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gardian-ai-ready-docs

+ {"metadata":{"id":"000cba4ff2d982ade33cdb5bc690c769","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/eb0f41bc-af00-4898-8ab6-0b125e3a99e5/retrieve"},"pageCount":20,"title":"Any part of this publication may be copied, translated, or adapted with permission from the authors, provided that the parts copied are distributed free or at cost (not for pro t) and the International Livestock Research Institute is acknowledged as the author. Any commercial reproduction requires prior written permission from the International Livestock Research Institute. The International Livestock Research Institute would appreciate receiving a copy of any materials in which information from this publication is used","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":198,"text":"My legs are no longer as strong as before …. Huh! These two young men seem engaged in an interesting conversation. . I lost all my livestock, Molu. This drought is the worst I have ever experienced in my 38 years. I thought I could survive as my father did but how wrong I was! I'm now a poor man….. I can't provide for my family!!! Malmallo, you are not alone. My whole herd of cows and goats was wiped out clean except for one baby goat. Something No. Compensation will depend on the number of animals insured and the division you come from….. remember that forage availability is monitored per division and therefore di erent divisions may therefore receive di erent compensations If I pay my premiums, how will I be compensated? You will be compensated according to the value of animals insured. The average value of livestock across Marsabit has been set at Ksh. 21,000 per camel, Ksh 15,000 per cow and Ksh 1,500 per goat or sheep. You may insure the number of livestock you wish. The compensation will however depend on whether the predicted livestock deaths in your division will exceed the trigger level."}]},{"head":"Hii Trigger level nayo ni nini?","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"The trigger level is the point above which the insurance company should begin making compensation in case of a drought. The trigger point for IBLI is 15%. It actually means that the insurance company can only make compensation after 15 in every 100 livestock are predicted to have died in your division"},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"If predicted livestock deaths are below the trigger level, will I be compensated? If not, how do I get back my premiums?"},{"index":3,"size":72,"text":"No Malmallo. You are only compensated if the trigger level is exceeded. As for the premiums Malmallo, when we employ guards to guard us against rustlers, we don't ask them to refund their wages when the rustlers fail to strike!!!!! They will have done their work either way. If the trigger level is reached or not the fact remains that you will still have been covered. Therefore the premiums are similarly non-refundable!!"},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"When and where will I be compensated, if the trigger point is exceeded?"},{"index":5,"size":27,"text":"There are two possible periods of compensation, which are in March at the end of the short dry season and in October after the long dry season."},{"index":6,"size":16,"text":"Payments will be made if the predicted livestock deaths are higher than the 15% trigger level. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" must be done about this. Question is what? I heard you earlier on conversing about losses you have incurred due to the prevailing severe drought. Yes its true droughts have exposed us to great risks of losing out livestock!! Using satellite pictures, the level of forage availability can be monitored, and the forage information for a period of 12 months used to predict livestock deaths …. The satellite pictures show the vegetation cover of a given point and time. That includes here in Elgade!!!!!! Wah messen buji!!!!! Can that IBLI satellite show how many of my livestock died?No Malmallo…. The satellite pictures provide information on forage availability which is used to construct an indicator of predicted livestock deaths…. These days you can actually insure your Why are premiums for the same livestock livestock against the risk of drought. Infact I insured my livestock after undergoing training about livestock insurance. charged di erently for upper and lower Let us go to my place I want hear more Upper Marsabit divisions such as Maikona will pay Good question Malmallo! Those who come from about this IBILI … IBIS …. ?! Marsabit. Aren't they all livestock?!!!!! These days you can actually insure your Why are premiums for the same livestock livestock against the risk of drought. Infact I insured my livestock after undergoing training about livestock insurance. charged di erently for upper and lower Let us go to my place I want hear more Upper Marsabit divisions such as Maikona will pay Good question Malmallo! Those who come from about this IBILI … IBIS …. ?! Marsabit. Aren't they all livestock?!!!!! a little more than those from Lower Marsabit a little more than those from Lower Marsabit divisions such as Marsabit Central. For Upper Marsabit, the premium is: 825/= per cow, 1,155/= I took some of my livestock to my relatives. My neighbour Katelo migrated with his livestock to Southern Ethiopia but all our livestock died too Arda!!!!! Molu, are you serious??? In life good Tell me more about it……. I will gladly accompany you Molu. It is IBLI -Index Based Livestock Insurance. Please request your friend to come along. per camel and 82.50/=per sheep or goat I live in Maikona, I presume I will pay For Lower Marsabit, the premium is 487.50/=per higher premiums than Malmallo. My cow 682.50/= per camel and 48.75/= per sheep or question is: Will our compensation be goat equal? divisions such as Marsabit Central. For Upper Marsabit, the premium is: 825/= per cow, 1,155/= I took some of my livestock to my relatives. My neighbour Katelo migrated with his livestock to Southern Ethiopia but all our livestock died too Arda!!!!! Molu, are you serious??? In life good Tell me more about it……. I will gladly accompany you Molu. It is IBLI -Index Based Livestock Insurance. Please request your friend to come along. per camel and 82.50/=per sheep or goat I live in Maikona, I presume I will pay For Lower Marsabit, the premium is 487.50/=per higher premiums than Malmallo. My cow 682.50/= per camel and 48.75/= per sheep or question is: Will our compensation be goat equal? things come at a price. Is it not so, Malmallo? things come at a price. Is it not so, Malmallo? The insurance cover is provided at a small fee. The insurance cover is provided at a small fee. is more risky. It is so practical, is it livestock die in that area and thus it than Lower Marsabit…. More Is IBLI cover for free? Actually the main reason is that Upper Marsabit is relatively drier It seems that some of our traditional methods of managing our only source of livelihood!! livestock……?! now is, what do we do? Livestock is talking about is it uniform for all this risk are failing, the question This insurance is called Index My uncle lives in Dirib a village in Based Livestock Insurance or IBLI I see, but I wonder …… Marsabit Central. I want to know in short. It uses forage availability to predict livestock deaths……… You are right Mzee \"mtaka cha mvunguni sharti ainame\". But, the small fee you are too, Will our compensation be equal? is more risky. It is so practical, is it livestock die in that area and thus it than Lower Marsabit…. More Is IBLI cover for free? Actually the main reason is that Upper Marsabit is relatively drierIt seems that some of our traditional methods of managing our only source of livelihood!! livestock……?! now is, what do we do? Livestock is talking about is it uniform for all this risk are failing, the question This insurance is called Index My uncle lives in Dirib a village in Based Livestock Insurance or IBLI I see, but I wonder …… Marsabit Central. I want to know in short. It uses forage availability to predict livestock deaths……… You are right Mzee \"mtaka cha mvunguni sharti ainame\". But, the small fee you are too, Will our compensation be equal? You want to hear more of IBIS… Molu, Now you are losing it. not, Malmallo? keep does IBLI cover? Which of the animals we You want to hear more of IBIS… Molu, Now you are losing it. not, Malmallo?keep does IBLI cover? Which of the animals we ?! It is likely to be just another ?! It is likely to be just another scam. Blame yourself later!!! scam. Blame yourself later!!! Come one, Malmallo. You sounded so desperate just a while ago. Maybe Mzee has vital information that will change both our ill fortunes. Kuja twende kwangu tukaskize hii stori ya IBLI bwana!!!! It covers cows, camels, goats and sheep against I think that makes a lot of only. drought related deaths sense …..!!! Come one, Malmallo. You sounded so desperate just a while ago. Maybe Mzee has vital information that will change both our ill fortunes. Kuja twende kwangu tukaskize hii stori ya IBLI bwana!!!!It covers cows, camels, goats and sheep against I think that makes a lot of only. drought related deaths sense …..!!! "},{"text":" Compensation will be made at Equity Bank or its appointed agents. It has been a pleasure having you here with us….. I'm sorry for my bad attitude at the start. I was so misinformed then ….!! All pleasure has been mine gentlemen…. Malmallo, you are not such a bad person, after all. I ask you to nd out more about IBLI from Equity Bank, its appointed agents or any trained, insurance promoter. Goodbye for now ….!!! I want to know…… where and when I I want to know…… where and when I can buy IBLI? can buy IBLI? Can I be compensated in case rustlers Can I be compensated in case rustlers steal my livestock or if they are killed by steal my livestock or if they are killed by livestock diseases? A very good and important question, Malmallo livestock diseases?A very good and important question, Malmallo rst of all IBLI will cushion you against drought rst of all IBLI will cushion you against drought related livestock deaths. By compensating you related livestock deaths. By compensating you when you lose a lot of your animals, it will also IBLI is sold every year in the when you lose a lot of your animals, it will also IBLI is sold every year in the help you restock in case of devastating drought, months of January/February and help you restock in case of devastating drought, months of January/February and How do I bene t from purchasing IBLI? safeguard against dehumanizing e ects of poverty August/September at Equity Bank, How do I bene t from purchasing IBLI?safeguard against dehumanizing e ects of poverty August/September at Equity Bank, and help you maintain your social status in the and its appointed agents. and help you maintain your social status in the and its appointed agents. society among other bene ts. society among other bene ts. And how do I know if And how do I know if compensation will be made? compensation will be made? You see Malmallo!!!! you would You see Malmallo!!!! you would not have gotten this valuable not have gotten this valuable information about IBLI, had you information about IBLI, had you refused to listen to Mzee Galgalo refused to listen to Mzee Galgalo Malmalo, IBLI covers the risk of Malmalo, IBLI covers the risk of livestock deaths that result from lack livestock deaths that result from lack of forage over some time only. If your of forage over some time only. If your livestock die of diseases or they are livestock die of diseases or they are stolen IBLI will not compensate. Molu, you stolen IBLI will not compensate. Molu, you do not need to make an application for do not need to make an application for compensation, It is announced at the compensation, It is announced at the Quite true Malmalo it is always wise to listen before passing judgment!!!!! division level through the chiefs and on the radio. Quite true Malmalo it is always wise to listen before passing judgment!!!!!division level through the chiefs and on the radio. "}],"sieverID":"4bab4e2b-bfcb-45e9-b7bc-71628bbf9efe","abstract":""}

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+ {"metadata":{"id":"006ab954300535d4897ee16eb8b10777","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6ff647c4-0f13-4655-9965-c15e09606a65/retrieve"},"pageCount":19,"title":"Gains in Genetic Enhancement of Early Maturing Maize Hybrids Developed during Three Breeding Periods under Striga-Infested and Striga-Free Environments","keywords":["genetic gains","maize","breeding period","Striga","hybrids"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":150,"text":"Maize (Zea mays L.) is an important staple food crop in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Its prominence has increased in SSA owing to its use as a cheap energy source in both human and livestock diets. The high insolation, cold night, and minimal occurrence of pest and diseases that characterize the savanna agroecology of SSA make it an ideal environment for maize production [1]. The early maturing maize varieties that are often available in July during the food deficit period, when other food reserves have been exhausted due to the extended hunger period, have helped to alleviate starvation in the savannas of SSA [2]. The availability and wide adoption of early maturing maize cultivars have resulted in tremendous increase in productivity and production of maize, leading to improved farmers' incomes. However, low-soil nitrogen, moisture stress, and infestation by Striga hermonthica constitute major limitations to the maize production capacity of SSA [3]."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"About two-thirds of the arable land in the savannas of SSA is endemic to Striga hermonthica, which often compels famers to abandon their farmlands. Continuous cropping and short fallow resulting from the rising human population pressure on available land area have aggravated the Striga menace [4]."},{"index":3,"size":218,"text":"Striga parasitism causes about 50−100% yield loss in maize depending on the variety, severity of infestation, soil fertility level, and prevailing environmental conditions [5,6]. Several control methods such as hand pulling, application of high fertilizer doses, crop rotation, and fallowing of land have been proposed but have proved inadequate and unsustainable [7]. There is a consensus that genetic control via Striga resistance is the most reliable and economically viable approach for mitigating effects of the parasitic weed [8][9][10]. Striga resistance is defined as the capacity of a host plant to disallow the germination and prevent the parasite from attaching to its roots, leading to the emergence of few Striga plants, while tolerance describes a host plant's capacity to produce substantial yield despite attachment of the parasitic weeds [11,12]. Amusan et al. [13] in a study of the mechanism of resistance to Striga in maize inbreds demonstrated differences in the root morphology of resistant and susceptible lines. Striga ingress into the root of a resistant line was usually impeded at the endodermis, and parasites which penetrate the xylem cells of the resistant host had delayed haustorial growth compared to those infesting roots of susceptible lines. They reported that resistant genotypes had less attached Striga plants, delayed Striga development, and more death of attached parasitic plants, relative to susceptible genotypes."},{"index":4,"size":146,"text":"Striga infestation causes tremendous economic losses resulting in immense reduction of the potential of maize for combating food insecurity and alleviating poverty in SSA. Consequently, since 1980, improvement of maize for Striga resistance has become a major goal of National Maize Programs in WCA and the Maize Improvement Program of the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA-MIP). The germplasm exploited were obtained from a wide range of sources, selected following extensive testing for many years in multiple locations in WCA. These included introduced resistant germplasm from the temperate region, selected resistant African landraces, local and exotic germplasm, and backcross progenies derived from crosses involving the wild maize, Zea diploperennis [14]. Using existing germplasm and methods such as inbreeding, hybridization, and recurrent selection, the IITA-MIP during the last three to four decades developed numerous early maturing inbred lines, high-yielding open-pollinated populations, and hybrids possessing Striga resistance alleles."},{"index":5,"size":258,"text":"Periodic assessment of genetic gains realized over time in a breeding program is helpful for evaluating the effectiveness of breeding methodologies and devising new strategies. Several studies comparing yield performance of maize varieties generated during different breeding periods have been carried out to document yield gain from selection [15][16][17][18]. Badu-Apraku et al. [2] studied the yield gains of early maturing open-pollinated maize varieties (OPVs) of three breeding periods under Striga-infested and non-infested environments from 2010 to 2011. Yield gains of 0.86, 2.07, and 2.11% were reported for periods 1, 2 and 3, respectively. Also, in a genetic gain study involving 32 late/intermediate maize hybrids, Menkir and Meseka [18] reported an annual yield gain of 3.2 and <1%, which corresponded to an annual gain of 93.7 and 29.3 kg ha −1 under Striga-infested and non-infested environments, respectively. However, information is unavailable on how genetic improvement for Striga resistance has affected agronomic characteristics of early maturing maize hybrids, including grain yield. Furthermore, identification of reliable secondary traits is critical for progress in genetic enhancement of early maturing hybrids for improved resistance to Striga. The present study aimed to (i) investigate gains in yield of 52 early maturing maize hybrids developed in the course of three breeding periods (period 1, 2008-2010: period 2, 2011-2013; and period 3, 2014-2016) in Striga-infested and Striga-free environments, (ii) identify traits linked with genetic gains from selection for grain yield and other agronomic characters during the periods in both research environments, and (iii) evaluate grain yield and stability of performance of the hybrids across test environments."}]},{"head":"Results","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Analysis of Variance for Grain Yield and Other Measured Characters","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":352,"text":"Results of the combined analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the 54 maize hybrids under Striga-infested and non-infested environments showed that environment, period, hybrid (period), hybrid (period) × environment interaction, and environment × period interaction effects were significant for yield and several other measured characters (Table 1). However, period effect for ear rot in Striga-infested environment were not significant. Similarly, period effect for days to 50% anthesis, husk cover, ears per plant, hybrid (period) × environment interaction effect for ears per plant, and period x environment interaction effect for days to 50% anthesis, days to silking, anthesis-silking interval in non-infested environments were not significant. Estimates of repeatability varied from 0.45 for root lodging to 0.85 for days to 50% anthesis in Striga-infested environments, and from 0.39 for anthesis-silking interval to 0.71 for days to 50% anthesis and plant aspect in Striga-free environments. In Striga-infested environments, grain yield ranged between 2248 and 2917 kg ha −1 for hybrids of period 1 and period 3, respectively, resulting in the equivalent of 4.82% annual yield gain (Tables 2 and 3). Contrarily, in Striga-free environments, yield varied from 5016 kg ha −1 for hybrids of period 1 to 5442 kg ha −1 for those of period 3, which corresponded to an annual yield gain of 1.24%. Grain yield increased by 101 and 61 kg ha −1 year −1 in Striga-infested and Striga-free environments, respectively. The significant gain from selection for grain yield between periods 1 and 3 observed in Striga-infested environments was associated with reduced anthesis-silking interval, increased plant and ear heights, and improved ear aspect. Other characters included reduced Striga damage at 8 and 10 weeks after planting (WAP), fewer number of emerged Striga plants at 10 WAP, and increased ears per plant. Additionally, significant positive b estimates were observed for yield, plant, and ear heights, while significant negative b values were obtained for husk cover, ear aspect, days to 50% anthesis and silking, number of emerged Striga plants, and Striga damage at 8 and 10 WAP under Striga-infested conditions (Table 3). Under non-infested conditions, however, only plant aspect and stalk lodging had significant b values."},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"Regression analysis of yield of the maize hybrids in Striga-free environments on yield under Striga-infested conditions, distinctly grouped hybrids into three breeding periods (Figure 1). Despite overlaps in performance of the hybrids of the three periods, those of period 3 were the best in terms of grain yield in both research environments. "}]},{"head":"Interrelationships among Measured Traits","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":176,"text":"Of the possible 55 correlation coefficients recorded under artificial Striga environments, 47 were statistically significant while 16 out of the 28 correlation coefficients identified in Striga-free environments were significant (Figures 2 and 3). Under Striga infestation, grain yield displayed positive and significant associations with ears per plant and plant and ear heights, but negative correlations with anthesis-silking interval, husk cover, ear aspect, Striga damage, and number of emerged Striga plants at 8 and 10 WAP (Figure 2). Similarly, Striga damage at 8 and 10 WAP recorded positive and significant correlations with anthesis-silking interval, husk cover, ear aspect, and number of emerged Striga plants at 8 and 10 WAP. In Striga-free environments, grain yield displayed positive and significant correlations with ears per plant and plant and ear heights, while negative and significant correlations were found between yield and plant aspect, as well as ear aspect (Figure 3). Additionally, plant aspect had positive and significant associations with ear aspect, husk cover, and anthesis-silking interval, but had significant and negative association with plant and ear heights in Striga-free environments."}]},{"head":"Performance Assessment of Grain Yield Stability of Early Maturing Maize Hybrids Developed during Three Breeding Periods","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Presented in Table 4 are the grain yield and other assayed agronomic characters of the 20 highest-yielding and 5 lowest-yielding maize hybrids identified by utilizing the IITA selection index "}]},{"head":"Interrelationships among Measured Traits","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":176,"text":"Of the possible 55 correlation coefficients recorded under artificial Striga environments, 47 were statistically significant while 16 out of the 28 correlation coefficients identified in Striga-free environments were significant (Figures 2 and 3). Under Striga infestation, grain yield displayed positive and significant associations with ears per plant and plant and ear heights, but negative correlations with anthesis-silking interval, husk cover, ear aspect, Striga damage, and number of emerged Striga plants at 8 and 10 WAP (Figure 2). Similarly, Striga damage at 8 and 10 WAP recorded positive and significant correlations with anthesis-silking interval, husk cover, ear aspect, and number of emerged Striga plants at 8 and 10 WAP. In Striga-free environments, grain yield displayed positive and significant correlations with ears per plant and plant and ear heights, while negative and significant correlations were found between yield and plant aspect, as well as ear aspect (Figure 3). Additionally, plant aspect had positive and significant associations with ear aspect, husk cover, and anthesis-silking interval, but had significant and negative association with plant and ear heights in Striga-free environments. "}]},{"head":"Performance Assessment of Grain Yield Stability of Early Maturing Maize Hybrids Developed during Three Breeding Periods","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":168,"text":"Presented in Table 4 are the grain yield and other assayed agronomic characters of the 20 highest-yielding and 5 lowest-yielding maize hybrids identified by utilizing the IITA selection index for Striga resistance and the corresponding mean performance of different traits under optimal test environments. The values of the selection index ranged from −11.1 for the double-cross hybrid, (TZEI 59 × TZEI 108) × (TZEI 63 × TZEI 87) to 10.9 for TZdEI 352 × TZEI 383. Grain yield of the hybrids varied between 1426 kg ha −1 for (TZEI 59 × TZEI 108) × (TZEI 63 × TZEI 87) and 4186 kg ha −1 for TZdEI 352 × TZEI 355 across Striga-infested environments. Furthermore, grain yield of the hybrids across Striga-free environments ranged from 3506 kg ha −1 for TZEI 352 × TZdEI 352 to 6379 kg ha −1 for TZdEI 173 × TZdEI 280. Hybrids that possessed positive selection indices produced grain yields above 4200 and 2400 kg ha −1 in Striga-free and Striga-infested test environments, respectively."},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":"The average reduction in grain yield caused by the parasitic weed was about 50%. Top performing hybrids identified using the Striga selection index were characterized by reduced yield losses under Striga infestation. The best five hybrids recorded yield losses varying from 24.5 to 37.6%. These losses were low compared to those of the five worst hybrids, which varied from 64 to 70%. The significant yield loss in the susceptible genotypes was associated with increased anthesis-silking interval, reduced ear and plant heights, fewer ears per plant, increased Striga damage, and number of emerged Striga plants at 8 and 10 WAP under artificial Striga infestation."