.G. Debouck, 8 diciembre 1986. N.V. desconocido. México, Nuevo León, Zaragoza, 1 km S de claro de Pino, Encino, Nogal, Cedro, Pinabete, Maguey; Phaseolus anisotrichus Schlecht. n o . 1526 crece alrededor. Suelo orgánico pedregoso arcilloso rojizo derivado de calcáreos. En lugares poco acesibles. En floración (flor blanca, estandarte lila claro). Daños de Ácaros y Oidium. Col. DG Debouck, M Rodríguez C., S Rodríguez T. & M Aguilar Sanmiguel no. 1525. /// Tropical Agriculture Research Station, ARS-USDA, Mayagüez, Puerto Rico 00708. ISOTYPE. Phaseolus altimontanus Freytag & Debouck ined., det. George F Freytag, pas de date. /// DGD: altimontanus, 3 racèmes, en boutons floraux; c'est un isotype; une étiquette indique 'TYPUS' en rouge. [BR; 29-VI-2005]. Trabajo de Recolección de Germoplasma de Phaseolus patrocinado por el Consejo Internacional de Recursos Fitogenéticos. Misión colaborativa entre el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (Cali, Colombia), la Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León y el Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrícolas de México. Phaseolus. n.v. desconocido. México, Nuevo León, Santiago, 2.5 km S de Laguna de Sánchez, camino hacia Puerto El Tejocote. Long. 100 o 15'W Lat. 25 o 20'N. Alt. 1850 m. Fecha 18 Septiembre 1985. Obs: Bosque claro de Pino, Encino, Nogal, Cedro, Pinabete, Maguey; Phaseolus anisotrichus # 1526 crece alrededor. Suelo orgánico pedregoso arcilloso rojizo derivado de calcáreos. En lugares poco acesibles. En floración (flor blanca, estandarte lila claro). Daños de Acaros y Oidium. Col. DG Debouck, M Rodríguez C., S Rodríguez T. & M Aguilar Sanmiguel no. 1525. /// Herb. Hort. Kew. [cachet]. /// DGD: altimontanus, 7 racèmes, en floraison, jgo; c'est un isotype. [K; 9-III-2005]. Trabajo de Recolección de Germoplasma de Phaseolus patrocinado por el Consejo Internacional de Recursos Fitogenéticos. Misión colaborativa entre el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (Cali, Colombia), la Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León y el Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrícolas de México. Phaseolus. n.v. desconocido. México, Nuevo León, Santiago, 2.5 km S de Laguna de Sánchez, camino hacia Puerto El Tejocote. Long. 100 o 15'W Lat.25 o 20'N. Alt. 1850 m. Fecha: 18 Septiembre 1985. Obs: Bosque claro de Pino, Encino, Nogal, Cedro, Pinabete, Maguey; Phaseolus anisotrichus Schlecht. n o . 1526 crece alrededor. Suelo orgánico pedregoso arcilloso rojizo derivado de calcáreos. En lugares poco acesibles. En floración (flor blanca, estandarte lila claro). Daños de Ácaros y Oidium. Col. DG Debouck, M Rodríguez C., S Rodríguez T. & M Aguilar Sanmiguel no. 1525. /// DGD: altimontanus, 3 racèmes, en floraison; c'est un isotype. [M; 14-X-2005]. Trabajo de Recolección de Germoplasma de Phaseolus patrocinado por el Consejo Internacional de Recursos Fitogenéticos. Misión colaborativa entre el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (Cali, Colombia), la Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León y el Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrícolas de México. Phaseolus. n.v. desconocido. México, Nuevo León, Santiago, 2.5 km S de Laguna de Sánchez, camino hacia Puerto El Tejocote. Long. 100 o 15'W Lat. 25 o 20'N. Alt. 1850 m. Fecha: 18 Septiembre 1985. Bosque claro de Pino, Encino, Nogal, Cedro, Pinabete, Maguey; Phaseolus anisotrichus Schlecht. n o . 1526 crece alrededor. Suelo orgánico pedregoso arcilloso rojizo derivado de calcáreos. En lugares poco acesibles. En floración (flor blanca, estandarte lila claro). Daños de Ácaros y Oidium. Col. DG Debouck, M Rodríguez C., S Rodríguez T. & M Aguilar Sanmiguel no. 1525. /// DGD: altimontanus, 6 racèmes, en floraison, partie terminale de tige fertile avec folioles petites; c'est l'isotype. [SI; 21-XI-2005]. UC1716192. Trabajo de Recolección de Germoplasma de Phaseolus patrocinado por el Consejo Internacional de Recursos Fitogenéticos. Misión colaborativa entre el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (Cali, Colombia), la Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León y el Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrícolas de México. Phaseolus. n.v. desconocido. México, Nuevo León, Santiago, 2.5 km S de Laguna de Sánchez, camino hacia Puerto El Tejocote. Long. 100 o 15'W Lat. 25 o 20'N. Alt. 1850 m. Fecha 18 Septiembre 1985. Obs: Bosque claro de Pino, Encino, Nogal, Cedro, Pinabete, Maguey; Phaseolus anisotrichus # 1526 crece alrededor. Suelo orgánico pedregoso arcilloso rojizo derivado de calcáreos. En lugares poco acesibles. En floración (flor blanca, estandarte lila claro). Daños de Acaros y Oidium. Col. DG Debouck, M Rodríguez C., S Rodríguez T. & M Aguilar Sanmiguel no. 1525. Herbiers annotés: Herbiers annotés: Phaseolus albiflorus Freytag & Debouck Phaseolus albiflorus Freytag & Debouck DGD # 1510, US3168862 & 3168864, proposed as holotype for Phaseolus albiflorus Freytag & Debouck sp. DGD # 1510, US3168862 & 3168864, proposed as holotype for Phaseolus albiflorus Freytag & Debouck sp. nov. (ined.), det. George F. Freytag, Dec 8 1986 (label TARS USDA mailing address). One sheet (864, #2/2) nov. (ined.), det. George F. Freytag, Dec 8 1986 (label TARS USDA mailing address). One sheet (864, #2/2) = vegetative and root system; second sheet (862, #1/2) = blooming material. [US; 12-V-1997]. = vegetative and root system; second sheet (862, #1/2) = blooming material. [US; 12-V-1997]. Mexico Nuevo León Herbario Nacional Colombiano 324925 [cachet à l'encre violette]. /// Presencia de Trips, Conchuela y Piojo. Col. DG Debouck, M Rodríguez C., S Rodríguez T. & M Aguilar Phaseolus leucoviolatus Freytag & Debouck, det. George F Freytag, Dec 8 1986. /// DGD: albiviolaceus, 1 racème, 1 go verte, très 'scrappy'. Mexico Nuevo León Herbario Nacional Colombiano 324925 [cachet à l'encre violette]. /// Presencia de Trips, Conchuela y Piojo. Col. DG Debouck, M Rodríguez C., S Rodríguez T. & M Aguilar Phaseolus leucoviolatus Freytag & Debouck, det. George F Freytag, Dec 8 1986. /// DGD: albiviolaceus, 1 racème, 1 go verte, très 'scrappy'. Sanmiguel 1527. /// Herb. Hort. Kew. [cachet]. /// Royal Botanic Gardens Kew. Code barre K001041770. /// [K; 9-III-2005]. Sanmiguel 1527. /// Herb. Hort. Kew. [cachet]. /// Royal Botanic Gardens Kew. Code barre K001041770. /// [K; 9-III-2005]. DGD: albiflorus, 3 racèmes, en tt début de floraison, B1 1-2 mm long linéaires. [K; 10-III-2005; 2-III-2018]. DGD: albiflorus, 3 racèmes, en tt début de floraison, B1 1-2 mm long linéaires. [K; 10-III-2005; 2-III-2018].  "}],"sieverID":"4ed6c2ef-5591-4a61-8421-e45ce77560a0","abstract":"was mutually agreed with the Editor of the Botanical Research Institute of Texas that the monograph should not exceed 300 pages. We had a lot of specimens that the two of us had seen and annotated together in Mayagüez, or separately. We agreed with the Editor that at least an identification list should be in the monograph (pages 291-294), so Curators of Herbaria would have identifications for the specimens they kindly allowed us to see. Since 2002 more Herbaria have been visited (see full list at the end of this explanatory note) by myself and more specimens have been annotated. Obviously few journals would accept the publication of these records in full. The publication of these 'note books of phaseology' on the web site of the genebank of CIAT where the largest collection of beans is currently maintained, was one logical way to put that information available to the public. This file is periodically updated as more visits to Herbaria increase the number of specimens of species belonging to this section."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"050da662f1849f010419c459d6e3801d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f880e0d2-8ad5-4b89-8a4b-1b9faa8754d2/retrieve"},"pageCount":27,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Como lo establecen sus estatutos tanto los ob)ehvos como las actIvldades de InvestlgaclOn y cooperaclOn de CIAT son de estricto caracter lI1ternaclonal"},{"index":2,"size":109,"text":"El CIA T, en sus relacIones con variOS palses alrededor del mundo lleva a cabo sus negocIaCIones y es tratado como una lnstltucIOn lI1ternaclOnal Sln embargo, legalmente. el CIAT es una organlzaclOn ColombIana SIn anlmo de lucro Esto eS debIdo a que cuando se fundo el CIAT, producto de un Acuerdo entre la FundacIOn Rockefeller y el Goblerno de ColombIa, no eXlstla el CGIAR Los centros InternaCIonales de mvestlgaclon agrIcola reCIentemente creados, fundados despues de la creaCIon del CGlAR, tIenen un verdadero estatus InternaCIOnal puesto que ellos son el resultado de cuerdos lnte1 nacIOnales entre dos o mas copatroclnadores del CGlAR (el Banco MundIal el PNUD y la FAO)"},{"index":3,"size":645,"text":"Por Decreto No 301 de 1967, se le ha otorgado al CrA T muchos de los prlvlleglOs de los cuales gozan las lI1ShtucIones internaCIonales DebIdo a este decreto y a la buena colaboracIOn y buena voluntad por parte de los representantes del GobIerno ColombIano, el ClAT ha podIdo llevar a cabo, de una manera sahsfactorIa. sus responsabIlIdades mternaclOnales Vitales 5111 embargo. en el transcurso de los años se ha hecho eVidente que es muy Importante para CIAT obtener un estatus mternaclOnal legal convirtiendo su actual figura de hecho en una Ílgura de derecho Los miembros del CGIAR y la Junta DirectIva de ClA T han expresado su deseo de que esta sltuaclon sea formalIzada Por 10 tanto, hace vanos años en una reunlon con el entonces MinIstro de RelaclOnes Extenores. Dr Rodngo Lloreda Calcedo, se acordo que deberIamos proceder y dar los pasos necesarIOS para conseguir el estatus mternaclOnill legal del CIAT Como resultado de estas dlcuslOnes y de dISCUSIones con los copatrocmadores del CGlAR. se brmo un Memorando el 12 de Octubre de 1983 entro; representantes del Gobierno de ColombIa y los Téle. 05769 CIAT CO Teléfono Conmutador 6130111 DIR-1166 Page 2 copatrocInadores, expresando su Interés de que CIAT obtuvIese condIcIones y caracterlstlcas apropIadas a sus mandatos InternacIOnales, a sus fuentes de fInancIamIento InternacIonales, y al caracter InternacIOnal de sus clenhÍlcos A ralz de la fIrma de este Memorando se prepar6 un borrador del Acuerdo entre el Banco MundIal y PNDU por un lado, y el GobIerno de ColombIa por el otro, para dar al presente CIAT los privIlegIOs e inmunIdades apropIados, normalmente pertenecIentes a una organlzaclOn InternacIOnal Sin embargo, la SecclOn Legal del MInIsterio de RelacIOnes Exteriores, despues de haber estudIado esle documento encontro que algunos de los privilegIOs e Inmunidades requeridos podlan ser concedIdos por el GobIerno de ColombIa solamente a instItucIOnes verdaderamente InternacIOnales Estos criterios fueron transmItidos al Dr Jose VIcente Ayerbe-Chaux, consejero legal del CIAT, en una carta de fecha 20 de JUniO de 1984, de la entonces VIce MInistra, Dra Laura Ochoa de Ardlla En dIcha carta se suglrlO que SI por medIO de un acuerdo InternacIonal se podrla crear un CIAT verdaderamente InternacIonal, se le podrlan otorgar tales privilegIOs e InmunIdades De esta manera, durante el año pasado se llevaron a cabo extensas consultas entre el Banco MundIal, representantes del PNUD, y el Consejero Legal de las NacIOnes UnIdas, sobre la mejor manera de establecer un nuevo CIAT internacIOnal, el cual asumIrla todos los activos, oblIgaCIOnes y responsabIlIdades del actual CIA T El procedImIento acordado fue el mIsmo utllIzado por varios de los centros InternacIOnales recIentemente establecIdos, ello es que el Banco MundIal y el PNUD Ílrmen un Memorando de EntendImIento estableCIendo una nueva entidad internacIOnal Este nuevo CIAT, con personerla legal InternacIOnal, entrara en un acuerdo de sede con el GobIerno de ColombIa en el que se otorgara las InmunIdades y privilegIOs internacIonales apropIadas y la transferencIa ordenada de los actIvos, oblIgaCIOnes y responsabilIdades de la vIeja InstltuclOn a la nueva El Banco MundIal y el PNUD estan preparados ahora para la Ílrma de dIcho acuerdo SIn embargo, antes de hacerlo qUIeren saber SI el GobIerno de ColombIa esta de acuerdo con este procedImIento y estarla dIspuesto a fIrmar un acuerdo de sede, menCIOnado anteriormente Al efecto, adjunto copIa del borrador de acuerdo entre el BIRF y el PNUD sobre la constlluclOn del nuevo CIAT, como tamblen una copIa del borrador de acuerdo de sede entre el CIAT mternaclOnal y el GobIerno de ColombIa Sabemos que el acuerdo sobre sede deber a ser sometido a una extensa consulta, y que despues de esta y de su Ílrma debera ser ratlÍlcado por el Congreso ColombIano SIn embargo, este proceso no puede Ir muy leJos hasta que no se cree la nueva entidad InternacIOnal Para poder hacer esto los copatrocInadores desean obtener, en prinCIpIO, el acuerdo del GobIerno ColombIano  "}]},{"head":"I","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":124,"text":"Quo cOP'un loa Eotrttut.):] del ci ....... Jo CC:Jtro de 1\\:r1 C' \" 't,.M Tropical (t-IAT), u:-Lculc 12 to<lo~ _~J b1er:c:; J elcr.cnLr j \\lu'\\j voz di'-unlto J li(~uid ldo é~to ?\",= c\\.::ü.1\\l..~r C:lU!Hl, ~ ;\"\"1\"-,11 :)t'r tr'lD-rC ... :!..l t3 (l _ .... :¡tltuclcn-: ... c'n 1 \"'j '-'l.l(n ~ c!~ ea C1.C_~\" 1) ,,-otr::..J ir tituCll\" P 0011 JIH'll'll.J, ruC' 1)\"\"1 lc>n2\"\"'n tilÚ. u_u,J_' e ()  nicn J u8 ro~_~~en~~nte ae u~ O~~lnlo ~ltorn~c1cr31, ~ ~~ iC tanto uc:rJt r:¡ oe l:::.s 1:!rerrot:>:.t~'''':J \"¡\" ~jcnC.lcre.::l CJ,.,,'1Cl. ~¡\"..J ... en lOrJ 1) c\"' .... \"\".:oo :.135 ee 1.956, t.=tiC\"'.l.!.o :0 • OrcJ.\"1::1 :.!, :t,. .... ,.:: le! ~ J 232 ce 1 ~:)7 .. ~D.r:.l este ~fe-c\"'o l::t Jl..ntu Dlr~ct:.\":! ~ : ¡"},{"index":2,"size":198,"text":"Cent:-o !n\"',;l\"\" .... c.lot\"::ll de Af:T.l.cul\"'''\\lr'''' -'_{' .... ic'11 (CL\\:'), Te!\" :..¡ ..... meGl.O 00 ...,..1 \"\"1 );:~UC!'J,\"';~, deltoró' CCl.l:':1::'CC.!'\" 1:' ..1 1. lni\" ... ';O!'.l C'::C :;:'l e1o\"1es r:. tc:r~o:,::;~ en C::lC~ cano, el DC:: ... lO do la re:::ncZJ.:J. occ . 1r\"'L::11 t:¡,r\"o :;.r-:c el ,4.in~o t2!\"1. o uo ,l{ 11c~r'1 JO w~tc-r1 c!\"e~ t T\"::::-:.. L 1 de Uf':.l (.,....1~11 c\"\"ci6n rel ... t ... vc [¡ 3\"\"c 11. bO'\"'tJ'l que V~ u dc,ca_rr 0 1l::. r en el 1'llG J e:l 't~r;¡Jlno do d\\lruc~cn <.l\" 1. n I;:aPEOS. AR':'ICU•O ()._ ::1 .,u1 .... ~J .... ~r10 de t:'cL\"1cicrco E\"'tteriC'l\"\"Po o~cr'\" :\".:5. 1 1.\"10 \"-1 \"13. ecoticn:::rA 1.:u) o,,;:cDcic\"1!!..¡. (:) ir::t .. ':-J-j tOD Y d'J.r .. 1. 1\"\"';:; f\"1c1.l.:uludcs \"1t.CC-,'::¡~\"\":l ;.:-....... ln. crtr:lc.a el ~:2l0 ce lo~ fl'1CiC'j~~'J 01 del t.ent.ro ~ 00 ~uo f::W111'1rc!j, n::d. c .... 'J\"'I_~ SU!l L,¡uc ... l.:!:,j jo c~ct.ton dO U\"lO e{ ... !u\"'~\"o t'\\l?on'1l U.i.. tCDOl cJv .-.) I diDruc~to en leo J~crotoD m.u:.LrC::I ,3135 \\2c 1956 y lt25 d~ 1 Ijj Y' 232 ~c 1.957, :lo to~:;¡;¡O oue en 1::1 L\"J 1:;,. de 1.959 y de::' J ~i!l pOOl.C1cnc:J lvl,c-~on ... u)u con C'1'\\.'1 ... :::.tcl-in. "},{"index":3,"size":5,"text":"HOJA No -3- . ."},{"index":4,"size":76,"text":"- ARTICULO 70.-L09 autor.lcn.aen G~n1.t ri:13, aCUtlP9ro.a J del _ i~ nl..Jter10 ce A;.,T.l.cult1.r\"l rc=::::1t1r<.::n el ll.:}:~:o >:,0 I vi.ol.onto de seL.ill\"1s y I:l3t9r~c)-;,s: CC¡l'~t~coo, de T'r\"or' .... cd:.,J c.c:~ ¡ Centro Intcrnuci on:ü oc ..I¡;r1culturc l'ro~_c\"l (elA T) I e sn•ro 0'\"-terr~torio oc ln Rcrubl~ca o nu J~ore ex~crt~c~Y~ o 1-~cr•~c~~r o\\l3ndo .... e:::: neceGnr~o, Sl€:;:¡\"\"'ro J cucnno et.e ect<:l3 seo11:!.:'3 J c..~! ter~::llcs cotén acocr3\"'o.d~B oc los corr\\'}spcndientes cc;;::'t1f:!.o:.--¡ ,. dos 53n1 t3ri os."}]},{"head":"I","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"A'l7ICU T O 130 -LCl Direcci6-¡ ¡¡¡:¡~:ton:ll de ~dU2!J\"S a IlO):¡.C.J. tJd d~l, lu1I\"lfi+er10 <-Q FfJl::!clcn<;:3 -A1::: ..... 1o!\"cc c.~c't:::r_ l::lD I nOl\"lJac y r~01orúntC::l e:::recio.le t.e i':lcll-l\"t:D la r~\"\" ... ';.~ .... --------------------------- "}]},{"head":"\"OPD83","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":153,"text":"SOl:lte usted a !ül conslderacl6n el Proyec.to Ú..: ¡,tIJl!f•j\" ,< Sede edre el C.o!Jferr,Q da C\"}lol~bll'l y el Centro Intt.ruclona I \"''' ¡,r¡rlcu} tura Tropical -CIAl--:\";hrc el \",;.¡rt1culdr .... ~ .. 4;;r 1t( c\". lIP,:, rlr... ,11' Cvi'.C 11'\" ¡ro I~~ lo \"\"ntl:. úir .. ctlViI \"el l.IAT, estoy lrfC'r ~ lo ,,\" 11 r,í..::v;k.l, JJ¡; -;;1 -CiD Ccptro ,1er~ tLfd a,.t~ner 5t'tu~ ~e or¡arjs~o 11 tprl•~lDn~l. I COllO ~Ilnistro de Agrfl..ultura sé de su lat.or rl¡.¡,tif,cl cíe ';ll$ 101'1\"05 al,\\I¡,z.,llos, rdrllcul\"f.,ollto ó..Il lvs cultIves .,Je >lrr..;.!. )1 ra, fdjol. ;><l$tos tro .. dcales J tecTr-l::-h ~c sonllliS I:nHe\"uo (,Jé 1(.. prlvllé¡los,/ ¡rE'lrO'I!)tlv\",S soi1cl,a::!,):. la ,,,,,0-r1il oll les tu, h.s \"H~I' pr~\\'lsté~ di ¡ 1 : .. Cl\"éto )01 d~ ~.~ , 51:'''1lur.\"ut! t.TI t;)r .1I.es !/ .. J1er6Ies SI: .;¡tOI\"\\lD\" a organIsmos 1I1terr.,;¡cülI,a les de este género, y qu~ ~n otros p~tsl'S se I','r toret('jr\" a \\..en : tr)~ h¡;r7lnoS del CI\"T."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"As' las cosas, este N1nister10 tonel rt~~ f~vorat lell'l'ntc ~t \\-re el -Acuerdo de Sede propuesto y solicito 1\\ fse PéS¡;.!d.~ p '~l.i.rle la de!:>1,l\" at¡;'1c1ón ;uc JW<lltúa su t,~!i~f ,'.0 1.1'-CI\" >,4r4::1 \"\") cole.biano CrA T tendra mmunldad de )urIsdlcclOn y competencIa, excepto 1) en la medIda en que el CIA T haya renunCIado expresamente a tal mmunldad en un caso determmado.   "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" ----\"-'~'~'~' ~\"~ ...... _--~-~~ -~---..--..... "},{"text":" eunl, el .J.J..l_t.:tcr ocl L~ntro o Q\\.1lon \\':í~J sun \\t?c~~t '\\ orÓ. c.J 1 l!cncic ....... t.O.L lí.1. .... \"C3r~o le corresilc ... 'lJhJn .... o solicitud o.cc-:-'\" ''-'J:ll de In .t oJ::l uc. \\_U.:l tiol científico o t~0 ~ ... co [' que tiC rc . . . . !.,..\"r-... "},{"text":"1 I.Rl'tClll0 50.-Ll ll~nl. Jtcrio de Rcl.~cic~C3 L'(ter1c .... ~!l infcr= 1\"'1. o-ort'Ul\"~tH!Ilto n loe t.él\"J.:::'t...lc:J Co1C.!lúl-' rO:J CJ \\.-1 exterior Goorf.. la Qrlnton(.,~n doJ. CQntlo Internaci cna~ do \"e .... "},{"text":" una aCClon Clvll de terceros por daños resultantes de un aCCIdente causado por un vehlculo automotor perteneciente al CIA T o condUCIdo en su nombre, o con respecto a una lnfraccl0n de tránsito en que tal vehiculo se vea Involucrado, y de embargo, por declsI6n de las autondades JudIclales, de los sueldos o emolumentos que el eIA T deba a un miembro de su personal b 1 Salvo en lo previsto en el párrafo al 3) anterIor, las propiedades y demas pertenenCIas del erA T serán Inmunes a cualqUIer forma de requIsa, conflscacl6n, exproplaClon y secuestro Seran tambIen Inmunes a cualqUIer forma de retenclOn admInIstratIva o Judlclal provlslonal, excepto en la medIda en que ello pueda ser temporalmente necesarlO en relaCión con la prevenclon e Investlgacl6n de accldentes en que se vean Involucrados vehIculos automotores pertenecientes al erA T o conduCIdos en su nombre 4 Impuestos al El eIAT como persona ]UndlCa, su patrImOnlO, sus mgresos y egresos y todas las operaclOnes y transaCClOnes que en desarrollo de sus objetIvos cumpla y ejecute estarán exentos de toda clase de Impuestos, dIrectos o Indirectos, tasas, tnbutos, contnbuclOnes y gravámenes sobre las personas, las cosas o las actlvldades, bIen sean de la NacI6n, de los departamentos, de los munIcIpIOS, o InstItutos descentralIzados y cualqulera que sea la fInahdad o destmo de los mismos Lo antedicho no es aphcable a los cargos por concepto de serVICIOS pubhcos tales como agua, electrlcldad. gas y peajes en las carreteras pubhcas b) Para Implementar 10 anterior (4al el Gobierno hara todas las gestIOnes pertInentes para que se reembolsen al eIAT los Impuestos Indirectos que puedan haberse mcluldo en el preclO de compra de los bIenes o serVICIOS adqulndos por el erA TerA Testara exento de derechos de aduana y de prohlblclOnes y restrICCiOnes sobre ImportaCIOnes y exportaCIones de artlculos Importados y exportados por el erA T para su uso ofICIal b) El crA T podrá Importar lIbre de derechos de aduana los vehlculos que necesite para uso oÍlclal y para el uso partIcular de SU personal contratado InternacIonalmente Todos los veh!culos se deberán Importar y regIstrar a nombre del crA T El numero de vehículos de su flota sera Igual al que a la Ílrma del presente Convemo se encuentre regIstrado a nombre del crA T en el MmIsterIO de RelaclOnes ExterIores En adelante todo vehlculo adICIonal debera ser JustIfIcado medIante memorendo petltorlO dIrIgIdo a la DlreCClOn General del Protocolo Los veh!culos y por tanto su matricula y placas tendran categoría de Mlsl6n Técmca y podran ser vendIdos en ColombIa solamente de conformIdad con las dISpOSICIones del Decreto 232 de 1967 y otras dISpOSICIones concordantes C) Sm que ello suponga restrIccI6n de la generalIdad de 10 antedIcho, el CrA T estará autOrIzado para Importar y exportar los materiales blOloglcos necesarIOS para sus lnvestIgaclOnes clentlflcas, con sUJecI6n a las leyes y los reglamentos de ColombIa sobre cuarentena e InspeCCIón de esos materIales para evItar la mtroduccl0n al pals o la exportaCIón desde este de enfermedades y plagas graves, el GobIerno de ColombIa asegurará la pronta y expedita mspeccI6n de todos los materiales Al aphcar 10 que antecede, el MmlsterlO de AgrIcultura de ColombIa mstrUlrá a las autOridades sanltarlas y aduaneras ColombIanas para que perrmtan el hbre mOVimIento de semlllas y materIal geneUco de propIedad del CIA T dentro del territOriO Colombiano y para su exportaclOn Sm el reqUISIto del regIstro de exportaCIón, del cual esta exento el CIAT d) La Dlreccl6n General de Aduanas de Colombla faclhtara la naCIonalIzaCIón de los bIenes destInados al CrA T, aSI como los menajes doméstiCOS y vehlculos de funClOnarlOS InternaClOnales al serVICIO del crA T en su cahdad tecmca y I o clentlfIca comprendIdos en este ConvenlO Igualmente, para faclhtar las ImportaCIOnes a que este ConvenlO se refIere, no se requerirá hcenCla preVIa, bastando la presentacI6n del Conocimiento de Embarque como umeo documento necesariO para presentar a las autorIdades de Aduana al llegar las mercanc!as a Puerto Colombiano, para que sea permitIda su pronta nacIOnahzacl6n Para faclhtar la ImportaCIón y nacIOnahzacI6n de las mercancías traídas por el CIA T las autoridades de Aduana permitirán el establecimiento de un Dep6slto Aduanero dentro de las mstalaclones del CrA T en Palmlra Igualmente autorIzarán el rapldo traslado al Dep6slto Aduanero en CIA T de las mercanclas que lleguen al pals. a la Zona Franca Manuel Carvajal Smlsterra en Palmaseca, a la Aduana de Cah o a cualquIer otra Zona Aduanera, o Aduana dIferente a las antes mencIOnadas 6 Fondos a) Sin nInguna restrlcClOn por controles fmancleros, reglamen tos o moratOrlas de cualqUIer clase, el CrA T podra l} reClblr y mantener sus fondos en cualqUIer moneda, en efectlvo o valores de cualquIer naturaleza, y admInIstrar sus cuentas en cualqUier moneda, y 2) transferlr hbremente tales fondos y convertIrlos a cualqUIer clase de moneda cuando 10 consldere conveniente b} A sohCltud del CIA T, el Gobierno de ColombIa ayudara al CIAT a obtener las condICIOnes mas favorables en sus transaCClOnes de cambIO de moneda extranjera por moneda ColombIana y VIceversa c) El Centro InternacIonal de AgrIcultura TropIcal, CIAT, podra reCibir donacIones de entIdades y personas colombianas, con el caracter de descuento tributarlo y beneÍlclos para qUIenes las hagan en las condiCIOnes reglamentadas por las dlSposlclones legales que rljan al momento de la donaclon, pudIendo para ello el CIAT expedir los correspondientes certIÍlcados de donacI6n váhdos para efectos trlbutanos 7 ComunIcaCiones Para sus comUnIcaCIones y pubhcacloncs oÍlclales el CIA T gozará de tratamIento no menos favorable que el acordado por el Gobierno de Colombia a otras organIZacIOnes InternaCIOnales PubhcacIOnes El crA T tendrá hbertad para publicar y dIfundIr los resultados de sus InvestIgacIOnes y cualquIer otro matenal mformatIvo, propiO de su actlvIdad, SIn restrlccI6n alguna Las publIcacIones del CIAT dIsfrutarán dentro del terntOrIO de ColombIa de tanfas postales Iguales a las concedIdas a tendra hbertad para adoptar respecto de su personal contratado mternacIonalmente las pol1hcas y condICIones de empleo que sean apropIadas para poder contratar y retener a dICho personal con cnterIO mternaclonal, SIn dlSCrImmaCI6n alguna por motIvos de naclonahdad u orIgen y SIn más conslderaCI6n que sus cahÍlcaclOnes y experIenCIa Los derechos y oblIgaCIOnes del personal aSI contratado y acredItado ante el MInisterIO de RelaCIones Extenores, de conformIdad con lo establecIdo en el ArtIculo Cuatro, SeccIon 13, parrafo a), se regIran exclUSIvamente por los termInos y condICIOnes establecIdos por el crA T b) Los empleados y trabajadores del CIAT. dIstIntos del personal contratado InternacIonalmente a que se hace referenCIa en el parrafo al anterIor, estaran sometidos a las leyes laborales ColombIanas Respecto de este personal, el CrA T cumphra la legislacI6n ColombIana relatIva a salano mInImo, recargo por trabajO nocturno, descansos domInicales y feshvos, retencI6n en la fuente por concepto de Impuesto a la renta, e mscnbIra a dIcho personal en el Instltuto de Seguro SOCIal ColombIano Se da por entendldo que el CIAT no cotIzara al SerVICIO NaCIonal de AprendIZaje (SENA), por tratarse de un Impuesto del que el crAT esta exento de conformIdad con el Artlculo Cuatro, SeccIOn 4 de este Convenio El CIAT organIsmo mternacIOnal asume todas las obhgacIOnes que se derIven de los contratos de trabajO vlgentes a cargo del erA T corporacI6n colomblana de que habla el conslderando tres del la Junta DIrectIva que no sean de naclOnalldad ColombIana gozarán, además de los pnvIleglOs e mmumdades a que se reÍlere el párrafo a) antenor, de los contemplados en el presente Articulo Cuatro, SeccI6n 13, párrafos del CrA T, en el evento de no ser cIudadano ColombIano, tendra condIcI6n de Jefe de MIsI6n Tecmca rnternaclOnal y de Representante de un OrganIsmo InternaclOnal y, por lo tanto, dIsfrutará de los pnvIleglOs e InmunIdades consIgnados en el Articulo 8 a) del Decreto No 3135 de 1956 y en el Decreto No 232 de 1967 del GobIerno de ColombIa b) El PresIdente de la Junta DIrectlva del CrAT comumcara en cada caso al MmIsterlO de RelaclOnes ExterlOres el nombre de la persona desIgnada para ocupar el cltado cargo c) El DIrector General del CrA T debera comumcar oportunamente al MmIsterlO de RelaclOnes ExterlOres el nombre de la persona o personas que los sustItuyan en el desempeño de su cargo en caso de ausenCIa temporal d) El DIrector General regIstrara su Ílrma y las del personal dIrectIvo que el autonce para Ílrmar documentos de rutlna ante el MmIsteno de RelaclOnes Extenores, tales como sollcltudes de VIsas, expedIcI6n de documentos de IdentIdad, llcencIas para meneJar, etc 12 VIsas Las gestIones conducentes a la traida del personal técmco y cIentlÍlco destmado al serVIClO del Centro rnternaclOnal de AgrIcultura Trop,cal, CIAT, de los mIembros de su Junta DIrectlva, o técmcos y cIentlÍlcos que aSIstan a programas de capacItacI6n, semmanos o conferencIas, deberán tramltarse ante el MmlsterIo de RelaclOnes Exteriores para 10 cual, el Dlrector del Centro o qUlen haga sus veces, hará al menclOnado ~lInIsterIo la correspondiente sohcltud acompañada de la HOJa de Vida del Clentihco 6 téCnICO a que se reflere, y de una exphcacl6n relatlva a las labores que va a desarrollar en el pals, y el térmmo de duracl6n de las mIsmas El MmlsterlO otorgará las Vlsas, gestionará las exenCiones de lmpuestos y dará las faclhdades necesarias para la entrada al pals de los funCionarios del Centro y de sus familIares Al personal contratado InternaclOnalmente, lo mismo que a sus famlllares y lo dependientes se les concederá visa de serVlClO o su eqUlvalente A los profeslOnales que vengan a colaborar en mvestlgaclOnes cIentlÍlcas, a participar en programas de capacItacl6n o en cahdad de Investigadores VISItantes por periodos supenores a tres meses, se les concedera VIsa de serVICIO o su equlValente pero no tendran derecho a los pnvIleglOs de ImportaCIones personales que normalmente se conceden para mternaclOnales o VISItantes espeCIales se les concederá VIsa de cortesla o tUrismo a crIteno del MlnIsterIo de RelaclOnes Extenores El conyuge, famlhares y{o dependIentes extranjeros de clentlÍ1cos colombianos acreditados ante el MInlsteno de RelaclOnes ExterlOres como personal InternaclOnal, reCibIrán visa de serVICIO o equntalente, en Igualdad de tratamIento a los famIllares del personal del CIAT contratados InternaCIonalmente deberan acredItarse ante el MInIsteriO de RelaCiones Extenores y gozaran de los SigUientes prlvlleglOs 1) inmUnIdad de JurIsdIccIón respecto de todas las palabras dichas y escntas y todos los actos realizados por ellos en su condiclon ofICial y dentro de los limites de su autondad, 2) lnvlOlablhdad de todos sus documentos ofICIales. y "},{"text":" de otorgar a cada miembro del personal del CIAT contratado lnternaClOnalmente los pnvlleglOs e Inmumdades declarados en este Convento, el Director General del CIAT o su representante summlstrarán al MIntsterlO de RelaCiones Extenores una solIcItud mdlvldual exponIendo el nombre del funclOnarlo y de los famIlIares a su cargo. una breve deSCripCIÓn de sus calIÍlcaclOnes y experIenCIa y de las tareas que vaya a desarrollar, y la duracl6n prevIsta del empleo del funcIOnarIO b) Con el objeto de cubnr los pnvl1eglOs e mmumdades descntos anterIormente a los mIembros de la Junta Dlrechva delCIAT, el DIrector General o su representante sumInIstrarán al MmIsterIO de RelaclOnes ExterIores una 11sta de los mIembros ColombIanos y no ColombIanos de la Junta, y actuahzará dIcha 11sta de año en año c) Igual geshon realizarán el DIrector General del CIA T o su representante ante el MInIsterIO de RelaclOnes ExterIOres para obtener las respectIvas VIsas, exenCIones de Impuestos de mmIgraclOn y salIda y demas facIlIdades para entrar al pais cuando se trate de becarlos, consultores temporales, conferenCIantes, famIhares InmedIatos de los mIembros no ColombIanos de la Junta DIrectIva que acompañen a estos y VIsitantes de caracter oÍlClal 15 RenuncIa de Inmumdad El DIrector General del CIAT podra y debera renunCIar a la InmunIdad de cualqUler mIembro del personal contratado mternacIonalmente en cualqUIer caso en que, segun su cnterlO, la mmunIdad ImpIda el curso de la JusticIa y la renunCIa pueda hacerse SIn per]UIClO para los mtereses del CIA T ARTICULO CINCO Las dISposIclOnes de este ConvenIo se pondran en practIca en VIrtud de medIdas pertmentes del GobIerno de ColombIa Las partes en este ConvenIo reconocen que la puesta en practIca y la apl1caclOn de estas dISposIclOnes requenran que el GobIerno de ColombIa y el CIAT celebren consultas dIrectamente con regularIdad, y acuerdan que los problemas que surjan en relaCIOn con la mterpretacIón o aplIcacI6n de los prIvIlegIOS e InmunIdades menCIOnados en este Convemo seran conSIderados, negOCIados o dInmIdos, segun sea apropIado. por el GobIerno de ColombIa y el CrA T --14-ARTICULO SEIS El CIAT como entidad con personería legal y estatus mternacIonal será mdependIente de las organIzacIOneS que la establecIeron Por lo tanto, nI el BIRF o el PNUD, m mngun otro mIembro del CGIAR será responsable por cualqUler obhgacI6n contraída por CIAT ARTICULO SIETE Al entrar en VIgor el presente convento, el CrA T con Personería JurIdIca 4939, del 4 de DICIembre de 1967, expedIda por el MmIsterlo de JustIcIa de ColombIa, debera dIsolverse y todos sus activos, paSlVos y obhgaclones seran traspasadas al reClentemente creado CIAT con caracter mternacIOnal ARTICULO OCHO 1 Este ConvenIO entrara en VIgor en la fecha en que el Gobterno de ColombIa notIflque a CrA T que dlcho Convento ha reclbldo la aprobaclon del Congreso Colombtano 2 Este Convento permanecera en VIgor hasta la fecha, de las dos SIgUIentes, que ocurra prImero a} un año despues de que el GobIerno de ColombIa o el CIAT haya nohftcado a la otra parte su deseo de termmar el Convento, o b) la fecha que se mdIque en la resoluCIOn de dlSoluclon del CrA T, de conformIdad con sus Estatutos A la term1naCIon del presente Conven1o y adoptada estatutarIamente la resoluclon de dH;0IucI6n, el CIAT hará la hquIdacIOn, y pagadas todas las deudas, los activos que queden en ColombIa seran transferIdos a otra mstItucI6n Colomblana sm ammo de lucro, dedIcada a la InveshgacIOn, educaclOn 6 extensl6n que el CIAT y el MInIsterIO de Agricultura conslderen mas aproplada --15-EN TESTIMONIO DE LO CUAL, las partes en este ConvenIo, actuando a través de sus Jegltlmos representantes debIdamente autonzados, fIrman este Convemo en sus nombres respectivos POR EL GOBIERNO DE COLOMBiA POR EL CIAT Fecha Fecha __________________ __ "},{"text":" Como es de su conocImiento, el CIAT es uno de trece centros InternaCIOnales de InvestIgaclon agrIcola, los cuales reCIben el apoyo de los mIembros del Grupo ConsultIvo para la InvestlgacIon Agr\\cola InternaCIOnal (CGIAR)Los donantes de CIAT creen que sus dona ClOnes son para una organIzacIon InternaCIonal entro (CiilliATI Apartado Aéreo 6713 InternaCional de Agricultura Tropcal Cal! Colombia entro(CiilliATI Apartado Aéreo 6713 InternaCional de Agricultura Tropcal Cal! Colombia  13 NovIembre 1985 DIR-1l66 13 NovIembre 1985DIR-1l66  Dr GU11Jermo rernandez de Soto Dr GU11Jermo rernandez de Soto  VIce MinIstro VIce MinIstro  RelacIones Exteriores RelacIones Exteriores  Bogota, D E Bogota, D E  Esbmado Dr Fernandez de 50to Esbmado Dr Fernandez de 50to bies CINATROP  bies CINATROP  "},{"text":" el cual se deter=innn los -rivileeios 7 prerro~,t1~~B e que t~e~en ~eTecro el Ca~tro Intt~ rr.ncl. oLal d e ~O\"lc.Jl ~!'3 7:-c\"1 c2.1 (erA r ), 7 su perGon~l técn1CO y cl.~n-í.:l.co inteI\"\"!i3C_O nal, y se cotablccen la~ eÁerClC~Q9 3cbre los Que lo TeJ 157 d~ 1 959 en 3U A ~fCL10 lo , Lltcra1 o, co~, -C~ el ~in~~~~tlo Jc Jl .. ~l~i~ soaun .Hi:! ... olucit:n 110. 'J.l9 ae t.1..Cl.':_1.l!\"' ... 4 di) 1.9ó7.  DE AGRICULTURA DE AGRICULTURA DECRETO NUMERO .301 DE 19 DECRETO NUMERO .301DE 19  (7 ~At\"O 19&s ) (7 ~At\"O 19&s ) sagr3 un réclLL~I\"l de exco 'Del (r p:l~O le -' 01 ene 3 y e lc=,.P1 .. c::t .... t. J -, 1ncluíccs en 1 s liLtc.3 c.~ c.erc2.nC_:'-ü-e p!\"01\"--.tlo.:l 1:;::\"'('_ -:. r:'; (. ~ sagr3 un réclLL~I\"l de exco 'Del (r p:l~O le -' 01 ene 3 y e lc=,.P1 .. c::t .... t. J -, 1ncluíccs en 1 s liLtc.3 c.~ c.erc2.nC_:'-ü-e p!\"01\"--.tlo.:l 1:;::\"'('_ -:. r:'; (. ~ o de licenL.i\"1 T\"rcvlü, el Goblerro Jl2.C' c\"' .. l l se r:J.y\"'\\ cc~ l:::-c-c~ ... dlJ o de licenL.i\"1 T\"rcvlü, el Goblerro Jl2.C' c\"' .. l l se r:J.y\"'\\ cc~ l:::-c-c~ ... dlJ e dcjl\"lr in\"'roc.r\\...cl..r el. 1'318 ll.bre (.p toca. cl~\"\"e ce &r::''\\ .. L::''''~'''t y re:;;tI'l.cc~( 10C; 0'1 virt\"ud de \\..'\"1 cCDlcrla ueoic---=e:lt2 c~lc..r. . . . ..Ldo, e dcjl\"lr in\"'roc.r\\...cl..r el. 1'318 ll.bre (.p toca. cl~\"\"e ce &r::''\\ .. L::''''~'''t y re:;;tI'l.cc~( 10C; 0'1 virt\"ud de \\..'\"1 cCDlcrla ueoic---=e:lt2 c~lc..r. . . . ..Ldo, como eo el c,~o ~el acuerdo f~r~~dG ~n-rd el Coo1er~o ~_c!cL~l! y ln Fununc~vn Rochcfoller y n q~c ~a hr~ ndcno r8f~rerci31 i como eo el c,~o ~el acuerdo f~r~~dG ~n-rd el Coo1er~o ~_c!cL~l! y ln Fununc~vn Rochcfoller y n q~c ~a hr~ ndcno r8f~rerci31 i Que t..n CUI:it\"1liLlt..!\"'tlr cdl n~t.cru= e t .... co, l.::l :1..nd3cl..6n 1\\\",;,1..:1 Que t..n CUI:it\"1liLlt..!\"'tlr cdl n~t.cru= e t .... co, l.::l :1..nd3cl..6n 1\\\",;,1..:1 faller pr(1l.n1lió ..1 fillldor el \" CC..l ...... o :1 t~ .. \"'1f!cicr\"ll ,-c C::.icu' I turn 7rci\"'~~_1 (<..L'\\T), cc:.:.o l.\"1U ~!\" ..:01:' i..rrl,Jic:l de \\l\"rcC'po -1 faller pr(1l.n1lió ..1 fillldor el \" CC..l ...... o :1 t~ .. \"'1f!cicr\"ll ,-c C::.icu' I turn 7rci\"'~~_1 (<..L'\\T), cc:.:.o l.\"1U ~!\" ..:01:' i..rrl,Jic:l de \\l\"rcC'po -1 el\"ll col Lihro lo t Título CT'I (¡ol C~L.ll~ü C!\\11 Col\" L 1_1 e, el\"ll col Lihro lo tTítulo CT'I (¡ol C~L.ll~ü C!\\11 Col\" L 1_1 e, COtlO U'1:J. or ':;1.ni ... ut.~.)n ~uté.,c:..n .... e:cl:. .. \"' a la ln'\\'~~tlw~cil ¡ C~( ... COtlO U'1:J. or ':;1.ni ... ut.~.)n ~uté.,c:..n .... e:cl:. .. \"' a la ln'\\'~~tlw~cil ¡ C~( ... ~ .. 1l .. _ lo 1u~ rLCO'OC e 1 tííica ele C'lco-;t..r 'PLro:lnente y Clr ..... 6.1 e.3 de l'.Jc=c, [,,.JJ..:! nor!~ jUli(1c~ ~ .. 1l .. _ lo 1u~ rLCO'OC e 1 tííica ele C'lco-;t..r 'PLro:lnente y Clr ..... 6.1 e.3 de l'.Jc=c, [,,.JJ..:! nor!~ jUli(1c~  "},{"text":" Centro ¡nt_r-~c~c~~l de A~ri~l~r~ ~rcnic~l (CIA~), ua~~~-  "},{"text":"• Por 01 cml 0\" oetcroinnn 103 rr1v11cBl09 y prcrro-:¡tiv:l5 8 qu~ tienen aoreenO el Contro Intcrn3clonal de AGr~cultura rrop1c~l (L~AT), / ou por3Qn~1 t{cnico y científico interno c1cn~1. / ~o ootableccn laa c7onclcn~a nobra loo bienca, ere menton y oquipoo que paro uno y atroo span importados nI -  "},{"text":" turn Tropical y sobro los diono~iciorca cont~nidaB en eate Do creto, y 1c3 autcr1=ara p,re f,cil1tcr lo. p¡;¡berq~oo que eneato n~z~o decreto ce ~utor1zonf Cln licen~~3 D~2v~n, y cco la cola rroGcntaclén del CcnocJ.J-l.cn1..v de E . . . . Qnrql..c, \\.Plico dOC''o.l mento ~uc cera nece~or10 ertrcv~r Q les autor1d~de3 ~e nduanF al llo~,r In ~crc~ncíu a lo~ r_~Icctivos Lucrtos colc~b1nnos, parn que éStG3 ~er~J.tan GU n~c~~ro11~~citn.  "},{"text":" los sIguIentes cludadanos de Colombla serán mIembros ex OfflClO de la Junta Dlrectlva del CIAT el Sr (al MmIstro de AgrIcultura, el Sr (al Gerente General del Instituto Colomblano Agropecuarlo, lCA, y -- -- Enero, 1987 Enero, 1987 CORRCO ACReO 5 Que el GobIerno de ColombIa y los copatrocmadores, en un I , .. l ) CORRCO ACReO 5 Que el GobIerno de ColombIa y los copatrocmadores, en un I , .. l ) Jru memorando que se fIrm6 el 12 de Octubre de 1983 con motlvo del ~ U J.,~/_ CONVENIO y prtvllegIos que en el presente Convemo se establecen Jru memorando que se fIrm6 el 12 de Octubre de 1983 con motlvo del ~ U J.,~/_ CONVENIO y prtvllegIos que en el presente Convemo se establecen Bogotá, DE, d~c~enbre 17 de 1985 Señor JOllN L NICKr::L D~ctor General del CIPT Cah ApreClado señor Ptenta.J'1ente -< --e c Dra Ester Lozano de Re~ 5ecretarla General res (r::) entre el GobIerno de ColombIa y el Centro InternaclOnal de Agncultura TropIcal (CIAT) CONSIDERANDO 1 Que el Grupo Consultivo sobre Invesbgaclones Agrlcolas InternaCionales (GCIAI) es una agrupacIón de gobIernos nacIonales, Programa de las NaCIones Umdas para el Desarrollo 3 Que el Centro InternaCional de AgrIcultura TropIcal (CIAT) está estableCIdo en ColombIa como una corporacIón de derecho prIvado SIn fInes de lucro en VIrtud de la Escntura Pubhca No 4717 del 18 de Octubre de 1967 de la Notarla Tercera de Bogotá y reconocIdo como persona juridlCa en VIrtud de la ResoluC16n No 4939 del 4 de DICIembre de 1967 del MImsterlO de JusbcIa 4 Que el CIAT funclona como un centro InternaCIOnal de décImo anIversarIO de la InauguracI6n de la sede permanente del CIA T, manIfestaron especIal mterés en que el CIA T contmue desempeñando satlsfactonamente sus actlvIdades y la creenCIa de que es esencIal que el CIA T tenga la condIcI6n y las caracteristlcas apropIadas a su mandato mternacIonal, a sus fuentes InternacIOnales de ÍlnancIamIento y a la indole InternaCIOnal de su personal 6 Que el Banco InternacIOnal de ReconstruccI6n y Fomento (BIRF) status InternacIonal POR LO TANTO El GobIerno de ColombIa y el CIAT acuerdan lo sIguIente ARTICULO UNO b) El Gobterno de Colombta reconoce al Centro InternacIonal de AgrIcultura TropIcal, CIAT, como un orgamsmo Independtente de carácter InternaCiOnal. con personerla legal, sm ántmo de lucro, con fuentes lnternacIOnales de flnanclaclón c) En este Convemo, la expresIón \"personal contratado InternaCIOnalmente\" slgmflcará el personal cIentiÍlco, técmco y admIntstratlvo de ntvel supertor que, en VIrtud de las normas del CIAT, sea contratado en el plano mternaciOnal ARTICULO DOS El CIAT dlfundIrá en ColombIa, por los medIos que constdere más aproptados, la tecnología generada por sus cIentiflcos El MImsterIO de Agricultura y las mshtuclOnes especlalIzadas dedIcadas a la InvestIgaCIón y desarrollo agrlcola, tales como el Instituto Colombtano Agropecuario, ICA, la FederacIon de Arroceros, Fedearroz, la FederaCIón de Cafeteros, etc tendrán acceso a la tecnologla generada por el CrA T en las áreas de su mteres El CIA T concederá cupos a profesIOnales colombIanos en sus programas de capacttacIOn Para los efectos anterIOres, el CIAT podra establecer conventos o contratos con entidades colombIanas ARTICULO TRES De conformIdad con lo estableCIdo en el Acuerdo ftrmado entre el Un cuarto mIembro ColombIano será elegIdo hbremente por la Junta Dlrectnra ARTICULO CUATRO El GobIerno de Colombia concede al crA T lo SIgUIentes prIvllegIOs e mmunIdades dentro del territOrIO de Colombia 1 Locales Los locales donde tlene la sede prmClpal el CIA T, en el MUniCIpiO de Palmlra y la reSIdencIa del Dlrector General en Cah seran mVIOlables Para este efecto el crA T presentara al MInisterIO de RelaCIOnes ExterIOres. la documentaclon requerIda 2 ArchIVOS Los archIVOS del CIA T seran mVIOlables El termmo \"archIVOS\" mclUlrá, entre otras cosas, todos los repstros fmancIeros y de otra lndole, correspondencIa, documentos, manuscrItos. fotograflas, pehculas y grabaCIOnes que pertenezcan al CIAT o esten en su poder, en los locales a que se refIere el numeral 1 del presente artIculo 3 InmUnidades BIRF el Sr (al Rector de la UniversIdad NaclOnal de ColombIa al Dentro de los lurutes de sus actiVIdades ofIcIales, el Bogotá, DE, d~c~enbre 17 de 1985 Señor JOllN L NICKr::L D~ctor General del CIPT Cah ApreClado señor Ptenta.J'1ente -< --e c Dra Ester Lozano de Re~ 5ecretarla General res (r::) entre el GobIerno de ColombIa y el Centro InternaclOnal de Agncultura TropIcal (CIAT) CONSIDERANDO 1 Que el Grupo Consultivo sobre Invesbgaclones Agrlcolas InternaCionales (GCIAI) es una agrupacIón de gobIernos nacIonales, Programa de las NaCIones Umdas para el Desarrollo 3 Que el Centro InternaCional de AgrIcultura TropIcal (CIAT) está estableCIdo en ColombIa como una corporacIón de derecho prIvado SIn fInes de lucro en VIrtud de la Escntura Pubhca No 4717 del 18 de Octubre de 1967 de la Notarla Tercera de Bogotá y reconocIdo como persona juridlCa en VIrtud de la ResoluC16n No 4939 del 4 de DICIembre de 1967 del MImsterlO de JusbcIa 4 Que el CIAT funclona como un centro InternaCIOnal de décImo anIversarIO de la InauguracI6n de la sede permanente del CIA T, manIfestaron especIal mterés en que el CIA T contmue desempeñando satlsfactonamente sus actlvIdades y la creenCIa de que es esencIal que el CIA T tenga la condIcI6n y las caracteristlcas apropIadas a su mandato mternacIonal, a sus fuentes InternacIOnales de ÍlnancIamIento y a la indole InternaCIOnal de su personal 6 Que el Banco InternacIOnal de ReconstruccI6n y Fomento (BIRF) status InternacIonal POR LO TANTO El GobIerno de ColombIa y el CIAT acuerdan lo sIguIente ARTICULO UNO b) El Gobterno de Colombta reconoce al Centro InternacIonal de AgrIcultura TropIcal, CIAT, como un orgamsmo Independtente de carácter InternaCiOnal. con personerla legal, sm ántmo de lucro, con fuentes lnternacIOnales de flnanclaclón c) En este Convemo, la expresIón \"personal contratado InternaCIOnalmente\" slgmflcará el personal cIentiÍlco, técmco y admIntstratlvo de ntvel supertor que, en VIrtud de las normas del CIAT, sea contratado en el plano mternaciOnal ARTICULO DOS El CIAT dlfundIrá en ColombIa, por los medIos que constdere más aproptados, la tecnología generada por sus cIentiflcos El MImsterIO de Agricultura y las mshtuclOnes especlalIzadas dedIcadas a la InvestIgaCIón y desarrollo agrlcola, tales como el Instituto Colombtano Agropecuario, ICA, la FederacIon de Arroceros, Fedearroz, la FederaCIón de Cafeteros, etc tendrán acceso a la tecnologla generada por el CrA T en las áreas de su mteres El CIA T concederá cupos a profesIOnales colombIanos en sus programas de capacttacIOn Para los efectos anterIOres, el CIAT podra establecer conventos o contratos con entidades colombIanas ARTICULO TRES De conformIdad con lo estableCIdo en el Acuerdo ftrmado entre el Un cuarto mIembro ColombIano será elegIdo hbremente por la Junta Dlrectnra ARTICULO CUATRO El GobIerno de Colombia concede al crA T lo SIgUIentes prIvllegIOs e mmunIdades dentro del territOrIO de Colombia 1 Locales Los locales donde tlene la sede prmClpal el CIA T, en el MUniCIpiO de Palmlra y la reSIdencIa del Dlrector General en Cah seran mVIOlables Para este efecto el crA T presentara al MInisterIO de RelaCIOnes ExterIOres. la documentaclon requerIda 2 ArchIVOS Los archIVOS del CIA T seran mVIOlables El termmo \"archIVOS\" mclUlrá, entre otras cosas, todos los repstros fmancIeros y de otra lndole, correspondencIa, documentos, manuscrItos. fotograflas, pehculas y grabaCIOnes que pertenezcan al CIAT o esten en su poder, en los locales a que se refIere el numeral 1 del presente artIculo 3 InmUnidades BIRF el Sr (al Rector de la UniversIdad NaclOnal de ColombIa al Dentro de los lurutes de sus actiVIdades ofIcIales, el  "}],"sieverID":"e07a61bd-47d2-405f-b1f0-c2368aa81ad1","abstract":"Con otOSlon de lo conmemoroclon del Declmo AniversariO del Centro Intern:Jclon.::a1 de Agnculturo Troplcol (C'Al), consideramos e~ el momento op 0010:;0 no solomente p.:lra reconocer los logros del CIAT durante lo p:H::JOO: decodo, $Ino tamblen poro osedvror que el CIAT, como InstltUCIO'1\" te¡go fod:lS les condIciones necesoftQS p.Jro lograr de lo manero mas eflCIC'1te sus ob¡ehvos CLJ~ndo el CIAT se fu,\"do hoce diez 0'\\05, se estobleCIO como un nuevo concepto qJS' pe mdíc conceitror recursos Internocionales p'jro uno Inshtucl0n de Investlgoclon '=lltamc\"lle p ofeSl0n::l1 con el oblativo de acelerar el dC$orrollo ogrtco!o y contrlbuír 01 mcrc'Tlento de 10 produeclOn o3rícolo en el trapico así como tomblen 01 de~orrollo de 10$ p ogramos n':JClonales, e Em\"lo Tngueros Motina Rep esentonte Regional de lo FAO en Colomblo , • Por el CIAT ~(~~.,4~ J hn L NíCeI lfector Generol Por el Programo de las NOCiones Un. dos poro el De,orrollo Wil¡'om T Moshl\"r Dtrector, Proyectos Globales e Interregloñoles DIR-1166 Page 3 Los copatrocmadores desean hrmar el Memorando de Entend,mIento en un futuro cercano. por lo tanto. agradecena su respuesta a la brevedad posIble De la manera mas respetuosa me suscrIbo de usted, Atentamente, ~~ D,rector General Anexos GJLNll ) L • , j~"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0545e822aba2cc354c1e826689a67325","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5037ede9-6a5f-4209-85b1-cf82a243f3d7/retrieve"},"pageCount":3,"title":"For more information, please contact: Michelle Geis at +1 301 280 5712 or","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"The panel will discuss how to embrace a \"nexus\" approach to water management, in which projects that tap water resources are planned and executed with input from stakeholders in the food, water and energy sectors. A key goal of the panel is to insert this approach into the agenda of the Rio+20 United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development that will be held in June 2012."},{"index":2,"size":161,"text":"\"We live in a world today where all too often development policies seem almost perfectly designed to produce conflict between multiple sectors, particularly energy and agriculture, over water resources,\" said Alain Vidal, Director of CPWF, which is part of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). The EDF -CPWF High Level Panel's work is driven by the problems and tensions that emerge when officials in both the public and private sectors fail to consider how water management decisions simultaneously affect energy, drinking water and food production. These complementary, but often clashing areas of interest were the subject of last year's Bonn2011 Nexus Conference and are expected to be prominent at the 2012 World Water Week in Stockholm this fall. The concern among many water experts is that the nexus approach to water management is rarely applied today, and that increases the likelihood of water-related conflicts, particularly as economic development accelerates in rapidly changing areas of Asia, Africa and Latin America."},{"index":3,"size":35,"text":"Vidal noted that with 1.1 billion poor people lacking access to safe water, 1 billion undernourished and 1.5 billion lacking electricity, demand for water resources for multiple uses will rise dramatically over the next decades."},{"index":4,"size":135,"text":"\"The world is now a very different place because addressing insecurities related to food, energy and water -particularly in the world's least developed countries-is now at the forefront of development strategies around the globe,\" Vidal said. \"We know that in the next decade hundreds of dams are going to be built and the question is, how can we ensure that before the projects begin all of the potential beneficiaries sit down together and discuss the purpose of the dam and the pros and cons of various approaches?\" Laos, for example, is facing criticism that without a nexus perspective, efforts by the energy sector to build dams in the Mekong basin to become the \"battery of Asia\" could damage fishdependent communities in the region and exacerbate the existing problem of saltwater intruding into farmlands in Vietnam."},{"index":5,"size":129,"text":"The severity of last year's floods in Thailand and elsewhere in Southeast Asia has raised fresh concern about the way water flows are controlled in the region. There are questions about whether water management decisions in the region's network of dams intensified the flooding of agriculture lands-though there are also policies in Thailand for compensating farmers who lose their crops to flooding that could inform the broader nexus discussion. The Panel will also examine India's effort to expand drip irrigation projects as it confronts the daunting disparity between available water resources and future food, energy, clean water and economic development needs. A 2005 World Bank report warned that by 2050, absent a more focused and coordinated water management strategy, India's various water demands will exceed \"all sources of supply.\""},{"index":6,"size":131,"text":"Vidal said there is evidence that recognizing the multiple demands on water resources can lead to innovative efforts aimed at cooperation. For example, at the World Water Forum, the High Level Panel will examine a case study of the Andean region where numerous clashes between various sectors vying for the water resources in the Machángara River Basin prompted the creation of the Machángara River Basin Council, (the Consejo de la Cuenca del río Machángara or CCRM). The council's membership includes the regional water and sewerage authority, the irrigation management agency, the main electric power utility, the national water secretariat, the Ministry of Environment (which protects the forests that cover much of the basin) and small-scale farmers from the area. They are working together to facilitate cooperation among all of the water"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Uschi Eid, Vice Chair of the United Nations Secretary General's Advisory Board on Water and Sanitation, will open the panel. Other participants include: Gustavo Francisco Petro Urrego, Mayor of Bogota, Colombia; and• Anil B .Jain, Managing Director (CEO) of Jain Irrigation Systems, based in India. • Alain Vidal, Director of CPWF; • Alain Vidal, Director of CPWF; • Gérard Wolf, Senior Executive Vice President, International Development, EDF Group, • Gérard Wolf, Senior Executive Vice President, International Development, EDF Group, one of the world's largest electricity companies with 640 dams worldwide; one of the world's largest electricity companies with 640 dams worldwide; • Yasar Yakis, Turkey's former Minister of Foreign Affairs; • Yasar Yakis, Turkey's former Minister of Foreign Affairs; • Ogunlade Davidson, Sierra Leone's Foreign Minister of Energy and Water Resources; • Ogunlade Davidson, Sierra Leone's Foreign Minister of Energy and Water Resources; • Jane Madgwick, CEO of Wetlands International; • Jane Madgwick, CEO of Wetlands International; • •  "}],"sieverID":"90dfb324-69ae-4666-9d12-2753075a9fdf","abstract":"MARSEILLES, FRANCE (12 MARCH)-As food and energy production intensify around the world, their demands on dwindling water resources have prompted the search for an innovative and collaborative solution. On Friday, March 16, a High Level Panel convened by the EDF Group and the CGIAR Challenge Program on Water and Food (CPWF) will gather in Marseilles at the Sixth World Water Forum (WWF6) to share experiences and results.users in the basin for sustainable development that increases the water, food and energy productivity while also protecting the ecosystem's services."}

data/part_4/05f31a4304de96618107c97c9a478a12.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"05f31a4304de96618107c97c9a478a12","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/345bc654-6ed8-413f-9bd6-b13e0f109148/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"SLP meeting, a summary","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"The SLP meeting 2010 (Addis Ababa, 9-10th December) is over. We were 12 participants representing the four different regions gathered in Addis Ababa to discuss the progress of the project \"Optimizing livelihood and environmental benefits from crop residues in smallholder crop-livestock systems in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia: regional case studies.\" For programme and content details visit http://slp-cgiar.wikispaces.com."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"Send your comments or suggestions to [email protected]"},{"index":3,"size":109,"text":"In the first session, Bruno Gerard and Diego Valbuena (ILRI-SLP-Ethiopia) gave an overview of the project and a small comparison between some of the sites based on the village survey conducted earlier by the regional teams. Then, a region representative gave a short presentation of to understand better the different regions and the diversity of mixed farming systems: Kindu Mekonnen (ILRI-Ethiopia) for East Africa; Sabine Homann (ICRISAT-Zimbabwe) for Southern Africa; Tahirou Abdoulaye (IITA-Nigeria) for West Africa; and Braja Swain (ILRI-India) for South Asia. Finally, Peter Ballantyne (ILRI-Ethiopia) guided us through a group session to identify the lessons learnt and project gaps in terms of the content, process and tools."},{"index":4,"size":84,"text":"In the second session, a discussion on the role of such models in the project took place. After that and thanks to WebEx (a video conf tool facilitated by IT group,www.webex.com), we could interact with Lieven Claessens (CIP-Kenya) and with Mark van Wijk (Wageningen University-The Netherlands). They both gave us a general introduction of their models and how they see the combination of scenarios and modelling. Then, Niels Teufel (ILRI-India) took us back to the objectives of the project to reassess our research priorities."}]},{"head":"SLP team in Addis","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Teamwork led by Alan"},{"index":2,"size":113,"text":"The morning of 10th Dec, we tried to refine the socio-economic indicators on which we need to focus to better analyze crop residue trade-offs, including past trends of residue management, storage of residues, farmers' decision-making and coping strategies. Then, Alan Duncan (ILRI-Ethiopia) started an exercise that helped us to identify the most important and uncertain drivers of the system in each region in the next 20 years (e.g. urbanization and development of export markets in West Africa). After putting more caffeine in our veins, we jumped to the sampling strategy of the household survey to be carried out early 2011. This was followed by a revision of the missing indicators in the questionnaire."},{"index":3,"size":91,"text":"In the fourth session, we concentrated efforts to draft a work plan for 2011. We defined also some milestones in the next coming months (http://slpcgiar.wikispaces.com/Workingplan). Household questionnaire and survey; analysis and reports of the different surveys, and modelling and debriefing meetings among other activities were defined. Project information and knowledge sharing was also discussed. Then Peter became too active taking control over the whole meeting and enlightened us with the different web-tools we can use to improve the communication among people inside and outside the project, including Yammer, Wiki and Google."},{"index":4,"size":114,"text":"Saturday early in the morning, we headed towards Guinchi to get a feeling of mixed farming systems in Ethiopia (Kees Swaans ILRI-Ethiopia also joined). We met with Kassahun Bekele (Field Researcher, Holeta Agriculture Research Centre-Ethiopia), who introduced us with some farmers of the area. This was a good way to get to understand better the challenges they face, including market access and feed availability. This fieldtrip also gave us the opportunity to test part of the household questionnaire. That was the last part of a fruitful meeting that helped us to update the project and focus on the next steps. It was also a great opportunity to work with a bunch of nice people."}]},{"head":"Season's greetings!","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Testing the hh questionnaire in the field Field trip to Guinchi (ET) Eucalyptus, alternative feed?"}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"f50ac903-449c-4f32-8a51-576bf1ac2f9b","abstract":"The SLP meeting is over. We've got the chance to look at what we have achieved, what are we busy with and what still need to be done."}

data/part_4/0685e76bf15a3a4be59e5245d1d5d7e7.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0685e76bf15a3a4be59e5245d1d5d7e7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/38f0bb0e-f059-40c9-b633-738f82a5ce09/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Short introduction to a proposed One CGIAR initiative on 'Sustainable Animal Productivity for Livelihoods, Nutrition and Gender inclusion' (SAPLING) ILRI, Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT, ICARDA","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"It will do this by (1) developing a pipeline of new and contextualizing existing health, genetics, feed, and market systems innovations -technologies, practices, tools -that fill critical productivity and value-chain competitiveness gaps, (2) generating evidence and tools for enhancing equity, inclusion, and food and nutrition security in value chains, (3) developing, piloting, and facilitating scaling of context-specific innovation packages, and (4) leveraging resulting evidence to guide policies and increase investment for sustainable livestock productivity. More details are provided on the next page."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"Co-creation with private sector and other \"next user\" and co-design partners is expected to 1) generate solutions that better meet the needs and preferences of users resulting in higher adoption and 2) facilitate investment from partners to take innovations to scale. By 2024, this approach will enable one million livestock producers (50% women) of cattle, chickens, small ruminants, and pigs to engage in inclusive value chains and achieve sustainable productivity gains between 30-50%."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"Results will inform policy change and guide investments in countries and drive the global dialogue on livestock's contribution to livelihoods, leading to increased investment in sustainable livestock production."},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"The targeted countries include Ethiopia, Kenya, Nepal, Mali, Tanzania, Uganda and Vietnam."},{"index":5,"size":10,"text":"Expected start of the work: Jan 2022 for 3 years."},{"index":6,"size":12,"text":"Please contact Isabelle Baltenweck [email protected] or Mourad Rekik [email protected] for more information."}]},{"head":"Main Focus","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Example of innovations","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Work Package 1","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Technologies and Practices for Sustainable Productivity","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"With \"next user\" delivery partners: Develop, adapt, test, demonstrate, and pilot new and existing productivity enhancing, climate-smart, scalable technologies and practices including improved feeds, forages and dual-purpose crops, novel animal health products, herd health packages, improved genetics, improved husbandry, and cross-cutting solutions for environmental sustainability."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"An optimized vaccine formulation for contagious caprine pleuropneumonia, one of the most severe and highly infectious diseases of goats, developed in partnership with an animal health company and used by livestock keepers to significantly reduce morbidity and mortality in their herds."}]},{"head":"Work Package 2 Food and Nutrition Security","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"Generate evidence on effectiveness of approaches to strengthen the role of ASFs in diets and to reduce social barriers to suboptimal consumption. Develop and test practices for safe production and appropriate handling of ASFs along livestock value chains. Co-create innovative models to deliver affordable, safe ASFs to consumers."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"Playbook of social and behavioural change strategies targeted at the household level that include all those involved in decision-making (e.g., men and other influencers), not only the primary caregiver, for practitioners to support appropriate consumption of ASFs."}]},{"head":"Work Package 3 Equity and Inclusion","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"Design and test accommodative and transformative approaches addressing genderand youth-related constraints (accessing, benefiting, and controlling opportunities and resources) throughout the livestock market system and at the household level. Design and test women-and youth-demanded innovations that provide opportunities and capabilities to engage in competitive livestock value chains."},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"Toolkit of gender-transformative approaches for extension services, NARS, NGOs, private sector actors and multinational organizations to ensure livestock interventions lead to increased agency and decisionmaking power for women and other marginalized groups as a pathway toward empowerment through livestock."}]},{"head":"Work Package 4 Innovation Packages for Value Chain Competitiveness","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"Generate evidence on innovation packages across sites and value chains. Prioritize innovations at the farm, value chain and landscape level via trade-off analysis. Co-create gender and youth inclusive innovation packages that include technologies/practices, veterinary/diagnostic services, input, extension and service delivery mechanisms, farmer and SME finance and insurance, and market information and output marketing systems."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"Market-driven business models that integrate multi-platform digital tools for livestock value chain actors to enhance value chain linkages and efficiency and improve livestock keepers' access to services and profitable input and output markets."}]},{"head":"Work Package 5 Evidence, Decisions and Scaling","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"Provide compelling scientific evidence and tools that feed into co-delivery of technologies/practices, business-models and policies that will sustainably improve livelihoods. Synthesize evidence and develop communication and engagement strategies to disseminate and advocate for increased investments and better policies at country level and globally. Decision-support system (integrating ex-ante modelling tools) that helps development actors, donors, and governments to assess tradeoffs between social, economic, and environmental outcomes at different scales guiding the evidencebased planning of investments in sustainable livestock production."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"054c5b52-9eca-4b75-ae73-76025b936b66","abstract":"SAPLING will work with research, development and private sector actors to support sustainable growth of the livestock sector in LMICs, developing market-driven solutions to incentivize small-and medium-scale producers to invest in sustainable productivity and capture growing demand, while enhancing social inclusion, supporting improved nutrition, and contributing to environmental protection."}

data/part_4/0710d8271cc52870e6e1c70eff193a49.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0710d8271cc52870e6e1c70eff193a49","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/dea0dba7-82f8-49df-b345-d96ed64e1563/retrieve"},"pageCount":11,"title":"Current business models *: Only in MuongCoi, Son La","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"• Innovation 1: 'preferred trader' (Huong et al, 2009) -Preferred traders give higher price, for both Ban and Mong Cai -Highest margins achieved by Ban producers with preferred traders but effect on household income unclear -Market efficiency for indigenous pigs in uplands is low in comparison with that in the lowlands -Contract farming and/ or marketing cooperatives should be encouraged"},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"• Innovation 2: linking groups to specialized outlets (Scholl et al,"}]},{"head":"2016)","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"-Formation of groups (various forms) has been successful in 1. linking farmers to more profitable markets and 2. increase household incomes -Yet, most members still market their pigs individually and the number of farmers involved in these schemes are small -For the long-term development, need to develop trademark registration, strict quality control and written contract with regular customers -Farmers access market information on a regular basis and therefore adjust their production to meet the customer requirements: small Ban pigs (10-15kg) preferred as specialty dish in restaurants and food stores in Hanoi, while in Son La, heavier Ban pigs (40-80kg) were demanded in the open market."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"• Innovation 3: contract farming (Lapar et al, 2007) -Allows farmers to access quality inputs and services, on credit -But smallholders not able to access such contracts -Pig farmers also enter in informal contracts with traders or cooperatives -A major benefit of such contracts relates to reduced transaction costs arising from asymmetric information in product quality certification: farmers are able to get higher price for quality pigs"},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"What institutional arrangements are in place, from the literature? (cont.)"},{"index":4,"size":4,"text":"Research objectives and methods "}]},{"head":"• Methods","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"select priority 'best-bet' options to be piloted: identify suitable locations and actors; introduce options, monitor and evaluate adoption and performance -Household and value chain actors surveys"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":" Linked with 'new' feed options including improved mix of purchased and self-produced feeds and options for efficient response to price fluctuations -Integration of trials into existing livestock development institutions and the ACIAR funded Maize project • Identifying alternative forms of value chain arrangement • Identifying alternative forms of value chain arrangement -Assessing performance of different approaches: farmer-'preferred' trader -Assessing performance of different approaches: farmer-'preferred' trader versus group approaches versus group approaches -If relevant (topic 1), facilitating 'organic' crossbred pig value chain -If relevant (topic 1), facilitating 'organic' crossbred pig value chain development development - -  "}],"sieverID":"fde29092-9d4b-4be4-a2ef-3b939134adfd","abstract":"Market related constraints, e.g., output price volatility, input price increases, localized demand, sporadic demand from external markets (e.g., unofficial Chinese exports) -Ranked top in 2 villages -2 nd constraint in 1 village -least important constraint in 1 village (Bac Phong)\"We can somehow handle other constraints but there is no way to handle prices which are determined by market\" (Value chain mapping meeting in MuongCoi commune)"}

data/part_4/07fadb6d1bc9132fb29c064c5fd04bf7.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"07fadb6d1bc9132fb29c064c5fd04bf7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f0c08449-54eb-4c07-ab7c-96be0baa1868/retrieve"},"pageCount":8,"title":"ISPC commentary on the CRP on Water, Land and Ecosystems, Phase II -Pre-proposal","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Overall analysis as an integral part of the CRP portfolio","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Score: B","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":132,"text":"The research issues outlined in the pre-proposal Water, Land and Ecoystems clearly meet the criteria for a \"grand challenge\" and represent a high priority of the CGIAR SRF. As an integrative CRP, the potential links to the eight agri-food systems CRPs are clear on a conceptual levelthat WLE will provide the expertise required to manage trade-offs between agricultural production and provision of ecosystem services across the CRP portfolio. WLE has a lot of potential as a CRP and there is a clear need for a strong program of research on these topics within the CGIAR. However, the final proposal will have to be more pragmatic and focussed where it is currently rather overambitious and theoretical. There is little explanation about what the priorities are, and more importantly, how priorities have been identified."},{"index":2,"size":88,"text":"The issues identified as flagships are unquestionably important to the global development agenda. What is less clear is the potential for research to contribute significantly to progress on tackling them. Generalised research questions have been formulated, but there is little focus on the specific questions that are paramount for the Flagship Projects and the impact pathways to the IDOs and SLOs. Many research questions are not new, but have been the subject of research for many decades, with a thin record of impact having been documented (Merrey, 2015)."},{"index":3,"size":88,"text":"There are numerous links out from WLE to other integrating and agri-food system CRPs, however the extent to which WLE is able to partner with these CRPs effectively remains unclear. Certainly there is sufficient evidence to suggest that the Sustainability, Ecosystems and Resilience framework has so far not been successful in influencing the scientific direction of other CRPs. This is surely a critical pathway for impact from WLE and yet there are no references to the influence of this framework in any of the other 12 CRP pre-proposals."},{"index":4,"size":67,"text":"Regarding the rigour and credibility of the scientific arguments, the ISPC has concerns about the quality of analysis motivating the Gender and Inclusive Growth Core Theme, and the Sustainability, Ecosystems and Resilience framework (see comments on these flagships in section 6 of this commentary). These are two foundational areas of work for the CRP so weaknesses in these areas could potentially undermine the CRP as a whole."},{"index":5,"size":92,"text":"The ISPC welcomes some evidence that the research in the second phase will build on achievements in the first phase. However examples of relevant past projects, and what has been learned from them, have been mentioned only briefly in the pre-proposal. A lesson learned in WLE Phase 1 was the need to reflect gender and youth issues in the problem statement, and now there is a Gender and Inclusive Growth Core Theme. Beyond that, there is little to glean from the findings from Phase 1, except in the most general of terms."},{"index":6,"size":110,"text":"Site Integration Plans will be developed during the full proposal stage, in close consultation with national partners, led by a specified Center or CRP in each country or site. The Site Integration Plans are expected to demonstrate that the CRPs will jointly contribute to improved community livelihoods and resilience through locally appropriate farming and food systems. The value of Site Integration Plans is well understood, but to be able to develop these plans in the full proposal stage, coordination with the relevant partners should already be structured in the pre-proposal phase. The way coordination with partners will be structured has received little attention so far in the WLE CRP Pre-proposal."}]},{"head":"Theory of Change and Impact Pathway","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"Score: C There is a succinct and laudably clear description of the categories of expected outputs from the CRP, namely: \"(i) diagnostic and monitoring tools... (ii) data generation and analysis for informed decision-making... (iii) business and investment support... and (iv) capacity development of partners\" (p.2). However, it is frustrating that the reader cannot get a better sense of how these outputsall of which are the immediate results of very different kinds of strategies for trying to achieve impactmatch up to the research questions in the pre-proposal."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"The Theory of Change is linear and generic, with assumptions listed that are far from comprehensive. Lists of outcomes have been prepared, together with targets and contributions. The targets are quite clear but concerning the expected contributions from WLEas in the overall value propositionit is not well defined how the targets (e.g. numbers of hectares of restored land; percentages of reduction of greenhouse gas emissions) have been generated."},{"index":3,"size":127,"text":"It is not evident how the CRP will go about attempting to measure contributions to development outcomes. The outcomes are difficult to measure, and the question of how such outcomes are to be generated is insufficiently clear from the Theory of Change at CRP level. The impact pathway from research clusters to research outcomes and development outcomes to the contribution to systemwide sub-IDOs, and system level outcomes, has many unstated uncertainties, assumptions, and leaps of logic that are very significant. The Theory of Change and impact pathway sections at Flagship Project level are generally more plausible. The topics covered by the CRP are clearly of vital global significance but in aggregate, the pre-proposal is very ambitious, and the expectations of impacts would seem to be somewhat unrealistic."}]},{"head":"Cross-cutting themes","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":175,"text":"A change from the extension proposal for WLE is the greater emphasis in this pre-proposal on gender and youth issues. The rationale for the gender and youth components in the Flagship Projects of WLE has been explained. However, the quality of the analysis underlying the choice of activities in this field (for example, in attempting to change attitudes) is somewhat questionable on the basis of what is written in the pre-proposal, and the strategies for bringing about such significant shifts are undefined. In terms of visibility of gender issues, WLE scores very highly. However, gender will be manifest in widely divergent ways in the different geographic regions and a diversity of approaches will be needed. The impression from the pre-proposal is that women are treated as totally disconnected from men the value and roles of family cohesion is not visible in the proposal. Many societies have different models for dealing with gender issues and therefore one cannot assume that the ultimate objective can always be for women and men to have identical roles in society."},{"index":2,"size":162,"text":"With regards to youth issues, some of the same positive and negative comments apply as for gender. Youth issues have been placed at the center of the CRP given the emphasis in the cross-cutting flagship on \"inclusive growth\". However, the underlying pre-analytical vision of the CRP has to be questioned with regards to its role in supporting rural young people. Central to the GIG (Gender and Inclusive Growth) flagship is the desire for young people to stay behind and continue to farm. The first overall research question listed is: \"How best to motivate rural youth at the brink of out-migration to invest in sustainable intensification?\" This is surely putting agriculture front and center of the picture rather than the goals and aspirations of young people. There is good evidence from around the world that young people do not want to work in agriculture if they have a better option, and we should assume that this is a rational decision on their part."},{"index":3,"size":101,"text":"Capacity development is an important strategy in the WLE CRP. At Flagship Project level the types of training have been indicated. While it is not clear which partner organisations should be trained and which training institutes should be involved, these are topics that can be addressed in the full proposal. Also needing more detail are the questions of how training and other modes of capacitybuilding will, or will not, be a sufficient contribution to bring about changes that can result in development outcomes in the context of the wider enabling environment. Consequently, also at CRP level there are some significant uncertainties."}]},{"head":"Budget","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"The six-year (2017 -2022) budget for WLE is USD 507.7 million with a spread across flagship projects that appears reasonable even if the prioritization process that led to the relative allocations is not explained. WLE is a very ambitious programme which could easily use at least the funds requested, so relative to the outcomes they hope to achieve, the budget would seem to be appropriate in aggregate. Among Flagship Projects, about 50% is allocated to the Flagships more oriented towards biophysical science (FP1, 2 and 5), and 50% towards the socio-economic and process-focused flagships (FP3, 4 , 6 and GIG). Considering that WLE aims to receive products from the agri-food systems CRPs, this balance is probably appropriate."}]},{"head":"Governance and management","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Score: C"},{"index":2,"size":102,"text":"Among the proposed leadership team there is comprehensive expertise and good publications records, including staff from IWMI, WorldFish, CIAT, ICRISAT, ICARDA, IFPRI, ICRAF, CIFOR and Bioversity. There is also membership from universities and advanced research institutes e.g. Stanford, CIRAD and WUR, and international organizations UNESCO and IUCN. This plurality of partners with a leadership stake in WLE places a significant responsibility on the CRP Director to ensure that there is strong coordination and communication. It is something of a concern that the Director's position is currently under recruitment at such a crucial point, but a job description and person specification are included."},{"index":3,"size":64,"text":"It is hard to judge the quality of partnerships, but it should be noted that for this CRP particularly, successful working relationships with partner organisations are essential. If the partnerships don't work out as was planned, it will be very difficult to make progress towards development outcomes. Evidence of a clear strategy guiding choice of partners needs to be provided in the full proposal."},{"index":4,"size":62,"text":"The lack of detail on the researchable areas within WLE makes it difficult to make an informed judgement on whether the best institutions for making research breakthroughs have been included. But, there are certainly institutions, and individual researchers within them, with great track records in water management (e.g. CSIRO; the Israel Institute for Technology) that hold the comparative advantage for specific topics."},{"index":5,"size":158,"text":"For development partners, WLE has tried to get the balance right between, on the one hand, a micro-based strategy for specific watersheds with few prospects for generating international public goods, and on the other hand, a global strategy targeting imperfect, slow-moving multilateral processes that have enormous potential impacts but low probability of success. This has been the focus of two prior ISPC commentaries on previous iterations of WLE. There is some evidence from this pre-proposal that WLE are finding their way in the middle ground, though more could be done to assuage doubts about the prospects for generating international public goods. For a number of Flagship Projects (but particularly 2 and 4) to achieve large-scale impacts, much will depend on the relationships with the multilateral banks. If WLE researchers can show evidence that they are listened to by senior managers at the African Development Bank, then the prospects for the research to influence major investments are greatly enhanced."}]},{"head":"Flagship projects","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"Core Theme on Gender and Inclusive Growth (GIG) Gender and youth issues in agricultural development are clearly of global significance. While the GIG core theme is relatively modest in budget it is hugely ambitious: impacts from this kind of approach can surely only be long-term and incremental in nature. Perhaps the intent is for these issues to be mainstreamed through the rest of the CRP and for GIG to play an advocacy role? The technical and conceptual framework underpinning the youth work and \"inclusive growth\" is not clear."},{"index":2,"size":108,"text":"YPARD (Young Professionals for Agricultural Research for Development), part of the Global Forum on Agricultural Research (GFAR), is the key partner for the GIG core theme. As far as the ISPC understands it, YPARD is not an organisation with a mandate to represent the interests of young people in developing countries. It is a forum focused on agricultural research that brings in the perspectives of young professionals, not disadvantaged youth living in the focal regions. The ISPC is concerned that there is currently not a sufficient level of analysis of the critical issues required to deliver strong support to the WLE research in this area across the CRP."}]},{"head":"FP1: Restoring Dryland Landscapes (RDL) B","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"The grand challenge of regenerating degraded agricultural landscapes and the enhancement of their ecosystem services is one that the CGIAR is well-positioned to contribute towards. This flagship project is extremely ambitious. All three activity clusters have no specific geographic focusall are global in scope across Sub-Saharan Africa, Asia and Latin America. The plausibility of what is proposed will hinge on whether the leadership have a pragmatic view of how local scientific research will bring about positive change. More evidence of this will be needed in the full proposal. However, the collection of topics described does represent a coherent agenda for research with a good mix of some important innovative new work alongside a continuation of some areas of significant investment by the CGIAR from the past 10 years."},{"index":2,"size":152,"text":"The Flagship Theory of Change would benefit from further reflection, particularly as this is an area of research with a long history and a relatively poor record of impact. If the kinds of restorations envisaged could be achieved there would indeed be profound global impacts, but currently the FP description is short on rigorous analysis or pragmatism about what can realistically be achieved. Many academics in environmental economics estimate the economic value of ecosystem services and biodiversity, often in contexts where these attributes have little direct instrumental value for poor people. The establishment of institutions to compensate these \"landscape managers\" for the ecosystem services they provide to humanity is a task that has been tackled from many different angles and with limited successit is very difficult to do properly. Given these concerns, the full proposal will need to more carefully acknowledge the socio-political difficulties associated with the various strategies for ecosystem restoration."}]},{"head":"FP2: Land and Water Solutions for Sustainable Intensification B","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"The work under this Flagship is organized in two clusters. Activity cluster 1 focused on smallholders, in irrigated and rainfed systems to help identify \"mechanisms of change for uptake of smallholder agricultural water and land management\". Activity cluster 2 focuses on large-scale, typically publically-funded, irrigated systems with the goal of increasing the \"agroecosystem service values obtained from water management services\". In both cases, the major strategy seems to fundamentally be about conducting ex-ante environmental impact assessment for large programs."},{"index":2,"size":197,"text":"Activity cluster 1 commits to work with the agri-food system CRPs to assess the impacts of their innovations in terms of \"people, poverty and ecosystems\", and yet the comparative advantage of lead centers IWMI and ICRISAT for doing this, for any area other than the ecosystem services assessment part of this puzzle, is far from clear. The description of the Flagship Project uses phrases like \"business models\",\" investment options\" and \"solutions\" throughout, while at the same time acknowledging elsewhere in the CRP (flagship 4 in particular) that win-win scenarios between competing uses are the exception rather than the rule. Managing trade-offs between economic and ecological values of alternative options would seem to be a more realistic assessment of the problems. This Flagship is very ambitious and is attempting things that have consumed a lot of effort for many years in many locations by many donors. The full proposal should aim to provide a more convincing demonstration of how the outputs from Activity Cluster 1 such as indicator systems, and multi-scale modelling / systems analysis are expected to either influence policy / institutional arrangements in the focal regions, or will translate into changes in the behaviour of smallholders."}]},{"head":"FP3: Sustaining Rural-Urban Linkages B","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":180,"text":"This Flagship Project is both more practical and more innovative than the other Flagships. Activity cluster 1 starts from an urban consumption entry point to investigate rural-urban food linkages in particular value chains. The rationale is that starting projects from urban areas and working outwards is a good complement to the more rural-focused perspectives of the agri-food systems CRPs. CIAT are the lead Center and have reasonable claim to have comparative advantage on these issues within the CGIAR. Activity cluster 2 looks at the growth of urban water demand and how it interacts with agricultural production and consumption in larger urban watersheds, as well as how peri-urban agriculture and aquaculture can impact on water quality in urban areas. IWMI are leading and have clear comparative advantage to do so. Activity cluster 3 evaluates options for resource recovery and re-use, broadening previous conceptions of \"resource\" to also include energy in the form of dumped waste, through a collaboration with ICRAF. The impact pathways and Theory of Change for this Flagship are more plausible and rooted in reality than the other flagships."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"In Phase 1 of the CRP (2014 extension proposal), the Flagship was called Recovering and Re-using resources in urbanizing environments. This suggests that there has been a broadening out to include the topics now under activity clusters 1 and 2. The full proposal will have to demonstrate that these additional new topics do not represent a dilution from a core area of tight focus and comparative advantage."}]},{"head":"FP4: Managing Resource Variability, Risks and Competing Uses for Increased Resilience (VCR) B","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"This Flagship Project is about finding solutions to water management problemseither through technical management options for specific contexts, or working to find resolutions for cross-border water management issues. Activity Cluster 1 develops management innovations to mitigate droughts and floods, whereas Activity Cluster 2 develops \"policies, institutions and tools to address bilateral and multilateral resources trade-offs\" in specific geopolitical contexts. The links to the agri-food systems CRPs are more evident in FP 4 than in much of the rest of the CRP, though they are not well-developed to date. Linkages to CCAFS and PIM are clear and of potential value to the System."},{"index":2,"size":92,"text":"The researchable areas are somewhat unclear, and with outputs that are \"advice...\", \"monitoring systems...\", \"guidance...\", \"analyses...\" the pathway to impact seems to hinge on individual country governments seeking out WLE's contributions to large-scale national programmes. The question is whether this needs to be part of the CGIAR CRP portfolio, or whether this would be better pursued as a series of bilateral projects directly commissioned by countries? The full proposal should aim to build the case for how this FP strengthens the rest of the CRP, and other CRPs in the CGIAR portfolio."}]},{"head":"FP5: Sustainability, Ecosystems and Resilience (SER) D","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":169,"text":"While the text on FP5 is undoubtedly interesting, FP5 is insufficiently integrated with the needs of the other FPs and the other CRPs. The SER framework was published very recently, in December 2014, but it is nonetheless surprising that none of the other CRP pre-proposals have cited it. This is particularly unfortunate given the numerous mentions of \"resilience\" throughout the portfolio. The critique is that the content of FP5, and in particular Activity cluster 1 on biodiversity and ecosystem services research and human well-being benefits, is fundamental research and is not clearly linked to generating development outcomes. This is reflected in the poor Theory of Change provided for FP5 which is unconvincing. While links with WLE are certainly mentioned in the preproposals of many other CRPs, the evidence suggests that the SER framework authors have thus far not succeeded in persuading their internal CGIAR audience of the need to adopt the framework as a central part of their work, despite the table of \"interaction points\" outlined in table 2.6.2."},{"index":2,"size":174,"text":"Activity cluster 2 proposes using the SER framework as a foundation for a series of impact evaluations on behalf of the agri-food systems CRPs that aim to \"quantify the economic and human well-being values of services provided by AFS interventions as well as the environmental impacts of these interventions at scale\". The task of teasing out causal connections on these topics is very challenging and the studies would need to be explicitly designed within a careful counterfactual framework. While WLE researchers have the relevant expertise for examining a range of biophysical measures, it is not clear that FP5 can effectively integrate these with the economic and social issues, or can examine the negotiation between alternative values attached to ecosystem services. There would also seem to be a degree of overlap here with Activity Cluster 1 of FP 2 which the WLE proponents should reflect on. Will the SER framework, now that it has been written and disseminated, have a greater influence if the content of proposed FP 5 were integrated within the other FPs?"},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"FP6: Integrated solutions into policy and practice"}]},{"head":"C","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":407,"text":"FP6 is essential to the functioning of the CRP as a whole. It is, however, hugely ambitious, planning to work with all other WLE Flagships and with all AFS CRPs plus multiple other partners. What is not clear is how the potentially huge workplan will be turned into something manageable. The Flagship is organised under three activity clusters. Activity cluster 1 is on integrated research and impact support, carried out by Coordination and Change teams established in phase 1, and includes an innovation fund that allows for demand-driven research in partnerships in the focal regions. The concept of a competitive fund is welcomed, but on what criteria will the competition be based? Details are not required so much as giving some idea of how the feasibility of turning some research outputs into impact will be aligned with demand? Does the leadership team have experience in running competitive grant schemes? In component 2 the same question can be asked in the other direction how are 'promising solutions' going to be matched with demand? It is not possible to get a sense from the narrative as to how these multiple partners -WLE FPs, AFS CRPs and their individual FPs, regional and national organizations, private sector companies -will be co-ordinated. Some indication of the stepwise progression towards the end-goal is essential. I doubt if many would disagree that research in the regions needs to be: '(i) integrative, scalable, equitable, innovative and demand driven; (ii) co-designed and practical, and work with a range of national and regional partners, the AFS CRPs and the ICRPs; and (iii) incorporate institutional analysis and political economic considerations' but that is the ideal not the reality of what can be achieved. What is written in this one cluster could be the program of a donor agency. This needs to be rewritten in a way which gives confidence that what is promised can be delivered. Activity cluster 2 is led by the Gender and Inclusive Growth team (GIG), and represents a body of place-based research on gender and youth. Comments on the activities are described under the GIG Core theme. Activity cluster 3 is on decision support and analytics, led by ÍCRAF and IWMI and makes more sense. This is a key area for the CRP. It obviously needs to work very closely with development of the proposed platform on Big Data and hence more detail on that linkage would be required at the full proposal stage."},{"index":2,"size":97,"text":"With regards to science quality and comparative advantage, the lack of detailed information makes it hard for the ISPC to make a judgment, but certainly IWMI and IFPRI have the track record needed to manage this FP. The budget allocation to this flagship is the highest of all the flagships in the CRP. Yet even with that budget the degree of ambition is excessive. The vision for \"what\" innovations are required is largely sound: the problem is that insufficient information is provided for the reader to understand \"how\" the research will be conducted with the resources requested."}]},{"head":"Recommendations","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":" Activity cluster 1 needs to be rewritten in a way which illustrates how priorities will be set, how decisions will be taken, how lessons will be learnt at each stage and which gives more confidence that tangible impacts will be delivered. Trying to do too much simultaneously runs a high risk of any impact not being realized.  More detail on how WLE will work with AFS CRPs (and who within those large numbers of scientists will be engaged) and how selection of 'solutions' or 'demand' to take forward will be arrived at collectively is essential."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"f6ad2b52-6cec-4933-a289-b4888424f9ec","abstract":"The pre-proposal for a Phase II for the CRP on Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE) describes a very ambitious program of work at the nexus of water, ecosystem services and agriculture. Much of the substance of the CRP pre-proposal represents topics that are of central importance to the CGIAR and achieving progress on the System-Level Outcomes, and there are clearly aspects of the CRP that are strong. There is undoubtedly a lot of strong research in this area being carried out in the various CGIAR Centers, under the auspices of WLE, much of which is world-class. However, as currently written and conceptualised, the CRP does not present a coherent program and there is a profound lack of clarity about researchable areas throughout the pre-proposal. The work in Flagship 5 on Sustainability, Ecosystems and Resilience, and the Gender and Inclusive Growth Core Theme in particular seem to be out of step with the rest of the CRP with their perspectives being poorly integrated. More importantly, there is little evidence yet that WLE is playing the role of an integrating CRP across the rest of the CGIAR portfolio. The research and development agenda within WLE is currently insufficiently aligned with the priorities of the agri-food systems CRPs. Some points of interaction are emerging but the process of negotiating priorities with AFS CRPs should be a focus during the process of revising the pre-proposal."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0857724d68779ef7dedcad8628abec1e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/14d7068f-4dac-4396-830d-4c5e3b66fb3c/retrieve"},"pageCount":14,"title":"Food mapping approaches for understanding food system transformations in rapid-growth city regions in the Global South","keywords":["food systems","cities","urban","peri-urban","food systems mapping","nutrition transition","decision-support"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"Over 3.1 billion people cannot afford a healthy diet, with 691-783 million people suffering from hunger (FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP, and WHO, 2023). Food systems contribute to human health, economic prosperity, and planetary health. Achieving food system transformations toward systems that are more sustainable, healthier, and equitable will require major shifts in mindsets, including the recognition of food as not just a commodity but the foundation of cultures, nutrition, livelihoods, and landscapes (Webb et al., 2020)."},{"index":2,"size":95,"text":"Globally, food systems are affected by multiple interacting threats. These include inflation, the cost-of-living crisis, rising energy prices, uneven post-COVID-19 economic recovery, conflicts (e.g., in Ukraine, Ethiopia, South Sudan, Yemen), and climate change. These are compounded by the global inequality impacting supply chains and access to food, with marginalized consumers in low-income countries bearing the brunt of ongoing food, energy, and economic crises (WFP, 2022). The FAO's Global Report on Food Crises 2022 classified nearly 193 million people as \"acutely food insecure, \" an increase of nearly 40 million compared to 2020 (FAO andWFP, 2022)."},{"index":3,"size":99,"text":"In 2021, more than 56% of the global population resided in urban settlements, with a projected rise to 68% by 2030 (UN, 2018). The UN-Habitat (2022) defines three main classes of human settlements: cities, towns and semi-dense areas, and rural areas. Urban areas are those settlements with at least 5,000 inhabitants, while areas with at least 50,000 inhabitants are considered cities, and those with fewer inhabitants are considered towns and semi-dense areas (UN, 2018). It should be noted that these definitions may or may not correspond with politically demarcated boundaries or the perceptions of the communities that inhabit them."},{"index":4,"size":170,"text":"Food is essential to sustain citizens in new and expanding urban agglomerations, with approximately 70% of the global food supply consumed by urban dwellers (FAO, 2019). Given the close relationship between agricultural production and food supply from hinterlands to urban areas, attempts to understand agri-food systems increasingly focus on \"city regions\" rather than cities per se. Considering a \"city region\" rather than a city or urban area allows for the inclusion of megacities, associated smaller towns, and the immediate rural and agricultural hinterlands that surround them. Within this broader definition, small-scale producers and their agricultural value chains can also be considered in relation to the urban centers and markets with whom they are linked (Ruaf, 2015). City-regional food systems typically encompass the production, processing, transport, retail, consumption, and waste disposal of food products within urban/periurban areas and their hinterland. In some cases, city-regional food systems are considered useful frameworks for promoting \"sustainability\" concepts such as the production potential of urban farming, self-sufficiency, and shorter supply chains (Vieira et al., 2018)."},{"index":5,"size":234,"text":"Despite the need to transition to more sustainable and resilient city region food systems, there are some limitations in the available frameworks and research methodologies to accurately measure and understand the key components and dynamics of urban food systems (Alarcon et al., 2021). These gaps are especially marked for city regions in low-income countries. For example, Zhong et al. (2021) highlight that the published research on urban food systems mainly focused on developed countries, with the USA and the UK accounting for 34.5% of all studies. In many low-and middle-income countries, a significant proportion of the food consumed in urban areas is derived from informal systems from production through to handling, preparation, and sale (Alarcon et al., 2021). Informal food systems can be associated with food safety risks and present logistical difficulties for accurate data collection for more comprehensive food system assessments (Tian et al., 2018). For more effective decision-making on urban food systems, it is crucial to have an improved and complete understanding of the structure and drivers of urban food systems globally, especially within rapid-growth urban areas in the Global South. In this study, we review the literature to answer three research questions, namely, (1) What evidence can be generated from food mapping? (2) What approaches have been used to map food systems in city region food systems? and (3) What are the major knowledge gaps in relation to food mapping efforts?"},{"index":6,"size":165,"text":"1.1. Review of concepts and approaches to food system mapping Understanding how urban food systems can best be configured to support sustainable diets, health, and livelihoods is complex. It requires the consideration of processes that shape food systems, the relationships among them, and their outcomes and impacts of ongoing or proposed changes (Jensen and Orfila, 2021). Food system mapping represents an approach used to identify all stakeholders, institutions, goods and activities (including losses and waste), food flow levels and rates, along with policy, economic (e.g., value addition, food safety and quality, food diversity, poverty reduction, etc.), and environmental characteristics, to record the \"status quo\" and \"dynamic change\" of any food system. Food mapping tends to provide a static depiction of the basic structure and a framework to guide systematic analysis (Kiambi et al., 2018), and a time course-based food mapping can reveal rates of change and dynamics in urban food systems. Time course-based food mapping consists of measuring food system characteristics along successive time points."},{"index":7,"size":138,"text":"Since food is a cross-sectoral, multidisciplinary subject that intersects with a wide range of urban issues, food mapping approaches aim to develop visual representations of geospatial and other sources of data to enable improved decision-making. Food mapping can be participatory, involving stakeholders across the food system (including citizen science and crowdsourcing approaches) to expose hidden disparities, strengths, and weaknesses within the food system (Sweeney et al., 2016). While static geospatially tagged \"snapshots\" are important, it is also necessary to understand the directional flow of food commodities from a range of dimensions. Ideally, assessments should provide a better understanding of the relative importance of each food flow component. This is important to avoid the risks of oversimplifying a food system or to avoid blind spots as a result of missing, biased, or skewed data sources (Alarcon et al., 2021)."},{"index":8,"size":118,"text":"Numerous approaches are currently used to map food systems, including participatory (Alarcon et al., 2017;Ahmed et al., 2019;Jacobi et al., 2019;Terdoo and Feola, 2021), qualitative (Batista et al., 2021), and quantitative methods. Geospatial methods frequently involve the use of geographic information systems (GIS)-based mapping software (McEntee and Agyeman, 2010;Kremer and DeLiberty, 2011;Widener et al., 2011;Jensen and Orfila, 2021), spatial analysis, and visualization including internet-based geospatial tools such as Google Earth, ArcGIS Open Data, and ArcGIS Storymap, and guides such as FAO's City Region Food System (CRFS) programme (Meenar, 2017;Blay-Palmer et al., 2018;Santini et al., 2018;Posthumus et al., 2021). In addition to static representations, geospatial analytic approaches can also be employed to analyze and communicate geospatial changes over time."},{"index":9,"size":152,"text":"Despite the technological power of geospatial methods, limitations such as the relevance of data points, scale, cost, and feasibility can be encountered. Mapping efforts can be constrained by data availability, particularly in the Global South. Ideally, food flow mapping could be used to identify the flows and quantities of food from production and processing through to preparation, consumption, and waste, to facilitate accurate and comprehensive food system decision-making and planning (Schreiber et al., 2021). Studies aiming to assess food flows differ substantially in terms of scale, scope, and data availability (Karg et al., 2022). In cases where secondary data (e.g., Household Dietary Diversity Scores, Census Data, National Health Surveys) are not readily available-a common occurrence in low-income countries-most food flow analyses, aside from examples such as Drechsel et al. (2007), rely on tracing food to its source through the use of market surveys (Gunasekera, 2012) or ethnographic methods (Wegerif and Wiskerke, 2017)."},{"index":10,"size":122,"text":"Some food system assessments consider the city as a focal point, or a \"sink\" for resources, which underappreciates the city's multifunctional roles (Karg et al., 2022). There is often a lack of differentiation among people working within food systems, power distribution, socioeconomic environment, and the regulatory bodies and financial services involved (Alarcon et al., 2021). Comprehensive analyses of food systems also require an improved understanding of value generation (including what is meant by value and different stakeholders' perceptions of value) along the food value chain, including all waste streams and negative environmental externalities associated with the particular food value chain. Hence, food mapping also needs to carefully consider the dynamic sub-systems that manage the by-products and waste disposal through the food system."},{"index":11,"size":73,"text":"This review investigates the current status and state of food mapping to understand food systems in three contrasting rapidgrowth city regions in low-income (Bahir Dar, Ethiopia), lowermiddle income (Hanoi, Vietnam), and upper-middle income (Cali, Colombia) countries. In the three city regions, we sought to identify what evidence has been generated from food mapping, approaches that have been used to map food systems, and propose possible routes to address existing data and knowledge gaps."}]},{"head":"Methodology","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":179,"text":"This study focuses on Bahir Dar in Ethiopia, Hanoi in Vietnam, and Cali in Colombia. These three cities were the subject of focus due to their contrasting food systems (Marshall et al., 2021) and to explore the use of food mapping in different socioeconomic contexts. The John Hopkins and GAIN Alliance Food Systems Dashboard categorizes Bahir Dar as a \"rural and transitioning food system\" with relatively high stunting rates and nearly no obesity. A large share of dietary energy is derived from cereals, and agriculture provides 71% of employment. In contrast, Hanoi is categorized as an \"informal and expanding food system\" as it has low stunting rates, a higher share of dietary energy from non-cereals, and is experiencing an increase in obesity and non-communicable diseases (NCDs). Infrastructural developments have facilitated higher rates of electricity access and there is much less agricultural employment (30%). Cali represents a \"modernizing and emerging food system\" with relatively high obesity rates, a high share of dietary energy from non-cereals, widespread access to electricity, and employment outside of the agricultural sector (Food Systems Dashboard, 2022)."},{"index":2,"size":155,"text":"The Google Scholar database was searched for studies relating to the research topic and research questions across all dates to July 2022, initially using combinations of keyword search terms relating to production, processing, daily food basket, distribution, retail, consumers, and food waste. The following query terms were used in a range of combinations, using Boolean operators: The following keywords were also used to focus the search on the three cities and the surrounding regions of each country: After compiling a list of the most frequently cited food items in the daily food baskets of the three cities (Table 1) based on previous findings, the search strategy then systematically considered the supply chains of each of the food items, from production through to waste (e.g., \"teff production Bahir Dar\") at the city level and then at the national level. The search terms used in combination with each of the food products for Bahir Dar, listed in  "}]},{"head":"Results","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"A key objective of food mapping is to provide an insight into the different constituent elements, drivers, and outcomes of any given food system. In terms of knowledge generation, different mapping approaches have already been pursued in the three cities under study in this mini-review (summarized and compared in Table 2)."},{"index":2,"size":138,"text":"In Bahir Dar, there have been value chain analyses that feature a food mapping component (Yigzaw et al., 2016;Desalegn, 2018;Chen et al., 2021;Mossie et al., 2021;Wosene and Gobie, 2022). Chen et al. ( 2021) mapped the agri-food chains of legumes, vegetables, fruits, and fish through the collection of qualitative data from focus groups that were conducted by local partners. Some of the value chain analyses in Bahir Dar have focused on food loss and waste and tomato value chains (Yigzaw et al., 2016;Wosene and Gobie, 2022). Mossie et al. (2021) combined apple and mango smallholder farmers' participation along the value chain with food security outcomes, while Chen et al. ( 2021) coupled an agri-food chain mapping exercise with a literature review to provide a basis for the elaboration of an indicator-based assessment framework for assessing food system governance."},{"index":3,"size":89,"text":"In Hanoi, food mapping has typically focused on the drivers and outcomes of dietary transformations along rural-urban transects, for example, the development of food system profiles of three benchmark sites to provide a snapshot of the food system transformation, as well as the dietary outcomes of food environments. The latter is of major relevance when considering the recent surge in urbanization, \"supermarketisation\" of food policies, and the swathe of social media platforms and apps relating to the dietary choices of younger generations (Huynh et al., 2021;Nguyen et al., 2021)."},{"index":4,"size":112,"text":"In addition to the creation of a food system profile for Cali, consideration has been given to analyzing food flows into Cali to demonstrate its close relationship with both the surrounding production regions and the other localities that receive the same produce (Rankin et al., 2021). Chaboud and Moustier (2021) assessed the volume of food loss and waste along a tomato supply chain and analyzed the roles that supermarkets and non-supermarket channels play in contributing to food loss and waste. Following growing climate concerns, more attention is being placed on the impacts of food on the environment and the impacts of projected changes in weather patterns on food crop production (Gerbal, 2019)."},{"index":5,"size":139,"text":"In Hanoi and Cali, more advanced and comprehensive mapping approaches have been used. These include food flow analyses of different food groups, coordinating across multi-stakeholder platforms, ranking the presence of Milan Urban Food Policy Pact (MUFPP) key indicators, and using a set of metrics that highlight key challenges and offer a baseline for the measurement and monitoring of future changes. In both cities, mixed-methods approaches have also been used to map food systems. For example, combining quantitative data (static geospatial data at the neighborhood level and household surveys) with qualitative data (in-depth interviews with shoppers and expert consultations) to assess the impacts of food on the environment and the impacts of projected changes in climate patterns on the suitability of food crop production (Aronson, 2019;Burra et al., 2019;Gerbal, 2019;Huynh et al., 2021;Nguyen et al., 2021;Rankin et al., 2021;Rankin-Cortázar, 2021)."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"There are a number of strengths associated with the food mapping activities to date in both Hanoi and Cali (e.g., the recognition of each city as a node in the food distribution network and not only a consumption point, the inclusion of non-market food sources and the informal retail sector, desirability of food among different ethnic groups, food categories households prefer to buy with a larger food budget, and important food). However, key knowledge gaps remain, including in relation to a better understanding of power dynamics, socioeconomic environments, and institutional contexts (Rankin et al., 2021). The following paragraphs summarize the gaps identified from the existing literature for each stage of the value chain in the three cities:"},{"index":2,"size":347,"text":"• Production: There is a general lack of recognition of the \"who, what, where and how\" of how agricultural production shapes nutritional outcomes of food systems of the three cities. In addition, there is a lack of data analyzing whether the seasonality of food supplies has nutritional effects on consumers and how this influences their purchasing habits (Feola et al., 2015;Le et al., 2015;Baltenweck et al., 2018;Minten et al., 2018;Gurara et al., 2021;Rankin et al., 2021). • Processing: To date, mapping approaches in the three city regions have not included a detailed analysis of food processing facilities and practices. There is also a lack of consideration given to the flow of foods from local processing facilities, and how much of the food is going into the city and what is leaving (Tegegne and Ashenafi, 1998;Møller et al., 2012;Hernandez, 2020;Neela and Fanta, 2020;Cheffo et al., 2021). • Logistics: Although there are data available in relation to infrastructure and transport, the possible effects of different transport distances and methods on the nutritional quality of the food arriving in the city have not been examined. The practices of more localized food transfer to informal markets and their nutritional effects could also be further explored (Gerber, 2011;Schoebitz et al., 2014;Minten et al., 2016;Yigzaw et al., 2016;Desalegn, 2018;Hansen, 2018;Chaboud and Moustier, 2021;Mejía et al., 2021). • Retail: Some approaches have addressed the nutritional effects of different distribution channels. However, limited attention has been given to defining culturally accepted retail outlets, and if there are nutritional benefits associated with different outlets (Usuga et al., 2012;Guarín, 2013;Wertheim-Heck et al., 2014;Wertheim-Heck and Spaargaren, 2016;Wertheim-Heck et al., 2019;Trinh et al., 2020;Chaboud and Moustier, 2021;Mossie et al., 2021;Zaharia et al., 2021;Karg et al., 2022). • Consumer: More consideration should be given to the cultural and ethical aspects of consumer choices such as the influence of religion, non-market food source practices such as kinship, and consumer differences between generations and genders. Analyses of the possible influences of modern food marketing on the food environment are currently lacking (Harris et al., 2009;10.3389/fsufs.2023.1238124 Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems 05 frontiersin.org  "}]},{"head":"Poultry Value Chain","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"The study was conducted to assist actors in poultry VC to identify their business opportunities and competitive advantages and to address the shortcomings that pose a risk for their business initiatives to prosper."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"Does not consider food after purchase (e.g., waste, cooking, nutritional status, storage, food safety, and quality)."},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"Limited considerations for processing practices, relevant policies, and food landscape.     To provide a decision-making tool to support local government, policymakers, and multi-stakeholder bodies to make more informed decisions to improve urban and regional food system sustainability and resilience."},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":"(Continued)   The study used propensity score matching (PSM) to establish a causal relationship between participation in the fruit value chain and changes in household food security."},{"index":5,"size":56,"text":"The study analyzed the food security effects of apple and mango value chain participation in north-western Ethiopia using recent data from a cross-section of smallholders, measured by household food consumption in kilocalories. Using semi-structured questionnaires, 31 fruit retailers were randomly selected and interviewed to obtain information on their socioeconomic characteristics, fruit marketing practices, and postharvest losses."},{"index":6,"size":18,"text":"Briefly mentions nutrition security. Metrics that provide an overview of the food system's constituent elements, drivers, and outcomes."},{"index":7,"size":34,"text":"Core indicators of constituent elements and drivers of food systems: food production and supply chains, food environments, consumer behavior, drivers of food systems, diets, nutrition and health outcomes, and social, economic, and environmental outcomes."},{"index":8,"size":22,"text":"(Continued)   The analysis includes different components of the food system of Cali as a city region, to understand characteristics, dynamics, and vulnerabilities."},{"index":9,"size":40,"text":"Focuses on the municipality of Cali as a consumption pole, and also demonstrates a close relationship with producing areas and with other \"receiving\" localities that are supplied by the flow of food that transits and is redistributed through the city."},{"index":10,"size":7,"text":"(Continued)  Visualizing food flow maps using GIS."},{"index":11,"size":13,"text":"Understanding of food flows and identification of gaps/opportunities for improving food provisioning logistics."},{"index":12,"size":35,"text":"Authors' analysis of cited papers.  -Heck and Spaargaren, 2016;Kidane Meles et al., 2018;Quintero-Angel et al., 2019;D'haene et al., 2020;Mai et al., 2020;Umberger et al., 2020;Wertheim-Heck and Raneri, 2020;Wondim, 2020;Nguyen et al., 2021;Turner et al., 2022)."}]},{"head":"Wertheim","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"Across the three cities, there are knowledge gaps relating to the temporal dimension of food accessibility, considering the prominence of informal markets and the sustained presence of two major food supply seasons. In addition, there is a lack of standardized inclusion of health outcomes such as non-communicable diseases (NCDs), socioeconomic dimensions, or environmental dimensions. Decisionmakers may also benefit from evidence that includes a stronger focus on the influences of marketing powers from the recent expansion of telecommunications and e-commerce platforms that manipulate the food environment (Harris et al., 2009)."},{"index":2,"size":150,"text":"In the case of Bahir Dar, little attention seems to have been given to date to the role of religion in shaping food choices, nutrition, and food supply chains. Greater consideration of the influence of Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity (which makes up 43% of the total population of Ethiopia and circa 90% of Bahir Dar) could inform improved understanding of food systems, along with consideration of minority religions in the city (e.g., Muslim and Protestant) (Alonso, 2015). Many religions have fasting and abstinence systems which can affect food system dynamics. For instance, in the Ethiopian Orthodox community, lay people are required to fast for 180 days (Zellelew, 2014). In addition, there has been little attention given to the inclusion of non-market food sources such as own production, wild food harvesting, and food gifts which link food availability and personal food environments (D'haene et al., 2020;Turner et al., 2020;Nguyen et al., 2021)."},{"index":3,"size":53,"text":"As food systems are subject to rapid change over space and time, understanding how to monitor and measure dietary and market transformations, in particular, transitions to modern retail outlets and changes in consumer preferences, to better target nutrition-related outcomes is crucial to promote resilient, inclusive, and sustainable food systems (Allen et al., 2018)."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"This mini-review provides an overview of research relating to food system mapping, using three emerging city regions as a basis for assessing current knowledge and gaps."},{"index":2,"size":124,"text":"To better understand food mapping and how it relates to understating food systems, power dynamics, socioeconomic environments, and institutional contexts (e.g., regulatory bodies and financial services) ideally need to be differentiated (Alarcon et al., 2021). In particular, understandings of what is meant by 'value' and how it can be generated, particularly through food and waste usage, may need to be tailored to reflect different stakeholders' perceptions. Food mapping needs to carefully consider the dynamic sub-systems that manage the by-products and waste disposal throughout the food system. Many nutrition-sensitive approaches to food systems have focused on rural development, especially with commodity-specific short, local value chains that do not capture interactions among value chains or more complex urban and international food systems (Alarcon et al., 2021)."},{"index":3,"size":159,"text":"To transition food mapping as a diagnostic tool from providing snapshot views of static data to a more dynamic and nutrition-sensitive food mapping approach, nutrition could be considered at all stages of value chains to better integrate healthier foods into city-regional food systems decision-making. Analysis of food processing practices can generate valuable insights into agricultural supply chains and the extent of processed (including so-called ultra-processed) foods supplied and consumed within urban areas. Consideration of the infrastructure, transport services, and logistics of urban food systems can provide a food flow lens on foods arriving in cities. Given the links between food losses and waste, lack of access to nutritional foods by marginalised consumers, and the inter-relationship with sustainability issues, including climate change, it is important to include an analysis of the disposal of food within the city boundaries to promote the re-circulation of nutrients and calories, including the more sustainable and circular disposal of organic waste (Cattaneo et al., 2021)."},{"index":4,"size":81,"text":"Taking a food mapping approach to analyze the food systems of the three cities provides insights into the \"status quo\" of each city region's food system. Our analysis of existing studies highlights limitations relating to the temporal dimensions of access to food, the nutritional outcomes of food flows, the cultural and ethical factors of consumer behavior, and how healthy foods could be better integrated into decision-making at every stage of the food supply chain (including relating to food loss and waste)."},{"index":5,"size":78,"text":"Nutritionally deficient diets and access to nutritious foods are not simply the result of personal consumer choices but reflect the consequence of food system policies, distributive justice, distribution networks, infrastructure, research and development, information and awareness, and consumer preferences. We consider that efforts to provide a more comprehensive and dynamic nutrition-sensitive understanding of the dynamics of the city region's food systems can guide interventions and activities that can enable transitions to healthier, equitable, and more sustainable food systems."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" [Food mapping Bahir Dar], [Food mapping Cali], [Food mapping Hanoi], [Urban food consumption], [Urban food consumption Vietnam], [Urban food consumption Colombia], [Urban food production Ethiopia], [Amhara food production], [Urban food production Vietnam], [Urban food production Colombia], [Bahir Dar daily food basket], [Hanoi daily food basket], [Cali daily food basket], [Bogotá daily food basket], [Addis Ababa daily food basket], [Da Nang daily food basket], [Bahir Dar food processing], [Addis Ababa food processing], [Hanoi food processing], [Bahir Dar food retail], [Bahir Dar food markets], [Amhara food distribution], [Hanoi food retail], [Cali food markets], [Cali food distribution]. "},{"text":" Mapping of tomato value chains, their roles and linkages; to identify the major tomato market channels, and analyze the structure conduct and performance of the tomato value chain in the selected districts of Bure Zuria, North Mecha, "},{"text":" on food chain governance and a mapping of current agri-food chains in the six regions provide the basis for the elaboration of an indicator-based assessment framework. Value Chains Investigation of effects of apple and mango smallholder farmers' participation along the value chain, focusing on their household food security in north-western Ethiopia. Limited consideration of the food policy environment and food flow after consumer purchase, including food waste and consumer profiles. "},{"text":" of the food system transformation along a rural-urban transect in North Vietnam, from urban and peri-urban Hanoi to Moc Chau; to help policymakers understand existing challenges among elements of food systems. Does not cover food loss and waste in the area. Does not consider 'true' accessibility of food due to its exclusive consideration of straight- "},{"text":" (a) assess to what extent metrics and mechanisms are in place to measure and track the progress of the city's food system sustainability, and; (b) identify opportunities for future action through a priority-setting methodology. Multiple components of the city region's food systems were out of scope or lacked data such as consumer perspectives, the relationship between food sovereignty and food and nutrition security, and food asset mapping was used to simultaneously assess the impacts of food on the environment (carbon footprint) and the impacts of projected changes in climate patterns on the suitability for food crop production, for the top five food products consumed in Cali. Lack of consideration for food loss and waste, seasonality and affordability of daily food baskets, consumer choices, "},{"text":" from both primary and secondary sources. Primary data were collected from randomly selected 280 tomato producers and 60 traders. To improve the validity of the data, the researchers used focus group discussions and key informant interviews in two rounds with a total size of 10 participants per discussion.Secondary data were included from published articles and unpublished district reports.The study indicates the flow of tomato production inputs from input suppliers to producers, as well as the flow of the product from farmers through different value chain actors to the consumers. There is also information flow from consumer to producer regarding the price of tomato among the value chain actors.Lack of consideration of food losses and waste. Scope to include the "},{"text":" both qualitative and quantitative data including sex, age, education level and length of fruit marketing experience of respondents, type of fruit being sold, type of packaging material, transportation method, storage facility, source of fruit, percentage of fruit loss, causes of fruit losses, percentage fruit loss in different seasons, possible uses of over-ripen fruits, and measures taken by respondents to reduce postharvest losses. Data were collected by questionnaire and analyzed using SPSS statistical software. "},{"text":" including analysis of secondary data. Consideration of expected future developments based on assumptions of income growth, urbanization, and population growth and benchmarking Ethiopia with other countries with lower and higher GDP levels. Assess recent evidence regarding dietary, agricultural, and supply chain transformation to provide snapshots of past and present Ethiopian food systems to add context for how future food systems can evolve. Economic growth has shown to be an important associate of change in food systems. survey and site-based data comparison to predefine three benchmark sites or populations along a rural-to-urban transect. Stakeholder survey-based consultation and secondary data collection/analysis based on pre-defined key metrics. Much data are not available for urban districts, only a few variables could be included at the district level for composite index. More data are needed at the district level for better accuracy "},{"text":" food environment varies across an urban-peri-urban-rural gradient from three sites in North Vietnam and the relationship between child undernutrition status and household consumption of processed food.Combined quantitative data (static geospatial data at neighborhood level and household survey) and qualitative data (in-depth interviews with shoppers). Specific features such as non-market food sources (own production and food transfers) and dominance of the informal retail sector. of the food system of Cau Giay district in Hanoi, an urban area in north Vietnam.Metrics that provide an overview of the food system's constituent elements, drivers, and outcomes.Overview of main food system outcomes, constituent elements, and drivers. Uses a set of metrics that highlight key challenges and offers a baseline for the measurement and monitoring of future changes. Builds from outcomes concerning residents' diets, nutrition and health, socioeconomic, and environment. Traces back to food supply chains, the food environment, consumer behavior, and the underlying drivers Temporal dimension of food access. an overview of the food system's constituent elements, drivers, and outcomes.Overview of the main food system outcomes, constituent elements, and drivers. Uses a set of metrics that highlight key challenges and offers a baseline for measurement and monitoring of future changes. Builds from the outcomes concerning residents' diets, nutrition and health, socioeconomic, and environment. Traces back to food supply chains, the food environment, consumer behavior, and the underlying drivers. an overview of the food system's constituent elements, drivers, and outcomes.Overview of the main food system outcomes, constituent elements, and drivers. Uses a set of metrics that highlight key challenges and offers a baseline for measurement and monitoring of future changes. Builds from outcomes concerning residents' diets, nutrition and health, socioeconomic, and environment. Traces back to food supply chains, the food environment, consumer behavior, and finally the underlying drivers Temporal dimension of food access.Cali, Colombia (unless otherwise stated**) "},{"text":"Framework Milan Urban Food Policy Pact (MUFPP) key indicators in Cali's municipal initiatives ranked with a green-yellow-red \"traffic lights\" scheme. Indicators that were present or in agreement were marked in green, indicators partially present were marked in yellow, and indicators absent were marked in red. The analysis examined the degree to which current indicators tracked in Cali's 2016-2019 Municipal Development Plan, the city's Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation Plan, the city's Resilience Strategy, and the ENSIN1 survey matched the 44 Monitoring based on primary data collected along a tomato chain-from production to retailing-in CaliThe study focused on gaining further insight into the implications of supermarket development by conducting a detailed analysis of farmers who marketed their produce using a combination of different types of buyers. "},{"text":" Ethiopian food loss], [Ethiopian food waste], [Vietnam food loss], [Vietnam food waste], [Colombia food loss], [Colombia food waste]. region food systems], [food system monitoring], [food system region food systems], [food system monitoring], [food system transformation], [food mapping], [food mapping approaches], [food transformation], [food mapping], [food mapping approaches], [food mapping methods], [GIS-based food mapping approaches], [PGIS- mapping methods], [GIS-based food mapping approaches], [PGIS- based food mapping approaches], [internet based food mapping based food mapping approaches], [internet based food mapping approaches], [Global South food mapping approaches], [Ethiopia food approaches], [Global South food mapping approaches], [Ethiopia food system], [Vietnam food system], [Colombia food system], [nutrition system], [Vietnam food system], [Colombia food system], [nutrition transition food baskets], [Ethiopian food production], [Vietnamese transition food baskets], [Ethiopian food production], [Vietnamese food production], [Colombian food production], [Ethiopian food food production], [Colombian food production], [Ethiopian food producers], [Vietnamese food producers], [Colombian food producers], [Vietnamese food producers], [Colombian food producers], [Ethiopian food processing], [Vietnamese food producers], [Ethiopian food processing], [Vietnamese food processing, [Colombian food processing], [Ethiopian food baskets], processing, [Colombian food processing], [Ethiopian food baskets], [Vietnamese food baskets], [Colombian food baskets], [Ethiopian [Vietnamese food baskets], [Colombian food baskets], [Ethiopian food retail environments], [Vietnamese food retail environments], food retail environments], [Vietnamese food retail environments], [Colombian food retail environments], [Ethiopian food consumption], [Colombian food retail environments], [Ethiopian food consumption], [Vietnamese food consumption], [Colombian food consumption], [Vietnamese food consumption], [Colombian food consumption], [ [ [Global South food [Global South food systems], [Global South nutrition transition], [Global South city systems], [Global South nutrition transition], [Global South city  "},{"text":"Table 1 , were [production Bahir Dar], [processing Bahir Dar], [retail Bahir Dar], [consumption Bahir Dar], [storage Bahir  "},{"text":"TABLE 1 Frequently cited food items in Bahir Dar (Ethiopia), Cali (Colombia), and Hanoi (Vietnam). Dar], [policy environment Bahir Dar], [food waste Bahir Dar]. The search terms used for the listed food products Cali were: [production Cali], [processing Cali], [retail Cali], [consumption Cali], [storage Cali], [policy environment Cali], [food waste Cali]. The search terms used for the food products listed for Hanoi were: [production Hanoi], [processing Hanoi], [retail Hanoi], [consumption Hanoi], [storage Hanoi], [policy environment Hanoi], [food waste Hanoi]. Bahir Dar Cali Hanoi Bahir DarCaliHanoi Fish (Nile tilapia and Whole grains (rice, Whole grains (rice), Fish (Nile tilapia andWhole grains (rice,Whole grains (rice), barbel), vegetables wheat, and corn), tubers green vegetables (pak barbel), vegetableswheat, and corn), tubersgreen vegetables (pak (onion, tomato, pepper, (mainly potato and choy, choy sum, cabbage, (onion, tomato, pepper,(mainly potato andchoy, choy sum, cabbage, cabbage, Swiss chard, and plantain), citrus fruits broccoli, spinach, cabbage, Swiss chard, andplantain), citrus fruitsbroccoli, spinach, carrot), fruits (strawberry (oranges, tangerines, and morning grow, carrot), fruits (strawberry(oranges, tangerines, andmorning grow, and avocado), legumes lemons), vegetables (in watercress, and lettuce), and avocado), legumeslemons), vegetables (inwatercress, and lettuce), (soybean, lupine, field part limited to tomato vegetables (tomato, (soybean, lupine, fieldpart limited to tomatovegetables (tomato, pea, and broad beans), and onion), legumes cucumber, squash, pea, and broad beans),and onion), legumescucumber, squash, and teff. (peas and beans), dairy potato, and carrot), and and teff.(peas and beans), dairypotato, and carrot), and  products (milk and white meat (pork and products (milk andwhite meat (pork and  cheese), eggs, meat chicken) cheese), eggs, meatchicken)  (chicken and beef),  (chicken and beef),  sugars (panela and sugar  sugars (panela and sugar  cane), and fats (palm oil  cane), and fats (palm oil  and margarine)  and margarine)  "},{"text":"TABLE 2 Food mapping approaches to date in Bahir Dar, Hanoi, and Cali. References Food mapping Scale of Data used Mapped features of Objective of mapping activity Knowledge gaps ReferencesFood mappingScale ofData usedMapped features ofObjective of mapping activityKnowledge gaps  approach mapping  the food systems   approachmappingthe food systems   used     used Bahir Dar, Ethiopia (unless otherwise stated**)     Bahir Dar, Ethiopia (unless otherwise stated**)  "},{"text":"TABLE 2 ( Continued)     Liddy et al. Liddy et al.  "},{"text":"TABLE 2 ( Continued)     References Food mapping Scale of Data used Mapped features of Objective of mapping activity Knowledge gaps ReferencesFood mappingScale ofData usedMapped features ofObjective of mapping activityKnowledge gaps  approach mapping  the food systems   approachmappingthe food systems   used     used Bahir Dar, Ethiopia (unless otherwise stated**)     Bahir Dar, Ethiopia (unless otherwise stated**)  "},{"text":"TABLE 2 ( Continued)     Liddy et al. Liddy et al.  "},{"text":"TABLE 2 ( Continued)     References Food mapping Scale of Data used Mapped features of Objective of mapping activity Knowledge gaps ReferencesFood mappingScale ofData usedMapped features ofObjective of mapping activityKnowledge gaps  approach mapping  the food systems   approachmappingthe food systems   used     used Nguyen et al.       Nguyen et al.  "},{"text":"TABLE 2 ( Continued)     Liddy et al. Liddy et al.  "}],"sieverID":"9f141aae-a255-4ca4-aeb7-8e1642455fb4","abstract":"The world's food systems are rapidly changing due to socioeconomic, environmental, and demographic changes, globalization, and urbanization. Urban regions connect urban food consumption with rural food production and are associated with rapid dietary transitions in developing counties. Despite urbanization being a key driver of city-regional and global food system transformations, city-regional food systems (particularly in developing countries) are under-researched. Although the importance of dynamic urban and peri-urban food systems has led to new frameworks and approaches for mapping food flows within urban regions, our study highlights both opportunities and limitations to food mapping in high-growth city regions in the Global South. We review existing approaches to food mapping using three contrasting city-regional food systems as case studies, namely, Bahir Dar (Ethiopia), Hanoi (Vietnam), and Cali (Colombia), and identify priorities for future progress. These include temporal dimensions of food access; nutritional outcomes of food flows; economic, cultural, and ethnic factors affecting consumer behavior; and how consumption of healthier foods could be enabled by decision-making throughout food supply chains. In addition, the roles of food loss and waste could also be more specifically considered. We conclude that providing a more comprehensive and nutritionsensitive understanding of city-regional food systems can guide evidence-based interventions and activities to enable transitions to healthier, equitable, and more sustainable urban food systems."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"08bb8507f5d3e084cc568149c1b25278","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3b8b331a-6c21-42c4-bd64-c477e11f02e5/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Study #4263 Contributing Projects: • P1569 -AfricaRice Contribution to RICE Flagship Project 1","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Part II: CGIAR system level reporting","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Links to the Strategic Results Framework: Sub-IDOs:"},{"index":2,"size":184,"text":"• Increased household capacity to cope with shocks • Increased resilience of agro-ecosystems and communities, especially those including smallholders Is this OICR linked to some SRF 2022/2030 target?: No Description of activity / study: This study assessed the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on income and food security of rice value chain actors. A total of 1,330 rice value chain actors were randomly sampled in Cote d'Ivoire and Madagascar. Results showed that 90% of actors perceived that their income decreased due to the pandemic. Access to credit became difficult for 43% of actors. Access to inputs and hired labor became difficult and expensive. Quantity of parboiled and milled rice decreased for more than 87% of parboilers and millers. We found evidence that the pandemic decreased the income of rice farmers by about US$ 169 per month. This led to a reduction of the number of meals by 0.14 unit per day and put 32% of rice farmers in food insecurity. The facilitation of credit and input access for smallholder farmers could be one strategy to avoid food shortages and deficits among value chain actors."},{"index":3,"size":2,"text":"Geographic scope: "}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"4cb68475-b727-4d66-93ef-f2bd49eef3ee","abstract":"Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on food security and income in developing countries of stakeholders: a case study of rice value chain actors Commissioning Study: RICE CRP"}