},{"index":3,"size":425,"text":"The significance of hybrid and hybrid × environment interaction for yield in the two research environments necessitated the use of the genotype main effect plus genotype × environment interaction (GGE) biplot analysis to partition the hybrid × environment interaction for better understanding of the yield performance and the stability of the hybrids in each test environment. The grain yield \"stability vs. mean performance\" GGE biplots of the hybrids under both research environments in West Africa between 2017 and 2019 are presented in Figures 4 and 5. Under Striga-infestation, the first (PRC1) and second (PRC2) principal component axes explained 61.2 and 11.6% of the overall variation, respectively; therefore, both principal component axes jointly explained about 73% of the overall variation in the yield of the hybrids. The PRC1 of the maize hybrids evaluated in four optimal test environments captured 38.7% of the overall variation, while PRC2 explained 35.9% of the overall variation. Thus, the two PRC axes captured about 75% of the overall variation in yield of the hybrids, an indication of adequate approximation of the environment-centered data. Furthermore, the average-tester coordinate (ATC; double-arrow line) y-axis of GGE biplot separates genotypes with yield above the mean on the right side of the line, distinguishing them from genotypes characterized by grain yield below the mean. The mean performance of a hybrid is measured by the projection of the hybrid's marker on the abscissa, whereas the smaller the absolute length of a genotype on the ATC, the more stable it is [19]. Hybrids 37 (TZdEI 352 × TZEI 355), 26 (TZdEI 378 × TZdEI 173), and 19 (TZdEI 173 × TZdEI 352) were the top performing and most stable across Striga-infested research environments. These were therefore identified as ideal hybrids across test environments, while hybrids 2 [(TZEI 59 × TZEI 108) × (TZEI 63 × TZEI 87)] and 13 (TZEI 31 × TZEI 63), which recorded the lowest grain yield, were highly stable (Figure 5). The average reduction in grain yield caused by the parasitic weed was about 50%. Top performing hybrids identified using the Striga selection index were characterized by reduced yield losses under Striga infestation. The best five hybrids recorded yield losses varying from 24.5 to 37.6%. These losses were low compared to those of the five worst hybrids, which varied from 64 to 70%. The significant yield loss in the susceptible genotypes was associated with increased anthesis-silking interval, reduced ear and plant heights, fewer ears per plant, increased Striga damage, and number of emerged Striga plants at 8 and 10 WAP under artificial Striga infestation."},{"index":4,"size":359,"text":"The significance of hybrid and hybrid x environment interaction for yield in the two research environments necessitated the use of the genotype main effect plus genotype x environment interaction (GGE) biplot analysis to partition the hybrid x environment interaction for better understanding of the yield performance and the stability of the hybrids in each test environment. The grain yield \"stability vs. mean performance\" GGE biplots of the hybrids under both research environments in West Africa between 2017 and 2019 are presented in Figures 4 and 5. Under Striga-infestation, the first (PRC1) and second (PRC2) principal component axes explained 61.2 and 11.6% of the overall variation, respectively; therefore, both principal component axes jointly explained about 73% of the overall variation in the yield of the hybrids. The PRC1 of the maize hybrids evaluated in four optimal test environments captured 38.7% of the overall variation, while PRC2 explained 35.9% of the overall variation. Thus, the two PRC axes captured about 75% of the overall variation in yield of the hybrids, an indication of adequate approximation of the environment-centered data. Furthermore, the average-tester coordinate (ATC; double-arrow line) y-axis of GGE biplot separates genotypes with yield above the mean on the right side of the line, distinguishing them from genotypes characterized by grain yield below the mean. genetic gain in yield of the hybrids under Striga-infested environments was associated with increased plant and ear heights, decreased days to 50% anthesis and silking, as well as reduced anthesis-silking interval. Other traits associated with the genetic gain of the hybrids included improved ear aspect, increased ears per plant, reduced Striga damage, and decreased emerged Striga plants at 8 and 10 WAP. Regression of the yield of the early hybrids in non-infested environments over the yield in Striga-infested environments clearly classified hybrids of the three breeding periods into three groups with a few hybrids of different periods overlapping in performance. This result confirmed the superior performance of hybrids of period 3 over those of periods 1 and 2 in both research environments. This implied that significant progress has been achieved in developing productive hybrids possessing enhanced resistance to Striga hermonthica parasitism during the three breeding periods."},{"index":5,"size":138,"text":"Information on trait association is important for designing effective breeding programs for maize genetic enhancement [22]. The significant and negative correlations obtained for grain yield and Striga damage and number of emerged Striga plants at 8 and 10 WAP implied that these characters were important for yield improvement under Striga infestation. This was a justification for the need to integrate the characters into the multiple-trait selection index for enhanced genetic gain from selection for grain yield under Striga-infested environments. Our findings corroborated Figure 5. The \"mean vs. stability\" view of the genotype main effect plus genotype × environment interaction (GGE) biplot based on a genotype × environment yield data of 54 early maturing maize hybrids evaluated at 4 Striga-free environments in West Africa between 2017 and 2019. PRC 1 and PRC 2 explained 74.6% variation in grain yield."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"The significance of environment, period, and hybrid effects recorded for most traits including grain yield under both research environments signified the uniqueness of the test environments and the significant variability among the hybrids of the three periods."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"This facilitated the identification and selection of promising maize hybrids of early maturity in the test environments."},{"index":3,"size":91,"text":"The significance of hybrid × environment interaction as well as period × environment interaction effects for most measured traits, including grain yield in both Striga-infested and optimal research environments, signified contrasting performance of the hybrids under the research conditions. This result emphasized the importance of testing genotypes in multiple environments, in years, and locations prior to recommendations for commercialization [20]. The high estimates of repeatability recorded for several traits in both research environments implied that the hybrids would be consistent in the expression of the measured traits in the research environments."},{"index":4,"size":296,"text":"The significance of period and hybrid effects for most agronomic traits including grain yield necessitated the analysis of the genetic gains in order to evaluate the progress that was achieved in developing superior early maturing maize hybrids possessing durable Striga resistance. The 4.82% yield gain per year with an increase of 101 kg ha −1 in Striga-infested environments across the three breeding periods obtained in this study was considerably higher than the 3.28, 2.56, and 2.25% reported for a set of extra-early maturing OPVs under moisture deficit, Striga-infested, and optimal conditions, respectively [21]. Furthermore, the yield gain per year realized in the present study is also higher than the 1.93 and 1.0% reported for early maturing OPVs under Striga infestation and non-infested environments by Badu-Apraku et al. [2] and 3.2% yield gain per year in Striga-infested environments reported by Menkir and Meseka [18] for intermediate maturing hybrids. The implications of these results are that early maturing hybrids responded better to selection for improved resistance to Striga, as well as high grain yield relative to the extra-early and early varieties as well as intermediate hybrids. Also, the non-significant gains from selection for grain yield of the early maturing hybrids under optimal conditions confirmed that greater attention of the IITA maize breeders has been on improving Striga resistance under infested conditions rather than enhanced performance of the hybrids in Striga-free environments. In this study, the significant genetic gain in yield of the hybrids under Striga-infested environments was associated with increased plant and ear heights, decreased days to 50% anthesis and silking, as well as reduced anthesis-silking interval. Other traits associated with the genetic gain of the hybrids included improved ear aspect, increased ears per plant, reduced Striga damage, and decreased emerged Striga plants at 8 and 10 WAP."},{"index":5,"size":84,"text":"Regression of the yield of the early hybrids in non-infested environments over the yield in Striga-infested environments clearly classified hybrids of the three breeding periods into three groups with a few hybrids of different periods overlapping in performance. This result confirmed the superior performance of hybrids of period 3 over those of periods 1 and 2 in both research environments. This implied that significant progress has been achieved in developing productive hybrids possessing enhanced resistance to Striga hermonthica parasitism during the three breeding periods."},{"index":6,"size":309,"text":"Information on trait association is important for designing effective breeding programs for maize genetic enhancement [22]. The significant and negative correlations obtained for grain yield and Striga damage and number of emerged Striga plants at 8 and 10 WAP implied that these characters were important for yield improvement under Striga infestation. This was a justification for the need to integrate the characters into the multiple-trait selection index for enhanced genetic gain from selection for grain yield under Striga-infested environments. Our findings corroborated those of Badu-Apraku et al. [4], Kim et al. [6], and Karaya et al. [23]. Significant positive associations detected between grain yield and ears per plant and plant height under both research environments were earlier reported by Badu-Apraku et al. [17]. Hybrid TZdEI 352 × TZEI 355 developed in period 3 was the highest-yielding and most stable across Striga-infested environments, and one of the outstanding hybrids under optimal environments. This suggested that this hybrid is widely adapted to Striga endemic and optimal growing regions in WCA. Our results further justified the need for testing extensively outstanding hybrids at multiple locations and on-farm trials for commercialization in SSA. It is striking that of the 20 top performing hybrids identified using the Striga selection index, only hybrids TZdEI 352 × TZEI 355, TZdEI 378 × TZdEI 173, and TZdEI 173 × TZdEI 352 across Striga-infested environments and TZEI 326 × TZdEI 352, TZEI 495 × ENT 13, and TZdEI 268 × TZdEI 131 across Striga-free conditions were selected by the GGE biplot as productive and stable in performance. This was anticipated as GGE biplot analysis was conducted using the yield data only, compared to the Striga selection index which took into consideration yield and other important yield-related characters. The outstanding maize hybrids identified thus have the potential to combat hunger and alleviate poverty in Striga prone environments in SSA."}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Development of Striga Resistant Early Maturing Maize Hybrids","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":589,"text":"A major objective of the IITA-MIP is to develop early maturing hybrids with outstanding grain yield under multiple stresses, viz., drought, low-soil nitrogen, and S. hermonthica parasitism. Towards this end, the IITA-MIP started a breeding program for Striga resistance in 1992 with the objective of combating the menace of Striga hermonthica in the savannas of SSA. By 1994, the IITA-MIP had developed several populations and OPVs with early maturity and had initiated inbred and a hybrid development program in maize. The early maturing inbreds were derived from several broad-based maize populations possessing resistance to maize streak virus (MSV) and resistance/tolerance to Striga formed from four diverse germplasm sources, which included TZE-W Pop × 1368 STR C 0 , TZE Comp 5-Y C 6 , TZE-Y Pop DT STR C 0 , and TZE-W Pop DT STR C 0 [24]. S 1 lines extracted from each population were evaluated under artificial Striga-infested conditions at Ferkessedougou and non-infested conditions at Sinematiali in Côte d'Ivoire in the 1997 cropping season. Superior S 1 lines from each of the populations were advanced through repeated cycles of selfing and selection under Striga-infested environments and managed drought. At the S 4 stage of inbreeding, 250−300 inbreds extracted from each of the populations were crossed to a tester that was the corresponding source population. The testcrosses as well as the S 4 lines were screened under artificial Striga infestation and non-infested conditions at Ferkessedougou and Sinematiali, respectively. The grain yield and the combining abilities of the lines for traits such as grain yield, Striga damage syndrome rating, Striga emergence counts, number of ears per plant, and plant and ear aspects across the two contrasting research environments served as criteria for selecting 90-100 S 4 lines for advancement to the S 6 stage. Selection for Striga resistance was based on an index of traits which included Striga damage, ears per plant, and grain yield. Through this program, several S 6 inbreds and OPVs were developed from the populations. Even though considerable progress had been made in developing Striga resistant OPVs, inbreds, hybrids, and several of the OPVs extracted from the populations still supported significant number of the parasitic weeds, which could flower and produce seeds, resulting in increased Striga seed bank in the soil. It was, therefore, desirable to enhance resistance levels of the populations. Therefore, in addition to the exploitation of the genetic variation available in domestic maize, Striga resistance alleles from the wild maize, perennial teosinte Zea diploperennis were introgressed into the breeding populations using the backcross breeding method. Badu-Apraku et al. [2] described in detail the strategies and procedures adopted in screening the early maize populations for Striga resistance. Additionally, the levels of tolerance to moisture stress in the populations were not very high. Consequently, a program was started in 2007 to enhance drought tolerance in the populations using the S 1 recurrent selection method. Also, Striga, low-N, and drought-tolerant lines identified in the program were employed as sources of drought tolerance alleles and were incorporated into each population. Subsequent genetic enhancement of the populations under managed drought employing the S 1 family selection scheme led to the development of a new generation of superior early maturing multiple-stress tolerant populations from which were derived inbreds, hybrids, and OPVs with combined high levels of low-N tolerance and improved levels of Striga resistance/tolerance, as well as drought tolerance. Multiple-stress tolerant inbreds selected based on outstanding performance were used in hybrid combinations to obtain the early hybrids used for the genetic gain study under Striga hermonthica infestation."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"The hybrids were categorized into three breeding periods (2008-2010, 2011-2013, and 2014-2016) with each period of development comprising 18 hybrids. Pedigree information, period, and year of development of the hybrids are presented in Supplementary Table S1."}]},{"head":"Trial Establishment and Agronomic Management","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":390,"text":"The set of 54 hybrids used in this study was evaluated in 2017, 2018, and 2019 under artificial Striga infestation in West Africa. In Nigeria, the hybrids were evaluated at Mokwa (9 • 18 N, 5 • 4 E, 457 m above sea level, 1.1 m annual precipitation) and Abuja (9 • 16 N, 7 • 20 E, 300 m above sea level, 1.5 m annual precipitation) from June to October, 2017-2019; both experimental sites are Striga endemic locations in the Southern Guinea Savanna of Nigeria. Additionally, the 54 hybrids were tested at Nyankpala (9 • 25 N, 0 • 58 W, 183 m above sea level, and 1000 mm annual precipitation) in Ghana and at Ina (9 • 30 N and 2 • 62 E, 119 m above sea level, 1500 mm annual precipitation) in the northern part of Benin Republic in 2017. The trial was laid in a 9 × 6 lattice design with three replicates while an experimental plot was 4 m long, spaced at 0.75 m between and 0.4 m within rows. Each plot at all locations was artificially infested with Striga seeds following the IITA Maize Breeding Unit infestation method [11]. The Striga seeds utilized for infestation in the present study were collected during the previous cropping season from neighboring sorghum farmlands near each experimental site. At about two weeks before planting, the Striga experimental fields were sterilized by injecting ethylene gas (a synthetic germination stimulant) directly into the soil to initiate self-destructive germination of Striga seeds in the soil. The suicidal germination strategy helped to reduce the existing Striga seed in the soil. Infestation was done by infusing an 8500 mg mixture of finely sieved sand and S. hermonthica seed inoculum (containing an estimated number of 5000 viable Striga seeds) in the same hill as the maize seeds. Fertilizer application on the maize plots was deferred until about 21 to 24 days after planting (DAP) when 30 kg ha −1 each of N, P, and K was applied. The decreased fertilizer dose and delay were to stress the maize plants to stimulate production of strigolactones, a hormone which facilitates the germination of seeds of the parasitic weed and the attachment of the emerging parasitic plants to the roots of maize plants in Striga infested plots [11]. Other weeds apart from Striga were controlled manually."},{"index":2,"size":104,"text":"Furthermore, the trials were conducted under Striga-free conditions during the 2017, 2018, and 2019 growing seasons in Nigeria (Abuja in 2017 and 2018, Mokwa in 2019) and at Ina, Benin, in 2017. All trials under non-infested conditions received 60 kg ha −1 each of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium during planting, followed by topdressing with an additional 60 kg ha −1 of nitrogen at 4 WAP, with the exception of Striga-free plots which received 30 kg ha −1 each of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium as NPK 15-15-15 at 25 DAP. Herbicides supplemented with manual weeding were employed for the weed control in the non-infested plots."}]},{"head":"Trait Measurements","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":172,"text":"Data were recorded for grain yield in both Striga-infested and Striga-free trials. Yield (kg ha −1 ) was measured in both trials based on 80% (800 g grain per kilogram ear weight) shelling percentage and adjusted to 150 g grain kg −1 moisture content. Striga-infested trials were assessed for Striga damage and number of emerged Striga plants [25] at 8 and 10 WAP. Striga damage in each plot was rated on a scale of 1 to 9 (1 = no damage, indicating high resistance; 9 = severe damage or death of the maize plant, i.e., high susceptibility). Data on plant aspect were recorded only on the Striga-free plots on a scale of 1 to 9, where 1 = excellent plant type and 9 = poor plant type. Data on other measured traits, which included days to 50% anthesis, days to 50% silking, anthesis-silking interval, ear aspect, ears per plant, and plant and ear heights, as well as root and stalk lodging, were recorded as described in detail by Badu-Apraku et al. [17]."}]},{"head":"Analysis of Data","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"The data were analyzed for variances across the seven Striga-infested and three Striga-free research environments on plot means of each trait with PROC GLM in SAS 9.3 utilizing a RANDOM statement with the TEST option [26]. In the analyses, the test environments (location × year combinations), the breeding periods, replications, blocks, and hybrid × environment interactions for each experiment were considered as random factors and hybrids as fixed effects."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"Repeatability (H) estimates of all measured traits were computed for each research environment as:"},{"index":3,"size":39,"text":"where σ 2 g represents hybrid variance, σ 2 g×e the variance due hybrid × environment interaction, σ 2 e the error variance, e the number of test environments, and r the number of replications in a test environment."},{"index":4,"size":113,"text":"The gain in yield of the 54 maize hybrids over the eight-year period of development was estimated by linear regression. The genetic gain representing the regression coefficient (b-value) was obtained by regressing hybrid means (dependent variable, y) of yield and other agronomic characters on the year of development (independent variable, x) under both infested and non-infested environments using SAS. Relative genetic gain per year was obtained by dividing the genetic gain (b value) by the intercept and multiplying by 100 [21]. Additionally, the relationship between grain yield under Striga infestation and optimal environments was determined for each breeding period. Employing the Microsoft Excel software for the regression analysis, the regression line was obtained."},{"index":5,"size":122,"text":"The package \"PerformanceAnalytics\" in the R software [27] was used to compute the correlation coefficients between grain yield and other characters of the maize hybrids under Striga infestation and Striga-free test environments. The early maturing maize hybrids were characterized as either resistant or susceptible to Striga using a selection index that involved grain yield, ears per plant, Striga damage, and number of emerged Striga plants [14]. The means of the hybrids adjusted for block effects were standardized (using 1 and 0 as standard deviation and mean, respectively) to reduce the effects of varying scales. Hence, hybrids with Striga base index (BI) values greater than 0 were considered resistant to Striga whereas those with BI values less than 0 were rated as susceptible."},{"index":6,"size":46,"text":"In order to identify outstanding hybrids in terms of high grain and stability under Striga infestation and Striga-free environments, yield across replications were analyzed using the genotype main effect plus genotype × environment interaction (GGE) biplot statistical tool to partition significant hybrid × environment interaction [21,28]."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":120,"text":"The annual yield gain of 4.82% of the hybrids studied under Striga-infestation revealed that considerable progress had been achieved in developing superior multiple stress tolerant early maturing maize hybrids for SSA. Improved ear aspect, reduced anthesis-silking interval, reduced Striga damage syndrome rating combined with fewer emerged Striga plants, and increased ears per plant were associated with the yield gain of the early hybrids. Ear aspect and ears per plant were identified as invaluable selection indices for achieving rapid gain in yield under Striga infestation and optimal research environments. The superior early maturing hybrids selected in this study should be extensively evaluated in on-farm trials and commercialized to combat food insecurity as well as contribute to alleviation of poverty in SSA."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Regression of grain yield of early maturing maize hybrids of three breeding periods in non-infested environments on grain yield in Striga-infested environments. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Correlation coefficients of grain yield and other agronomic traits of early maize hybrids of three breeding periods evaluated under Striga-infested environments in West Africa between 2017 and 2019. YIELD = grain yield, ASI = anthesis-silking interval, PLHT = plant height, EHT = ear height, EASP = ear aspect, EPP = ears per plant, HC = husk cover, SDR1 and SDR2 = Striga damage at 8 and 10 WAP, ESP1 and ESP2 = emerged Striga plants at 8 and 10 WAP, *, **, *** significant at 0.05, 0.01 and 0.0001 probability levels, respectively. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Correlation coefficients of grain yield and other agronomic traits of early maize hybrids of three breeding periods evaluated under Striga-infested environments in West Africa between 2017 and 2019. YIELD = grain yield, ASI = anthesis-silking interval, PLHT = plant height, EHT = ear height, EASP = ear aspect, EPP = ears per plant, HC = husk cover, SDR1 and SDR2 = Striga damage at 8 and 10 WAP, ESP1 and ESP2 = emerged Striga plants at 8 and 10 WAP, *, **, *** significant at 0.05, 0.01 and 0.0001 probability levels, respectively. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Correlation coefficients of grain yield and other agronomic traits of early maize hybrids of three breeding periods evaluated under Striga-free environments in West Africa between 2017 and 2019. YIELD = grain yield, ASI = anthesis-silking interval, PLHT = plant height, EHT = ear height, EASP = ear aspect, EPP = ears per plant, HC = husk cover, *, **, *** significant at 0.05, 0.01 and 0.0001 probability levels, respectively. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Correlation coefficients of grain yield and other agronomic traits of early maize hybrids of three breeding periods evaluated under Striga-free environments in West Africa between 2017 and 2019. YIELD = grain yield, ASI = anthesis-silking interval, PLHT = plant height, EHT = ear height, EASP = ear aspect, EPP = ears per plant, HC = husk cover, *, **, *** significant at 0.05, 0.01 and 0.0001 probability levels, respectively. "},{"text":" Additionally, hybrids 21 (TZdEI 173 × TZdEI 280) and 24 (TZdEI 173 × TZdEI 492) were productive but unstable across the Striga-infested environments, while hybrids 39 (TZEI 352 × TZdEI 352) and 40 (TZEI 355 × TZdEI 425), in addition to being low yielding, were among the least stable hybrids. Across Striga-free environments, hybrids 25 (TZdEI 268 × TZdEI 131), 41 (TZEI 326 × TZdEI 352), and 46 (TZEI 495 × ENT 13) displayed superior grain yield and had short projections onto the ATC y-axis (stable) across non-stress environments. Contrarily, hybrids 39 (TZEI 352 × TZdEI 352) and 13 (TZEI 31 × TZEI 63), which produced yield far below the average grain yield and had long projections onto the ATC y-axis, were the lowest yielding and most unstable. Hybrids 15 (TZEI 14 × TZEI 25), 32 (TZdEI 17 × TZEI 17), 30 (TZdEI 479 × TZdEI 124), 22 (TZdEI 124 × TZdEI 268), and 21 (TZdEI 173 × TZdEI 280) were the least stable under optimal conditions. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. The \"mean vs. stability\" view of the genotype main effect plus genotype × environment interaction (GGE) biplot based on a genotype × environment yield data of 54 early maturing maize hybrids evaluated under Striga-infestation at 7 environments in West Africa between 2017 and 2019. PRC 1 and PRC 2 explained 72.8% variation in grain yield. "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. The \"mean vs. stability\" view of the genotype main effect plus genotype x environment interaction (GGE) biplot based on a genotype x environment yield data of 54 early maturing maize hybrids evaluated at 4 Striga-free environments in West Africa between 2017 and 2019. PRC 1 and PRC 2 explained 74.6% variation in grain yield. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Mean squares for grain yield and other measured traits for early maize hybrids of three breeding periods, evaluated under Striga-infested in seven environments and non-infested conditions in four environments from 2017 to 2019. Source of Variation df Grain Yield Days to Anthesis Days to Silk Anthesis-Silking Interval Plant Height Ear Height Root Lodging Stalk Lodging Husk Cover Ear Rot Ears/Plant Ear Aspect Plant Aspect Striga Damage (8 WAP) Striga Damage (10 WAP) Emerged Striga Plants (8 WAP) Emerged Striga Plants (10 WAP) Source of VariationdfGrain YieldDays to AnthesisDays to SilkAnthesis-Silking IntervalPlant HeightEar HeightRoot LodgingStalk LodgingHusk CoverEar RotEars/PlantEar AspectPlant AspectStriga Damage (8 WAP)Striga Damage (10 WAP)Emerged Striga Plants (8 WAP)Emerged Striga Plants (10 WAP) Striga-infested Environments Striga-infested Environments Environment (E) 6 187,179,984 ** 971.12 ** 1010.09 ** 81.24 ** 119,621.59 ** 51,861.01 ** 3393.36 ** 13,735.25 ** 211.27 ** 3916.82 ** 1.14 ** 123.81 ** - 148.82 ** 113.93 ** 55,858.52 ** 59,034.27 ** Environment (E)6187,179,984 **971.12 **1010.09 **81.24 **119,621.59 **51,861.01 ** 3393.36 **13,735.25 **211.27 **3916.82 **1.14 **123.81 **-148.82 **113.93 **55,858.52 **59,034.27 ** Block (E × replicate) 105 2996,086 ** 4.26 ** 7.89 ** 1.96 ** 486.59 ** 250.53 ** 114.30 ** 122.48 ** 1.03 ** 19.10 ** 0.04 ** 2.99 ** - 1.61 ** 1.66 ** 468.98 ** 696.12 ** Block (E × replicate)1052996,086 **4.26 **7.89 **1.96 **486.59 **250.53 **114.30 **122.48 **1.03 **19.10 **0.04 **2.99 **-1.61 **1.66 **468.98 **696.12 ** Replicate 14 4,479,624 ** 11.57 ** 15.90 ** 2.91 ** 870.12 ** 353.07 ** 347.63 ** 120.57 1.80 ** 74.25 ** 0.13 ** 1.62 * - 4.71 ** 6.80 ** 2395.68 ** 2999.63 ** Replicate144,479,624 **11.57 **15.90 **2.91 **870.12 **353.07 **347.63 **120.571.80 **74.25 **0.13 **1.62 *-4.71 **6.80 **2395.68 **2999.63 ** Period 2 39,614,625 ** 36.55 ** 172.88 ** 46.73 ** 10,900.78 ** 1263.82 ** 40.50 ** 1239.94 ** 10.83 ** 0.10 0.78 ** 35.95 ** - 38.29 ** 39.47 ** 1955.59 ** 2139.52 ** Period239,614,625 **36.55 **172.88 **46.73 **10,900.78 **1263.82 **40.50 **1239.94 **10.83 **0.100.78 **35.95 **-38.29 **39.47 **1955.59 **2139.52 ** Hybrid (period) 51 7,169,598 ** 33.15 ** 37.97 ** 3.44 ** 1833.61 ** 583.06 ** 116.50 ** 337.46 ** 6.97 ** 69.23 ** 0.17 ** 4.84 ** - 6.60 ** 8.27 ** 2033.06 ** 1770.50 ** Hybrid (period)517,169,598 **33.15 **37.97 **3.44 **1833.61 **583.06 **116.50 **337.46 **6.97 **69.23 **0.17 **4.84 **-6.60 **8.27 **2033.06 **1770.50 ** E × hybrid (period) 306 1,392,259 ** 4.69 ** 6.68 ** 1.56 ** 425.87 ** 173.60 ** 67.55 ** 125.96 ** 1.14 ** 32.72 ** 0.04 ** 1.67 ** - 1.50 ** 1.55 ** 601.41 ** 714.33 ** E × hybrid (period)3061,392,259 **4.69 **6.68 **1.56 **425.87 **173.60 **67.55 **125.96 **1.14 **32.72 **0.04 **1.67 **-1.50 **1.55 **601.41 **714.33 ** E × period 12 3,344,381 ** 17.27 ** 22.70 ** 4.55 ** 1017.00 ** 576.26 ** 56.63 ** 235.93 ** 5.98 ** 135.72 ** 0.12 ** 6.39 ** - 4.89 ** 5.74 ** 1302.86 ** 1627.54 ** E × period123,344,381 **17.27 **22.70 **4.55 **1017.00 **576.26 **56.63 **235.93 **5.98 **135.72 **0.12 **6.39 **-4.89 **5.74 **1302.86 **1627.54 ** Error 637 612,970 2.01 3.23 1.13 216.60 112.35 37.68 83.41 0.43 7.49 0.02 0.77 - 0.58 0.57 299.07 426.30 Error637612,9702.013.231.13216.60112.3537.6883.410.437.490.020.77-0.580.57299.07426.30 Repeatability 0.83 0.85 0.84 0.70 0.80 0.70 0.45 0.63 0.82 0.47 0.60 0.70 - 0.79 0.82 0.70 0.60 Repeatability0.830.850.840.700.800.700.450.630.820.470.600.70-0.790.820.700.60 Non-infested Environments Non-infested Environments Environment (E) 3 433,095,265 ** 1741.90 ** 1802.59 ** 55.12 ** 125,385.49 ** 32,753.19 ** 7169.99 ** 695.24 ** 255.28 ** 1042.30 ** 0.27 ** 50.38 ** 14.88 ** - - - - Environment (E)3433,095,265 **1741.90 **1802.59 **55.12 **125,385.49 **32,753.19 ** 7169.99 **695.24 **255.28 **1042.30 **0.27 **50.38 **14.88 **---- Block (E × replicate) 60 2,267,835 ** 4.16 ** 4.42 ** 0.33 530.60 ** 190.60 ** 97.16 ** 7.74 0.31 7.17 ** 0.02 ** 0.76 ** 0.90 ** - - - - Block (E × replicate)602,267,835 **4.16 **4.42 **0.33530.60 **190.60 **97.16 **7.740.317.17 **0.02 **0.76 **0.90 **---- Replicate 8 9,778,028 ** 4.74 * 7.04 ** 0.71 1076.04 ** 873.76 ** 20.53 13.69 1.34 ** 70.12 ** 0.02 6.63 ** 2.27 ** - - - - Replicate89,778,028 **4.74 *7.04 **0.711076.04 **873.76 **20.5313.691.34 **70.12 **0.026.63 **2.27 **---- Period 2 8,761,734 ** 1.53 9.72 ** 5.71 ** 3346.92 ** 712.33 ** 165.06 ** 70.12 ** 0.13 16.74 * 0.03 21.95 ** 15.20 ** - - - - Period28,761,734 **1.539.72 **5.71 **3346.92 **712.33 **165.06 **70.12 **0.1316.74 *0.0321.95 **15.20 **---- Hybrid (period) 51 3,897,210 ** 13.12 ** 15.17 ** 0.98 ** 1102.54 ** 381.12 ** 96.02 ** 16.54 ** 1.41 ** 13.19 ** 0.02 ** 2.77 ** 2.00 ** - - - - Hybrid (period)513,897,210 **13.12 **15.17 **0.98 **1102.54 **381.12 **96.02 **16.54 **1.41 **13.19 **0.02 **2.77 **2.00 **---- E × hybrid (period) 153 2,108,184 ** 3.95 ** 4.74 ** 0.69 ** 474.11 ** 181.24 ** 62.05 ** 12.07 ** 0.70 ** 8.29 ** 0.01 1.25 ** 0.70 ** - - - - E × hybrid (period)1532,108,184 **3.95 **4.74 **0.69 **474.11 **181.24 **62.05 **12.07 **0.70 **8.29 **0.011.25 **0.70 **---- E × period 6 4,555,138 ** 2.79 3.08 0.52 1106.49 ** 657.64 ** 134.75 ** 31.37 ** 1.60 ** 10.22 * 0.04 ** 2.68 ** 1.10 * - - - - E × period64,555,138 **2.793.080.521106.49 **657.64 **134.75 **31.37 **1.60 **10.22 *0.04 **2.68 **1.10 *---- Error 364 613,212 1.86 1.98 0.44 237.01 107.79 32.80 9.39 0.34 4.14 0.01 0.41 0.41 - - - - Error364613,2121.861.980.44237.01107.7932.809.390.344.140.010.410.41---- Repeatability 0.46 0.71 0.70 0.39 0.59 0.50 0.35 0.30 0.46 0.40 0.33 0.63 0.71 - - - - Repeatability0.460.710.700.390.590.500.350.300.460.400.330.630.71---- *, ** significant at 0.05 and 0.01 probability levels, respectively; WAP-weeks after planting. *, ** significant at 0.05 and 0.01 probability levels, respectively; WAP-weeks after planting. "},{"text":"Table 2 . Means ± standard error for grain and other agronomic traits for early maturing maize hybrids of three breeding periods evaluated under Striga-infested conditions in seven environments and non-infested conditions in four environments from 2017 to 2019. "},{"text":"Trait Period Number of Hybrids Striga-Infested Conditions Optimal Conditions Grain yield (kg ha −1 ) 2008-2010 18 2247.53 ± 76.98 5016.46 ± 131.43 Grain yield (kg ha −1 )2008-2010182247.53 ± 76.985016.46 ± 131.43 2011-2013 18 2632.09 ± 77.23 5162.61 ± 129.61 2011-2013182632.09 ± 77.235162.61 ± 129.61 2014-2016 18 2917.13 ± 91.99 5441.79 ± 129.32 2014-2016182917.13 ± 91.995441.79 ± 129.32 Days to anthesis 2008-2010 18 55.44 ± 0.17 55.58 ± 0.24 Days to anthesis2008-20101855.44 ± 0.1755.58 ± 0.24 2011-2013 18 55.24 ± 0.16 55.58 ± 0.22 2011-20131855.24 ± 0.1655.58 ± 0.22 2014-2016 18 54.79 ± 0.16 55.51 ± 0.25 2014-20161854.79 ± 0.1655.51 ± 0.25 Days to silking 2008-2010 18 57.84 ± 0.18 57.17 ± 0.24 Days to silking2008-20101857.84 ± 0.1857.17 ± 0.24 2011-2013 18 57.38 ± 0.18 57.06 ± 0.22 2011-20131857.38 ± 0.1857.06 ± 0.22 2014-2016 18 56.42 ± 0.18 56.72 ± 0.26 2014-20161856.42 ± 0.1856.72 ± 0.26 Anthesis-silking interval 2008-2010 18 2.44 ± 0.08 1.60 ± 0.06 Anthesis-silking interval2008-2010182.44 ± 0.081.60 ± 0.06 2011-2013 18 2.15 ± 0.07 1.48 ± 0.06 2011-2013182.15 ± 0.071.48 ± 0.06 2014-2016 18 1.68 ± 0.06 1.26 ± 0.06 2014-2016181.68 ± 0.061.26 ± 0.06 Plant height (cm) 2008-2010 18 129.29 ± 1.69 155.13 ± 2.26 Plant height (cm)2008-201018129.29 ± 1.69155.13 ± 2.26 2011-2013 18 138.41 ± 1.71 160.50 ± 2.13 2011-201318138.41 ± 1.71160.50 ± 2.13 2014-2016 18 140.74 ± 1.61 162.99 ± 2.06 2014-201618140.74 ± 1.61162.99 ± 2.06 Ear height (cm) 2008-2010 18 59.38 ± 1.08 73.80 ± 1.35 Ear height (cm)2008-20101859.38 ± 1.0873.80 ± 1.35 2011-2013 18 63.71 ± 1.17 76.75 ± 1.20 2011-20131863.71 ± 1.1776.75 ± 1.20 2014-2016 18 63.69 ± 1.05 76.86 ± 1.11 2014-20161863.69 ± 1.0576.86 ± 1.11 Root lodging % 2008-2010 18 2.65 ± 0.18 2.28 ± 0.23 Root lodging %2008-2010182.65 ± 0.182.28 ± 0.23 2011-2013 18 2.44 ± 0.15 2.83 ± 0.32 2011-2013182.44 ± 0.152.83 ± 0.32 2014-2016 18 2.55 ± 0.19 2.40 ± 0.28 2014-2016182.55 ± 0.192.40 ± 0.28 Stalk lodging % 2008-2010 18 4.05 ± 0.25 0.93 ± 0.06 Stalk lodging %2008-2010184.05 ± 0.250.93 ± 0.06 2011-2013 18 3.72 ± 0.24 1.29 ± 0.14 2011-2013183.72 ± 0.241.29 ± 0.14 2014-2016 18 5.27 ± 0.34 1.13 ± 0.09 2014-2016185.27 ± 0.341.13 ± 0.09 Husk cover 2008-2010 18 3.63 ± 0.08 2.98 ± 0.09 Husk cover2008-2010183.63 ± 0.082.98 ± 0.09 2011-2013 18 3.31 ± 0.07 3.00 ± 0.09 2011-2013183.31 ± 0.073.00 ± 0.09 2014-2016 18 3.57 ± 0.08 2.92 ± 0.09 2014-2016183.57 ± 0.082.92 ± 0.09 "},{"text":"Table 2 . Cont. Trait Period Number of Hybrids Striga-Infested Conditions Optimal Conditions TraitPeriodNumber of HybridsStriga-Infested ConditionsOptimal Conditions Plant aspect 2008-2010 18 - 4.79 ± 0.06 Plant aspect2008-201018-4.79 ± 0.06 2011-2013 18 - 4.48 ± 0.06 2011-201318-4.48 ± 0.06 2014-2016 18 - 4.16 ± 0.06 2014-201618-4.16 ± 0.06 Ear aspect 2008-2010 18 5.01 ± 0.08 4.74 ± 0.07 Ear aspect2008-2010185.01 ± 0.084.74 ± 0.07 2011-2013 18 4.49 ± 0.07 4.33 ± 0.08 2011-2013184.49 ± 0.074.33 ± 0.08 2014-2016 18 4.44 ± 0.07 4.03 ± 0.08 2014-2016184.44 ± 0.074.03 ± 0.08 Ear rot 2008-2010 18 5.75 ± 0.34 4.39 ± 0.24 Ear rot2008-2010185.75 ± 0.344.39 ± 0.24 2011-2013 18 5.58 ± 0.33 4.12 ± 0.24 2011-2013185.58 ± 0.334.12 ± 0.24 2014-2016 18 5.61 ± 0.32 4.01 ± 0.23 2014-2016185.61 ± 0.324.01 ± 0.23 Ears per plant 2008-2010 18 0.73 ± 0.01 0.90 ± 0.01 Ears per plant2008-2010180.73 ± 0.010.90 ± 0.01 2011-2013 18 0.81 ± 0.01 0.92 ± 0.01 2011-2013180.81 ± 0.010.92 ± 0.01 2014-2016 18 0.83 ± 0.01 0.93 ± 0.01 2014-2016180.83 ± 0.010.93 ± 0.01 Striga damage (8 WAP) 2008-2010 18 4.75 ± 0.07 - Striga damage (8 WAP)2008-2010184.75 ± 0.07- 2011-2013 18 4.23 ± 0.07 - 2011-2013184.23 ± 0.07- 2014-2016 18 4.14 ± 0.07 - 2014-2016184.14 ± 0.07- Striga damage (10 WAP) 2008-2010 18 5.33 ± 0.07 - Striga damage (10 WAP)2008-2010185.33 ± 0.07- 2011-2013 18 4.79 ± 0.08 - 2011-2013184.79 ± 0.08- 2014-2016 18 4.67 ± 0.08 - 2014-2016184.67 ± 0.08- Emerged Striga plants (8 WAP) 2008-2010 18 3.43 ± 0.05 - Emerged Striga plants (8 WAP)2008-2010183.43 ± 0.05- 2011-2013 18 3.23 ± 0.05 - 2011-2013183.23 ± 0.05- 2014-2016 18 3.38 ± 0.04 - 2014-2016183.38 ± 0.04- Emerged Striga count (10 WAP) 2008-2010 18 3.69 ± 0.04 - Emerged Striga count (10 WAP)2008-2010183.69 ± 0.04- 2011-2013 18 3.55 ± 0.05 - 2011-2013183.55 ± 0.05- 2014-2016 18 3.60 ± 0.04 - 2014-2016183.60 ± 0.04- "},{"text":"Table 3 . Relative Trait Relative Gain (% per year) R 2 A B TraitRelative Gain (% per year)R 2AB Striga-infested Environments Striga-infested Environments Grain yield (kg ha −1 ) 4.82 0.143 2088.00 100.69 ** Grain yield (kg ha −1 )4.820.1432088.00100.69 ** Days to anthesis −0.10 0.012 55.45 −0.06 Days to anthesis−0.100.01255.45−0.06 Days to silk −0.33 0.104 58.20 −0.19 Days to silk−0.330.10458.20−0.19 Anthesis silking interval −4.82 0.421 2.77 −0.13 ** Anthesis silking interval−4.820.4212.77−0.13 ** Plant height (cm) 1.47 0.184 126.68 1.87 ** Plant height (cm)1.470.184126.681.87 ** Ear height (cm) 0.96 0.061 59.37 0.57 ** Ear height (cm)0.960.06159.370.57 ** Root lodging −0.79 0.004 7.96 −0.06 Root lodging−0.790.0047.96−0.06 Stalk lodging 1.80 0.013 11.16 0.20 Stalk lodging1.800.01311.160.20 Husk cover −0.42 0.004 3.58 −0.01 ** Husk cover−0.420.0043.58−0.01 ** Ear aspect −1.89 0.182 5.15 −0.10 ** Ear aspect−1.890.1825.15−0.10 ** Ear rot 0.19 0.001 5.59 0.01 Ear rot0.190.0015.590.01 Striga damage (8 WAP) −2.14 0.169 4.91 −0.11 ** Striga damage (8 WAP)−2.140.1694.91−0.11 ** Striga damage (10 WAP) −1.95 0.143 5.48 −0.11 ** Striga damage (10 WAP)−1.950.1435.48−0.11 ** Emerged Striga plants (8 WAP) −0.86 0.007 41.23 −0.36 ** Emerged Striga plants (8 WAP)−0.860.00741.23−0.36 ** Emerged Striga plants (10 WAP) −0.94 0.014 49.58 −0.47 * Emerged Striga plants (10 WAP)−0.940.01449.58−0.47 * Ears/plant 1.90 0.120 0.72 0.01 ** Ears/plant1.900.1200.720.01 ** "},{"text":"Table 3 . Cont. Trait Relative Gain (% per year) R 2 A B TraitRelative Gain (% per year)R 2AB Non-infested Environments Non-infested Environments Grain yield (kg ha −1 ) 1.24 0.062 4897.7 60.954 Grain yield (kg ha −1 )1.240.0624897.760.954 Days to anthesis 0.07 0.008 55.368 0.038 Days to anthesis0.070.00855.3680.038 Days to silk −0.05 0.004 57.129 −0.028 Days to silk−0.050.00457.129−0.028 Anthesis silking interval −3.33 0.204 1.7455 −0.058 Anthesis silking interval−3.330.2041.7455−0.058 Plant height (cm) 0.93 0.115 152.36 1.416 Plant height (cm)0.930.115152.361.416 Ear height (cm) Agronomy 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 0.90 0.074 72.494 0.653 7 of 20 Ear height (cm) Agronomy 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW0.900.07472.4940.653 7 of 20 Root lodging 1.10 0.004 6.6741 0.073 Root lodging1.100.0046.67410.073 Stalk lodging Husk cover 3.59 −0.24 0.039 0.003 2.9326 3.0023 0.105 ** −0.007 Stalk lodging Husk cover3.59 −0.240.0390.0032.9326 3.00230.105 ** −0.007 Husk cover Plant aspect −0.24 −1.84 0.003 0.219 3.0023 4.9075 −0.007 −0.090** Husk cover Plant aspect−0.24 −1.840.0030.2193.0023 4.9075−0.007 −0.090** Plant aspect Ear aspect Ear aspect Ear rot Ear rot Ears/plant Ears/plant −1.84 −2.12 −2.12 −2.11 −2.11 0.38 0.38 0.219 0.219 0.047 0.040 0.219 0.047 0.040 4.9075 4.8964 4.8964 4.6782 4.6782 0.90 0.90 −0.090 ** −0.104 −0.104 −0.099 −0.099 0.003 0.003 Plant aspect Ear aspect Ear aspect Ear rot Ear rot Ears/plant Ears/plant−1.84 −2.12 −2.12 −2.11 −2.11 0.38 0.380.219 0.219 0.047 0.0400.219 0.047 0.0404.9075 4.8964 4.8964 4.6782 4.6782 0.90 0.90−0.090 ** −0.104 −0.104 −0.099 −0.099 0.003 0.003 "},{"text":"Table 4 . Grain yield and other agronomic traits of hybrids (the best 20 and the worst 5, based on the Striga base index) evaluated under Striga-infested and Striga-free environments in West Africa between 2017 and 2019. Hybrid YIELD SI SF Yield Reduction DYSK SI SF SI ASI SF PLHT SI SF SI EHT SF SDR1 SDR2 ESP1 ESP2 SI EASP SI SF SI EPP SF BI HybridYIELD SI SFYield ReductionDYSK SI SFSIASISFPLHT SI SFSIEHT SFSDR1 SDR2 ESP1 ESP2 SIEASP SI SFSIEPPSFBI kg ha −1 % cm cm kg ha −1%cmcm TZdEI 352 × TZEI 383 3582 5616 36.2 59 58 1.7 1.2 148 175 70 89 3.1 3.6 15.8 24.1 3.7 3.9 0.97 0.91 10.9 TZdEI 352 × TZEI 3833582 561636.259581.71.214817570893.13.615.824.13.73.90.970.9110.9 TZdEI 352 × TZEI 355 4186 6138 31.8 57 57 1.2 1.2 146 166 67 80 3.1 3.6 36.9 51.1 3.0 3.4 0.95 0.99 10.2 TZdEI 352 × TZEI 3554186 613831.857571.21.214616667803.13.636.951.13.03.40.950.9910.2 TZdEI 173 × TZdEI 352 3603 5343 32.6 58 58 1.9 1.3 153 163 68 76 3.4 3.8 22.6 33.0 3.6 4.2 0.94 0.92 9.2 TZdEI 173 × TZdEI 352 3603 534332.658581.91.315316368763.43.822.633.03.64.20.940.929.2 TZdEI 157 × TZdEI 352 3490 5591 37.6 59 59 1.5 1.4 152 167 73 77 3.3 3.8 21.5 31.9 3.8 4.1 0.92 0.94 9.0 TZdEI 157 × TZdEI 352 3490 559137.659591.51.415216773773.33.821.531.93.84.10.920.949.0 TZEI 16 × TZEI 8 3816 5052 24.5 55 56 2.0 1.7 131 146 62 72 3.9 4.5 34.1 35.4 4.0 4.2 0.97 1.00 7.7 TZEI 16 × TZEI 83816 505224.555562.01.713114662723.94.534.135.44.04.20.971.007.7 TZdEI 352 × TZdEI 441 2785 4361 36.1 61 61 2.3 2.3 151 168 69 78 3.3 3.5 21.8 31.8 4.2 4.4 0.93 0.88 7.4 TZdEI 352 × TZdEI 441 2785 436136.161612.32.315116869783.33.521.831.84.24.40.930.887.4 TZEI 326 × TZdEI 352 3412 5832 41.5 58 58 1.9 1.2 153 176 71 78 3.4 4.1 29.6 41.8 3.6 3.9 0.88 0.95 6.8 TZEI 326 × TZdEI 3523412 583241.558581.91.215317671783.44.129.641.83.63.90.880.956.8 TZdEI 378 × TZdEI 173 3658 6015 39.2 56 56 1.6 1.1 141 153 61 72 3.9 4.5 40.2 45.3 3.8 4.1 0.94 0.92 6.1 TZdEI 378 × TZdEI 173 3658 601539.256561.61.114115361723.94.540.245.33.84.10.940.926.1 TZdEI 268 × TZdEI 131 3432 5794 40.8 57 57 1.6 1.3 148 173 67 73 3.7 4.1 41.6 46.0 3.8 4.3 0.86 0.95 5.4 TZdEI 268 × TZdEI 131 3432 579440.857571.61.314817367733.74.141.646.03.84.30.860.955.4 TZdEI 21 × TZEI 23 3081 5150 40.2 56 56 1.5 1.1 126 155 56 77 3.7 4.4 40.9 52.4 4.3 4.8 0.89 0.92 3.9 TZdEI 21 × TZEI 233081 515040.256561.51.112615556773.74.440.952.44.34.80.890.923.9 TZEI 474 × TZEI 10 2940 5359 45.1 56 56 2.2 1.8 131 149 59 71 4.3 4.6 25.8 34.2 4.4 4.3 0.83 0.96 3.3 TZEI 474 × TZEI 102940 535945.156562.21.813114959714.34.625.834.24.44.30.830.963.3 TZEI 14 × TZEI 25 2926 5416 46.0 58 58 2.2 1.3 136 158 61 73 4.0 4.5 27.7 36.1 4.5 4.7 0.77 0.86 3.2 TZEI 14 × TZEI 252926 541646.058582.21.313615861734.04.527.736.14.54.70.770.863.2 TZdEI 479 × TZdEI 124 3198 5456 41.4 55 54 1.6 0.7 153 185 67 89 4.2 4.6 41.7 40.5 4.6 3.9 0.82 0.85 3.1 TZdEI 479 × TZdEI 124 3198 545641.455541.60.715318567894.24.641.740.54.63.90.820.853.1 TZEI 470 × ENT 13 2896 5140 43.7 57 57 2.2 2.1 137 157 63 70 3.7 4.5 41.8 49.5 4.5 4.9 0.85 0.95 2.8 TZEI 470 × ENT 132896 514043.757572.22.113715763703.74.541.849.54.54.90.850.952.8 TZEI 486 × TZEI 23 2536 4264 40.5 56 56 2.4 1.6 124 132 58 64 4.0 4.7 29.7 37.6 5.1 5.1 0.89 0.89 2.7 TZEI 486 × TZEI 232536 426440.556562.41.612413258644.04.729.737.65.15.10.890.892.7 TZdEI 173 × TZdEI 492 3131 6134 49.0 57 57 2.0 1.3 135 156 62 73 4.3 4.6 36.9 44.4 4.2 4.0 0.78 0.92 2.3 TZdEI 173 × TZdEI 492 3131 613449.057572.01.313515662734.34.636.944.44.24.00.780.922.3 TZEI 24 × TZEI 17 2581 5343 51.7 57 57 2.3 1.5 111 141 50 63 4.2 4.6 25.0 34.5 4.5 4.3 0.81 0.91 2.3 TZEI 24 × TZEI 172581 534351.757572.31.511114150634.24.625.034.54.54.30.810.912.3 TZdEI 17 × TZEI 17 2877 5841 50.7 58 57 1.6 1.0 125 158 54 78 3.9 4.2 46.1 53.8 4.4 4.5 0.82 0.93 2.2 TZdEI 17 × TZEI 172877 584150.758571.61.012515854783.94.246.153.84.44.50.820.932.2 TZE-Y Pop DT C5 STR C5 × TZEI 10 2577 4838 46.7 58 58 2.5 1.4 139 169 63 78 4.2 4.6 30.8 38.5 4.6 4.1 0.85 0.87 2.1 TZE-Y Pop DT C5 STR C5 × TZEI 102577 483846.758582.51.413916963784.24.630.838.54.64.10.850.872.1 ENT 12 × TZEI 48 3018 6083 50.4 58 58 1.7 1.6 132 161 57 68 3.9 4.5 50.6 60.7 4.1 4.1 0.85 0.96 2.0 ENT 12 × TZEI 483018 608350.458581.71.613216157683.94.550.660.74.14.10.850.962.0 TZEI 31 × TZEI 18 1375 4160 67.0 59 57 2.1 1.4 122 152 55 74 5.1 5.8 48.6 59.8 5.4 5.4 0.73 0.87 −7.8 TZEI 31 × TZEI 181375 416067.059572.11.412215255745.15.848.659.85.45.40.730.87 −7.8 TZEI 5 × TZEI 98 1456 4847 70.0 60 58 2.7 1.5 128 152 58 70 5.5 6.3 32.8 40.6 5.5 5.0 0.62 0.95 -8.2 TZEI 5 × TZEI 981456 484770.060582.71.512815258705.56.332.840.65.55.00.620.95-8.2 TZEI 31 × TZEI 63 1404 3909 64.1 59 58 2.1 1.4 133 151 57 70 5.4 6.2 51.0 64.9 5.4 4.6 0.68 0.86 -9.5 TZEI 31 × TZEI 631404 390964.159582.11.413315157705.46.251.064.95.44.60.680.86-9.5 (TZEI 63 × TZEI 59) × TZEI 87 1538 4273 64.0 57 57 3.0 2.2 119 155 57 79 5.7 6.5 48.4 57.1 5.6 5.0 0.67 0.83 -9.6 (TZEI 63 × TZEI 59) × TZEI 871538 427364.057573.02.211915557795.76.548.457.15.65.00.670.83-9.6 (TZEI 63 × TZEI (TZEI 63 × TZEI 87) × (TZEI 59 × TZEI 1426 4042 64.7 58 57 3.3 1.9 124 157 56 74 5.5 6.4 62.7 61.8 5.6 5.0 0.59 0.90 -11.1 87) × (TZEI 59 × TZEI1426 404264.758573.31.912415756745.56.462.761.85.65.00.590.90 -11.1 108) 108) Mean 2599 5207 50.1 57l 57 2.1 1.5 136 160 62 76 4.3 4.9 39.4 47.2 4.6 4.4 0.79 0.92 Mean2599 520750.157l572.11.513616062764.34.939.447.24.64.40.790.92 SED 385 625 1 1 0.4 0.4 7 9 4 6 0.4 0.4 8.1 8.7 0.4 0.5 0.07 0.05 SED385625110.40.479460.40.48.18.70.40.50.070.05 "}],"sieverID":"b9a29ab0-c093-44f3-8502-7df704d14614","abstract":"Striga hermonthica is a major maize production constraint in West and Central Africa (WCA). Fifty-four early maturing maize hybrids of three breeding periods: 2008-2011, 2012-2013, 2014-2015, were evaluated under Striga-infested and non-infested environments in WCA. The study aimed at assessing genetic improvement in grain yield of the hybrids, identifying traits associated with yield gain during the breeding periods, and grain yield and stability of the hybrids in Striga infested and non-infested environments. Annual increase in grain yield of 101 kg ha −1 (4.82 %) and 61 kg ha −1 (1.24%) were recorded in Striga-infested and non-infested environments, respectively. The gains in grain yield from period 1 to period 3 under Striga-infested environments were associated with reduced anthesis-silking interval, reduced Striga damage, number of emerged Striga plants, improved ear aspect, and increased ears per plant. Ear aspect, ears per plant, and Striga damage at 8 and 10 weeks after planting (WAP) were significantly correlated with yield in Striga-infested environments, whereas ears per plant and plant and ear aspects had significant correlations with yield in non-infested environments. Hybrids TZdEI 352 × TZEI 355, TZdEI 378 × TZdEI 173, and TZdEI 173 × TZdEI 352 were outstanding in grain yield and stability in Striga-infested environments, whereas TZEI 326 × TZdEI 352, TZEI 495 × ENT 13, and TZdEI 268 × TZdEI 131 were superior in non-stress environments. These hybrids should be further tested extensively and commercialized. Significant genetic gains have been made in breeding for resistance to Striga hermonthica in early maturing maize hybrids."}

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+ {"metadata":{"id":"00be7e154aa76b908679d580f8f11e57","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/afc058a4-3f8f-4b7b-9726-8882cff284d2/retrieve"},"pageCount":62,"title":"Previously published Technical Guidelines for the Safe Movement of Germplasm","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Collecting, conservation and utilization of plant genetic resources and their global distribution are essential components of international crop improvement programmes."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"Inevitably, the movement of germplasm involves a risk of accidentally introducing plant pests 1 along with the host plant. In particular, pathogens that are often symptomless, such as viruses, pose a special risk. In order to manage this risk, effective testing (indexing) procedures are required to ensure that distributed material is free of pests that are of concern."},{"index":3,"size":124,"text":"The ever-increasing volume of germplasm exchanged internationally, coupled with recent advances in biotechnology, has created a pressing need for crop-specific overviews of the existing knowledge in all disciplines relating to the phytosanitary safety of germplasm transfer. This has prompted FAO and IPGRI to launch a collaborative programme for the safe and expeditious movement of germplasm, reflecting the complementarity of their mandates with regard to the safe movement of germplasm. FAO, as the depository of the International Plant Protection Convention of 1951, has a long-standing mandate to assist its member governments to strengthen their plant quarantine services, while IPGRI's mandate -inter alia -is to further the collecting, conservation and use of the genetic diversity of useful plants for the benefit of people throughout the world."},{"index":4,"size":69,"text":"The purpose of the joint FAO/IPGRI programme is to generate a series of crop-specific technical guidelines that provide relevant information on disease indexing and other procedures that will help to ensure phytosanitary safety when germplasm is moved internationally. The recommendations in these guidelines are intended for small, specialized consignments, e.g. for research, conservation and basic plant breeding programmes. Recommendations for commercial consignments are not the objective of these guidelines."},{"index":5,"size":52,"text":"These technical guidelines are produced by meetings of panels of experts on the crop concerned, who have been selected in consultation with the relevant specialized institutions and research centres. The experts contribute to the elaboration of the guidelines in their private capacities and do not represent the organizations for whom they work."},{"index":6,"size":82,"text":"The guidelines are intended to be the best possible advice for institutions involved in germplasm exchange for research, conservation and basic plant breeding. FAO, IPGRI and the contributing experts cannot be held responsible for any failures resulting from the application of the present guidelines. They reflect the consensus of the crop specialists who attended the meeting, based on the best scientific knowledge available at the time of the meeting. The experts who have contributed to this document are listed after this introduction."},{"index":7,"size":161,"text":"The guidelines are written in a short, concise style, in order to keep the volume of the document to a minimum and to facilitate updating. Suggestions for further reading are given at the end, along with the references cited in the text (mostly for geographical distribution, media and other specific information). The guidelines are divided into two parts. The first part makes general recommendations on how best to move Allium germplasm. The second part covers the important pests. The information given on a particular pest is not exhaustive but concentrates on aspects that are most relevant to the safe movement of germplasm. Only pests which may be transmitted when germplasm is moved in the recommended form (in vitro for garlic and shallot, seeds for onion) are described in these guidelines. Urocystis, Puccinia and other pathogens transmitted by vegetative material are not covered. The scientific and common names of Allium species are given in Tables 1 and 2 on the next pages."},{"index":8,"size":33,"text":"The present guidelines were developed at an FAO-sponsored meeting held in Prague, Czech Republic from 17 to 19 July, 1995. The meeting was hosted by the Research Institute of Crop Production in Prague-Ruzyne."}]},{"head":"Guideline update","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"To be useful, the guidelines need to be updated when necessary. We ask our readers to kindly bring to our attention any developments that possibly require a review of the guidelines, such as new records, new detection methods or new control methods. For your convenience, a form is provided on the last page of this publication."}]},{"head":"Series editors:","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Dr M. Diekmann, IPGRI, Rome, Italy Dr T. Putter, FAO, Rome, Italy "}]},{"head":"ACKNOWLEDGEMENT","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Dr C.M. Messiaen, Ancien Moulinage -Melas, 07400 Le Teil, France kindly provided first drafts on many of the fungal pathogens described in these guidelines, as well as comments on the manuscript."}]},{"head":"GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS 11","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Germplasm should be obtained from the safest source possible. There is, for example, a pathogen-tested Allium collection accessible at the Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center (AVRDC), PO Box 42, Shanhua -Tainan 74199, Taiwan."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"If available, true seed of germplasm should be preferred for the movement of Allium germplasm since seed poses a minimal risk of moving and introducing pests. Germplasm for which true seed is not available should be moved as pathogen-tested in vitro cultures. If this is not possible, full quarantine measures must be taken until the vegetative material or seed is cultured in vitro."