data/part_4/0901fc3211a6bf1ec27b55c7c4f8105a.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0901fc3211a6bf1ec27b55c7c4f8105a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c020e454-d307-45cf-942c-98a1be15c9ad/retrieve"},"pageCount":19,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":254,"text":"( R a n g e l , 1 9 9 2 a ) , c u y o e s q u e m a s e p r e s e n t a e n l a F i g u r a 2 . L a s e c u e n c i a q u e s e u t i l i z a e s l a s i g u i e n t e :  l l e v a n h a s t a S 5 7 p o r e l m é t o d o g e n e a l ó g i c o . E n l a F i g u r a 3 s e p r e s e n t a e l e s q u e m a p a r a l a e x t r a c c i ó n d e l í n e a s e n u n a p o b l a c i ó n q u e s e g r e g a p a r a u n g e n d e a n d r o e s t e r i l i d a d . L a s e t a p a s s o n l a s s i g u i e n t e s :"},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"1 . S e l e c c i ó n d e p l a n t a s f é r t i l e s .  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" S e l e c c i ó n R e c u r r e n t e e n A r r o z e n e l c o n j u n t o g é n i c o y p e r m i t i r q u e t o d o s l o s c i t o p l a s m a s s e h a g a n p r e s e n t e s e n l a p o b l a c i ó n . O t r a a l t e r n a t i v a e s c r u z a r l a s F , c o n l o s p r o g e n i t o r e s d e n ú m e r o s u b s e c u e n t e , p a r a a d e l a n t a r l a r e c o m b i n a c i ó n c o m o s e p r e s e n t a e n l a F i g u r a 1 . E l r e s u l t a d o d e e s a e t a p a d e c r u c e s s o n p r o g e n i t o r e s f é r t i l e s h o m o c i g o t o s ( M s M s ) o h e t e r o c i g o t o s ( M s m s ) ; p o r l o t a n t o , s e n e c e s i t a u n a g e n e r a c i ó n d e a u t o f e c u n d a c i ó n p a r a r e s t a b l e c e r l o s g e n o t i p o s a n d r o e s t é r i l e s ( m s m s ) . E s o s g e n o t i p o s , q u e s o n d e f á c i l i d e n t i f i c a c i ó n e n e l m o m e n t o d e l a f l o r a c i ó n , s o n e s e n c i a l e s p a r a l a r e c o m b i n a c i ó n e n e l c a m p o . L a s s e m i l l a s o b t e n i d a s d e l a s a u t o f e c u n d a c i o n e s s e m e z c l a n p a r a c o m p o n e r l a n u e v a p o b l a c i ó n y s e s i e m b r a n e n e l c a m p o , l o c u a l p e r m i t i r á l a p o l i n i z a c i ó n c r u z a d a d e l a s p l a n t a s a n d r o e s t é r i l e s ( m s m s ) p o r l a s f é r t i l e s ( M s M s o M s m s ) . E s o c o r r e s p o n d e a l p r i m e r c i c l o d e r e c o m b i n a c i ó n . D e s p u é s d e t r e s r e c o m b i n a c i o n e s s e c o n s i d e r a c r e a d a l a n u e v a p o b l a c i ó n ( F u j i m a k i , 1 9 7 9 ) , c u y a c o m p o s i c i ó n f i n a l s e e s t a b l e c e e n f u n c i ó n d e l a p a r t i c i p a c i ó n p o r c e n t u a l d e c a d a p r o g e n i t o r . C o n e l o b j e t i v o d e u t i l i z a r e l m e j o r a m i e n t o p o b l a c i o n a l c o m o b a s e e n e l p r o g r a m a n a c i o n a l d e d e s a r r o l l o d e v a r i e d a d e s , E M B R A P A -C N P A F h a c r e a d o c u a t r o p o b l a c i o n e s : 1 . C N A -I R A T 4 . D e s a r r o l l a d a d e m a n e r a c o l a b o r a t i v a e n t r e E M B R A P A -C N P A F y e l C e n t r e d e c o o p é r a t i o n i n t e r n a t i o n a l e e n r e c h e r c h e a g r o n o m i q u e p o u r l e d é v e l o p p e m e n t , D é p a r t e m e n t d e s c u l t u r e s a n n u e l l e s ( C I R A D -C A ) . S e l o g r ó m e d i a n t e e l i n t e r c r u z a m i e n t o d e 1 0 l í n e a s d e l G r u p o I n d i c a ( C u a d r o 1 ) , u s a n d o n u e v e v a r i e d a d e s c o m o p r o g e n i t o r e s m a s c u l i n o s e n c r u z a m i e n t o c o n l a I R 3 6 ( m s m s ) , l a f u e n t e d e l a a n d r o e s t e r i l i d a d g e n é t i c a . L a s p l a n t a s P . s e r e t r o c r u z a r o n , c o m o p r o g e n i t o r e s m a s c u l i n o s , c o n l a s n u e v e v a r i e d a d e s , d e m a n e r a q u e l o s n u e v e c i t o p l a s m a s e s t u v i e r o n r e p r e s e n t a d o s e n l a p o b l a c i ó n . L a s s e m i l l a s F 2 d e l a s p l a n t a s m s m sx V t | M s M s | m s m s x V 2 | M s M s | \\ \\ \\ | M s M s | V 2 x F , [ M s m s | | M s M s | V 3 x F j | M s m s | | M s M s | V ,x F ; | M s m s l a c i ó n C N A 5 e n e l p r i m e r c i c l o d e r F i g u r a 1 . E s q u e m a d e l d e s a r r o l l o d e l a p o b l a c i ó n C N A 5 . C u a d r o 1 . P r o g e n i t o r e s d e l a s l i n e a s c o m p o n e n t e s d e l a p o b l a c i ó n C N A -I R A T 4 y s u s p a r t i c i p a c i o n e s r e l a t i v a s . S M L K a p u r i / / S M L 6 6 4 1 0 3 . C N A 1 . E s t a p o b l a c i ó n f u e c r e a d a p o r E M B R A P A -C N P A F , a p a r t i r d e 7 0 p l a n t a s a n d r o e s t é r i l e s p r e c o c e s , c o s e c h a d a s e n l a p o b l a c i ó n C N A -I R A T 4 / 0 / 5 . S e m e z c l ó i g u a l c a n t i d a d d e s e m i l l a s d e c a d a p l a n t a p a r a c o n s t i t u i r l a p o b l a c i ó n . E n e s e g e r m o p l a s m a s e r e a l i z �� u n a i n t r o g r e s i ó n d e g e n e s d e t r e s n u e v o s g e n o t i p o s , d o s d e e l l o s f u e n t e s d e p r e c o c i d a d ( J a v a é y C N A 6 8 6 0 ) y u n o d e c a l i d a d d e g r a n o ( B l u e b e l l e ) . P o s t e r i o r m e n t e , l a p o b l a c i ó n s e r e c o m b i n ó o r i g i n a n d o l a C N A 1 ( C u a d r o 3 ) . 4 . C N A 5 . E s t a p o b l a c i ó n f u e c r e a d a p o r E M B R A P A -C N P A F u t i l i z a n d o l a p o b l a c i ó n C N A 1 ; l a s v a r i e d a d e s c o m e r c i a l e s M e t i c a 1 , B R -I R G A 4 0 9 y C I C A 8 ; l a s f u e n t e s d e r e s i s t e n c i a m ú l t i p l e a p i r i c u l a r i a y a m a n c h a d o d e g r a n o s C o l o m b i a 1 , I R I 3 4 2 y B a s m a t i 3 7 0 ; y l a s v a r i e d a d e s t r a d i c i o n a l e s d e a r r o z d e v á r z e a D e A b r i l , P a g a D i v i d a , Q u e b r a C a c h o y B r e j e i r o . L a s e l e c c i ó n d e l a s v a r i e d a d e s t r a d i c i o n a l e s s e h i z o m e d i a n t e e s t u d i o s d e d i v e r g e n c i a g e n é t i c a e n t r e c u l t i v a r e s t r a d i c i o n a l e s d e a r r o z d e v á r z e a , u t i l i z a n d o l a s t é c n i c a s d e a n á l i s i s m u l t i v a r i a d o s ( R a n g e l e t a l . , 1 9 9 1 ) . E l C u a d r o 4 p r e s e n t a l a c o n s t i t u c i ó n f i n a l d e l a p o b l a c i ó n C N A 5 . C u a d r o 2 . P r o g e n i t o r e s d e l a s l i n e a s c o m p o n e n t e s d e l a p o b l a c i ó n C N A -I R A T P y s u s p a r t i c i p a c i o n e s r e l a t i v a s . L í n e a C r u c e P a r t i c i p a c i ó n d e P a r t i c i p a c i ó n d e l a s l í n e a s e n l a l a s l í n e a s e n l a p o b l a c i ó n C N A -I R A T P p o b l a c i ó n C N A -I R A c a B r a n c a C u l t i v a r t r a d i c i o n a l -B r a s i l 0 t i v a r t r a d i c i o n a l -B r a s i l 0 . 4 2 0 . 8 C o m u m C r i o u l o C u l t i v a r t r a d i c i o n a l -B r a s i l 0 . 4 2 0 . 8 J a g u a r i C u l t i v a r t r a d i c i o n a l -B r a s i l 0 o z d e C a m p o C u l t i v a r t r a d i c i o n a l -B r a s i l 0 a w a n C u l t i v a r a s i á t i c o 6 . 2 5 1 2 . 5 0 I R 3 6 ( m s m s ) M u t a n t e d e I R 3 6 6 . 2 5 1 2 . 5 0 C u a d r o 3 . P r o g e n i t o r e s d e l a s l i n e a s c o m p o n e n t e s d e l a p o b l a c i ó n C N A 1 y s u s p a r t i c i p a c i o n e s r e l a t i v a s . L i n e a C r u c e P a r t i c i p a c i ó n d e l a s l í n e a s e n l a p o b l a c i ó n C N A 1 ( % ) P a r t i c i p a c i ó n d e l a s l í n e a s e n l a p o b l a c i ó n C N A -I R A i c á o C u l t i v a r t r a d i c i o n a l -B r a s i l 6 d r o 4 . P r o g e i n i t o r e s d e l a s l i n e a s c o m p o n e n t e s d e l a p o b l a c i ó n C N A 5 y s u s p a i r t i c i p a c i o n e s r e l a t i v a s . b r i l C u l t i v a r t r a d i c i o n a l -B r a s i l 7 . 5 0 -P a g a D i v i d a C u l t i v a r t r a d i c i o n a l -B r a s i l 7 . 5 0 -Q u e b r a C a c h o C u l t i v a r t r a d i c i o n a l -B r a s i l 7 . 5 0 -B r e j e i r o C u l t i v a r t r a d i c i o n a l -B r a s i l 7 1 0 3 -8 0 -1 -2 * I R 2 4 / C a u v e r y 1 . 5 6 6 . 2 5 B l u e b e l l e * C I 9 2 1 4 / / C e n t u r y P a t n a / C T 9 1 2 2 2 . 0 8 8 . 3 3 C N A 6 8 6 0 * L e m o n t / Q 6 5 1 0 1 / / P 2 0 1 5 2 . 0 8 8 . 3 3 J a v a é * P 3 0 8 5 / / I R 5 8 5 3 -1 1 8 -5 / I R 1 9 7 4 3 -2 5 -2 -2 -3 -1 2 . 0 8 8 . 3 3 a . E l a s t e r i s c o i d e n t i f i c a t a s f u e n t e s d e c i t o p l a s m a p r e s e n t e s e n l a p o b l a c i ó n . S e l e c c i ó n R e c u r r e n t e e n A r r o z M e j o r a m i e n t o d e l a p o b l a c i ó n C o n e x c e p c i ó n d e l a s e l e c c i ó n m a s a l , t o d o s l o s m é t o d o s d e s e l e c c i ó n r e c u r r e n t e i n c l u y e n t r e s f a s e s ( o b t e n c i ó n d e l í n e a s , e v a l u a c i ó n y s e l e c c i ó n , y r e c o m b i n a c i ó n d e l a s f a m i l i a s ) , c o n d u c i d a s d e m a n e r a r e p e t i t i v a a l o l a r g o d e l o s c i c l o s d e s e l e c c i ó n . D o s a s p e c t o s s o n f u n d a m e n t a l e s p a r a m a x i m i z a r l a s g a n a n c i a s e n e l p r o c e s o d e s e l e c c i ó n : a ) e l m u e s t r e o d e u n n ú m e r o d e i n d i v i d u o s a d e c u a d o p a r a r e p r e s e n t a r l a v a r i a b i l i d a d d e l a p o b l a c i ó n y b ) e n s a y o s d e e v a l u a c i ó n a d e c u a d o s , q u e p e r m i t a n i d e n t i f i c a r l a s d i f e r e n c i a s g e n é t i c a s e n t r e l o s i n d i v i d u o s a n a l i z a d o s . L a m e t o d o l o g í a q u e s e e s t á u t i l i z a n d o e n B r a s i l p a r a e l m e j o r a m i e n t o d e p o b l a c i o n e s e s l a s e l e c c i ó n r e c u r r e n t e e n f a m i l i a s S 0 2 "},{"text":" 1 . O b t e n c i ó n d e l a s f a m i l i a s . S e h a c e e n e l A ñ o 1 , e n é p o c a n o r m a l d e s i e m b r a . L a s p o b l a c i o n e s o r i g i n a l e s , q u e s e g r e g a n p a r a 5 0 % d e p l a n t a s f é r t i l e s ( M s m s ) y 5 0 % d e p l a n t a s a n d r o e s t é r i l e s ( m s m s ) , s e s i e m b r a n p a r a l a s e l e c c i ó n d e p l a n t a s S 0 f é r t i l e s . E n e s t a e t a p a s e c o s e c h a n c e r c a d e 2 5 0 p l a n t a s p o r p o b l a c i ó n . "},{"text":" 2 . M u l t i p l i c a c i ó n d e l a s f a m i l i a s . S e h a c e e n e l A ñ o 1 , f u e r a d e l a é p o c a n o r m a l d e s i e m b r a . P a r t e m e M F M F M F m e M F + ~S i e m b r a e n l o t e a i s l a d o l M s M s : 2 M s m s : l m s m S e m i l l a s h í b r i d a s c o s e c h a d a s d e F i g u r a 2 . E s q u e m a d e s e l e c c i ó n r e c u r r e n t e e n f a m i l i a s S ( d e l a s s e m i l l a s S 0 . s e a l m a c e n a , y p a r t e s e s i e m b r a c o n e l o b j e t i v o d e a u m e n t a r l a c a n t i d a d d e s e m i l l a s p a r a l o s e n s a y o s d e e v a l u a c i ó n d e r e n d i m i e n t o . E n e l m o m e n t o d e l a m u l t i p l i c a c i ó n s e r e a l i z a l a s e l e c c i ó n d e l a s 2 0 0 m e j o r e s f a m i l i a s , t e n i e n d o c o m o c r i t e r i o s p r i n c i p a l e s l a r e s i s t e n c i a a e n f e r m e d a d e s y e l t i p o d e g r a n o . L a s s e m i l l a s d e l a s p l a n t a s d e c a d a f a m i l i a s e c o s e c h a n e n f o r m a m a s a l , p a r a c o n s t i t u i r l a s f a m i l i a s S 0 2 . L a s f a m i l i a s S 0 1 ( f a m i l i a s o r i g i n a r i a s d e l a s p l a n t a s S 0 q u e f u e r o n a u t o f e c u n d a d a s ) s e g r e g a n e n l a p r o p o r c i ó n d e 7 5 % d e p l a n t a s f é r t i l e s ( M s ) y 2 5 % d e p l a n t a s a n d r o e s t é r i l e s ( m s m s ) . 3 . E v a l u a c i ó n y s e l e c c i ó n d e l a s f a m i l i a s S 0 2 . E s t a , q u e s e r e a l i z a e n e l A ñ o 2 e n é p o c a n o r m a l d e s i e m b r a , e s l a e t a p a m á s i m p o r t a n t e d e l a m e t o d o l o g í a . L a s 2 0 0 f a m i l i a s S 0 2 ( f a m i l i a s o r i g i n a r i a s d e l a s p l a n t a s S 0 q u e f u e r o n a u t o f e c u n d a d a s d o s v e c e s ) s e s o m e t e n a e v a l u a c i ó n e n e n s a y o s , u t i l i z a n d o e n e l l o s l o s b l o q u e s a u m e n t a d o s d e F e d e r e r ( F e d e r e r , 1 9 5 6 ) . L a p a r c e l a e s t á c o n s t i t u i d a p o r t r e s s u r c o s d e 5 . 0 m d e l a r g o , y l a s e l e c c i ó n d e l a s f a m i l i a s s u p e r i o r e s s e h a c e s o b r e l a b a s e d e l r e n d i m i e n t o p r o m e d i o , l a r e s i s t e n c i a a e n f e r m e d a d e s y e l t i p o d e g r a n o . L a i n t e n s i d a d d e s e l e c c i ó n u t i l i z a d a e s d e 2 5 % , p a r a g a r a n t i z a r u n t a m a ñ o e f e c t i v o d e N c = 5 0 . L o s e n s a y o s s e r e a l i z a n e n d i f e r e n t e s l o c a l i d a d e s b a j o l a c o o r d i n a c i ó n d e l a s C o m i s i o n e s T é c n i c a s d e A r r o z d e l a s R e g i o n e s I , I I y I I I ( C T A r r o z I , I I y I I I ) ( R a n g e l y N e v e s , 1 9 9 5 ) . L a s f a m i l i a s S 0 2 s e l e c c i o n a d a s e n c a d a l o c a l i d a d s e u t i l i z a n p a r a l a e x t r a c c i ó n d e l í n e a s p a r a e s a l o c a l i d a d e s p e c í f i c a . L a s s e m i l l a s S 0 . , r e m a n e n t e s d e l a s f a m i l i a s s u p e r i o r e s e n l a s v a r i a s l o c a l i d a d e s d e n t r o d e c a d a r e g i ó n , s e m e z c l a n e n c a n t i d a d e s i g u a l e s p a r a l a r e c o m b i n a c i ó n . E n l a f a s e d e e v a l u a c i ó n d e l a s f a m i l i a s s e d e b e n c o n s i d e r a r d o s p u n t o s . E l p r i m e r o d e t a l e s p u n t o s e s e l t a m a ñ o e f e c t i v o d e l a p o b l a c i ó n ( N J , o s e a , e l n ú m e r o d e i n d i v i d u o s q u e c o n t r i b u y e n e f e c t i v a m e n t e c o n g e n e s p a r a l a p r ó x i m a g e n e r a c i ó n . E s t e n ú m e r o d e b e s e r t a l q u e p e r m i t a g a n a n c i a s p o r s e l e c c i ó n a m e d i a n o y l a r g o p l a z o s , s i n p é r d i d a s c o n s i d e r a b l e s d e l a v a r i a b i l i d a d d e b i d a s a e n d o g a m i a y o s c i l a c i ó n g e n é t i c a . P e r e i r a ( 1 9 8 0 ) , c o n s i d e r a n d o u n m o d e l o a d i t i v o , c o n c l u y ó q u e e l t a m a ñ o e f e c t i v o p a r a g a r a n t i z a r e l p r o g r e s o e n e l p r o c e s o s e l e c t i v o d e p e n d e d e l a e s t r u c t u r a d e l a p o b l a c i ó n , y q u e s u v a l o r m í n i m o d e b e r í a s e r a p r o x i m a d a m e n t e d e : N e = 4 0 , p a r a u n a p o b l a c i ó n d e b a s e g e n é t i c a a m p l i a y f r e c u e n c i a a l é l i c a i n t e r m e d i a ; N c = 2 5 , p a r a u n a p o b l a c i ó n y a m e j o r a d a , y N = 5 0 , p a r a u n a p o b l a c i ó n p o c o m e j o r a d a . E l s e g u n d o p u n t o q u e s e d e b e c o n s i d e r a r e s l a s e g r e g a c i ó n d e l a s f a m i l i a s p a r a e l g e n d e a n d r o e s t e r i l i d a d , e l c u a l p u e d e c o n d u c i r a l a s u b e s t i m a c i ó n d e l r e n d i m i e n t o d e g r a n o s , a l e n m a s c a r a r l o s r e s u l t a d o s d e l o s e n s a y o s d e e v a l u a c i ó n . S e d e b e c o n s i d e r a r e n t r e t a n t o , q u e t o d a s l a s f a m i l i a s e s t á n s e g r e g a n d o e n l a m i s m a p r o p o r c i ó n y q u e l a s e l e c c i ó n s e h a c e d e m a n e r a t r u n c a d a , o s e a , s e s e l e c c i o n a 2 5 % d e l a s f a m i l i a s m á s p r o d u c t i v a s .A d e m á s d e e s t o , l a t a s a d e f o r m a c i ó n de s e m i l l a s e n e s t a s p l a n t a s e s d e c e r c a d e 1 2 % , m i e n t r a s q u e e n l a s p l a n t a s f é r t i l e s , q u e s o n l a m a y o r í a , e s t á c e r c a d e 1 0 0 % .4 . R e c o m b i n a c i ó n d e l a s f a m i l i a s s e l e c c i o n a d a s . E n e l A ñ o 2 , f u e r a d e l a é p o c a n o r m a l d e s i e m b r a , s e h a c e l a r e c o m b i n a c i ó n , u t i l i z a n d o 2 1 0 0 p l a n t a s o r i g i n a r i a s d e l a s s e m i l l a s r e m a n e n t e s S 0 1 , m e z c l a d a s y s e m b r a d a s e n l o t e a i s l a d o . P a r a o b t e n e r u n b u e n n i v e l d e r e c o m b i n a c i ó n , l a s p l a n t a s s e t r a s p l a n t a n e n t r e s é p o c a s ( 7 0 0 p l a n t a s / é p o c a ) e s p a c i a d a s 7 d í a s u n a d e l a o t r a . L a s p l a n t a s a n d r o e s t é r i l e s s e i d e n t i f i c a n e n l a f l o r a c i ó n , y e n l a m a d u r a c i ó n s e c o s e c h a n i n d i v i d u a l m e n t e s u s s e m i l l a s . D e c a d a p l a n t a a n d r o e s t é r i l s e m e z c l a n c a n t i d a d e s i g u a l e s d e s e m i l l a s p a r a f o r m a r l a p o b l a c i ó n d e C i c l o 1 . L a f r e c u e n c i a d e p l a n t a s a n d r o e s t é r i l e s e n l a s f a m i l i a s e s d e g r a n i m p o r t a n c i a p a r a q u e s e t e n g a u n a b u e n a r e c o m b i n a c i ó n . A s í , a l r e c o m b i n a r f a m i l i a s S 0 . s e t e n d r á u n a p r o p o r c i ó n d e t r e s p l a n t a s f é r t i l e s p o r u n a a n d r o e s t é r i l , l o q u e p r o p o r c i o n a , e n e l c a m p o , u n a b u e n a f r e c u e n c i a d e p l a n t a s e s t é r i l e s . L a r e c o m b i n a c i ó n d e f a m i l i a s e n g e n e r a c i o n e s d e a u t o f e c u n d a c i ó n m á s a v a n z a d a , p o r e j e m p l o S 0 2 , h a c e q u e h a y a u n a r e d u c c i ó n e n l a f r e c u e n c i a d e p l a n t a s e s t é r i l e s , l o q u e p u e d e i n f l u e n c i a r n e g a t i v a m e n t e l a r e c o m b i n a c i ó n . 5 . I n i c i o d e u n n u e v o c i c l o d e s e l e c c i ó n . E n e l A ñ o 3 , e n é p o c a n o r m a l d e s i e m b r a , l a p o b l a c i ó n d e l C i c l o 1 s e s i e m b r a p a r a l a s e l e c c i ó n d e p l a n t a s f é r t i l e s . S e i n i c i a a s í e l p r ó x i m o c i c l o d e s e l e c c i ó n , q u e s e c o n d u c e e n l a m i s m a f o r m a d e s c r i t a e n l o s p u n t o s a n t e r i o r e s . C o n e s t e e s q u e m a , c a d a c i c l o d e r e c u r r e n c i a s e c o m p l e t a e n 2 a ñ o s . E x t r a c c i ó n d e l i n e a s S i m u l t á n e a m e n t e c o n e l m e j o r a m i e n t o d e l a p o b l a c i ó n , s e i n i c i a e l p r o c e s o d e e x t r a c c i ó n d e l í n e a s . E s t a e t a p a s e b a s a e n l o s e n s a y o s d e e v a l u a c i ó n d e f a m i l i a s S 0 2 , l o q u e c o n s t i t u y e u n a e v a l u a c i ó n p r e c o z e n g e n e r a c i o n e s s e g r e g a n t e s . S e s e l e c c i o n a n l a s f a m i l i a s q u e p o s e e n m a y o r e s p o t e n c i a l e s p a r a l o g r a r l o s o b j e t i v o s d e l p r o g r a m a , h a c i e n d o é n f a s i s p r i n c i p a l m e n t e e n e l r e n d i m i e n t o d e g r a n o . L a s f a m i l i a s s e "},{"text":" E n e l A ñ o 1 , p e r i o d o n o r m a l d e c u l t i v o , l a s s e m i l l a s S 0 3 o r i g i n a r i a s d e l a s f a m i l i a s S 0 . s e l e c c i o n a d a s y c o s e c h a d a s e n f o r m a m a s a l e n e l e n s a y o d e e v a l u a c i ó n , s e s i e m b r a n e n l o t e n o a i s l a d o , p a r a l a s e l e c c i ó n d e p l a n t a s f é r t i l e s . 2 . E l i m i n a c i ó n d e l g e n d e a n d r o e s t e r i l i d a d y a v a n c e g e n e r a c i o n a l . E n e l A ñ o 1 , f u e r a d e l a é p o c a n o r m a l d e s i e m b r a , l a s s e m i l l a s d e l a s p l a n t a s f é r t i l e s c u y a c o n s t i t u c i ó n g e n é t i c a e s M s M s y M s m s , s e s i e m b r a n m a n t e n i e n d o l a e s t r u c t u r a d e f a m i l i a , o s e a , q u e c a d a p l a n t a c o n s t i t u y e u n a f a m i l i a S 3 4 . L a s f a m i l i a s q u e s e g r e g a n p a r a e l g e n d e a n d r o e s t e r i l i d a d s e e l i m i n a n , y l a s q u e n o p o s e e n e s t e g e n s e c o s e c h a n i n d i v i d u a l m e n t e e n m a s a l . 3 . S e l e c c i ó n . E n e l A ñ o 2 , e n é p o c a n o r m a l d e s i e m b r a , l a s f a m i l i a s S 3 5 s e s o m e t e n a u n a s e l e c c i ó n e n t r e y d e n t r o d e f a m i l i a s . 4 . A v a n c e d e g e n e r a c i ó n . E n e l A ñ o 2 , f u e r a d e l a é p o c a n o r m a l d e s i e m b r a , l a s f a m i l i a s S = « s e l l e v a n a S 5 7 y s i m u l t á n e a m e n t e s e m u l t i p l i c a n s e m i l l a s p a r a l o s e n s a y o s d e e v a l u a c i ó n . 5 . E v a l u a c i ó n d e l a s l í n e a s . E n e l A ñ o 3 , e n l a é p o c a n o r m a l d e s i e m b r a s e h a c e l a e v a l u a c i ó n d e l a s l í n e a s p a r a r e n d i m i e n t o y o t r a s c a r a c t e r í s t i c a s a g r o n ó m i c a s , a p r o v e c h a n d o l a e s t r u c t u r a d e e v a l u a c i ó n d e g e r m o p l a s m a e x i s t e n t e e n B r a s i l , o s e a , l a s C T A r r o z d e l a R e d N a c i o n a l d e E v a l u a c i ó n d e A r r o z d e R i e g o ( R E N A I ) . "},{"text":" n a c i ó n d e l g e n d e a n d r o e s t e r i l i d a d y a v a n c e d e g e n e r a c i ó n S e l e c c i ó n e n t r e y d e n t r o d e f a m i l i a s A v a n c e d e g e n e r a c i ó n F i g u r a 3 . E s q u e m a p a r a l a e x t r a c c i ó n d e l í n e a s e n p o b l a c i o n e s q u e s e g r e g a n p a r a u n g e n d e D e s a r r o l l o d e l T r a b a j o d e S e l e c c i ó n R e c u r r e n t e e n A r r o z , e n B r a s i l E l p r o g r a m a d e s e l e c c i ó n r e c u r r e n t e s e i n i c i ó e f e c t i v a m e n t e e n B r a s i l e n e l a ñ o a g r í c o l a d e 1 9 9 2 / 9 3 , c o n l a e v a l u a c i ó n d e 1 6 3 f a m i l i a s S 0 2 d e c i c l o m e d i o y 1 6 3 p r e c o c e s , l a s c u a l e s e r a n o r i g i n a r i a s d e l a s p o b l a c i o n e s C N A -I R A T 4 M E / 1 / 1 y C N A -I R A T 4 P R / 1 / 1 , r e s p e c t i v a m e n t e . S e u s a r o n d o s l á t i c e s t r i p l e s 1 0 x 1 0 y 8 x 8 y p a r c e l a s d e u n s u r c o d e 2 . 0 m d e l a r g o . L o s t e s t i g o s f u e r o n B R -I R G A 4 0 9 e n e l e n s a y o p r e c o z y C I C A 8 e n e l e n s a y o d e c i c l o m e d i o . L o s e n s a y o s f u e r o n c o n d u c i d o s e n l a C T A r r o z I I p o r E M B R A P A -C N P A F e n G o i á s , p o r U N I T I N S ( U n i v e r s i d a d e d o T o c a n t i n s ) / C N P A F / E M B R A P A e n T o c a n t i n s , p o r E P A M I G ( E m p r e s a d e P e s q u i s a A g r o p e c u á r i a d e M i n a s G e r a i s ) e n M i n a s G e r a i s , y p o r I A P A R ( I n s t i t u t o A g r o n ó m i c o d o P a r a n á ) e n P a r a n á . E n l a C T A r r o z I I I , l o s c o n d u j o e l C P A F / R R ( C e n t r o d e P e s q u i s a A g r o f o r e s t a l d e R o r a i m a ) d e E M B R A P A e n R o r a i m a . E n l a s e l e c c i ó n d e l a s f a m i l i a s s u p e r i o r e s s e c o n s i d e r ó p r i n c i p a l m e n t e l a p r o d u c t i v i d a d m e d i a e n l a s c i n c o l o c a l i d a d e s d e e v a l u a c i ó n , y s e u t i l i z ó u n a i n t e n s i d a d d e s e l e c c i ó n d e u n 3 0 % . L a d i s t r i b u c i ó n d e f r e c u e n c i a s d e l a s f a m i l i a s d e c i c l o m e d i o e v a l u a d a s y s e l e c c i o n a d a s p a r a l a c a r a c t e r í s t i c a p r o d u c c i ó n d e g r a n o s s e p r e s e n t a e n l a F i g u r a 4 . L a p r o d u c t i v i d a d m e d i a d e l a s f a m i l i a s e v a l u a d a s e n l a s c i n c o l o c a l i d a d e s f u e d e 4 2 9 8 k g / h a , i n f e r i o r a l a d e C I C A 8 q u e f u e d e 5 9 4 1 k g / h a . P o r o t r a p a r t e , d e l a s f a m i l i a s s e l e c c i o n a d a s , t r e s r i n d i e r o n a l r e d e d o r d e 6 t r i b u c i ó n d e f r e c u e n c i a s d e l a s f a m i l i a s S 2 d e c i c l o m e d i o e v a l u a d a s y s e l e c c i o n a d a s . o t r a f a m i l i a , c o n 7 8 0 0 k g / h a , s u p e r ó e l t e s t i g o e n a p r o x i m a d a m e n t e 3 1 % . L a m e d i a d e l a s f a m i l i a s s e l e c c i o n a d a s ( 4 9 1 9 k g / h a ) f u e 1 4 % s u p e r i o r a l a d e l a s f a m i l i a s e v a l u a d a s ( 4 2 9 8 k g / h a ) . P o r s u p a r t e , l a s f a m i l i a s p r e c o c e s p r e s e n t a r o n , e n s u m a y o r í a ( a l r e d e d o r d e u n 6 0 % ) , u n a p r o d u c t i v i d a d m e d i a d e 4 5 0 0 a 5 0 0 0 k g / h a , c o n u n r e n d i m i e n t o m e d i o d e 4 7 9 2 k g / h a ( F i g u r a 5 ) . S e i s f a m i l i a s p r o d u j e r o n m á s q u e e l t e s t i g o B R -I R G A 4 0 9 , c o n 5 8 7 2 k g / h a . E s t o e v i d e n c i a u n a g a n a n c i a p a r a p r o d u c t i v i d a d , i n c l u s o s u p e r i o r a l a d e l a s f a m i l i a s d e c i c l o m e d i o , d o n d e s o l a m e n t e u n a s u p e r ó e l t e s t i g o C I C A 8 . L a s f a m i l i a s s u p e r i o r e s e n c a d a l o c a l i d a d s e i n c o r p o r a r o n a l p r o g r a m a d e m e j o r a m i e n t o c o n v e n c i o n a l , b u s c a n d o l a e x t r a c c i ó n d e l í n e a s p a r a a q u e l l a l o c a l i d a d e s p e c í f i c a , y l a s s e m i l l a s r e m a n e n t e s S 0 1 d e l a s 5 0 m e j o r e s f a m i l i a s e n l a s c i n c o l o c a l i d a d e s s e m e z c l a r o n e n c a n t i d a d e s i g u a l e s p a r a l a e t a p a d e r e c o m b i n a c i ó n . E l p r o g r a m a d e s e l e c c i ó n r e c u r r e n t e e s t á o r g a n i z a d o d e t a l f o r m a q u e , c a d a a ñ o , l a s i n s t i t u c i o n e s r e c i b e n p a r a l a e v a l u a c i ó n f a m i l i a s d e p o b l a c i o n e s d i f e r e n t e s . E s o i m p i d e q u e e l i n v e s t i g a d o r t e n g a q u e e v a l u t r i b u c i ó n d e l a s f r e c u e n c i a s d e l a s f a m i l i a s d e c i c l o c o r t o e v a l u a d a s y s e l e c c i o n a d a s . m u c h a s f a m i l i a s d e u n a s o l a v e z . D e e s t a m a n e r a , e n e l a ñ o a g r í c o l a d e 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 s e e v a l u a r o n 9 9 f a m i l i a s S 0 : 2 o r i g i n a r i a s d e l a p o b l a c i ó n C N A 1 . E l t e s t i g o u t i l i z a d o f u e l a B R -I R G A 4 0 9 y e l d i s e ñ o e x p e r i m e n t a l e l l á t i c e t r i p l e 1 0 x 1 0 . L a s p a r c e l a s e s t u v i e r o n c o n f o r m a d a s p o r u n s u r c o d e 2 . 0 m d e l a r g o . E l e n s a y o s e r e a l i z ó e n l a C T A r r o z I p o r I R G A ( I n s t i t u t o R i o g r a n d e n s e d o A r r o z ) y p o r E M B R A P A -C P A C T ( C e n t r o d e P e s q u i s a A g r o p e c u á r i a d e C l i m a T e m p e r a d o ) e n R i o G r a n d e d o S u l , y p o r E P A G R I ( E m p r e s a d e P e s q u i s a A g r o p e c u á r i a e d e D i f u s á o d e T e c n o l o g í a d e S a n t a C a t a r i n a ) e n S a n t a C a t a r i n a . E n l a C T A r r o z I I , l a s i n s t i t u c i o n e s q u e c o n d u j e r o n e l e n s a y o f u e r o n E M B R A P A -C N P A F , U N I T I N S / E M B R A P A -C N P A F , E P A M I G e I A P A R . E n l a C T A r r o z I I I l o r e a l i z ó E M B R A P A -C P A F / R R . L o s r e s u l t a d o s d e l a s r e g i o n e s I I y I I I s e a n a l i z a r o n e n c o n j u n t o . L a s e l e c c i ó n d e l a s f a m i l i a s s u p e r i o r e s s e h i z o e n c a d a r e g i ó n , c o n s i d e r a n d o l a p r o d u c t i v i d a d m e d i a e n l a s l o c a l i d a d e s d e e v a l u a c i ó n y u t i l i z a n d o u n a i n t e n s i d a d d e s e l e c c i ó n d e 3 0 % . L a d i s t r i b u c i ó n d e f r e c u e n c i a s d e l a p r o d u c c i ó n d e g r a n o s d e l a s f a m i l i a s e v a l u a d a s e n l a R e g i ó n I s e p r e s e n t a e n l a F i g u r a 6 . S e o b s e r v ó u n a a m p l i a s e g r e g a c i ó n p a r a e l r e n d i m i e n t o , e l c u a l v a r i ó d e 2 0 7 5 a 6 6 6 3 k g / h a c o n u n p r o m e d i o d e 4 8 0 7 k g / h a . D e l a s f a m i l i a s s e l e c c i o n a d a s ( C u a d r o 5 ) , t r e s p r o d u j e r o n m á s q u e e l t e s t i g o B R -I R G A 4 0 9 ( 6 2 2 6 k g / h a ) . H u b o u n s i g n i f i c a t i v o i n c r e m e n t o e n e l p r o m e d i o d e r e n d i m i e n t o d e g r a n o s , e l R e n d i m i e n t o , R ( t / h a ) F i g u r a 6 . D i s t r i b u c i ó n d e f r e c u e n c i a s d e l a s f a m i l i a s S 2 e v a l u a d a s e n l a R e g i ó n 1 . c u a l p a s ó d e 4 8 0 7 k g / h a e n l a p o b l a c i ó n o r i g i n a l a 5 5 9 6 k g / h a e n l o s i n d i v i d u o s s e l e c c i o n a d o s , y p r o p o r c i o n ó a s í u n d i f e r e n c i a l d e p r o d u c t i v i d a d c e r c a n o a l 1 7 % . E n l a s R e g i o n e s I I y I I I , l a p r o d u c c i ó n d e g r a n o s d e l a s f a m i l i a s e v a l u a d a s v a r i ó d e 3 t r i b u c i ó n d e f r e c u e n c i a s d e l a s f a m i l i a s S 2 e v a l u a d a s e n l a s R e g i o n e s I I y I I I . C u a d r o 5 . P r o d u c c i ó n d e g r a n o s d e a l g u n a s f a m i l i a s , m e d i a d e t o d a s l a s f a m i l i a s s e l e c c i o n a d a s ( M F S E ) , m e d i a d e l a s f a m i l i a s e v a l u a d a s ( M F E V ) y c o e f i c i e n t e d e v a r i a c i ó n ( C V % ) d e l o s e n s a y o s d e e v a l u a c i ó n d e f a m i l i a s S 0 : 2 o r i g i n a r i a s d e l a p o b l a c i ó n C N A 1 / 0 / 1 R I c o n d u c i d o s p o r I R G A , E M B R A P A -C P A C T y E P A G R I \" e n e l a ñ o a g r í c o l a d e 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 . F a m i l i a s S 0 2 P r o d u c c i ó n d e g r a n o s s e g ú n i n s t i t u c i ó n C R G A = I n s t i t u t o R i o g r a n d e n s e d o A r r o z : E M B R A P A -C P A C T = C e n t r o d e P e s q u i s a A g r o p e c u a r i a d e C l i m a T e m p e r a d o : E P A G R I = E m p r e s a d e P e s q u i s a A g r o p e c u á r i a e d e D i f u s á o d e T e c n o l o g í a d e S a n t a C a t a r i n a . p o b l a c i ó n n o s e s o m e t i ó a n i n g u n a s e l e c c i ó n , e n e l c a m p o s e o b s e r v ó u n a a m p l i a s e g r e g a c i ó n , i n c l u s i v e p a r a p l a n t a s d e p o r t e a l t o . D e e s t a m a n e r a , e n l a s e l e c c i ó n d e l a s f a m i l i a s s u p e r i o r e s , a d e m á s d e l a p r o d u c t i v i d a d , s e c o n s i d e r ó t a m b i é n c o m o c r i t e r i o d e s e l e c c i ó n l a a l t u r a d e l a s p l a n t a s . E l r e n d i m i e n t o m e d i o d e l a s f a m i l i a s s e l e c c i o n a d a s f u e 1 0 % s u p e r i o r a l d e l a s f a m i l i a s e v a l u a d a s . D e l a s f a m i l i a s s e l e c c i o n a d a s , c u a t r o p r o d u j e r o n m á s d e l o s 6 0 0 0 k g / h a , o s e a , m á s q u e e l t e s t i g o B R -I R G A 4 0 9 , q u e p r o d u j o 5 8 1 4 k g / h a ( C u a d r o 6 ) . L a s 3 0 m e j o r e s f a m i l i a s e n c a d a l o c a l i d a d s e u t i l i z a r o n p a r a l a e x t r a c c i ó n d e l í n e a s p a r a l o s r e s p e c t i v o s s i t i o s . L a s f a m i l i a s s u p e r i o r e s e n v a r i a s l o c a l i d a d e s d e n t r o d e u n a d e t e r m i n a d a r e g i ó n s e r e c o m b i n a r o n b u s c a n d o m e j o r a r l a p o b l a c i ó n p a r a a q u e l l a r e g i ó n .R e s u l t a d o s d e l a I n v e s t i g a c i ó n P o t e n c i a l g e n é t i c o d e C N A -I R A T 4 / 0 / 3 M o r a i s ( 1 9 9 2 ) e v a l u ó 5 9 f a m i l i a s M I S , -y 6 0 f a m i l i a s I S . . -, o b t e n i d a s d e l a p o b l a c i ó n C N A -I R A T 4 / 0 / 3 , j u n t a m e n t e c o n l o s p r o g e n i t o r e s ; e s t a s f a m i l i a s p r o v e n í a n r e s p e c t i v a m e n t e d e l a c o s e c h a m a s a l d e f a m i l i a s d e h e r m a n o s m e d i o s y d e f a m i l i a s S , t í p i c a s . E l h i z o l a e v a l u a c i ó n e n d o s e x p e r i m e n t o s d i s t i n t o s , c o n d u c i d o s c o n r i e g o p o r s u m e r s i ó n . S u o b j e t i v o f u e e v a l u a r e l p o t e n c i a l g e n é t i c o , p a r a f i n e s d e m e j o r a m i e n t o , d e l a p o b l a c i ó n C N A -I R A T 4 / 0 / 3 p o r m e d i o d e : a ) l a e v a l u a c i ó n d e l a d i v e r g e n c i a g e n é t i c a d e l a s v a r i e d a d e s p r o g e n i t o r a s ; b ) l a e s t i m a c i ó n d e l o s p a r á m e t r o s C u a d r o 6 . P r o d u c c i ó n d e g r a n o s d e a l g u n a s f a m i l i a s , m e d i a d e t o d a s l a s f a m i l i a s s e l e c c i o n a d a s ( M F S E ) , m e d i a d e l a s f a m i l i a s e v a l u a d a s ( M F E V ) y c o e f i c i e n t e d e v a r i a c i ó n ( C V % ) d e l o s e n s a y o s d e e v a l u a c i ó n d e f a m i l i a s S 0 2 o r i g i n a r i a s d e l a p o b l a c i ó n C N A 1 / 0 / 1 R I I c o n d u c i d o s e n c u a t r o l u g a r e s p o r d i f e r e n t e s e n t i d a d e s e n e l a ñ o a g r í c o l a d e 1 u g a r e s y e n t i d a d e s : e n M i n a s G e r a i s ( M G ) , l a E m p r e s a d e P e s q u i s a A g r o p e c u a r i a d e M i n a s G e r a i s ( E P A M I G ) ; e n G o i á s ( G O ) , e l C e n t r o N a c i o n a l d e P e s q u i s a d e A r r o z e F e i j á o ( C N P A F ) ; e n e l T o c a n t i n s ( T O ) , l a U n i v e r s i d a d e d o T o c a n t i n s ( U N I T 1 N S ) / C N P A F ; e n R o r a i m a ( R R ) , e l C e n t r o d e P e s q u i s a A g r o f l o r e s t a l d e R o r a i m a ( C P A F / R R ) . g e n é t i c o s d e l a p o b l a c i ó n y c ) l a o b t e n c i ó n d e e s t i m a c i o n e s d e r e s p u e s t a s e s p e r a d a s a l a s e l e c c i ó n d i r e c t a , y s o b r e í n d i c e s d e s e l e c c i ó n . E n l a p o b l a c i ó n e s t u d i a d a , l o s c o m p o n e n t e s d e v a r i a n z a g e n é t i c a n o a d i t i v a n o p r e s e n t a r o n v a l o r e s i m p o r t a n t e s p a r a a l t u r a d e l a p l a n t a , l a r g o d e l a p a n í c u l a y p e s o d e 1 0 0 g r a n o s . P o r o t r o l a d o , p a r a l o s f a c t o r e s p r o d u c c i ó n d e g r a n o s y n ú m e r o d e p a n í c u l a s p o r p l a n t a , s e p r e s e n t ó v a r i a n z a d e b i d a a l a d o m i n a n c i a d e s c r i t a c o m o f r e c u e n c i a g é n i c a i n t e r m e d i a r i a , j u n t a m e n t e c o n l a v a r i a n z a a d i t i v a , i m p o r t a n t e c o m o c o m p o n e n t e d e l a v a r i a n z a g e n o t í p i c a . U t i l i z a n d o e l í n d i c e c l á s i c o d e s e l e c c i ó n s e o b t u v i e r o n e s t i m a c i o n e s d e l a r e s p u e s t a e s p e r a d a a l a s e l e c c i ó n e n t r e m e d i a s d e f a m i l i a s I S 2 0 B p a r a l a p r o d u c c i ó n d e g r a n o s , d e m a n e r a s i m i l a r a l a o b t e n i d a c o n l a s e l e c c i ó n d i r e c t a s o b r e e s t a c a r a c t e r í s t i c a . A d e m á s , s i m u l t á n e a m e n t e s e l o g r ó r e d u c i r l a a l t u r a d e l a s p l a n t a s , l a c u a l s e e n c o n t r a b a p o s i t i v a m e n t e c o r r e l a c i o n a d a c o n l a p r o d u c c i ó n d e g r a n o ( C u a d r o 7 ) . C u a d r o 7 . C a r a c t e r í s t i c a s d e f a m i l i a s I S 2 o B a e n c u a n t o a l a s m e d i a s o r i g i n a l e s ( M O ) y l a s r e s p u e s t a s e s p e r a d a s e n l a s m e d i a s c o n l a s e l e c c i ó n b a s a d a e n e l í n d i c e c l á s i c o ( R S J y c o n l a s e l e c c i o b l a c i ó n s e l e c c i o n a d a : 3 2 ( 5 3 . 3 % ) f a m i l i a s I S 2 0 B , b . P R O D p r o d u c c i ó n d e g r a n o ; A L T = a l t u r a d e p l a n t a ; C P A N = l a r g o d e l a p a n í c u l a ; N p a n = n ú m e r o d e p a n í c u l a s ; P 1 0 0 = p e s o d e 1 0 0 g r a n o s . L o s c o e f i c i e n t e s g e n é t i c o s f u e r o n : 3 0 p a r a P R O D ; -1 p a r a A L T y 0 p a r a C p a n , N p a n y P 1 0 0 . c . V a l o r e s e n p o r c e n t a j e s d e l a s m e d i a s . B a s á n d o s e e n l o s d a t o s o b t e n i d o s , e l a u t o r c o n c l u y ó q u e l a p o b l a c i ó n C N A -I R A T 4 / 0 / 3 s e m o s t r ó p r o m i s o r i a p a r a e l m e j o r a m i e n t o g e n é t i c o , p r i n c i p a l m e n t e e n t é r m i n o s d e m a y o r p r o d u c t i v i d a d , a l t o m a c o l l a j e y p o r t e a d e c u a d o p a r a l a s c o n d i c i o n e s d e c u l t i v o d e r i e g o . A u m e n t o d e l p o t e n c i a l p r o d u c t i v o e n a r r o z d e r i e g o C o n e l p r o p ó s i t o d e v e r i f i c a r l a p o s i b i l i d a d d e l u s o d e l a s e l e c c i ó n r e c u r r e n t e p a r a a u m e n t a r e l p o t e n c i a l p r o d u c t i v o d e l a r r o z d e r i e g o , R a n g e l e t a l . ( s . f . ) e v a l u a r o n , e n d o s s i t i o s e n l a r e g i ó n c e n t r a l d e l B r a s i l ( G o i á n i a , G O , y F o r m o s o d o A r a g u a i a , T O ) , d o s g r u p o s d e m a t e r i a l e s : 1 6 4 p r e c o c e s y 1 6 4 d e c i c l o m e d i o . L a e v a l u a c i ó n e n c a d a g r u p o s e h i z o e n d o s l á t i c e s t r i p l e s 1 0 x 1 0 y 8 x 8 . D e e s o s m a t e r i a l e s , 1 6 0 e r a n f a m i l i a s S 0 2 ( o r i g i n a r i a s d e p l a n t a s S 0 q u e p a s a r o n p o r d o s a u t o f e c u n d a c i o n e s ) , o b t e n i d a s d e l a s p o b l a c i o n e s C N A -I R A T 4 P R / 1 / 1 y C N A -I R A T 4 M E / 1 / 1 . L o s c a r a c t e r e s e v a l u a d o s f u e r o n p r o d u c c i ó n d e g r a n o s , f l o r a c i ó n , p i r i c u l a r i a e n l a p a n í c u l a y h e l m i n t o s p o r i o s i s . S e e s t i m a r o n v a r i o s p a r á m e t r o s g e n é t i c o s c o m o v a r i a n z a s g e n é t i c a s , c o e f i c i e n t e d e v a r i a c i ó n g e n é t i c a , h e r e d a b i l i d a d , c o r r e l a c i o n e s y g a n a n c i a s e s p e r a d a s d e l a s e l e c c i ó n d i r e c t a e i n d i r e c t a e n l a p r o d u c c i ó n , t o m a n d o c o m o b a s e e l í n d i c e c l á s i c o d e s e l e c c i ó n d e S m i t h ( 1 9 3 6 ) y H a z e l ( 1 9 4 3 ) . P a r a e s o s e u t i l i z ó u n a i n t e n s i d a d d e s e l e c c i ó n d e 3 0 % . L a s p r o d u c c i o n e s m e d i a s d e l a s f a m i l i a s p r e c o c e s y d e l a s d e c i c l o m e d i o f u e r o n d e 4 6 4 9 y 4 5 1 4 k g / h a , r e s p e c t i v a m e n t e . S i n e m b a r g o , e n e l g r u p o p r e c o z s e i s f a m i l i a s t u v i e r o n p r o d u c c i o n e s s u p e r i o r e s a l o s 6 0 0 0 k g / h a , m i e n t r a s q u e e n e l g r u p o d e c i c l o m e d i o , d o s f a m i l i a s s u p e r a r o n l o s 7 0 0 0 k g / h a , e v i d e n c i a n d o l a p o s i b i l i d a d d e c a m b i a r p o s i t i v a m e n t e l a s m e d i a s d e l a s p o b l a c i o n e s m e d i a n t e l a s e l e c c i ó n r e c u r r e n t e . L o s v a l o r e s e s t i m a d o s p a r a l o s c o e f i c i e n t e s d e v a r i a c i ó n g e n é t i c a ( 1 0 % y 1 1 % , p a r a l a s f a m i l i a s p r e c o c e s y d e c i c l o m e d i o , r e s p e c t i v a m e n t e ) y d e l a s h e r e d a b i l i d a d e s p a r a p r o d u c c i ó n ( 5 2 % p a r a l a s f a m i l i a s p r e c o c e s y 5 5 % p a r a l a s d e c i c l o m e d i o ) , e v i d e n c i a r o n l a p r e s e n c i a d e s u f i c i e n t e v a r i a b i l i d a d g e n é t i c a y l a p o s i b i l i d a d d e o b t e n e r g a n a n c i a s g e n é t i c a s p a r a e s t a c a r a c t e r í s t i c a . L a s e l e c c i ó n p o r p r o d u c c i ó n , b a s a d a e n e l í n d i c e c l á s i c o , s e m o s t r ó s u p e r i o r a l a s e l e c c i ó n d i r e c t a , a p e s a r d e q u e l a s g a n a n c i a s d e s e l e c c i ó n o b t e n i d a s p a r a r e n d i m i e n t o f u e r o n s i m i l a r e s , y a q u e h u b o u n i n c r e m e n t o d e l a r e s i s t e n c i a a p i r i c u l a r i a e n l a p a n í c u l a y a h e l m i n t o s p o r i o s i s e n l a s d o s p o b l a c i o n e s m e j o r a d a s , e n r e l a c i ó n c o n l a s p o b l a c i o n e s o r i g i n a l e s ( C u a d r o 8 ) . L o s d a t o s o b t e n i d o s m o s t r a r o n q u e l a s e l e c c i ó n r e c u r r e n t e p u e d e s e r e f i c i e n t e p a r a a u m e n t a r l a p r o d u c c i ó n d e g r a n o s e n l a s p o b l a c i o n e s C N A -I R A T 4 P R y C N A -I R A T 4 M E . P o t e n c i a l d e l a p o b l a c i ó n C N A 1 p a r a ñ n e s d e m e j o r a m i e n t o C o n e l o b j e t i v o d e e v a l u a r e l p o t e n c i a l d e l a p o b l a c i ó n C N A 1 p a r a f i n e s d e m e j o r a m i e n t o , R o d r i g u e s ( 1 9 9 5 ) e v a l u ó 9 7 f a m i l i a s S 0 2 ( f a m i l i a s o r i g i n a d a s d e p l a n t a s S 0 q u e p a s a r o n p o r d o s g e n e r a c i o n e s d e a u t o f e c u n d a c i ó n ) , j u n t a m e n t e c o n l o s t e s t i g o s B R -I R G A 4 0 9 , J a v a é y C N A 1 / 0 / 1 , e n l á t i c e t r i p l e 1 0 x 1 0 . S e c o l e c t a r o n d a t o s r e f e r e n t e s a p r o d u c c i ó n d e g r a n o s , a l t u r a d e p l a n t a , p i r i c u l a r i a e n l a h o j a , f l o r a c i ó n , n ú m e r o d e e s p i g u i l l a s / p a n í c u l a , p o r c e n t a j e d e g r a n o s l l e n o s y p e s o d e 1 0 0 s e m i l l a s . D e l a s 9 7 f a m i l i a s e v a l u a d a s , s i e t e t u v i e r o n m a y o r p r o d u c c i ó n d e g r a n o s e n c o m p a r a c i ó n c o n e l t e s t i g o J a v a é y 1 1 e s t u v i e r o n p o r e n c i m a d e l a B R -I R G A 4 0 9 . S e p u e d e d e s t a c a r u n a f a m i l i a c o n r e n d i m i e n t o d e 7 5 4 0 k g / h a , q u e s u p e r ó l o s t e s t i g o s m e n c i o n a d o s e n 1 6 % y 3 8 % , r e s p e c t i v a m e n t e . L a s g a n a n c i a s e s p e r a d a s p o r s e l e c c i ó n d i r e c t a o p o r e l í n d i c e c l á s i c o d e S m i t h ( 1 9 3 6 ) y H a z e l ( 1 9 4 3 ) p a r a l a C u a d r o 8 . M e d i a s d e l a s p o b l a c i o n e s o r i g i n a l ( M O ) y s e l e c c i o n a d a ( M S ) d e f a m i l i a s p r e c o c e s y d e c i c l o m e d i o , c o n r e s p e c t o a c u a t r o c a r a c t e r í s t i c a s e v a l u a d a s , y e s t i m a c i o n e s d e l a s g a n a n c i a s p o r s e l e c c i ó n d i r e c t a e n l a p r o d u c c i ó n e i n d i r e c t a e n l a s o t r a s c a r a c t e r í s t i c a s , y l a b a s a d a e n e l í n d i c e c l á s i c o d e s e l e c c i ó n . C a r a c t e r í s t i c a a M e d i a s s e g ú n g r u p o d e p o b l a c i ó n G a n a n c i a s ( % d e l a s m e d i a s ) R O D = p r o d u c c i ó n d e g r a n o s ; F L O f l o r a c i ó n ; N B 1 = p i r i c u l a r i a e n l a p a n í c u l a ; B S h e l m i n t o s p o r i o s i s . L o s c o e f i c i e n t e s g e n é t i c o s d e l a p o b l a c i ó n s o n : P R O D = l ¡ F L O = -1 2 5 , N B 1 = -7 5 0 y B S = -5 0 ; l o s d e l a p o b l a c i ó n d e c i c l o m e d i o s o n : P R O D = 1 ; F L O = -1 ; N B 1 --1 0 0 0 y B S = 0 . p r o d u c c i ó n d e g r a n o s f u e r o n d e l a m i s m a m a g n i t u d . S i n e m b a r g o , l a s e l e c c i ó n b a s a d a e n e l í n d i c e o b t u v o r e s p u e s t a f a v o r a b l e p a r a p i r i c u l a r i a e n l a h o j a , e v i d e n c i a n d o l a p o s i b i l i d a d d e i n c r e m e n t a r s i m u l t á n e a m e n t e l a p r o d u c t i v i d a d y l a r e s i s t e n c i a a e s t a e n f e r m e d a d e n l a p o b l a c i ó n m e j o r a d a ( C u a d r o 9 ) . P o r l o s d a t o s o b t e n i d o s , e l a u t o r c o n c l u y ó q u e l a p o b l a c i ó n C N A 1 s e m u e s t r a p r o m i s o r i a p a r a e l m e j o r a m i e n t o g e n é t i c o c o n m i r a s a l i n c r e m e n t o e n l a p r o d u c t i v i d a d . C o n s i d e r a c i o n e s F i n a l e s E n l a a c t u a l i d a d , l o s p r o g r a m a s d e m e j o r a m i e n t o g e n é t i c o d e a r r o z d e r i e g o d e t o d o e l m u n d o b u s c a n a u m e n t a r e l p o t e n c i a l p r o d u c t i v o d e l a s v a r i e d a d e s , m e d i a n t e s a l t o s c u a n t i t a t i v o s , s i m i l a r e s a l o s o b t e n i d o s e n l a d é c a d a d e l o s 6 0 , c u a n d o s e l i b e r a r o n l a s v a r i e d a d e s m o d e r n a s d e a r r o z d e p o r t e b a j o , o m e d i a n t e l a o b t e n c i ó n d e p e q u e ñ a s g a n a n c i a s g e n é t i c a s d e n a t u r a l e z a c o n s t a n t e , y a c u m u l a t i v a s a l o l a r g o d e l o s a ñ o s . E l a r r o z h í b r i d o , d e s a r r o l l a d o p o r l o s c h i n o s e n l a d é c a d a d e l o s 7 0 , p r o p o r c i o n ó u n a u m e n t o d e l a p r o d u c t i v i d a d e n e l c u l t i v o c e r c a n a a l 2 0 % . S i n e m b a r g o , y a s e e s t á o b s e r v a n d o u n a t e n d e n c i a a l a e s t a b i l i z a c i ó n d e e s a s g a n a n c i a s , o s e a , q u e n i n g ú n h í b r i d o l i b e r a d o a c t u a l m e n t e s o b r e p a s a , e n t é r m i n o s d e r e n d i m e n t o , l o s p r i m e r o s h í b r i d o s r e c o m e n d a d o s p a r a l a s i e m b r a . E l I R R I b u s c a d e s a r r o l l a r u n n u e v o t i p o d e p l a n t a y p o r m e d i o d e é l o b t e n e r u n n u e v o s a l t o c u a n t i t a t i v o e n e l r e n d i m i e n t o . E n B r a s i l s e e s t á u s a n d o l a s e l e c c i ó n r e c u r r e n t e , e n e l s e n t i d o d e e l e v a r e l p o t e n c i a l p r o d u c t i v o m e d i a n t e l a o b t e n c i ó n d e g a n a n c i a s g e n é t i c a s d e m e n o r m a g n i t u d , p e r o c o n s t a n t e s y a c u m u l a t i v a s a l o l a r g o d e l o s a ñ o s . L a s g a n a n c i a s g e n é t i c a s o b t e n i d a s e n l a e v a l u a c i ó n d e l a p o b l a c i ó n C N A -I R A T 4 p o r M o r a i s ( 1 9 9 2 ) y p o s t e r i o r m e n t e p o r R a n g e l e t a l . ( s . f . ) , c o n i n c r e m e n t o s e n p r o m e d i o d e 3 . 6 2 % y 4 . 9 3 % , r e s p e c t i v a m e n t e , p e r m i t e c o n c l u i r q u e e l o b j e t i v o p r o p u e s t o e s p e r f e c t a m e n t e f a c t i b l e , s i e m p r e q u e l a s p o b l a c i o n e s s e a n b i e n m a n e j a d a s y s e m a n t e n g a u n t a m a ñ o e f e c t i v o d e p o b l a c i ó n a d e c u a d o . C u a d r o 9 . E s t i m a c i o n e s d e l a m e d i a o r i g i n a l ( M O ) , l a m e d i a d e l o s i n d i v i d u o s s e l e c c i o n a d o s ( M I S ) , l a r e s p u e s t a e s p e r a d a e n c a d a c a r a c t e r í s t i c a c o n l a s e l e c c i ó n b a s a d a e n e l í n d i c e ( R S J y l a r e s p u e s t a e s p e r a d a c o n l a s e l e c c i ó n d i r e c t a ( R S ) , u t i l i z a n d o u n a i n t e n s i d a d d e s e l e c c i ó n d e l 2 5 % , e n l a p o b l a c i ó n d e a r r o z C N a r a c t e r í s t i c a s y s u s c o r r e s p o n d i e n t e s c o e f i c i e n t e s g e n é t i c o s : P R O D ( p r o d u c c i ó n d e g r a n o s ) = 1 0 0 ; B I ( p i r i c u l a r i a e n l a s h o j a s ) = -5 0 0 ; F L O ( f l o r a c i ó n ) = 0 ; A L T ( a l t u r a d e p l a n t a s ) = 0 ; N E / P ( n ú m e r o d e e s p i g u i l l a s p o r p a n í c u l a ) = 0 ; G L ( g r a n o s l l e n o s ) = 0 , y P 1 0 0 ( p e s o d e 1 0 0 g r a n o s ) = 0 . R e f e r e n c i a s C a r m o n a , P . S . ; T e r r e s , A . L . ; y S c h i o c c h e t , M . 1 9 9 4 . A v a l i a ç ã o c r i t i c a d o s p r o j e t o s d o P N P -A r r o z n a á r e a d e m e l h o r a m e n t o g e n é t i c o n o p e r i o d o d e 1 9 8 0 a 1 9 9 0 : E s t a d o s d o R i o G r a n d e d o S u l e S a n t a C a t a r i n a . E n : E m p r e s a B r a s i l e i r a d e P e s q u i s a A g r o p e c u á r i a / C e n t r o N a c i o n a l d e P e s q u i s a d e A r r o z e F e i j ã o ( E M B R A P A / C N P A F ) . A p e s q u i s a d e a r r o z n o B r a s i l n o s a n o s 8 0 , a v a l i a ç ã o c r í t i c a d o s p r i n c i p a i s r e s u l t a d o s . D o c u m e n t o 4 0 . G o i â n i a , G O , B r a s i l . F e d e r e r , W . T . 1 9 5 6 . A u g m e n t e d ( o r h o o n u i a k u ) d e s i g n s . H a w a i i . P l a n t . R e c . 5 5 : 1 9 1 -2 0 8 . F e h r , W . R . 1 9 8 7 . P r i n c i p i e s o f c u l t i v a r d e v e l o p m e n t . M a c M i l l a n P u b l i s h i n g , N u e v a Y o r k . 5 3 6 p . F u j i m a k i , H . 1 9 7 9 . R e c u r r e n t s e l e c t i o n b y u s i n g g e n e t i c m a l e s t e r i l i t y f o r r i c e i m p r o v e m e n t . J p n . A g r i e . R e s . Q . 1 3 ( 3 ) : 1 5 3 -1 5 6 . H a n s o n , W . D . 1 9 5 9 . T h e o r e t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e i n i t i a l i n k a g e b l o c k l e n g t h s i n t a c t i n t h e g a m e t e s o f a p o p u l a t i o n i n t e r m a t e d f o r g e n e r a t i o n s . G e n e t i c s 4 4 : 8 3 9 -8 4 6 . H a z e l , L . N . 1 9 4 3 . T h e g e n e t i c b a s i s f o r c o n s t r u c t i n g s e l e c t i o n i n d e x e s . G e n e t i c s 2 8 : 4 7 6 -4 9 0 . I k e h a s h i , H . y F u j i m a k i , H . 1 9 8 0 . M o d i f i e d b u l k p o p u l a t i o n m e t h o d f o r r i c e b r e e d i n g . E n : I n n o v a t i v e a p p r o a c h e s t o r i c e b r e e d i n g . S e l e c t e d p a p e r s f r o m t h e 1 9 7 9 I n t e r n a t i o n a l R i c e R e s e a r c h C o n f e r e n c e . I n t e r n a t i o n a l R i c e R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e ( I R R I ) , L o s B a ñ o s , F i l i p i n a s , p . 1 6 3 -1 8 2 . I s h i y , T . 1 9 8 5 . O i m p a c t o d a s c u l t i v a r e s m o d e r n a s d e a r r o z i r r i g a d o e m S a n t a C a t a r i n a . L a v o u r a A r r o z e i r a 3 8 ( 3 5 9 ) : 1 0 -1 4 . J e n n i n g s , P . R . ; K o f f m a n , W . R . ; y K a u f f m a n , H . E . 1 9 7 9 . R i c e i m p r o v e m e n t . I n t e r n a t i o n a l R i c e R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e ( I R R I ) , L o s B a ñ o s , F i l i p i n a s . 1 8 6 p . M o r a i s , O . P . 1 9 9 2 . A n á l i s e m u l t i v a r i a d a d a d i v e r g e n c i a g e n é t i c a d o s p r o g e n i t o r e s , í n d i c e s d e s e l e ç ã o c o m b i n a d a n u m a p o p u l a ç ã o d e a r r o z o r i u n d a d e i n t e r c r u z a m e n t o s u s a n d o m a c h o -e s t e r i l i d a d e . T e s i s , D o c t . U n i v e r s i d a d e F e d e r a l d e V i ç o s a , V i ç o s a , B r a s i l . 2 5 1 p . P e r e i r a , M . B . 1 9 8 0 . P r o g r e s s o i m e d i a t o e f i x a ç ã o d e g e n e s e m u m m é t o d o d e s e l e ç ã o . T e s i s , M s . E s c o l a S u p e r i o r d e A g r i c u l t u r a L u i z d e Q u e i r o z , P i r a c i c a b a , B r a s i l . 1 2 5 p . R a n g e l , P . H . N . 1 9 9 2 . L a s e l e c c i ó n r e c u r r e n t e m e j o r a e l a r r o z b r a s i l e ñ o . A r r o z e n l a s A m é r i c a s 1 3 ( l ) : 4 -5 . . 1 9 9 5 . S e l e ç ã o r e c o r r e n t e e h í b r i d o s : A l t e r n a t i v a s p a r a a u m e n t a r o p o t e n c i a l p r o d u t i v o d a s v a r i e d a d e s d e a r r o z . E n : P i n h e i r o , B . d a S . y G u i m a r á e s , E . P . ( e d s . ) . A r r o z n a A m é r i c a L a t i n a : P e r s p e c t i v a s p a r a o i n c r e m e n t o d a p r o d u ç ã o e d o p o t e n c i a l p r o d u t i v o . I X C o n f e r e n c i a I n t e r n a c i o n a l d e A r r o z p a r a a A m é r i c a L a t i n a e o C a r i b e y V R e u n i ã o N a c i o n a l d e P e s q u i s a d e A r r o z , G o i â n i a , G o i á s , B r a s i l , 2 1 -2 5 d e m a r z o d e 1 9 9 4 . D o c u m e n t o s 6 0 . E m p r e s a B r a s i l e i r a d e P e s q u i s a A g r o p e c u á r i a -C e n t r o N a c i o n a l d e P e s q u i s a d e A r r o z e F e i j ã o ( E M B R A P A -C N P A F ) , G o i â n i a , G O , B r a s i l , v . 1 , p . 3 7 -4 8 . y N e v e s , P . C . F . 1 9 9 5 . V a r i e d a d e s d e a r r o z i r r i g a d o l i b e r a d a s e n 1 9 9 3 p a r a B r a s i l . E n : R e d I n t e r n a c i o n a l p a r a l a E v a l u a c i ó n G e n é t i c a d e l A r r o z ( I N G E R ) -A m é r i c a L a t i n a . I n f o r m e 1 9 9 4 . C a l i , C o l o m b i a . p . 2 0 -2 9 . ; C r u z , C . D . ; V e n c o v s k y , R . ; y F e r r e i r a , R . P . 1 9 9 1 . S e l e c t i o n o f l o c a l l o w l a n d r i c e c u l t i v a r s b a s e d o n m u l t i v a r i a t e d g e n e t i c d i v e r g e n c e . B r a s i l . J . G e n e t i c . 1 4 ( 2 ) : 4 3 7 -4 5 3 . -; y M o r a i s , O . P . 1 9 9 2 a . L a s e l e c c i ó n r e c u r r e n t e r e c o m b i n a g e n e s e n e l a r r o z d e r i e g o . A r r o z e n l a s A m é r i c a s 1 3 ( 2 ) : 2 -4 . ; Z i m m e r m a n n , F . J . P . ; y N e v e s , P . C . F . 1 9 9 2 b . E l C N P A F i n v e s t i g a : ¿ D e c r e c e e n B r a s i l e l r e n d i m e n t o d e l a r r o z d e r i e g o ? A r r o z e n l a s A m é r i c e n t o d o p o t e n c i a l p r o d u t i v o d o a r r o z i r r i g a d o a t r a v é s d e s e l e ç ã o r e c o r r e n t e . P e s q u i . A g r o p e c u . B r a s . ( A c e p t a d o p a r a s u p u b l i c a c i ó n . ) ; G u i m a r á e s , E . P . ; y N e v e s , P . C . F . 1 9 9 6 . B a s e g e n é t i c a d a s c u l t i v a r e s d e a r r o z ( O r y z a s a t i v a L . ) i r r i g a d o d o B r a s i l . P e s q u i . A g r o p e c u . B r a s . 3 1 ( 5 ) : 3 4 9 -3 5 7 . R o d r i g u e s , R . E . S . 1 9 9 5 . E s t i m a ç ã o d e p a r â m e t r o s g e n é t i c o s e d e r e s p o s t a s à s e l e ç ã o n a p o p u l a ç ã o d e a r r o z i r r i g a d o C N A 1 . T e s i s , M s . U n i v e r s i d a d e F e d e r a l d e G o i á s , F a c u l t a d e d e A g r o n o m i a . G o i â n i a , G O , B r a s i l . S i n g h , R . J . e I k e h a s h i , H . I . 1 9 8 1 . M o n o g e n i c m a l e s t e r i l i t y i n r i c e : I n d u c t i o n , i d e n t i f i c a c i ó n a n d i n h e r i t a n c e . C r o p S c i . 2 1 : 2 8 6 -2 8 9 . S m i t h , H . F . 1 9 3 6 . A d i s c r i m i n a n t f u n c t i o n f o r p l a n t s e l e c t i o n . A n n . E u g e n i c s 7 : 2 4 0 -2 5 0 . S o a r e s , A . A . 1 9 9 2 . D e s e m p e n h o d o m e l h o r a m e n t o g e n é t i c o d o a r r o z d e s e q u e i r o e i r r i g a d o n a d é c a d a d e o i t e n t a e m M i n a s G e r a i s . T e s i s , D o c t . E s c o l a S u p e r i o r d e A g r i c u l t u r a d e L a v r a s , L a v r a s , B r a s i l . 1 8 8 p . "}],"sieverID":"2c9c1f7d-4773-4369-8a66-38de5b6226d0","abstract":"A p l i c a d a a l A r r o z d e R i e g o e n B r a s i l N \\ P a u t o H i d e o N . R a n g e l y P é n e l e s C . F . N e v e s I n v e s t i g a d o r e s d e l C e n t r o N a c i o n a l d e P e s q u i s a d e A r r o z e F e i j á o ( C N P A F ) d e l a E m p r e s a B r a s i l e i r a d e P e s q u i s a A g r o p e c u á r i a ( E M B R A P A ) , C a i x a P o s t a l 1 7 9 . 7 4 0 0 1 -9 7 0 G o i á n i a , G o i á s , B r a s i l P a u l o H i d e o N . R a n g e l & < t o t t e * U d o > I n t r o d u c c i ó n B a s e s p a r a l a S e l e c c i ó n R e c u r r e n t e C r e a c i ó n d e l a p o b l a c i ó n b a s e M e j o r a m i e n t o d e l a p o b l a c i ó n E x t r a c c i ó n d e l í n e a s D e s a r r o l l o d e l T r a b a j o d e S e l e c c i ó n R e c u r r e n t e e n A r r o z , e n B r a s i l R e s u l t a d o s d e l a I n v e s t i g a c i ó n P o t e n c i a l g e n é t i c o d e C N A -I R A T 4 / 0 / 3 A u m e n t o d e l p o t e n c i a l p r o d u c t i v o e n a r r o z d e r i e g o P o t e n c i a l d e l a p o b l a c i ó n C N A 1 p a r a f i n e s d e m e j o r a m i e n t o C o n s i d e r a c i o n e s F i n a l e s R e f e r e n c i a s 7 9 S e l e c c i ó n R e c u r r e n t e e n A r r o z I n t r o d u c c i ó n E n B r a s i l , e l r e n d i m i e n t o d e l a r r o z d e r i e g o s e h a i n c r e m e n t a d o d e m a n e r a s i g n i f i c a t i v a e n l o s ú l t i m o s 2 5 a ñ o s , d e s p u é s d e l d e s a r r o l l o d e l a s v a r i e d a d e s m o d e r n a s d e p o r t e b a j o q u e i m p u l s ó e l I n t e r n a t i o n a l R i c e R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e ( I R R I ) , e n l a d é c a d a d e l o s 6 0 ( J e n n i n g s e t a l . , 1 9 7 9 ) . C o n l a a p a r i c i ó n d e e s t o s m a t e r i a l e s h u b o u n c a m b i o p o s i t i v o , n o s o l a m e n t e e n l a f i l o s o f í a d e l m e j o r a m i e n t o g e n é t i c o d e l a r r o z , s i n o a n i v e l d e l o s a g r i c u l t o r e s , l o s c u a l e s p a s a r o n a u t i l i z a r a l t a t e c n o l o g í a e n e l c u l t i v o .L a s u s t i t u c i ó n d e l a s v a r i e d a d e s t r a d i c i o n a l e s d e a r r o z d e p o r t e a l t o p o r m o d e r n a s d e p o r t e b a j o , q u e s e e f e c t u ó e n l o s c u l t i v o s , e n B r a s i l , p e r m i t i ó d u p l i c a r e l r e n d i m i e n t o e n a l g u n o s e s t a d o s . E n R i o G r a n d e d o S u l , e l r e n d i m i e n t o s e i n c r e m e n t ó 3 0 % ( C a r m o n a e t a l . , 1 9 9 4 ) ; e n S a n t a C a t a r i n a , l a c o m b i n a c i ó n d e v a r i e d a d e s m o d e r n a s y u n m e j o r m a n e j o d e l c u l t i v o p r o d u j o u n i n c r e m e n t o d e l 6 6 % ( I s h i y , 1 9 8 5 ) . D e s p u é s d e l a c r e a c i ó n d e l a s v a r i e d a d e s m o d e r n a s d e a r r o z , l a s g a n a n c i a s g e n é t i c a s p a r a r e n d i m i e n t o d e g r a n o e n c a d a c i c l o d e s e l e c c i ó n s e t o r n a r o n c a d a v e z m á s d i f í c i l e s . E n l a d é c a d a d e l o s 8 0 , e n B r a s i l , l a s g a n a n c i a s g e n é t i c a s p a r a r e n d i m i e n t o e n a r r o z d e r i e g o , c u a n d o s e o b t e n í a n , e r a n d e p o c a m a g n i t u d , a p e s a r d e l o s n u m e r o s o s c r u z a m i e n t o s q u e s e s o m e t i e r o n a s e l e c c i ó n ( S o a r e s , 1 9 9 2 ; R a n g e l e t a l . , 1 9 9 2 b ) . A p a r e n t e m e n t e , e l r e n d i m i e n t o d e l a r r o z d e r i e g o h a a l c a n z a d o u n t e c h o , y l o s e s f u e r z o s p a r a i n c r e m e n t a r e l p o t e n c i a l p r o d u c t i v o d e l a s v a r i e d a d e s n o h a r e s u l t a d o e n g a n a n c i a s s i g n i f i c a t i v a s . E l a u m e n t o e n e l r e n d i m i e n t o s e h a o b t e n i d o p r i n c i p a l m e n t e m e d i a n t e l a i n c o r p o r a c i ó n d e r e s i s t e n c i a a e n f e r m e d a d e s y u n m e j o r m a n e j o d e l c u l t i v o . L a e x c e s i v a e s t r e c h e z d e l a b a s e g e n é t i c a q u e t i e n e n l a s p o b l a c i o n e s q u e s e u s a n e n m e j o r a m i e n t o , c o n s t i t u y e u n a d e l a s p r i n c i p a l e s l i m i t a c i o n e s p a r a l a o b t e n c i ó n d e v a r i e d a d e s d e a r r o z d e r i e g o c o n p o t e n c i a l p r o d u c t i v o s u p e r i o r a l d e l o s c u l t i v a r e s a c t u a l m e n t e e n u s o . R a n g e l e t a l . ( 1 9 9 6 ) a n a l i z a r o n l a b a s e g e n é t i c a d e l a s v a r i e d a d e s q u e m á s s e u t i l i z a n e n l o s e s t a d o s d o n d e s e s i e m b r a m á s a r r o z d e r i e g o , e n B r a s i l ( R i o G r a n d e d o S u l , S a n t a C a t a r i n a , T o c a n t i n s , M i n a s G e r a i s , M a t o G r o s s o d o S u l y S á o P a u l o ) . E l l o s e n c o n t r a r o n q u e l a b a s e g e n é t i c a d e l o s c u l t i v a r e s e s t á c o n s t i t u i d a p r i n c i p a l m e n t e p o r s i e t e a n c e s t r a l e s ( D e o G e o W o o G e n , C i n a , L a t i S a i l , I G e o T z e , M o n g C h i m V a n g A , B e l l e P a t n a y T e t e p ) , q u e r e s p o n d e n p o r m á s d e l 7 0 % d e l c o n j u n t o g é n i c o d e l a s v a r i e d a d e s . S e e x c e p t ú a e l c a s o d e S a n t a C a t a r i n a , d o n d e l a c o n t r i b u c i ó n g e n é t i c a d e e s e g e r m o p l a s m a f u e d e 3 1 % . E n R i o G r a n d e d o S u l , m a y o r p r o d u c t o r d e a r r o z d e r i e g o e n B r a s i l , s o l a m e n t e s e i s a n c e s t r a l e s ( D e o G e o W o o G e n , C i n a , L a t i S a i l , I G e o T z e , M o n g C h i m V a n g A y B e l l e P a t n a ) c o n t r i b u y e r o n c o n 8 6 % d e l o s g e n e s d e l a s v a r i e d a d e s d e a r r o z m á s s e m b r a d a s . L a p r i n c i p a l c o n s e c u e n c i a d e l a l i m i t a c i ó n d e l a d i v e r s i d a d g e n é t i c a e s q u e s e r e d u c e n l a s p o s i b i l i d a d e s d e g a n a n c i a s a d i c i o n a l e s e n l a s e l e c c i ó n , y a q u e e l f i t o m e j o r a d o r t r a b a j a u n c o n j u n t o g é n i c o d e t a m a ñ o l i m i t a d o ( H a n s o n , 1 9 5 9 ) . P a r a e l d e s a r r o l l o d e l í n e a s , l o s p r o g r a m a s t r a d i c i o n a l e s d e m e j o r a m i e n t o g e n é t i c o d e a r r o z u t i l i z a n m é t o d o s q u e m a x i m i z a n l a e n d o g a m i a . E n e l p r o c e d i m i e n t o n o r m a l , d e s p u é s d e c r e a d a u n a n u e v a p o b l a c i ó n m e d i a n t e l a h i b r i d i z a c i ó n e n t r e p r o g e n i t o r e s , s e o b t i e n e n l a s g e n e r a c i o n e s s e g r e g a n t e s p o r e l p r o c e s o n a t u r a l d e a u t o f e c u n d a c i ó n . E l a v a n c e e n l a e n d o g a m i a c o n l a s 8 0 S e l e c c i ó n R e c u r r e n t e A p l i c a d a a l A r r o z d e R i e g o e n B r a s i l g e n e r a c i o n e s d e a u t o p o l i n i z a c i ó n r e d u c e d e m a n e r a d r á s t i c a l a s o p o r t u n i d a d e s d e r e c o m b i n a c i ó n , y a q u e c o n i d é n t i c o s a l e l o s e n u n m i s m o l o c u s , l o s p r o c e s o s d e i n t e r c r u z a m i e n t o ( ' c r o s s i n g o v e r ' ) s e v u e l v e n i n e f e c t i v o s e n l a p r o d u c c i ó n d e n u e v o s r e c o m b i n a n t e s . D e e s t a m a n e r a , l o s m é t o d o s c o n v e n c i o n a l e s d e m e j o r a m i e n t o d e a r r o z p r e s e n t a n m e n o r p o t e n c i a l p a r a l a g e n e r a c i ó n d e v a r i a b i l i d a d y , c o m o c o n s e c u e n c i a , s e r e d u c e n l a s g a n a n c i a s g e n é t i c a s p o r l a s e l e c c i ó n . U n a a l t e r n a t i v a s e r í a i n c r e m e n t a r l a s p o s i b i l i d a d e s d e i n t e r c r u z a m i e n t o s e n t r e u n i d a d e s d e r e c o m b i n a c i ó n . P o r l o t a n t o , p a r a a u m e n t a r e n e l a r r o z l a s g a n a n c i a s g e n é t i c a s e n r e n d i m i e n t o p o r m e d i o d e l a s e l e c c i ó n , u n a p o s i b i l i d a d e s c r e a r p o b l a c i o n e s d e b a s e g e n é t i c a m á s a m p l i a , y t r a b a j a r l a s u t i l i z a n d o e l m é t o d o d e s e l e c c i ó n r e c u r r e n t e . E s e m é t o d o e s u n a t é c n i c a d e m e j o r a m i e n t o q u e a u m e n t a l a f r e c u e n c i a d e l o s g e n o t i p o s f a v o r a b l e s e n u n a p o b l a c i ó n , a t r a v é s d e c i c l o s d e s e l e c c i ó n e i n t e r c r u z a m i e n t o s( I k e h a s h i y F u j i m a k i , 1 9 8 0 ) . E s u n a t é c n i c a q u e s e u t i l i z a a m p l i a m e n t e e n p l a n t a s a l ó g a m a s ; e n l a s a u t ó g a m a s , s u u s o l i m i t a d o s e d e b e e n p a r t e a l a d i f i c u l t a d p a r a h a c e r c r u z a m i e n t o s p a r a l a r e c o m b i n a c i ó n e n c a d a c i c l o d e s e l e c c i ó n . C o n e l d e s c u b r i m i e n t o d e l a a n d r o e s t e r i l i d a d g e n é t i c a e n a r r o z ( S i n g h e I k e h a s h i , 1 9 8 1 ) , q u e h i z o p o s i b l e e l i n t e r c r u z a m i e n t o e n e l c a m p o , l a u t i l i z a c i ó n d e l a s e l e c c i ó n r e c u r r e n t e s e h a c o n v e r t i d o e n u n a o p c i ó n v i a b l e e n l o s p r o g r a m a s d e m e j o r a m i e n t o ( F u j i m a k i , 1 9 7 9 ) . L a s e l e c c i ó n r e c u r r e n t e s e v i e n e u t i l i z a n d o e n B r a s i l e n e l m e j o r a m i e n t o d e p o b l a c i o n e s d e a r r o z d e r i e g o . E l o b j e t i v o h a s i d o g e n e r a r l í n e a s c o n p o t e n c i a l d e r e n d i m i e n t o s u p e r i o r a l d e l a s v a r i e d a d e s a c t u a l m e n t e c u l t i v a d a s y c o n c a r a c t e r í s t i c a s a g r o n ó m i c a s f a v o r a b l e s ( R a n g e l , 1 9 9 2 ; R a n g e l e t a l . , 1 9 9 2 a ; R a n g e l , 1 9 9 5 ) . B a s e s p a r a l a S e l e c c i ó n R e c u r r e n t e C r e a c i ó n d e l a p o b l a c i ó n b a s e S e g ú n F e h r ( 1 9 8 7 ) , p a r a l a c r e a c i ó n d e l a p o b l a c i ó n b a s e s e d e b e n o b s e r v a r t r e s p u n t o s : a ) l o s p r o g e n i t o r e s q u e v a n a c o m p o n e r l a p o b l a c i ó n d e b e n p r e s e n t a r u n b u e n c o m p o r t a m i e n t o p e r s e , p a r a l o s c a r a c t e r e s q u e s e r á n m e j o r a d o s ; t a m b i é n d e b e n s e r d i v e r g e n t e s g e n é t i c a m e n t e , p a r a m a x i m i z a r l a v a r i a b i l i d a d g e n é t i c a ; b ) s e d e b e u t i l i z a r e l m a y o r n ú m e r o p o s i b l e d e p r o g e n i t o r e s s i n c o m p r o m e t e r l a m e d i a d e l o s c a r a c t e r e s d e i n t e r é s y c ) r e a l i z a r u n n ú m e r o s u f i c i e n t e d e i n t e r c r u z a m i e n t o s , q u e p r o p o r c i o n e l a r e c o m b i n a c i ó n g é n i c a y p e r m i t a q u e l a p o b l a c i ó n e n t r e e n e q u i l i b r i o d e l i g a m e n t o . E n a r r o z , F u j i m a k i ( 1 9 7 9 ) s u g i e r e t r e s i n t e r c r u z a m i e n t o s e n l a p o b l a c i ó n b a s e a n t e s d e i n i c i a r e l p r o c e s o d e s e l e c c i ó n . C o m o f u e n t e d e a n d r o e s t e r i l i d a d g e n é t i c a p a r a e l d e s a r r o l l o d e l a s p o b l a c i o n e s b a s e e n a r r o z d e r i e g o , s e h a u t i l i z a d o u n m u t a n t e d e l c u l t i v a r I R 3 6 , o b t e n i d o m e d i a n t e m u t a g é n i c o q u í m i c o ( S i n g h e I k e h a s h i , 1 9 8 1 ) . E s t e m u t a n t e t i e n e u n g e n r e c e s i v o ( m s ) , q u e e n h o m o c i g o s i s ( m s m s ) p r o d u c e l a e s t e r i l i d a d d e l o s g r a n o s d e p o l e n . T a m b i é n s e u t i l i z a r o n c o m o f u e n t e d e a n d r o e s t e r i l i d a d p l a n t a s d e u n a p o b l a c i ó n y a e x i s t e n t e . E l p r o c e s o d e c r e a c i ó n s e c a r a c t e r i z a p o r u n a s e r i e d e c r u z a m i e n t o s m a n u a l e s e n t r e l o s p r o g e n i t o r e s y l a f u e n t e d e l g e n m s , s e g u i d o s d e r e t r o c r u z a m i e n t o s . E s t o s s o n n e c e s a r i o s p a r a a u m e n t a r l a p a r t i c i p a c i ó n d e l o s p r o g e n i t o r e s C u l t i v a r t r a d i c i o n a l -B r a s i l I R 2 4 / C a u v e r y M u t a n t e d e"}