},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"In vitro material should be tested for viruses known to affect Allium in the country of origin of the germplasm. Electron microscopy will allow the detection of all virus particles, including those not yet described. Indexing procedures and results should be documented, e.g. in a germplasm health statement. A sample copy is included at the end of this publication."},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":"The transfer of germplasm should be carefully planned in consultation with quarantine authorities and the relevant indexing laboratory."}]},{"head":"Technical recommendations","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"The following 'decision tree' should help those who intend to move Allium germplasm to use the safest mode of movement possible."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"Can the germplasm be moved as seed? The germplasm should be sent to an appropriate tissue culture laboratory in the country of origin. In vitro plantlets may be infected with any or all of the following viruses, which are described in these guidelines. Other viruses that have not been characterized yet may also be present."},{"index":3,"size":76,"text":"3 You are at this point in the decision hierarchy because the germplasm you want to ship cannot be sent as seed or shipped in vitro. If vegetative material is shipped, it should be submitted to quarantine. A 24-h incubation in a moist chamber and examination, e.g. for sclerotia of Botrytis squamosa, is recommended. Infected germplasm should be autoclaved. Pests that may be moved with bulbs and cloves include in addition to the viruses listed above:"}]},{"head":"Fungi","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Alternaria porri","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Botryotinia squamosa anamorph: Botrytis squamosa Botrytis allii Cladosporium allii-cepae Fusarium spp."}]},{"head":"Peronospora destructor Sclerotium cepivorum Stemphylium vesicarium","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Nematode","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Ditylenchus dipsaci","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Mites","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Aceria tulipae","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Rhizoglyphus robini, Rhizoglyphus setosus and Caloglypus spp."},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"No. 18. Allium spp. "}]},{"head":"Nematode","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Ditylenchus dipsaci X Note: no virus has been reported to be seedborne in Allium spp."}]},{"head":"A. Movement of seeds","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Seeds should preferably be collected from healthy looking plants that have been tested for seed-transmitted pests. Donor plants should be carefully inspected to confirm the absence of insects, mites and nematodes."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"Seeds should be cleaned and surface-disinfected with 0.5% sodium hypochlorite for 10 minutes at room temperature to eliminate externally seedborne pathogens."},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"Seeds should be treated with an appropriate pesticide."}]},{"head":"B. Movement of in vitro germplasm","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":237,"text":"1. Sterile cultures should be obtained from meristems of pregerminated cloves according to the following procedure: if required, break dormancy by subjecting bulbs/cloves to a 4°C cold treatment (shallot approx. 3 weeks, garlic 2 months) remove the scales surface-sterilize the cloves with 70% ethanol for 1 min, followed by three rinses with sterile distilled water, then with 1% sodium hypochlorite for 15 min, followed by three rinses with sterile distilled water remove meristem (0.3-0.6 mm) and give each meristem a code for future reference FAO/IPGRI Technical Guidelines for the Safe Movement of Germplasm place one meristem per tube on MS medium for 14 days, then transfer to MS medium with 50 mg/L virazole after 6 weeks on MS + virazole medium, excise a 0.5-cm shoot tip and transfer to MS medium with 0.5 mg/L NAA until four leaves have developed move test tubes to a 22°C insect-proof greenhouse for acclimatization for 1 week prior to transferring the plantlets to small plastic pots with autoclaved soil transfer to 15-cm clay pots when plants have reached maturity, withhold water for l-2 weeks and dry the first growth-cycle bulbs after breaking dormancy, plant the cloves for a second growth cycle perform virus-indexing by serological or other recently developed appropriate methods -on in vitro plantlets just before transferring them to soil -on mature plants at the end of the first and second growth cycles -several times during the two growth cycles."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"2. When indexing procedures reveal that the plants are free of viruses of concern, their bulbs/cloves can be planted in the field or shipped either directly or after in vitro mass propagation."},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"3. For the movement of in vitro germplasm, charcoal, fungicides or antibiotics should not be added to the medium. In vitro cultures should be shipped in transparent tubes and visually inspected for bacteria, fungi and arthropods. Contaminated germplasm should be destroyed."}]},{"head":"ACRONYMS AND DEFINlTlONS OF TERMS AS USED IN THlS PUBLICATION","index":17,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Cosmopolitan","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"This expression is used to describe the distribution of pathogens which are reported to occur in all continents and in many countries of these continents FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations"}]},{"head":"Germplasm","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"A set of different genotypes conserved or used in breeding programmes"}]},{"head":"Incidence","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Frequency of occurrence of a disease; usually the percentage of affected plants in an area"}]},{"head":"IPGRI","index":21,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"International Plant Genetic Resources Institute","index":22,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"MAB","index":23,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Monoclonal antibodies","index":24,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Scape","index":25,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Leafless flower stalk","index":26,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Seedborne","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Carried in, on or with seeds; may be applied to pathogens and non-pathogenic microorganisms"}]},{"head":"Seed-transmitted","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Refers to a pathogen's passage from seeds to seedlings or plants"}]},{"head":"Set","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Small bulb for planting"}]},{"head":"Severity","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Amount or intensity of disease in an individual plant"}]},{"head":"Significance","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Under this heading information on the economic significance of a pest is summarized."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"Where relevant, information pertinent to germplasm collecting is included."}]},{"head":"FAO/IPGRI Technical Guidelines for the Safe Movement of Germplasm","index":32,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Treatment","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"In this publication only treatments that may be applied to germplasm are mentioned. It should be noted that treatments (e.g. fungicide for fungal pathogens, heat treatment for viruses) are rarely eradicative and that any treatment needs to be followed by extensive testing to establish the success rate."}]},{"head":"SOURCES OF ANTISERA AND MONOCLONAL ANTIBODIES (MAB)","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":214,"text":"Recent studies provided strong evidence that the majority of vegetatively propagated Allium spp. are commonly infected by several distinct viruses. Former attempts to characterize viruses infecting garlic and other Allium spp. often led to confusing results and to an inappropriate naming of viruses, e.g. garlic yellow stripe virus, garlic yellow streak virus and garlic mosaic virus. Later studies showed that researchers coining these names had actually worked on mixtures of some of the now formally described viruses. This was also the reason that many antisera produced in the former studies against virus preparations from naturally infected Allium spp. contained antibodies to a range of different viruses, rendering them unsuitable for the identification of Allium viruses. However, provided that these antisera do not react with host components (and cryptic viruses) and, most importantly, have been examined for their suitability to sensitively detect some of the major viruses in vegetatively propagated Allium spp., they can be used for virusindexing in a virus elimination programme, in combination with antisera and MAB to Allium viruses not detected by the oligospecific antisera. High-titered antisera and MAB which are specific to clearly defined Allium viruses are commercially available from the sources listed in Table 4. The list is not exhaustive and listed companies are not recommended over others not listed. "}]},{"head":"DESCRIPTION OF PESTS","index":35,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Viruses","index":36,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Garlic common latent carlavirus (GCLV)","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"The filamentous particles are approximately 650 nm long and slightly flexuous. Garlic latent carlavirus sensu Delecolle and Lot (1981) is included in this description."}]},{"head":"Significance","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"On its own it is of minor importance but in combination with other viruses it may cause serious crop losses. High incidence in garlic cultivars in Europe and many other areas of the world (South America, Central America, India, China)."}]},{"head":"Symptoms","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Very weak or no symptoms in singly infected garlic and leek. Symptoms caused by potyviruses may be aggravated by the presence of GCLV (e.g. in leek) (Graichen 1991)."}]},{"head":"Hosts","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"Natural: GCLV has a wide host range within the Alliaceae family. It predominantly occurs in garlic (van Dijk 1993), but has been found in more than 50 Allium spp. in a germplasm collection (Graichen, pers. comm.). Experimental: apart from the local lesion hosts Celosia argentea, Chenopodium quinoa, C. amaranticolor, some other Chenopodium spp., Nicotiana occidentalis and several species of the Alliaceae are systemically infected by GCLV (van Dijk 1993)."}]},{"head":"Geographical distribution","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Cosmopolitan. GCLV has been detected in most garlic-growing countries but not in traditional garlic varieties of Japan, Taiwan and Thailand (Barg et al. 1994). In these countries, however, GCLV can be found in local markets and in garlic varieties imported for consumption or for germplasm evaluation trials (Barg et al. 1997)."}]},{"head":"Transmission","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"It is transmitted (with difficulties) by mechanical inoculation; aphid transmission is suspected (van Dijk 1993; Barg et al. 1994Barg et al. , 1997)). True seed transmission has not been reported. The main mode of virus transmission in Allium is by vegetative propagation, particularly of garlic cultivars."}]},{"head":"Garlic dwarf reovirus","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Garlic dwarf disease is associated with the presence of a reovirus named garlic dwarf virus (GDV). Particles appear icosahedral, double-shelled and 65-70 nm in diameter in pH 7.0 phosphate buffer when stained with uranyl acetate or ammonium molybdate."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"Several properties suggest it is a member of the Fijivirus genus. However, preliminary results show differences from the type members of the three Fijivirus groups. As the virus is not mechanically transmissible and there is no vector known, Koch's postulates are not yet fulfilled."}]},{"head":"Significance","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"So far, limited distribution and low incidence in garlic crops for consumption. High potential for crop destruction."}]},{"head":"Symptoms","index":45,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"Initial symptoms are red tips of the basal leaves. The majority of the affected plants do not develop normally, showing a 'tulip' or a 'fan' appearance, with all leaves originating from the same point (Fig. 1). Occasionally, the pseudostems develop normally initially, but later they develop no or very short internodes (Fig. 2). In some cases, plants are dwarfed but seem to recover, since new leaves emerge with regular internodes. The leaves of the most severely dwarfed plants assume a darker green colour. Vein swelling and, rarely, small enations may be present. The bulbs from diseased plants often appear pear-shaped, spongy and wrinkled (Fig. 3). Most cloves are small but some may be normal size."}]},{"head":"Hosts","index":46,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"Garlic. "}]},{"head":"Geographical distribution","index":47,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Reported only in a restricted area of southern France (eastern Rhône valley)."}]},{"head":"Transmission","index":48,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"No vectors are known. The incidence and distribution pattern of the disease do not suggest a very effective vector (probably a planthopper). Preliminary results suggest that the different types of symptoms described may occur from infected planting material (Lot, unpublished results)."}]},{"head":"Detection","index":49,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Virus particles may be observed by electron microscope in leaf dips and more easily by ISEM. The virus is also detected efficiently in leaf extracts by standard DAS-ELISA."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"For further reading, see p. 51. "}]},{"head":"Leek yellow stripe potyvirus (LYSV)","index":50,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"The flexuous and filamentous particles are approximately 820 nm long."}]},{"head":"Significance","index":51,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"In western Europe, autumn and winter crops of leek are severely affected. Major outbreaks occur in all year-round cultivation areas of commercial crops. LYSV may cause yield reduction up to 50%. Quality losses by yellow striping are also reported. Recent data proved that the virus may cause a 15-50% reduction in garlic bulb yield, depending on isolates and cultivars (Lot and Delecolle, unpublished results)."}]},{"head":"Symptoms","index":52,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":157,"text":"On leek a more or less clear yellow striping on the leaf blade from its base upward is common. Rarely plants may become entirely chlorotic and slightly flaccid. Infected plants suffer from early frosts and may be killed. Symptoms are highly variable depending on susceptibility of cultivars. Aggravation of the symptoms was reported when plants were co-infected with shallot latent virus and garlic common latent carlavirus (Paludan 1980;Graichen 1991). FAO/IPGRI Technical Guidelines for the Safe Movement of Germplasm On garlic, symptoms include irregular light and dark green striping on the young leaves (Fig. 4), turning to yellow on the basal and intermediate leaves (Fig. 5), especially in the distant part of the blade. The virus does not affect significantly the height of plants but reduces the diameter of the pseudostem and of the bulbs. Co-infection with OYDV accentuates the symptoms (Fig. 6), making them indistinguishable from those due to OYDV (Fig. 7), especially on very susceptible cultivars."}]},{"head":"Hosts","index":53,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Natural: LYSV is restricted to Allium spp.: leek, garlic, great-headed garlic and pearl onion are affected as well as many wild species and ornamental Allium. A. cepa (onion and shallot) is rarely infected. Experimental: Chenopodium amaranticolor, C. quinoa, C. murale and C. album react with local lesions."}]},{"head":"Geographical distribution","index":54,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"On leek, the virus was reported from several countries in Europe and South America, as well as from Australia and New Zealand. LYSV infecting garlic was first reported by Walkey et al. in 1987, but the virus has now been identified in most countries where garlic is grown. "}]},{"head":"Transmission","index":55,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"The virus is transmitted by aphids in a non-persistent manner and by mechanical inoculation (Bos et al. 1978). True seed transmission in leek does not occur. Overwintering plants are the only source of infection. The rate of infected garlic cloves depends on the time of infection."},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"Host specialization of isolates is reported. For instance, natural transmission from LYSVinfected garlic to leek seems quite rare. This host specificity of isolates was also demonstrated by mechanical inoculation: LYSV isolates from leek hardly infect garlic and vice versa."}]},{"head":"Detection","index":56,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"ISEM decoration tests are particularly useful to detect LYSV and the possible contaminant virus(es) in plants co-infected with other viruses."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"ELISA is currently used for routine tests of leaves or cloves, but the antiserum used must be carefully chosen since antibodies with narrow or wide specificity exist (Barg 1995)."},{"index":3,"size":53,"text":"An indirect dot-immunobinding assay is also effective in detecting the virus in Allium extracts. The virus is serologically distantly related to onion yellow dwarf virus (OYDV). Its relationship with two other potyviruses infecting Allium, Welsh onion yellow stripe virus and shallot yellow stripe virus depends on the strain (van Dijk 1993; Barg 1995)."},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"For further reading, see p. 52. "}]},{"head":"Geographical distribution","index":57,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"Cosmopolitan."}]},{"head":"Transmission","index":58,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"The eriophyid wheat curl mite Aceria tulipae is a very efficient vector on crops in the field as well as on stored bulbs (van Dijk et al. 1991). Also through mechanical inoculation. No data are available on seed transmission. The high incidence in many vegetatively propagated Allium spp. in Europe and Asia, especially garlic, onion and shallot, is because the viruses spread easily with infected planting material and viruliferous mites on harvested bulbs and cloves."}]},{"head":"Detection","index":59,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"Owing to high coat-protein variability, MbFV are difficult to detect by serological methods. Typical highly flexuous morphology and cross-banding of particles distinguishes MbFV from poty-and carlaviruses in the electron microscope."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"For further reading, see p. 52."}]},{"head":"FAO/IPGRI Technical Guidelines for the Safe Movement of Germplasm","index":60,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Onion yellow dwarf potyvirus (OYDV)"},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"The flexuous filamentous particles are approximately 775 nm long."}]},{"head":"Significance","index":61,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Yellow dwarf can be very damaging to susceptible crops of onion and shallot, especially where sanitation procedures are not followed. Incidence up to 50% is reported for onion in many countries. It is also commonly found on garlic."}]},{"head":"Symptoms","index":62,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Stunting is the main symptom in onion and shallot. Leaves show irregular yellow striping to almost complete yellowing and also downward curling, flattening and crinkling (Fig. 8). Also deterioration during storage and premature sprouting of bulbs may occur."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"In garlic, varied symptoms of very mild chlorotic stripes to bright yellow stripes depending on virus isolate and cultivars appear. Also reduction in growth and bulb size occur. In combination with other viruses, symptoms may be aggravated. "}]},{"head":"Hosts","index":63,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Natural: restricted to Allium spp.; leek does not appear to be affected."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"Experimental: An isolate of OYDV that is particularly aggressive on shallot also locally infects Chenopodium murale."}]},{"head":"Geographical distribution","index":64,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"Cosmopolitan."}]},{"head":"Transmission","index":65,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"OYDV is transmitted by over 50 aphid species in a non-persistent manner and by mechanical inoculation (Bos 1976). Seed transmission is not reported in onion (Louie and Lorbeer 1966). The main route of natural spread is by vector transmission and through vegetative propagation of infected hosts."}]},{"head":"Detection","index":66,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"ELISA and decoration tests are useful to identify the virus (van Dijk 1993)."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"For further reading, see p. 53."}]},{"head":"Shallot latent carlavirus (SLV)","index":67,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"The slightly flexuous, filamentous particles are approximately 650 nm long. Included in this description are Sint-Jan's onion latent, garlic latent (sensu Japanese authors) and other serologically related carlaviruses."}]},{"head":"Significance","index":68,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"On its own it is of minor importance but in combination with other viruses it may cause serious crop losses."}]},{"head":"Symptoms","index":69,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Basically symptomless in singly infected garlic, shallot, onion and leek. Symptoms caused by potyviruses may be aggravated by the presence of SLV (e.g. in leek) (Paludan 1980;Graichen 1991)."}]},{"head":"Hosts","index":70,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"Natural: SLV has a wide host range within the Alliaceae family. It predominantly occurs in shallot and garlic but was found in more than 80 Allium spp. in a germplasm collection (Graichen, pers. comm.). Experimental: apart from some local lesion hosts, e.g. Chenopodium spp., Celosia argentea and Vicia faba (van Dijk 1993), SLV systemically infects Nicotiana occidentalis and N. hesperis and a wide range of members of the Alliaceae."}]},{"head":"Geographical distribution","index":71,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Widely distributed in many countries of Asia and Europe (Bos 1982;van Dijk 1993;Barg et al. 1997). There is also a confirmed report for Mexico (Barg et al. 1997)."}]},{"head":"Transmission","index":72,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Mechanical transmission and transmission by aphids in a non-persistent manner are possible means of natural spread. However, aphid transmission of SLV is less efficient than that of potyviruses (Bos 1982;van Dijk 1993). Under natural conditions, SLV is mainly disseminated and maintained by vegetative propagation which is particularly significant for garlic and shallot. True seed transmission of SLV has not been reported."}]},{"head":"Detection","index":73,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":130,"text":"Serological methods allow detection of SLV by immunoelectron microscopy and to some extent by ELISA. Because of serological diversity among SLV strains, antisera to SLV do not generally permit highly sensitive and specific detection of all SLV strains. Monoclonal antibodies reveal at least six different reaction types (Barg et al. 1994(Barg et al. , 1997)). These inclu-de SLV isolates from garlic in Japan and Sint-Jan's onion latent virus (van Dijk 1993). The latter reacts with several SLV antisera but not with any of the MABs to SLV (Barg et al. 1997). Additional strains of SLV-related carlaviruses may exist in traditional garlic and shallot varieties of Thailand (and other east Asian countries) which may be difficult to detect by ELISA when antisera to the more widespread strains of SLV are used."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"For further reading, see p. 53."}]},{"head":"Shallot yellow stripe potyvirus (SYSV)","index":74,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"The flexuous particles are approximately 700-800 nm long. Included in this description is Welsh onion yellow stripe virus sensu van Dijk (1993), which can be considered an isolate of SYSV (van der Vlugt, pers. comm.)."}]},{"head":"Significance","index":75,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Economic significance not yet established but only mild plant symptoms occur."}]},{"head":"Symptoms","index":76,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Mild striping in young leaves of shallot plants and distinct mosaic-like yellow striping in onion."}]},{"head":"Hosts","index":77,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"Natural: shallot, multiplier onion, Chinese chive, garlic, onion and rakkyo. Experimental: a virulent isolate of SYSV causes severe malformation, stunting, necrosis and sometimes plant death on onion 'Stuttgarter Riesen' and yellow striping and etching on garlic and Formosan lily (Lilium formosanum). Welsh onion yellow stripe virus causes local lesions on Chenopodium quinoa and C. amaranticolor."}]},{"head":"Geographical distribution","index":78,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Widespread in Asia."}]},{"head":"Transmission","index":79,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Transmitted by mechanical inoculation and aphids (van Dijk 1993). Natural spread through infected planting material. No data on seed transmission."}]},{"head":"Detection","index":80,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"SYSV can be detected by immunoelectron microscopy with antisera against SYSV, which are, however, unsuitable for ELISA. When these antisera are used in combination with monoclonal antibodies to SYSV in TAS-ELISA, specific detection of SYSV is possible by (Barg et al. 1997)."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"For further reading, see p. 54."}]},{"head":"Other viruses reported to occur in Allium spp.","index":81,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"There are several other viruses which predominantly occur in other crops but which have sporadically been isolated from vegetatively propagated Allium spp. They appear to be of minor importance because of their restricted distribution. However, they warrant attention in areas from which they have not been reported. Some of them, such as nepoviruses, are likely to be transmitted by true seed."}]},{"head":"Isometric seed-transmitted cryptic viruses (tentative members of the Partitiviridae)","index":82,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"Isometric particles with a diameter of about 34 nm have been detected in onion, Welsh onion and leek by electron microscopy and immunoelectron microscopy with antisera to onion yellow dwarf and leek yellow stripe potyviruses. Such particles were also found to be co-purified with potyviruses from Allium spp. They were seed-transmitted in numerous onion and Welsh onion varieties at levels of almost 100%, but were not sap transmissible. They are tentatively classified as members of the family Partitiviridae (cryptic viruses). In spite of their high seed transmission rate and their worldwide distribution, they may have no economic importance as they do not cause symptoms or yield loss. However, antisera containing antibodies to them can give false positive reactions in virusindexing work (Barg et al. 1994)."}]},{"head":"Leek yellows virus","index":83,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"This putative luteovirus with isometric particles approximately 30 nm in diameter was detected in leek and rakkyo (Allium chinense) showing symptoms of yellowing in Japan (Araki et al. 1981). Virus particles were observed in phloem cells, and phloem necrosis is often observed in infected hosts. The virus is not transmissible by sap and, being a luteovirus, is expected to be not seed-transmissible."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"For further reading, see p. 54."}]},{"head":"Other viruses of minor or regional importance","index":84,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Virus","index":85,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Reported from Host","index":86,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"Arabis "}]},{"head":"Fungi","index":87,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Alternaria porri (purple blotch)","index":88,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"Alternaria porri (Ellis) Cif. is a dematiaceous fungus producing very large conidia of 50-100 x 15-25 µm, with a filiform apical appendage 30-150 µm (absent in some isolates, which can be mistaken for Stemphylium). Most isolates of this fungus produce a purple pigment in the leaf spots as well as in culture media. Several other Alternaria species cause leaf spots, but not purple blotch."}]},{"head":"Significance","index":89,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"A major leaf-spot agent on A1lium spp. under warm weather conditions."}]},{"head":"Symptoms","index":90,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"Purple blotch lesions are oval, with a well-delimited margin between dry infected tissue and the healthy part of the leaf or scape. With pigment-producing isolates, the central part of the spot is purple. The fungus sporulates there, appearing as a tenuous black mould. Since conidia are very large, they can be seen with a strong magnifying glass. When several spots appear on a leaf, its apical part becomes yellow and withers. Hollow scapes can be broken at the level of a large lesion."}]},{"head":"Hosts","index":91,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Onion, shallot, leek and garlic."}]},{"head":"Geographical distribution","index":92,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"Cosmopolitan."}]},{"head":"Biology and transmission","index":93,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"The cardinal temperatures of 15°C -26°C -34°C are much higher than for downy mildew or Botrytis leaf blight. The conidia are very robust; they can persist more than one year on plant debris. Chlamydospores are reported to occur in the soil and only one may induce a leaf spot. Sporulation of A. porri is sparse (no more than one to several hundred conidia per leaf spot). Alternaria porri is particularly prevalent in the humid tropics where rain showers (removing sporulation inhibitors) are followed by sunshine (inducing sporulation) and dry weather (favouring conidial dissemination)."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"Onion and leek seeds produced under these conditions can carry mycelia and spores of A. porri. The necks of shallot or garlic bulbs originating from diseased plants may also be contaminated."}]},{"head":"Botryotinia squamosa (Botrytis leaf blight)","index":94,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"Teleomorph: Botryotinia squamosa Vien.-Bourg., syn. Sclerotinia squamosa; anamorph: Botrytis squamosa J. C. Walker (Maude 1990;Lorbeer 1992). The fungus is characterized by hyaline conidia 14-23 x 11-16 µm in size and the production of masses of small sclerotia when the fungus is grown in pure culture."}]},{"head":"Significance","index":95,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Botrytis leaf blight is an important foliar disease of onion, particularly in North America, Europe and Asia. The disease can cause significant reduction in bulb size and hence yield."}]},{"head":"Symptoms","index":96,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"Initial symptoms of the disease are small elliptical white to straw-coloured lesions of l-5 mm diameter, which mostly occur on the side of the leaf exposed to sunlight. Each lesion usually is surrounded by a greenish-white halo that appears water-soaked. A lengthways sunken slit often occurs in the centre of the lesion. The older leaves are the most susceptible and they typically wilt and blight within 5-7 days of infection and lesion formation. The pathogen in some instances can infect the outer tissues of the bulb, causing a disease known as small sclerotial neck rot (Walker 1952)."}]},{"head":"Hosts","index":97,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"The pathogen is reported to cause disease only in the genus Allium (Farr et al. 1989). It is most important on onion (A. cepa)."}]},{"head":"Geographical distribution","index":98,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Cosmopolitan in temperate regions (Lorbeer 1992;Brewster 1994)."}]},{"head":"Biology and transmission","index":99,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"Botrytis squamosa survives as sclerotia on onion bulbs, sets and transplants as well as in the soil. Conidia are produced on conidiophores either emerging from the mycelium infecting the host tissue or from sclerotia on the host tissue or in the soil. Airborne conidia are the primary form of inoculum in epidemics. Infected bulbs can transport the pathogen from one region to another. The fungus is not seed-transmitted. The apothecial stage (perfect state) of the fungus is not important in transmission of the pathogen, but serves an important role in the production of genetic diversity of the pathogen (Maude 1990;Lorbeer 1992)."}]},{"head":"Botrytis allii (neck rot)","index":100,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"Teleomorph: Botryotinia aclada author ???, anamorph: Botrytis allii Munn. The conidial layer is shorter and more compact than that of B. cinerea, with a conidia size of 10-15 x 8-11 µm. Sclerotia are flat and 2-4 mm."}]},{"head":"Significance","index":101,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Prior to the widespread use of seed treatment, Botrytis allii was the principal cause of decay in storage of onion and shallot bulbs. Grey shallot is particularly susceptible to rot in storage."}]},{"head":"Symptoms","index":102,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"Onion seedling blight can be caused by B. allii. Frequently the fungus remains epiphytic on the leaves of the growing plants and invades senescent tissues at the beginning of maturity. This infection induces apical bulb rot in storage, appearing successively as a grey mould, then as black sclerotia. On plants grown for seeds, B. allii can invade the decaying leaves at the base of the scape and then girdle the floral stem with a whitish lesion. Shallot may be invaded in the same way as onion."}]},{"head":"Hosts","index":103,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Onion and shallot."}]},{"head":"Geographical distribution","index":104,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Cosmopolitan in temperate regions."}]},{"head":"Biology and transmission","index":105,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"One of the major factors that induce latent infection of growing plants and subsequent bulb rot is seed contamination: there is a strong correlation between the contamination of the seeds by B. allii and the amount of neck-rot decay in bulbs (Maude 1983a). Sclerotia of the fungus can survive in soil for about 2 years and longer in dry conditions, e.g. in soil mixed with stored bulbs. At harvest, infections of the section where the necks are cut are possible, thus increasing the percentage of the bulbs which will rot in storage. Botrytis allii is highly sensitive to temperature and is usually destroyed by temperatures over 30°C. It cannot invade dry senescent tissues."}]},{"head":"Detection","index":106,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Direct plating on agar."}]},{"head":"Treatment","index":107,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"Since B. allii does not survive temperatures higher than 30°C, drying bulbs after harvest with hot air circulation (35°C) will eliminate the pathogen from already contaminated necks and prevent the contamination of freshly cut healthy ones."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"Onion seeds are coated with a fungicide (benomyl, benomyl + thiram or iprodione at l-2 g/kg of seeds). Shallot mother bulbs from lots having shown a proportion of neck rot can be either treated with hot water (see Ditylenchus dipsaci), with addition of the same fungicides at l-2 g/L (for cepa shallots), or coated with benomyl or a dicarboximide fungicide (for grey shallots)."},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"For further reading, see p. 55."}]},{"head":"Cladosporium allii-cepae (Cladosporium leaf blotch)","index":108,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"Teleomorph: Mycosphaerella allii-cepae Jordan, Maude and Burchill (Jordan et al. 1986); anamorph: Cladosporium allii-cepae (Ranoj.) M.B. Ellis (syn. Heterosporium allii cepae Ranoj.). Considered as Cladosporium allii (Ellis and G. Martin) P. M. Kirk and J. G. Crompton by Farr et al. (1989). Conidiophores of the pathogen are solitary or in groups, brown in colour and generally 80-160 µm long. The conidia are mostly borne singularly and are pale brown and 1-septate (Maude 1990)."}]},{"head":"Significance","index":109,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"The disease has occurred only infrequently and mainly in temperate growing areas in the past. Severe outbreaks were reported only from Ireland and the UK (Maude 1990)."}]},{"head":"Symptoms","index":110,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"The fungus produces elliptical yellow to greyish lesions which run parallel to leaf veins."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"After the fruiting structures and conidia are produced, the lesions become brown to dark brown. The disease can occur at any time in the growth of the plant, but mostly occurs after bulbing and particularly when the leaves commence senescing. Lesions on onion leaves are 0.5 x 1.5 cm and are smaller than on other Allium species (Hill 1995)."}]},{"head":"Hosts","index":111,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Allium spp. (including onion, shallot, Welsh onion and a number of wild species), Sisyrinchium spp., Triteleia spp. (Farr et al. 1989;Maude 1990)."}]},{"head":"Geographical distribution","index":112,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Ireland and UK (Maude 1990); Canada and USA (Hill 1995)."}]},{"head":"Biology and transmission","index":113,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"The fungus can persist for 3 months on onion debris. The fungus is not seedborne (Maude 1990)."}]},{"head":"Detection","index":114,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"The pathogen can be detected by direct examination of potentially infected plant parts and plant debris on the soil surface after incubation in a moist chamber for l-3 days."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"For further reading, see p. 56."}]},{"head":"Fusarium spp. (Fusarium basal rot)","index":115,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Fusarium oxysporum Schltdl. emend. Snyder and H.N. Hansen f. sp. cepae (Hanzawa). A number of synonyms are known (Entwistle 1990). The fungus produces microconidia (usually unicellular and spheroid), macroconidia (fusiform or ellipsoid and mostly 3-4 septate) and chlamydospores (7.5 to 10 µm in diameter) which form in roots and soil (Entwistle 1990)."}]},{"head":"Significance","index":116,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Infected plants will have a reduced seed yield. Economic losses were reported from Italy, South Africa, Japan and the United States (Farr et al. 1989;Havey 1995)."}]},{"head":"Symptoms","index":117,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Delayed seedling emergence, seedling damping off, stunted growth of infected plants, decay of the basal plate area in growing plants and basal rot of bulbs in storage. Infection of seedlings and enlarging plants is accompanied by leaf chlorosis and dieback resulting in the desiccation of leaves which usually remain upright. Roots of infected plants are brown to dark brown in colour (Havey 1995)."}]},{"head":"Hosts","index":118,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Onion, chive, garlic and shallot."}]},{"head":"Geographical distribution","index":119,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"Cosmopolitan."}]},{"head":"Biology and transmission","index":120,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Mainly transmitted by infected transplants, sets, bulbs and possibly garlic cloves."},{"index":2,"size":106,"text":"Vegetative planting material may be infected by the fungus but remain symptomless. Seed transmission has not been observed, although some reports of isolation from seed have been made (Entwistle 1990). Soil infested with chlamydospores adhering to the plant parts may also serve as a source of inoculum (Entwistle 1990;Havey 1995). These spores when close to roots germinate and penetrate healthy root cells or invade through wounds in the roots. The fungus then invades the vascular system of the plant. In mature plants the infection remains in the basal plate area for some time before spreading to the fleshy bulb scales and causing decay of the bulb."}]},{"head":"Detection","index":121,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"The pathogen can be isolated from diseased roots, stem plate tissues and onion bulb scales. It can be detected in soil by the use of selective media (Abawi and Lorbeer 1972)."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"For further reading, see p. 56."}]},{"head":"Peronospora destructor (onion downy mildew)","index":122,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Peronospora destructor (Berk.) Casp. has pyriform to fusiform sporangia, 18-29 µm long and borne terminally on sterigmata of nonseptate sporangiophores."}]},{"head":"Significance","index":123,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"The disease can be serious on onion and other Allium species grown for bulbs or seed, especially when relatively cool, moist weather prevails."}]},{"head":"Symptoms","index":124,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"The disease is characterized by pale-green, yellowish to brownish, oval to cylindrical shaped areas on leaves and seed stalks. The fungus produces masses of sporangiophores and sporangia. The sporangia are transparent to grey in colour at first and then turn violet. The leaves become girdled in the region where the sporangia are formed, then collapse and wilt. The dead tissue typically is rapidly colonized by Stemphylium botryosum which forms masses of black spores on the necrotic leaf tissue. Bulb growth is reduced by the disease and the bulb tissue (especially the neck area) becomes spongy which causes the bulb to lack storage quality (Walker 1952;Maude 1990)."}]},{"head":"Hosts","index":125,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Onion, shallot, leek and chive."}]},{"head":"Geographical distribution","index":126,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Cosmopolitan in temperate climates."}]},{"head":"Biology and transmission","index":127,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"The pathogen overwinters primarily as mycelia in infected onion bulbs that remain in onion fields or in nearby cull piles. The pathogen can also overwinter in perennial varieties of onion in home gardens (Walker 1952). Local dissemination is primarily by airborne sporangia, which do not form zoospores but germinate directly by forming one or two germ tubes and infect onion leaves by penetrating the stoma. Long-range dissemination is primarily by systemically infected propagative material (bulbs, sets, transplants). The fungus is not seedborne (Maude 1990;Brewster 1994)."}]},{"head":"Detection","index":128,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"The fungus is an obligate parasite. Propagative material should be put in a moist chamber and checked for sporangia."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"For further reading, see p. 56."}]},{"head":"Sclerotium cepivorum (onion white rot)","index":129,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Sclerotium cepivorum Berk. produces spherical black sclerotia 0.3-0.5 mm in diameter and aerial white mycelium. Some isolates produce larger sclerotia (up to 1 mm) and fewer mycelia."}]},{"head":"Significance","index":130,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"S. cepivorum induces one of the most important Allium diseases, killing onion and leek plantlets in the seedbeds or in the seed furrow. At a later stage severe losses are caused by basal rot on onion, leek, garlic and shallot."}]},{"head":"Symptoms","index":131,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"For plantlets as well as for maturing bulbs, the disease starts with a translucent rot of roots. On maturing bulbs of onion, shallot and garlic the symptom is a basal rot with white mycelia on which sclerotia appear later. A 'black rot' of garlic may appear in plots previously invaded by wild AIlium spp."}]},{"head":"Hosts","index":132,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Allium spp."}]},{"head":"Geographical distribution","index":133,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Cosmopolitan, except tropical lowlands."}]},{"head":"Biology and transmission","index":134,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Cardinal temperatures for mycelial growth are 10°C -18°C -24°C. The sclerotia can remain dormant in the soil for some years. Late infections can remain almost symptomless and are the main source of infection in garlic and shallot seed cloves or mother bulbs."}]},{"head":"Detection","index":135,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Inspection for the presence of sclerotia and white mycelium."}]},{"head":"Treatment","index":136,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"No eradicative treatment available."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"For further reading, see p. 56."}]},{"head":"Stemphylium vesicarium (Stemphylium leaf blight)","index":137,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Teleomorph: Pleospora allii (Rabenh.) Ces. & De Not., anamorph: Stemphylium vesicarium (Wallr.) E. Simmons. Conidia are oblong to oval, 25-42 µm, dark in colour with l-5 transverse septa and often constricted at the middle one or three most central of the septa."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"The conidia can be distinguished by microscopic examination from those of S. botryosum."}]},{"head":"Significance","index":138,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"During the past 20 years this disease has become increasingly important in temperate and tropical regions throughout the world. It is a major disease of onion in Southeast Asia and India (Gupta et al. 1994) and epidemics have caused significant losses in Texas and New York in North America (Miller et al. 1978;Lorbeer 1993). It frequently occurs at the same time and on the same plants as Alternaria porri, the cause of purple blotch, as a disease complex."}]},{"head":"Symptoms","index":139,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"The disease is characterized at first by small yellow to brown lesions which rapidly enlarge to elongated spindle-shaped to ovate-elongate lesions which, if numerous, coalesce followed by blighting of the leaves."}]},{"head":"Hosts","index":140,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"The fungus occurs on a wide variety of herbaceous plants including Allium, Asparagus, Eichhornia, Juncus and Triticum."}]},{"head":"Geographical distribution","index":141,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"Cosmopolitan."}]},{"head":"Biology and transmission","index":142,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"The fungus is seedborne and airborne. It can be transmitted as conidia and mycelia on other hosts as well as Allium."}]},{"head":"Detection","index":143,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Standard agar-plating procedures."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"For further reading, see p. 57. "}]},{"head":"Minor fungal and bacterial pathogens","index":144,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Nematodes","index":145,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Ditylenchus dipsaci (stem and bulb nematode)","index":146,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Ditylenchus dipsaci (Kühn) Filipjev is an endoparasitic nematode whose adults can reach a length of 1 mm and a width of 20-35 µm. They swim actively when emerging from diseased tissues crushed in water."}]},{"head":"Significance","index":147,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"A major pest of Allium spp. in temperate climates and the high-altitude regions of the tropics and subtropics."}]},{"head":"Symptoms","index":148,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"Young infected onion plants are stunted, curved (Figs. 9 and 10), with an inflated basal part (bloat). If they survive, they produce bulbs with spongious rot of the external scales, which is the dominant symptom in shallot. On garlic attacked during bulb enlargement, D. dipsaci induces a reddish rot of the basal part of the bulb. The growing cloves become separated from each other. The leaves of diseased plants show a purplish discolouration and the pseudostem is stunted."}]},{"head":"Hosts","index":149,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"More than 400 host plants have been described for D. dipsaci. The species is subdivided in races. The Allium race also attacks oats, sugar beet, Swiss chard, spinach and legumes (bean, pea, soyabean). Onion, garlic and shallot are affected more than leek."}]},{"head":"Geographical distribution","index":150,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Cosmopolitan, except tropical lowlands. "}]},{"head":"Biology and transmission","index":151,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"Cardinal temperatures for nematode activity and infection are 10°C -22°C -30°C. In soil, they survive as fourth stage larvae at temperatures not exceeding 35°C. In onion true seeds or garlic and shallot mother bulbs the nematodes remain in a condition of anhydrobiosis, under which they can survive a long time and become active again when rehydrated. The larvae penetrate Allium plants at the point of emergence of roots through the leaf sheath and can invade the short true stem of the plant, causing its disintegration, or between and inside the leaf-sheaths and the scape (Fig. 11) and move into the onion umbels."}]},{"head":"Detection","index":152,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Bulbs are cut into four pieces and macerated in water for 12 hours: rehydrated larvae move into the water and can be isolated by successive sievings following the standard nematological methods."}]},{"head":"Treatment","index":153,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"Hot water treatment for elimination of Ditylenchus from bulbs and onion seeds. Mobile Ditylenchus are killed after 1 hour at 44.5°C or 2 hours at 43°C. Anhydrobiotic larvae are more resistant. The most effective method is therefore to leave the bulbs for 10 hours in cold water (20°C) to rehydrate the nematodes, then to put them in water for 1 hour at 48°C for garlic or 2 hours at 43°C for shallot."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"For further reading, see p. 58. "}]},{"head":"Arthropods","index":154,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Aceria tulipae (garlic mite)"},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"Aceria tulipae (Keifer) (Synonym: Eriophyes tulipae), a mite between 0.1 and 0.25 mm long, belonging to the family Eriophyidae (gall mites). They are worm-like in shape and have two pairs of legs at the anterior end of the body."}]},{"head":"Significance","index":155,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"This mite is a serious pest of garlic but also occasionally damages onion and shallot. It is a vector of several viruses in the field and in storage."}]},{"head":"Damage","index":156,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Yellow streaks and twisted growth of the leaves, reduction in plant growth and shrivelling of bulbs in storage. In stored bulbs secondary rots may occur. The damage to foliage may be confused with virus symptoms. When infected cloves are planted, Aceria infections appear in leaves as localized distortions and mosaics. Leaves are often folded together and difficult to separate."}]},{"head":"Hosts","index":157,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Allium species, particularly garlic; other monocotyledons."}]},{"head":"Geographical distribution","index":158,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"Cosmopolitan."