data/part_4/096b7f069dbf2297d2d7d01e5a5108b2.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"096b7f069dbf2297d2d7d01e5a5108b2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/49164217-b30f-4f84-8a7f-780bb9478083/retrieve"},"pageCount":10,"title":"35 African Countries Include Livestock in NDCs","keywords":["Mitigation measures only","14: Adaptation measures only","16: Adaptation & mitigation measures"],"chapters":[{"head":"Climate Adaptation in African Livestock Systems","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Climate adaptation innovators "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Source: Modified Rose et al., 2021 & https://ccafs.cgiar.org/index.php/resources/tools/agriculture-in-the-ndcs-data-maps-2021 5: Mitigation measures only • 14: Adaptation measures only • 16: Adaptation & mitigation measures International investment in African livestock sectors often leads with mitigation. Source: Modified Rose et al., 2021 & https://ccafs.cgiar.org/index.php/resources/tools/agriculture-in-the-ndcs-data-maps-2021 5: Mitigation measures only • 14: Adaptation measures only • 16: Adaptation & mitigation measures However, producers and policymakers across Africa typically prioritize adaptation, as well they should. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"fa37ca0e-554e-43e6-92ad-11e78fff0c15","abstract":""}

data/part_4/0970ba73556056d7d29b786c59bc81f6.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0970ba73556056d7d29b786c59bc81f6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://data.cimmyt.org/api/access/datafile/:persistentId/?persistentId=hdl:11529/10548758/1"},"pageCount":13,"title":"Impact of long term conservation agriculture on soil quality under cereal based systems of North West India","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":313,"text":"The rice-wheat crop rotation (RWCS) of India is important for the food security of millions of people. Conventionally grown rice and wheat requires higher inputs in terms of money, labour and energy etc. Intensive tillage in RWCS causes depletion of soil organic carbon at the rate of 0.13 t ha − 1 year − 1 in western and eastern IGP (Sapkota et al., 2017) with subsequent deterioration in soil quality. In north-western India, wheat crop residues are utilized as fodder purpose, whereas rice residues are not, so farmers in this region prefer open burning of rice residues for timely sowing of wheat crop. Annually ~25 million tons of rice crop residues are burnt in north-west India that causes loss of organic carbon and essential plant nutrients specially N and S which is responsible for air pollution, loss in soil fertility and decreased microbial diversity (Zhang et al., 2015). All these conventional practices lead to deterioration of soil health through declining SOC, lowering ground water table and increased environmental pollution which are the major issues regarding sustainability of RWCS in the Indo-gangetic plains of India (Jat et al., 2018). Zero tillage helps in SOC build up by reducing oxidation of organic carbon (Jat et al., 2019b) whereas subsurface drip irrigation considerably saves water use (Jat et al., 2019a). As an alternative to conventional practices, conservation agriculture (CA) have shown its effectiveness in sustaining and improving the productivity of RWCS at the same time preserving scarce natural resources such as soil, energy, water and environment quality (Jat et al., 2018). FAO defied CA as \"the farming system that promotes minimum soil disturbance (i.e. zero tillage), maintenance of a permanent soil cover, and diversification of plant species. It enhances biodiversity and natural biological processes above and below the ground surface, which contribute to increased water and nutrient use efficiency and to improved and sustained crop production\"."},{"index":2,"size":231,"text":"Globally there are umpteen numbers of studies on effects of CA on soil carbon sequestration and climate change mitigation (Veloso et al., 2020;Mondal et al., 2020;Nandan et al., 2019;Gonzalez-Sanchez et al., 2019;Njaimwe et al., 2018). Soil carbon sequestration is an important strategy to improve soil health and mitigate negative impacts of climate change. Many studies indicated that soil carbon content was improved under ZT compared to conventional tillage (CT). However, some studies reported that ZT accumulates soil organic carbon only in surface soil (0-5 cm) not in the whole soil profile, only redistribution of carbon occurs in different soil layers (Dolan et al., 2006;Luo et al., 2010;Piccoli et al., 2016). Baker et al. (2007) stated that enrichment of SOC in upper soil layer under zero tillage was due to shallow soil sampling and when whole profile taken into account ZT would not have advantage over CT. Veloso et al. (2019) proved that most of the carbon accumulated at 0-5 cm soil depth under CA using a 30 years old long term experiment on an Acrisol in southern Brazil. However, reports are also available on the limited potential of ZT based CA on climate change mitigation (Powlson et al., 2014, Corbeels et al., 2020). But in all those studies, researchers unanimously acknowledged that SOC was increased under CA which ultimately enhanced overall soil quality by improving physical, chemical and biological soil properties."},{"index":3,"size":450,"text":"There are many studies on the impact of long term CA practices on soil physical, chemical and biochemical properties. CA practices improved soil physical properties such as reduced bulk density, soil penetration resistance and higher water content, infiltration, and aggregation (Gathala et al., 2011, Njaimwe et al., 2018, Jat et al., 2019a;Moreira et al., 2020). Similarly improvement in soil chemical properties like available macro and micronutrients under CA was also reported by Jat et al. (2018); Nandan et al. (2019); Njaimwe et al. (2018); Piazza et al. (2020). Soil biochemical properties like microbial biomass carbon (MBC), enzymatic activities like dehydrogenase, etc. were significantly improved under CA system (Choudhary et al., 2018a;Njaimwe et al., 2018;Piazza et al., 2020). Sithole et al. (2016) reviewed the effects of CA on soil quality mostly by measuring soil physical, chemical and biological properties and reported positive improvement. Gura and Mnkeni (2019) evaluated soil quality index using Soil Management Assessment Framework after three years of CA managements in maize based system of Haplic Cambisol. Choudhary et al. (2018a) and Choudhary et al. (2018b) developed a soil quality index mostly using soil biological properties following non-linear equation of Bastida et al. (2006) in a 3 years old experiment involving a series of CA practices in Northwest India. But there are very limited studies on the effect of CA practices on overall soil quality through integrating all these physical, chemical and biological properties in a simple index value. Moreover, most of the experiments are short and medium term (<10 years) duration. Also in most of the above mentioned studies, soil samples were collected at 0-15 cm soil depth instead of 0-5 cm soil depth. Therefore, to capture the influence of CA based management practices on soil quality, soil sampling at 0-5 cm soil depth need to be done (Veloso et al., 2019). Again soil quality below 15 cm depth in CA vs conventional system is not addressed properly. Does long-term CA based crop management practices offer better soil quality over conventional system? Can conventional, input intensive and natural resource degrading rice-wheat system be replaced by another CA based alternate cropping system which may offer better  yield sustainability vis-à-vis higher soil quality? Keeping these in view, the present study was carried out to develop depth wise (0-5, 5-15 and 15-30 cm) soil quality index under different CA based managements and identify the key soil quality indicators that best represents the soil functions under cereal based system in North West India using a 10 years old long term experiment. We hypothesize that full CA based managements with maize and rice based system would manifest higher SQI at 0-5 cm soil depth than lower soil depths and conventional tillage based system."}]},{"head":"Materials and method","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Site description and treatment details","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":191,"text":"The long term field experiment was started in the  (2006). The soil of the experimental field was loam in texture, low in organic carbon with slightly alkaline pH. The initial soil properties of the experimental site can be obtained from Gathala et al. (2013). The experiment was laid out in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications (Table 1). The treatments are termed as scenarios which were designed to address various drivers of current as well as future agricultural production system in this region. Initially the experiment was started with four scenarios (Sc) in 2009-10 under CSISA (Cereal Systems Initiative for South Asia) project, namely (i) Sc1-Transplanted puddled rice + conventional tilled wheat (TPR-RW), farmer's practice, (ii) Sc2-Transplanted puddled rice -Zero tilled wheat-Zero tillage mungbean (TPR-ZTWMb), (iii) Sc3-Zero tilled direct seeded rice (ZTDSR)-Zero tillage wheat-mung bean (ZTWMb) and (iv) Sc4-Zero tilled maize -Zero tillage wheat-mung bean (ZTM-ZTWMb). Later in 2016 other two treatments were included in which subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) was imposed over Sc3 and Sc4 in half of the plot (1000 m 2 ) and named as Sc5 (ZTDSR-ZTWMb + SDI) and Sc6 (ZTM-ZTWMb + SDI), respectively."},{"index":2,"size":257,"text":"In Sc1 and Sc2, transplanted puddled rice was grown. In Sc1, wheat was sown by conventional broadcasting method after preparing the field by passing two harrowing and two cultivator operation. In Sc1, no residues of rice and wheat crop are retained. In CA based scenarios (Sc3, Sc4, Sc5 and Sc6), zero tillage (ZT) rice (direct seeded rice; DSR), wheat, mungbean and maize were planted by 'Happy seeder' machine. Full residues of rice and mungbean (100%) and 30% wheat residues (anchored wheat stubbles of 20-25 cm height) were kept in Sc2, Sc3 and Sc5 after crop harvest. In both Sc4 and Sc6, partial (65%) residues of maize, 30% residues of wheat and 100% residues of mungbean were retained in field. The row to row distance was maintained at 22.5 cm for ZT-rice-wheat and mung bean and 67.5 cm for ZT-maize. Both rice and maize were sown during June before onset of monsoon season, wheat was sown in between last week of October to first week of November and mungbean was cultivated in between April to mid June of every year. Recommended doses of fertilizers (150-60-60 kg ha − 1 of N-P 2 O 5 -K 2 O for both rice and wheat and 175:60:60 kg ha − 1 of N-P 2 O 5 -K 2 O for maize) were applied in all CA based scenarios (Sc2-Sc4) except Sc1. In Sc5 and Sc6, 25% less nitrogenous fertilizers were applied for rice, wheat and maize crops, respectively. The details of fertilizer management can be obtained from Jat et al. (2019a) "}]},{"head":"Soil sampling and analysis","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":345,"text":"Replicated soil samples (4 sub replications from each 3 replicated fields = total 12 replications for each treatment) were collected from each scenario at three soil depths viz. 0-5, 5-15 and 15-30 cm with auger after wheat harvesting during last week of May 2019. One part of the soil samples were air-dried in shade, ground to pass through a 2-mm sieve, stored in plastic jar for laboratory analysis of selected soil chemical properties. The other part of the fresh soil sample was kept moist in polyethylene bags at 4 • C until the biochemical analysis. Soil bulk density was measured by core method (Blake and Hartge, 1986). Soil moisture was determined by gravimetric method and volumetric water content was calculated by multiplying gravimetric water content with bulk density of each layer. Soil penetration resistance was determined to a depth of 45 cm at every 5 cm depth interval using a manual cone Penetrometer with a base area and cone angle of 1 cm 2 and 60 • , respectively (Eijkelkamp Agrisearch Equipment, Germany). The cumulative infiltration and steady state infiltration rate were determined by double-ring infiltrometer using falling head method (Gathala et al., 2011). Two rings (inner and outer ring with a diameter of 26 and 39 cm, respectively) were inserted to 15 cm soil depth in each measurement and the purpose of the outer ring was to restrict horizontal movement of water for precise measurement. Soil pH and electrical conductivity (EC) in soil: water ratio of 1:2 was determined by following standard methods (Jackson, 1973). Soil organic carbon (SOC) content was determined using wet oxidation method (Walkely and Black, 1934). Available N in soil was determined by alkaline permanganate method (Subbiah and Asija, 1956), available phosphorus (P) by ascorbic acid reductant method of Olsen et al. (1954), available potassium (K) by flame photometer using neutral 1 N ammonium acetate extractant (Jackson, 1973). Available (DTPA-extractable) Fe, Mn, Zn and Cu of the soil samples were estimated by using atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Lindsay and Norwell, 1978). Soil organic carbon stock was calculated by the given formula."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"SOC stock (Mg ha − 1 ) = SOC (g kg − 1 ) × Bulk density (Mg m − 3 ) × soil depth (m) Soil microbial biomass carbon was determined by Chloroform fumigation extraction (Vance et al., 1987). Dehydrogenase activity, acid phosphatase and alkaline phosphatase activity and beta glucosidase activity were determined by colorimetric method given by Casida et al. (1964), Tabatabai and Bremner (1969) and Eivazi and Tabatabai (1988), respectively."}]},{"head":"Sustainable yield index (SYI)","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Total crop productivity of rice, maize, wheat and mungbean was calculated through a SYI using rice equivalents yield-data of 10 years. This was done to adjust any seasonal/annual variations in the yield due to climatic condition, and to highlight the relative productivity of the scenarios for the entire experimental period. The SYI is defined according to Eq. ( 2):"},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"where Y is the estimated average rice equivalent yield of a practice across the years, σ is its estimated standard deviation and Y max is the observed maximum rice equivalent yield in the experiment during the years of cultivation (Singh et al., 1990) "}]},{"head":"Calculation of soil quality index (SQI)","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":267,"text":"For soil quality indexing purposes, we followed non-linear method of Bastida et al. (2006) using crop yield as the goal variable. In our study, the goal variable was assigned to the SYI for each scenario. Through principal component analysis (PCA), the dataset (of 19 attributes) was reduced to a minimum dataset of soil quality indicators (Andrews et al., 2002). The principal components with higher eigen values and variables with higher factor loading were assumed to be the variables which best represented the system attributes. Therefore, we examined only the PCs with eigen values > 0.9 and those that explained at least 5% of the variation in the data. The highly weighted factors within each PC were retained for MDS. Highly weighted factor loadings were defined as having absolute values within 10% of the highest factor loading. In a single PC, when more than one factor were retained, multivariate Pearson's correlation coefficients were employed to check the redundant variables and therefore dropped from the MDS (Andrews and Carroll, 2001;Andrews et al., 2002). To check how well the MDSs represented the management system goal (here SYI), multiple regressions were performed using the indicators selected in the MDS as independent variables and the SYI as the dependent variable. A variable was also eliminated from the MDS if it did not contribute to the coefficient of determination of multiple regressions of the variables. After selection of MDS of soil quality indicators, scoring of the MDS was done and then integrated into an index of soil quality. The following formula of the non-linear scoring method of Bastida et al. (2006) was used:"},{"index":2,"size":130,"text":"where, a is the maximum value reached by the function, in our case, a = 1, X is the unknown of the equation, corresponding to the value of the parameter in question in each case, X 0 is the mean value of each parameter corresponding to the soils of different treatments, b is the value of the slope of the equation. We obtained curves that fit a sigmoidal tending to 1 for all the proposed parameters using different values of b for different selected parameters. The above value (y) provides curves that vary between 0 and 1. The b value in the equation was optimized for different selected indicators to get an \"S\" shaped curve. The MDS variables with weighted scores for each observation were added using the following equation:"},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"where S = indicator score, W = the weighing factor obtained from PCA."},{"index":4,"size":35,"text":"Better soil quality or greater performance of soil function was associated with higher index scores. The SQIs estimated were validated against sustainable yield index (SYI) by computing multiple regression as well as Pearson's correlation coefficients."}]},{"head":"Statistical analysis","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"Data analysis was performed using SPSS window version 16.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, USA). Similar statistical package was used for principal component analysis (PCA). Tukey's HSD test was performed for separation of treatment means at 5% level of significance (p < 0.05). SAS (13.2) JMP software was used for the separation of an interaction effect between scenarios and soil depth. The mean effects of cropping systems and tillage were determined using linear contrast or individual factor in the JMP."}]},{"head":"Results and discussion","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Soil physical properties as influenced by long term CA practices","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":225,"text":"Soil physical quality attributes such as volumetric moisture content (VMC), infiltration rate and cumulative infiltration were significantly (p < 0.05) influenced by long term CA practices (Table 2). Soil BD was statistically similar in all the soil layers (0-5 cm, 5-15 and 15-30 cm). At 0-5 cm soil depth, BD in Sc2 (1.41 g cm − 3 ) and Sc3 (1.39 g cm − 3 ) was found slightly lower compared to Sc1 (1.50 g cm − 3 ). Compared to flood irrigated treatments (Sc3 and Sc4), we obtained higher BD although statistically similar in Sc5 and Sc6 (1.54 g cm − 3 ) in top soil layer (0-5 cm) which may be due to the combined effect of zero tillage and irrigation water management (SDI). This is also supported by higher infiltration rate under Sc3 and Sc4 compared to sub surface drip irrigated scenarios (Sc5 and Sc6) (Table 2). In addition, under sub surface drip irrigation, water moves up through capillary rise and reaches soil surface and then evaporates due to evaporative demand which might lead to shrinkage thereby causing higher BD whereas under surface irrigation method such phenomena does not happen. The increase in BD under ZT + irrigation water management condition as compared to CT was also observed by Gathala et al. (2011) in North West India after 7 years of experimentation."},{"index":2,"size":378,"text":"At 0-5 cm soil layer, full CA based Sc3, Sc4 and Sc6 reported 8, 6 and 7% higher VMC over Sc1. In 5-15 cm soil depth, 5 and 6% higher VMC was observed under Sc3 and Sc6 over Sc1 (Table 2). But in 15-30 cm, partial CA based Sc2 recorded highest VMC over other CA based scenarios. The increase in water content in surface soil might be due to the mulching effect of crop residues, thereby reducing evaporation and conserving soil moisture (Yadav et al., 2018). Addition of crop residues in soil increases soil organic matter content and thereby increases water retention capacity of soil. Similar results were obtained by Jat et al. (2018) and Malecka et al. (2012). Steady state infiltration rate was generally higher in CA based scenarios (Table 2). Higher cumulative infiltration was observed under CA based scenarios (Table 2). Zero tillage and residue retention influences infiltration rate directly or indirectly as soil under ZT was less disturbed and presence of higher organic matter results better aggregation and pore distribution (Gathala et al., 2011). Similarly higher infiltration rate under CA was also observed by Thierfelder and Wall (2009) in Zambia and Zimbabwe. On average, CA scenarios reduced SPR by 13-21, 32-34, 18-40, 36-42, 28-41 and 34-38% at 15-20, 20-25, 25-30, 30-35, 35-40 and 40-45 cm soil depth, respectively over farmer's practice (Sc1) (Fig. 1). Higher SPR at 15-30 cm soil depth in Sc1 and Sc2 might be due to higher sub-surface soil compaction as widely reported in RWCS in the IGP (Gathala et al., 2011). Lower SPR in 15-30 cm depth under CA based scenarios (Sc3, Sc4 and Sc6) was mainly due to higher soil water content compared to Sc1 and Sc2. Similar finding was also reported by Mondal et al. (2019) with lower SPR as obtained in subsurface soil layer under CA based systems. Linear contrast showed that the BD and soil water were significantly influenced by scenario and sampling depth. Interaction effect of scenario × depth was found significant in BD (Table 2). The significant effect of scenarios was observed in infiltration and SPR. Linear contrast showed that effect of tillage was significant in both infiltration and SPR, but effect of cropping system was found to be significant only in infiltration (Table 2)."}]},{"head":"Soil chemical properties as influenced by long term CA practices","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"Long term CA have significant effect (P < 0.05) on soil chemical properties such as pH, SOC content and stock (Table 3), available nutrients (N, P, K, Fe, Zn, Cu and Mn) (Table 4). Soil pH under CA based scenarios (Sc2 to Sc6) was lower by 0.28 to 0.44 unit compared to Sc1 (7.57) at 0-5 cm soil depth except Sc4 (7.43). At 5-15 cm soil depth, similar trend was observed. The lowering of soil pH under CA was earlier reported by many researchers (Jat et al., 2018;Sinha et al., 2019). Reduction in soil pH under CA based scenarios might be due to production of organic acids during decomposition of crop residues retained at soil surface (Sinha et al., 2019). Electrical conductivity was similar in all three soil depths across the scenarios (Table 3)."},{"index":2,"size":126,"text":"In topsoil layer (0-5 cm), both SOC content and stock were significantly higher in full CA based scenarios over Sc1. On average, SOC content and stock were 41-57 and 70-94% higher over Sc1 at 0-5 cm soil depth, respectively (Table 3). At 5-15 cm soil depth, both SOC content and stock were statistically similar irrespective of scenarios. But in 15-30 cm soil depth, highest SOC content and stock was recorded in Sc1. Overall SOC stock under full CA and partial CA based management systems was significantly higher over non-CA based management system (Sc1) only at upper surface 0-5 cm soil layer (Fig. 2). The reverse trend occurred at lower soil layer (15-30 cm), where higher SOC stock under non-CA was observed over partial and full CA."},{"index":3,"size":447,"text":"The beneficial effect of zero tillage and crop residue retention on SOC content and stock was reflected only at 0-5 cm soil layer, but not in lower layers (Table 2). Adoption of CA practices increased both SOC content and stock at 0-5 cm soil depth (Bhattacharyya et al., 2015). Conventional tillage operation exposes SOC to air which results higher oxidation of organic carbon and thus lowering tillage operation favors accumulation of organic carbon under zero or reduced tillage (Zhao et al., 2015). Role of crop residue retention on improving SOC was also   reported by many researchers (Dolan et al., 2006;Blanco-Canqui and Lal, 2008). We observed lower SOC content and stock in deeper soil layers in CA + SDI based Sc5 and Sc6 over Sc1 (Table 3). However, the effect was not significant at 5-15 cm depth and significant at 15-30 cm soil depth. At 15-30 cm soil depth, lowest SOC content and stock were observed in CA + SDI based Sc5 and Sc6, respectively (Table 3). In Sc5 and Sc6, sub surface drip irrigation creates moist soil environment during the crop growing periods which may facilitate downward movement of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) to deeper layer (>30 cm depth) of soil. Further light texture soil, lower amount of clay content coupled with higher soil pH also contributed to this process (Gmach et al., 2019). These may explain the lower SOC content and stock in 5-15 and 15-30 cm under sub surface drip irrigation based Sc5 and Sc6 over others. But, higher SOC content and stock in subsurface soil (15-30 cm) especially under Sc1 indicates mixing of crop stubbles and roots with sub surface soil under conventional tillage which ultimately results higher SOC in this soil depth. Our observation corroborates with the findings of Baker et al. (2007), Luo et al. (2010) and Piccoli et al. (2016). Piccoli et al. (2016) observed that at lower soil depth (15-30 cm), SOC stock was higher under conventional agriculture compared to CA. Further, Piccoli et al. (2016) observed that SOC stock was similar up to 50 cm soil depth in both the contrasting production systems while comparing CA and non-CA systems and CA systems had no apparent edge over conventional agriculture. Only redistribution of carbon occurs in different soil layers, higher SOC stock obtained at upper surface layer followed by lower SOC stock in deeper soil layer in CA based systems over conventional system. Earlier Luo et al. (2010) reported that improvement in net SOC stock was visible under ZT only in upper surface layer (0-10 cm), but in lower depth (20-40 cm) net depletion of SOC stock by 3.30 ± 1.61 Mg ha − 1 over conventional tillage was observed."},{"index":4,"size":388,"text":"In spite of higher fertilizer nitrogen application in Sc1, available N was 23 and 37% higher under CA based Sc5 and Sc4 over Sc1, respectively at topsoil (Table 4). At 5-15 cm soil depth, CA based Sc3, Sc4, Sc5 and Sc6 recorded 13, 15 and 28% (Both Sc5 & Sc6) higher available nitrogen over Sc1, respectively. Available P content was generally higher in surface soil and decreased with soil depth (Table 4). Available P under full CA based scenarios was higher by 116-154 and 54-133% over Sc1 at 0-5 and 5-15 cm soil depth, respectively. At lower soil depth (15-30 cm), highest available P content was observed under Sc4 (11.93 kg P ha − 1 ). Soil available potassium was significantly (p < 0.05) higher in CA based Sc4, Sc5 and Sc3 by 93, 95 and 98% over Sc1 (193 kg ha − 1 ), respectively at 0-5 cm soil depth. At 5-15 cm soil depth, partial and full CA based scenarios recorded 25-83% higher available potassium compared to Sc1 (181 kg ha − 1 ). At lower depth, Sc5 and Sc6 recorded 71 and 59% higher available potassium over Sc1 (140 kg ha − 1 ). The increase in available N, P and K content under CA based scenarios at 0-5 and 5-15 cm soil layer might be due to ZT coupled with residue retention which incorporates large amount of N, P and K from plant residues to soil through mineralization process (Mahal et al., 2018). Inclusion of legumes in CA based scenarios increases nitrogen content in soil and enhances nitrogen mineralization from crop residues (Mahal et al., 2018). Elsewhere Holanda et al. (1998) and López-Fando and Pardo (2009) observed higher available nitrogen in surface soil under conservation tillage practices. Apart from this, residue retention improves organic matter content in soil which again reduces fixation of fertilizer P by soil colloids through making coatings over adsorption surfaces or production of organic anions which competes with phosphate anions for same adsorption sites (Ohno and Erich, 1997). Lowering tillage intensity increased available K in surface soil as reported by many researchers (Lal et al., 1990). In general residue K content determines the efficiency of residue cover to increase soil available K. Jat et al. ( 2018) reported higher available N, P and K under CA systems in northwest India."},{"index":5,"size":43,"text":"DTPA-Fe was significantly lower in CA based scenarios over farmers practice (Sc1) (27.5 mg kg − 1 ) and partial CA (Sc2) (36.3 mg kg − 1 ) at 0-5 cm soil depth. Similar trend was observed at 5-15 cm soil depth i.e.,"}]},{"head":"Table 4","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"Effect of long term CA practices on soil macro and micronutrient availability.  Values with different lower case (a-c) letters are significantly different between each scenario at P < 0.05 (Tukey's HSD test performed for separation of mean). * indicates values are significant at 95% confidence level."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"Where Sc1-Transplanted puddled rice -conventional tillage broadcasted wheat (TPR-CTW); Sc2-Transplanted puddled rice-zero tillage wheat-zero tillage mung bean (TPR-ZTWMb); Sc3-Zero tillage Direct seeded ricezero tillage wheat-zero tillage mungbean (ZTDSR-ZTWMb); Sc4-Zero tillage maize-zero tillage wheat-zero tillage mung bean (ZTM-ZTWMb); Sc5-Zero tillage direct seeded rice-zero tillage wheat-zero tillage mung bean + Sub-surface drip irrigation (ZTDSR-ZTWMb + SDI) and Sc6-Zero tillage maize-zero tillage wheat-zero tillage mung bean (ZTM-ZTWMb +"}]},{"head":"SDI)","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"D. Roy et al."},{"index":2,"size":387,"text":"higher available Fe in Sc1 (26.79 mg kg − 1 ) and Sc2 (31.30 mg kg − 1 ) (Table 4). In both Sc1 and Sc2, puddled transplanted rice was grown and puddling favors transformation of Fe 3+ to Fe 2+ , which may be the reason behind higher available Fe in Sc1 and Sc2 over CA based scenarios (Ponnamperuma, 1972). At 0-5 cm soil depth, highest available Mn was observed under Sc4 (15 mg kg − 1 ) which was statistically similar with Sc1 (14 mg kg − 1 ). However, available Zn was slightly higher under CA based scenarios over Sc1 (4.0 mg kg − 1 ). At 5-15 cm soil depth, some CA based scenarios recorded higher available Zn than Sc1 (5.30 mg kg − 1 ) thereby manifesting the beneficial effect of CA on Zn availability. The effect of scenario and sampling depth was significant for available Fe, Zn and Cu content. Available Mn content was significantly influenced by sampling depth. Interaction effect of scenario and depth was significant for available Fe and Mn. Linear contrast showed that pH was significantly influenced by scenarios and sampling depth (Table 2). The effect of sampling depth and scenario × depth interaction was significant for SOC content. SOC stock was significantly influenced by scenario and sampling depth and their interactions. Linear contrast between CT vs ZT effect was significant in both SOC content and stock, respectively at 0-5 and 15-30 cm soil depth (Table 3). However, linear contrast between cropping system was significant only at 15-30 cm soil depth in both SOC content and stock (Table 3). Significant effect of scenarios and sampling depth was found in available N, P and K content. Interaction effect of scenario × sampling depth was found significant in only available P. Linear contrast of tillage effect was found significant for available nitrogen only at 0-5 cm, for phosphorus in 0-5 and 5-15 cm and for available potassium all the soil depths studied. Significant effect of linear contrast between CT and ZT was observed in available Fe at 0-5 and 5-15 cm and 0-5 cm soil depth in available Mn, respectively. Linear contrast between rice-wheat and maize-wheat cropping system was significant in available Fe at 0-5 and 5-15 cm soil depth and in available Zn at 5-15 cm soil depth, respectively."}]},{"head":"Soil biochemical properties as influenced by long term CA practices","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":179,"text":"The full CA based scenarios recorded on average 177-192 and 74-102% higher MBC over Sc1 at 0-5 and 5-15 cm soil depth, respectively (Table 5). Similarly at 15-30 cm soil depth, on average 40-289% higher MBC was recorded in CA based scenarios over Sc1. Higher MBC in surface soil under CA based scenarios was due to higher SOC content compared to Sc1 (Singh et al., 2009;Choudhary et al., 2018a). Zero tillage and crop residue retention at surface soil favors gradual decomposition of crop residues which slowly releases labile organic matter, thus serves as food for soil microbes. Again addition of mungbean residue enhances soil carbon pools which might also be a reason that explains higher MBC under CA based scenarios (Hazra et al., 2018). Mungbean root reaches 30 cm soil depth at maturity or 60 DAS (Sarker et al., 2012) and thus release of root exudates in the form of labile carbon provides food for the microbes at 15-30 cm depth. This may explain higher MBC content in CA based scenarios at this depth despite of lower SOC content."},{"index":2,"size":93,"text":"At surface soil, on average CA based scenarios recorded 67 to 107% higher DHA activity over Sc1 (Table 5). Higher DHA under CA based scenarios might be attributed to higher accumulation of organic matter in soil. Kumar et al. (1992) observed a positive correlation between soil organic matter and DHA content under forest soil. Higher soil moisture availability to microorganisms due to ZT and residue retention in surface soil may be a possible reason for higher DHA under CA. Higher soil moisture favors higher DHA as reported earlier by Gu et al. (2009)."},{"index":3,"size":280,"text":"The ACDP and ALKP activity was higher in CA based scenarios and decreased with soil depth. On average, ACDP activity was reported to be 17-33, 15-25 and 25-73% higher in CA based scenarios over Sc1 at 0-5, 5-15 and 15-30 cm soil depth, respectively (Table 5). Deng and Tabatabai (1997) reported that ZT and mulching with crop residues enhance acid phosphatase activity. Similarly higher acid phosphatase activity under zero tillage and crop residue retention condition was also reported by Jat et al. (2019a). At 0-5 cm soil depth, highest and lowest ALKP was observed under Sc4 (86 µg PNP g − 1 soil hr − 1 ) and Sc3 (39 µg PNP g − 1 soil hr − 1 ), respectively. At 15-30 cm depth, highest ALKP was reported in Sc2 (64 µg PNP g − 1 soil hr − 1 ) and lowest in Sc5 (42 µg PNP g − 1 soil hr − 1 ). Dodor and Tabatabai (2003) found a significant correlation between ALKP and SOC content. Higher alkaline phosphatase activity under CA was also reported by Roldan, et al. (2005). On average, CA based scenarios recorded 8-49 and 104-159% higher β-glucosidase activity at 0-5 and 5-15 cm soil depth, respectively over Sc1. At 0-5 cm soil depth, higher β-glucosidase activity under CA based scenarios was due to higher organic matter content resulting from residue retention and ZT. Similar findings of higher β-glucosidase activity under CA practices were also reported by Stott et al. (2009). The effect of scenario, sampling depth and interaction between scenarios vs sampling depth were significant in all biological soil quality parameters. In MBC, linear contrast between CT vs ZT and rice-wheat vs"}]},{"head":"Table 5","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"Effect of long term CA practices on biological soil quality parameters.   Values with different lower case (a-c) letters are significantly different between each scenario at P < 0.05 (Tukey's HSD test performed for separation of mean). * indicates values are significant at 95% confidence level."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"Where Sc1-Transplanted puddled rice -conventional tillage broadcasted wheat (TPR-CTW); Sc2-Transplanted puddled rice-zero tillage wheat-zero tillage mung bean (TPR-ZTWMb); Sc3-Zero tillage Direct seeded ricezero tillage wheat-zero tillage mungbean (ZTDSR-ZTWMb); Sc4-Zero tillage maize-zero tillage wheat-zero tillage mung bean (ZTM-ZTWMb); Sc5-Zero tillage direct seeded rice-zero tillage wheat-zero tillage mung bean + Sub-surface drip irrigation (ZTDSR-ZTWMb + SDI) and Sc6-Zero tillage maize-zero tillage wheat-zero tillage mung bean (ZTM-ZTWMb + SDI), DHA: dehydrogenase activity; ACDP: acid phosphatase activity; ALKP: alkaline phosphatase activity; GLU: β-glucosidase activity."}]},{"head":"Table 6","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"Effect of long term CA practices on soil quality index (SQI) and system yield (t ha − 1 ) after 10 cropping cycles.   maize-wheat cropping system was found significant in all the soil depths. Significant effect of linear contrast between CT vs ZT was found in DHA only at 0-5 cm depth, where as in ALKP in both 0-5 and 5-15 cm soil depth. In both ALKP and GLU, linear contrast showed that effect of rice-wheat vs maize-wheat cropping systems had positive effect only at 0-5 cm soil depth (Table 5)."}]},{"head":"Sustainable yield index (SYI) under CA practices","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":316,"text":"Highest sustainable yield index (SYI) was recorded under CA based Sc6 (0.78) followed by Sc5 (0.74), Sc4 (0.67), Sc2 (0.69) and Sc3 (0.62) and lowest was recorded under Sc1 (0.59) (Table 5). Higher SYI under CA was also observed by Das et al. (2021) in rice-mustard cropping system in Indo-Gangetic plains. The linear contrast between scenarios, cropping system and tillage practices were found positive (Table 6). In the PCA of 19 variables, for 0-5 cm soil layer, four PCs were extracted with eigen values > 1 and five PCs were extracted with eigen values > 1 for 5-15 and 15-30 cm and explained 95.64, 100 and 96.58% of the total variance, respectively. For top soil layer (0-5 cm), SOC stock and available iron in PC1 (51.1%), available nitrogen and soil BD in PC2 (24.7%), pH in PC3 (12.6%) and EC in PC4 (7.3%) were selected in minimum data set (MDS) (Fig. 3). In 5-15 cm soil depth, available Fe and MBC in PC1 (33.9% of total variance), SOC stock in PC2 (28% of total variance), β-glucosidase in PC3 (18.1% of total variance), available Zn in PC4 (11.74% of total variance) and EC in PC5 (8.26% of total variance) were selected for MDS (Fig. 4). The SOC content and BD in PC1 (48.8% of total variance), available P in PC2 (24.6% of total variance), available Fe in PC3 (10.40%), available Zn in PC4 (98.46% of total variance) and pH in PC5 (7.74% of total variance) were selected for MDS for 15-30 cm soil depth (Fig. 5). As we are dealing with non-saline soil, EC was discarded in final SQI calculation. After selection of MDS we had gone for non linear scoring transformation as given by Bastida et al. (2006). After scoring, each score was multiplied by their respective weight as obtained during PCA analysis. To calculate SQI for each treatment, all these indicators values were summed up."},{"index":2,"size":136,"text":"In the present study, as all the indicators except BD that were retained in the minimum data set were considered good when in increasing order, they were scored, as \"more is better\" whereas BD was scored as \"less is better\". Elliott and Coleman (1988) used 'more-isbetter' function for MBC, while 'less is-better' function was used for BD (Grossman et al., 2001). After scoring, each score was multiplied by the respective weight as obtained during PCA analysis. Then summation of these values provided the soil quality indices for each treatment (Table 6):  6). In top soil layer (0-5 cm), Sc6 had the highest SQI (0.91) followed by Sc4 (0.89). Sc3 recorded highest SQI (0.96) followed by Sc4 (0.94) at 5-15 cm soil depth. In 15-30 cm soil depth, Sc2 recorded highest SQI (0.84) followed by Sc4 (0.83)."},{"index":3,"size":125,"text":"Regression and Pearson's correlation analysis were performed between the SQI values and SYI for validation purpose. SQI for 0-5 cm soil layer was significantly (R 2 = 0.27, p < 0.05) correlated to SYI under  different CA based scenarios (Fig. 7) explaining their efficiency in predicting crop yield. Significant positive relationship (r = 0.69, p < 0.01) between SYI and SQI values was also obtained by Pearson's correlation coefficient. In addition, multiple regression analysis was performed between the SYI and identified key soil quality indicators and significant positive relationship was also observed. SYI = 0.864 − (pH × 0.135) + (BD × 0.306) + (SOC stock × 0.0322) + (Available nitrogen × 0.00095) + (Available iron × 0.00133) (R 2 = 0.69, P < 0.01)"},{"index":4,"size":118,"text":"The contribution of individual indicators in SQI was also calculated. The average individual contributions of each indicator across the treatments were 8. 51, 17.06, 31.85, 13.81 and 28.78 % for pH, BD, SOC stock, available N and available Fe, respectively in SQI 0-5 cm . (Fig. 6). For SQI 5-15 cm , mean individual contributions of each indicator across the treatments were 23.91, 20.40, 28.57, 17.64 and 9.47% for available Fe, SOC stock, MBC, beta glucosidase and available Zn, respectively (Fig. 8). The average individual contributions of each indicator across the treatments were 3. 91, 24.46, 24.99, 22.05, 15.25 and 7.34% for pH, BD, SOC, available P, available Fe and available Zn, respectively in SQI 15-30cm (Fig. 9)."},{"index":5,"size":263,"text":"In our study we found 20 and 29% higher SQI under partial and full CA based management practices over conventional farmers practice. Among full CA based management practices, higher SQI was associated with maize-wheat based cropping systems (36%) followed by rice-wheat cropping systems (34%). Similarly Choudhary et al. (2018b) reported higher SQI in maize-wheat system over rice-wheat system in north-west India. The effect of treatment (scenarios), different tillage practice (CT vs ZT) and cropping system was found significant in SQI calculated for all the soil depths. Frequent selection of SOC stock, soil pH and available Fe and Zn were identified as the most important key soil quality indicators under long term CA irrespective of soil depth and hence should be given more emphasis. The contrast analysis revealed that the difference between CT vs ZT and RW vs MW were significant (Table 6). Higher SQI under CA at 0-5 cm soil layer was also reported by Das et al. (2021). Relatively higher soil quality under CA indicates improvement in overall soil properties under CA in long run. The significant relationship between SQI (0-30 cm) and system equivalent yield was obtained earlier by many researchers (Das et al., 2021;Saurabh et al., 2021) in cereal based systems, but none of them compared SQI with SYI which is more logical for long term experiment. In our study, we obtained significant relationship between soil quality parameters and SYI at top most soil layer (0-5 cm) only. Thus our findings also strengthen the statement that CA effect is significant only at surface soil, especially at 0-5 cm soil layer."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":195,"text":"Long term CA significantly improved soil quality at surface soil layers (0-5 and 5-15 cm soil depth). Significantly higher SOC stock, nutrient availability and biochemical parameters in top soil layer under CA based scenarios and subsequently higher soil quality index confirms our first hypothesis. Further selection of SOC stock, available Fe, Zn and soil pH in minimum data set indicates that they are the key soil quality indicators for estimation of soil quality under conservation agriculture in cereal based cropping systems. Higher correlation between sustainable yield index and soil quality parameters in 0-5 cm soil layer reflects improvement in overall soil quality as induced by zero tillage and residue retention. Therefore, by adopting CA practices for longer duration, we can enhance soil organic matter and plant available nutrients which are the prime pillars for sustainable crop production. Moreover higher soil quality as well as higher sustainable yield index under CA based maize-wheat-mung bean cropping system indicates its potential to replace conventional rice-wheat cropping system followed in north -west India. As such for maintaining sustainability of the cereal based system in North West India, CA with maize-wheat-mungbean system should be recommended and popularized among the farmers."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" puddled rice -Zero tillage wheat -Zero tillage moongbean (TPR-ZTWMb)Residue retention: Full (100%) residue of rice and moongbean and partial (30%) wheat residue (anchored) residue kept in the field (Partial CA) Nutrient management (NPK, kg/ha): Rice -150 + 58 + 60; Wheat -150 + 64 + 32 and Mungbean -0 + 0 + 0 Water management: Rice: Continuous flooding of 5-cm depth for first 15-20 days after transplanting followed by irrigation at − 40 to − 50 kPa matric potential at 15-cm depth till 1 week before flowering followed by irrigation at − 15 to − 20 kPa; Wheat: Flood irrigation at − 40 to − 50 kPa matric potential : Zero tillage direct seeded rice -Zero tillage wheat -Zero tillage moongbean (ZTDSR-ZTWMb) Residue retention: Full (100%) residue of rice and moongbean and partial (30%) wheat residue (anchored) residue kept in the field (Full CA) Nutrient management (NPK, kg/ha): Rice -160 + 64 + 62; Wheat -150 + 64 + 32 and Mungbean -0 + 0 + 0 Water management: Rice: Kept soil wet for first 20 days followed by irrigation at − 20 to − 30 kPa matric potential; Wheat: Flood irrigation at − 40 to − 0 kPa matric potential Sc4 (ZTM -ZTWMb) Maize-Wheat-Mungbean Crop establishment method: Zero tillage maize -Zero tillage wheat -Zero tillage moongbean (ZTM -ZTWMb) Residue retention: Maize (65%) and full moongbean residue (100%) and partial (30%) wheat residue (anchored) kept in the field (Full CA) Nutrient management (NPK, kg/ha): Maize -175 + 64 + 62; Wheat -150 + 64 + 32 and Mungbean -0 + 0 + 0 Water management: Maize: Flood Irrigation at − 50 kPa matric potential ; Wheat: Flood irrigation at − 40 to − 0 kPa matric potential Sc5 (ZTDSR -ZTWMb + SDI) Rice-Wheat-Mungbean Crop establishment, residue retention and nutrient management are same as scenario 3 except irrigation applied through sub-surface drip irrigation (SDI) at − 20 to − 30 KPa in rice and − 40 to − 50 KPa in wheat (residue retention and nutrient management are same as scenario 4 same as scenario 4 except irrigation applied as sub-surface drip irrigation at − 50 KPa in maize and − 40 to − 50 KPa in wheat (Full CA) D. Roy et al. "},{"text":"D .Roy et al.    "},{"text":"Fig. 1 . Fig.1. Effect of long term CA practices on soil penetration resistance under different scenarios. Values with different lower case (a-c) letters are significantly different between each scenarios at P < 0.05 (Tukey's HSD tests performed for separation of mean). Sc1-Transplanted puddled riceconventional tillage broadcasted wheat (TPR-CTW); Sc2-Transplanted puddled rice-zero tillage wheat-zero tillage mung bean (TPR-ZTWMb); Sc3-Zero tillage Direct seeded ricezero tillage wheat-zero tillage mungbean (ZTDSR-ZTWMb); Sc4-Zero tillage maize-zero tillage wheat-zero tillage mung bean (ZTM-ZTWMb); Sc5-Zero tillage direct seeded rice-zero tillage wheat-zero tillage mung bean + Sub-surface drip irrigation (ZTDSR-ZTWMb + SDI) and Sc6-Zero tillage maizezero tillage wheat-zero tillage mung bean (ZTM-ZTWMb + SDI). "},{"text":" (a-c)  letters are significantly different between each scenario at P < 0.05 (Tukey's HSD test performed for separation of mean). * indicates values are significant at 95% confidence level. Where Sc1-Transplanted puddled riceconventional tillage broadcasted wheat (TPR-CTW); Sc2-Transplanted puddled rice-zero tillage wheat-zero tillage mung bean (TPR-ZTWMb); Sc3-Zero tillage Direct seeded ricezero tillage wheat-zero tillage mungbean (ZTDSR-ZTWMb); Sc4-Zero tillage maize-zero tillage wheat-zero tillage mung bean (ZTM-ZTWMb); Sc5-Zero tillage direct seeded rice-zero tillage wheat-zero tillage mung bean + Sub-surface drip irrigation (ZTDSR-ZTWMb + SDI) and Sc6-Zero tillage maize-zero tillage wheat-zero tillage mung bean (ZTM-ZTWMb + SDI) D.Roy et al.    "},{"text":"Fig. 2 . Fig. 2. Effect of long term CA practices on soil organic carbon stock at 0-5, 5-15 and 15-30 soil layer in non CA, partial CA and Full CA based management systems. Values with different lower case (a-c) letters are significantly different between each scenario at P < 0.05 (Tukey's HSD tests performed for separation of mean). Vertical bars indicate ± S.E. of mean of the observed values. "},{"text":" (a-c) letters are significantly different between each scenario at P < 0.05 (Tukey's HSD test performed for separation of mean). *indicates values are significant at 95% confidence level. Where Sc1-Transplanted puddled riceconventional tillage broadcasted wheat (TPR-CTW); Sc2-Transplanted puddled rice-zero tillage wheat-zero tillage mung bean (TPR-ZTWMb); Sc3-Zero tillage Direct seeded ricezero tillage wheat-zero tillage mungbean (ZTDSR-ZTWMb); Sc4-Zero tillage maize-zero tillage wheatzero tillage mung bean (ZTM-ZTWMb); Sc5-Zero tillage direct seeded rice-zero tillage wheat-zero tillage mung bean + Sub-surface drip irrigation (ZTDSR-ZTWMb + SDI) and Sc6-Zero tillage maize-zero tillage wheat-zero tillage mung bean (ZTM-ZTWMb + SDI). "},{"text":"Fig. 3 . Fig. 3. Principal component plot of soil physical, chemical and biochemical properties under different long term CA-based agricultural practice at 0-5 cm soil. pH: Soil pH; EC: Electric Conductivity; BD: Soil bulk density; SPR: Soil penetration resistance; IF: Infiltration rate; SOC: Soil organic carbon; SOC stock: Soil organic carbon stock; AvN: Available nitrogen content; AvP: Available phosphorus content; AvK: Available potassium content; AvFe: Available iron content; AvZn: Available zinc content; AvCu: Available copper content; AvMn: Available manganese content; DHA: Dehydrogenase activity; ACDP: Acid phosphatase activity; ALKP: Alkaline Phosphatase activity; MBC: Microbial biomass carbon; GLUC: Beta glucosidase activity. "},{"text":"3. 5 . Principal component analysis (PCA) and soil quality index (SQI) 3.5.1. Key soil quality indicators and SQI for 0-5, 5-15 and 15-30 cm soil layers "},{"text":" stock score × 0.534) + (available Fe score × 0.534) + (soil BD score × 0.258) + (available N score × 0.258) + (soil pH score × 0.076) SQI (5-15 cm) = ∑ (Available Fe score × 0.339) + (MBC score × 0.339) + (SOC stock score × 0.28) + (beta glucosidase activity × 0.181) + (Available zinc score × 0.117) SQI (15-30 cm) = ∑ (BD score × 0.488) + (SOC content score × 0.488) + (Available P score × 0.246) + (Available Fe score × 0.104) + (Available Zn score × 0.085) + (pH score × 0.077) Soil quality index (SQI) values showed significant variation among different scenarios (Table "},{"text":"Fig. 4 . Fig. 4. Principal component plot of soil physical, chemical and biochemical properties under different long term CA-based agricultural practice at 5-15 cm soil. pH: Soil pH; EC: Electric Conductivity; BD: Soil bulk density; SPR: Soil penetration resistance; IF: Infiltration rate; SOC: Soil organic carbon; SOC stock: Soil organic carbon stock; AvN: Available nitrogen content; AvP: Available phosphorus content; AvK: Available potassium content; AvFe: Available iron content; AvZn: Available zinc content; AvCu: Available copper content; AvMn: Available manganese content; DHA: Dehydrogenase activity; ACDP: Acid phosphatase activity; ALKP: Alkaline Phosphatase activity; MBC: Microbial biomass carbon; GLUC: Beta glucosidase activity. "},{"text":"Fig. 5 . Fig. 5. Principal component plot of soil physical, chemical and biochemical properties under different long term CA-based agricultural practice at 15-30 cm soil. pH: Soil pH; EC: Electric Conductivity; BD: Soil bulk density; SPR: Soil penetration resistance; IF: Infiltration rate; SOC: Soil organic carbon; SOC stock: Soil organic carbon stock; AvN: Available nitrogen content; AvP: Available phosphorus content; AvK: Available potassium content; AvFe: Available iron content; AvZn: Available zinc content; AvCu: Available copper content; AvMn: Available manganese content; DHA: Dehydrogenase activity; ACDP: Acid phosphatase activity; ALKP: Alkaline Phosphatase activity; MBC: Microbial biomass carbon; GLUC: Beta glucosidase activity. "},{"text":"Fig. 6 .Fig. 7 . Fig.6. The contribution of individual key components on soil quality index (SQI) under different scenarios at 0-5 cm soil. Where, Fe-available iron content, N-available nitrogen content, SOC stock-soil organic carbon stock, BDsoil bulk density and pHsoil pH. Values with different lower case (a-c) letters are significantly different between each scenario at P < 0.05 (Tukey's HSD test performed for separation of mean). Sc1-Transplanted puddled riceconventional tillage broadcasted wheat (TPR-CTW); Sc2-Transplanted puddled rice-zero tillage wheat-zero tillage mung bean (TPR-ZTWMb); Sc3-Zero tillage Direct seeded ricezero tillage wheat-zero tillage mungbean (ZTDSR-ZTWMb); Sc4-Zero tillage maizezero tillage wheat-zero tillage mung bean (ZTM-ZTWMb); Sc5-Zero tillage direct seeded rice-zero tillage wheat-zero tillage mung bean + Sub-surface drip irrigation (ZTDSR-ZTWMb + SDI) and Sc6-Zero tillage maize-zero tillage wheat-zero tillage mung bean (ZTM-ZTWMb + SDI). "},{"text":"Fig. 8 .Fig. 9 . Fig.8. The contribution of individual key components on soil quality index (SQI) under different scenarios at 5-15 cm soil. Where, Zn-available zinc content, Gluc-beta glucosidase activity, SOC stock-soil organic carbon stock, MBC-soil microbial biomass carbon and Fe-available iron content. Values with different lower case (a-c) letters are significantly different between each scenario at P < 0.05 (Tukey's HSD test performed for separation of mean). Sc1-Transplanted puddled riceconventional tillage broadcasted wheat (TPR-CTW); Sc2-Transplanted puddled ricezero tillage wheat-zero tillage mung bean (TPR-ZTWMb); Sc3-Zero tillage Direct seeded ricezero tillage wheatzero tillage mungbean (ZTDSR-ZTWMb); Sc4-Zero tillage maizezero tillage wheatzero tillage mung bean (ZTM-ZTWMb); Sc5-Zero tillage direct seeded rice-zero tillage wheatzero tillage mung bean + Sub-surface drip irrigation (ZTDSR-ZTWMb + SDI) and Sc6-Zero tillage maizezero tillage wheat-zero tillage mung bean (ZTM-ZTWMb + SDI). "},{"text":"Table 1 Experimental details. Scenarios Cropping Management systems ScenariosCroppingManagement systems  System  System Sc1 Rice-Wheat Crop establishment method: Transplanted Sc1Rice-WheatCrop establishment method: Transplanted (TPR-CTW)  puddled rice -Conventional tillage wheat (TPR-CTW)puddled rice -Conventional tillage wheat   (TPR -CTW) (TPR -CTW)   Residue retention: All residue removed Residue retention: All residue removed   (Current farmers' practice)Nutrient (Current farmers' practice)Nutrient   management (NPK, kg/ha): Rice -175 + 58 management (NPK, kg/ha): Rice -175 + 58   + 0, Wheat -150 + 58 + 0 + 0, Wheat -150 + 58 + 0   Water management: Rice -continuous Water management: Rice -continuous   flooding of 5 cm water depth for continuous flooding of 5 cm water depth for continuous   1 month, followed by subsequent irrigation 1 month, followed by subsequent irrigation   applied at hair line crack; Wheat -irrigation applied at hair line crack; Wheat -irrigation   water applied at critical growth stages water applied at critical growth stages Sc2   Sc2  "},{"text":" Kharif season of 2009 at the CIMMYT (International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre) -ICAR-CSSRI (Indian Council of Agricultural Research-Central Soil Salinity Research Institute) strategic research platform, located at CSSRI, Karnal (29 • 42 ′′ 20.7 ′ N latitude, 76 • 57 ′′ 19.79 ′ E longitude and at an elevation of 243 m above msl), Haryana, India. The region has a semiarid climate, with hot and dry spell in April to June to wet summer spell in July to September and a cool and dry winter spell in October to march. Average rainfall of the area is 670 mm, 75-80% of which occurred during monsoon season. The soil is classified as Haplic Solonetz (siltic) as per the World Reference Base (WRB) soil classification  "},{"text":"Table 2 Effect of long term CA practices on physical soil quality parameters.Values with different lower case (a-c) letters are significantly different between each scenario at P < 0.05 (Tukey's HSD test performed for separation of mean). * indicates values are significant at 95% confidence level. Where Sc1-Transplanted puddled riceconventional tillage broadcasted wheat (TPR-CTW); Sc2-Transplanted puddled rice-zero tillage wheat-zero tillage mung bean (TPR-ZTWMb); Sc3-Zero tillage Direct seeded ricezero tillage wheat-zero tillage mungbean (ZTDSR-ZTWMb); Sc4-Zero tillage maize-zero tillage wheat-zero tillage mung bean (ZTM-ZTWMb); Sc5-Zero tillage direct seeded rice-zero tillage wheat-zero tillage mung bean + Sub-surface drip irrigation (ZTDSR-ZTWMb + SDI) and Sc6-Zero tillage maize-zero tillage wheat-zero tillage mung bean (ZTM-ZTWMb + SDI) Treatment/Soil Depth Bulk density (g cm − 3 )  Volumetric moisture content (%) Infiltration rate (cm/hr) Cumulative infiltration (cm/6 hr) Treatment/Soil DepthBulk density (g cm − 3 )Volumetric moisture content (%)Infiltration rate (cm/hr)Cumulative infiltration (cm/6 hr)  0-5 cm 5-15 cm 15-30 cm 0-5 cm 5-15 cm 15-30 cm    0-5 cm5-15 cm15-30 cm0-5 cm5-15 cm15-30 cm Sc1 1.50a 1.66a 1.72a 28a 28ab 26ab 0.44b  233c Sc11.50a1.66a1.72a28a28ab26ab0.44b233c Sc2 1.41a 1.61a 1.68a 28a 27b 30a 0.52b  257c Sc21.41a1.61a1.68a28a27b30a0.52b257c Sc3 1.39a 1.58a 1.71a 36a 33ab 24b 0.83ab  729ab Sc31.39a1.58a1.71a36a33ab24b0.83ab729ab Sc4 1.48a 1.65a 1.67a 34a 29ab 28ab 0.95a  644ab Sc41.48a1.65a1.67a34a29ab28ab0.95a644ab Sc5 1.54a 1.65a 1.68a 31a 29ab 25.6b 0.67ab  811a Sc51.54a1.65a1.68a31a29ab25.6b0.67ab811a Sc6 1.54a 1.70a 1.70a 35a 34a 25.6b 0.75 ab  965a Sc61.54a1.70a1.70a35a34a25.6b0.75 ab965a Interactions and Linear contrast         Interactions and Linear contrast Sc 0.1103   0.0480*   <0.0001*   Sc0.11030.0480*<0.0001* Depth 0.071   <0.001*   1   Depth0.071<0.001*1 Sc*Depth 0.218   0.9800   1   Sc*Depth0.2180.98001 CT vs ZT 0.6025 0.5677 0.0617 0.9541 0.9827 0.2476 0.0003* 0.0003* 0.0003* CT vs ZT0.60250.56770.06170.95410.98270.24760.0003*0.0003*0.0003* RW vs MW 0.0756 0.0744 0.1006 0.8985 0.8643 0.1528 0.0005* 0.0005* 0.0005* RW vs MW0.07560.07440.10060.89850.86430.15280.0005*0.0005*0.0005*  "},{"text":"Table 3 Effect of long term CA practices on soil pH, Electrical conductivity (dS m − 1 ) and Soil organic carbon content and stock. Treatment/Depth pH   EC (dS m − 1 )  Organic Carbon (g kg − 1 )  Organic carbon stock (Mg ha − 1 ) Treatment/DepthpHEC (dS m − 1 )Organic Carbon (g kg − 1 )Organic carbon stock (Mg ha − 1 )  0-5 cm 5-15 cm 15-30 cm 0-5 cm 5-15 cm 15-30 cm 0-5 cm 5-15 cm 15-30 cm 0-5 cm 5-15 cm 15-30 cm 0-5 cm5-15 cm15-30 cm0-5 cm5-15 cm15-30 cm0-5 cm5-15 cm15-30 cm0-5 cm5-15 cm15-30 cm Sc1 7.57a 7.70a 7.84a 0.31a 0.26a 0.29a 6.30b 6.80a 6.30a 3.80b 11.34a 16.26a Sc17.57a7.70a7.84a0.31a0.26a0.29a6.30b6.80a6.30a3.80b11.34a16.26a Sc2 7.13a 7.05a 7.68a 0.35a 0.32a 0.32a 8.40ab 6.60a 4.20ab 5.91ab 10.60a 10.61b Sc27.13a7.05a7.68a0.35a0.32a0.32a8.40ab6.60a4.20ab5.91ab10.60a10.61b Sc3 7.29a 7.46a 7.75a 0.33a 0.29a 0.29a 9.90a 7.90a 3.70ab 7.33a 12.52a 12.33ab Sc37.29a7.46a7.75a0.33a0.29a0.29a9.90a7.90a3.70ab7.33a12.52a12.33ab Sc4 7.43a 7.73a 7.68a 0.36a 0.34a 0.25a 9.45a 7.30a 4.05ab 6.45a 12.03a 10.19b Sc47.43a7.73a7.68a0.36a0.34a0.25a9.45a7.30a4.05ab6.45a12.03a10.19b Sc5 7.26a 7.56a 7.68a 0.34a 0.31a 0.23a 9.60a 5.40a 3.15b 7.39a 8.80a 7.87b Sc57.26a7.56a7.68a0.34a0.31a0.23a9.60a5.40a3.15b7.39a8.80a7.87b Sc6 7.28a 7.52a 7.94a 0.33a 0.31a 0.28a 8.85ab 6.30a 3.15b 6.82a 10.73a 7.86b Sc67.28a7.52a7.94a0.33a0.31a0.28a8.85ab6.30a3.15b6.82a10.73a7.86b Interactions and Linear contrast            Interactions and Linear contrast Sc 0.0093*   0.8895   0.0686   0.0152*   Sc0.0093*0.88950.06860.0152* Depth <0.0001*   0.0014*   <0.0001*   <0.0001*   Depth<0.0001*0.0014*<0.0001*<0.0001* Sc* Depth 0.1336   0.9547   0.0099*   0.0003*   Sc* Depth0.13360.95470.0099*0.0003* CT vs ZT 0.6721 0.5021 0.5533 0.9868 0.9678 0.5711 0.0047* 0.9224 0.0014* 0.0014* 0.8121 0.0016* CT vs ZT0.67210.50210.55330.98680.96780.57110.0047*0.92240.0014*0.0014*0.81210.0016* RW vs MW 0.4446 0.0787 0.4946 0.7336 0.5936 0.652 0.92 0.8342 0.0281* 0.2768 0.5895 0.0282 RW vs MW0.44460.07870.49460.73360.59360.6520.920.83420.0281*0.27680.58950.0282  "}],"sieverID":"5fb098b4-f32e-4630-b688-7aebdce99b2f","abstract":"Soil quality is of utmost essential for yield sustainability of intensive cereal based cropping system in North West Indo Gangetic plains of India. Hence, we evaluated long-term (10 years) effect of conservation agriculture (CA) practices on soil quality improvement under six different cropping scenarios (Sc), i.e. Sc1-represented by transplanted puddled rice (TPR) followed by conventional tilled broadcasted wheat (CT-wheat) with residue removal, Sc2-TPR rice followed by zero tillage (ZT) wheat and ZT-mung bean with partial residue retention, Sc3direct seeded rice (DSR) followed by ZT-wheat and ZT-mung bean with full residue retention, Sc4-DSR is replaced by ZT-maize followed by ZT-wheat and ZT-mung bean, Sc5 and Sc6 were -Sc3 integrated with sub surface drip irrigation (SDI) and Sc4 + SDI, respectively. Soil samples were collected from 0 to 5, 5-15 and 15-30 cm soil depth from each scenario after harvesting of wheat in 2019. Results showed that, reduction in bulk density (BD), soil penetration resistance (SPR) and enhancement of water holding capacity and infiltration were associated with CA based scenarios (Sc3-Sc6). Scenario 3 recorded lowest BD of 1.39 and 1.58 g cm − 3 at 0-5 and 5-15 cm soil depth, respectively. CA based Sc6 recorded highest infiltration rate (1.48 cm hr − 1 ) and lowest was associated with Sc1 (0.5 cm hr − 1 ). The enrichment of soil organic carbon (SOC) content, stock, available nitrogen and potassium was mainly confined to upper surface soil layer (0-5 cm). The SOC content and stock in CA based scenarios (average of Sc3 to Sc6) was 41-57 and 69-94% higher than Sc1 at 0-5 cm soil layer. Available nitrogen was increased by 23-50 and 64-98% and available potassium increased by 13-28 and 42-71% in 0-5 and 5-15 cm soil depth, respectively in CA based scenarios over Sc1. Similarly, microbial biomass carbon (MBC) and dehydrogenase (DHA) activity in top soil layer under CA based scenarios was increased by 177-195 and 67-107% over Sc1, respectively. The maximum SQI was registered with Sc6 (0.91) followed by Sc4 (0.89) and least was recorded in Sc1 (0.65) at 0-5 cm soil depth. Maize-wheat based cropping system recorded higher SQI over rice-wheat based cropping system. Sustainable yield index was strongly related with key soil quality indicators and also positively correlated with SQI. Thus our study suggests that CA based maize-wheat-mung bean cropping system should be recommended for better soil quality and yield sustainability in North West India."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"09da5dc3017bbea66d7e45741514de17","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/Working_Papers/working/wor181.pdf"},"pageCount":40,"title":"Investigation of the Modalities for an Innovative Financing Mechanism for Participatory Natural Resource Management in the Bale Eco-region, Ethiopia IWMI Working Paper","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Acronyms and Abbreviations","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":120,"text":"Soil erosion, nutrient depletion and deforestation are common environmental problems in the Ethiopian Highlands (Hagos et al. 1999;Desta et al. 2000;Awulachew et al. 2008), not least in the Bale Eco-region (BER). Hurni et al. (2010) reported evidence of the high incidence of vegetation degradation in the past and the present. Gebreselassie et al. (2016) indicated that over 85% of the land in Ethiopia is moderately to very severely degraded. The highlands of the BER are under strong anthropogenic pressure caused by rapid population growth and consequent interrelated forms of land degradation, mainly overgrazing, soil erosion and deforestation (IWMI 2016). FAO (1986) reported rates of soil loss in the range of 51-200 t ha -1 yr -1 in the Bale highlands."},{"index":2,"size":116,"text":"The proximate drivers of land degradation in Ethiopia, in general, and BER, in particular, include forest clearance and soil surface exposure (high removal of vegetative cover); detrimental cultivation practices with an emphasis on small-seed crops that require fine tillage; and overgrazing (IWMI 2016). Due to land shortage and lack of alternative livelihoods, farmers cultivate lands and grow annual crops on slopes exceeding 30%. According to the latest Ethiopian Policy on Land (FDRE 2005d), slopes steeper than 30% should not normally be used for agricultural purposes, but rather allocated to natural vegetation or forestry. However, strong local land use directives with supporting land use maps are absent, and meticulous implementation of the land policy does not occur."},{"index":3,"size":102,"text":"Several factors act as driving forces for land degradation, including poverty, land fragmentation, tenure security, weak extension and lack of credit services, as well as high human and livestock population pressure (Hagos et al. 1999). Pressure from human and livestock populations leads to the removal of large areas of vegetation cover to meet the increasing demand for crops, grazing and fuelwood. Policies and strategies related to securing tenure rights, building the capacity of land users through access to extension services, and improving access to input, output and financial markets should be considered as incentives to sustainable land management (Gebreselassie et al. 2016)."},{"index":4,"size":170,"text":"One of the major efforts made to address land degradation, since the 1970s, is the implementation of soil and water conservation (SWC) 1 measures, both physical and biological measures, through mass mobilization campaigns, including incentive-based programs such as the Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP) and/or Food-for-Work (FFW) (Gebregziabher et al. 2016). In the early 2000s, community-based integrated watershed development was introduced to promote watershed management, with the aim of achieving broader integrated natural resource management and livelihood improvement objectives within prevailing agroecological and socioeconomic environments (Gebregziabher et al. 2016). However, many of the watershed management programs undertaken in Ethiopia in the past were ineffective in either triggering voluntary adoption of conservation practices among farmers or conserving the structures constructed (Tesfaye et al. 2014). The factors that contribute to the success of watershed management are multidimensional (for details, see Gebregziabher et al. 2016) and benefits require a long time to materialize. However, farmers focus more on short-term gains than the long-term investments in land and water management (Gebreselassie et al. 2009)."},{"index":5,"size":65,"text":"The on-site effect of soil erosion is the removal of essential plant nutrients with the sediments (Lal 1998), with an attendant loss in land productivity and subsequent farmers' income. Based on data from selected watersheds in the Blue Nile Basin, Erkossa et al. (2015) estimated the on-site financial costs to be equivalent to over half of farmers' average annual income. Reliable countrylevel estimates are lacking."},{"index":6,"size":147,"text":"Off-site impacts of land degradation include enhanced productivity downstream, sedimentation of waterways and reservoirs, deterioration of water quality, and increased risk of flooding with adverse effects on property as well as human lives and health. Sediment generated from the highlands shortens the lifespan of reservoirs, thereby reducing irrigation land and hydropower generation capacity. For instance, Haregeweyn et al. (2006) reported that reservoirs in the northern part of Ethiopia lost 0.18-4% of their total capacity per year due to sedimentation. Extreme sedimentation has reduced water availability from the Angereb Reservoir, thereby undermining water supply to Gondar Town (in the Lake Tana sub-basin), after only half of the design life of the reservoir (Haregeweyn et al. 2012). The storage capacity of the Rosaries Reservoir on the Blue Nile in neighboring Sudan has reduced by nearly 40% over a period of 30 years because of sedimentation (Bashar and Khalifa 2009)."},{"index":7,"size":134,"text":"Within a given watershed, there are landholdings under individual (private) use rights and land which is collectively owned (so-called common property resources). A study by Awulachew et al. (2008) in the Blue Nile reported that about 66% of eroded soil emanates from non-cultivated land. However, another study, indicated that rain-fed fields are one of the main contributors to land degradation, with an average sediment concentration of up to 45 kg m −3 in Ethiopia's highlands, where rain-fed agriculture dominates (Guzman et al. 2013). In recent years, low-cost land certification has increased tenure security and enhanced investment in conservation, because farmers have incentives to conserve land under (not fully) private use (Holden et al. 2009;Hagos 2012). Designing pragmatic incentives for users of land under collective ownership is not straight forward and requires innovative financing mechanisms."},{"index":8,"size":67,"text":"There is a major gap in available literature: identifying options for financial mechanisms for sustainable watershed management in Ethiopia. The focus of this study was to explore possible financing mechanisms for undertaking watershed management, where land is collectively owned, to minimize sedimentation of reservoirs used for both hydropower and urban water supply, and to promote better forest management as carbon sinks to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions."},{"index":9,"size":30,"text":"The main objective of the study was to explore sustainable financing mechanisms for participatory natural resource management in the BER. The research questions addressed in this study are as follows:"},{"index":10,"size":1,"text":"1."},{"index":11,"size":14,"text":"How well have past and present financing mechanisms worked and what can be improved?"}]},{"head":"2.","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"What innovative and sustainable finance mechanisms 'are working' in other areas with a similar context?"}]},{"head":"3.","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"What opportunities exist for piloting payments for ecosystem services (PES) in the context of BER?"}]},{"head":"4.","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"What policy framework is needed to enable these finance mechanisms to be effectively tested (and implemented)?"},{"index":2,"size":144,"text":"This paper is split into nine parts. The Introduction section provides a brief explanation of why, compared to financing mechanisms in the past, innovative and sustainable watershed financing is necessary. This is followed by a Description of the Study Site and Study Approaches. The section on Overview of Environmental Policy Instruments provides details of the policy framework in Ethiopia, followed by a presentation of the Legal and Institutional Requirements for PES. The Results and Discussion section presents stakeholder analysis and mapping in the BER, and this is followed by the section providing an outline of Global Experiences in PES and carbon offset schemes. A Suitable Financing Mechanism for the BER is suggested in the next section, and this is followed by pinpointing the Major Challenges in Institutionalizing Market Financing Mechanisms in Watershed Management in the BER. Finally, the Conclusions and Policy Implications are presented."}]},{"head":"DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY SITE AND STUDY APPROACHES","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"The BER is in Bale and West Arsi zones of Oromia Region, southeastern Ethiopia. The BER consists of 16 districts (locally called woredas 2 ) and some 980,000 people live within the area, which encompasses an estimated 500,000 ha of natural forest (Farm Africa and SOS Sahel 2008). The BER is the major source of water-related ecosystem services (ES) that benefit about 12 million people in Ethiopia and in downstream areas of Somalia and Kenya."},{"index":2,"size":110,"text":"The BER covers a total land area of 38,036 km 2 . Geographically, the region lies within the coordinates of 38°51'18.21\"N and 5°33'2.5E to 41°23'3.9\"N and 5°23'39E. The BER consists of three distinct traditional agroecological zones: highland, midland and lowland (see Figure 1). As indicated in Figure 1, the Supporting Horn of Africa Resilience (SHARE) project operates in selected districts (called intervention districts), where lessons learned in these districts will be disseminated to the non-intervention districts during the lifetime of the project and beyond. The non-intervention districts are also envisaged to be used as a control so that it will be possible to measure the relative impact of the interventions."},{"index":3,"size":79,"text":"The altitude of these agroecologies is as follows: (i) highland -exceeding 2,300 meters above sea level (masl), including a cool climate locally called Wurch exceeding 3,200 masl; (ii) midlandbetween 1,500 and 2,300 masl; and (iii) lowland -below 1,500 masl (Chamberlin and Schmidt 2011). The Genale and Wabi Shebelle rivers originate in the BER, and are the main sources of water, and water for hydropower, irrigation and other ES in upstream and downstream areas, with important implications for people's livelihoods."},{"index":4,"size":268,"text":"In the highland and midland districts of the BER, mixed crop-livestock farming systems and lowland agropastoralism are the dominant sources of livelihoods. From a recent survey conducted by Wenni consult (2015), it was identified that 45.7% and 47.5% of the households practiced mixed farming and agropastoralism, respectively. Due to increasing population and livestock pressure, converting forestland into agricultural land, overgrazing and migration of livestock from the lowlands to the highlands and the midlands aggravate the reduction in vegetation cover and soil erosion. Activities such as deforestation, conversion of forestland to cropland, overgrazing, natural factors (e.g., fire), unsustainable harvesting of fuelwood, timber and non-timber forest products (NTFPs), and unplanned and unrestricted settlement are the major threats to the BER, and this is exacerbated by the lack of a land use management plan and control of resource use (Wenni Consult 2015). Livestock production is the major source of livelihoods in the lowland areas of the BER. Therefore, the shortage of feed and water is reported to be very critical in these areas. Due to overgrazing and high runoff (because of high forest clearance in the highland and midland areas of the region), flooding and soil erosion have become very serious. Increasing soil erosion in the BER reduces crop and livestock productivity, and thereby exacerbates household food insecurity and poverty. More severe flood events have been reported particularly in the lower sections of the Wabi Shebelle Basin, causing major emergency situations (IWMI 2016). Another consequence of soil erosion could be high siltation rates in water bodies and reservoirs, leading to a reduction in water infrastructure functions (Wolancho 2012;Guzman et al. 2013)."},{"index":5,"size":233,"text":"Various measures are promoted by government organizations and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), primarily through mass mobilization and FFW programs, to minimize the effect of these land degradation problems. A recent study conducted by Kefale (2016) in Harena Buluk District of the BER, comprising midland and lowland kebeles, reported that 93% of the respondents participated in ongoing interventions in natural resource management (NRM) (physical and biological SWC measures, reforestation/afforestation, exclosure, etc.), potable water supply, road development and expanding electricity services. The same study reported that 17.5% of the households in the midland area practiced physical SWC measures such as soil/stone bunds, terraces and cut-off drains on their private farms, 10% practiced biological SWC measures such as tree planting, agroforestry and grass planting, 53.5% practiced both and the remaining 19% practiced none. Of the respondents, 76% claimed that reforestation/afforestation was practiced in their area, and 34% and 42% of respondents suggested that reforestation took place using the growing of single species and diverse species, respectively. In the lowland areas, 88% of the respondents indicated that area exclosures 3 are practiced, and only 47% of respondents confirmed area exclosures being practiced with enrichment, by planting trees such as Moringa oleifera, Nim (Melia azedarach L.), Wachu (Acacia seyal Del.), etc. The same study indicated that 98% of the households, in both midland and lowland areas, still think that NRM interventions are necessary to conserve ecosystem services in BER."},{"index":6,"size":95,"text":"There is enormous potential in the BER for development in many sectors. In food security, a high potential exists for agricultural intensification and expansion. There is also a large potential to promote and expand tourist attractions in which local communities can be involved. Promoting 3 Exclosure involves excluding livestock from degraded sites to allow native vegetation to regenerate as a means of providing fodder and woody biomass, to reduce soil erosion, and to increase rainwater infiltration. Enclosure is closing, confining, restricting or keeping objects, usually animals, inside a given area (see Aerts et al. 2009)."},{"index":7,"size":68,"text":"NTFPs, such as honey production and forest coffee, provide other opportunities for the local population. Moreover, conserving water and forest resources in the region could enhance waterrelated ES that could benefit both upstream and downstream populations, and this is closely linked to the sharing of benefits and costs between the two groups. Thus, exploring alternative financing mechanisms for sustainable rehabilitation of the watershed is important in the BER."},{"index":8,"size":301,"text":"The study was mainly qualitative focusing on a literature review and analysis of secondary data from the Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Energy (MoWIE), stakeholder analysis and mapping, and in-depth key informant interviews (KIIs) with experts previously and currently involved in watershed management or broadly in NRM. Sterner (2003), Kerr et al. (2007) and OECD (2007) outlined the environmental policy instruments (EPIs) and their features that are applied to address different environmental problems. Table 1 outlines the essential elements of EPIs that are emphasized in various national policy documents such as the environmental policies (FDRE 2002a(FDRE , 2002b)), the land use and land administration policy (FDRE 2005a), integrated watershed guideline (Desta et al. 2005), and water resources management policy and regulations (FDRE 1999(FDRE , 2000(FDRE , 2005c)). OECD (2007) indicated that a mix of instruments is important to effectively address specific environmental problems because many of these issues are of a multi-aspect nature and, if properly designed and implemented, different instruments can complement each other. A study conducted by Hagos et al. (2011) examined the type of EPIs chosen to address major land, water and environmental pollution issues, and their effectiveness in addressing major environmental problems in Ethiopia. This study concluded that all EPIs emphasized the traditional strategy of command and control regulation 4 rather than the use of economic or market-based instruments. The emphasis in the policy documents is on collective action and management of watersheds. This focus on command and control instruments (e.g., awareness creation, enforcement of regulation/environmental standards, public mobilization including FFW) is a major challenge in suggesting sustainable financing mechanisms for integrated watershed management. Only the Green Economy Strategy of Ethiopia (FDRE 2012), which aims to foster development and sustainability while limiting GHG emissions, indicates that incentives, without listing the types, are important for conservation, including watersheds."}]},{"head":"OVERVIEW OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY INSTRUMENTS","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":172,"text":"This study paid most attention to economic instruments, mainly PES and global market mechanisms. These instruments are potentially the most relevant and sustainable financing mechanisms, since incentives are given for upstream stewards to maintain ecosystems through effective land management, with the intention that they generate benefits for people and ecosystems downstream (Greiber 2009) or the global community at large. PES are innovative, direct and promising compensation mechanisms, intended to create economic incentives that enable the transfer of financial resources from the beneficiaries of ES to those who provide them (FAO 2011). The compensation is generated by downstream users or society as a whole. Under the right circumstances, PES can be an appropriate tool to internalize externalities, both positive and negative. Externalities are internalized, if individuals are made accountable for the effects of their actions on others. Imposing costs on others requires compensating them, and providing benefits for others requires being compensated for them (Sterner 2003;Kerr et al. 2007). Further details of PES, the global experiences and the carbon mechanism are given below. "}]},{"head":"LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL REQUIREMENTS FOR PAYMENTS FOR ECOSYSTEM SERVICES","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"A PES scheme can only work with good governance in place, comprising an effective political, legislative as well as institutional system. PES may work either in a country (Greiber 2009) or transboundary context (Tesfaye and Brouwer 2016)."},{"index":2,"size":118,"text":"What makes PES successful is that, in any payment arrangement, those who pay are aware that they are paying for ES that are valuable to them or to their constituencies. Those who receive the payments engage in meaningful and measurable activities to secure the sustainable supply of ES in question (Greiber 2009). In terms of legal framework, PES schemes could be private (selforganized) or they could be trading (public-private) or public (government-driven) schemes. To be successful, the legal character of the parties involved in the PES deal, the objective behind the use of PES as an instrument and the scale at which the PES scheme is established have to be well formulated and established in law (Greiber 2009)."},{"index":3,"size":332,"text":"Public-private partnerships and public PES schemes are relevant to Ethiopia and the BER (see Table 2 for details). Experiences in the BER show that, so far, schemes have mostly evolved on an ad-hoc basis due to initiatives by NGOs and overseas development corporations, which brought together different parties. One example is a project initiated by two NGOs, Farm Africa and SOS Sahel Ethiopia, which engaged in reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, and enhancement of carbon stocks (called REDD+) to protect forests in the BER. Such schemes can be highly fragmented and are mainly limited to the local-scale, micro-watersheds. Greiber (2009) indicated the importance of a legal framework that regulates PES in a comprehensive and coherent way. This increases the potential of PES as an innovative instrument that might be applied more often, more efficiently and at a larger scale. A clear and coherent legal framework will ensure that good governance is taken seriously in public PES schemes (Greiber 2009). This is entirely appropriate, since a public entity participating as a purchaser or seller of ES either invests public funds or uses public goods (land or natural resources held by the public authorities as custodian) (Greiber 2009). PES-related legislation is a means to create legal certainty and consequently trust among the parties. An appropriate legislative framework which regulates public PES schemes has the potential to stimulate the development of trustworthy markets and ensure good governance (Greiber 2009). The adoption of specific laws related to PES has advantages and disadvantages. It can draw the attention of the government as well as the public to the institutionalization of PES as a policy instrument to ensure the future provision of water-related ES. However, establishing a specific law related to PES potentially risks fragmenting or complicating the existing environmental legal framework. Hence, if PES is regulated in a specific PES law, attention must be paid to its integration into the existing legal and institutional frameworks, particularly those laws that regulate the different ecosystems (Greiber 2009)."},{"index":4,"size":67,"text":"World Bank (2008) indicated that the following organizations could be involved in PES: (a) public institutions responsible for environmental management, (b) community-based organizations (CBOs) and NGOs involved in the management of natural resources, and (c) public/private financial institutions providing resources for the improvement of natural resource management. The institutional framework should be inclusive, with broad engagement of local communities in the design and implementation of the plan."},{"index":5,"size":60,"text":"Moreover, the legal framework for the implementation of a PES instrument should clarify land and resource tenure, provide specific rules and transaction mechanisms, and determine compliance and enforcement mechanisms. These requirements include the (a) rights over the resources in terms of ownership and access, (b) payment of fees, and (c) use and sharing of benefits among the stakeholders (Greiber 2009)."},{"index":6,"size":82,"text":"A review of policy and legal frameworks in the Mekong and Volta basins is provided by de Silva ( 2014). This study highlights where ES are explicitly recognized, incorporated into policy and regulatory frameworks, and put into practice. According to de Silva (2014), in the legal and policy framework in the Volta Basin countries, practices are extensively and explicitly dealt with, although support to human well-being remains largely unrealized. This probably indicates that more is needed beyond setting an appropriate policy/regulatory framework."}]},{"head":"RESULTS AND DISCUSSION","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Results from the Key Informant Interviews and Group Discussions","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"Major stakeholders in the BER are Bureaus of Agriculture (BoAs), land use and land administration (LULA) office, Oromia Institute of Agricultural Research (OIAR), hydropower operators in the Wabi Shebelle and Genale Basins, urban water supply authorities, local communities, Oromia Forest and Wildlife Enterprise (OFWE), and NGOs. Key informant interviews were conducted with the Malka Wakana Hydropower Plant (potential buyer), BoA and LULA in West Arsi zone (capital Adaba) and Bale zone (as potential intermediaries), Goba Urban Water Supply Authority (potential buyer) and OFWE (potential intermediary). The local communities are envisaged as potential sellers."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"Group interviews were carried out with members of the Wesha Watershed Committee (potential seller). Wesha micro-watershed is part of the Malka Wakana catchment. The interviews aimed to: (i) understand the severity of ecosystem problems in BER; (ii) identify past and current watershed interventions; (iii) identify the roles of important stakeholders in the eco-region; and (iv) identify whether the existing land and water policies adequately addressed incentives of the local community and the prospects for market policy instruments, such as PES, to be institutionalized in the BER."}]},{"head":"Potential Intermediaries in Bale Zone","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"In the Bale Zone, which is part of the BER (Figure 1), the main ecosystem problems reported are deforestation caused by agricultural expansion and illegal settlement in the forest area by those coming from other areas (from Harar, Sidama, etc.), cultivation of cash crops in the forest area and overgrazing, especially in the lowland areas."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"The following interventions were implemented in the BER to reduce the problems: reforestation and afforestation, prohibiting people from clearing existing forest, SWC (both physical and biological measures mentioned previously) in degraded areas, area exclosures and range management, especially in the lowland areas. Area exclosures are reported to be most successful in rehabilitating the environment and supplying feed for livestock. Through training and awareness creation, support was provided to extension agents and a segment of the local population on the importance of area exclosures."},{"index":3,"size":92,"text":"One of the major issues reported in the Bale Zone, in relation to watershed management, is that the BoA, LULA and OFWE do not work together. Collaboration between BoA and LULA exists only in theory; the land use office focuses on distributing land certificates to users. The offices have just started working together in delineating watersheds and preparing maps thereof, including enclosed areas, etc., which will hopefully foster more effective collaboration in the future. Forest fire protection and management is entirely the responsibility of BoA. Moreover, OFWE provided seeds for seedling development."},{"index":4,"size":48,"text":"Lack of incentives to the local community to sustainably rehabilitate watersheds is a major challenge. Free grazing and destruction of SWC structures by livestock is a critical challenge in the region. There is also conflict of interest on sharing benefits in the area exclosures between members of communities."},{"index":5,"size":80,"text":"To improve the quality and quantity of interventions in the area, the following recommendations were made: support the physical SWC measures by biological measures; starting from the regional office, the government should give attention to watershed management; creating awareness; protection of the existing forest from the risk of fires; illegal settlement; encroachment; provision of training and material support for communities participating in watershed management; and strengthening CBOs, such as forest dwellers' associations, to protect illegal settlement in the forest areas."},{"index":6,"size":52,"text":"Future interventions are planned in the areas of SWC and gully rehabilitation, strengthening forest guarding through training and material support, training of members of Participatory Forest Management (PFM) (a local forest management group) on leadership and financial management, legal settlement, forest fire management, and promoting the cultivation of fruit and fodder trees."}]},{"head":"Potential Intermediaries in the West Arsi Zone","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"The major ecosystem-related problems in the West Arsi side of BER are soil erosion, deforestation and water shortage causing recurrent food insecurity. The proximate causes of these ecosystem problems are lack of awareness of the local population about the use of natural resources and consequences of ecosystem degradation, and the lack of materials, finance and technical expertise to undertake required NRM measures. The absence of incentives is the underlying factor for failure to implement conservation interventions in a sustainable manner. Current policy instruments to ensure that the local population undertakes NRM measures are focused on mass mobilization, experience sharing and awareness creation."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"There are ongoing watershed management interventions in eight kebeles in Adaba District (as indicated in Figure 1). These interventions focus on area exclosure, physical and biological SWC, and reforestation/afforestation. However, data are missing on the areas of reforestation and exclosures, the specific SWC measures that are being implemented, and the status and impact of these measures on the ecosystems. The specific measures were implemented through mass mobilization, training of experts -development agents (DAs), and providing support and seedlings to farmers."},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"Interviewees reported that the District BoA works closely with the district office of LULA and OFWE. Support is also provided by Farm Africa, SOS Sahel Ethiopia and Frankfurt Zoological Society (FZS)."},{"index":4,"size":71,"text":"The challenges of watershed management in the area could be addressed, if the ecosystem problems were clearly identified, attitudes of farmers towards the benefit of watershed management changed, physical and biological SWC measures implemented, farmers were trained on how to sustain forests, incentives were provided for the community (compensating farmers) through FFW programs, and rules and regulations of OFWE were changed, etc. The roles and responsibilities of OFWE are given below."},{"index":5,"size":47,"text":"Interviews with staff from the Adaba District office of LULA revealed that their role is to identify the major problems in the district, recommend interventions, develop land use maps of selected watersheds and conduct M&E of the interventions, and provide feedback to the implementer, the district BoA."},{"index":6,"size":111,"text":"According to the district office of LULA, the main causes of deforestation is agricultural expansion due to population pressure. The office indicated that there are ongoing interventions such as SWC and reforestation/afforestation by PFM to address these problems through community mass mobilization. The REDD+ project, responsible for reforestation and better forest management, is implemented in three kebeles in the district. They indicated that there are watershed technical teams at both the district and kebele levels. These teams comprise staff from LULA, BoA, pastoral and livestock bureau, cooperatives and OIAR. The main responsibilities of these technical teams are creating awareness, providing technical support, M&E of the activities and assessment of their impact."},{"index":7,"size":134,"text":"To improve the quality and quantity of the interventions, staff from the district office of LULA suggested improving the community's awareness of the importance of watershed management, changing current land use practices, providing training to agricultural experts and some members of the community, compensating farmers by means of FFW programs, creating public goods (by expanding infrastructure, such as roads, and social facilities, such as schools and medical centers), among others. Provision of technical equipment to agricultural experts (such as laptops, global positioning system (GPS), etc.), provision of financial support, and involving farmers in training are important to enhance the success of the interventions. Finally, LULA understands that providing incentives to farmers in the form of FFW programs (since many people in the area are food insecure) and by expanding infrastructure could sustain watershed interventions."}]},{"head":"Group Discussion with Potential Sellers and Stakeholder Analysis in the Bale Eco-region","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":"The interviews were followed by focus group discussions in Wesha kebele. In this kebele, a watershed committee was established in 2015 after a training in participatory watershed management (PWSM) was conducted by the Water and Land Resource Centre (WLRC), Farm Africa and the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) during the period November 23-December 4, 2015. Seven Wesha watershed committee members participated in the focus group discussions; three women and four men. We asked how the committee was organized. According to the focus groups, the committee was selected by the community and they participated in training. The total number of members in the Wesha kebele watershed committee is 14 (comprising 10 men and four women). The main responsibilities of the committee are as follows:"},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"1."},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"Creating awareness in the community on the importance of participating in watershed rehabilitation."}]},{"head":"2.","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Identifying people who participate and do not participate in the watershed program."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"3, Protecting the forest from being cleared."}]},{"head":"4.","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Reporting on the work carried out to the concerned bodies."}]},{"head":"5.","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Planning and monitoring watershed management work."},{"index":2,"size":129,"text":"Members of the committee indicated erosion and deforestation as the main features of ecosystem degradation in their kebele. Deforestation increased (through the illegal clearing of forest) during the recent political instability in the area. Productivity of land is reported to be very low due to high soil erosion in the area. They reported that there are ongoing interventions such as SWC and reforestation/afforestation through community mass mobilization to reduce problems in the area, even if it is perceived to be insufficient. The focus groups reported that the impact of those interventions is high following the implementation of the current Wesha watershed management committee. However, there is no tangible evidence on the ground to substantiate this assessment. Nonetheless, it is a good first step for watershed management in the catchment."},{"index":3,"size":138,"text":"Moreover, the focus groups suggested that the quality and quantity of watershed management could be improved if all institutions worked together, incentives are provided, awareness and training programs are offered for the watershed committee, etc. In Figure 2, the group showed the size, importance and interrelations of institutions and organizations providing services in the area using a Venn and flow diagram. Accordingly, BoA, LULA, OFWE, livestock office, health office, and NGOs such as FZS and Bruk Ethiopia have a stronger link, all working on watershed management and agricultural development. FZS, SNV, Bruk Ethiopia, livestock office and health office have weak links among each other. Other relevant institutions, such as OIAR, Ethiopian Electric Power (EEP) and urban water supply authorities, were not mentioned as they are perceived to have only a very small role to play in watershed management."}]},{"head":"Discussion with Malka Wakana Hydropower Station -Potential Buyer","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"MoWIE has an institutional structure which integrates the areas of water and sanitation, irrigation development, basin management and electricity. This is a good institutional basis for promoting PES as a financial mechanism for sustainable watershed management, considering EEP and urban water supply authorities as potential buyers. However, the integration is more structural than functional, as shown below."},{"index":2,"size":132,"text":"Discussions were held with the head of operation and maintenance at EEP (in the central office) on its scope and role in watershed management. The head indicated that EEP generates and sells power to consumers mainly from hydropower plants, but does not \"own\" the dams it uses to generate energy. The dams are owned by MoWIE and they are responsible for their safety. MoWIE collects data related to inflow, including sediment load, and is responsible for maintenance of the dams. However, watershed management and NRM, in general, are the responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources (MoANR) (FDRE 2005b). Although EEP is keen to be involved in a PES scheme, this could pose a problem because MoANR is responsible for undertaking watershed rehabilitation and MoWIE is responsible for dam safety."},{"index":3,"size":48,"text":"In the Malka Wakana scheme, we conducted a KII with the engineer of a hydropower plant and his deputy. The Malka Wakana hydropower plant, which is located in the upper part of the Wabi Shebelle River Basin of Ethiopia, is a single purpose scheme (Bosona and Gebresenbet 2010)."},{"index":4,"size":75,"text":"Although the hydropower potential of the Wabi Shebelle Basin is estimated at 5,400 gigawatt hours (GWh)/year, the Malka Wakana scheme is the only existing hydropower plant under operation in the river basin (Bosona and Gebresenbet 2010). This hydropower plant was commissioned in 1988 to produce 153 megawatts (MW) of hydroelectric power. The plant has four units of 38.25 MW, designed to produce annual firm energy of 434 GWh and annual average energy of 543 GWh."},{"index":5,"size":316,"text":"The total capacity of the dam is 763 million cubic meters (Mm 3 ) with a live storage capacity of 606 Mm 3 (Bosona and Gebresenbet 2010). The design life of the Malka Wakana hydropower scheme is 50 years. Currently, the dam has been operational for 30 years. The Malka Wakana watershed has a catchment area of 5,300 km 2 with five tributaries flowing into the dam. The sediment load entering the dam and its effect on the dam life is not known (in the section Introducing PES in Malka Wakana watershed, a quantification of sediment load based on secondary data is presented). In terms of design, a bottom structure is in place to flush sediments accumulated. However, the outlet has never been opened due to the fear that it would not close again. There are concerns now for more sediments, including those sourced from the buffer zone set up to protect the dam, entering the dam as more households are settling in and cultivating the area. Farmers demand land compensation from the government. Land in Ethiopia is not privately owned. The government can confiscate land being used by farmers when it is needed for developing infrastructure with or without the provision of adequate compensation. The development of the Malka Wakana scheme in the 1980s was carried out in this way. The legal framework for rural land compensation was developed later (FDRE 2005d). Discussions are ongoing right now to explore whether land could be acquired from a neighboring state farm. The Malka Wakana scheme has started to address part of the farmers' demands by providing electric power to social institutions such as schools, clinics and mosques. During the discussions, it was understood that sediments have little impact on the wear and tear of blades of turbines, because mesh wire below the dam and above the powerhouse is used to filter water before it enters the turbines."},{"index":6,"size":207,"text":"Nonetheless, the authorities in Malka Wakana understood the importance of watershed management in reducing sediment inflow to the reservoir. To make this effort sustainable, a PES scheme could be designed in the Malka Wakana watershed, involving all the relevant stakeholders, including EEP. EEP is also operating another dam in the BER (Genale Dawa III) and could be a partner in exploring the viability of PES, since the reservoir may experience high siltation rates that are typical for most reservoirs in Ethiopia (Guzman et al. 2013). High siltation rates may reduce storage capacity and associated operational power generation capacity of the dam and revenues for EEP. Given this scenario, EEP may be interested in initiatives in the catchment on conservation that would increase the financial returns in their dam operation. They argued that protecting the dam from siltation is the responsibility of MoWIE, and there are ongoing interventions by this ministry in providing money to another close ministry, MoANR, responsible for watershed management. However, as far as EEP, in general, and Malka Wakana are concerned, there is no budget to finance watershed programs. The head of the power generation and operation department must forward this additional responsibility of EEP, which MoWIE and higher bodies would need to endorse."}]},{"head":"Discussion with Goba City Water Supply Authority -Potential Buyer","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"The main source of water supply for Goba town (indicated on Figure 1) is water diverted from the Togona River and stored in reservoirs. After treatment (using the sand filter system and chemicals), water is distributed to the community in the town which currently has an estimated population of 43,000. The reservoir holds 2,000 m 3 at a time, and 1,555 m 3 of water is delivered to consumers daily. Three additional deep wells have been dug to cater for the growing water demand of Goba town, while water supply from Togona River is becoming more unreliable due to siltation caused by deforestation and climate change."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"Togona River emerges from the Togona watershed located in the Bale highlands. The Garbra Gurach Lake, which lies at 6°52'01.7N, 39°49›17.3\"E at 3,950 masl, occupies a glacial cirque at the head of the northeast-facing Togona valley, and is the source of Togona River (Kebede 2013)."},{"index":3,"size":157,"text":"The head of Water Supply Authority indicated that successful watershed management is very important for the improvement of water supply to the town. In the past, siltation was not a serious problem because the upper watershed feeding the Togona River was well protected by forest. However, siltation is becoming serious due to high rates of deforestation in the upper Togona watershed. To overcome the emerging problem of siltation of the reservoir, and to maintain a stable and reliable flow in the Togona River, which in turn is affected by climate change and variability, sustainable watershed rehabilitation is important. Besides, increasing and stabilizing the water supply, and maintaining or rehabilitating forest cover in the watershed reduces the cost of water treatment (Stolton and Dudley 2007;TNC 2015). Therefore, Goba town water supply authority may contribute to watershed rehabilitation in the Togona watershed, being a potential buyer in a PES scheme. This may require overcoming the institutional hurdles described below."}]},{"head":"Discussion with Oromia Forest and Wildlife Enterprise (OFWE) -Potential Intermediary","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"According to OFWE, the BER has 450,000 hectares of forest excluding woodland 5 . OFWE was established to conserve forests in the region. It is managed by the management board and has nine branches. The main activities of OFWE are aimed at conserving the forest for future generations. Activities include teaching the community how to use the forest (how the community lives with the forest), engaging in reforestation/afforestation programs and enriching plantations, and distributing seedlings to the community. Moreover, OFWE supports the local community in organizing and empowering CBOs. Finally, OFWE protects against the clearing of, and combats illegal settlement in, forest."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"OFWE is an independent organization. There is no budget provided by the government for the enterprise. The source of finance for the enterprise is through legally harvesting timber and hunting wildlife. They harvest exotic species and replace it with local plant varieties."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"According to OFWE, the major ecosystem problems in the BER are agricultural expansion due to population growth, illegal settlement in the forest by people coming from Harar, Sidama and other districts within the BER, and increasing forest clearance and soil erosion due, partly, to limited awareness of people on how to live with the forest."},{"index":4,"size":164,"text":"OFWE works closely with communities through PFM, a local forest management group, to conserve forest in the BER. PFM (also called community-based forest management [CBFM]) are expected to create the incentives and behavioral changes required for appropriate forest management. Forest area is demarcated and enforcement measures are devised to punish people who clear forest in demarcated areas. OFWE works closely with local communities, government organizations and NGOs such as Farm Africa via a project engaged in reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, and enhancement of carbon stocks (called REDD+). REDD+ is a mechanism being developed by parties of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), which seeks to reward developing countries for reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation through better management of forest areas. REDD+ projects are also expected to deliver significant eco-benefits, such as improved hydrological functioning, support for forest-dependent livelihoods and the control of soil erosion. However, monitoring of these eco-benefits is still lacking (Watson et al. 2013)."