}]},{"head":"Biology","index":159,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"The females lay round, colourless eggs of 0.06 mm diameter on bulbs. There are two nymphal stages similar in appearance to the adults. Mites can mainly be found along the hollow crease of the leaf mid-vein. At maturity, the mites move down towards the bulb. Unfavourable conditions are survived by entering diapause. Transmission by infested plant material and by wind transportation."}]},{"head":"Detection","index":160,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Careful inspections of bulbs and other plant material for infestation by mites."}]},{"head":"Treatment","index":161,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"No specific treatment recommended."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"For further reading, see p. 58."}]},{"head":"Rhizoglyphus robini Claparede (Synonym: R. echinopus) Rhizoglyphus callae Oudemans","index":162,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"Small yellow white mites with a globular body up to 0.9 mm long belonging to the mite family Acaridae (bulb mites). Adult mites with four pairs of short stout legs."}]},{"head":"Significance","index":163,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"These mites attack bulbs, corms and tubers of different plant species and are occasionally serious pests on stored onion and garlic bulbs. Their virus vector status is unknown."}]},{"head":"Damage","index":164,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Heavy infestation of bulbs in storage leads to a pulpy, rotting mass. Usually, these mites feed on bulbs which have been damaged by other pests or diseases or mechanically."}]},{"head":"Hosts","index":165,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Polyphagous on many bulb-, corm-or tuber-forming plants."}]},{"head":"Geographical distribution","index":166,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"Cosmopolitan."}]},{"head":"Biology","index":167,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"The females lay up to 100 eggs of 0.2 mm diameter singly on bulbs, corms or tubers. Under favourable conditions it takes less than 15 days to complete the life cycle. In adverse conditions a specialized shiny brown immature stage is formed. Transmission is by insects and other animals to which the mites are attached and by infested plant material."}]},{"head":"Detection","index":168,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Careful inspections of bulbs and other plant parts for infestation by bulb mites."}]},{"head":"Treatment","index":169,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"No specific treatment recommended."}]},{"head":"SAMPLE GERMPLASM HEALTH STATEMENT No.","index":170,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"This statement provides additional information on the phytosanitary state of the plant germplasm described herein. It should not be considered as a substitute for the Phytosanitary Certificate."}]},{"head":"IMPORT PERMIT PHYTOSANITARY CERTIFICATE","index":171,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"No."}]},{"head":"Issued by Date","index":172,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"No."}]},{"head":"Issued by Date","index":173,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"ORIGIN OF THE GERMPLASM","index":174,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"[ ] The material in this package was obtained from meristems cultured in vitro, which were found free of viral pathogens using recommended virus-detection techniques."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"[ ] The material in this package was obtained from [plant species] meristems, aseptically grown in vitro from the terminal buds of stakes previously subjected to thermo-therapy for"},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"[time] These stakes were originally obtained from [plant species] free from symptoms of [diseases] ."},{"index":4,"size":30,"text":"[ ] The germplasm described here has been produced under glasshouse or screenhouse conditions, in sterilized soil and in the absence of any visible pathogen or pest of quarantine significance."},{"index":5,"size":37,"text":"[ ] The germplasm described here has been produced under intensive chemical protection in fields and regions isolated from commercial or experimental plantings of this species. These fields are exclusively used for the pest-controlled multiplication of germplasm."},{"index":6,"size":25,"text":"[ ] The germplasm described here has been multiplied under field conditions, which do not guarantee the absence of pests or pathogens of quarantine importance."}]},{"head":"PATHOGEN DETECTlON METHODS","index":175,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"[ ] The germplasm described here was produced under periodic field supervision by a pathologist / virologist and it was found to be free from pathogens of quarantine significance. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Garlic common latent carlavirus (GCLV) Garlic dwarf reovirus Leek yellow stripe potyvirus (LYSV) Mite-borne filamentous viruses (MbFV) Onion yellow dwarf potyvirus (OYDV) Shallot latent carlavirus (SLV) and serologically related carlaviruses Shallot yellow stripe potyvirus (SYSV) "},{"text":"Fig. 1 . Fig. 1. Garlic cv. Thermidrome infected with garlic dwarf virus (GDV). showing. shortened internodes (right), healthy plant on the left. (Dr H. Lot, INRA, Montfavet) "},{"text":"Fig. 2 . Fig. 2. (above) Dwarfing of garlic cv. Thermidrome grown from GDV-infected cloves; Dl and D3 showed symptoms at an early stage, while D4 initially developed normally. (Dr H. Lot, INRA, Montfavet) "},{"text":"Fig. 4 . Fig. 4. (above) Leaf of garlic cv. Messidrome with early symptoms of leek yellow stripe potyvirus (LYSV). (Dr H. Lot, INRA, Montfavet) "},{"text":"Fig. 7 . Fig. 7. Severe streaks on garlic resulting from a mixed infection with leek yellow stripe potyvirus (LYSV) and onion yellow dwarf potyvirus (OYD). (Dr D.E. Lesemann, BBA, Braunschweig) "},{"text":"Fig. 8 . Fig. 8. Stunting and yellow stripes on onion caused by onion yellow dwarf potyvirus (OYD). (Dr D.E. Lesemann, BBA, Braunschweig) "},{"text":"Fig. 9 . Fig. 9. Deformation and early senescence of leaves caused by Ditylenchus dipsaci. (Dr R.A. Sikora, Bonn University) "},{"text":"Fig Fig. 10. (above) Deformed onions with Ditylenchus dipsaci infestation. (Dr R.A. Sikora, Bonn University) "},{"text":"60FAO/ IPGRI Technical Guidelines for the Safe Movement of Germplasm [ ] Representative seed samples of the germplasm described here were assayed in the Seed Health Laboratory at [institute] , following the methods recommended in the FAO/IPGRI Technical Guidelines for the Safe Movement of [crop] Germplasm: [ ] extraction / washing test for [nematodes, fungi] [ ] culture on agar media for [fungi] [ ] serological for [ v i r u s e s ] No pathogens of quarantine significance were detected. [ ] The plants selected as sources of meristems for in vitro culture were assayed using the following tests for the diagnosis of viral diseases. were treated with a solution of sodium hypochlorite. [ ] Seeds were subjected to a dry heat treatment at [temperature] °C for [x] d a y s . [ ] Seeds were scarified with sulphuric acid. [ ] Seeds were treated with [fungicide(s)] at [rate] . [ ] [other] "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":"Table 1 . Cultivated species of Allium (Hanelt 1990) Botanical names of the designation of taxa A. ampeloprasum L. A. ampeloprasum L. Leek group Leek group Onion Onion Shallot Shallot Potato onion Potato onion Ever-ready onion Ever-ready onion Rakkyo; Ch'iao T'ou Rakkyo; Ch'iao T'ou Japanese bunching Japanese bunching onion; Welsh onion onion; Welsh onion Top onion Top onion Tree onion Tree onion Egyptian onion Egyptian onion Catawissa onion Catawissa onion "},{"text":"Table 3 . Seedborne pests in Allium spp. 13 Pest Internally seedborne Externally seedborne Concomitant contamination Fungi Fungi Alternaria porri Alternaria porri "},{"text":"Table 4 . Commercially available sources of high-titered antisera and MAB that are specific to clearly defined Allium viruses Company Antisera and MAB to: BIOREBA AG GCLV, Garlic MbFV, LYSV, OYDV, BIOREBA AGGCLV, Garlic MbFV, LYSV, OYDV, Chr. Merian-Ring 7 SLV (MAB), SYSV (MAB) Chr. Merian-Ring 7SLV (MAB), SYSV (MAB) CH-4153 Reinach BL CH-4153 Reinach BL Switzerland Switzerland DSM -Arbeitsgruppe Pflanzenviren see BIOREBA AG DSM -Arbeitsgruppe Pflanzenvirensee BIOREBA AG Messeweg 11-12 Messeweg 11-12 D-38104 Braunschweig D-38104 Braunschweig Germany Germany "},{"text":"18 FAO/IPGRI Technical Guidelines for the Safe Movement of Germplasm IPO-DLO OYDV IPO-DLOOYDV Dr. J. Vink Dr. J. Vink PO Box 9060 PO Box 9060 NL-6700 Wageningen NL-6700 Wageningen The Netherlands The Netherlands SANOFI DIAGNOSTICS PASTEUR LYSV, OYDV SANOFI DIAGNOSTICS PASTEURLYSV, OYDV 3 Bd. Raymond Poincaré -BP 3 3 Bd. Raymond Poincaré -BP 3 92430 Marnes-La-Coquette 92430 Marnes-La-Coquette France France "},{"text":" MbFV form a new, as yet unclassified plant virus group with unusually flexuous crossbanded particles of 700-800 nm in length. Phylogenetically they are between poty-and carlaviruses. Included in this group are onion mite-borne latent and shallot mite-borne latent viruses(van Dijk et al. 1991), shallot virus X(Kanyuka et al. 1992;Vishnichenko et al. 1993), garlic viruses A, B, C and D(Sumi et al. 1993) and garlic mite-borne mosaic virus(Yamashita et al. 1996). It is currently unclear to what extent some of these names represent synonyms. "}],"sieverID":"3d2a5e3a-a806-4b55-bc04-cd9da33ad119","abstract":"These guidelines describe technical procedures that minimize the risk of pest introductions with movement of germplasm for research, crop improvement, plant breeding, exploration or conservation. The recommendations in these guidelines are intended for germplasm for research, conservation and basic plant breeding programmes. Recommendations for commercial consignments are not the objective of these guidelines."}

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+ {"metadata":{"id":"00f3378deb7d81bcf9b2fd36d7d9b0b6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/iwmi-tata/PDFs/2012_Highlight-08.pdf"},"pageCount":10,"title":"Labor Market Dynamics in Post-MGNREGA Rural India 8 2 0 1 2","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"2. Type II -Insignificant: This is the situation of no or insignificant interaction between MGNREGA and the local labor markets. In Godda (Jharkhand), Koraput (Orissa) and Nalanda (Bihar) villages, the volume of MGNREGA work on offer was too small compared to the demand and the total size of the labor market."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"Here, MGNREGA had no perceptible impact on the working of the local labor markets, nor was the scheme able to substantially animate the village community."},{"index":3,"size":151,"text":"3. Type III -Potentially Significant: This is the situation where MGNREGA wages are significantly higher than local wages and the volume of potential MGNREGA work also significant and yet, MGNREGA invokes a lukewarm response from the community owing to administrative bottlenecks, distrust, systemic corruption, lackluster implementation or lack of awareness. In Narmada (Gujarat), the prevailing local agricultural wages were roughly a third of the MGNREGA wages on offer. The local Panchayat rallied to initiate MGNREGA works in the village but was discouraged by a passive block administration. When they finally managed to initiate some work, there were long delays in the payment of wages prompting villagers to give up on MGNREGA and return to the residual labor market which paid out cash wages instantaneously (Verma 2010). Likewise, in Mandla, people initially took to MGNREGA enthusiastically but shifted back to lower-paying works as MGNREGA wage payments took as long as 6 months."},{"index":4,"size":60,"text":"4. Type IV -Significant: This is the situation in which MGNREGA presence is large enough to catalyze widespread interest in the community and to significantly alter the structure, conduct and performance of agricultural labor markets. We found this, to some extent, in Dholpur (Rajasthan) and to a much greater extent, in Palakkad (Kerala), Chittoor (Andhra Pradesh) and Jalna (Maharashtra) villages."},{"index":5,"size":60,"text":"Thus the prevailing labor market conditions define how village communities react and respond to MGNREGA. In labor-scarce village economies, MGNREGA is unlikely to find many enthusiastic takers as the prevailing market wage rate would be higher than the MGNREGA wages. However, in labor-surplus conditions with depressed market wage-rates, a well-implemented MGNREGA is likely to bring huge relief to the laborers."}]},{"head":"HOW DOES MGNREGA INFLUENCE LOCAL LABOR","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"MARKETS?","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":121,"text":"In 2004, Bhalla (2004) argued that the unemployment rate among the poorest -the agricultural workers -was only 1 percent and therefore, MGNREGA was unlikely to benefit them much, especially since it offers work at low (minimum) wages. According to the official statistics, however, in 2011-12 MGNREGA offered more than 2 billion person days of employment to nearly 50 million households across the country (MGNREGA 2012; Figure 2). The same author further argued that the figures of employment generation are grossly over-estimated and that the actual figures are likely to be closer to half these numbers (Bhalla 2010). Even if that were true, the response to MGNREGA and the scale of its implementation has been overwhelming, with significant and possibly irreversible impacts."}]},{"head":"A. Tighter and segmented labor markets","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Where the interaction between MGNREGA and labor markets has been 2)."},{"index":2,"size":201,"text":"For MGNREGA to have major impact on farm labor markets, it is critical that the volume of work offered under the scheme is substantial during the peak agricultural season. In Dholpur (Rajasthan), much MGNREGA work was scheduled during summer when farm labor demand was low; therefore, the scheme's impact on labor market was relatively small. Here, therefore, MGNREGA work was additive; it expanded the labor market by attracting new labor to the work force without drawing away a significant chunk of workers from the residual market. Similar results were reported from Bikaner and Rajsamand (Rajasthan); Idukki and Trivandrum (Kerala); West Sikkim District (Sikkim); and Chittoor (Andhra Pradesh). In Palakkad (Kerala), however, the plantation economy demands farm labor throughout the year; and here, MGNREGA offered nearly 100 days of work to anyone who asked; as a result, the scheme's impact on labor market was broad and deep, raising female wage rates from Rs. 60 to Rs. 90 and male wage rates from Rs. 100 to anywhere between Rs. 150 and 225/day. The impact of MGNREGA in Palakkad, therefore, was substitutive; it withdrew a sizeable, mostly female, work force from agriculture. To make up, farm wage rates had to go up 50-70 percent."},{"index":3,"size":69,"text":"Several parallel effects seem to be in operation here. The scheme puts into the hands of poor people significant amount of cash that reduces the need for distress or forced labor. Our survey found that, on an average, annual income of MGNREGA workers increased by roughly 50 percent. Where MGNREGA is implemented on full scale, farm and non-farm labor markets become tighter, putting pressure on wage rates (Figure 3)."}]},{"head":"B. Increased women participation and reduced male female wage ratio","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":152,"text":"MGNREGA work has found particular appeal for poor women who find the wages attractive and the facilities at the work site -such as crèche and shade -particularly convenient. Finding work close to their home also increases the scheme's appeal. In Bambara village of Adilabad, the Panchayat also offered flexi-time on MGNREGA works which enhanced its appeal even further. The convenience and appeal of MGNREGAbesides the general impression of MGNREGA work being light and poorly monitored -also attracts relatively less poor rural women to the scheme, some entering the labor market for the first time. In a Dholpur village (Rajasthan), students found that when SC/ST women first joined the MGNREGA work force, Thakur women stayed aloof; but soon, they too joined and got away with shirking work while the SC/ST women did the hard labor. Likewise, in Idukki (Kerala), students reported that almost all economically-inactive middle class women joined the MGNREGA labor force."},{"index":2,"size":132,"text":"Since the residual labor markets pay significantly higher wages to male workers than to their female counterparts, MGNREGA sites were doubly more attractive to women workers. In Palakkad villages, the labor market got vertically segmented: women, old and the infirm choosing MGNREGA but able-bodied men demanding higher wages in farm jobs. Likewise in Rajsamand and Dungarpur (Rajasthan) where migration to urban centers like Udaipur, Ahmedabad and Surat offers lucrative opportunities for men, much of the MGNREGA workers were found to be women and older men who had discontinued migration. Women found MGNREGA work attractive since it gave them extra cash they could spend on themselves and on household items for which they earlier had to depend on their husbands and had to wait for them to return home during festivals (Verma 2010)."},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"Wage data from our surveys in 75 villages shows that not only have the wages in the residual market been rising steadily, the ratio of male wages to female wages has been declining (Figure 3). This is a positive outcome of the pressure MGNREGA exerts on the residual labor markets."}]},{"head":"C. Less clear impact on migration","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Students reported that farmers in popular migrant destinations repeatedly complained about reduction in the inflow of migrants and the demand for higher wages and better facilities by the migrant workers. At the same time, students in migrant-source locations found no significant reduction in out-migration. Shah and Indu (2010) Farmers are now using JCBs to get their earth work done (Shah and Indu 2009)."},{"index":2,"size":81,"text":"Our overall impression was that while MGNREGA implementation reduced distress migration, opportunistic migration continued as before. MGNREGA wages could not match up to the wages able-bodied men could earn by migrating to urban centers, where the wages are much higher. Moreover, administrative bottlenecks might have tempered any potential impact on out-migration. In Mandla (Madhya Pradesh), MGNREGA implementation initially reduced out-migration but delays in payment of MNGREGA wages led the people back to their migrant ways. Similar delays were also reported elsewhere."}]},{"head":"ATTITUDE OF THE RICH AND THE POOR","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"The principal-agent problem comes to full play in MGNREGA. Moral hazard is openly evident as is adverse selection. A working hypothesis we had was that works on private lands would be better monitored compared to CPR works. In some villages of 24 Paraganas district in West Growing labor scarcity and the consequent rise in wages were the obvious grouses, as were the growing laziness of laborers and a decline in the work ethic. Our survey in 75 villages of Bihar, Gujarat, Kerala and Rajasthan tried to better understand the perceptions of the rich and poor regarding MGNREGA and its various aspects."},{"index":2,"size":75,"text":"In focused group discussions, we asked about the most beneficial and most worrisome aspects of MGNREGA in each village (Figure 4). Not surprisingly, most groups nominated 'availability of work close to home' as the most beneficial aspect of MGNREGA; 'empowerment of village communities, including women' was second; closely followed by 'creation of useful rural assets'. In terms of the worrisome aspects, the most prominent was a dilution in work ethic expressed as 'labor becoming lazy'."},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"Nearly half the groups complained about the 'lack of sufficient work' and one-third felt that MGNREGA offered 'low wages'. These groups demanded that MGNREGA be implemented more forcefully and at a larger scale. Interestingly, corruption and malpractices in MGNREGA did not figure prominently; and were reported by only one-fourth of the groups as worrisome."},{"index":4,"size":141,"text":"Next, we interviewed more than 600 landless and marginal farmers -the most likely beneficiaries of the wage benefits of MGNREGA -and asked them to list down reasons why they found it attractive; and reasons that made it unattractive to them (Figure 5). As in the group discussions, 'availability of work close to home' was found to be the most attractive aspect of MGNREGA. This was followed by 'MGNREGA offers higher wages' than the prevailing residual market wage rates; somewhat contradicting the results from the group discussion. Laborers acknowledged that MGNREGA wages acted as the new wage-floor and offered negotiating power to the laborers vis-à-vis their employers. The laborers also appreciated the 'improved work-site facilities'; putting pressure on residual labor market to provide the same. Several laborers, especially women, acknowledged that 'MGNREGA work is lighter' compared to the residual farm labor market."},{"index":5,"size":99,"text":"Our respondents found frequent delays in MGNREGA wage payments and the non-availability of sufficient quantum of work as the most unattractive aspects of MGNREGA; several laborers were also unhappy with the unclear/ arbitrary manner in which actual wages were calculated, leading to suspicions of corruption and malpractices. In some villages, laborers suspected that Note: The values on the y-axis represent the percentage of villages that chose the particular variable. Water Policy Research Highlight-8 large farmers colluded with the MGNREGA administration to ensure that no works were carried out during the peak agricultural season. This significantly reduced their bargaining power."},{"index":6,"size":109,"text":"Finally, we interviewed roughly 350 large farmers -the people most likely to hire laborers to work on their farms -in order to understand their perceptions about the impact of MGNREGA implementation (Figure 6). These farmers, not surprisingly, thought that the biggest impacts of MGNREGA have been the growing scarcity of labor and Note: The values on the y-axis in (a) and (b) represent a composite index which was calculated based on ranks given by the respondent to the different variables. The of respondents giving each variable a particular rank (1-4) was divided by the rank itself and the totals were added to form the composite index for each variable."},{"index":7,"size":41,"text":"the resultant hike in wages and benefits. Several of them acknowledged improvements in local water security and appreciated the creation of useful rural assets. The erosion of work ethics among laborers and their growing laziness was another key impact they reported."}]},{"head":"CONCLUSION","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"It is clear from our field studies and survey results that in several places, post-MGNREGA rural labor markets come with significantly altered rules-of-the-game. By offering 100 days of convenient and accessible work close to home at competitive wages, MGNREGA has: (a) brought into the labor force a new segment of previously economically inactive people, including a large number of women; (b) tightened the residual labor markets and lifted depressed wage rates; (c) set wage-floors and provided greater bargaining power to the laborers by introducing a high opportunity cost for their time; and (d) affected the labor work ethic and segmented the village labor markets into two. These impacts, however, have not been the same throughout the country and the nature of local labor markets has deeply influenced the attractiveness, effectiveness and impacts of MGNREGA."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"We identified four distinct kinds of interactions between MGNREGA and local labor markets. Their respective implications have been summed up in Table 2."},{"index":3,"size":86,"text":"As Table 2 shows, the net impact of MGNREGA can be maximized if it is implemented in the areas where it is most needed, at a substantial scale, and with strict adherence to the MGNREGA protocol, in letter and in spirit. A target-driven, supply-push to MGNREGA in areas where there is little demand would result in adverse Data Sources: IWMI-IRMA student surveys in 4 states: Bihar (Kumar and Chandra 2010); Gujarat (Gaur and Chandel 2010); Kerala (Nair and Sanju 2010); and Rajasthan (Singh and Modi 2010)."},{"index":4,"size":144,"text":"Note: The values on the y-axis represent a composite index which was calculated based on ranks given by the respondent to the different variables. The number of respondents giving each variable a particular rank (1-4) was divided by the rank itself and the totals were added to form the composite index for each variable. impacts on the local labor markets and the agrarian economy. Finally, in the long run, the success of MGNREGA may be measurable in terms of its reduced demand. Regions and communities that require MGNREGA work today should be able to improve their economic condition and reduce their need for unskilled, minimum-wage employment over time. This would happen only if the labor markets become more productive and the MGNREGA assets are able to enhance the profitability of agriculture by providing enhanced water security, improving land productivity, connecting villages to markets etc. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 Figure 1 Districts covered as part of field studies undertaken by IRMA students "},{"text":"Figure Figure 2 Performance of MGNREGA over the years "},{"text":"Figure 3 Figure 3 Impact of MGNREGA implementation on male and female wages in the market "},{"text":"Figure 4 ( Figure 4 (a) Most beneficial and (b) Worst aspects of MGNREGA implementation "},{"text":"Figure 5 Figure 5 Reasons why MGNREGA work is (a) attractive and (b) unattractive for laborers "},{"text":" Figure 6 Key impacts of MGNREGA for medium and large land-owning farmers 200 180 160 140 120 100 80 40 20 0 Creation of Useful Assets Improved water security Scarcity of labor Higher wages and benefits Labor has become lazy Other Impacts "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":"the MGNREGA Table 1 Four distinct types of MGNREGA-labor market interactions Type I -Misfit Type II -Insignificant Type III -Potentially Significant Type IV -Significant market and the residual labor market. By removing a market and the residual labor market. By removing a block of labor supply from the residual labor market, block of labor supply from the residual labor market, MGNREGA has created labor shortages and pushed up MGNREGA has created labor shortages and pushed up wage rates in the residual market. Further, administrative wage rates in the residual market. Further, administrative pressures to implement MGNREGA works can create pressures to implement MGNREGA works can create incentives for site supervisors and managers to be lenient incentives for site supervisors and managers to be lenient in work measurement. This means that the MGNREGA in work measurement. This means that the MGNREGA segment of the rural labor market, over time, becomes less segment of the rural labor market, over time, becomes less productivity-sensitive vis-à-vis the residual market. This, productivity-sensitive vis-à-vis the residual market. This, among other factors, has attracted women and less able among other factors, has attracted women and less able men to MGNREGA works which explains the high share men to MGNREGA works which explains the high share of female participation in MGNREGA (Figure of female participation in MGNREGA (Figure significant, it has altered the local labor significant, it has altered the local labor markets in several ways. It has increased work markets in several ways. It has increased work participation rates by offering attractive, accessible and participation rates by offering attractive, accessible and convenient work opportunities, thereby shifting the labor convenient work opportunities, thereby shifting the labor supply curve outward. It has partitioned the pre- supply curve outward. It has partitioned the pre- MGNREGA labor market into two: Wage Rates W > W LOCAL MGNREGA W > W MGNREGA LOCAL W > W MGNREGA LOCAL W MGNREGA > W LOCAL MGNREGA labor market into two: Wage Rates W > W LOCAL MGNREGA W > W MGNREGA LOCAL W > W MGNREGA LOCAL W MGNREGA> W LOCAL Conditions Booming local labor market offering much greater opportunities MGNREGA work insignificant vis-à-vis local demand MGNREGA potentially significant implemented but poorly MGNREGA significant vis-à-vis local demand ConditionsBooming local labor market offering much greater opportunitiesMGNREGA work insignificant vis-à-vis local demandMGNREGA potentially significant implemented but poorlyMGNREGA significant vis-à-vis local demand Examples Kutch (Gujarat), Uttarkashi (Uttarakhand), Kangra (Himachal Pradesh) Godda (Jharkhand), Koraput (Orissa), Nalanda (Bihar), Narmada (Gujarat) Narmada (Gujarat), Mandla (Madhya Pradesh) Dholpur (Rajasthan), Palakkad (Kerala), Chitoor (Andhra Pradesh), Jalna (Maharashtra) ExamplesKutch (Gujarat), Uttarkashi (Uttarakhand), Kangra (Himachal Pradesh)Godda (Jharkhand), Koraput (Orissa), Nalanda (Bihar), Narmada (Gujarat)Narmada (Gujarat), Mandla (Madhya Pradesh)Dholpur (Rajasthan), Palakkad (Kerala), Chitoor (Andhra Pradesh), Jalna (Maharashtra) "},{"text":"Share of women in MGNREGA employment Total expenditure (billion US$) (1 US$ = Rs. 50) Number of households offered employment (millions) Pesondays of employment generated (billions) 2.84 2.84 2.57 2.57 2.16 2.11 2.162.11 1.44 1.44 91 91 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 50% 50% 10 47.88% 48.10% 47.73% 48.18% 1047.88% 48.10% 47.73% 48.18% 9 48% 948% 8 7.58 7.88 7.51 46% 87.587.887.5146% 7 7 6 4 5 3.17 5.45 42% 44% 40.65% 42.52% 6 4 53.175.4542% 44%40.65%42.52% 3 40% 340% 2 1 1.76 38% 2 11.7638% 0 36% 036% 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-122006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 "},{"text":" reported that in many villages of Punjab and Haryana, MGNREGA is reducing inflow of migrant labor; and even those workers who come often prefer to work on MGNREGA works. In Rithal village of Rohtak district in Haryana, farmers depended heavily on migrant labor from Madhya Pradesh. These migrants however started working on MGNREGA works in Rohtak. Farmers felt that poor people and migrants prefer MGNREGA work at Rs. 135 per day rather than farm work at Rs. 200 per day, because the former is lighter and less rigorously supervised. "},{"text":"Table 2 Implications of different MGNREGA-Local labor market interactions If MGNREGA is artificially pushed by administration, it will likely lead to poor implementation and will encourage corruption and malpractices; (-) It will also distort work ethic among laborers and reduce productivity of agriculture MGNREGA unlikely to have significant impact on local labor market because its scale is negligible vis-à-vis local surplus labor availability; (±) Substitutive impact is likely but at a low level; (±) Wages in the residual market unlikely to be affected and will continue to remain depressed; (+) Clamor for more forceful implementation Segmentation of the labor market into: (a) less productivity-sensitive MGNREGA market comprising largely of women, elderly and less-abled; and (b) highly productivity-sensitive residual market comprising of ablebodied youth; (-) Possible decline in work ethic if MGNREGA works not supervised well; (-) Higher input costs in agriculture, higher prices of agricultural produce Type Community Response Implications TypeCommunity ResponseImplications (-) MGNREGA unlikely to excite local village community; (-) MGNREGA unlikely to excite local village community; (-) Negligible impact on (already tight) local labor markets; (-) Negligible impact on (already tight) local labor markets; (+) Might bring new entrants to the labor force, including women who were (+) Might bring new entrants to the labor force, including women who were Type I: Misfit Lukewarm economically inactive, elderly and disabled; Type I: MisfitLukewarmeconomically inactive, elderly and disabled; (-) Type II: Insignificant Demand more forceful implementation Disappointment and (±) MGNREGA has potential to have significant and positive impact for laborers; (-) But this does not happen because of administrative bottlenecks and/ or (±) Type III: systemic corruption; disillusionment; Potentially expectation of better (-) Village community will initially get excited by MGNREGA but feel significant implementation disillusioned; (-) Type II: Insignificant Demand more forceful implementation Disappointment and (±) MGNREGA has potential to have significant and positive impact for laborers; (-) But this does not happen because of administrative bottlenecks and/ or (±) Type III: systemic corruption; disillusionment; Potentially expectation of better (-) Village community will initially get excited by MGNREGA but feel significant implementation disillusioned; (-) Laborers will return to residual labor market and/ or migration due to (-) Laborers will return to residual labor market and/ or migration due to poor implementation poor implementation (+) MGNREGA catalyzes widespread interest; (+) MGNREGA catalyzes widespread interest; (+) Higher wages and better work conditions for laborers; (+) Higher wages and better work conditions for laborers; (+) Fixing of wage-floor at MGNREGA level and greater bargaining power (+) Fixing of wage-floor at MGNREGA level and greater bargaining power for laborers; for laborers; Non-wage benefits of (+) Reduction in distress migration; Non-wage benefits of(+) Reduction in distress migration; MGNREGA will attract (+) Reduction in ratio of male-female wage rates; MGNREGA will attract(+) Reduction in ratio of male-female wage rates; Type IV: entire village (±) Creation of rural assets can potentially benefit entire community if Type IV:entire village(±) Creation of rural assets can potentially benefit entire community if Significant community; boon for implemented well; Significantcommunity; boon forimplemented well; laborers; bitter-sweet for (±) laborers; bitter-sweet for(±) large land owners large land owners "}],"sieverID":"141da573-7523-4290-873a-d32e315e8dcf","abstract":"When it was launched in 2004, the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) was expected to materially alter the working of rural labor markets. Besides offering a modicum of employment security, it was expected to absorb some of the labor supply slack, lift equilibrium wage rate in the open market, put more purchasing power into the hands of the labor class, and reduce 'distress migration'. It was also expected that medium and large farmers would view MGNREGA as a rival, creating peak-season labor shortages, pushing up farm wage rates and making farming even more unviable.Have all these happened? In 2009-10, and then again in 2010-11, IWMI deployed more than 50 masters students of rural management to survey the landscape of these interactions. This highlight offers a quick synthesis of what the students found."}

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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0101b0dfb8d0610246ca3c3f9183fd14","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d66d160f-f732-44d0-b39b-9f8be844e87f/retrieve"},"pageCount":5,"title":"Cryopreservation and In Vitro banking: a cool subject -Preface from the editors","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"Plant breeding depends largely on having access to a wide variety of plant genetic resources, which are vulnerable to losses caused by biotic and abiotic threats when grown in the field or in a greenhouse. Thus, cryopreservation or in vitro banking is a safe strategy for long-term conservation of such genetic resources, which serves as back-up collections for field genebanks and reduces risks of genetic drift or losses of precious genotypes."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"There are many reports describing efficient cryopreservation protocols but few of them are already routinely used for long-term conservation. A common problem is the difficulty of transferring technology and validating protocols from one laboratory to another. Indeed, there are many critical factors involved including: the quality and type of plant materials, pretreatment and preculture conditions, cryopreservation methods, cooling, storage and warming conditions, and regrowth assessment methods. In addition, adequate facilities and skilled technical staff are required."},{"index":3,"size":166,"text":"Shoot tips and embryogenic cultures are the tissues most frequently used in plant cryopreservation, but small leaf square-bearing adventitious buds, stem disc-bearing adventitious buds, microtubers and rhizome buds are alternative explants together with root explants, seeds, pollen or winter dormant buds directly collected from field plants. Maintenance of the genetic stability, as well as biochemical, physiological, and metabolic characteristics in regenerants after cryo-storage are the major concerns. All these aspects have been addressed in the 26 articles included in this Special Issue of Plant Cell Tissue and Organ Culture. While still online only, they have already attracted great interest as about 5000 reads and more than 10 citations have been recorded. This Special Issue starts with four review articles, which are followed by 10 studies where meristems, shoot tips or budwood belonging to different species were the cryopreserved explants, five using embryogenic tissues or somatic embryos and seeds, and two reports on the cryopreservation of pollen, while five manuscripts addressed more fundamental aspects of these issues."},{"index":4,"size":121,"text":"In a comprehensive review, Wang et al. (2021a) discussed advances in cryopreservation techniques that have facilitated the conservation of a range of explants and germplasms presently preserved in cryobanks. The droplet freezing method, developed for cryopreservation of sweet potato meristems, is based on inclusion of explants in microdroplets of the cryoprotectant DMSO, placed in groups of 4-5 drops over aluminum strips. When PVS2 or PVS3 (Plant Vitrification Solution 2 or 3) are used to form the microdroplets, the method is named droplet vitrification. After a historic overview of the general background in cryopreservation, the authors examined droplet vitrification-based techniques and cryo-plate-based methods, then compared results among them. Readers will value the various schemes and comprehensive tables included in this review paper."},{"index":5,"size":74,"text":"In a similarly compelling review, Bettoni et al. (2021) examined the challenges that still require optimization for successful implementation of the cryopreservation procedures to shoot tips. The difficulties for technology transfer between laboratories, which has often slowed down and sometimes even impeded protocol validation, were discussed and most critical factors involved were clearly identified. These practical aspects should attract the attention of readers and assist the implementation of cryopreservation of shoot tips in cryo-banks."},{"index":6,"size":55,"text":"This was followed by the review of Tanner et al. (2021) addressing cryopreservation of dormant buds, a cryotechnique that is presently suitable for deciduous trees and shrubs but is a season-dependent work. Solutions to specific key parameters must be defined according to institutional resources when attempting to perform large scale implementation of dormant bud cryopreservation."},{"index":7,"size":106,"text":"Adventitious and hairy roots have scientific and commercial interests as an alternative source of plant-derived bioactive compounds with potential application in pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and natural health product industries. The review of Popova et al. (2021) summarizes the results of recent studies on cryopreservation of plant roots and highlights the importance of continued research in this area. Although cryopreservation procedure did not significantly affect growth, biosynthetic and genetic stability of roots following recovery in an ambient growth environment, root tips are very sensitive to any stress caused by various steps of a cryopreservation protocol, and careful optimization of each step, particularly exposure to vitrification solution, is necessary."},{"index":8,"size":117,"text":"In this special issue, Sharma et al. ( 2021) compared conventional vitrification with droplet vitrification in Gentiana kurroo Royle, a critically endangered medicinal plant endemic to the North-Western Himalayas, where poor seed germination and harvesting of rhizomes has rendered this species severely threatened in the wild. The droplet vitrification method permitted an almost two-fold higher survival rate in the three accessions studied, provided it included 4 weeks of cold acclimation of shoot tips from 8-week-old stock plants at 8 °C in the dark and 30 min treatment in plant vitrification solution at 0 °C. Genetic fidelity of the regenerated plants was confirmed and the protocol developed is being applied for long-term conservation of this species in cryo-banking."},{"index":9,"size":149,"text":"Aimed at an efficient micropropagation procedure for maintaining the biodiversity and elite genotypes of Physalis angulata L., Romo-Paz et al. (2021) developed methods for cryopreservation via droplet vitrification of this species of food and medicinal interest and found that exposure of shoot tips from one-month-old in vitro plants to PVS2 for 30 min was superior. Rantala et al. (2021) applied a modified PVS2 droplet vitrification method for cryopreservation of 22 blackcurrant (Rubus nigrum L.) accessions propagated in vitro and selected from the Finnish national gene bank core collection. Differently from the classic procedure, each foil contained three droplets each with 3-4 shoot tips. Recovery of shoot tips after 9 weeks was at least 75% in 7 accessions and 40% in 19 out of 22 accessions. Thus, cryopreservation by this technique is useful for blackcurrant long-term ex situ conservation but differences in shoot-tip recovery among cultivars must not be underestimated."},{"index":10,"size":49,"text":"Maślanka and Szewczyk (2021) described a vitrification protocol for cryopreservation of Tulipa tarda Stapf. apical meristems derived from bulblets. Cold-hardening bulblets at 5 °C for 10 weeks secured 100% regrowth of cryopreserved meristems, avoiding risks of somaclonal variation in adventive de novo shoots formed from callus due to cryoinjury."},{"index":11,"size":71,"text":"The explant size and age of the mother plant affect the survival after cryopreservation as shown by Pathirana et al. (2021) in five Actinidia species, where the use of both smaller shoot tips and younger mother shoots, pretreated in liquid sucrose media in the dark significantly improved plant regeneration after droplet vitrification cryopreservation of kiwifruit. The method described is currently being used for long-term conservation of kiwifruit germplasm in New Zealand."},{"index":12,"size":145,"text":"In a groundbreaking study, O'Brien et al. ( 2021) reported the successful cryopreservation of avocado shoot tips from mature material, with more vigorous plants obtained using a newly developed vitrification solution instead of PVS2. This work may pave the way for the setup of a world's first germplasm repository to store a core collection of Persea spp. Tanaka et al. (2021) adapted the D-cryo-plate protocol to garlic (Allium sativum L. cultivar White) enabling the storage of shoot tips either at −80 °C or in liquid nitrogen, subsequently extended to four genotypes of A. fistulosum L. (Japanese shallot) and A. chinense (rakkyo). Interestingly, the glass transition temperature of garlic samples conserved by D cryo-plate method is −39.4 to − 44.7 °C, and thus much higher than that by vitrification (around − 115 °C) allowing long-term conservation of germplasm in a deep freezer at − 80 °C."},{"index":13,"size":80,"text":"Evaluating the growth and development of plants obtained following cryopreservation is crucial. In this issue, Wang et al. (2021b) showed that cryopreserved shallot plants maintained their rooting capacity, vegetative growth, bulb production, genetic stability, and biochemical compounds, being true-to-type. Mathew et al. (2021) reported that combining cryotherapy with chemotherapy or thermotherapy significantly improved the efficiency of eradication of raspberry bushy dwarf virus (RBDV) from the infected in vitro-cultured red raspberry (Rubus ideaus), as determined by TaqMan-based real-time One-Step RT-PCR assay."},{"index":14,"size":46,"text":"Maintenance of germplasm of fast-growing in vitro tissues in genebanks is generally problematic and requires frequent subculturing. To sidestep this, de Lacerda et al. ( 2021) developed an in vitro conservation method using mineral oil and low temperature for nodal segments of two species, 1 3"},{"index":15,"size":204,"text":"Pfaffia glomerata and Lippia filifolia. They found that the tissues can be maintained for up to 360 days in 5 ml mineral oil at 15 °C, with 100% survival for the former and > 50% for the latter, and this without the formation of any morphoanatomical abnormalities despite the low oxygen availability imposed by submersion in oil. Ree and Guerra (2021) reported that regrowth of embryogenic clusters of peach palm (Bactris gasipaes Kunth) was improved by adding inorganic ions in diluted PVS3, with larger embryogenic clusters responding better than smaller ones. Increasing the length of rewarming time had no significant effect on survival, suggesting that the most critical events occur within the first minute of rewarming. Manokari et al. (2021) established an efficient protocol for asymbiotic seed germination of the grey orchid (Vanda tessellata (Roxb.) Hook. ex G.Don). Subsequently, they induced somatic embryogenesis resulting in 91% of encapsulated somatic embryos regenerating after 1 year of cold storage at 4 °C. Peng et al. (2021) improved regeneration rates of somatic embryos and cryopreserved embryogenic tissues of Korean pine, Pinus koraiensis, with 90% survival after cryopreservation. This could resolve the problem of gradual loss of somatic embryogenesis potential of Korean pine after 6 months of subculture."},{"index":16,"size":123,"text":"In a study with Ensete a crop wild relative of banana, Singh et al. (2021) proved the utility of air-dehydration as a critical step in the cryopreservation of seeds and excised zygotic embryos in two accessions of this species, which are now conserved in vitro in the Genebank of ICAR-NBPGR, in India. Gladfelter et al. (2021) achieved somatic embryogenesis from immature zygotic embryos of Stewartia, a genus of flowering shrubs and trees in the family Theaceae which includes species that are difficult to propagate and others which are rare or endangered. They tested 17 genotypes from six different Stewartia species for their cryopreservation ability and recovered 100% of embryogenic tissues of five genotypes from four species after cryo-storage for at least 1 year."},{"index":17,"size":93,"text":"Araújo de Oliveira et al. ( 2021) optimized in vitro pollen germination conditions for five date palm cultivars (Phoenix dactylifera L.). After storage in liquid nitrogen vapor (LNV) their viability remained stable for 9 months. Pollen also remained viable when cooled to and warmed from LNV for up to 60 cycles, suggesting that this protocol could be implemented to prolong the duration of storage across multiple seasons and secure pollen long-term preservation of the 49 male trees in genebank cryostorage at the National Laboratory for Genetic Resources Preservation in Fort Collins, CO (USA)."},{"index":18,"size":181,"text":"Plants are complex biological systems comprising thousands of different genes, proteins, regulatory molecules, and chemical compounds that form hundreds of interlinked pathways and networks. Cryopreservation-induced oxidative stress disrupts intracellular homeostasis and the balance between reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and clearance. As antioxidant systems affect cryopreservation success, monitoring the activity of key enzymes can help to understand plant metabolism during cryopreservation thus improving recovery of cryopreserved plant material. The final five articles in this issue address these aspects from different viewpoints using different species. Ren et al. (2021) reported the cryopreservation-induced production of malondialdehyde and protein carbonyls, oxidation products of cell wall lipids and cellular proteins, respectively, in pollen of three Paeonia suffruticosa cultivars differing in amenability to cryopreservation. It is suggested that the oxidative damage of membrane lipids and proteins caused by ROS is the main reason for loss of viability after cryopreservation. Thus, efficient clearing of cytotoxic ROS components via the enzymatic antioxidant superoxide dismutase and the non-enzymatic antioxidants glutathione and ascorbic acid, helped to maintain the balance of intracellular oxidative metabolism, and membrane lipid and cellular protein integrity."},{"index":19,"size":186,"text":"In lettuce seeds, Han et al. (2021) showed that parthenolide, a repressor of ring-finger-type ubiquitin E3 ligase, can disrupt the expression pattern of COP1 and cold responsive genes and reduce the level of small molecular chaperons and the proteolysis of seed globulins. RNA-seq and RT-PCR data showed that parthenolide affected the function of endoplasmic reticulum associated degradation, while proteomic studies indicated that it inhibited the proteolysis of seed storage globulins responsible for the reduced freezing tolerance of the hydrated lettuce seeds. Padilla et al. (2021) encapsulated nodal segments of neem (Azadirachta indica A. Juss.) in vitro plantlets in alginate beads, and stored them for 4 weeks at 12 °C. The viability increased to 75% when the nodal segments were pre-treated with 25 μM acetylsalicylic acid for 4 weeks prior to encapsulation compared to just 20% in the control. This improved antioxidant defense of buds and seemed to protect the cell membranes, as observed by the lipid peroxidation results. This study provided an easy, cheap and practical method to preserve in vitro culture material and collections of this species for laboratory exchange but also for short-term storage."},{"index":20,"size":89,"text":"In their work with Arabidopsis, Zhang et al. (2021) reported that application of two recombinant dehydrins (members of the late embryogenesis abundant [LEA] proteins) from Agapanthus praecox doubled the survival rate of seedlings by decreasing damage to the cell membrane during cryopreservation. Dehydrins reduced excessive ROS production and peroxidation damage of membrane lipids under the complex stress damage resulting from cryopreservation. Hence, when added during the dehydration step, dehydrins can relieve cryo-injury through the induction of high antioxidant levels and positive oxidative stress responses whereby they act as protectants."},{"index":21,"size":87,"text":"Also working with Arabidopsis, Ekinci et al. ( 2021) revealed microRNA-based post-transcriptional regulation during different stages of cryopreservation of seedlings that germinated in vitro. They screened 10 miRNAs and their selected target genes and proved that the alteration of the expression levels of cold-induced and oxidative stressinduced genes related-miRNAs (especially miR393) play a key role in the success of cryopreservation. Noteworthy, results observed with miRNAs associated with drought and developmental stages also pointed to a decreased stress tolerance due to the prolonged germination time during shortterm cryostorage."},{"index":22,"size":123,"text":"The study of Kamińska et al. (2021) addressed the storage of Taraxacum pieninicum synthetic seeds under slowgrowth conditions, in combination with abscisic acid (ABA) treatment. Darkness favoured synseed storage and did not generate additional stress during cold exposure compared to light conditions. ABA inhibited the growth of encapsulated shoot tips during cold storage and biochemical parameters showed that such treatment effectively reduced the negative effect of cold stress. Moreover, synseeds stored under light conditions and treated with ABA exhibited decreased level of endogenous jasmonic acid, indicative of an interaction between those two phytohormones at low temperature. Such limited growth contributed to an extended storage of the T. pieninicum explants up to 9 months, without affecting postconservation regrowth and flowering after acclimatization ex vitro."},{"index":23,"size":111,"text":"For many species, encapsulation technologies can be a promising tool for the management of plant material of high quality, the production in nurseries of plants from in vitro culture, or the conservation of plant genetic resources. Such \"synthetic seeds\" proved to be of great value in the medium-(slow-growth storage) and long-term (cryopreservation) conservation of germplasm of fruit, ornamental, horticultural and forestry species in small spaces. However, more research is still needed. Cryopreservation projects must have clear goals, long-term funding, skilled technical support staff, necessary infrastructure, and well-defined procedures and protocols, so that they can be routinely implemented in plant cryobanks and help to establish backup collections of valuable plant genetic resources."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"c4b3d515-70a5-4c99-a8dd-ebde977b872f","abstract":""}