},{"index":5,"size":61,"text":"The role of REDD+ in watershed management is training of farmers, improving benefits from forests (honey, coffee, etc.), supporting farmers in credit availability, promoting multipurpose trees/ crops, strengthening initiatives in introducing fodder trees (in Dinsho and Chamo watersheds), scaling up experiences by PFM in selected watersheds, and water harvesting in the lowlands to minimize outmigration of livestock to the forest area."},{"index":6,"size":75,"text":"To protect natural resources in a sustainable manner in the area, OFWE sees many activities that can work well. Some of these activities include implementing projects such as REDD+ (especially in the forest area), promoting NTFPs such as honey and forest coffee, facilitating credit for farmers, strengthening and empowering forest dwellers' association, expanding water harvesting technologies, especially in the lowland area, increasing productivity using modern technologies, and working with stakeholders such as Madda Walabu University."}]},{"head":"GLOBAL EXPERIENCES IN PAYMENTS FOR ECOSYSTEM SERVICES Successful PES Schemes in Latin America and Asia","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"From a watershed perspective, various forms of land degradation have (as indicated in the Introduction section) on-site and off-site effects. To minimize those effects and promote waterrelated ES, it is critical to undertake sustainable watershed rehabilitation measures, which may need some financing mechanism such as PES. Through these mechanisms, benefits of the rehabilitation measures, as positive externalities, to service users (e.g., hydropower plant, water supply authority, biodiversity institute, pharmaceutical companies, global community, etc.) are generated. PES aims at internalizing these benefits and channeling them to the service providers (e.g., the upstream communities) as an incentive to pursue sustainable watershed management practices."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"Nowadays, there are various global experiences in PES and climate financing projects which could provide useful lessons that help to understand what is important in designing new schemes."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"According to Wunder (2005Wunder ( , 2015)), the specific features of PES are as follows:"},{"index":4,"size":1,"text":"a."},{"index":5,"size":6,"text":"Transaction is voluntary and legally binding."},{"index":6,"size":16,"text":"b. Ecosystem services and/or land use changes that need to deliver the intended services are well-defined/valued."},{"index":7,"size":6,"text":"c. Minimum of one service buyer/user."},{"index":8,"size":7,"text":"d. Minimum of one ecosystem service seller/provider."},{"index":9,"size":1,"text":"e."},{"index":10,"size":48,"text":"Payments are conditional on continued provision of the ecosystem service by the seller/ provider. The scale of the project, how benefits will be measured, the stakeholders, the drivers and the payment structure dictate the ways in which an effective payment scheme for water-related ES are structured (Greiber 2009)."},{"index":11,"size":71,"text":"PES schemes have been successfully implemented in Latin America and Asia, and there are some cases of such schemes in Africa (e.g., carbon market-related scheme -Water Fund in Nairobi, Kenya [TNC 2015]). Various examples of PES for water-related ecosystem services in Latin America and Asia for improvement of hydrological services, protection of biodiversity, the landscape, carbon sequestration and other reasons have been documented (Porras et al. 2013;Kauffman 2014;Li et al. 2011)."},{"index":12,"size":60,"text":"From the review of experiences of payment mechanisms, the system structure and scale of application are heterogenous. PES can be implemented at micro-watershed or basin scale. It can be initiated by the government (see Box 1), private sector (see Box 2) or other stakeholders (see Box 3). Governments could, therefore, be supporters of PES schemes (e.g., by generating revolving funds)."},{"index":13,"size":81,"text":"The interventions required to rehabilitate ES must be clearly defined, and changes due to the rehabilitation process regularly monitored. All PES actors, suppliers, buyers and intermediaries clearly know their roles, and information flow between those actors are coordinated. Successful PES requires ensuring that implementation of the necessary interventions is carried out, thereby enabling service providers to make the necessary land use changes. Maintaining and monitoring data are critical. Thus, sound data management and data infrastructure are requirements of a PES scheme."},{"index":14,"size":126,"text":"Another fundamental lesson for a successful PES scheme is the presence of supporting legislation, be it forest law or land and water law (PES experiences in Costa Rica in Box 2 and Ecuador in Box 3). These legislative supports are necessary in enforcing the obligation of appropriate land use, follow the conditions recommended and agreed upon, and grant incentives to ecological service providers. An equally important requirement for a PES scheme is the presence of clear property regimes, land or forest ownership. In Costa Rica and Ecuador, forest owners are the ES providers whereas private or parastatal hydropower plants and municipalities are the ES users. In China, the landowners are millions of smallholders who have land use rights while the (local) governments are supporters of PES."},{"index":15,"size":173,"text":"Since a watershed financing mechanism requires the involvement of various stakeholders, ES providers and service users (buyers), looking beyond agriculture is necessary. In successful PES schemes, private or parastatal hydropower plants, municipalities and the global community have been key stakeholders. Moreover, the availability of sufficient financial benefits to farmers and the distribution of these benefits are important to ensure that land users will gain from the benefits and have incentives to actively participate in the maintenance of ES (Chamma and Asale 2014;de Silva 2014;Dirix et al. 2016). Key requirements of a PES scheme are summarized in Table 3. China's experience is also unique in the region being more endogenous than driven by external intervention, and perhaps explains the adaptation of the conventional PES approach into the country's 'eco-compensation' method, which accommodates a diverse range of mechanisms such as PES and other market and non-market mechanisms, all with the unifying objective of conserving and enhancing specific ecosystem types as providers of ES (de Silva 2014). We particularly review China's Sloping Land Conversion Program (SLCP)."},{"index":16,"size":39,"text":"The similarity in legal and policy frameworks, particularly the dominance of the state in the economic affairs, land property regimes and implementation approaches in watershed rehabilitation, between China and Ethiopia is the reason for including the revision of SLCP."},{"index":17,"size":113,"text":"The most notorious example of PES to combat land degradation is China's SLCP. It was initiated by the central government in 1999 with the goal of reducing water and soil erosion, by converting agricultural land on steeply sloping and marginal lands into forest. SLCP is one of the largest PES schemes in the world (Li et al. 2011). This experience is relevant to the BER because SLCP was a public scheme created to combat land degradation. In the BER, farmers use steep sloping and marginal lands as cropland, contrary to the existing land policy, and underlining the importance of the government's high involvement in watershed management and expected role in PES in Ethiopia."},{"index":18,"size":151,"text":"The Chinese government initiated the SLCP in 1999 to limit water and soil erosion through afforestation in three provinces. The program was formally launched nationwide in 2002. The SLCP was designed to convert 14.67 million hectares of farmland to forestland or grassland (4.4 million hectares of which is on land with slopes above 25 degrees), and an additional \"soft\" goal of afforesting a roughly equal area of denuded mountains and wasteland by 2010 (Liu 2014). The program is a public scheme, as compensation of farmers is fully paid for by the central government. However, the economic incentives of PES schemes were well designed to ensure sustainability and avoid 'leakage' (i.e., trade-offs) of the negative effects to other regions. Therefore, besides direct compensation of the farmers, the Chinese government has also created favorable tax conditions for forest products to make the conversion of farmland to forestland economically sustainable (Li et al. 2011)."},{"index":19,"size":121,"text":"The State Forestry Administration (SFA), charged by the State Council, and provincial and sub-provincial forestry bureaus, are primarily responsible for targeting areas of land for enrollment in the SLCP as well as in setting and distributing enrollment quotas to the local government (Zuo 2002). Local governments oversaw evaluating land plots. Households whose land plots fell into the planned project area were eligible to be involved in the program. The participant households were granted seedlings as well as technical guidance for planting, and they received subsidies on the condition that the survival rate of the planted trees on the sloping land reached 70% (Liu 2014). The Chinese government made some adjustments in 2007 focusing afforestation on barren mountains and wasteland (Liu 2014)."},{"index":20,"size":21,"text":"The impact of SLCP on increasing the forest cover is well documented, although its sustainability is questioned (Song et al. 2014)."}]},{"head":"Box 2. Experiences in Costa Rica.","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"Costa Rica's PES program is one of the best-known examples of its kind. The program was created in 1996, along with the initial governance structure allocating responsibilities and funding (Porras et al. 2013). In Costa Rica's Payments for Environmental Services Program (PESP), forest owners are compensated for the following services: protection of water for rural, urban or hydroelectric use; mitigation of greenhouse gases; and protection of biodiversity for conservation and landscape beauty for tourism."},{"index":2,"size":98,"text":"PES have been predominantly financed by receiving 3.5% of revenues from a sales tax on fossil fuels (there are voluntary deals from private and semi-public companies, and global funding from the World Bank through the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and individual countries such as Norway), but the objective is that all beneficiaries of environmental services eventually pay for the services they receive. The relevance of this example to the BER is that the government's role in the provision of seed money, whatever the source is, is important to kick-start selected schemes and gradually involve all the relevant stakeholders."},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"There has been some success in charging water users for upstream watershed management services, although there has been limited success in charging for biodiversity and carbon (Porras et al. 2013)."},{"index":4,"size":310,"text":"Outdated and ineffective laws and policies, such as the Forestry Law 7575 in 1996 and Biodiversity Law 7788 in 1998 were changed by Presidential Decree. This made conversion of established forests punishable by prison sentences, and introduced the offer of payments for reforesting, protecting forest or managing existing forest in private properties outside national parks (Porras et al. 2013). The Forestry Law also provided the institutional framework required to implement the PES program, as well as the initial funds needed to kick-start the process. Promulgating a new law in forest, land and water, and establishing the required institutional framework could be necessary in the case of BER, also another important lesson learned from PESP. Costa Rica's PES program acknowledges that owners of forests are entitled to apply for payments for the vital services that these ecosystems provide. A detailed framework defines these ecosystem services. The program is a mix of rules, regulations and rewards that invite stakeholders to respond to incentives and disincentives (Porras et al. 2013). This mix is a combination of policy instruments, which has evolved to influence the quantity and quality of biodiversity conservation and ecosystem service provision in public and private sectors. The legal underpinning establishes the structure by which the PESP secures funding, how it is managed and who is eligible to participate. Fondo Nacional de Financiamiento Forestal (FONAFIFO), the National Forestry Financing Fund, is the primary intermediary, another lesson for the BER to identify organizations that could serve as intermediary, charged with administrating the PES program. It signs legal contracts agreeing land use with forest owners, and monitors their compliance through local forestry technical facilitators (regentes forestales). In exchange for the payments, the landowners transfer the 'rights' of the ecosystem services to FONAFIFO, where they make up the wider portfolio of approved ES credits. FONAFIFO then sells some of these credits to its buyers."},{"index":5,"size":81,"text":"Since its inception, the program has had concrete positive impacts on forests through protection, reforestation and agroforestry systems (TEEB 2009;Porras et al. 2013). Looking forward, the program managers expect to increase its environmental effectiveness by defining and using 'priority criteria' for allocating payments, and targeting the areas that most need protection and/or regeneration. Other challenges include managing trade-offs, and attempts at using better indicators for monitoring ecosystem services (Porras et al. 2013), other important lessons for BER and beyond in Ethiopia."},{"index":6,"size":24,"text":"The experiences in Costa Rica show that PES evolves over time as new requirements and challenges emerge. For examples, see Porras et al. (2013)."}]},{"head":"Box 3. Experiences in Ecuador.","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"The PES experience in Ecuador is relevant for the BER because the problems are similar, i.e., there is high deforestation as a result of agricultural expansion. However, the use of a combination of government funds and innovative, voluntary and decentralized financing mechanisms for watershed management, the financial security achieved therein, the introduction of a drinking water fee and management of the water fund as a trust could be good lessons for Ethiopia when designing a PES scheme. A brief description of the experience in Ecuador is given below."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"Deforestation and burning of high Andean grassland (páramo) to expand agriculture, and the use of agrochemicals were major ecological problems in Ecuador. Conservation and sustainable use of forests and páramo in the upper areas are crucial to ensuring there is an adequate quantity of water that is of good quality available to downstream users (Kauffman 2014). This section summarizes the experiences in two pioneering models: Pimampiro's payments for environmental services (called the Pimampiro model) and Quito's water trust fund (Fondo para la Protección del Agua [FONAG])."},{"index":3,"size":182,"text":"Rather than turning to private markets or relying on the central government, in the Pimampiro model, the Ecuadorian community developed an innovative, voluntary and decentralized mechanism for financing watershed management. This independence, contractual arrangement, sustainable revenue stream and long-term horizon provided a level of political and financial security present in the water trust fund model, which is in contrast to typical payments for environmental services, where service users 'buy' these services from the 'providers', who enact land use practices to ensure that the services continue. In the FONAG model, the principal government acts as \"buyer\" of environmental services on behalf of the city's water users. In the Pimampiro model, the municipal government acts as \"buyer\" of watershed environmental services on behalf of the city's water users. The municipal Environment and Tourism Unit (Unidad de Medio Ambiente y Turismo [UMAT]) manages the program, which negotiates voluntary agreement with farmers in the catchment to conserve and sustainably manage the forest on their land in exchange for cash compensation. The payment to farmers is made through an ordinance levying a 20% fee on drinking water."},{"index":4,"size":154,"text":"On the other hand, in Quito's water trust fund, where it is one of Ecuador's water funds, is managed as a trust by financial institutions that are independent. As Kauffman (2014) indicated, this has several advantages: (i) The trust managers invest the fund's assets, i.e., money collected from watershed users, in financial markets and distribute the resulting interest income to service providers. This money could be used to finance a variety of watershed management and conservation activities specified in the contract; (ii) decisions on how to use the interest income is made by the fund's board of directors; (iii) water trust funds are contractual arrangements that define the role of the stakeholders and how the money should be used; (iv) water trust funds benefit from a wider variety of funding sources for watershed management activities; and (v) water trust funds have contracts which are of long time planning horizon, e.g., 80 years in FONAG."},{"index":5,"size":50,"text":"One of the achievements of the water trust fund is developing participatory institutions incorporating a greater number of stakeholders involved in identifying needs to developing and implementing projects financed through the funds, monitoring and providing oversight. The details of the institutional arrangements and their modalities are given in Kauffman (2014)."},{"index":6,"size":46,"text":"Through the fund, more than 65,000 ha of watersheds are now under improved management. Upstream farmers receive support in watershed management activities as opposed to cash payments. It is estimated that more than 1,800 people are receiving increased economic benefits associated with watershed management and conservation."},{"index":7,"size":125,"text":"FONAG and its later developments in the water trust fund have served to inspire the development of similar schemes elsewhere in Latin America and beyond. For example, in South Africa, where water forms one of the greatest constraints on development, a recently-launched initiative in the Maloti Drakensberg Mountains aims to implement a payment for watershed services program with support from the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the BASF Stiftung (UNEP 2010). This initiative will use payments from downstream users to support the restoration of dongas, improvement of grazing and veld fire management regimes to reduce sedimentation, and increase the quality and quantity of water flows. In doing so, employment will be generated for local households and the productive potential of agricultural activities should increase."},{"index":8,"size":59,"text":"These experiences reviewed could provide lessons for the BER in designing finance mechanisms such as PES by targeting the local community upstream and water infrastructure downstream, the main actors involved in the provision of drinking water and hydropower generation, involving the development of PES supporting legal and political framework and, probably, the introduction of revised water and energy fees."}]},{"head":"Carbon Offset Schemes","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"Widespread concern about global climate change has led to an interest in reducing emissions of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and, under certain circumstances, considering the additional carbon absorbed in soils and vegetation as part of the emission reduction (UNFCCC 2015). One option for slowing the increase of GHG concentrations in the atmosphere, and thus possible climate change, is to increase the amount of carbon removed by and stored in forests (Gorte 2009)."},{"index":2,"size":267,"text":"Carbon sequestration has been the focus of substantial controversy in international negotiations subsequent to the Kyoto Protocol 6 . Protecting forests in developing countries to earn credits has already started under the Kyoto Protocol. Mitigating climate change by enhancing forest carbon sequestration may be a relatively low-cost option and would likely yield other environmental benefits. However, forest carbon sequestration faces challenges, including difficulties in measuring the additional carbon stored (over and above what would naturally occur); monitoring and verifying the results; and preventing leakage 7 (Gorte 2009). As trees and other woody plants become established, carbon stored on the site increases as woody biomass increases and as annual vegetation (e.g., tree leaves and herbaceous plants) typically grows faster than it decomposes (see Table 4). Carbon sequestration and release vary substantially by forest. Nonetheless, some generalizations are possible (Gorte 2009). We can draw lessons from the experiences in Ethiopia, such as REDD+ (Watson 2013) and growing of wild forest coffee and wild honey in the BER, and forest-based PES under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) in Humbo. Several challenges were reported in the experience in Humbo, including the management of local community expectations as the income generated by carbon sales was lower than expected; the CDM registration process took a long time to complete; the project costs were beyond the means of the local community (and thereby requiring external assistance); and complications in the land tenure system and land fragmentation which meant that part of the area had to be dropped, thereby reducing the size of the forest and the emission reduction credits significantly (Chamma and Asale 2014)."}]},{"head":"SUITABLE FINANCING MECHANISM FOR THE BALE ECO-REGION Introducing PES in Malka Wakana Watershed","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"Evidence on rates of soil erosion in the study area is relatively scarce, with most data generated in northern Ethiopia and the central highlands (Haregeweyn et al. 2015). In relation to the effect of siltation on the dam, the management of the Malka Wakana hydropower plant suggests that sediment from the upstream areas may not pose a major problem, although there are no data to support this. No quantified effect of siltation on power generation of the dam is currently available. There was no bathymetric survey to quantify the volume of the dam occupied by sediments."},{"index":2,"size":339,"text":"We calculated soil erosion rates, as indicated in Table 5, based on data from the Wabi Shebelle Basin Master Plan. The figures indicate that about 0.73 Mm 3 of the dam is filled by sediments per year. This amounts to about 0.15% of the live storage capacity. If the annual sediment load entering the dam remains the same throughout the dam's life span, it implies that about 4.5% of live storage capacity is occupied by sediments by the end of its 30 th year, i.e., 2016. The results indicate that the estimated sediment load is not significant to affect the dam's life and energy generating capacity (Darde 2016). It is important to note that this estimate does not account for the degree of change in erosion status over time, the effects of ongoing interventions (if any) in the watershed, and the current effect of people's settlement and cultivation within the buffer zone. It is believed that watershed management is necessary to minimize the sediment inflow to the dam, not only for Malka Wakana. This may entail designing a financing mechanism to ensure that watersheds are rehabilitated and protected in the future. This may require introducing a new price regime of energy per kilowatt hour to the consumer by accounting for the cost of watershed management. It is possible to imagine that energy consumers will be willing to be part of a PES scheme provided that the watershed intervention alleviates their problems, there is less siltation and more reliable energy availability. Once that is assured, a mechanism will have to be created for resource transfer from EEP to the umbrella ministry, MoWIE, and then to MoANR or another intermediary agency. The latter, or a research organization, could be responsible for establishing the baseline and regularly monitoring the changes due to interventions planned to improve ES, as necessary. Regular monitoring of the sediment load transported by all tributaries of the Malka Wakana Dam is important. In this respect, establishing a sediment monitoring station at key points in the watershed is essential."}]},{"head":"REDD+ Project and Forest Management","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"Forest degradation is severe in Ethiopia and recent figures (World Bank 2015) indicated that forest cover reduced 28% from 167,350 km 2 in 2007 to 120,144 km 2 in 2012. In the BER, the average annual deforestation rate was estimated at 0.25%, based on remote sensing imagery (Farm Africa and SOS Sahel 2008). More recent data show a reduction in forest area (forest, woodlands, Erica forest) of about 2.3% during 2010-2014(IWMI 2016;;FAO 2016)."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"Proposals were developed in Bale to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, and enhancement of carbon stocks (REDD+), focusing on conservation, sustainable management and forest enhancement activities. Voluntary carbon markets (VCM) are the main platform through which emission reductions from forestry are currently traded (Diaz et al. 2011). The environmental integrity of REDD+ requires the generation of real, permanent and verifiable emission reductions (UNDP 2009)."},{"index":3,"size":120,"text":"In the BER, the REDD+ project emerged from a participatory forest management project which started in 2007 by two NGOs, Farm Africa and SOS Sahel Ethiopia. The participatory forest management project ended in 2012, with the REDD+ component of the project due to start in 2013. However, the new REDD+ project was designed to cover 500,000 ha surrounding the Bale Mountains National Park, which is one of the 34 global biodiversity hot spots. The project is expected to run for 20 years. According to the project feasibility study, an estimated 18 million tons of CO 2 emission reductions will be achieved, along with wider co-benefits such as the protection of biodiversity and provision of support to livelihoods dependent on NTFPs."},{"index":4,"size":51,"text":"Some studies indicate that there were uncertainties in the amount of emission reductions, because substantial uncertainty of forest carbon stock estimates (Watson et al. 2013) affecting revenue estimates. This basically shows the importance of having reliable baseline data and properly monitoring the changes that occur because of reforestation and improved management."}]},{"head":"Introducing PES in Goba Urban Water Supply","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"Now, local people are involved in clearing up the silt from reservoirs. However, no data are available on the number of people involved, frequency of clearance (number of times per year) and the amount of silt cleared from the reservoir. Such data will help to quantify the costs of silt clearance. Moreover, besides the general statement of water shortage, no data are available on how many times a year and the period for which water is not delivered."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"To improve the quality of interventions, the following points were raised during the KII: watershed management through mass mobilization is very important; protecting forest from deforestation by the community; creating awareness of the community about the impact of deforestation; and providing incentives to the community for sustainable watershed management."},{"index":3,"size":333,"text":"About PES for urban water supply, there are experiences in the world (New York, Quito, Nairobi, etc.) where the catchment of the water source is treated sustainably through a PES scheme, and the urban consumers also contribute to the cost of watershed management through payment of increased water fees (see Box 3). We believe that PES could be applied in Goba 8 , because the idea could be attractive to consumers, and the intervention will improve the quality and quantity of water. The challenge will be in identifying the source and quantifying the siltation load in the reservoir. In general, it requires an estimate of the cost of intervention versus the benefits that would arise (i.e., return on investment). Monitoring the impact of the intervention is necessary because effective implementation of PES is dependent on the principle of conditionality. It is possible to imagine that water consumers will be willing to pay for a PES scheme provided that the watershed intervention alleviates their problems, there is less siltation and limited water shortage. The head of the water supply authority reiterated that it will be actively involved in a PES scheme. However, the head indicated that the Goba Urban Water Supply Authority is accountable to the Regional Bureau of Energy and Water, which is linked with MoWIE at the federal level. These offices must endorse the idea first before the local authority can allocate any budget and incorporate costs into water bills for consumers. If such a scheme involving the municipality and the local community failed to work, because of the structural barrier just indicated, another option could be envisaged. Like the experience in the Upper Tana-Nairobi Water Fund (TNC 2015), a fund could be established by a consortium of \"buyers\" by combining hydropower, municipalities and payment for carbon, so that together there is sufficient money to pay providers for a bundle of services. The absence of large industries/large farms in the BER should not rule out the possibility of establishing a water fund."}]},{"head":"MAJOR CHALLENGES IN INSTITUTIONALIZING A MARKET FINANCING MECHANISM FOR WATERSHED MANAGEMENT IN THE BALE ECO-REGION","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"Although NRM and watershed rehabilitation have been practiced in Ethiopia since the mid-1970s, there are limitations in the policy environment, implementation and control, lack of cross-sectoral collaborations and general gaps in capacities across government institutions responsible for the management of natural resources. The technical capacity of the experts interviewed is lacking. The availability of guidelines is important (e.g., Hurni et al. 2016 and others) to ameliorate limitations of regional and district-level experts."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"A financing mechanism for sustainable watershed management in the BER should go beyond agriculture. This point is important in the light of thinking in introducing PES or participating in global climate finance schemes."},{"index":3,"size":215,"text":"Another observation is the lack of data on biophysical processes at the watershed level (soil erosion), hydrological processes and its impact on siltation rates in the reservoir. Data on deforestation rate, area deforested, erosion rates of rehabilitated and degrading landscapes, inflow data to water reservoirs, etc., are not easily available. Existing data are not adequate to support the sustainable rehabilitation of the watershed through designing appropriate financing mechanisms that minimize the siltation of reservoirs or participating in global climate financing schemes. Existing data may not support the establishment of PES in hydropower generation, water supply, carbon trading, etc. Continuous monitoring of the off-site impacts of land degradation on hydrological processes, siltation of water bodies such as hydropower plants, urban water supply, irrigation reservoirs and other ES may require the establishment of hydro-sediment monitoring stations at key river sites, and this is a prerequisite for an information-based watershed financing scheme. Moreover, incentives mean lack of direct material rewards, wage in kind on FFW programs, to participate in watershed rehabilitation. However, it could go beyond direct material rewards, for instance, establishing a well-defined and secure property system, not necessarily private holding, and establishing public infrastructure that could benefit the community. This could be important in the light of institutionalizing PES and participating in global climate financing schemes."},{"index":4,"size":79,"text":"Scanning the institutional framework in Ethiopia highlights the importance of institutional reforms to support PES. The policy framework should stipulate the importance of incentives and market mechanisms for sustainable financing and organizational structures that are conducive for undertaking interventions in watershed rehabilitation. The regulatory organ, the environment agency, now within the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC), has an important role to play in enforcing what is stipulated in the land and water (generally the environment) policy."},{"index":5,"size":69,"text":"Establishing a PES scheme in the BER or elsewhere requires addressing the institutional gaps just indicated, clearly defining service providers and their roles, commitments and the type and level of compensation, buyer's role and contribution (payment) to PES, and intermediary's role in data monitoring and fund management. Clear definition of the PES actors is crucial alongside establishing a favorable policy and legal framework for market mechanisms in watershed management."}]},{"head":"CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"Land degradation, taking forms of soil erosion, nutrient depletion and deforestation, has been a growing policy and academic concern in Ethiopia for the past five decades or so. Many research outputs have been developed in relation to land degradation. However, most of the literature published focuses on investigating factors for the adoption of conservation measures (World Bank 2007), impacts on crop yield (Kassie et al. 2008), and the impact of watershed interventions on the hydrology, vegetation and people's livelihoods (Gebregziabher et al. 2016). In contrast, exploring alternative financing mechanisms for sustainable watershed management, and quantifying the on-site and off-site effects of land degradation have been given little attention to date."},{"index":2,"size":107,"text":"Past NRM and watershed management interventions were carried out using mass mobilization and FFW programs. Designing financing mechanisms requires looking beyond these mechanisms and just the agriculture sector (e.g., hydropower, urban water supply, global climate financing, etc.). If it is to be sustainable, it requires the introduction of market mechanisms (such as waterbased PES/forest-based PES not necessarily through the involvement of climate finance). However, institutionalizing these market mechanisms requires establishing the baseline data and evidence of changes (requiring regular monitoring) due to the interventions. Establishing hydrological and sediment monitoring stations in the main rivers feeding water reservoirs, sources of irrigation, hydropower and water supply is, thus, essential."},{"index":3,"size":144,"text":"When considering the existing policy framework, it seems that EPIs have largely focused on command and control mechanisms instead of incentives and market mechanisms for ensuring sustainable watershed management. This study does not discount the role of collective management in watershed rehabilitation. However, it argues that collective action is necessary, but not a sufficient condition for sustainable watershed rehabilitation. New water and forest policies are recommended that make conversion of established forests into agricultural land punishable by law, introduce the offer of payments for reforesting, protecting forest or managing existing forest, and conservation of land through required land use changes. Involving the community through a forest management platform (Robinson et al. 2013) is in the right direction, but awarding formal land titles on forests to local communities can advance forest conservation (Blackman et al. 2017), providing additional incentives to local communities in the BER."},{"index":4,"size":104,"text":"EEP uses water infrastructure to draw benefits (such as producing and selling power), but it is not directly responsible for the safety of its dams. MoWIE owns the water infrastructure and is responsible for its maintenance. However, MoANR is responsible for NRM and watershed rehabilitation in the country, which are directly important for the safety of dams. Dam safety requirements and promotion of future PES schemes in selected watersheds call for fostering a stronger partnership between MoWIE and MoANR. It is crucial to undertake the required institutional/policy changes to create a more conducive environment for successful implementation of a PES scheme in the BER."},{"index":5,"size":168,"text":"Finally, MoEFCC could be an important stakeholder, together with MoWIE and MoANR, in water-based or forest-based PES schemes in Ethiopia. PES schemes can work in the long run, provided that hydrological and sediment monitoring capacities are in place, so that data provide the necessary evidence for (positive) changes due to land use changes or watershed rehabilitation. Water-related or forest-based PES may also require developing business models that relate to the impacts of such investments on water quantity and quality, increase in energy generation and crop productivity, on-site long-term investments in watershed conservation and management, and action plans which detail the key steps to be undertaken to move towards the next stages. Developing these action points and the necessary steps to be taken for water-related or forest-based PES in the BER is thus important. Once the action points are clearly defined and undertaken, it will be necessary to pilot the PES scheme in selected micro-watersheds. However, piloting PES in the BER, in the current institutional environment, is not possible."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"FIGURE 1 . FIGURE 1. Location of the Bale Eco-region in Ethiopia, including woredas and altitude. "},{"text":"FIGURE 2 . FIGURE 2. Stakeholder involvement in the Wesha watershed. "},{"text":"TABLE 1 . Main policy instruments in environmental (land and water) management. Policy instruments Description Challenges Environmental issues Policy instrumentsDescriptionChallengesEnvironmental issues Information and Labels, awareness Labels and capacity Energy efficiency, Information andLabels, awarenessLabels and capacityEnergy efficiency, education creation and education building measures SWC educationcreation and educationbuilding measuresSWC Direct regulations/ Set regulations based on Regular monitoring and Environmental Direct regulations/Set regulations based onRegular monitoring andEnvironmental standards environmental standards evaluation (M&E) pollution standardsenvironmental standardsevaluation (M&E)pollution Economic instruments: Optimize farm input use, Market conditions, Farm inputs, energy Economic instruments: Optimize farm input use,Market conditions,Farm inputs, energy Subsidies/taxes, pollution tax, pollutant elasticity of demand of (carbon) tax, waste Subsidies/taxes,pollution tax, pollutantelasticity of demand of(carbon) tax, waste charges and penalties technologies and subsidies policy instruments collection, forest charges and penaltiestechnologies and subsidiespolicy instrumentscollection, forest  for the adoption of clean  management for the adoption of cleanmanagement  technologies or   technologies or  undertaking clearance   undertaking clearance Economic instruments: Emission permit, marketable Baseline data -forest cover, PES, carbon trading Economic instruments: Emission permit, marketableBaseline data -forest cover,PES, carbon trading Tradable permits mechanism of transfer of monitoring (recording) (e.g., REDD+) Tradable permitsmechanism of transfer ofmonitoring (recording)(e.g., REDD+)  costs and benefits changes over time  costs and benefitschanges over time Patenting and Defining property rights of Costly Research and Patenting andDefining property rights ofCostlyResearch and certification (property resources, innovation  development (R&D), certification (propertyresources, innovationdevelopment (R&D), rights)   cadastral (low cost) rights)cadastral (low cost)    land registration and land registration and    certification, certification,    innovation innovation Public programs Mobilizing people to Not sustainable Conservation of Public programsMobilizing people toNot sustainableConservation of (Productive Safety annual SWC  cultivable land, (Productive Safetyannual SWCcultivable land, Net Program, Food-   watershed management Net Program, Food-watershed management For-Work, Cash-    For-Work, Cash- For-Work/Free labor    For-Work/Free labor contribution, etc.)    contribution, etc.) Source: Adapted from Awulachew et al. 2012.   Source: Adapted from Awulachew et al. 2012. Note: REDD+ = Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation  Note: REDD+ = Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation  "},{"text":"TABLE 2 . Types of PES schemes and related legal frameworks. Public PES scheme High Promote PES development Public PES schemeHighPromote PES development   Create legal certainty Create legal certainty   Ensure good governance Ensure good governance  "},{"text":"TABLE 3 . Summary of requirements of a workable PES scheme. Scale of Information Definition of the Role Conditionality Establishment of Scale ofInformationDefinition of theRoleConditionalityEstablishment of application flow services of actors  watershed fund applicationflowservicesof actorswatershed fund Micro-watershed, Coordinated Interventions and Clear definiton of Service sellers have Involvement of Micro-watershed, Coordinated Interventions andClear definiton of Service sellers have Involvement of watershed,  targets clearly role: Seller, buyer to make sustainable many watershed,targets clearlyrole: Seller, buyer to make sustainable many national or basin  defined and and intermediaries investments stakeholders; national or basindefined andand intermediaries investmentsstakeholders;   monitored  (including land use  monitored(including land use     changes) so that the Prudent changes) so that the Prudent     ES are provided and financial ES are provided and financial     buyers will pay for management buyers will pay formanagement     the services  the services     Technical capacities  Technical capacities     of the service  of the service     provider (or third  provider (or third     party) and service  party) and service     user  user  "},{"text":"Experiences in China.   "},{"text":"TABLE 4 . Average carbon stocks for various biomes (in tons per acre * ). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (cited inGorte 2009). * The weighted average takes into account other biomes including temperate and tundra(Gorte 2009). Biome Plants Soil Total BiomePlantsSoilTotal Tropical forests 54 55 109 Tropical forests5455109 Boreal forests 29 153 182 Boreal forests29153182 Croplands 1 36 37 Croplands13637 Tropical savannas 13 52 65 Tropical savannas135265 Wetlands 19 287 306 Wetlands19287306 Weighted average ** 14 59 73 Weighted average **145973 Note: * 1 acre = 0.404686 hectares.   Note: * 1 acre = 0.404686 hectares.  "},{"text":"TABLE 5 . Mean annual suspended sediment load transported at selected sites in the Wabi Shebelle Basin. River Location Watershed Annual Volume Volume Tons per RiverLocationWatershedAnnualVolumeVolumeTons per   area (km 2 ) suspended  per unit km 2 area (km 2 )suspendedper unitkm 2    sediment  area  sedimentarea    load    load    transported (S = 1.5) (m 3 /km 2 ) Calculated transported(S = 1.5)(m 3 /km 2 )Calculated    (million tons) (Mm 3 )   (million tons) (Mm 3 ) Wabi Shebelle at Longitude, 39,4, 4,388 0.11 0.073 17 25 Wabi Shebelle at Longitude, 39,4,4,3880.110.0731725 Malka Wakana Latitude, 7,2166,      Malka Wakana Latitude, 7,2166, Wabi Shebelle at Longitude, 42,28333, 63,644 8 5.33 83 126 Wabi Shebelle at Longitude, 42,28333,63,64485.3383126 Hamero Hedad Latitude, 7,36666      Hamero Hedad Latitude, 7,36666 Dakata at Hamero 15,188 5 3.33 220 329 Dakata at Hamero15,18853.33220329 Hedad       Hedad Wabi Shebelle  127,300 15 10 78 118 Wabi Shebelle127,300151078118 at Gode       at Gode Wabi Shebelle  144,000 0.75 0.5 3 5 Wabi Shebelle144,0000.750.535 at Burkur       at Burkur Fafen at Kebri  25,600 2.5 1.66 65 98 Fafen at Kebri25,6002.51.666598 Dahar       Dahar  "}],"sieverID":"9969c3d5-e390-4efd-b5d2-d2181fa70d3c","abstract":"The publications in this series record the work and thinking of IWMI researchers, and knowledge that the Institute's scientific management feels is worthy of documenting. This series will ensure that scientific data and other information gathered or prepared as a part of the research work of the Institute are recorded and referenced. Working Papers could include project reports, case studies, conference or workshop proceedings, discussion papers or reports on progress of research, country-specific research reports, monographs, etc. Working Papers may be copublished, by IWMI and partner organizations.Although most of the reports are published by IWMI staff and their collaborators, we welcome contributions from others. Each report is reviewed internally by IWMI staff. The reports are published and distributed both in hard copy and electronically (www.iwmi.org) and where possible all data and analyses will be available as separate downloadable files. Reports may be copied freely and cited with due acknowledgment."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0a34b703610ea035b04a66bbc4674daa","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/cacc2af3-910a-42a7-bd4b-19783d593ac2/retrieve"},"pageCount":41,"title":"ADD Agriculture Development Division, Malawi AFRISEED Afriseed-Steward Globe Limited (Zambia) AGRA Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Summary","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"This reporting period was beset by limited funding and the Project Management directed support to short-term activities, many of which would be covering loose ends of research that was considered to be near completion, or with critical long-term continuity, or was needed to draft technical documentation/ identification of development partners for taking technologies to scale."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"Field activities were implemented in Kongwa and Kiteto to meet requirements for completion of final evaluation for release of a new cohort of crop varieties -sorghum, pearl millet, groundnut and drought tolerant maize -specifically targeting drought-prone areas. Over the last seasons, these new materials have exhibited a relatively higher yield advantage over the currently used commercial varieties and landraces in the semi-arid zones of central Tanzania."},{"index":3,"size":84,"text":"Improving delivery of seed for such new varieties is being addressed, first by the bulking of breeder seed by Africa RISING research partner institutions (IITA, CRISAT, ARI-Naliendele, ZARI-Msekera); secondly by strategically partnering with seed companies to produce hybrid and foundation seed (e.g., Meru-Agro, Drylands Agricultural Investment Ltd, Good Nature Agro); and thirdly by promoting \"Community Seed Banks\" (CSB) for the production of Quality Declared Seed (QDS). Beneficiary tracking studies are being conducted to provide evidence of the benefits of CSB in Kongwa and Kiteto."},{"index":4,"size":127,"text":"A spatially-explicit analysis of long-term rainfall trends (37 years) in seven East and Southern African countries was undertaken to identify changes in agricultural potential resulting from a significant decrease or increase in rainfall over time. Mapping of rainfall trends has the potential to guide spatial targeting of climate smart agriculture (CSA) technologies. Preliminary analysis shows that two contiguous zones with significant increase in annual rainfall (3 -15 mm/yr) occurred in Southwest Zambia and in the Northern Lake Victoria Basin between Kenya and Uganda, while significant decreases in annual rainfall ranging between -4 and -10 mm/yr were observed in Southwest Tanzania and Central-South Kenya as well as Central Uganda and Western Rwanda. This analysis complements other land use suitability mapping approaches that are being applied in Africa RISING."},{"index":5,"size":60,"text":"Long term in situ water harvesting experiments have continued into Year 3 in Kongwa and Kiteto, to evaluate the effect of residual tied-ridging on cropping and soil and water conservation. The water harvesting treatments are complemented by the application of fertilizers. Similar studies are being conducted in Malawi, but also include legume components such as the groundnut -pigeonpea doubled-up option."},{"index":6,"size":60,"text":"In Babati, new cereal/legume intercropping arrangements are being evaluated, especially aiming at increasing performance of intercropped pigeonpea. The arrangements include doubling-up with the common-bean, coppicing maize at physiological maturity to allow more light to the pigeonpea, and a combined maize-bean-pigeonpea intercrop, code named \"Mbili-Mbili intercropping\". Maize crop characteristics in the sole crop were similar to those in the Mbili-Mbili system."},{"index":7,"size":40,"text":"In Zambia, studies on cereal/legume cropping systems continued with evaluating (i) the doubled-up legume technologies under CA, (ii) maize-pigeonpea-green manure cover crop systems (iii) pigeonpea ratooning, and (iv) different Gliricidia intercropping strategies. Field trials of these studies were established successfully."},{"index":8,"size":57,"text":"Studies are continuing on high-value off-season vegetable growing in screen houses under irrigation, including adjustments in the screen house characteristics to optimize microclimate conditions and determine the consequent economic benefits. The popularity of this technology is also being driven by the reduced use of chemicals to control pests and diseases common on crops grown in the open."},{"index":9,"size":87,"text":"A new approach to evaluating nutrient response (starting with nitrogen) and precision experiments is being applied in Malawi. It involves the use of high resolution imagery through drone flights. The special camera generates Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) which is used to quantify the photosynthetic capacity of plant canopies. These data are being processed to assess the effect of variable fertilization in the N-response experiments and on fields of farmers that surrounded the experiments. Additionally, moisture probes were installed in the experiments to establish the soil-water-nutrient relations."},{"index":10,"size":124,"text":"Livestock research has continued with the improvement of dual-purpose (egg and meat) chicken breeds in Kongwa, with the introduction of new Kroeler chicks for breeding purposes. In Babati, improving poultry productivity is through better housing and improved feeding. Dairy cows are also benefiting from improved feed made from introduced fodders and better stover processing. In Malawi, feeding trials and improved housing trials have been initiated for goats. Integrating livestock in the cropping systems improves their sustainability when the introduced forages are planned to improve soil fertility and soil erosion management, when the manures are recycled on land for the same purpose, and when waste of a feed source is reduced through better processing. Data on these and on the socio-economic implications are being assembled."},{"index":11,"size":67,"text":"Nutrition and food safety studies have continued to address formulation of recipes from the Africa RISING (AR) introduced nutrient-dense legumes, cereals, vegetables, and livestock products introduced by AR for the benefit of children. Analysis of different maize varieties showed differences in their nutritional composition. Similarly, the amount of edible matter removed during dehulling maize grain differs with variety. These observations are important in the formulation of recipes."},{"index":12,"size":140,"text":"Trade-off analyses can assist in identifying the feasibility of the field-level technology options described above. One such assessment using the Farm Design model explored alternative options for differently resource endowed farms to enhance their farm performances in terms of economic, environmental, and social indicators by combining the current farm resources with the AR interventions. Results show that the windows of opportunities and the preferred innovations depended on available land sizes, current cropping systems, and livestock ownership. The High Resource Endowed farms showed widest ranges of potential improvements in terms of operating profit followed by the Medium Resource Endowed farms while the Low Resource Endowed farms showed modest improvements. Using such models can be an effective tool in exploring windows of opportunity within smallholder farming systems and promotes discussion of future options for farm development between smallholder farmers and extension workers."}]},{"head":"Studies on farmers' perceptions of sustainable intensification (SI) and trajectories of change in","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":180,"text":"Malawi have been completed and are being documented. A paper on farmers' motivations for SI-related farming practices in Tanzania and Malawi is under development. Another on constructing typologies with a case study in Zambia related to the SIMLEZA activities has been accepted for publication in the PLOS ONE journal. Further analysis of typologies and possibilities for targeting related to extrapolation domains is being conducted with ARBES dataset from Tanzania and Malawi. Some partnerships with development institutions have already been described above, e.g., those involved in seed systems. Catholic Relief Services (CRS) have continued to support the scaling of maize-pigeonpea technologies in Zambia, reaching some 1500 farmers. CRS has further introduced a market aggregation system by village agents which will further aid in the aggregation of grain and sale to the buyers. The consequence is stimulation of wider technology uptake. CRS is also supporting a project in Arumeru District of Tanzania, entitled 'Vegetable Business Hubs for the youth in Arumeru District, Arusha, Tanzania', to assist young adults in accessing profitable and sustainable economic opportunities in vegetable value chains for improved livelihood."},{"index":2,"size":111,"text":"The AR team, led by CIAT, organized a 10-development institutions partners' meeting to develop joint strategies for scaling-up sustainable intensified agricultural technologies. Different scalingup approaches are being applied by the development institutions. The meeting identified the need for them to work collaboratively around the common scaling approaches to achieve sustainable intensification. Also, the need and importance of working with extensionists were noted to ensure effective dissemination and the provision of microfinance to farmers so that they can adopt even the sophisticated technologies such as those of irrigation. The need was also noted for collaboration between technology providers and service providers, NGOs, etc. so that technologies can be disseminated to many areas."},{"index":3,"size":90,"text":"These \"loose ends\" activities were designed to keep partners engaged during the reporting period when there were limited resources. Another engaging activity was to get from the partners documented evidence of the validated technologies to date. To this effect, a \"Handbook of agricultural sustainable intensification approaches for farmers in East and Southern Africa\" has been planned and preparation is under way. However, contributions to the draft handbook received from partners were in several cases unsatisfactory or completely lacking. Therefore, the timetable to complete the activity could not be adhered to."},{"index":4,"size":71,"text":"Similarly, poor performance of some partners can also be exhibited in the technical reports submitted to IITA and which have been used to compile this donor report. They have been often late despite timely reminders and the scientific quality in some cases leaves a lot of room for improvement. The inclusion in the partner sub-agreements of a clause about financial implications of late reporting has not influenced the timeliness of reporting."},{"index":5,"size":20,"text":"Figure 1 shows the ESA-wide geo-referenced sites where Africa RISING implemented research or technology dissemination activities during the reporting period. "}]},{"head":"Implemented work and achievements per research outcome","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Outcome 1. Productivity, diversity, and income of crop-livestock systems in selected agroecologies enhanced under climate variability"}]},{"head":"Deploying new crop varieties for diverse crop-livestock systems","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Groundnut","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"The third evaluation of elite material, a requirement for variety release, is ongoing (Table 1). The groundnut candidate lines (ICGV-SMs 03519, 05650, and 02724) have a yield advantage of more than 60% over local checks. To fast track access to seed when these new materials are released breeder seeds are being multiplied. 100 kg of seeds of the three varieties were planted for bulking. Bulking seeds of ICGV-SM 83708 (Mnanje), already released in Tanzania but confined to Southern Tanzania, is also on-going. Africa RISING introduced it to Kongwa and Kiteto. Mnanje has wide adaptation and has been released in six East and Southern African countries."}]},{"head":"Pigeonpea","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Focus varieties are ICEAPs 00040 (Mali), 00554 (Ilonga 1) and 00557 (Ilonga 2). Mali has already been rolled-out through an informal seed system in which farmers are trained to produce and manage quality seed that are shared in their communities. The performance of Ilonga 1 and 2 is being validated in Kongwa and Kiteto and seeds are being bulked for deployment."},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"Three candidate lines of sorghum (Gambela 1107, IESV 92028, and IESV 23010) and six of pearl millet (SDDV 96053, IP 8774, IP 96053, KAT PM2, IP 9976, and SMDV 94605) have been planted in Kongwa, Kiteto, and Iringa districts."},{"index":3,"size":73,"text":"Early, intermediate, and late drought tolerant (DT) new elite maize hybrids have been planted in the districts of Kongwa (two sites), Kiteto (one site), and Iringa (four sites) to evaluate their adaptability under semi-arid conditions. The experiments will enable us understand genotype × environment interactions and the stability and adaptability of test lines in these semi-arid zones, key information required for release. Data collection is ongoing. Piloting informal seed systems (quality declared seed)"},{"index":4,"size":85,"text":"Seed systems An informal system that operates via CSBs 1 , a mechanism of choice for scaling out seed and allied technologies of under-invested crops, is being applied. The focus crops are released varieties of pigeonpea, sorghum, and pearl millet, all newly introduced to Kongwa and Kiteto via Africa RISING. Seeds of these crops were provided to 1300 farmers in the 2016-2017 cropping season. These farmers have subsequently passed on seeds to secondary beneficiaries. Data collection is underway to establish the number of new farmers."}]},{"head":"Strategic partnership with Districts for scaling-out","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"This is a follow-on activity from the 2016-2017 cropping season where Africa RISING partnered with Kongwa District Council to underpin their \"kick hunger out of Kongwa'' initiative. This is part of the community scaling efforts. In the 2016-2017 cropping season the District Council received 25 kg of sorghum seed and produced 500 kg of QDS. That seed was distributed to 165 farmers as first beneficiaries during the current cropping season, and productivity is being assessed."},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"1 Community Seed Banks (CSBs) are village-based institutions managed by smallholder farmers for QDS multiplication and dissemination within their communities. The systems' design is based on lender-borrower arrangement just the way it happens with commercial banking in which loans accessed are paid back with interest. In the case of seeds, a smallholder farmer who receives for instance, 10 kg of seed as start-up, will repay/ return twice the quantity (20 kg)."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"In case of a CSB, seeds returned (i.e., 20 kg) are deposited to a centrally managed storage facility (seed bank) and the farmer (borrower) retains only excess seeds for own future production use. Seeds stored at the CSB are then distributed to new farmers in the next cropping season."}]},{"head":"Dryland cereals and legumes","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"Early generation seed of pigeonpea, groundnut, pearl millet, and sorghum are being bulked to underpin establishment of functional seed systems for the central semi-arid zones of Tanzania. Dryland Seed Co., a private entity based in Morogoro, is producing breeder seeds of the pigeonpea varieties ICEAP 00040 (Mali), ICEAP 0554 (Ilonga 14 M1), and ICEAP 0557 (Ilonga 14 M2). Groundnut breeder seed for ICGV-SM 02724 and Mnanje are being multiplied at ICRISAT Malawi owing to the erratic season and will be shipped to Tanzania. 100 kg and 500 kg of each variety respectively, have been planted. Sorghum and pearl millet nuclear seeds of quantities ranging from 15 to 25 kg are being bulked for production of breeder seed."}]},{"head":"Maize","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"The project is bulking seeds for parents of the AR-released QPM hybrids (CZH132019Q and CZH132003Q) for Tanzania. Bulked parent seed will be used to produce foundation seed. This is being done in collaboration with Meru-Agro Seed Co. that released these varieties together with CIMMYT, an Africa RISING implementer. Meru-Agro Seed Co. will subsequently produce certified seed for scaling out."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"In Malawi, a total of 6000 kg of groundnut basic seed and 4000 kg of soybean were procured from ICRISAT and IITA, respectively, distributed to skilled farmers and planted. Soybean inoculants were supplied to farmers. The crops are currently in the field (Fig. 2). About 2400 \"baby\" farmers received QDS produced by farmers during the 2017 cropping season. Six graduate student experiments were established in Linthipe and Ntubwi to determine performance of farmer recycled seed (yield gap analysis -improved seed vs >5 generations farmer retained seed). "}]},{"head":"Performance of informal seed systems","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"A beneficiary tracking study was conducted in Kiteto and Kongwa districts to assess performance of CSBs following the first 1300 farmers who received seeds (2016-2017 cropping season). Purposive sampling by crop was conducted to ensure crop representativeness. Interviews were conducted with 701 beneficiaries from five villages (201 for pigeonpea, 314 for sorghum, and 186 for groundnut)."},{"index":2,"size":119,"text":"The survey results show that yield for the three crops is low but still higher than for the local varieties used by farmers. The average grain yield was 634 kg/ha for groundnut, 592 kg/ha for pigeonpea, and 1482 kg/ha for sorghum. Groundnut had the highest gross margin of US$ 286/ha in spite of its low yield. This can be attributed to its relatively competitive price. Sorghum had a gross margin of US$ 230/ha; pigeonpea had the lowest gross margin of US$ 90/ha due to a price drop following a price collapse in the Indian market. The survey also showed that the area under improved varieties was 750 ha for pigeonpea, 122 ha for groundnut, and 772.2 ha for sorghum."}]},{"head":"Improving legume seed delivery systems in Eastern Province of Zambia","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Breeder seed","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"During the reporting period, ICRISAT embarked on providing breeder seed of the five released groundnut varieties and one pigeonpea variety to ZARI-Msekera for further bulking, as well to partners for their own seed production. In total, 7.4 ha of breeder seedfor all varieties were planted. The varieties produced were Wamusanga, Wazitatu, Lupande, MGV 6, and MGV 7. For pigeonpea. The 0.6 ha breeder seed field at ZARI-Msekera, which was planted last season, has been ratooned to produce fresh breeder seed."},{"index":2,"size":95,"text":"Additionally, IITA planted 1.5 ha of soybean (Kafue) and 0.3 ha of Mwembeshi at its research farm in Ngwerere, Lusaka, and another 1.5 ha of Kafue at Good Nature Agro Farm in Chipata, bringing the total area under breeder seeds to 3.3 ha; this is above the 3.2 ha target as stated in the work plan. As for cowpea breeder seeds IITA planted 2 ha of Namuseba at ZARI-Msekera in Chipata and another 0.5 ha at the IITA research farm in Ngwerere, Lusaka, bringing the total to 2.5 ha against the target of 2 ha."}]},{"head":"Foundation seed","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"Foundation seed of groundnut and pigeonpea were planned for production through partners. Groundnut and pigeon pea foundation seed directly produced by ICRISAT has been planted at Mthirakuwili Farm in Lundazi, where the area under groundnut is 2.0 ha and the ratooned field for pigeonpea seed is also 2.0 ha. Good Nature bought 1500 kg of Wamusanga and 300 kg of Lupande; Share Africa Zambia was provided 310 kg of MGV 7 and Wamusanga; and Farmer Outgrower Foundation (FOF) was given 300 kg of MGV 7 and Wamusanga. Therefore, in total, at least 2400 kg of breeder seeds across varieties was made available through purchase and project assistance for the production of foundation seeds."},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"Instead of producing foundation seed, IITA had planted all its seed under the Africa RISING project as breeder seed (Class A) since there was enough early generation seed to multiply. Besides, ZARI, through their revolving fund, had given out 500 kg of soybean (Kafue) to trained farmers to produce basic seed."}]},{"head":"Certified seed","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"As a seed company is yet to come on board to produce legume certified seed, the project used CSBs for the purpose of producing seed following a proven model of making high quality seed (QDS) available to farmers. About 900 kg of groundnut was taken by 180 farmers (157 women and 53 men) under this approach. This amount of seed could cover an estimated 15 ha. Some 342 kg of pigeonpea seed were taken by 171 farmers (123 women and 48 men), which is estimated to have covered 34.2 ha assuming that all of the seed was planted at the correct seed rate."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"Breeder seed production is on track as all the varieties targeted for production have been planted. CSBs (Tables 2 and 3) will allow farmers' access to QDS that they are producing right in their communities. Related to the multiplication of soybean breeder seed, IITA planted a total of 3.3 ha, which is above the target of 3.2 ha; it also planted 2.5 ha of cowpea breeder seed against the target of 2.0 ha. "}]},{"head":"Capturing farm diversity with hypothesis-based typologies","index":15,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Targeting of technologies to typologies","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"A method for assigning new farms to existing typologies has been developed and tested for ARBES datasets of Tanzania and Malawi. Results presented at the ESA review and planning meeting [https://www.slideshare.net/africa-rising/using-typologies-for-technology-targeting] recommend that allocating technologies to farms should be guided by farm features, socioeconomic environment and biophysical conditions. The technologies should transition from being described as \"suitable for farm types\" to \"suitable for farms\". A paper on typology development has been accepted for publication [2] \"."}]},{"head":"Outcome 2. Natural resource integrity and resilience to climate change enhanced for the target communities and agroecologies","index":17,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Land use suitability mapping","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":263,"text":"A spatially-explicit analysis of long-term rainfall trends (37 years) in seven East and Southern Africa countries was undertaken, aimed at identifying changes in agricultural potential resulting from significant decreases or increases in rainfall. Maps on rainfall trends are intended to guide spatial targeting of CSA that are implemented in the AR program such as DT varieties and soil and water harvesting practices. This information is helpful in quantifying the magnitude of risks posed by climate change and variability but also for guiding prioritization of scarce resources by directing appropriate measures to zones with highest impact. Two contiguous zones with significant increase in annual rainfall (3 -15 mm/yr) occurred in Southwest Zambia and in Northern Lake Victoria Basin between Kenya and Uganda (Fig. 3). The most significant decrease in annual rainfall (-19mm/yr) was recorded at Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania. Other significant decreases in annual rainfall ranging between -4 and -10mm/yr were observed in Southwest Tanzania and Central-South Kenya as well as Central Uganda and Western Rwanda. Results were presented in European Geosciences Union general assembly in Vienna in April 2018 2 .   Notes: SI mother trials -based on a broad range of technologies that farmers choose from -less prescriptive. Simplified SI trials -these have fewer treatments based on what are considered to be silver bullets. The highlight of these is the groundnut-pigeonpea doubled-up option that seems to be the most promising. WNM -water conservation dimension -is added on SI legume/nutrient management technologies. Half of the plots have tied ridges and half do not have, so tied ridges or no tied ridges become main plots."}]},{"head":"Promotional studies","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"During the 2017-2018 cropping season, 18 farmers installed Fanyajuu/chini terraces in their fields as part of farmer-led demos on water harvesting technologies. The technology was put to the test by the heavy rains received in January 2018; Figure 5 shows their ability to minimize soil erosion and retain rainwater. Data on crop productivity and other SI indicators are being collected. "}]},{"head":"Research on doubled-up legume technologies under CA","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"In Eastern Province of Zambia, all five doubled-up legume trials (both maize and legume phase) were established in time (December) and at a good standard (Fig. 6). They have been visited during the field tours and regularly by the Project Manager from ZARI. Interestingly, the legume phase showed no advantages under CA for pigeonpea and groundnut in this year and we are yet to understand the yield implications at harvest. Field days are planned for April to highlight the benefits of these trials to smallholders in the target community. "}]},{"head":"Enhancing resilience adaptation through cereal/legume cropping systems","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"The planned six on-farm trials were initiated in Sabilo, Ayamango, and Endanoga villages with varying agro-ecological conditions in Babati. The trials, two per village, are testing options for increasing pigeonpea productivity within the maize-pigeonpea systems. The trials have seven treatments each, with farms as replicates, as follows:"},{"index":2,"size":139,"text":"1. Maize planted at 25 cm by 90 cm. No legume. 2. Maize planted at 25 cm by 90 cm and pigeonpea at 50 cm between maize rows. No coppicing. 3. Maize planted at 25 cm by 90 cm and pigeonpea at 50 cm between maize rows. Maize will be coppiced at physiological maturity. 4. Bean-pigeonpea intercropping (doubled-up legume). 5. Maize planted at 50 cm by 90 cm (two plants per hole) and pigeonpea at 50 cm between maize rows. Maize will be coppiced at physiological maturity. 6. Two rows of maize (planted at 25 cm by 30 cm), one row of beans and one row of pigeonpea (\"Mbili-Mbili intercropping\"). No coppicing. 7. Meru 513 maize planted at 25 cm by 90 cm and pigeonpea at 50 cm between maize rows. No coppicing. Maize variety has vertical leaf architecture."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"Except for treatment 7, maize planted was Meru 515 variety."},{"index":4,"size":29,"text":"An early season drought resulted in the re-establishment of trials in Endanoga, with gap-filling required in other fields. Crops in all sites recovered well following good rains in March."},{"index":5,"size":127,"text":"By the end of March, maize is at tasselling and silking stages depending on the agro-ecology (Fig. 7). The general maize conditions are good. Sole maize crop, in the majority of trials, is performing as well as the Mbili-Mbili system, with the two systems displaying the best physiological development compared to the rest of the treatments. Pigeonpea are growing well especially under doubled-up legume treatments and Mbili-Mbili system. This can be attributed to the presence of adequate space within these two systems compared to the common intercropping system. Beans, although initially affected by drought, are podding in all villages except Sabilo where they are already mature because the season began earlier than in other agro-ecological zones. As expected, the trials are performing better than the farmers' fields."},{"index":6,"size":46,"text":"Following strong engagements with the extension system in Babati, and anticipating continued engagement for impact, extra trials are being undertaken in additional villages of Orngadida and Tsamatsi, and extension staff has been facilitated to install demos at their village offices to act as farmers' learning sites. "}]},{"head":"Evaluating maize-pigeonpea systems in 24 on-farm GMCC trials","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"In Eastern Province of Zambia, out of 24 on-farm trials, 21 were successfully established; the remaining trials could not be established in time owing to the long dry spell, which affected all crops germinating in early January 2018. The successfully established 21 GMCC trials had some key messages. Pigeonpea were more drought resistant than maize crops and managed to survive the long dry spell more effectively than maize. This led to the suppression of maize in the intercropping systems and beneficial growth of pigeonpea. Although maize yields will be low in some communities, pigeonpea grain yield will compensate."},{"index":2,"size":111,"text":"Due to the slow start of pigeonpea, the competition with maize is normally smaller so that farmers will benefit more from this combination than, for example, maize-lablab. In addition, if pigeonpea will be harvested only for grain at harvesting time and the biomass is left standing, there is a good possibility that it can provide additional fodder and cattle and goats will be able to browse some of the green leaves during the dry season. At the onset of the new cropping season, the remaining green leaves of pigeonpea can then be applied to the soil to make use of their high N content and also provide groundcover in CA systems."}]},{"head":"Evaluating ratooning trial at Msekera Research Station","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":164,"text":"An on-going maize ratooning trial was established at Msekera Research Station in Eastern Province of Zambia using the treatments and ratooning strategies from 2017 (Fig. 8). This interesting trial will generate information on managing pigeonpea much more effectively in future years. Some of the insights have already been taken up by CRS. Generally, ratooning is a very effective strategy to re-establish pigeonpea. However, it is important to keep competition low between the pigeonpea and maize to avoid overshadowing of maize. Preliminary results suggest that ratooning at pigeonpea harvest and again at maize seeding time and/or ratooning once at maize seeding time will give the greatest return on maize as the fresh maturing leaves have most of the available nitrogen and will directly benefit maize. Uprooting pigeonpea at harvest time in July/August and replanting it will not provide many benefits to the following maize crop except maybe some moisture conservation. Most of the nitrogen will have volatilized by the time of planting maize in November. "}]},{"head":"Evaluating and packaging maize-lablab systems in 24 on-farm GMCC trials","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":166,"text":"Maize-lablab systems have been evaluated both on-station at Msekerain, Eastern Province of Zambia, and in 21 successfully established on-farm trials. This year, the lablab systems established much better than last year (Fig. 9), partly owing to slower and stunted maize growth that allowed better lablab development but also because of late rains in March that benefited the late growth of lablab. It is foreseen that intercropping systems planted with lablab will be amongst the most successful maize-legume treatments in the on-farm and on-station GMCC trials this year. However, most of the residual benefits from the last year have disappeared because of freely grazing animals and veld fires which destroyed at least half of the lablab residues. Community-based interventions will be required to reduce the pressure on lablab crop residues, which are critical for improving soil fertility and maize yields. Alternatively, fields need to be fenced with live fences to keep out free roaming livestock and this will be likely to be much more difficult to achieve. "}]},{"head":"Evaluating different Gliricidia intercropping strategies at Msekera Research Station","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"One on-station trial was continued at Msekera Research Station in its Year 3. The trial was successfully established and amplified with a full rotational system. The treatments have been changed to a) full maize-groundnut rotation; b) maize/Gliricidia (intensive spacing) -groundnut rotation; c) maize/Gliricidia (dispersed spacing) -doubled-up legume system rotation. There was an initial misunderstanding and all groundnut treatments were converted to the doubledup legume system. However, this was corrected in January to what it should be. The Gliricidia trees are now well established and application of Gliricidia leaves is anticipated to add to the productivity of maize in future years (Fig. 10). "}]},{"head":"Opportunities for enhancing water resource management","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"Within the Gallapo and Seloto villages of Babati District, Africa RISING successfully rolled out 16 on-farm demos of two vegetable varieties (green pepper and tomato) as planned in a follow-up season (Fig. 11). The trials were planted 2 February and field data collection is currently ongoing on microclimatic variables of relative humidity, wind speed, air temperature, and soil moisture variation using automated sensors both inside and outside the screen house. These data will help in deriving water use efficiency trends and productivity of vegetable varieties both inside and outside screen houses."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"Cost-Benefit Analysis data for vegetable production with irrigation are being implemented by farmers. The data will subsequently be pulled from farmers' records and analyzed. Included are data on refilling reservoirs (at least twice every week) and on opening/closing of water valves from the reservoir (an average of about 20 times /day) that are being collected to provide information on the costing of labor inputs and provide a more complete story around the economic benefits on water and labor dynamics of out-of-season irrigation options for highvalue vegetable varieties. "}]},{"head":"Options for management of soil fertility through application of mineral fertilizers and animal manures","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":122,"text":"Eight N response and precision experiments were established along a climate gradient in Golomoti, Ntubwi, Msanama, and Nyambi villages of Malawi, following a protocol below (Table 5). Protocols were re-designed owing to severe drought in January 2018. Moisture probes were installed in these experiments to study soil-water-nutrient relations. Another eight residue and N management trials were established in Machinga and Mangochi districts. Monitoring and data collection are on-going, including use of high resolution imagery (Fig. 12) by means of drone flights. The special camera generates NDVI which is used to quantify the photosynthetic capacity of plant canopies. These data are being processed to assess the effect of variable fertilization in the N-response experiments and on fields of farmers that surrounded the experiments."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"Table 5. Protocol for N response experiments in Malawi. "}]},{"head":"Trade-off analysis on the use of locally available organic nutrient resources and fertilizer","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":159,"text":"Continuing degradation of soil fertility and the extinction of communal resources are linked to low crop yields and high poverty rates among the smallholder farmers. Alternative intensification options such as the use of improved seeds, phosphorus-based fertilizers, and manure in maize-pigeonpea intercrop, and tomato as a new crop have been proposed by the Africa RISING project to improve farm productivity. The feasibility of these field-level options needs to be assessed at the farm-scale to give insight into the interactions between crops, soils, animals and the household. The farm-scale model, FarmDESIGN, was used to explore alternative options for differently resource endowed farms to enhance their farm performances in terms of economic, environmental, and social indicators by combining the current farm resources with the AR interventions. Two sample farms of each farm type were selected. Data for the current farms were obtained from a previous study while data for the novel interventions were gathered from literature reviews and ongoing research experiments."},{"index":2,"size":233,"text":"Results show that the windows of opportunities and the preferred innovations depended on sizes of available land, current cropping systems, and livestock ownership. The High Resource Endowed farms showed the widest ranges of potential improvements in terms of operating profit followed by the Medium Resource Endowed farms; the Low Resource Endowed farms showed modest improvements. In terms of operating profit and soil organic matter improvements were possible by reducing the area under the currently grown crops and adopting the AR interventions. However, often strong trade-offs with household leisure time were evident due to the high labor demand of these inventions. Cultivation of the high value tomato crop with its characteristic low soil organic matter inputs created strong trade-offs between operating profit and organic matter balance. Adopting the new practices of maizepigeon pea intercrop, maintaining or slightly increasing animal numbers as well as incorporating a portion of the crop residues into the soil played key roles in increasing organic matter balances on all farm types. The interactions with farmers allowed virtual experiential learning to take place and provided evidence that the farmers found the simulation outcomes credible and meaningful. It is concluded that the model is an effective tool in exploring windows of opportunity within smallholder farming systems and promotes the discussion of future options for farm development between smallholder farmers and extension workers. More information on this work may be found at: https://www.dropbox.com/s/901g0isjizzecen/Thesis_Godlove.pdf?dl=0"},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"Deploying integrated community breeding for resilient and more productive poultry in Kongwa and Kiteto districts"}]},{"head":"Deployment of improved dual-purpose breeds","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"This work builds on the 2016-2017 poultry improvement activities in which 400 SASSO chicks were distributed to eight farmers in Mlali, Kongwa District. We tracked Lead farmers who have used their poultry stock for further breeding (Fig. 13). From that poultry stock in 2017-2018 season we have introduced Kroeler chicken breed (a dual-purpose chicken for meat and eggs) for further improvement of selected hens available with Lead farmers. These Kroeler chicks are being reared for further breeding. When the new Kroeler chicks mature and are ready for mating new data sets will be assembled for the progeny. More details will be included in the next report. "}]},{"head":"Integrating livestock into cropping systems","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Some activities on livestock integration were initiated and are being implemented in Babati during the reporting period, as follows.:"},{"index":2,"size":92,"text":"1. Initiating the contracting process for developing farmer extension materials to provide information on the growing and use of improved forages, improved use of crop residuebased rations, and improved poultry housing. 2. Initiating a study to evaluate the costs and benefits of using improved forages and crop residue-based rations in livestock feeding. 3. Drafting manuscripts on (i) management of free range local chickens, (ii) sustainability of mechanized forage chopping, and (iii) evaluation of improved Napier grass accessions. 4. Analyzing data from the improved housing and supplementary feeding of free range local chickens."}]},{"head":"Feeding and housing for goats","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"In Malawi, on-station goat feeding trials are being conducted at LUANAR and three demo housing pens were established in Linthipe, Golomoti, and Ntubwi villages. Farmers in Ntubwi have gone beyond learning at the main demo pens; 39 households have constructed their own pens. Data collection is ongoing.  "}]},{"head":"Linking postharvest management technologies with maize grain waste and safety","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Evaluation of the effects of improved shelling, drying, and hermetic storage of grain on mycotoxin contamination 168 samples were collected, processed, and shipped for analysis to Centre for Analytical Chemistry Department of Agro-biotechnology (IFA-Tulln) University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna."},{"index":2,"size":115,"text":"Comparative evaluation of the physico-chemical and nutritional properties of improved and traditional (farmer-preferred) maize varieties Six locally adapted and six improved varieties were obtained from farmers in two villages located in different AEZs and analyzed for nutritional and technological properties. Findings show that maize varieties cultivated in the two sites varied in their nutritional composition with respect to contents of protein (7.6 -10.2 g/100 g), fat (3.4 -5.3 g/100 g), fiber (3.0 -4.6 g/100 g) and minerals (0.8 -1.3 g/100 g) (Fig. 15) as well as starch content. It is possible that these differences are due to interaction effects of variety, agronomic practices, and agro-climatic conditions although this interaction is yet to be clearly demonstrated."},{"index":3,"size":340,"text":"Maize is usually cultivated for an energy (carbohydrates) source in diets. However, in communities where dietary diversity is low, the contents of key nutrients in the maize are vital in alleviating malnutrition. The daily per capita consumption of maize in Tanzania is estimated at 200 g, which would be equivalent to 15 -20 g of protein, 6.8 -10.6 g fat, 6 -9 g fiber, and 1.6 -2.6 g total minerals based on the present findings. The recommended dietary intake (RDI) of protein is 50 g/day. The varieties with the higher protein contents, e.g., Seedco and 511, could thus supply about 40% of the RDI if promoted in Sabilo. Corn oil in an important source of polyunsaturated fatty acids including Linoleic acid (58 g/100 g) and Linolenic acid (1 g/100 g) whose adequate intakes (AI) are about 12 and 1.4 g/day, respectively. The varieties containing high fat, e.g., Stuka (improved drought resistant variety) would thus be able to make available about 6 g Linoleic acid and 0.1 g Linolenic acid or about 50% and 7.5% of the recommended daily adequate intakes, respectively. Fiber plays an important role in gut health; the recommended dietary allowance (RDI) is 30 g/day; the high fiber varieties, e.g., Akibalu and Mehh (locally adapted varieties in Mlali and Sabilo, respectively) could supply about 30% of the RDI. The total mineral content comprised phosphorus (35.2%), potassium (38.2%), calcium (5.7%), magnesium (12.6%), sodium (7.0), iron (0.6%), copper (0.2%), manganese (0.1%) and zinc (0.5%). The RDI or AI of these elements are phosphorus 800 mg/day, potassium 4.7 g/day, calcium 1.2 g/day, magnesium 350 mg/day, iron 10 mg/day, copper 30 µg/day, manganese 2 mg/day, and zinc (10 mg/day). Based on these values and daily per capita maize consumption of 200 g, the requirements for iron, zinc, copper and manganese would be met. The dietary needs for calcium would be met 7-12%; potassium 57-93%; phosphorus 13-21%; and magnesium 70 -114% depending on the maize variety cultivated. The process of dehulling maize grain before milling removes the hull and part of the germ."},{"index":4,"size":47,"text":"Figure 15 shows that the amount of edible matter removed during the process differs with variety (13.6 -28.4 g/100 g). This could be related to differences in grain size, shape, and hardness. The hulls/ germ fraction is not used for human food and somewhat represents food loss."},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"Figure 16. Amount of edible matter removed (weight loss) during dehulling of maize grain."}]},{"head":"Outcome 4. Functionality of input and output markets and other institutions to deliver demand-driven sustainable intensification research products improved","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Exploring ICTs for linking farmers to markets (input and output)"}]},{"head":"Inclusion of vegetable short messaging in Mwanga","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":132,"text":"We noted that it would be a missed opportunity not to use the existent MWANGA Platform to communicate with vegetable farmers in Babati on needed agronomy practices, market prices, and other climate-related services. As a result, for this work, we are taking advantage of the MWANGA Platform as both a link to farmers and a dissemination tool with targeted messages while sharing lessons learnt. At the end, the results from the cost-benefit analysis for vegetable production under irrigation will also be shared through Mwanga to reach higher numbers. In the near future, a pending activity on social participation in groups and key informant interviews will also benefit from the Mwanga Platform as a means of reaching targeted audiences by prior sharing with them specific dates of the meeting and the meeting objectives."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"Project funds are being used for short code communication and payment of the services to the mobile company for the Mwanga Platform as well as for acquisition of information such as product/input prices/costs and climate services information."},{"index":3,"size":170,"text":"The meeting identified the need for development partners to work collaboratively around the common scaling approaches to realize sustainable intensification. Also, the need and importance of working with extensionists were noted to ensure effective dissemination and the provision of microfinance to farmers so that they can adopt even the sophisticated technologies such as those of irrigation. In addition, the need for collaboration between technology providers and service providers, NGOs, etc., was also noted so that technologies can be disseminated to many areas. CRS also guaranteed a buyer for these to farmers which strongly encouraged the planting of pigeonpea. CRS has further introduced a market aggregation system by village agents which will further aid in the aggregation of grain and sale to the buyers. There is widespread human-wildlife conflict throughout the region, especially elephants trampling on fields and causing crop losses but there is little data available on wildlife populations, poaching, or incidence of conflict. These data gaps represent a barrier to developing a finer-scale system dynamics model of agricultural-environmental linkages."}]},{"head":"Reports/publications","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"The following report from the updated system dynamics model was submitted to USAID: The project team has one draft manuscript in preparation for publication:"},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"• Richardson, R.B., L. Schmitt Olabisi, K.B. Waldman, and N. Sakana. 2018. Modeling the landscape-level implications of farm-level sustainable intensification in Zambia. In preparation for submission to Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment."}]},{"head":"Lessons learned","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"From our July 2017 research activities, it became readily apparent that there are significant conflicts related to human-wildlife interactions in the GMA, including widespread crop losses from elephants trampling through crops as they migrate in and out of South Luangwa National Park, along with occasional human injury and death. Crop losses and revenge killing of elephants continue to occur and increasing population in the GMA is driving more land clearing for agriculture, while poverty in the outlying areas of the GMA (farther from the parks) continues to be severe."},{"index":2,"size":122,"text":"There appears to be shared agreement that the problem is getting worse over time, in part due to increasing elephant populations, and increasing human population from in-migration. There is a great deal of blaming and finger-pointing among stakeholder groups, most of whom do not interact with or trust one another and have negative things to say about other groups. These dynamics have the potential to undermine land-use planning and conservation and livelihood strategies that USAID is supporting in the region. We propose the use of Transformative Scenario Planning, a process for conflict resolution involving participatory processes of engagement to address these issues. Such a process is outside the budget constraints of the current project, which is about to come to an end."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Present locations of research (green diamond) and scaling (red triangle) sites in ESA. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Africa RISING field days attracted hundreds of farmers in Machinga District. Farmers who come to learn at such seed production fields concurrently learn good agronomy. Photo credit: Regis Chikowo/MSU. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure3.Long-term (1981-2017) trend in annual rainfall in East and Southern Africa. Blue areas show increase in rainfall while yellow to red tones reveal decrease. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Africa RISING researcher (Antony Kimaro to the left) together with a trial host farmer, Kalebi Mberesero, inspect a sorghum crop at Laikala, planted in a field under annual tied ridging. In spite of the prolonged dry spell experienced in February 2018 the crop was well established. Photo credit: Elirehema Swai/ARI Hombolo. "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. A farmer inspects her field after a heavy rain downpour in Mlali. The field had a fanyajuu terrace constructed as the first line of defence for soil erosion control. Photo credit: Elirehema Swai/ARI Hombolo. "},{"text":"Figure 6 . Figure 6. Doubled-up legume systems during early crop establishment in Sinda (left) and Lundazi (right). Photo credit: Christian Thierfelder/CIMMYT. "},{"text":"Figure 7 . Figure 7. Crops under trials at different periods after planting during the 2018 cropping season. Photo: Job Kihara/CIAT. "},{"text":"Figure 8 . Figure 8. Strategies to manage pigeonpea at Msekera. Uprooting and replanting (left), ratooning and reshooting (right). Photo credit: Christian Thierfelder/CIMMYT. "},{"text":"Figure 9 . Figure 9. GMCC on-farm trials in Chipata, Eastern Province, Zambia, implemented jointly by MAWA/CIMMYT/GRT/ZARI showing a maize/lablab intercrop. Photo credit: Christian Thierfelder/CIMMYT. "},{"text":"Figure 10 . Figure 10. Topdressing in Gliricidia trial in January (left) and crop stand in the rotational groundnut phase in March (right). Photo credit: Christian Thierfelder/CIMMYT. "},{"text":"Figure 11 . Figure 11. Contrast of vegetable production inside and outside the screen house. Note the automated weather station in the middle foreground for microclimatic data collection. Photo credit: Justus Ochieng/WorldVeg. "},{"text":"Figure 12 . Figure 12. Multi-resolution imagery in Nyambi EPA, Machinga District, February 2018. "},{"text":"Figure 13 . Figure 13. Community breeding activities at Mlali (left-Kroeler chick from a local brooder of a host farmer in Mlali and right-selected cross-breeds of local and improved chicken breeds). Photo: Chrispinus Rubanza/UDOM. "},{"text":"Outcome 3 . Food and feed safety, nutritional quality, and income security of target smallholder families improved equitably (within households)Improving nutrition of children under 3 years 1000-day nutrition studies underpinned by consumption of nutrient-dense legumes and cereals and aflatoxin-free diversified nutritious food. These are on-going studies in Mlali village, using an earlier cohort of parents and children recruited for the study. Specially formulated diets are being used that are based on cereals and legumes promoted by Africa RISING, and other complementary foods that constitute the six major food groups and good hygiene. Data collection on anthropometric measurements of children fed on the new recipes is ongoing. Additionally, as part of outreach, mothers have been trained on the importance of good nutrition and balanced diets (Fig.14) and on local production of vegetables to supplement food sources, especially during off-season. "},{"text":"Figure 14 . Figure 14. Mothers under training on importance of good nutrition and balanced diet in Mlali, Kongwa District. Photo credit: Jonathan Odhong'/IITA. "},{"text":"Figure 15 . Figure 15. Nutritional composition of various maize varieties; whole grain. "},{"text":"Figure 17 . Figure 17. Participants in the AR development partners meeting held on 28 February 2018 at the White Rose hotel in Babati, Manyara, Tanzania. Photo credit: Job Kihara/CIAT. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Locations of the 2017/2018 legume and dryland grain variety evaluation sites. Crop Crop  "},{"text":"and number of trials  Region District Village Pigeonpea Groundnut Sorghum Pearl millet RegionDistrictVillagePigeonpeaGroundnutSorghumPearl millet Manyara Kiteto Kiperesa 1 1 1 1 Manyara KitetoKiperesa1111 Manyara Kiteto Kiperesa 0 0 0 1 Manyara KitetoKiperesa0001 Manyara Kiteto Njoro 1 1 0 0 Manyara KitetoNjoro1100 Dodoma Kongwa Moleti 1 0 1 1 DodomaKongwa Moleti1011 Dodoma Kongwa Laikala 1 1 1 1 DodomaKongwa Laikala1111 Dodoma Kongwa Laikala 0 0 1 1 DodomaKongwa Laikala0011 Dodoma Dodoma ARI 0 1 1 1 DodomaDodomaARI0111  Rural Hombolo     RuralHombolo Dodoma Kongwa Mlali 1 on flat & 1 on ridges 1 1 0 DodomaKongwa Mlali1 on flat & 1 on ridges 110 Dodoma Kongwa Mlali 0 0 1 0 DodomaKongwa Mlali0010 Dodoma Kongwa Chitego 1 1 0 0 DodomaKongwa Chitego1100 Dodoma Kongwa Manyusi 1 1 0 0 DodomaKongwa Manyusi1100 Iringa IRA Igula 1 on flat & 1 on ridges 1 1 1 IringaIRAIgula1 on flat & 1 on ridges 111  Rural      Rural Iringa IRA Igula 0 0 0 1 IringaIRAIgula0001  Rural      Rural Total   8 8 8 8 Total8888  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Number of beneficiaries under groundnut seed production through CSBs. District Male Female Total Seed quantity (kg) DistrictMaleFemaleTotalSeed quantity (kg) Chipata 21 49 70 350 Chipata214970350 Katete 15 35 50 250 Katete153550250 Lundazi 17 43 60 300 Lundazi174360300 Total 53 127 180 900 Total53127180900  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Number of beneficiaries under pigeonpea seed production through CSBs. District Male Female Total Seed quantity (kg) DistrictMaleFemaleTotalSeed quantity (kg) Chipata 18 52 70 140 Chipata185270140 Katete 11 19 30 60 Katete11193060 Lundazi 19 52 71 142 Lundazi195271142 Total 48 123 171 342 Total48123171342 Promoting good agronomic practices (GAPs)   Promoting good agronomic practices (GAPs) To impart knowledge and enhance adoption of the improved varieties and crop management To impart knowledge and enhance adoption of the improved varieties and crop management practices for the target crops, ICRISAT established on-farm demonstration/learning plots in the practices for the target crops, ICRISAT established on-farm demonstration/learning plots in the target sites. These were 18 groundnut demonstrations (demos) (variety × crop management) target sites. These were 18 groundnut demonstrations (demos) (variety × crop management) involving five varieties (Wamusanga, Wazitatu, Lupande, MGV 6, and MGV 7), as well as 18 involving five varieties (Wamusanga, Wazitatu, Lupande, MGV 6, and MGV 7), as well as 18 pigeonpea demos using five varieties [ICEAP 00557, ICEAP 00554 (MPPV 2), ICEAP 1485/5, pigeonpea demos using five varieties [ICEAP 00557, ICEAP 00554 (MPPV 2), ICEAP 1485/5, Mthawajuni, and ICEAP 01415/15].    Mthawajuni, and ICEAP 01415/15].  "},{"text":"Table 4 . New and continued SI mother trials in over 40 villages in Malawi.  Sustainable Simplified sustainable Water and Nutrient Residue management N-response TOTAL SustainableSimplified sustainableWater and NutrientResidue management N-response TOTAL  intensification trials intensification trials management (WNM)    intensification trialsintensification trialsmanagement (WNM) 2016/17 18 13 17 4 0 52 2016/171813174052 2017/18 16 7 12 4 8 47 2017/18167124847 Discontinued 2 6 5 0 - 13 Discontinued2650-13 Added - - - - 8 8 Added----88  "},{"text":"Table 6 . Main activities and scaling strategies used by each of the 10 development partners. the final report of the SILL project). The report from this activity was submitted to USAID as an addendum to the final report(Brugnone, N., L. Schmitt Olabisi, and R. B.  Richardson. 2018. Impact of Sustainable Intensification on Landscapes and Livelihoods. Addendum B: Updated Provincial-Level Deforestation Models.)Development of finer-scale model, such as a Game Management Area (GMA) R. Richardson and L. Schmitt Olabisi traveled to Zambia in July 2017 to conduct key informant interviews and focus group discussions with community groups with the objective of developing a finer-scale system dynamics model. The project team conducted interviews and focus group sessions in Lupande Game Management Area (GMA) with a variety of stakeholders, including the extension officer from the Department of National Parks and Wildlife, lodge operators, a village chief, two groups of village headmen/women, a women's cooperative group, and representatives from TetraTech (TGCC) and BioCarbon Partners. S/N Development Location Contacts Main activities Main scaling-up strategies S/N DevelopmentLocationContactsMain activitiesMain scaling-up strategies  Partner     Partner 1. Wade Rain Usa River, PO Box 33 Usa river - -Provision and training on -Demo plots and training on use of drip 1.Wade RainUsa River,PO Box 33 Usa river --Provision and training on-Demo plots and training on use of drip  East Africa Ltd Arusha Arusha, Tel: +255 756 irrigation facilities kit East Africa LtdArushaArusha, Tel: +255 756irrigation facilitieskit    640069;   640069;    E:bdouglas@waderain.   E:bdouglas@waderain.    com   com 2. Mount Meru Arusha PO Box 7094 Arusha -Introduction of improved -Breeding seeds, which are high 2.Mount MeruArushaPO Box 7094 Arusha-Introduction of improved-Breeding seeds, which are high  Millers  Tel: +255 715 919191 seeds of sunflower, soybean, yielding, early maturing, disease and MillersTel: +255 715 919191seeds of sunflower, soybean,yielding, early maturing, disease and    E: and sesame pest tolerant E:and sesamepest tolerant    rajesh@mtmerugroup. -Training on GAPs -Linking to input suppliers and contract [email protected] on GAPs-Linking to input suppliers and contract    com -Purchase of produce from farming com-Purchase of produce fromfarming     farmers for processing  farmers for processing 3. MVIWATA Babati PO Box 446 Babati -Formation and strengthening -Link farmers with input suppliers, 3.MVIWATABabatiPO Box 446 Babati-Formation and strengthening-Link farmers with input suppliers,  Manyara  Tel: +255 27 2530385, of farmers' groups and financial institutions, markets, SMS ManyaraTel: +255 27 2530385,of farmers' groups andfinancial institutions, markets, SMS    +255 788 466966; +255 networks information system and other methods +255 788 466966; +255networksinformation system and other methods    672 933663, +255 784 -Capacity building in GAPs for -Mobilize farmers into groups for easy 672 933663, +255 784-Capacity building in GAPs for-Mobilize farmers into groups for easy    474940 farmers adoption of alternative energy sources 474940farmersadoption of alternative energy sources    E:  and other agronomic aspects and E:and other agronomic aspects and    mpius@mviwatamanya  postharvest mpius@mviwatamanyapostharvest    ra.org   ra.org 4. World Vision Babati PO Box 275 Babati -Capacity building and -Capacity building in GAPS, use of 4.World VisionBabatiPO Box 275 Babati-Capacity building and-Capacity building in GAPS, use of  Tanzania  Tel: +255 27 2549252- promotion on use of GAPs farmer groups, rain water harvesting, TanzaniaTel: +255 27 2549252-promotion on use of GAPsfarmer groups, rain water harvesting,  (Babati)  8, +255 783 444231, -Facilitating linkage to markets and demo plots (Babati)8, +255 783 444231,-Facilitating linkage to marketsand demo plots    +255 685 649020 and financial facilities -Linking farmers to input suppliers, +255 685 649020and financial facilities-Linking farmers to input suppliers,    E:  crop and livestock markets E:crop and livestock markets    staford_mwambola@w   staford_mwambola@w    vi.org   vi.org 5. Community Babati P.O. Box 558 Babati -Training on good agricultural -Capacity building in gaps, K-plus, ICT, 5.CommunityBabatiP.O. Box 558 Babati-Training on good agricultural-Capacity building in gaps, K-plus, ICT,  Support   practices soildoc, hygiene and sanitation Supportpracticessoildoc, hygiene and sanitation  "},{"text":" • Brugnone, N., L. Schmitt Olabisi, and R.B. Richardson. 2018. Impact of Sustainable Intensification on Landscapes and Livelihoods. Addendum B: Updated Provincial-Level Deforestation Models. Produced by Michigan State University; published by IITA. The project team has one forthcoming manuscript in press: • Richardson, R.B., L. Schmitt Olabisi, K.B. Waldman, and N. Sakana. 2018. Using participatory system dynamics modeling of agricultural-environmental systems in a developing country context. In: Innovations in Collaborative Modeling, M. McNall, ed. In press, Michigan State University Press.  "}],"sieverID":"7a1eb6e2-d04e-4598-9ef3-f47bca213a7c","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0b71841ba8db4b4d300d820ec0cf4742","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d0e2ba10-7da8-4b17-be9b-d7bbe0aea3ef/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"National policies regarding the establishment and support of community seedbanks in Nepal","keywords":["P66 -Global policy support for biologically diverse, climate resilient agriculture Description: <Not Defined> Is new?: No Policy/Investment Type: Policy or Strategy","29 -Enhanced adaptive capacity to climate risks (More sustainably managed agro-ecosystems)","41 -Conducive agricultural policy environment Contributing Centers/PPA partners: <Not Provided> Contributing CRPs/PTF:","CCAFS -Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security"],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"95834272-787c-4804-887a-07539432e277","abstract":""}

data/part_4/0bda97ee7fe64188ccf25b6f22b06c40.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0bda97ee7fe64188ccf25b6f22b06c40","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a3882476-611f-49df-9f3b-bf8526a7a3b1/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Agricultural biodiversity and resilience in livelihood systems Innovative approaches in climate change adaptation","keywords":["climate change adaptation","crop improvement","information","management practices","participatory methodologies"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":126,"text":"Agricultural diversification is thought to be an effective measure to reduce production risks related to climate change for individual smallholders in order to improve overall production stability and keep up with global food demand under climate change. Although diversification of crops and production systems is an established strategy for many smallholders today, crop and system switching under the transformative characteristics of climate change brings in new practices and technologies and additional costs and risks. New crops require farmers and other value chain actors to overcome initial learning and investment. They can also introduce hosts of infectious diseases, or have uncertain markets. We carried out a review to understand under which agroecological and socio-economic conditions agricultural diversification will be an effective climate change adaptation measure for smallholders."},{"index":2,"size":179,"text":"The realities of smallholders are complex and their production systems and access to resources differ according to local contexts. Rather than looking at specific adaptation options like agricultural diversification, climate smart agriculture policies and programs could be more effective when providing flexible options and alternatives to farmer households, enabling them to define the most appropriate measures. This approach allows combining agricultural diversification with other adaption options to develop integrated responses to climate change. We suggest that some of the factors limiting diversification can be overcome by providing smallholders and associated organizations access to information on management and seed availability of crops, trees, and production systems, and also by promoting a shared understanding of trade-offs and synergies within diversification strategies. Portfolios of local adaptation options can be prioritized using participatory action research involving different stakeholder groups. This approach enables the selection of crops and systems, considering farm household needs and ensuring that these choices are linked to local food systems and value chains. Crop and tree evaluation programs including on-farm experimentation enable further testing of potential species for specific locations."}]},{"head":"Key words: climate change adaptation, diversification, information, participatory methodologies","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Food and nutrition security, adaptive capacity and resilience to climate change in Central America: A comprehensive participatory approach"}]},{"head":"Leida Mercado","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Centro Agronomico Tropical de Investigacion y Ensenanza (CATIE, Costa Rica)"},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"The effect of global warming on food production is resulting in severe food insecurity in regions across the globe. In Central America, for example, more than half a million households are suffering from food insecurity as a consequence of the 2014-2015 drought. Food-based approaches that focus on dietary diversification (e.g. promoting home gardens, poultry production, and capacity development) are effective strategies for improving food security and nutrition. However, dealing with climate change and variability demands more comprehensive approaches as well."},{"index":3,"size":127,"text":"The Mesoamerican Agroenvironmental Program (MAP), a platform that links research, education and extension, seeks to improve food security and climate resilience of small landholders in Central America by: i) promoting innovations to increase productivity and diversification of home/community gardens and farms, including the use of trees, ii) strengthening capacities using farmer field schools, a participatory tool that facilitates integration of local and scientific knowledge, iii) improving HH planning capacity by developing home garden and farm plans, iv) fostering more participation of women and youth in production decision-making, v) advancing the sustainable use of agricultural biodiversity through the establishment of germplasm/seed banks and local mechanisms for germplasm exchange, and vi) strengthening capacity of value chains that link local farmers to a variety of stakeholders at different geographical scales."},{"index":4,"size":67,"text":"The preliminary results of MAP´s approach in Trifinio and Nicaragua show a high level of adoption of the innovations promoted in order to intensify and diversify production, more vegetables and poultry available for consumption at the household level, a wider participation of different household members in the production of diverse and nutritious food, and strong relationships between farm size, and women's' participation in decision-making with food security."},{"index":5,"size":18,"text":"Key words: value chains, capacity development, climate change adaptation, food security, nutrition, gender-responsive methodologies, home gardens, participatory methodologies"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement (CIRAD, Costa Rica) "}],"sieverID":"4ef49e69-6600-4dd3-91fe-24cc4fc7316c","abstract":"Globally, climates will remain unstable long after atmospheric carbon dioxide peaks. So climate adaptation in agriculture is not a one-time effort; agricultural practices will need to be updated recurrently. Climate-smart agriculture needs a quick-paced process of continuous, massive discovery of locally appropriate solutions. The good news is that, as mobile telephone coverage expands in rural areas, simpler, more data-rich and cost-efficient information-andcommunications-technology-based systems become possible. Also, new sensor technologies can help to track local climates with more detail, which in turn helps to compare diverse options across different places, taking into account the diversity of agricultural systems and local cultures.Bioversity International has developed a novel \"farmer citizen science\" approach, taking advantage of these technological possibilities. In this approach, each farmer tries and ranks a small number of technologies (for example, crop varieties or management practices), characterizes local conditions with cheap, reliable weather sensors, and shares information by mobile phone. The resulting information serves to create empirical, location-specific advice on climate-smart practices for farmers, helping them to constantly adapt to shifting climatic and social conditions.The first results of experiences with this new approach show that farmers are highly motivated to participate, that the approach is relatively easy to implement and upscale and that the resulting information is of good quality. Remaining challenges are the ongoing construction of a userfriendly platform that standardizes data to make it globally comparable and accessible and the training of agricultural researchers, extension agents and farmers in using the approach."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0be6df3a565cea1e0b76e042f185a55b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/bc69ba7a-11b4-49b7-ad79-cf1bc8f22cd5/retrieve"},"pageCount":21,"title":"Food Prices and the Wages of the Poor A Low-Cost, High-Value Approach to High-Frequency Food Security Monitoring","keywords":["Food prices","food crises","food security","nutrition","wages","healthy diets","early warning systems"],"chapters":[{"head":"Background: Food price crises and food price monitoring in the 21 st Century","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":291,"text":"The 21 st Century has already witnessed a dramatic increase in food price volatility. After decades of stagnation, international food prices spiked sharply over [2007][2008] in what became widely known as the 2008 global food crisis. Prices spiked again 2010-11, however, and then more recently in 2021-2022 in the wake of COVID-19's economic tailwinds and Russia's invasion of Ukraine. In 2022, year-on-year food inflation reached 76% at the peak of Sri Lanka's financial crisis, 60% in war-torn Myanmar, and 40% in Pakistan where a macroeconomic crisis coincided with unprecedented floods, while countries like Sudan, Zimbabwe and Venezuela suffered from hyperinflation (Figure 1). Given that some 3 billion people could not afford a healthy diet even prior to this recent global food crisis (FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP, & WHO, 2020), the development community at large should be deeply concerned about the consequences of food price crises for poverty and food insecurity (Arndt, Diao, Dorosh, Pauw, & Thurlow, 2023), as well as malnutrition (Headey & Ruel, 2022). In the wake of 2008 food crisis, one perceived failure was inadequate national food price monitoring to inform early warning systems and provide timely data on national-level welfare impacts of rising food prices. As a result, the development community made significant efforts to improve monitoring of food prices and to integrate them into multidimensional food security surveillance and early warning systems. The most prominent examples include the FAO's Global Information and Early Warning System on Food and Agriculture (https://www.fao.org/giews/en/), USAID's Famine Early Warning System (https://fews.net/fews-data/337), the World Food Programme's Market Monitor (https://www.wfp.org/publications/market-monitor) and its Global Food Price Database (https://data.humdata.org/dataset/wfp-food-prices), and The International Food Policy Research Institute's (IFPRI) Food Security Portal (https://www.foodsecurityportal.org/). 1 These international systems also rely on improved food price monitoring by developing countries themselves."},{"index":2,"size":444,"text":"But while efforts to collect food price data are certainly necessary for more effective food and nutrition security surveillance, they are not sufficient. One limitation has been a focus on a limited number of food items, with many price surveillance systems focused on staple foods, but not a broader range of nutrient-dense foods necessary for cost a balanced healthy diet (Herforth, et al., 2019). Yet even where a wide range of food items are priced, there is still another critical omission in most of these efforts: the absence of any kind of income measure for tracking the ability of households to afford either the diets they typically consume, or the diets nutritionists recommend they consume for overall good health. In short, it is the affordability of healthy diets that matters, not their nominal cost. Independently of developments in food price surveillance systems, the affordability dimension of food security has gained much needed attention through research studies. In the wake of the 2007-2008 and 2010-11 food crises in Ethiopia, Bachewe and Headey (2017) compared food price changes to trends in wages for unskilled workers in urban Ethiopia, and constructed a poor person's price index for food based on consumption patterns of the poorest 40% of the population. Studies in South Asia instead used new indices of the cost of a healthy balanced diet as defined by food-based dietary guidelines that set targets for consumption of different food groups (Dizon & Herforth, 2018;Dizon, Herforth, & Wang, 2019;Mahrt, Mather, Herforth, & Headey, 2019;Raghunathan, Headey, & Herforth, 2020). Those studies showed that the majority of people in these Asian countries cannot afford healthy recommended diets. Hirvonen, Bai, Headey, and Masters (2020) reached the same conclusion at the global level by assessing affordability of the EAT-Lancet diet. Subsequently, the UN's State of Food Insecurity and Nutrition in the World (SOFI) annual reports (FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP, & WHO, 2022) have mainstreamed metrics of the cost and affordability of healthy diets using global food price data from the 2017 International Comparison Program (ICP) led by the World Bank (2023a). The key takeaway from all these global studies is that roughly 3 billion people cannot afford a healthy diet. This renewed focus on healthy diet affordability is highly commendable, but insufficient as a high frequency food security monitoring tool because the national metrics in the SOFI report are derived through extrapolations from food price data collected in the 2017 ICP round, while income and expenditure data likewise come from national household surveys that are similarly infrequent. Moreover, SOFI healthy diet affordability estimates do not contain information at the subnational level, nor gender-disaggregated statistics. The FAO acknowledges this and has stated that:"},{"index":3,"size":95,"text":"\"FAO is focusing attention on the pursuit of healthy diets and transformations of food systems to ensure healthy diets are affordable for all, all year round. FAO is encouraging Governments to put the affordability of healthy diets at the centre of their agricultural policies, social protection, and investment decisions.\" 2 However, to put affordability of healthy diets \"at the center\" and \"for all, all year round\" requires not only collecting high frequency data for a more extensive array of foods, but also collecting high frequency data on household incomes, or some kind of income proxy."},{"index":4,"size":121,"text":"Here we make the argument that the wages of the poor need to be incorporated into food security monitoring systems. Specifically, we argue that collecting wage quotations for unskilled workers will provide a sufficiently accurate and low-cost approximation for the income trends of those economic groups most vulnerable to higher food prices, namely households which rely on selling their labor to earn an income. This logic is acknowledged in two methodologically focused WFP publications that recommend WFP country offices collect and analyze wage data (Caccavale & Flämig 2017;Islam, 2013), and roughly 10% of WFP country offices issue bulletins that report what the WFP refers to as the terms of trade between crop prices and wages (See WFP (2022) for an example)."},{"index":5,"size":215,"text":"Without an income proxy such as wages, it is hard to know what kind of information is imparted by food price changes alone, because when food prices increase, so too could nominal incomes. Indeed, inflation can sometimes be the result of strong economic growth, which can raise the demand for both food and labor, leading to simultaneous food and wage inflation with little change in real incomes. Moreover, food prices and wages share complex causal relationships. Wage inflation could cause food inflation because labor is one of the largest input costs into food production, and rising food prices could cause wage increases because high food prices incentivize farmers to hire more labor to increase food output (Headey & Martin, 2016;Jacoby, 2016). Yet conversely, macroeconomic crises can trigger food inflation and reduce demand for labor, leading to steep declines in real wages and disposable income. In 2022, some of the countries with the highest food inflation rates -Venezuela, Zimbabwe, Sudan, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Pakistan -were all experiencing major macroeconomics crises, including depleted foreign currency reserves, sharp depreciations in their exchange rates, business closures and reduced demand for labor. Previous research suggests that these kinds of crises can result in sharp declines in disposable income, significant deterioration in diet quality, and rising malnutrition (Block, et al., 2004)."},{"index":6,"size":90,"text":"In short, the welfare impacts of a 20% increase in the price of food need is entirely context-specific and need not imply anything like a 20% reduction in real income, since nominal incomes could also be rising, falling, or staying the same. The only indicator that truly matters from a welfare perspective is how food prices change relative to incomes or an income proxy, such as unskilled wages. In other words, we need to measure the \"food wages\" of the poor -wages deflated by some kind of food price index."}]},{"head":"Why the \"food wage\" is a critically important food insecurity indicator: Theory and evidence","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"The measurement of \"Food wages\" is almost as old as economics itself. Long before the advent of complex household economic surveys, many of the most influential early economists (Malthus, 1798;Playfair, 1821;Smith, 1776) compared wages of working class households to the price of bread or other grains. Contemporary economic historians likewise analyze food wages to track historical changes in real incomes, as income estimates are typically available in the distant past (Allen, 2001;Bassino & Ma, 2006;Bhattacharya & Rama Deb, 1977;Broadberry & Gupta, 2006). Development economists have also regularly measured and analyzed \"rice wages\" in Asia because of the complex bidirectional relationships between agricultural intensification and wages, and the overwhelming importance of rice in the diet of poor agricultural workers in countries like Bangladesh and Indonesia (Azam, 1993;Mazumdar & Sawit, 1986;Zhang, Rashid, Ahmad, & Ahmed, 2014)."},{"index":2,"size":130,"text":"However, the analysis of food wages has somewhat fallen by the wayside in development economics for one very good reason: the proliferation of household surveys such as the Living Standards Measure Study (LSMS) surveys led by The World Bank, which are now the primary tool for measuring secular changes in poverty. Of course, for early warning systems and high frequency monitoring of household welfare and food security, it would also be preferable to measure incomes, diet quality and food insecurity experiences at high frequency, and this has indeed become more feasible through costeffective high-frequency phone surveys (Gourlay, Kilic, Martuscelli, Wollburg, & Zezza, 2021;MAPSA, 2022b). However, until LMICs and development partners make much-need investments in highfrequency welfare surveys (Headey & Barrett, 2015), the much cheaper option is to use wage data."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"The presumption in this instance is not that the incomes of the poor consist solely of wages, but rather that:"},{"index":4,"size":54,"text":"1. Wage rates for unskilled labor activities represent what economists call a \"reservation wage\", meaning a fallback wage or wage floor for jobs that poor people can engage in if they cannot find any more remunerative activity, and 2. That trends in wages are strongly correlated with trends in the incomes of the poor."},{"index":5,"size":274,"text":"Both of these assumptions are illustrated in a widely cited exploration of the validity of poverty trends in India by eminent economists, Angus Deaton and Jean Dreze (2002). Deaton and Dreze use state-level trends in wages of unskilled labor to cross-check official poverty trends, and write: \"real wages can be used to provide some information about other poverty indexes … it is also possible to think about the real wage as a rough poverty indicator in its own right. The idea is that, if the labour market is competitive … then the real wage measures the 'reservation wage', i.e., The lowest wage at which labourers are prepared to work. This has direct evidential value as an indication of the deprived circumstances in which people live (the more desperate people are, the lower the reservation wage), independently of the indirect evidential value arising from the statistical association between real wages and standard poverty indexes such as the headcount ratio.\" Source: Deaton and Dreze (2002), page 3737 One concern with Deaton and Dreze's argument is that the correlation between wage dependency and poverty might be unique to Asia, where in rural areas, especially, there are high rates of landlessness, widespread use of hired labor in intensive agricultural systems, and therefore many poor people who rely on selling their labor for cash. Wage income is certainly important for the poor in more urbanized and commercialized economies of South-East Asia, Central Asia, the Middle East and North Africa and Latin America, but are wages likely to be predictive of poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa were labor markets and agricultural systems are often at an earlier stage of economic transformation?"},{"index":6,"size":220,"text":"There are several arguments and some evidence to assuage this concern. First, Africa is becoming increasingly urbanized, and food wages for unskilled labor are likely to be a strong indicator of food security for the urban poor, as we show below. Moreover, it is the urban poor in Africa who more frequently report food insecurity in the context of rising food prices, since they rarely grow much food (Verpoorten, Arora, Stoop, & Swinnen, 2013). Second, a number of large African countries are much more land-constrained than they were several decades ago, resulting in greater intensification of agricultural production, including more use of hired labor, at least on a seasonal basis (Jayne, Chamberlin, & Headey, 2014). Third, global studies show that a large share of the world's poor population is dependent on wages or self-employment income (Castaneda Aguilar, et al., 2016;Robles Aguilar & Sumner, 2020). Indeed, self-employment income from highly informal small and micro enterprises (SMEs) can be very important for the poor, though it is likely that even trends in the profits of SMEs are correlated with trends in wages of unskilled workers, because to some extent these activities are integrated in a competitive labor market: both are low-entry, low-skill activities, and workers often switch between selling their labor in the market and providing their labor for small familyrun businesses."},{"index":7,"size":195,"text":"If these arguments hold, then one should expect that wage rates for unskilled occupations across countries are strongly correlated with the incomes of the poor. We test that in Table 1 by estimating cross-country correlations between the average income of the poorest 40% of the population in a given country and wages/salaries of different occupations sourced from the ICP 2011 round. On the left of Table 1 we see strong correlations between the average incomes of the poorest 40% and wage rates of servants (0.73), garage services charges (0.82), and low skill construction labor (0.64). In contrast, correlations for more skilled occupations -reported on the right side of Table 1 -have much weaker and often insignificant associations with the income levels of poor people, as one would expect. This provides some assurance that wage rates for less skilled occupations are likely to be a good \"global\" proxy for the incomes of the poor, not just in specific regions or contexts. Indeed, the next section illustrates that with examples from a low income country from sub-Saharan Africa (Ethiopia), an uppermiddle income country from South Asia (Sri Lanka) and lower middle income country from South-East Asia (Myanmar)."}]},{"head":"Food wages in food crises: are they sensitive to shocks and predictive of food insecurity?","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"The most important test of our claim that food wages are a useful high-frequency indicator of food security is that food wages should be sensitive to food price shocks. In this section we therefore present evidence from food crises in Ethiopia, Sri Lanka and Myanmar."}]},{"head":"Food wages during multiple food price crises in Ethiopia","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"In 2007-2008 Ethiopia had one of the highest food inflation rates in the world, driven by international price increases, exchange rate movements, and local crop failures (Durevall, Loening, & Ayalew Birru, 2013). Survey-based research published just after the 2008 food price crisis concluded that the urban poor were hard hit by food inflation, while impacts in rural areas were more nuanced (Hadley, Stevenson, Tadesse, & Belachew, 2012;Kumar & Quisumbing, 2013;Ticci, 2011), as one would expect."},{"index":2,"size":117,"text":"In previous work, Bachewe and Headey (2017) used the Ethiopian government's Consumer Price Survey to gauge the impact of the 2007-08 and 2010-11 food price crises on the real wages of the urban poor. This survey is exceptionally rich, surveying 120 market locations in urban Ethiopia for prices of food and non-food goods and services, including wages of daily laborers, largely working in the construction sector. Bachewe and Headey (2017) used these data to construct a poor person's food price index to measure the real wages of the poor (food wages) over 2001-2012. They showed that real food wages fell by 22 percent in urban Ethiopia over the course of just 12 months, from mid-2007 to mid-2008."},{"index":3,"size":221,"text":"In Figure 2 we update Bachewe and Headey's calculations up to June 2022 when international prices had again been soaring in the wake of the Ukraine war and problems in the global palm oil sector. The data in Figure 2 show that wages hovered around 35 birr per day from 2003 to 2006 (about $5.67 in 2011 international dollars) before the 22% fall in food wages in 2007-2008. However, after wages recovered in 2009 and 2010, they again fell by 22% in 2011 when Ethiopia was further exposed to high international food inflation as well as domestic crop failures. Also striking is the strong growth of food wages after 2011, which increase by over 50% up until 2019, which was indeed a period of strong economic growth and rapid poverty reduction in Ethiopia (Bundervoet, et al., 2020). However, from 2020 to 2022 -a period of COVID-19 restrictions, civil war in northern Ethiopia and global food, fuel and fertilizer inflation -the food wage for unskilled urban workers again declined by roughly 20 percent up to June 2022, with declines in food wages likely to be much worse in conflict-affected Tigray.  Source: Authors' analysis using ESS retail price data (ESS, 2022). * Food wages are daily laborer wages deflated by the poor person's food price index, as described in Bachewe and Headey (2017)."}]},{"head":"Food wages in Sri Lanka's 2021-2022 food and financial crisis","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":174,"text":"From mid-2021 to the present in mid-2023 Sri Lanka has been facing an unprecedented food crisis in the wake of a near depletion of foreign currency reserves, a 40% depreciation of the rupee against major currencies from April-May in 2022, severe fuel shortages, and a 6-month ban on agri-chemical inputs in late 2021 that resulted in a 42% decline in rice production in 2022 (the main staple) and a 40% reduction in maize (a key input for the livestock sector) (FAO & WFP, 2022). The combination of these factors contributed to a 76% year-on-year increase in the consumer food price index by mid-2022 (Figure 2  2 uses that data to first report nominal trends in the food price index and wages from July 2021 to June 2022 for farm labor (male and female separately), while here we also report nonfarm skilled labor wages to assess impacts on lower middle income households that are reportedly also hard hit by the crisis. The corresponding trends in real food wages over 2021-2022 are reported in Panel B."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"In Panel A we see that nominal wages and food prices gradually trended upwards from June 2021 until March 2022, when food prices exploded in April 2022, with food price inflation far outpacing wage growth. Slower growth in wages from April 2022 onwards was unsurprising given an 8 percent contraction in GDP and significant constraints to any positive agricultural supply response due to fertilizer and fuel shortages."},{"index":3,"size":172,"text":"Panel B shows just how quickly real food wages declined. Wages of skilled nonfarm workers fell by 24% in the four months between February and June 2022, while wages of male and female agricultural workers fell by 22% and 21%, respectively. Moreover, women's wages in the farm sector are persistently almost 20% lower than male wages, similar to findings in rural India (Raghunathan, et al., 2020). Thus, Figure 2 convincingly illustrates that food wages were a very effective high-frequency indicator of the declining purchasing power of relatively poor rural and urban wage earners. Indeed, had more spatially disaggregated wage and price data been available in a timely manner, food wages could have revealed in \"real time\" how quickly purchasing power was deteriorating in the country. Panel B: Real \"food wages\" (wages deflated by the food price index) for male and female farm laborers, and skilled nonfarm labor Source: Authors' estimates from data reported by the Central Bank of Sri Lanka (CBSL, 2022). Food wages are wages deflated by the food price index."}]},{"head":"Monitoring \"Healthy diet wages\" in Myanmar's complex economic and political crisis over 2021-2022","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":170,"text":"Myanmar, like Sri Lanka, has been facing a prolonged and complex economic and political crisis with high rates of food inflation superficially brought about by a weakening exchange rate and high international prices of some key food imports, such as palm oil. However, the underlying trigger for the broader economic crisis was the military takeover of the country on February 1 st 2021, which prompted widespread civil protests, a major financial crisis, a fuel, food and fertilizer crisis, and ultimately an escalation of the country's multiple civil wars. While other countries in the region were recovering from COVID-19's economic impacts, Myanmar experienced an 18 percent contraction in economic output in 2021 and continued stagnation in 2022 (World Bank, 2023b). A 19-country computable general equilibrium study from IFPRI researchers (Arndt et al., 2023) on the impacts of the food, fuel and fertilizer crisis on developing countries concluded that Myanmar would be the worst affected country in the sample, with real incomes declining by 10% and poverty increasing by 7.6 percentage points."},{"index":2,"size":234,"text":"In addition to economic turbulence, the military takeover presaged a breakdown in a wide range of essential government services, including disruptions to food price monitoring and household welfare surveys. In this data-scarce environment USAID funded the Myanmar Household Welfare Survey (MHWS), a high-frequency large-scale phone survey intended to monitor welfare outcomes as well as the functioning of the agri-food system in a very volatile economy (MAPSA, 2022a(MAPSA, , 2022b)). MHWS surveyed 12,100 households four times over the course of 2022 just as food prices were rising steeply. Moreover, MHWS included collection of food price quotations from food vendors for an array of different food groups to allow us to calculate conventional food price indices (weighted by household consumption patterns) but also the cost of a healthy diet, as defined by food-based dietary guidelines for Myanmar (Mahrt, Herforth, Robinson, Arndt, & Headey, 2022;Mahrt, et al., 2019). MHWS also collected wage quotations for unskilled construction and agricultural workers, while the main household survey module collected questions about household income sources that have been used to construct total household income per adult equivalent and an income-based poverty measure derived from a price-adjusted 2017 poverty line (MAPSA, 2022c). The simultaneous collection of this suite of variables allows us to estimate the cost of a healthy diet, \"healthy diet wages\", and how these healthy diet wages correlate with trends in incomes of the poorest 40% and income-based poverty rates."},{"index":3,"size":117,"text":"Table 2 reports trends in the nominal cost of healthy diets in urban and rural areas, as well as nominal construction wages in urban Myanmar and nominal agricultural wages in rural Myanmar, separately for men and women. Myanmar experienced rapid food inflation over 2022, with the cost of a healthy diet increasing by 47% in urban areas and 60% in rural areas. Similar to Sri Lanka's crisis, nominal wages increased, but only by a fraction of the increase in food prices. Construction wages in urban areas for men and women increased by just 6%, while agricultural wages for rural men and women increased by 12% (likely reflecting increased demand for agricultural labor because of higher food prices)."},{"index":4,"size":38,"text":"Table 3 compares trends in these healthy diet wages over the course of 2022 to trends in real mean incomes of the poorest 60% of the population within urban and rural areas, as well as income-based poverty rates. "}]},{"head":"Change in 2022 -30% -40% 33%","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Source: Authors' calculations from the Myanmar Household Welfare Survey (MAPSA, 2022b). See text for details. a. Median income is per adult equivalent and is deflated by a food price index. The bottom 60% of households within urban and within rural areas is determined using spatially adjusted income."},{"index":2,"size":112,"text":"In urban areas the 27% decline in healthy diet construction wages corresponds to a 15% decline in real incomes of the poorest 60% of the population, but a 20% increase in the poverty rate. Hence trends in the healthy diet construction wage in urban areas perhaps slightly over-estimate real welfare losses, although there is also imprecision in estimates of incomes and poverty rates in a phone-based survey modality. In rural areas, however, the 30% decline in healthy diet agricultural wages corresponds to a 40% decline in real mean incomes and a 33% increase in the poverty rate, implying that food wage trends in rural Myanmar have been closely predictive of poverty trends."}]},{"head":"Conclusions and recommendations","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"In conclusion, the addition of wage quotations to food price surveys is a low-hanging fruit for food security monitoring, and one which provides critically important added value to existing systems."},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"First, wages add the essential \"real welfare\" dimension to nominal food price changes, by accurately proxying for changes in disposable incomes of the poor. This is borne out best by the Myanmar example, but the steep reductions of food wages in Sri Lanka and Ethiopia are also consistent with independent analyses of these country's food crises."},{"index":3,"size":92,"text":"Second, wage data is very cheap at the margin, because if not already collected, it can easily be collected in the same survey instruments that collect food price data at minimal extra cost. IFPRI, for example, has worked closely with Sri Lanka's Hector Kobbekaduwa Agrarian Research and Training Institute (HARTI) to add wage quotations for unskilled labor activities at the farm level, at wholesale markets and at retail outlets, to its extensive food price collection efforts at those different components of the agri-food system. The extra cost of this effort was trivial."},{"index":4,"size":137,"text":"Third, wage data can be combined with new healthy diet cost indices that better reflect caloric and nutrient needs, to provide a high-frequency analog to the infrequently updated \"affordability of a healthy diet\" metric now reported in the UN's annual State of Food Insecurity and Nutrition report (FAO, et al., 2022). High frequency wage data could likewise be combined with other kinds of nutritionadequate diets, such as Fill the Nutrient Gap methods used by used by the WFP, largely for determining nutrition-sensitive social protection transfers. 4 High frequency data on prices of a wide range of food types and wages or incomes is a necessary condition for moving food security measurement closer to the conceptualization of food security as \"all people, at all times, having physical and economic access to sufficient safe and nutritious food\" (FAO, 1996)."},{"index":5,"size":149,"text":"Fourth, wages and food prices can be simultaneously collected in different geographies at a granular level (allowing for regional targeting), but also collected for different activities corresponding to different skill levels and different sectors, and separately for men and women to provide socioeconomic and demographic nuance to the concept of real wages and healthy diet affordability. In India, for example, Raghunathan et al. (2020) obtained wage data for 22 different agricultural activities disaggregated by gender and showed that men's wages were typically 50% higher than women's wages. In Sri Lanka, wages are collected for urban activities, crop activities and estate sector activities (tea, rubber), which is important given the much poorer economic and nutrition conditions of the estate sector population. It may also be advisable to combine wage rates for a range of different activities into a single index or series of indices (e.g. an agricultural wage rate index)."},{"index":6,"size":137,"text":"Fifth, food wages can be useful in thinking about social protection transfers, especially in the context of rapidly changing food prices and/or wages. In rural India Raghunathan et al. (2020) were able to compare the cost of a healthy diet to the state-specific minimum wages of one of India's most important social protection programs, the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA), which entitles every rural household to 100 days of unskilled labor compensated at the state minimum wage. They showed that while NREGA wages were generally sufficient to purchase four days of a healthy diet in 2006 when the program started, the rising real cost of a healthy diet resulted in NREGA wages only being sufficient to purchase three days of a healthy diet by 2011; a 25% decline in the purchasing power of social protection wages."},{"index":7,"size":137,"text":"There are, of course, limitations to wage data. Poor and near-poor households obviously have diversified income sources, so wages for unskilled workers are only a second-best proxy for income trends, but we believe they are generally a good (and cheap) second-best option. Moreover, wages may not be a good proxy for incomes of farming households, although it will typically be farming households who are less vulnerable to food inflation, unless they also earn incomes from selling their labor (in which case, wages become relevant again). The vulnerability of pure farming households stems more from weather shocks, pests and problems in accessing inputs (which can also cause food inflation), which is why early warning and surveillance systems do indeed need to be multi-dimensional and rely on a suite of economic and environmental indicators rather than any single metric."},{"index":8,"size":86,"text":"One particularly important concern for using food wages as a food security indicator is that wage movements may not reflect situations of high unemployment or underemployment. In those circumstances even a decline in real food wages may not be fully indicative of the loss of welfare, because wage earnings could have declined proportionally more than wage levels. One solution is for wage surveys to collect estimates of \"normal\" daily hours of work in addition to wage rates, as is done in India (Raghunathan, et al., 2020)."},{"index":9,"size":130,"text":"Finally, one limitation of wage data is that it either is not collected or may be collected but not disseminated. The very rich district-level price and wage data for rural India analyzed by Raghunathan, et al. (2020) was no longer made publicly available by the Indian government after 2011. Lack of public dissemination of wage data is also matched by lack of dissemination of food price data in many countries (Bai, et al., 2021). But these data gaps are surely surmountable barriers precisely because of the low cost of new wage data collection efforts or the relatively low cost of diplomatic efforts to encourage national governments to share food price and wage data in a more timely fashion, or to develop their own food affordability monitoring systems or \"real-time\" dashboards."},{"index":10,"size":137,"text":"On the basis of the arguments above, we strongly urge international aid agencies involved in food price monitoring -particularly the WFP, FAO, USAID, ILO, and the CGIAR -to more extensively collect and report wage data and \"food wages\" in their primary surveys, but also to seek out existing wage series in consumer price surveys and labor force surveys and encourage national government agencies to publicly disseminate food price and wage data; in short, to pluck this very low hanging fruit. The WFP already does this kind of analysis is some contexts with the reporting of wage-cereal terms of trade indices, but we recommend more extensive application of wage collection and use of broader food baskets to capture prices for nutrient-dense foods as well as staple foods, including a range of price necessary to cost out healthy diets."},{"index":11,"size":58,"text":"The scientific community and UN agencies have made great progress on defining what we mean by \"sufficient … nutritious food\", but the challenge of monitoring the affordability of nutritious food for \"all people, at all times\" is not yet met (FAO, 1996). Measuring the wages of the poor is a big but cheap step towards meeting that challenge."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Food inflation in 2022: percentage change on a year earlier "},{"text":" 3   "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Trends in monthly daily labor wages deflated by a poor person's food price index, averaged across 120 locations in urban Ethiopia from June 2002 to June 2022 (in constant 2011 birr, with 1 USD=5.57 birr) "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Farm and non-farm wages, food inflation and the depreciation of the rupee in Sri Lanka's economic crisis: June 2021 to June 2022 Panel A: Trends in nominal wage indices and the national food price index (June 2021=100) "},{"text":"Farm  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Cross-country correlations between the average income of the poorest 40% of a population and wages/salaries for occupations of differing degrees of skill, formality and manual labor Less skilled, less formal, more manual occupations More skilled, more formal, less manual occupations   Observations Correlation  Observations Correlation ObservationsCorrelationObservationsCorrelation  (countries) (*=p<0.01)  (countries) (*=p<0.01) (countries)(*=p<0.01)(countries)(*=p<0.01) Servant 64 0.73* Prison guard 60 0.36* Servant640.73*Prison guard600.36* Garage, basic service 59 0.82* Police 58 0.28 Garage, basic service590.82*Police580.28 Construction labor 75 0.64* Auxiliary nurse 67 0.44* Construction labor750.64*Auxiliary nurse670.44* Bricklayer 75 0.61* Primary school teacher 61 0.36* Bricklayer750.61*Primary school teacher610.36* Plumber 75 0.55* Secretary 62 0.15 Plumber750.55*Secretary620.15 Carpenter 74 0.57* Bookkeeper 50 0.35 Carpenter740.57*Bookkeeper500.35 Steelworker 70 0.62* Computer operator 63 0.11 Steelworker700.62*Computer operator630.11 Electrician 74 0.50* Public health official 62 0.15 Electrician740.50*Public health official620.15  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Trends in nominal healthy diet costs and sector-and sex-specific unskilled wage rates, which are then used to calculate real \"healthy diet wages\" across four rounds of a high-frequency national phone survey in rural and urban Myanmar    URBAN MYANMAR  URBAN MYANMAR  Healthy diet Construction wages Healthy diet construction wage Healthy dietConstruction wagesHealthy diet construction wage  cost (kyat) (kyat)  (wages divided by diet cost) cost (kyat)(kyat)(wages divided by diet cost) Demographic Both sexes Men Women Men Women DemographicBoth sexesMenWomenMenWomen Jan to Feb 2022 1,586 7,916 6,152 5.0 3.9 Jan to Feb 20221,5867,9166,1525.03.9 Apr to Jun 2022 1,785 8,074 6,274 4.5 3.5 Apr to Jun 20221,7858,0746,2744.53.5 Jul to Aug 2022 1,827 8,184 6,419 4.5 3.5 Jul to Aug 20221,8278,1846,4194.53.5 Oct to Nov 2022 2,327 8,427 6,543 3.6 2.8 Oct to Nov 20222,3278,4276,5433.62.8 Change in 2022 47% 6% 6% -27% -27% Change in 202247%6%6%-27%-27%  "},{"text":"RURAL MYANMAR Healthy diet cost (kyat) Agricultural wages (kyat) Healthy diet agricultural wage (wages divided by diet cost)  Demographic Both sexes Men Women Men Women DemographicBoth sexesMenWomenMenWomen Jan to Feb 2022 1,375 6,058 4,681 4.4 3.4 Jan to Feb 20221,3756,0584,6814.43.4 Apr to Jun 2022 1,559 6,272 4,820 4.0 3.1 Apr to Jun 20221,5596,2724,8204.03.1 Jul to Aug 2022 1,708 6,425 5,022 3.8 2.9 Jul to Aug 20221,7086,4255,0223.82.9 Oct to Nov 2022 2,197 6,783 5,253 3.1 2.4 Oct to Nov 20222,1976,7835,2533.12.4 Change in 2022 60% 12% 12% -30% -30% Change in 202260%12%12%-30%-30%  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Comparing trends in sex-specific real \"healthy diet wages\" to trends in real household incomes for the poorest 60% and income-based poverty rates across four rounds of a high-frequency national phone survey in rural and urban Myanmar URBAN MYANMAR Healthy diet construction wage Real mean incomes of the poorest 60% (kyat) Poverty rate (%)  Demographic Both sexes Household Household DemographicBoth sexesHouseholdHousehold Jan to Feb 2022 3.9 1,646 47% Jan to Feb 20223.91,64647% Apr to Jun 2022 3.5 1,604 49% Apr to Jun 20223.51,60449% Jul to Aug 2022 3.5 1,578 50% Jul to Aug 20223.51,57850% Oct to Nov 2022 2.8 1,398 57% Oct to Nov 20222.81,39857% Change in 2022 -27% -15% 20% Change in 2022-27%-15%20%  "},{"text":"RURAL MYANMAR Healthy diet agricultural wage Real mean incomes of the poorest 60% (kyat) Poverty rate (%) Demographic Both sexes Household Household  Jan to Feb 2022 3.4 1,235 52% Jan to Feb 20223.41,23552% Apr to Jun 2022 3.1 957 60% Apr to Jun 20223.195760% Jul to Aug 2022 2.9 809 66% Jul to Aug 20222.980966% Oct to Nov 2022 2.4 737 69% Oct to Nov 20222.473769%  "}],"sieverID":"818e2ce7-43c5-44e9-a803-171f1313b777","abstract":"in 1975, provides research-based policy solutions to sustainably reduce poverty and end hunger and malnutrition. IFPRI's strategic research aims to foster a climate-resilient and sustainable food supply; promote healthy diets and nutrition for all; build inclusive and efficient markets, trade systems, and food industries; transform agricultural and rural economies; and strengthen institutions and governance. Gender is integrated in all the Institute's work. Partnerships, communications, capacity strengthening, and data and knowledge management are essential components to translate IFPRI's research from action to impact. The Institute's regional and country programs play a critical role in responding to demand for food policy research and in delivering holistic support for country-led development. IFPRI collaborates with partners around the world."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0c0c39f09ae3ab3174ced6daccb594e4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f3018018-e781-4cd1-b6fb-53bc76c0018f/retrieve"},"pageCount":3,"title":"REPORTING 2022 EVIDENCES OUTCOME IMPACT CASE REPORT Study #4715 Stage of Maturity of change reported: stage 2 PART 1: Description and all information of the outcome/impact reported TYPE OICR: Outcome Impact Case Report","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"CGIAR INNOVATION(S) OR FINDINGS THAT HAVE RESULTED IN THIS OUTCOME OR IMPACT","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Analysis of experience with payments for ecosystem services and related finance [1] informed the design of a G7 and German Government program called CompensAction to pay smallholder farmers for producing ecosystem services."},{"index":2,"size":119,"text":"Providing input to the development of the learning workshop, participating in the workshop and facilitating a breakout group on mechanisms for more efficient payments to farmers for mitigation of GHG emissions and carbon sequestration [1]. Producing a policy brief [1] providing clear objectives of the CompensACTION workstream and recommendations for compensation mechanisms for a just food system transformation. This included providing analysis and recommendations on how to leverage public and private sector finance based on PES and carbon farming that works for small-scale farmers. Presenting a draft to the G7 FSWG [4]. Presenting policy analysis and recommendations at a UNFCCC COP27 side event hosted by IFAD [4][5]. Liaising nearly weekly with BMZ, GIZ and Clim-Eat from June through November."},{"index":3,"size":102,"text":"CompensACTION was launched at a first learning workshop in July 2022, bringing together G7 FSWG members, selected stakeholders, and relevant experts to initiate the discussion on compensation mechanisms, with a focus on carbon farming and PES [1]. A policy analysis and recommendations were then made for a CompensAction Initiative [1]. This was shared with the G7's FSWG in September and October for further feedback and improvement. In November, the recommendations were adopted and the CompensACTION Initiative and The investment is for projects that enable smallholder farmers to become better stewards of the climate and the environment, including water and biodiversity. See ref."},{"index":4,"size":121,"text":"[2] ELABORATION OF OUTCOME/IMPACT STATEMENT In mid-2022, BMZ commissioned The Alliance in partnership with Clim-Eat to contribute to the G7 Food Security Working Group's (FSWG) workstream on CompensACTION for food security and a healthy planet. The aim of this workstream was 1) to facilitate discussions among stakeholders from the policy, science, and private sector and advance globally relevant recommendations for compensation mechanisms driving food system transformation, and 2) to foster implementation partnerships in piloting and scaling-up of compensation mechanisms. The focus was on the use of a payments for ecosystem services (PES) approach to finance public goods and carbon farming and the voluntary carbon market as an income opportunity for small-scale farmers and to leverage climate finance from the private sector."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" three initial pilot projects by IFAD were announced [2-3]. The IFAD projects are based in Brazil, Ethiopia and Lesotho. The CompensAction Initiative is a global effort to promote payments for ecosystem services (PES) to improve smallholder farmers' incomes and incentivize climate action, sustainable farming and other environmental outcomes. The Alliance contributed to the workstream by Wollenberg, E., Tennigkeit, T., Dinesh, D., Baumert, S., Röhrig, F. Kirfel-Rühle, L., Zeppenfeldt, L. 2022. Compensating farmers for ecosystem services: Lessons and an agenda for innovation. CompensACTION Policy Brief. here IFAD announcement of German investment of EUR15 mil in the program. here Germany backs Payment for Ecosystem Services projects. Available from here Compensating farmers for ecosystem services. Lessons and an agenda for innovation (PPT). Available from: here IFAD at COP 27, 6-18 Nov. 2022. https://www.ifad.org/en/web/events/cop27 2 -Principal. Capacity development is a key component of the recommendations made in the policy brief to support low-cost, novel measurement reporting and verification (MRV) and public policy reform [1-4]. Climate change relevance: 2 -Principal. Incentivizing climate action is a key aim of the CompensAction Initiative [1-4]. "}],"sieverID":"ec10abcc-47ae-47aa-81f9-46065be7df96","abstract":"The International Group of Seven (G7) Presidency (Germany) used an analysis of payments for ecosystem services and innovative finance to develop the CompensAction Initiative to incentivize small-scale farmers to produce ecosystem services. As a first action, in 2022 the German Federal Ministry of Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) invested EUR 15 million in three projects of the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD). BMZ will continue to invest at least $1-2 million/year in CompensAction projects. Links to the policy brief and links to the recording of a presentation at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) 27th Conference of the Parties (COP27) and a link to the presentation itself."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0c673058f5620a04ec7852fe2c17c01a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c125a203-708e-42fd-bc24-2249f67831f8/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"Introductory Document to the PROGRESA Experience Capitalization Series","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"The initiative also addressed the building of water collection and distribution infrastructure (84 collection ditches, 5 mini-aqueducts, 119 hand-dug wells, 16 lagoons, 438 water troughs, and more than 60 reservoirs) so farm families could access water for agricultural production. This infrastructure was key not only to guarantee the production of many families, but also to increase their resilience to possible droughts (as occurred in 2014 due to the El Niño phenomenon) that could have adverse effects that would ultimately affect producers' income such as reduced milk and meat production, flower abortions, crop loss, reduced planting areas, and death of livestock."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"In 2014 PROGRESA also designed and implemented an emergency assistance plan, referred to as the Drought Plan, for beneficiary families that had been affected by the El Niño phenomenon. The plan not only helped improve the food security of 96% of the bean producers facing problems of drought, but also allocated more than 540 ha to produce and sell fresh forage at affordable prices, which also benefited producers of the dry zone located outside the mandate area of the initiative."}]},{"head":"Beyond the numbers and results","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"The results of PROGRESA's endeavors are reflected in these and other numbers given in the documents forming part of this capitalization series. But beyond these numbers and results, there is a story and we feel we need to rescue that story if we want to have an increasing impact on rural development. Since 2007, Catholic Relief Services (CRS), executing entity of PROGRESA, has been committed to capitalizing experiences as a mechanism to improve the documentation, analysis, sharing, and use of lessons learned. After each experience of the initiative, the technical teams of CRS rescue tacit knowledge not found elsewhere but found to be the greatest source of learning."},{"index":2,"size":203,"text":"This initiative has been endorsed by several leaders in due time, but has maintained an approach criticized by some. It capitalizes on what is learned from the viewpoint of the technical teams, not from the viewpoint of producers. There are several reasons explaining why, but we will mention only two. The first is that, although the beneficiary is the producer, whether or not thousands of producers benefit from each project carried out will largely depend on the expertise of the technical teams to implement planned actions and overcome difficulties that are impossible to predict before the experience begins. The second reason is that this capitalization of experiences does not seek to gather data or facts, but rather the lessons learned-lessons that again and again increasingly contribute to rural development. Now, 9 years later, PROGRESA's current process of capitalizing experiences has served to endorse what we initially considered would work to capitalize on learning. Almost by chance, when reviewing the lessons learned from the previous CRS capitalization process (which took place within the framework of the ACORDAR project), we observed that all the lessons learned that were documented are clearly reflected in the design and implementation of PROGRESA. Below we mention just a few."},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"1 The methodology developed by CIAT helps in assessing current business models between a seller (which may be a producers' organization, such as an association, cooperative, or an informal group of the first, second, or third degree) and a buyer (who may be an intermediary, retailer, or wholesaler), as well as jointly developing more inclusive business models with smallholders, where changes are measurable."},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"To download the full methodology, please refer to http://bit.ly/LINK_Methodology."},{"index":5,"size":45,"text":"We learned that it is not enough to organize cooperatives. We also have to invest funds and efforts to strengthen their capacity so they can operate efficiently and effectively at the entrepreneurial level as well as ensure that they have access to adequate production technologies."},{"index":6,"size":44,"text":"Not only was a process carried out with 33 rural associative enterprises to strengthen their organizational and entrepreneurial capacities (managerial-and performance-wise), but these enterprises served as focal points to articulate different interventions related to gender, infrastructure, and technology. PROGRESA invested heavily in these processes."},{"index":7,"size":44,"text":"Efforts oriented toward developing inclusive business models did not have the desired scope or use. Hopes were that in the future the combination of spaces of collective action and more precise methods of working with buyers would trigger a change in non-inclusive commercial practices."},{"index":8,"size":41,"text":"The LINK 1 methodology was applied in several cases, which opened spaces of collective action that involved several buyers. More precise methods were also used to evaluate and strengthen the inclusive approach of several business relationships between small-scale producers and buyers."},{"index":9,"size":52,"text":"One of the lessons learned was that value chain commissions were fundamental to begin to discuss strategies with the government about the development of value chains and the need for governmental support. However, the bean commission was the only commission that was consolidated as a key space of the value chain nationwide."}]},{"head":"Bean producers participated in the National Commission of APEN, which approved and enforced the Nicaraguan technical norms on bean quality.","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"In addition, several directors of horticultural and fruit cooperatives served on the National Vegetable Committee, and one director served on its Board of Directors."},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":"Under the umbrella of the ACORDAR project, many women were employed, received better pay and a fair salary, and had access to health benefits and support in the development of pre-business organizations and groups. However, it was evident that much more work was needed in gender-related issues. The project would have wanted to achieve more in this area, but, from the onset of the project, these gender-related issues were not strongly and firmly promoted to empower women so they could participate in the management of resources and utilities generated by value chains and be seen as more than just a source of labor."},{"index":3,"size":98,"text":"In addition to securing employment opportunities for many women, PROGRESA endorsed eight business initiatives with women in which women were the direct actors: they owned the infrastructure, they participated actively in the development of their business plans, they were responsible for recording all business movements to subsequently analyze costs and fix prices for each product, and they determined how profits would be distributed among group members. Furthermore, seven women's groups now have their own savings account, which they themselves manage. This allows a better control and increased transparency in how these women's groups are managing their economic resources."},{"index":4,"size":36,"text":"So, with this introduction, all that is left to say is that we do hope you enjoy reading these stories! We also hope these experiences will motivate others to seek out and share their learning stories."},{"index":5,"size":81,"text":"Erika Eliana Mosquera, Jhon Jairo Hurtado Facilitators of the systematization process, CIAT This publication is the outcome of a participatory process of experience capitalization that required the input not only of the technical teams preparing each document but also of CRS staff and leaders of the different organizations executing PROGRESA. During the most decisive and difficult moments of the process, all of the above found the time to prepare, enrich, and streamline the documents of this series despite their heavy workload."},{"index":6,"size":110,"text":"We would particularly like to thank Santos Palma, PROGRESA business development and productivity manager, not only for his help in coordinating this capitalization process, but because for more than nine years he believed that to capitalize on learning had the potential to generate a greater impact on rural development. Since the beginning, he has been a strong advocate of experience capitalization within different CRS initiatives. Many thanks also go to Jorge Brenes, director general of PROGRESA, who for the second consecutive time decided to bet on the capitalization of successes and failures of the previous process. As a result, technical teams and learning processes are now more mature and articulated."},{"index":7,"size":46,"text":"We also thank PROGRESA's monitoring and evaluation team as well as CRS, especially Erika Herrera and Juan Alberto Molina, for their enthusiasm, time, and collaboration in designing the capitalization process and for enriching and complementing the final documents with real data obtained during the monitoring process."},{"index":8,"size":38,"text":"Our sincere appreciation also goes to María Eugenia Narváez, PROGRESA technical advisor in communications, for selecting photos for each experience capitalization document as well as her support in managing PROGRESA's institutional image in the case of this series."}]},{"head":"The CIAT Facilitating Team","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Jorge Brenes Abdalá, Director general of the PROGRESA project [email protected] Contact:"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" These are learning stories -stories that let us know what was at stake in methodological, logistical, and conceptual terms, what was successful and what failed, what went well and what went wrong, and why.  "}],"sieverID":"e3e18851-18a6-4faa-bb0c-45cc9a3a4c55","abstract":"Each project has its story, but to better understand each story it's best to go back to its beginning.The Program for Rural Enterprise Management, Health, and the Environment (PROGRESA, its Spanish acronym), officially launched in Nicaragua in October 2012, has benefited more than 4,880 families of the bean, vegetable, fruit, and dualpurpose (milk and meat) cattle production value chains of the departments of Matagalpa, Jinotega, Madriz, and Nueva Segovia. The latter two departments are located in the dry tropical life zone characterized by high recurrence of droughts, temperatures above 37 degrees Celsius, and irregular rainfall distribution.As evidenced by the 10 documents that form part of this capitalization series, the families participating in this PROGRESA initiative were recipients of a series of benefits that included the generation of more than 5,000 permanent jobs, the strengthening of local producers' capacities through farmer field schools and local agricultural research committees (benefiting thousands), and the solving of problems related to production, processing, collection, and product quality. Over a 4-year period, PROGRESA invested more than US$13 million in the construction and equipment of 8 collection centers, 5 greenhouses, 224 milking stalls, 258 washing and packing areas, 252 sinks, and 196 latrines, as well as in the installation of 312 mega-and macro-tunnels and 268 irrigation systems."}

data/part_4/0cab9626716ef8317f079a35cf8fe3b2.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0cab9626716ef8317f079a35cf8fe3b2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/da4c9b59-54fc-4ab5-b1a6-b74c8327621b/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Collect sexdisaggregated data","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":202,"text":"To paint a holistic picture of the communities in which we work, it is important to recognize and involve the diversity of people who constitute these communities in our research. Hence, both men and women should participate in our studies, and data should be disaggregated by gender (collected and presented separately on men and women). This applies not only to the individual and householdlevel interviews, surveys and focus groups we carry out, but also to interviews with experts (local or not), village leaders, etc. Women leaders and experts N.B. These practical tips are meant to be general, but gender norms are context-specific. It is the researcher's responsibility to ensure that he or she respects local norms while carrying out gender-responsive research*. It is advisable to seek the guidance of local contacts and of community members with whom you (or your local contacts) have a good relationship before beginning your data collection. can be harder to identify-but they exist-so make sure that their perspectives are included. However care needs to be taken to insure that men's opinion doesn't influence that of women and vice versa. As a result, separate interview situations and focus groups will need to be organized for women and men."}]},{"head":"Capture other forms of social difference","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":132,"text":"Since 'women' and 'men' are not homogenous categories, we have to dig deeper and examine how gender is cross-cut by many other forms of social difference: wealth status, age, ethnicity, caste, and migrant or indigenous status, among others. To ensure that we work with people from the range of social groups relevant to the topic at hand, participant selection should include members of the most salient local socio-economic categories. These categories can be identified through discussions with key informants and community members in the study area (see preliminary research, above). If participants from different socio-economic, generational, ethnic, etc. backgrounds will not speak openly in each other's presence, separate focus groups may be required, all the while maintaining emphasis on gender-segregated groups (meaning that more focus group discussions will need to be held). "}]},{"head":"Seek appropriate approvals","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"In addition to acquiring the informed consent**** of women participants, it is sometimes required to seek a woman's husband's approval or that of a male member of her household (father, fatherin-law, son, son-in-law) before interviewing her. Finding out who the relevant gatekeepers are in the household and community, and keeping men informed of the research process is important to avoid backlash against women participants. If possible men should be engaged as allies in the effort of getting the independent opinion of women in the community or household."}]},{"head":"Schedule activities at convenient times","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"When scheduling interviews, be aware of the typically heavy demands on women's and men's time and ensure that interviews are arranged at convenient moments for your participants. This is sometimes best achieved by working with men and women while they go about their daily routine (e.g. cooking, washing dishes, etc.) so as not to deter them from their work. This can also improve the quality of the data collected since participants will not feel as rushed to get back to work."}]},{"head":"Select appropriate meeting locations","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"Schedule interviews in convenient and appropriate places for your participants. For women, this may mean working in female spaces (e.g. kitchen, at water pump, etc.) and being aware of restrictions on women's mobility. You may otherwise find that women are unwilling to participate in your research, without necessarily knowing why."}]},{"head":"Seek privacy","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"In many contexts, women tend to speak more, and more freely, when not in the presence of men. Gender segregated interviews or focus groups that take place in private (with no one listening in and contributing unsolicited comments) are recommended in such settings. One trick for achieving this is to carry out women's and men's focus groups or interviews simultaneously (if working with a field team), to keep men occupied while women participate in the study. Men should be reassured that researchers are not 'scheming' behind their backs when working with women. Also be aware that it can be inappropriate for a man interviewer to be alone with a woman participant (or vice versa) in a private place."}]},{"head":"Use appropriate language","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"Make sure that facilitators, enumerators and translators communicate with women and men participants in a language in which they feel comfortable. In particular, women may not speak the national language well, if at all. Ensure that the terms you use are locally appropriate and avoid using complicated technical terms with which participants (especially women, who may not have a formal education) may not be familiar. Be attentive to non-verbal forms of communication that can reveal your participant's comfort level with respect to a given topic and the way it is presented in the discussion."}]},{"head":"Manage group dynamics","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"When conducting focus groups, be attentive to and take note of who speaks within the group and who does not. Promote the equal participation of all participants and encourage dialogue among people with different perspectives. As noted above (point 2), if you realize that some participants will not speak openly in each other's presence you may need to readjust your groups in subsequent field exercises."}]},{"head":"Feedback findings to participants","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"It is important to feedback your findings to both men and women participants for their verification, for improved understandings of their situation, and to give them the possibility of following up on the results should they wish to do so. After discussing results with women's and men's groups separately, it is useful to bring women's and men's groups together to exchange perspectives and learn from the findings emerging from the gender-segregated focus groups or interviews."},{"index":2,"size":123,"text":"**** Informed consent entails giving potential research participants adequate information about what participation in a given research project involves to allow them to make a well informed decision about whether or not they wish to partake in the study. For instance, the purpose of the research must be clearly communicated to participants as well as the fact that they can opt out of the process at any point, that they are welcome to ask as many questions as they wish, and that their anonymity will be guaranteed, among other points. If participants then agree to participate in the research, their informed consent must be granted freely, without coercion, based on a clear understanding of the research process and of their role within it.  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" This publication should be cited as: Elias, M. 2013. Practical Tips for Conducting Gender-responsive Data Collection. Bioversity International, Rome. "},{"text":" by Bioversity International as part of the CGIAR Research Program on 'Forests, Trees and Agroforestry: Livelihoods, Landscapes and Governance'. Forest Genetic Resources research at Bioversity International informs and promotes conservation of the diversity of trees important to the livelihoods of people around the world, to ensure their availability today and for the future. "}],"sieverID":"46409476-3d4a-4f26-a204-e777cae296ac","abstract":"Selecting appropriate participants for a study and asking relevant questions requires a good prior knowledge of people in places and local realities. This knowledge can be strengthened by exploring the existing literatureincluding published articles, grey literature, statistics, etc. about the regional context where you work-having a keen sense of observation when in the field, and carrying out in-depth interviews** with key informants*** (can be informal) when fieldwork experience in a given context is limited."}

data/part_4/0cc179e2a6b0deca4568faa429d1ba0a.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0cc179e2a6b0deca4568faa429d1ba0a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/04223666-f164-4d13-baca-5540b8119f36/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"The Demand for Dairy Products in Kenya","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"Kenyans love milk; they consume more of it than almost anyone else in the developing world. 1 On average, each Kenyan drinks about 100 kilograms of milk a year, four times the average for Sub-Saharan Africa. 2 Milk can be sold to the consumer in various forms. It can be sold as raw milk, just as it leaves the animal; it can be sold after some processing, such as pasteurization; or it can be sold in other forms, such as soured milk, yogurt, or cheese."}]},{"head":"The demand for milk","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"Dairy products are important food budget items for many families in Kenya. A survey carried out in 1999 in Nairobi and Nakuru (box 1) found that households spent an average 18 percent of their income on dairy products, second only to their expenditure on cereals such as maize (27 percent)."},{"index":2,"size":91,"text":"Almost all dairy product consumption is in the form of liquid milk. In Kenya, 86 percent of this milk is marketed raw; only 14 percent is processed. 3 Demand for both types has increased significantly over the last 10 years. 4 This preference for raw milk occurs especially in rural areas, but is also marked in urban areas. Only in Nairobi do people drink more pasteurized than raw milk. Figure 1 uses Nakuru and Nairobi to illustrate the general pattern of consumption for rural areas, urban areas, and the capital itself."},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"Figure 2, which shows consumption patterns by income in the sampled areas, indicates some important features of the Kenyan milk market. 6 Nakuru echoes the national pattern; milk consumption increases with income, and the preference for raw milk extends across all income groups, though there are more high-income than lower-income households buying pasteurized milk. "}]},{"head":"Key points","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"■ Kenya milk consumption levels are among the highest in the developing world. Most of the milk bought is raw milk supplied by the informal dairy sector."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"■ Mostly because of higher price, processed, pasteurized milk is consumed in much smaller amounts, except in Nairobi. Studies indicate that this formal market will grow only as household incomes increase. The informal market is thus likely to predominate for many years to come, as it is driven by demand from mostly poor consumers."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"■ Dairy sector policy should recognize the role played by both the informal and formal sectors in the market, and should support their harmonious coexistence and development in the medium term, while aiming for growth in the formal sector in the long term."},{"index":4,"size":52,"text":"Nairobi is again an exception, with consumers in all income groups showing a preference for pasteurized over raw milk. This reflects the special conditions which are found in the capital: ■ Distribution of pasteurized milk is effective through many urban retail outlets and kiosks, and is helped by the well-developed road network."}]},{"head":"■","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"The mean price differential between raw and pasteurized milk is smaller in Nairobi-raw milk is only 22 percent lower in price, compared to 50 percent lower in Nakuru (figure 3). 7"}]},{"head":"■","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"Regulatory control of the informal, raw milk sector may be easier to enforce. Such special conditions are not readily duplicated in other areas of Kenya, which are likely to retain the consumption patterns exemplified by Nakuru for the foreseeable future. However, both Nakuru and Nairobi share an important feature-consumption of both raw and pasteurized milk tends to increase with income, indicating that both markets have a role to play in the development of the dairy sector."}]},{"head":"Consumer preferences","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Why is raw milk so popular? There are several reasons: ■ Raw milk is 20 to 50 percent cheaper than pasteurized milk, as its supply involves fewer costs."}]},{"head":"■","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Many prefer the taste and high buttermilk content of raw milk."}]},{"head":"■","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Raw milk can be sold in variable quantities, allowing even very poor households access to some milk."}]},{"head":"■","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"In areas where transport is poor, it is often easier to find a farmer with a cow than a shop with packaged milk."}]},{"head":"■","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"Consumers feel, justifiably, that simply boiling raw milk removes most health hazards. 8 Some consumers, however, especially in the higher-income brackets, prefer pasteurized milk to raw milk. Again, there are several reasons for this: ■ They feel there are fewer health risks, and greater guarantee of quality and/or consistency. of raw milk and thereby increasing its price, would not easily persuade poor people to reduce their consumption of raw milk. The consequent budgetary problems they would face might instead result in reduced consumption of food items, with implications for nutritional intake and health."}]},{"head":"How might price changes affect demand for milk products?","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"Studies have analysed demand for milk using elasticity (the responsiveness of demand to changes in such factors as price). A value of zero indicates that the factor has no effect on demand; a value of more than 1.0 indicates quite a strong demand response. Figure 4 shows that milk is generally considered a necessity which is not very responsive to price changes, though there are some interesting variations. How would consumers react to a price increase? Raw milk. Poor people attach such value to raw milk that they would not buy much less if the price rose. Richer people are more likely to react to a rise in raw milk prices by buying less."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"Pasteurized milk. A price rise for pasteurized milk would have the opposite effect; higher-income groups would still buy approximately the same amount of pasteurized milk, and lower-income groups are more likely to buy less."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"One implication of these figures is that more stringent regulatory constraint, limiting the availability  "}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"The findings indicated above lead us to a number of conclusions:"}]},{"head":"■","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"The preference for raw milk throughout most of Kenya is based on considerations of taste, affordability, and availability. These factors are unlikely to change significantly in the near future."}]},{"head":"■","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"A marked shift in preference from raw to pasteurized milk will probably only occur if there is a substantial increase in income levels in Kenya. 9"},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"■ However, such a rise in income levels would lead to an increase in consumption of both raw and pasteurized milk, benefiting both the informal and formal sectors of the dairy industry."}]},{"head":"Policy implications","index":15,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"■","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"The existence of both raw milk and pasteurised milk markets are responses to consumer demand, and both make valuable contributions to Kenya's economy and public health."}]},{"head":"■","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"The informal, raw milk market provides millions of poor consumers with an affordable, nutritious product of their choice, as well as being a primary source of rural employment. 10 A policy balance that both regulates and supports this sector would maintain these national assets, almost unique in Sub-Saharan Africa. 11"}]},{"head":"■","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"Although the informal market, driven by demand from mostly poor consumers, is likely to predominate for many years, gradual growth of the formal market will probably occur as incomes rise in the long term. This publication is an output from a project funded by the Department for International Development (DFID) of the United Kingdom for the benefit of developing countries. However, the views expressed here are not necessarily those of DFID. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"■ Figure 1: Milk consumption in sample locations "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 2: Consumption of milk production by income group for sample locations 60 - "},{"text":"■ Therefore, dairy sector policies that recognise the role played by both the informal and formal sectors in the market, and support their harmonious coexistence and development, are most likely to be effective. "}],"sieverID":"f1db76d0-8c8e-40e2-b6f9-c26587d4d800","abstract":""}

data/part_4/0d72c25a7c0f52e735b446f0651f97a1.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0d72c25a7c0f52e735b446f0651f97a1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/02dfdd83-49c1-402d-8db3-cc56ee9da071/retrieve"},"pageCount":3,"title":"The International Society for Plant Pathology & the French Phytopathological Society www.icpp2023.org 12 th INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF PLANT PATHOLOGY BOOK OF ABSTRACTS","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Text","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":162,"text":"Seed-bearing crops represent a sector with considerable economic and strategic importance worldwide. The resurgence of fungal diseases, need for high quality seeds and increasing restriction on the use of synthetic pesticides, have spurred the search for alternative solutions to protect seedbearing vegetable crops from seedborne pathogens. This work aimed to evaluate the main fungal pathogens on seedbearing cabbage and to control them under farming conditions applying four innovative active substances in different protection strategies: chitosan, chito-oligosaccharides and oligo-galacturonides (COS-OGA), mixture of terpenes and Bacillus amyloliquefaciens. The field-trials were carried out involving two companies located in the Marche region, Central-Eastern Italy. According to the laboratory investigations on different symptoms observed in the experimental field, it was isolated several pathogens from different leaves symptoms. The main fungi detected were: Alternaria alternata, Alternaria brassicicola, and Stemphylium spp. In both cabbage fields, all innovative management strategies provided a good protection against leaf necrosis due to fungal infections, better than conventional application with the standard management strategies. "}]},{"head":"Text","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":159,"text":"Global seed transfers through trade, and collection and distribution of genetic resources by genebanks are important pathways for the transboundary spread of seed-borne pests, especially viruses that the insect vectors can further transmit upon introduction. Various phytosanitary procedures, including the IPPC International Standard Phytosanitary Measures, have been established to minimize the risk of seed transmission and provide access to quality seeds crucial for food production and biodiversity conservation. This session will summarize the current state of efforts in minimizing the seed-transmission risk and measures to overcome bottlenecks to comply with phytosanitary standards. Presentations will cover pest risk to seed pathways and implications to global plant health, strategies for minimizing seed-transmission risk, advances in diagnostic techniques for characterization and sensitive detection of seed-borne pests, and efforts to enhance phytosanitary capacity, especially in low-and middle-income countries to enable safe seed exchanges. The session will also highlight policy and regulatory limitations/bottlenecks necessary to improve safe exchange of germplasm and boost seed trade. "}]},{"head":"Text","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":202,"text":"Phytosanitary procedures are essential for the sustainable conservation of plant genetic resources and their safe international distribution. This presentation summarizes the methods used at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) to support the collection, conservation, and distribution of genetic resources of some of sub-Saharan Africa's most important food and nutritional security crops. It includes seed crops such as cowpea, soybean, maize, and several indigenous wild Vigna species and vegetatively propagated crops such as cassava, banana/plantain, and yam. These collections comprising over 33,000 accessions acquired over 50 years from over 100 countries, have been conserved as seed, in vitro plants, on the farm, and in third-party genebanks as part of the safety duplication. Procedures used include bioassays, ELISA and PCR-based methods, high-throughput sequencing (HTS) to assess the seed health status, and physical or chemical treatments to eliminate/inactivate pests or regenerate healthy propagation materials in-vitro and inspect for pests and diseases before germplasm can be exchanged. We will also discuss the challenges posed by the integrated viruses and cryptic viruses identified by the HTS to germplasm distribution and the development of a decision framework to evaluate the pest risk and decisions on distribution, regulatory challenges to international germplasm distribution, and the future prospects."}]},{"head":"High throughput sequencing approaches for the detection of pathogens","index":4,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" , PIANCATELLI Simone. (1), PEREZ ALVAREZ Eva Pilar. (2), DAVILLERD Yann. (3), CANTALAMESSA Gabriele. (1), MORBIDELLI Marco. (4), NAPOLEONI Danilo. (4), FABBRI Giancarlo. (4), NARDI Sandro. (5), ROMANAZZI Gianfranco. (1) (1) Marche Polytechnic University, Ancona, ITALY; (2) CSIC, Logrono, SPAIN; (3) ITAB, Paris, FRANCE; (4) CAC, Cesena, ITALY; (5) AMAP, Marche Region, Ancona, ITALY "},{"text":" AND GLOBAL PLANT HEALTH PULLIKANTI Lava Kumar. (1), KUMARI Safaa. (2) (1) International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan, NIGERIA; (2) ICARDA, Terbol, LEBANON "},{"text":" OGUNTADE Oluwole. (1), AJAMU Deborah. (1), OLUDATE Aderonke. (1), ABBERTON Michael. (1) (1) International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan, NIGERIA "}],"sieverID":"c709dbe2-77bf-41bd-afb1-8d91d0e2c55a","abstract":""}

data/part_4/0dc46b04645c1fe49b4fac3ebab7bdd6.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0dc46b04645c1fe49b4fac3ebab7bdd6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/224d1814-c52d-4260-aaba-efa0c0119c70/retrieve"},"pageCount":15,"title":"Nutritional Deficiencies in Cassava","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Mobility of the Elements","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Mobile elements"},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"Presence on bottom leaves"}]},{"head":"Young leaves and open leaves","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Young leaves and buds"}]},{"head":"Nitrogen Deficiency","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"▪ Generalized yellowing of the leaf and progressive yellowing of the plant. • There is a slow growth of the plant. • Severe cases, dwarf, and stunted plants."},{"index":2,"size":2,"text":"Phosphorus Deficiency "}]},{"head":"Potassium Deficiency","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"• Reduced plant growth."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"• Purple marks on the lower leaves."},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"• Curling at the edges and apices of the leaves. • In severe cases, yellowing of the leaf margins and subsequent necrosis occurs."},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"Photos by: Sandra Salazar y/o Camilo Vargas"}]},{"head":"Calcium Deficiency","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"• Small and deformed superior foliar laminae. • Reduced root growth."}]},{"head":"Iron Deficiency","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"• Uniform chlorosis of the superior foliar laminae and petioles. • In severe conditions; there is reduced plant growth and young leaves are small but without deformation."}]},{"head":"Magnesium Deficiency","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"• Marked interveinal chlorosis in the lower foliar laminae and middle part of the plant."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"• May cause a reduction in plant height."},{"index":3,"size":2,"text":"Manganese Deficiency "}]},{"head":"Zinc Deficiency","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"• Yellow or white interveinal spots on young leaf laminae. • In severe conditions reduced plant growth. • It is similar to the damage caused by the attack of Trips."}]},{"head":"Boron Toxicity","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"• Necrotic spots on older leaves, especially along leaf margins."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"1427a942-a47a-42e0-ad4b-5ea123156ae5","abstract":""}

data/part_4/0df0ebc919bf40a1944e46c9f52dafb5.json

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data/part_4/0e285262cd035c0fe31e6c4cef528566.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0e285262cd035c0fe31e6c4cef528566","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/39305b9e-977d-4d12-a591-46d8d6d842bc/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Consumer-oriented food system innovations to increase consumer awareness and fruit and vegetable intake in urban areas of Nigeria and Viet Nam","keywords":[],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"6aa1aeab-0812-4a8c-9e82-c2bdb38ab9f4","abstract":"Description of the innovation: A4NH researchers developed promotional materials targeting consumers in Hanoi and Ibadan to increase awareness and improve fruit and vegetable intake. This includes jingles, videoclips, flyers, and catchy songs and for retailers, it included things like foldable displays, aprons, umbrellas, posters, and vouchers. Materials were developed through a participatory process with retailers and consumers. A link is provided to a sample, but not all, of the materials. A password is required to access."}

data/part_4/0e344e79d995992d1665deedc41939f9.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0e615d7a4eb26b6886813890251be9f3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/19e57747-9603-4e75-a39c-86d6f9bfe395/retrieve"},"pageCount":17,"title":"Unravelling causes of poor crop response to applied N and P fertilizers on African soils ‡","keywords":["Alisols","Andosols","Cambisols","Luvisols","Nitisols","Phaeozems","Resilience","Saturated fertility"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"In most of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), crop production is practiced on highly variable soils, which have different biophysical constraints (Jones et al., 2013). A growing number of studies have shown that crops respond favourably to nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) ‡"},{"index":2,"size":302,"text":"The original version of this article was published with incorrect funding information. A notice detailing this has been published and the errors rectified in the online PDF and HTML version. fertilizers on some soils; but they do not respond in any significant manner on other soils, which are now called 'non-responsive soils' (Ichami et al., 2019;Kihara et al., 2016;Nziguheba et al., 2021;Roobroeck et al., 2021;Vanlauwe et al., 2011). The problem of non-responsive soils is both widespread and severe in some countries. For example, in diagnostic trials across sites in Kenya, Malawi, Mali, Nigeria and Tanzania, 25% of the fields were non-responsive, whereas 28% showed low response to any nutrient amendment (Kihara et al., 2016). In nutrient omission trials conducted on farmers' fields across three states of Nigeria, Shehu et al. (2018) found 9-16% of the maize fields to be non-responsive to any nutrient application. In a recent meta-analysis, nonresponsive soils constituted 14% for Kenya and 11% for SSA (Ichami et al., 2019). In a study by Roobroeck et al. (2021), NPK fertilizers also failed to increase maize yields by more than 0.5 t ha −1 in up to 68 % of the farmers' fields in western Kenya, eastern DR Congo, west-central Tanzania and northern Nigeria. Using data sets from 41 on-farm fertilizer response trials across 11 countries, Nziguheba et al. (2021) estimated the proportion of non-responsive fields at 4.9% for cereals and 17% for legumes. Nziguheba et al. (2021) further estimated that roughly 0.3-2.5 million ha of cereal and 3.2-4.6 million ha of legume fields could be non-responsive in any particular year. Poor and variable crop responses to nutrient inputs may pose a barrier to fertilizer adoption (Nziguheba et al., 2021). However, non-responsiveness is neither well-defined nor its extent and causes fully understood in SSA (Roobroeck et al., 2021;Ichami et al., 2019)."},{"index":3,"size":258,"text":"The frequently cited causes of low response include farmer management practices, soil organic matter (SOM) content, clay content, soil acidity, nutrient deficiencies and imbalances, soil moisture deficits and competition by parasitic weeds (Ichami et al., 2019;Kihara et al., 2016;Njoroge et al., 2018;Roobroeck et al., 2021;Vanlauwe et al., 2011). Although farmer's field management may play a key role in crop response, management alone may not explain the broader occurrence of non-responsiveness. Nor was SOM a defining factor where soil organic carbon (SOC) content was low for all the response classes in studies by Kihara et al. (2016) and Njoroge et al. (2018). The application of secondary nutrients and micronutrients also did not significantly increase response to N and P on some soil types (Kihara et al., 2017). Even under good organic input management, maize yield responses to N, P and K fertilizer inputs have been very modest. The median yield gain over the no-input control was 0.6 t ha −1 with green manure legumes (Sileshi et al., 2008) and 1.3 t ha −1 with animal manure applied in excess of 10 t ha −1 yr -1 (Sileshi et al., 2017;2019). Thus, the problem of non-responsive soils remains a conundrum. It is also not clear under what conditions and with what probability non-responsiveness occurs on farmers' fields. More recent analyses focusing on fertilizer and grain prices also reveal considerable variation in the profitability of fertilizers within countries (Bonilla-Cedrez et al., 2021). This emphasizes the need for tailoring fertilizer recommendations to smaller areas targeting localized environmental conditions (Bonilla-Cedrez et al., 2021)."},{"index":4,"size":213,"text":"African soils have been derived from diverse parent materials and mineralogical composition (Jones et al., 2013;Towett et al., 2015) that cause significant variability in crop response to nutrient inputs (Sileshi et al., 2010). Patterns of variation in element concentrations in SSA are largely due to the high variability in mineralogy (Towett et al., 2015). Clay minerals, mainly composed of silica, aluminium (Al), iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn) oxides, play an important role in the supply, retention and fixation of many macronutrients and micronutrients (Batjes, 2011;Florence et al., 2017;Jones et al., 2013). Generally, soils with low-activity clay minerals have low capacity to supply nutrients than do high-activity clay minerals (Jones et al., 2013). Soils that contain 2:1 clay minerals can fix NH 4 and K within their lattice structures (Florence et al., 2017;Scherer et al., 2014), whereas soils rich in 1:1 clay minerals and amorphous clay (e.g., allophane) have a high capacity for P fixation (Batjes, 2011). The capacity of clay minerals to fix nutrients can influence responsiveness of soils to applied N, P and K inputs. Thus, the full agronomic potential of fertilizer inputs cannot be realised unless the conditions under which non-responsiveness occurs and its underlying causes are identified, and measures are formulated to address the specific limitations on a case-by-case basis."},{"index":5,"size":183,"text":"Although recent meta-analyses and reviews (e.g., Ichami et al., 2019;Jama et al., 2017;Kihara et al., 2017;Sileshi et al., 2010) have shown variations in maize yield response to N, P and K fertilizers with soil type, the underlying mechanisms for lack of response remain unclear. The linkage between crop response and parent materials, clay mineralogy and the resilience of soils to erosion has also received little attention in SSA. Examining these linkages can provide useful insights into the pervasive problem of non-responsive soils. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to (1) quantify the relative risks of \"no response\" to N, P and K inputs on different soil types and (2) determine the linkage between crop response, parent materials and the mineralogy of soils and their resilience to erosion. Resilience refers to the intrinsic susceptibility of the soil to erosion and attendant degradation (Stocking, 2003). We hypothesise that (1) responsiveness to N, P and K fertilizers is linked to their mineralogy and resilience to erosion and (2) the risk of no response is higher on farmers' fields than on research stations across soil types."}]},{"head":"Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"For all analyses, we used maize yield because maize is a strategic crop in most countries in SSA, and more than 200 million people depend on it as a source of food and income (Abate et al., 2017). Maize was also chosen because data were widely available from research stations and farmers' fields to test our hypothesis. But we believe the insights gained can be applicable to other crops."}]},{"head":"Data compilation","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":315,"text":"We compiled a large data set on maize grain yield (in t ha −1 ) with N, P and K fertilizer and the corresponding yield from the control (without any external nutrient inputs) on 542 sites across 23 countries (Table 1) accounting for over 90% of the maize area harvested in SSA. The sites covered all agroecological zones (Figure 1a) and most of the soil types on which maize is grown (Table 1; Figure 1b). We retrieved the data from trials conducted under 23 projects supported by the Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa, eight legacy data sets, and 147 peer-reviewed studies (Supplementary Table S1). The legacy data sets included trials implemented by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) and the International  Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) across SSA. When extracting data, we only included studies that used improved cultivars of maize grown with fertilizer and the same cultivar grown without fertilizer. We also included data only when yield data came from N application rates of at least 48 kg N ha −1 and 10 kg P ha −1 on elemental basis. These minimum N and P rates were required because levels below those were deemed to be inadequate to satisfy the requirement of a maize cultivar with yields exceeding 3 t ha −1 . Improved cultivars of maize on average use 24 kg N ha −1 and 12 kg P ha −1 to produce 1 t ha −1 of maize grain (Zingore et al., 2014). Therefore, N and P rates below these will not have enabled us to detect the yield response of improved maize cultivars. The 3 t ha −1 yield target corresponds to the minimum required to kick start the African green revolution (Sánchez, 2015). In all trials, all agronomic practices, including weeding, planting date, density, were applied optimally following the recommended practices for the site."},{"index":2,"size":243,"text":"For each trial site, we extracted grain yield, the amount of N, P and K fertilizer applied (in kg ha −1 ), the geographic coordinates, agroecological zones (AEZ), elevation and information on soil type where available. Across the sites, the median N rate, P rate and K rate were 80, 20 and 25 kg ha −1 , respectively. The K fertilizer was applied only on 45.9% of the sites, and therefore our primary focus is on N and P response. On some of the sites where K fertilizer was applied, the rates were not mentioned. Therefore, we created an additional category for K application coded as 'applied' or 'omitted'. Soil pH, SOM, sand and clay content of the till layer (0-20 cm depth) of the trial sites were also extracted from the studies as these are considered to be fundamental indicators of the agricultural potential of a soil (Gray et al., 2009). Since some studies had reported soil organic carbon (SOC), to facilitate analysis we converted all SOM to SOC by dividing SOM by 1.72. We have presented the SOC, pH, clay and sand content of the different soil type in the form of box and whisker plots in Supplementary Figures S1 and S2. In addition, we extracted the base saturation percentage (BSP), cation exchange capacity (CEC), pH and SOC content from ISSS (1998). We also extracted information about clay activity of the different soil types from Gray et al. (2011) andISSS (1998)."},{"index":3,"size":298,"text":"The soil type strictly refers to the WRB Reference Soil Groups (RSG) and the Soil Atlas of Africa (IUSS, 2014;Dewitte et al., 2013;Jones et al., 2013). The third edition of the WRB published in 2014 (IUSS, 2014) provides the most up-to-date classification of soils of the world. This edition has replaced Albeluvisols of earlier edition with Retisols and Lithosols with Leptosols. It has also broadened the definition of Gleysols and Arenosols and narrowed the definition of Acrisols, Alisols, Luvisols and Lixisols (IUSS, 2014). Therefore, we assigned older soil names and those given in other systems to the updated WRB RSG through pro parte matching. When soil type was not given for a site, we extracted the information from the harmonised Soil Atlas of Africa (Jones et al., 2013) using the locational information. Accordingly, we identified a total of 14 RSGs from the trial sites (Table 1; Supplementary Table S1). These are briefly described below following the mineralogy of their parent materials (Supplementary Table S2) and soilforming processes as described in Gray et al. (2011) and(IUSS, 2014). Based on their parent materials, soils are often classified as calcareous, silicic or mafic (Gray et al., 2011;Jones et al., 2013). Calcareous parent materials include limestone, dolomite, calcareous shale and sands with >50% CaCO 3 or MgCO 3 (Gray et al., 2011). Silicic (also called acidic) refers to rocks that contain significant amounts of silica (>68% Si), while intermediate parent materials contain 52-68% Si. The term mafic (basic) is applied to rocks with relatively low amounts of silica (45-52% Si) (Gray et al., 2011). The 14 RSGs of the trial sites in alphabetic order are Acrisols, Alisols, Andosols, Arenosols, Cambisols, Ferralsols, Fluvisols, Leptosols, Lixisols, Luvisols, Nitisols, Phaeozems, Plinthosols and Vertisols together covering 85% of the land area of continental Africa (Figure 1b)."},{"index":4,"size":88,"text":"Acrisols are weathering products of a wide variety of intermediate parent material under humid climates (Gray et al., 2011). They typically occur on old land surfaces with hilly or undulating topography (Gray et al., 2011;IUSS, 2014). They are acidic, strongly leached and have low base status (Table 1). Acrisols also have low resilience to erosion, they become degraded very quickly (Stocking, 2003) and lose their productivity rapidly when cultivated without adequate soil cover (Sileshi et al., 2010). They require substantial applications of fertilizer to produce satisfactory crop yields."},{"index":5,"size":64,"text":"Alisols evolve from intermediate parent material under humid climates in hilly or undulating topography (Gray et al., 2011;IUSS, 2014). They are characterised by very low pH and SOC content (Table 1; Supplementary Figure S1), high-activity clay rich in exchangeable Al (IUSS, 2014) and Al toxicity. They are also prone to drought and have an unstable surface, which makes them susceptible to erosion (IUSS, 2014)."},{"index":6,"size":79,"text":"Andosols are relatively young soils formed from glass-rich volcanic ejecta and pyroclastic materials (IUSS, 2014). Andosols may also develop from silicate-rich materials under acid weathering in humid climates. They occur in undulating to mountainous regions. They have high SOC content, high pH, high clay activity (Table 1; Supplementary Figure S1) and are generally fertile. But they have the highest P fixation capacity, which is caused by active Al and Fe and their amorphous clay (allophane) mineralogy (Batjes, 2011;IUSS, 2014)."},{"index":7,"size":98,"text":"Arenosols are deep sandy soils that develop on extremely silicic (>85% Si) parent materials. They can also evolve from weathering of quartz-rich sediments or from Ferralsols after kaolinite weathering (IUSS, 2014). They develop under a wide range of annual rainfall, varying from very dry (<500 mm) to extremely wet (>2000 mm) climates (Gray et al., 2011). They represent the largest soil type covering 21.5% of the land area of Africa (Figure 1b). Arenosols are characterised by high permeability, low water and nutrient storage capacity (IUSS, 2014) and low SOC content (Supplementary Figure S1). They are also easily erodible."},{"index":8,"size":90,"text":"Cambisols are derived from a wide range of intermediate parent material of medium to fine texture under very dry to wet climates (Gray et al., 2011). They represent the third largest soil type covering 10.8% of the land area of Africa (Figure 1b). They are relatively young soils with slight to moderate weathering (IUSS, 2014). Cambisols are characterised by high resilience, high SOC content, high clay activity and low P fixation (Table 1; Supplementary Figure S1). They also do not contain appreciable amounts of Al and Fe compounds (IUSS, 2014)."},{"index":9,"size":106,"text":"Ferralsols represent deeply weathered red or yellow soils of the humid tropics. They develop on intermediate silicious parent material under very wet climates on level to undulating land (Gray et al., 2011). Ferralsols represent the fourth largest soil type covering 10.3% of the land area of Africa (Figure 1b). They are dominated by low-activity clay minerals, mainly kaolinite (IUSS, 2014). They have good physical properties including great soil depth, permeability and stable microstructure making them less susceptible to erosion (IUSS, 2014). However, they are inherently acidic (Table 1; Supplementary Figure S1), nutrient-poor and suffer from high P fixation caused by Fe and Al oxides (IUSS, 2014)."},{"index":10,"size":45,"text":"Fluvisols are young soils in fluvial, lacustrine or marine deposits. They have good natural fertility because they occur in periodically flooded areas receiving fresh sediment (IUSS, 2014). The have high SOC content, high pH, high clay activity and base saturation (Table 1; Supplementary Figure S1)."},{"index":11,"size":78,"text":"Leptosols are very thin soils that are extremely rich in coarse fragments over continuous rock (IUSS, 2014). The have low SOC content, high pH and high base saturation (Table 1; Supplementary Figure S1). They occur in all climate zones, in particular in strongly eroding mountainous regions. They are the second largest soil type in SSA, and they cover 17.5% of the land area of continental Africa (Figure 1b). Erosion is the greatest threat to Leptosols in cultivated areas."},{"index":12,"size":69,"text":"Lixisols are weathering products of highly silicic parent material (65-85% Si) in seasonally dry tropical regions on flat land to sloping land (Gray et al., 2011). They form in a variety of strongly weathered and fine textured materials (IUSS, 2014). Lixisols have low resilience to erosion. When degraded, they are prone to slaking and erosion. Tillage and use of heavy machinery compact the soil causing structural deterioration (IUSS, 2014)."},{"index":13,"size":78,"text":"Luvisols evolved from a wide variety of intermediate silicious parent material in regions with distinct dry and wet seasons (Gray et al., 2011;IUSS, 2014). They are characterised by highactivity clays and a high base saturation (Table 1). Most Luvisols are fertile and suitable for a wide range of agricultural uses. However, Luvisols with a high silt content are susceptible to structural degradation when tilled with heavy machinery, while Luvisols on steep slopes are prone to erosion (IUSS, 2014)."},{"index":14,"size":101,"text":"Nitisols are deep, well-drained and clay-rich soils formed of mafic parent material under wet to very wet and warm conditions on level to hilly land (Gray et al., 2011;IUSS, 2014). Their clay is dominated by kaolinite and/or (meta) halloysite. Nitisols have good internal drainage and fair water holding properties. Nitisols also have clay content >30% and relatively high SOC content in surface soils (Supplementary Figure S1). Their deep and porous soil and their stable structure permit deep rooting and make them resistant to erosion (IUSS, 2014). However, they suffer from high P fixation (Batjes, 2011) and acidification (Agegnehu et al., 2021)."},{"index":15,"size":43,"text":"Phaeozems are weathering products of mafic parent material in warm to cool climates on flat to undulating land (Gray et al., 2011). They have dark, humus-rich surface horizons, and porous and fertile soils. But wind and water erosions are serious hazards (IUSS, 2014)."},{"index":16,"size":87,"text":"Plinthosols are soils with plinthite, petroplinthite or pisoliths. The later develop from plinthite by hardening. Plinthite is a Fe-rich and/or Mn-rich, humus-poor mixture of kaolinitic clay and other products of strong weathering such as gibbsite and quartz (IUSS, 2014). Plinthosols occur on level to gently sloping areas with seasonally fluctuating groundwater or stagnating surface water. They have poor natural soil fertility caused by strong weathering, and they are prone to concretions or formation of hardpan (IUSS, 2014). They also have very low SOC content (Supplementary Figure S1)."},{"index":17,"size":82,"text":"Vertisols are heavy clay soils with a high proportion of swelling clays. Smectite is the major clay mineral, while kaolinite is of secondary importance. Vertisols are weathering products of mafic parent material (Gray et al., 2011) occurring in depressions and level plains in climates varying from semiarid to humid with an alternation of distinct wet and dry seasons (IUSS, 2014). Although they have good chemical fertility, their use is limited by their susceptibility to waterlogging when wet and moisture stress when dry."}]},{"head":"Criteria and metrics","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":257,"text":"In the past, non-responsiveness was evaluated using different metrics (e.g., yield gain vs response ratios). Kihara et al. (2016) separated non-responsive soils into two clusters based on the yield in the fertilized plots: non-responsive poor (<3 t ha −1 ) and non-responsive fertile soils (>3 t ha −1 ). Similarly, Njoroge et al. (2018) defined soils as responsive when yield increases by 2 t ha −1 above the control. On the other hand, Roobroeck et al. (2021) used yield gain of <0.5 t ha −1 to categorise farms as non-responsive to NPK fertilizer in maize and <0.15 t ha −1 in soybean. Ichami et al. (2019) used the response ratio (RR) to categorise soils as responsive and non-responsive to fertilizer. To achieve a more rigorous classification, we applied two criteria, namely, mean effects and probabilities of no response. We also distinguished between metrics of (1) overall nonresponsiveness and (2) non-responsiveness to specific nutrients. We used the RR as defined by Ichami et al. (2019) and yield gain of <0.5 t ha −1 as defined by Roobroeck et al. (2021) to judge the overall non-responsiveness of soils to NPK fertilizer. The RR is the ratio of some measured quantity in experimental and control groups, which quantifies the proportionate change that results from an experimental manipulation (Hedges et al., 1999). We calculated RR by dividing the treatment yield by the control yield and. We transformed the RR values to their natural logarithm, i.e., ln(RR), to satisfy the assumptions of normality and homogeneity of error variance (Hedges et al., 1999)."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"To quantify the lack of response to one nutrient, we used the agronomic use efficiency of N (AEN), P (AEP) and K (AEK) as the effect size metrics. Negative values of AEN and AEP are common in empirical studies (Jama et al., 2017;Kihara et al., 2016;Vanlauwe et al., 2011), but these are often thought to be inexplicable (Kihara and Njoroge, 2013;Vanlauwe et al., 2011). We calculated AEN, AEP and AEK following Ladha et al. (2005) as"},{"index":3,"size":170,"text":"where Y t and Y c are the grain yields (in kg ha −1 ) in the treatment and the control, whereas N i , P i and K i represent N, P and K inputs (in kg ha −1 ), respectively. We defined 'no response' as zero agronomic response, i.e., a case where the yield differences between fertilized and unfertilized treatments is 0 or lower than 0 (Nziguheba et al., 2021) resulting in RR ≤ 1 (Ichami et al., 2019) or AEN ≤ 0, AEP ≤ 0 or AEK ≤ 0. We also took AEN, AEP and AEK below their first quartiles as indicative of \"low response\" to N, P and K. In the data analysed here, the first quartiles were 10, 30 and 20 kg kg -1 for AEN, AEP and AEK, respectively. AEN < 10 kg kg -1 is also considered too low (Vanlauwe et al., 2011). Accordingly, we took AEN ≤ 10, AEP ≤ 30 and AEK ≤ 20 as additional criteria to represent \"low response\"."}]},{"head":"Statistical analysis","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":219,"text":"We applied exploratory analysis using general linear models to evaluate the relative contribution of agroecological zones, soil type, trial location (on research station vs farmers' fields) and K application (applied vs omitted) to the variations in RR, AEN, AEP and AEK. Then, we calculated the percentage of variation explained from the type 3 sum of squares (Supplementary Table S3). Soil type contributed the largest proportion of the explained variations in RR, AEN, AEP and AEK, whereas the contributions of agroecological zone and trial location were very small (Supplementary Table S3). In addition, we implemented multiple regression analysis to evaluate the contribution of SOC, pH, clay content, N rate, P rate and K rate to the variations in RR, AEN, AEP and K. These variables together explained only ∼7.8, 2.8, 15.2 and 20.3% of the variations in RR, AEN, AEP and AEK, respectively (Supplementary Table S4). SOC did not significantly contribute to the variation in RR and AEP and AEK (Supplementary Table S4). Although soil pH and clay content had statistically significant effects, their partial R 2 values were <0.05 (Supplementary Table S4). Given the relatively small contributions of soil pH and SOC to the various metrics, we focused our attention on soil type. We undertook two sets of analyses to get a deeper understanding of the variations in non-responsiveness."},{"index":2,"size":280,"text":"Our first set of analyses involved linear mixed effects models (LMM) implemented via restricted maximum likelihood (REML) estimation in the SAS system. To accommodate imbalances in sample sizes among predictors, we used the Kenward-Roger method for approximating the denominator degrees of freedom (Spilke et al., 2005). Initially, we tested various models by adding or removing variables until an optimal model was achieved. At each step, we examined improvements in model fit using the Akaike Information Criterion (AIC). We used agroecological zone (A), soil type (S), trial location (L), N fertilizer rate (N), P rate (P), K application (K), soil clay content, pH and SOC content as the fixed effects. We entered country as the random effect because data from one country are likely to be more correlated than data from another country. We calculated the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) as the ratio of the covariance estimate of the random effect (i.e., country) to the covariance estimate of the residual random effect. The ICC estimates how much of the total variation in the outcome is accounted for by the random effect. Our initial analyses revealed that entering soil pH, SOC and clay content in the same model with soil type was problematic for two reasons: (1) pH, clay and SOC measurements were available for only 29-30% of the sites and (2) most soil type have characteristic soil pH, SOC and clay contents that vary in a narrow range (Table 1; Supplementary Figure S1). Taking these facts into consideration, we included a reasonable set of variables (Supplementary Table S5) in our mixed models for the control yield (CY), treatment yield (TY), yield gain (YG), RR, AEN, AEP and AEK specified as follows:"},{"index":3,"size":347,"text":"To avoid confounding of AEN, AEP and AEK with N rate, P rate and K application, we omitted the respective nutrient rates from equations 8, 9 and 10. We implemented a second set of analyses with the premise that information on the probability (ϕ) of falling below a critical level or exceeding a desired target yield is more useful than mean values for decision making. Here, we implemented stepwise logistic regression of the forms given in equations 6-10 using the same variables used in the LMM (Supplementary Table S6) to predict the probabilities of no response in terms of YG, RR, AEN, AEP and AEK. We analysed binary responses after dummy-coding the response variables. For example, we coded YG as '0' when YG values are <0.5 t ha −1 and '1' when they exceed 0.5 t ha −1 . We coded RR as '0' when its values are ≤1 and '1' when they exceed 1. Similarly, we coded AEN, AEP and AEK as '0' when their values are ≤ 0 and '1' when they exceed 0. We implemented stepwise logistic regression using the Logistic procedure of the SAS system. Using the best model thus selected, we generated the predicted probabilities (ϕ) for each observation, and then ϕ for each soil controlling for the other independent variables retained in the final model. Our analytical procedure uses the average marginal effects (AME) of both categorical and continuous predictors to estimate individual, cross-validated, predicted probabilities. The AME was preferred over other marginal effects as it represents the effect for a case picked at random from the sample (Breen et al., (2018) and as such being the most representative. For the continuous predictors (e.g., N rate, P rate), the AME is the partial derivative of the event probability (i.e., no response) with respect to the predictor of interest. For the categorical predictors (e.g., agroecology, soil type, location, K application), the AME is the change in event probability when each predictor is changed between its levels. Accordingly, we estimated the probability of 'no response' as well as 'low response' as defined above."},{"index":4,"size":210,"text":"In the same manner, we also estimated ϕ of the various metrics for the different classes of parent materials, resilience to erosion, clay activity and P fixation capacity of soils. Here, we replaced soil type with each of these variables in equations 6-10. Following Gray et al. (2011), we grouped parent materials of the soils on the trial sites into \"silicic,\" \"intermediate\" and \"mafic\" before analysis (Table 1). None of the study sites were on calcareous parent material. We also grouped the soil types based on their clay activity as \"high\" and \"low\" activity soils (Table 1). High-activity clay minerals are less weathered, have high effective surface area and high cation exchange capacity (CEC) ≥ 24 cmol/kg clay with 2:1 clay lattice (2 silica sheets per 1 alumina sheet, e.g., montmorillonite, smectite, vermiculite, illite and chlorite) or amorphous (non-crystalline) materials like allophane, inmogolite and halloysite. Low-activity clay minerals are highly weathered and have low CEC (≤ 24 cmol/kg clay) and 1:1 lattice (one silica sheet per alumina sheet, e.g., kaolinite or halloysite) (Jones et al., 2013). In addition, we grouped the soil types into classes of resilience to erosion as \"low\" or \"high\" following Stocking (2003) and P fixation capacity as \"low,\" \"moderate\" or \"high\" following Batjes (2011) before analyses."}]},{"head":"Results","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Grain yield and yield gain (YG)","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":380,"text":"Maize grain yields in the control significantly (p < 0.001) varied with agroecological zones, trial location and soil type, while yields in the NPK fertilizer significantly varied with soil type, N rate and K application. The highest and lowest control yields were recorded on Andosols and Alisols, respectively (Figure 2a). With NP fertilizer, Andosols also consistently produced significantly higher yields than Leptosols, Alisols and Arenosols (Figure 2b). Relative to sites where K was omitted, sites where K was applied had 0.2-1.4 t ha −1 higher yields. Larger yield increases were recorded on Arenosols (54%), Acrisols (45%) and Fluvisols (31%) when K was applied, while K application led to lower yields than K omission on Cambisols, Leptosols, Lixisols, Phaeozems and Plinthosols (Supplementary Table S7). The probability of exceeding 3 t ha −1 with NPK fertilizer was higher (ϕ > 0.80) on Andosols, Nitisols and Vertisols but very low (ϕ < 0.30) on Alisols and Arenosols (Table 2). On 8.7% of the sites YG was less than 0.5 t ha −1 . The probability of no response (YG < 0.5 t ha −1 ) was twice as much on soils formed on silicic than mafic parent materials and  on soils with low resilience than those with high resilience to erosion (Table 3). Non-responsiveness assessed in terms of RR, YG and AE also significantly varied with clay activity and P-sorption capacity of soils (Table 3). Across soil types, the probability of YG < 0.5 t ha −1 was significantly higher on farmers' fields (ϕ = 0.20) than on research stations (ϕ = 0.15). The probability of exceeding 3 t ha −1 was also lower on farmers' fields (ϕ = 0.62) than on research stations (ϕ = 0.66). The probability of exceeding 3 t ha −1 was significantly lower on arid and semi-arid sites (ϕ = 0.59) than on subhumid (ϕ = 0.65) and humid (ϕ = 0.67) sites. Table 3. Predicted probabilities (ϕ) of non-response to NPK fertilizers expressed in terms of response ratios (RR ≤ 1), agronomic use efficiency of N (AEN ≤ 0) and P (AEP ≤ 0), K (AEK ≤ 0) and yield gain (YG ≤ 0.5 t ha −1 ) with the mineralogy of parent materials, resilience to erosion and degradation, clay activity and P-sorption capacity of African soils"}]},{"head":"Variable","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Predicted probability (ϕ) "}]},{"head":"Response ratios (RR)","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":242,"text":"The overall probability of no response (RR ≤ 1) was 0.10. The probability of no response was two times more on farmers' fields (ϕ = 0.12) than on research stations (ϕ = 0.05) (Table 2). In the multiple regression analysis, SOC was not a significant predictor of RR (Supplementary Table S4). A plot of RR on SOC also did not reveal any significant trend (Figure 3a). In the linear mixed effects model, RR significantly (p < 0.001) varied with agroecological zone, soil type, trial location, N rate and P rate (Supplementary Table S5). The ICC indicated that the random effects (i.e., country) accounted for 21% of the total variation in RR. The RR estimated using the mixed effects model was highest (2.7) on Acrisols and lowest (1.5) on Andosols (Figure 2c). The highest probability of no response was recorded on Plinthosols followed by Alisols, Lixisols and Leptosols, whereas Fluvisols, Luvisols and Nitisols had very low probabilities of no response (Table 2). The probability of no response was significantly higher on siliceous than mafic parent material, and soils with low resilience than those with high resilience to erosion (Table 3). Except on Andosols, Fluvisols and Leptosols, K omission reduced the risk of no response (Supplementary Table S7). The probability of no responses was significantly higher on soils with low-activity clays than on soils with high-activity clays, on soils with high P fixation capacity than on medium or low P fixation capacity (Table 3)."},{"index":2,"size":258,"text":"Agronomic efficiency (AE) of N, P and K Trials on farmers' fields had significantly higher probability (ϕ = 0.10) of no response to N, P and K than on research stations (ϕ = 0.05). Across the entire data set, the probabilities of poor response (AE ≤ 1 st quartile) to N, P and K were 0.34, 0.34 and 0.55, respectively (Table 2). In the stepwise multiple regression, SOC was a significant predictor of AEN, but not AEP and AEK (Supplementary Table S4). A plot of AEN, AEP and AEK on SOC also did not reveal visible trends (Figure 3b-c). AEN, AEP and AEK significantly (p < 0.001) varied with soil type (Figure 2d-f), agroecological zone, trial location, N rate, P rate and K application (Supplementary Table S5). AEN and AEP were low on Leptosols, Arenosols, Alisols and Plinthosols, while their highest mean values were recorded on Acrisols (Figure 1d) followed by Fluvisols (Figure 1d). Plinthosols had the highest probability (ϕ = 0.24) of no response to applied N (i.e., AEN ≤ 0) followed by Alisols and Lixisols (Table 2). Fluvisols, Luvisols, Cambisols and Nitisols had very low risk (ϕ = 0.02-0.04) of failure to respond to N and P (Table 2). The risks of no response to N and P were also higher on soils derived from silicic than mafic parent materials, and on soils with low resilience than those with high resilience to erosion (Table 3). The risks of no response to applied N were two times higher on soils with low-activity than high-activity clay (Table 3)."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":178,"text":"Using multiple response metrics and robust statistical tools, this study has provided novel insights into the non-responsiveness of African soils to the recommended N, P and K fertilizers. Overall, the results show that the risks of no response are greater on soils derived from siliceous than mafic parent materials, soil types with low resilience to erosion, soils with low-activity clays and high P fixation capacity. The results also show that soil type is an important determinant of response. The analyses also indicated that the response on each soil type is not a single value, but probabilities of varying likelihoods depending on explanatory variables. Since the predicted probabilities provide information on the actual risk of no response, they are easier for use by decision makers, especially agronomists and agricultural extension staff who develop fertilizer recommendations for farmers. The ranking of soil types based on mean effect sizes (Figure 1) and the predicted probabilities (Table 2) slightly differed. This emphasise that the traditional approach of categorising soils as responsive and non-responsive based on metrics of mean response alone is inadequate."},{"index":2,"size":75,"text":"None of the criteria or metrics identified any soil type as totally non-responsive. Taken together, the different metrics were consistent in separating poorly responsive soils from intermediate and highly responsive ones. Plinthosols, Alisols and Lixisols were found to be poorly responsive, while Acrisols, Cambisols, Fluvisols, Luvisols and Nitisols were highly responsive to NPK fertilizer. On the other hand, Andosols, Arenosols, Ferralsols, Leptosols, Phaeozems and Vertisols fell in an intermediate category according to the different metrics."},{"index":3,"size":97,"text":"The high probability of no response on Plinthosols is apparently linked to their unfavourable soil structure, poor water relations (IUSS, 2014) and their high P fixation capacity (Batjes, 2011). On the other hand, poor response on Alisols is associated with their inherently low pH (Table 1), Al toxicity and P fixation (Batjes, 2011). The relatively low response on Lixisols may be attributed to their low cation retention capacity, high P fixation and susceptibility to erosion and degradation when cultivated (Table 1). These characteristics make recurrent inputs of fertilizers a precondition for continuous cultivation of Lixisols (IUSS, 2014)."},{"index":4,"size":186,"text":"The low response on Andosols despite their inherently high SOC and nutrient contents indicates that productivity on these soils is constrained by factors other than NPK. The lower AEN and AEP could be due to their highly erodible nature and their high P fixation capacity (Batjes, 2011). The very low probability of exceeding 3 t ha −1 on Arenosols may be linked to their sandy texture, low resilience to erosion and very poor water and nutrients-holding capacity. This can severely limit crop performance in the arid and semi-arid regions of Africa where they cover vast expanses of land estimated at over 650 million ha. This calls for adoption of soil and water management practices specifically tailored to Arenosols. The problem with Leptosols is their shallow rooting depth, coarse texture and their susceptibility to erosion (IUSS, 2014). They need to be carefully managed through soil and water conservation practices including terracing and agroforestry practices if crops are to be grown sustainably. The low probability of exceeding 3 t ha −1 on Ferralsols could be associated with their inherently low pH and high P fixation capacity (Batjes, 2011)."},{"index":5,"size":189,"text":"Although Acrisols are inherently acidic, they achieved the highest RR and AEN. Nevertheless, their low resilience to erosion and rapid degradation (Stocking, 2003) means that productivity can only be maintained with appropriate soil and water management practices combined with NPK fertilizer. Cambisols, Fluvisols, Nitisols and Luvisols generally carried very low risks of no response and high probabilities of yields exceeding 3 t ha −1 . This is partly due to their stable structure, good internal drainage and high resilience to erosion. These soils also have high-activity clay minerals, high base status and low P fixation (Table 1). Soils with high base saturation can be more responsive because they have little or no acid cations such as Al, have relatively high pH and therefore more buffered against acid cations. The results also show that target yields of 3 t ha −1 can be exceeded with high probability on Andosols, Nitisols and Vertisols, which are derived from mafic parent materials. According to Gray et al. (2009), pH increased with increasing mafic characters. Soils derived from mafic materials also tend to have high clay activity compared to those derived from silicic materials."},{"index":6,"size":162,"text":"In some countries, K is missing in national fertilizer recommendations because it is believed to be non-limiting (Jama et al., 2017;Sileshi, 2021). Our analyses show that K application increases yields substantially on Acrisols, Arenosols and Fluvisols, while on Cambisols, Leptosols and Phaeozems K application tended to depress yields relative to omission (Supplementary Table S7). Yield depression is likely to occur due to various factors, but imbalances and antagonism between K, magnesium (Mg) and calcium (Ca) seem more plausible. Roobroeck et al. (2021) similarly linked differences in occurrences of non-responsiveness to imbalances in exchangeable Ca, Mg and K in soils. Antagonistic interactions occur between Ca, Mg and K such that high levels of one or more of these nutrients can result in decreased uptake of another, despite sufficient soil levels (Laekemariam et al. 2018;Rhodes et al., 2018;Rietra et al., 2017). Therefore, we recommend further studies on the interactions between K, Ca and Mg in the different soils for better targeting of K inputs."},{"index":7,"size":328,"text":"The unique characteristic and limitations of each soil type revealed in this analysis emphasise the point that management recommendations need to be more tailored and nutrient inputs need to be sufficiently soil-specific. Past research (e.g., Ichami et al., 2019;Kihara et al., 2016;Roobroeck et al., 2021;Shehu et al., 2018) has generally focused on relating crop response to dynamic soil properties such as pH, SOM and nutrient levels. According to our analyses, the contributions of pH, SOC and clay content to the variations in RR, AEN and AEP did not show clear trends (Figure 3a-i; Supplementary Table S4). Similarly, across 18 on-farm trials covering different soil types in western Kenya, Njoroge et al. (2018) found no significant difference in SOC, pH and clay content between sites with good response to NPK fertilizer and those with poor response. In analyses of maize response across Ghana, Bua et al. (2020) also found variable influence of SOC and pH on grain yield. In studies by Kihara et al. (2016) and Shehu et al. (2018), nonresponsive fields also had relatively higher SOC than the responsive fields. From Table 1 and Supplementary Figure S1, it is evident that pH, SOM and clay content are intrinsically linked to soil type, but their levels can also be modified by farmer management. Therefore, we argue that fertilizer recommendations should be guided by a good knowledge of the soil type, management history, and periodic soil tests to establish limiting nutrients. The fact that the risks of no response are up to two times more on farmers' fields than on research stations (Table 2) highlights the role of management in crop response. These findings have implications for the design and location of future agronomic trials. Until recently, agronomic trials have been mostly located on research stations, which may not adequately represent the diversity of soil types on farmers' fields (Sileshi, 2021). We also recommend careful location of future trials on farmers' fields, taking into account the dominant reference soil groups."},{"index":8,"size":243,"text":"Our findings also have implications for policies and investments relating to input subsidies. In development circles, much emphasis has been placed on stimulating NPK fertilizer use by farmers without critically examining where their use can be risky. The concept of smart subsidies has also gained popularity in SSA, and such subsidies usually target fertilizer inputs to resource-poor households. Here we argue that targeting fertilizer subsidies by taking into account the inherent limitations of soils together with farmers' resource endowment could lead to more efficient use of the investment. On soils that are prone to acidification such as Alisols, Acrisols, Ferralsols and Nitisols, subsidizing NPK fertilizer together with lime and integrated acid soil management practices is likely to result in greater pay-offs than subsidizing NPK fertilizer alone. The promotion of acid-tolerant germplasm is also highly encouraged (Agegnehu et al., 2021). Soil types dominated by clay minerals such as kaolinite, halloysite, montmorillonite and illite are likely to fix P necessitating application of higher P rates (Batjes, 2011). On P fixing soils (e.g., Acrisols, Andosols, Ferralsols and Nitisols), greater emphasis should also be placed on the choice of P sources and appropriate combinations of P fertilizer with organic inputs such as farmyard manure (Sileshi et al., 2019) and agroforestry practices (Sileshi et al., 2010). On inherently fertile soils such as Andosols, investments should focus on erosion control measures and maintenance of fertility by targeted application of N, P and K combined with the other yield-limiting nutrients."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":178,"text":"This analysis has attempted to quantify the probability of non-responsiveness and its underlying causes on African soils. The main conclusions emerging from this analysis are (1) the soil type, its mineralogy and resilience to erosion are important determinants of responsiveness to NPK fertilizers; (2) the target yield of 3 t ha −1 can be attained with greater probability (>0.80) on Andosols, Vertisols and Nitisol, but with very low probability (<0.30) on Alisols and Arenosols and (3) the risks of no response can be up to two times more on farmers' fields than on research stations. The diversity of soils and their mineralogy emphasise that land management needs to be tailored to address the unique limitations of each soil type and fertilizer inputs need to be sufficiently site and soil specific. It does also have important policy implications with respect to NPK fertilizer subsidies in many SSA countries that are generally poor in targeting inputs to soils where the investment is likely to be more efficiently used. Supplementary Material. For supplementary material for this article, please visit https://doi.org/10.1017/ S0014479721000247"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. (a) Map of agroecological zones and trial sites across Africa and (b) the percentage area of continental Africa covered by each of the soil types included in this study (Data from Jones et al., 2013). "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure2. Plots of the 95% confidence limits (CLs) (horizontal bars) of mean grain yields, response ratios (RR), agronomic use efficiency of nitrogen (AEN), phosphorus (AEP) and potassium (AEK). Means are given on the left-hand side of each CL. Means on two or more soil types are deemed significantly different from each other if the 95% CLs do not overlap. The red broken line in (c) represents the point where control yield is equal to yield with fertilizer (i.e., RR = 1). "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Trends in the variations of RR, AEN and AEP with soil organic carbon, pH and clay contents. The red lines represent the level below which maize crops do not efficiently use N or P. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Soil type, the number of countries and sites covered in this analysis (details in supplementary material tables S1), total number of observations (N), resilience to erosion, clay activity, P fixation capacity, clay content, sand content, cation exchange capacity (CEC in cmol c kg -1 ), base saturation percentage (BSP), pH and soil organic carbon (SOC) contentSoilCountries Sites * Parent material ‖ Resilience § Clay activity † P fixation ‡ CEC BSP (%) pH SOC (%) Acrisols 10 44 Intermediate Low Low V. High 14.0 3 4.2 1.6 Acrisols1044 IntermediateLowLowV. High14.034.21.6 Alisols 4 9 Intermediate Low High High 7.8 6 3.3 0.6 Alisols49 IntermediateLowHighHigh7.863.30.6 Andosols 4 42 Mafic Low High V. High 39.2 2 4.9 5.8 Andosols442 MaficLowHighV. High39.224.95.8 Arenosols 6 18 Silicic Low Low Low 1.1 100 7.2 0.1 Arenosols618 SilicicLowLowLow1.11007.20.1 Cambisols 5 34 Intermediate High High Low 20.0 63 5.2 4.4 Cambisols534 IntermediateHighHighLow20.0635.24.4 Ferralsols 12 66 Intermediate High Low V. High 5.7 5 4.2 1.5 Ferralsols1266 IntermediateHighLowV. High5.754.21.5 Fluvisols 6 17 Intermediate High High Moderate 27.7 100 6.5 3.3 Fluvisols617 IntermediateHighHighModerate 27.71006.53.3 Leptosols 8 45 Intermediate Low Low Low 14.5 100 6.8 0.1 Leptosols845 IntermediateLowLowLow14.51006.80.1 Lixisols 10 66 Silicic Low Low High 4.1 100 6.9 0.2 Lixisols1066 SilicicLowLowHigh4.11006.90.2 Luvisols 8 55 Intermediate High High Low 15.3 93 7.5 1.1 Luvisols855 IntermediateHighHighLow15.3937.51.1 Nitisols 7 86 Mafic High Low High 15.0 63 5.7 2.0 Nitisols786 MaficHighLowHigh15.0635.72.0 Phaeozems 3 12 Mafic High High Low 33.4 63 6.2 1.9 Phaeozems312 MaficHighHighLow33.4636.21.9 Plinthosols 7 27 Intermediate Low Low High 11.9 88 5.9 NA Plinthosols727 IntermediateLowLowHigh11.9885.9NA Vertisols 4 21 Mafic High High Moderate 76.7 100 7.5 NA Vertisols421 MaficHighHighModerate 76.71007.5NA NA = not available.*Site represents geographic areas at district or comparable level, where several farms were covered.  NA = not available.*Site represents geographic areas at district or comparable level, where several farms were covered. †Clay activity classes are as defined in Jones et al. (2013).        †Clay activity classes are as defined in Jones et al. (2013). ‡P fixation categories are as defined in Batjes (2011).        ‡P fixation categories are as defined in Batjes (2011). § Resilience to degradation following Stocking (2003) and IUSS (2014).       § Resilience to degradation following Stocking (2003) and IUSS (2014).  "},{"text":"kg grain increase kg N) AEN     Control yield    NPK yield   Response ratio Control yieldNPK yieldResponse ratio Andosols 3.5   Andosols  5.1    Andosols 1.5 Andosols3.5Andosols5.1Andosols1.5 Luvisols 2.9   Luvisols  4.8    Luvisols 1.7 Luvisols2.9Luvisols4.8Luvisols1.7 Fluvisols 2.7   Fluvisols  4.6    Fluvisols 1.9 Fluvisols2.7Fluvisols4.6Fluvisols1.9 Nitisols 2.7   Nitisols  4.7    Nitisols 2.1 Nitisols2.7Nitisols4.7Nitisols2.1 Vertisols 2.7   Vertisols  4.4    Vertisols 1.9 Vertisols2.7Vertisols4.4Vertisols1.9 Arenosols 2.5   Arenosols  3.6    Arenosols 1.6 Arenosols2.5Arenosols3.6Arenosols1.6 Cambisols 2.4   Cambisols  3.9    Cambisols 2.0 Cambisols2.4Cambisols3.9Cambisols2.0 Leptosols 2.4   Leptosols  3.4    Leptosols 1.7 Leptosols2.4Leptosols3.4Leptosols1.7 Lixisols 2.3   Lixisols  4.1    Lixisols 2.3 Lixisols2.3Lixisols4.1Lixisols2.3 Ferralsols 2.1   Ferralsols  4.0    Ferralsols 2.2 Ferralsols2.1Ferralsols4.0Ferralsols2.2 Phaeozms 2.1   Phaeozms  3.8    Phaeozms 2.0 Phaeozms2.1Phaeozms3.8Phaeozms2.0 Acrisols 2.1   Acrisols  4.4    Acrisols 2.7 Acrisols2.1Acrisols4.4Acrisols2.7 Plinthosols 2.1   Plinthosols  3.8    Plinthosols 2.2 Plinthosols2.1Plinthosols3.8Plinthosols2.2 Alisols 1.7   Alisols  3.5    Alisols 2.3 Alisols1.7Alisols3.5Alisols2.3  0 1 2 Grain yield (t ha ) 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 Grain yield (t ha -1 ) 3 4 5 6 0 1 Response ratio (RR) 2 3 4 012 Grain yield (t ha ) 3 456012 Grain yield (t ha -1 ) 3 4 5601 Response ratio (RR) 2 34 Andosols 18.3   Andosols  59.6     Andosols18.3Andosols59.6 Luvisols 23.2   Luvisols  75.6     Luvisols23.2Luvisols75.6 Fluvisols 24.0   Fluvisols  93.1     Fluvisols24.0Fluvisols93.1 Nitisols 22.1   Nitisols  74.6     Nitisols22.1Nitisols74.6 Vertisols 17.9   Vertisols  63.5     Vertisols17.9Vertisols63.5 Arenosols 14.8   Arenosols  44.7     Arenosols14.8Arenosols44.7 Cambisols 21.6   Cambisols  67.6     Cambisols21.6Cambisols67.6 Leptosols 14.5   Leptosols  41.5     Leptosols14.5Leptosols41.5 Lixisols 22.2   Lixisols  73.1     Lixisols22.2Lixisols73.1 Ferralsols 20.0   Ferralsols  59.8     Ferralsols20.0Ferralsols59.8 Phaeozms 20.4   Phaeozms  61.2     Phaeozms20.4Phaeozms61.2 Acrisols 28.2   Acrisols  67.7     Acrisols28.2Acrisols67.7 Plinthosols 16.4   Plinthosols  49.5     Plinthosols16.4Plinthosols49.5 Alisols 15.9 -10 0 AEN (50.8 10 20 30 40 -40 0 Alisols AEP ( 40 80 120 160 Alisols15.9 -10 0 AEN (50.8 10 20 30 40 -40 0 Alisols AEP (4080 120 160  "},{"text":"kg grain increase kg P) AEP  Andosols 49.1    Andosols49.1 Luvisols 40.2    Luvisols40.2 Fluvisols 64.4    Fluvisols64.4 Nitisols 30.6    Nitisols30.6 Vertisols 43.6    Vertisols43.6 Arenosols 41.0    Arenosols41.0 Cambisols 17.0    Cambisols17.0 Leptosols 27.3    Leptosols27.3 Lixisols 55.2    Lixisols55.2 Ferralsols 43.2    Ferralsols43.2 Phaeozms 63.3    Phaeozms63.3 Acrisols 57.6    Acrisols57.6 Plinthosols 32.0    Plinthosols32.0 Alisols 39.2    Alisols39.2  -40 0 40 80 120 -4004080120  AEK (   AEK (  "},{"text":"kg grain increase kg K)   "},{"text":"Table 2 . Predicted probabilities (ϕ) of non-response to NPK fertilizers expressed in terms of response ratios (RR ≤ 1), yield gain (YG ≤ 0.5 t ha −1 ), agronomic use efficiency of N (AEN ≤ 0), P (AEP ≤ 0) and K (AEK ≤ 0), AEN ≤ 10), AEP ≤ 30, AEK ≤ 20 and treatment yields exceeding 3 t ha −1 with NPK fertilizer (yield>3) on different soil types      Predicted probability (ϕ) of    Predicted probability (ϕ) of Soil type   No response   Poor response   Soil typeNo responsePoor response (RSG) RR ≤ 1 YG≤ 0.5 AEN ≤ 0 AEP ≤ 0 AEK ≤ 0 AEN ≤ 10 AEP ≤ 30 AEK ≤ 20 Yield>3 t ha −1 (RSG)RR ≤ 1 YG≤ 0.5 AEN ≤ 0 AEP ≤ 0 AEK ≤ 0 AEN ≤ 10 AEP ≤ 30 AEK ≤ 20Yield>3 t ha −1 Acrisols 0.07 0.16 0.07 0.07 0.04 0.28 0.33 0.39 0.62 Acrisols0.070.160.070.070.040.280.330.390.62 Alisols 0.16 0.47 0.15 0.15 0.18 0.69 0.59 0.78 0.28 Alisols0.160.470.150.150.180.690.590.780.28 Andosols 0.11 0.15 0.09 0.09 0.13 0.20 0.23 0.66 0.91 Andosols0.110.150.090.090.130.200.230.660.91 Arenosols 0.11 0.27 0.10 0.10 0.12 0.38 0.42 0.47 0.26 Arenosols0.110.270.100.100.120.380.420.470.26 Cambisols 0.05 0.18 0.04 0.04 0.06 0.28 0.20 0.62 0.63 Cambisols0.050.180.040.040.060.280.200.620.63 Ferralsols 0.09 0.19 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.46 0.49 0.50 0.57 Ferralsols0.090.190.080.080.080.460.490.500.57 Fluvisols 0.02 0.05 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.15 0.17 0.40 0.71 Fluvisols0.020.050.010.010.010.150.170.400.71 Leptosols 0.13 0.21 0.11 0.11 0.17 0.30 0.28 0.66 0.50 Leptosols0.130.210.110.110.170.300.280.660.50 Lixisols 0.16 0.25 0.14 0.14 0.16 0.43 0.41 0.55 0.56 Lixisols0.160.250.140.140.160.430.410.550.56 Luvisols 0.04 0.09 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.18 0.16 0.28 0.72 Luvisols0.040.090.030.030.030.180.160.280.72 Nitisols 0.04 0.10 0.04 0.04 0.08 0.28 0.28 0.81 0.82 Nitisols0.040.100.040.040.080.280.280.810.82 Phaeozems 0.08 0.22 0.07 0.07 0.16 0.29 0.34 0.77 0.57 Phaeozems0.080.220.070.070.160.290.340.770.57 Plinthosols 0.26 0.39 0.24 0.24 0.28 0.49 0.44 0.61 0.52 Plinthosols0.260.390.240.240.280.490.440.610.52 Vertisols 0.08 0.15 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.22 0.21 0.53 0.82 Vertisols0.080.150.050.050.040.220.210.530.82 Farmers' field 0.12 0.20 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.37 0.36 0.56 0.62 Farmers' field0.120.200.100.100.100.370.360.560.62 Research station 0.06 0.15 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.28 0.29 0.54 0.66 Research station0.060.150.050.050.050.280.290.540.66 Overall 0.10 0.18 0.08 0.08 0.10 0.34 0.34 0.55 0.63 Overall0.100.180.080.080.100.340.340.550.63  "},{"text":" ha −1 Parent material Siliceous 0.16 0.25 0.14 0.14 0.16 0.54 Parent materialSiliceous0.160.250.140.140.160.54  Intermediate 0.10 0.19 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.59 Intermediate0.100.190.080.080.080.59  Mafic 0.06 0.12 0.04 0.05 0.09 0.82 Mafic0.060.120.040.050.090.82 Resilience High 0.06 0.13 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.69 ResilienceHigh0.060.130.050.050.060.69  Low 0.14 0.23 0.12 0.12 0.13 0.57 Low0.140.230.120.120.130.57 Clay activity High 0.06 0.14 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.72 Clay activityHigh0.060.140.050.050.050.72  Low 0.11 0.20 0.10 0.10 0.11 0.61 Low0.110.200.100.100.110.61 P fixation * Very high 0.09 0.17 0.08 0.08 0.07 0.62 P fixation *Very high0.090.170.080.080.070.62  High 0.13 0.21 0.11 0.11 0.18 0.65 High0.130.210.110.110.180.65  Moderate 0.05 0.10 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.76 Moderate0.050.100.030.030.020.76  Low 0.08 0.16 0.07 0.07 0.08 0.59 Low0.080.160.070.070.080.59  "}],"sieverID":"7212750b-2763-47d3-a057-985d7ccf034c","abstract":"A number of studies across sub-Saharan Africa have recently reported poor crop responses and low agronomic use efficiencies of applied nitrogen (AEN), phosphorus (AEP) and potassium (AEK). However, the conditions under which non-responsiveness occurs, its underlying causes and its probability of occurrence on different soil types are not well understood. Using data from 542 sites and 14 soil types in 23 African countries, we provide novel insights into the linkage between lack of response to applied N, P and K, the mineralogy of soils and their resilience to erosion. We estimated mean responses as well as the probabilities (ϕ) of no response in terms of response ratio (RR), yield gain (YG) and agronomic efficiency. Here we defined 'no response' as zero agronomic response to fertilizer inputs in a given site and year indexed by either RR ≤ 1, AEN ≤ 0, AEP ≤ 0 or AEK ≤ 0. The highest risks of no response were recorded on the iron-rich Plinthosols (ϕ = 0.26) followed by the aluminium-rich Alisols (ϕ = 0.16) and the erosion-prone Lixisols (ϕ = 0.16) and Leptosols (ϕ = 0.13). In terms of yield gains, the highest risk of low response (i.e., YG ≤ 0.5) was recorded on Alisols (ϕ = 0.47) and the lowest on Fluvisols (ϕ = 0.05). Cambisols, Fluvisols, Luvisols and Nitisols were deemed highly responsive to NPK fertilizer. The risks of no response were significantly higher on soils derived from siliceous than mafic parent materials, soil types with low resilience to erosion, soils with low-activity clays and high P fixation capacity. It is concluded that maize grain yields can exceed 3 t ha-1 with high probability (ϕ > 0.80) on Andosols, Nitisols and Vertisols, but with very low probability (ϕ < 0.30) on Alisols and Arenosols. It is also concluded that across soil types and agroecological zones, the risk of no response is up to two times more on farmers' fields than on research stations. Here, we discuss the implications of these finding for the design and location of future agronomic trials. We also provide insights to guide the targeting of fertilizer subsidies where nutrients can be more efficiently used."}