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+ {"metadata":{"id":"01220040804fe2b609dcc239e0fd88d8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/798b4159-4a7b-4556-92c3-7fa630c6d026/retrieve"},"pageCount":7,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"También, identificar lss limitaciones que retardan el proceso de liberación, para promover una adopción más rápida."}]},{"head":"MATERIALES Y METODOS","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Para describir el proceso de liberaci6n, se utilizaron los componentes y eventos definidos por Ferguson (1985)."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"Se complementa con una revisión de la literatura y observaciones del suscrito."},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"En gramfneas se presentaron los siguientes casos: Pucallpa."}]},{"head":"1~","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"En América latina hasta el momento, el proceso de liberación informal tiene más tradición e impacto."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"Funciona prfncipalmente por la importación de semi lla comercial realizada por Las empresa5"},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"•• mlllist .. y con la mlnima participaci6n de la. Instltucion .. Nacionales de Investigación (IMI'a)."}]},{"head":"Une concientizaci6n","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Mayor del proceso de liberación fo~mal está evolucionando, como consecuencia natural de las grandes expansiones en actividades de evaluaci6n de nuevo germoplasMa realizado por las INI/s. Recientemente varios cultivares rfuevos de gramíneas y leguminosas han sido sometidos al proceso de liberación formal."}]},{"head":"3.","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Las fases de revisión y toma de decisión en el proceso de liberaci6n presentan muchas variaciones en su realización. El periodo de tiempo transcurrido entre la entrega de aemilla básica e fnicia de suministro de semilla comercial, es muy variable y f recuentement e tarda va r i 08 arios .."},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"propio en eada caso."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"Se requiere de un ané' isis 6. La forma clásica de la certif;caci6n de semillas casi no se practica en América Latina con cult;vares de forrajeras troplcalet."},{"index":4,"size":52,"text":"Esto se debe principalmente a que la mayorfa de los cultivares pertenecen a especies diferentes y la escasez. de recursos pire organizar programas de certificaci6n. En Brasil se practican programas de flscalización4 En Colombla y Bolivia solo existen normas para mercadeo de semf 1l8$ para contenido de semi lla pura y germinaCión."},{"index":5,"size":21,"text":"A veces, algunos recursos de programas de certificaci6n deben ser más utilizados para promover la producci6n de semilLas de nuevos cultivares."},{"index":6,"size":1,"text":"7."},{"index":7,"size":13,"text":"Se identifica (y llama mucho la atenci6n) un fenómeno llamado II Factor Novedad."},{"index":8,"size":19,"text":"Se refiere a las limitaciones causadas dentro de 10$ procesos de liberación y adopcl6n, por el poco conocimiento por "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" esfuerzos en la obtención de semilla básica son muy variados e incluyen: (a) Compra directa al CIAT; (b) Multiplicación propia de las IMIta: (c) Algunos casos de contratos de producción y compra.En la mayorfa de las INI/s y programas de pastos de otros países .. hace falta prioridad y recursos para la mUltiplicación de semilla básica de nuevos cultivares.Los investigadores en pasturas son muy poco conscientes de su importancia. aemllte b'.iea Involucra v.riactone. en ta identidad de los receptores iniciales, incluyendo, (a) taa empresa. "},{"text":" A~ sayanus c.v. Planaltina, L. brizantha cv. Merandó, ~~ pbaseoloides kudztl común,!.. capitsta cv. Capica y ,L. 9ufanensí' cv. 111. RESULTADOS 111. RESULTADOS los casos se presentan indivfdualmente en un formato de estilo común. ~. los casos se presentan indivfdualmente en un formato de estilo común. ~. decumbens común, decumbens común, ( , ) Brachiaria ( , ) Brachiaria decumbens, común; (2) AndroDogon geyanus cv.o Planaltin8; (3) Brachiaria decumbens, común; (2) AndroDogon geyanus cv.o Planaltin8; (3) Brachiaria brizantha cv.o Marandú; (4) Brachiaria dictyoneura ev. Llanero. En brizantha cv.o Marandú;(4) Brachiaria dictyoneura ev.Llanero.En leguminosas se presentaron 108 siguientes casos: ( 5 ) Puerarfa leguminosassepresentaron108siguientescasos:( 5 )Puerarfa phaseoloides común kudzú; (6) Stylosanthes capitata cv. Capica; (7) phaseoloides común kudzú; (6) Stylosanthes capitata cv. Capica; (7) Stylosanthes guianensis cv. Pucallpa; (8) Centrosema acutifolium cv. Stylosanthes guianensis cv. Pucallpa; (8) Centrosema acutifolium cv. Vichada. Vichada. 1conferencia presentada en el XII Seminario Panamericano de 1conferenciapresentadaenelXIISeminarioPanamericanode Semillas, 2-6 Noviembre, 1987, Montevideo, Uruguay. Semillas, 2-6 Noviembre, 1987,Montevideo,Uruguay. 2 Agrónomo, Secci6n Producci6n de Semillas, Programa de Pastos 2Agrónomo,Secci6n Producci6n deSemillas,Programa de Pastos Tropicales, CIAT, A.A. 6713, Cali, Colombia. Tropicales, CIAT, A.A. 6713, Cali, Colombia. "},{"text":" Brachfaria brizentha eV. M.fandó. Campo Grande, MS. 31p.FERGUSON, J.E. 1985. An overview of the release process for new cultivars of tropical torages. seed set. and Technol. 13:744•757. FERGUSON. J.E.¡ SERE, C. and VERA, R. 1985. The retease process and initfal adoption of AndroDogon gayanus in tropical Latin Americe. PrQc. XV fnt. GRasslanda Congress, kvoto, Japan. p. 222-223. 8. Cuando se presente el \"Factor Novedad\", se promueven las stlutentea 8.Cuando se presente el \"Factor Novedad\", se promueven las stlutentea acciones de la$ INI's como parte de la fase de seguimiento acciones de la$ INI's como parte de la fase de seguimiento post-liberación: post-liberación: al Ofrecer asistencia técnica a los receptores de semfl.a b6siea alOfrecer asistencia técnica a los receptores de semfl.a b6siea • (los primeros productores de semilla comercial) para aaegurar •(los primeros productores de semilla comercial) para aaegurar una utilizaci6n eficiente de este recurso limitante y un una utilizaci6n eficiente de este recurso limitante y un suministro más rápido de semilla comercial. suministro más rápido de semilla comercial. b) Organizar prograMas de validación en fincas y de transferencia b)Organizar prograMas de validación en fincas y de transferencia de tecnologia de pasturas mejoradas, incluyendio el cultivar de tecnologia de pasturas mejoradas, incluyendio el cultivar nuevo, para concientizar a los ganaderos de sus bondades como nuevo, para concientizar a los ganaderos de sus bondades como fo,.,..j era y ensegui da fomentar más demanda para semi lla. a fo,.,..j era y ensegui da fomentar más demanda para semi lla. a nivel comercial. nivel comercial. IV _ RE fERENC lAS IV _RE fERENC lAS CENTRO INTERNACIONAL DE AGRICULTURA TROPICAL (CIAT). Informe Anual CENTRO INTERNACIONAL DE AGRICULTURA TROPICAL (CIAT).Informe Anual 1985_ Postos Tropical •• , p. 340-343, CIAT, Cali, Colombia. 1985_ Postos Tropical •• , p. 340-343, CIAT, Cali, Colombia. DOUGlAS, J.E. 1980. Sucessful 'seed programo A p1enning and management DOUGlAS, J.E.1980.Sucessful 'seed programoA p1enning and management gulde (Ea. J~E. Oouglas), Westiew Press, p. 114, 244-245, 289. gulde (Ea. J~E. Oouglas), Westiew Press, p. 114, 244-245, 289. EYlES, A.S. 1979. Forsge cutt~v8rs released for use lO Queensland, EYlES, A.S.1979.Forsge cutt~v8rs released for use lO Queensland, Tropical Gra.sland, 13, 176-177_ Tropical Gra.sland, 13, 176-177_ parte de los ganaderos y de las empresas semillistas, de las parte de los ganaderos y de las empresas semillistas, de las especies y cultivares nuevos (especialmente leguminosas), por no EMPRESA BRASILEIRA DE PESQUISA AGROPECUARIA (EMBRAPA). 1984. especies y cultivares nuevos (especialmente leguminosas), por no EMPRESA BRASILEIRA DE PESQUISA AGROPECUARIA (EMBRAPA). 1984. tener historia previa en el sector agropecuario. Por consiguiente, tener historia previa en el sector agropecuario.Por consiguiente, estos cultivares son \"productos novedosos\" en el mercado, debido a estos cultivares son \"productos novedosos\" en el mercado, debido a que los consumidores potenciales (las ganaderos) no tienen quelosconsumidorespotenciales(lasganaderos)no tienen experiencia ni conocimiento previo de su utilidád~ \\n casos experiencia niconocimiento previo de su utilidád~\\n casos extremos, este factor puede originar una demanda baja o nula de extremos, este factor puede originar una demanda baja o nula de semillas de un cultivar nuevo y restringir las inversiones en semillas de un cultivar nuevo y restringir las inversiones en producción de semilla comercfal. producción de semilla comercfal. • 3 . • 3 . "}],"sieverID":"3f9c4486-5a0f-4deb-ae52-d0abff1d7863","abstract":"REFEREMCIA BIBllOGRAflCA FERGUSON, J.E. 1987. Estudio de ca$OS en el proce.o de liberaci6n de nuevos cultivares de pastos tropicales .."}

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+ {"metadata":{"id":"01357f5a65f45a4ee617712f6daa644a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/bfc3e8cd-4e7e-4989-83c6-b4147a69f42b/retrieve"},"pageCount":46,"title":"COSCA: PROJECf AGENCIES AND COLLABORATORS","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"List or Tables","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"Cameroon: Area under cassava prodlJCtion compared to total area cropped Cameroon: Annual cassava production and sales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cameroon: Characteristics of agro-ecological zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Tanzania: Dry method of processing cassava in the lake zone areas. Tanzania: Wet method of processing cassava roots . . . . . . . . . Uganda: Relative importance of cassava with respect to production and area cultivated,I980 "}]},{"head":"PREFACE","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"THE Collaborative Study of Cassava in Africa (COSCA) is an inter-institutional effort. The aim is to provide baseline information on cassava over a wide area Such information is needed to improve the relevance and impact of agricultural research on the crop in Africa in order to realize the potential of cassava in increasing food production and incomes of the people of Africa."},{"index":2,"size":100,"text":"The COSCA working paper series is published informally by COSCA to quickly disseminate its intermediate output. Publications in the series include methodologies for, as well as preliminary results of, the various components and phases of the COSCA surveys. The series is aimed at scientists and researchen working with national agricultural research systems in Africa (NARS), the international research community, policy makers, donors and members of international development agencies that are interested in cassava. As these papers are not in their fmal form, comments are welcome. Such comments should be addressed to the respective authors or to the COSCA project leader."},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"Individuals and institutions may receive single copies free of charge by writing to:"}]},{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"THIS volume is par! one ofthe edited papers of the third planning meeting ofthe Collaborative Study of Cassava in Africa (COSCA), held at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, !hadan, from September 4 to 10 1988. 1 The meeting took the form of a workshop aimed at assessing the status of cassava research in the COSCA countries and at outlining the methodologies of the proposed COSCA study. While this volume is a collection of papers presented by various national scientists on the stams of cassava research in COSCA countries, part two focuses on the methodologies for COSCA."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"The status of cassava research in Africa, as reported at the meeting shows that the research conducted on cassava in the COSCA study countries (i.e. Cameroon, Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria, Tanzania, Uganda and Zaire) was mainly limited to biological studies and on-station trials and experiments. Information is lacking at the farmer, processor, consumer and market levels. The study will therefore, involve the collection of primary data at the farmer, processor, consumer and market levels in three phases and will be conducted over a period of three years."},{"index":3,"size":89,"text":"Phase I will entail a broad characterization of the cassava producing zones to generate a sample frame and hypotheses for subsequent phases. Information will be collected by group interviews at the village level and by key informant interviews at the institutional level. Phase II will involve characterization of individual production, processing, marketing and consumption units. Collection methods will include direct observation, field measurements and individual interviews. Phase III will be an extension of phase II, but involve more intensive surveys and repeat interviews/visits to collect data on seasonal variables."},{"index":4,"size":80,"text":"COSCA is multidisciplinary and multi-institutional, however, all of the data being collected and analyzed will be integrated into one study. The sample procedure will be carefully co-ordinated and the site selection systematically zoned to ensure the integration of the data, such that Phase 11 of the survey will be conducted on a subsample of Phase I, and Phase III likewise, will be conducted on subsamples of phase II. Each hypothesis will be tested using the information collected at different phases."},{"index":5,"size":38,"text":"The output of the various phases will be disseminated through a working paper series, research reports, journal articles, books, and conference proceedings, especially the triennial symposia of the African Branch of the International Society of Tropical Root Crops. "}]},{"head":"III o Coffee","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Ii:] \"\"\"."},{"index":2,"size":2,"text":"• Cotton "}]},{"head":"Cassava marketing","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"Wholesalers coUect the various cassava products from the local markets/producers and take them to the cities where they are resold either wholesale or retail. Processed cassava products especiaUy those that are easily prepared into meals, e.g. gari, have a ready market in the urban centres. Poor transportation and market information systems hinder the movement of these products to targer markets. Farm to market roads are not well-developed and transportation costs are high. In most cases, the farmer sells his fresh produce at agive-away price. In many villages located along major roads, processed cassava products are sold in front of the processor's house.lnformal trade in cassava products exists between Cameroon and neighbouring countries, especiaUy Gabon."}]},{"head":"Cassava research","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":165,"text":"Research on cassava is carried out in Cameroon by the Cameroon National Root Crop Improvement Program (CNRCIP), which was started in 1973. One major objective of CNRCIP is to develop production systems acceptable to smaUholder, low resource farmers. CNRCIP promotes and distributes high-yielding cassava cuttings; identifIes and breeds disease and insect resistance into cassava varieties; promotes the development of cultural practices which maximize returns from improved or local cassava varieties with Il)inimum input; introduces and promot~s improved processing and preservation techniques to reduce postharvest losses, and advises consumers and processors on how to improve the nutritive quality of cassava products. Some high-yielding varieties have been developed and released by the program. A method for the incorporation o( soybean into cassava flour to improve its nutritive quality has been developed. A description of the farming system is available for the Central, East and North West Provinces. Data on production are available from the u. Ie manioc bouilli a l'eau; Ie manioc frais, cuit a la braise;"}]},{"head":"Fresb Cassava Roots","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"Ie manioc frais bouilli et pile seul ou aVeC du plantain ou de I' igname (foutou); la pate de mauioc (toh) obtenue ii partir de la farine de manioc; Ie \"placali\" qui est la pate obtenue avec du manioc broye et fermente; Ie gari ; et I' \"attieke\" qui est une sorte de semoule de manioc."}]},{"head":"Commercialisation","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Le mauioc ne fait que I' objet d'un commerce interne. En raison de la grande repartition de sa production dans Ie pays, les echanges sont surtout de courte distance. On D'a pas de circuits longs comme dans Ie cas du plantain et de I' igname. Chaque ville, dans une region donnee, est approvisionnee a partir de son arriere.pays immediat."}]},{"head":"Disponibilite de donnees sur Ie manioc","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":261,"text":"Des series chronologiques sur une longue periode existent pour la plupart des variables qui nous interessent dans les domaines suivants: CASSAVA is a major staple food crop in Ghana and in terms of area planted, ranks oext to maize (tables 3.1 and 3.2). The value of the gross output of fresh cassava roots ranged from 2.6 million cedis in 1985 to 117 miIlioo cedis in 1987 (1.00 cedi = 0.0025$). The 1987 f.gure represeots a 22 per ceot share in the agricultural gross domestic product, the highest amoog all agricultural products (table 33). Cassava is grown tbroughout Ghana, although production is concentrated in the south (fig. 3.1 and table 3.4). Brong-Ahafo, Ashanti and the Eastern Region produce about 65 per cent of the total output, while the Central, Western and Volta Regions produce 29 per cent. In the southern parts of Ashanti, Volta, Greater Accra, Central, Western and Eastern regions the area planted with cassava exceeds 40 per cent of all area under cultivation (table 3.5). The Volta Region has the highest number of farmers growing cassava (45,417) as the predominant crop (fig. 3.2). Ashanti Region follows with 43,533 farmers growing cassava as the predominant crop. Cassava is grown in pure stands or intercrDpped -either as the dominant Dr subsidiary crop. Data from 1986 crop surveys indicate that cassava is mainly interplanted as a subsidiary crop (table 3.6). Where cassava is planted in rotation, it is usually the last crop before fallow. This is probably because cassava is a hardy plant tbat tends to do well even under poor soil conditions. "}]},{"head":"Cassava processing","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Cassava processing is done mainly by small-scale traditional processors, most of whom are women. The Volta Region, where cassava is widely consumed, also produces most of the processed cassava products. Areas around Pokuasi in the Eastern Region are also known for gari processing. All over Ghana, however, wherever cassava is grown, pockets of processors, particularly gari processors, meet local consumer needs."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"Attempts to establish large-scale gari processing factories have largely failed for various reasons. The principal one being an inadequate supply of cassava roots. Transporting the fresh roots to processing sites also poses a problem, as feeder roads are lacking in most areas. Bediako (1978) highlighted the drudgery involved in gari processing and the desire expressed by traditional processors to own grating machines."},{"index":3,"size":93,"text":"In collaboration with the African Regional Center for Technology (ARC'T), the Ghana Food Research Institute is establishing a pilot demonstration project for gari production. An objective of the project is to set up a small to medium-scale unit for the production of gari and other cassava products consistent with the current and planned pattern for cassava production in the rural areas of Africa. A second obj ective is to use the u,nit as a training center for processors and technicians with a view to accelerating the dissemination of information about the improved technology."}]},{"head":"Utilization of cassava","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":275,"text":"Traditionally, cassava is used in the form of fresh roots, peeled and boiled (ampesi); fresh roots roasted and peeled and eaten; fresh roots boiled and pounded into JUJU; peeled tubers cut into pieces and sun-dried and dried chips milled into I1our, used to prepare kokon/e, a food similar to fufu Gari is, however, the most popular processed cassava product in Ghana. It normally takes 4 to 5 days to process. The cassava roots are washed, peeled and grated and the grated meal is then put into muslin, jute or grey baft bags. Liquid starch is then pressed out of the grated mash by placing heavy objects on the bags. The wet meal is sieved to remove the larger pieces. Tbe fme grain is spread out to dry and later fried into gari. The end product is a gelatinized grainy I10ur which has a distinct sour taste. Gari is eaten in a number of ways. It can be mixed with cold water and sngar and taken as a meal. It can also be mixed with hot water to form a sticky mass (eba) wbich is eaten with soups or stews. It can be moistened and mixed with an oily stew containing tomatoes, onions and spices. This mixture is lightly fried and is known as gari-fOrioT. Gari is also mixed with milk and sugar and eaten like porridge, hot or cold. Agbelima (cassava dough) is another food product made from cassava by washing, peeling, grating and soaking, however, the starchy liquid is not removed, but the entire grated mass is allowed to ferment lightly. It is either used alone to prepare akple or mixed with maize dough."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"An unfermented cassava I10ur is made by grating, drying and sieving the cassava roots to produce a fme meal. A little water and salt are added and the mixture is moulded into I1at cakes and steamed. This food is called yakayake and is eaten with soup or stew. As an alternative to steaming, the salted mixture can be moulded into balls and deep-fried in palm kernel or coconut oil to make agbole kaklo."},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"The Ghana Food Research Institute has developed I10urs from cassava that can be used in the preparation of fufu and akple. The processed flours are easier to transport and store longer than fresh roots or dough. One of these I1ours, instant fufu flour, is now being marketed under the trade name of 'Lukapap'. The acceptability to the public of this product is yet to be evaluated."},{"index":4,"size":36,"text":"Cassava leaves and roots are also used in livestock feed. The leaves and tender stems are fed to sheep, goats and rabbits. Dried cassava chips are also used as a carbohydrate component in compounding livestock rations."},{"index":5,"size":96,"text":"A principal by-product of gari processing is liquid starch from which two other products, tapioca and laundry starch are produced. The liquid starch extracted during gari preparation is allowed to sediment and the supernatent liquid is decanted. The liquid starch is then dried and fried over a low fIre to form tapioca granules. Instead of frying, the starch may also be dried and used as laundry starch. The extent of production of industrial starch and glue in Ghana is not known. Preliminary enquiries indicate tbat the starch used in the textile factories is probably all imported."},{"index":6,"size":124,"text":"There is no up-to-date data on the actual domestic consumption of cassava products. This is because no household consumptiOlfsurveys have been carried out in recent years. In 1962, a household expenditure survey showed that cassava together with its products accounted for another 12 per cent of expenditure on local food, while all the cereals witb tbeir products taken together accounted for 12 per cent. The survey sbowed that of the food crops, expenditure on cassava was only second to kenkey, a popular staple food prepared from maize (Ghana 1(62). Although these fmdings may well be out of date, they can still serve as an indication of the importance of cassava in the diet of the ordinary Gbanaian. More current bousebold consumption surveys are needed."},{"index":7,"size":93,"text":"Table 3.8 presents demand projections for fresb cassava roots. The surplus indicated sbould be viewed with caution, for it is not clear whether the projection of demand is for fresb cassava for use as fufu or ampesi alone, or includes fresh cassava used in the processing of otber products, sucb as gari, agbelima or kokonte. Owing to its bulky and highly perishable nature, the transportation of fresh cassava roots is usually restricted to the urban centres located near production areas. Fresb roots from farms and villages are evacuated to feeder roads by beadload."},{"index":8,"size":56,"text":"In the case of Accra, fresh roots may be transported for distances of up to 40 km by truck or rail. The major source of fresb cassava roots for Accra is the Eastern Region, as far as Koforidua. The bulk of agbelima and gari supplied to Accra is from the soutbeast, mainly from the Volta Region."},{"index":9,"size":41,"text":"While tbe exact flow of processed cassava products is not known, their distribution is probably wider than that of fresh roots. There is a brisk but informal trade in gari and agbelima along the Ghana-Togo border, mainly by means of headload."},{"index":10,"size":169,"text":"The Ghana Export Promotion Council believes that an export market for gari in the Western countries could be developed. Other cassava products whicb bave export potential, but are not produced in commercial quantities for export are cassava starch, cassava chips and cassava pellets. Ghana exported 55 and 53 tonnes of cassava to European countries in 1986 and 1987 respectively (see table 3.9). The major thrust of research on cassava by the Gitana Food Research Institute, Accra has been in the area of postharvest management including storage, processing and utilization. Studies conducted on storage of fresh cassava roots at the institute aim at improving the traditional methods of storage (Ankra et al. 1980;Ankra 1980;Ankra et al. 1981;Ankra 1984). In a study on the storage of cassava roots by Amewushika and Osei-Opare (1987), basket and wood sbavings were used as a medium for storing fresh cassava roots. This resulted in a longer storage period of up to 6 months, which maintained a high quality tuber suitable for making fufu and ampes-i."},{"index":11,"size":174,"text":"Most of the postharvest research efforts in cassava processing have concentrated on the development of dry cassava products to replace fresh roots in the preparation of fufu and akple. The now commercialized in• stant fufu powder, 'Lukapap', mentioned earlier, is the result of such research. Another flour, debydrated fermented cassava dough has been developed. This product was found to be acceptable for the preparation of akple in terms of texture and nutrients. It is not being produced commercially at present. Lartey (1969) also made an attempt at developing an instant breakfast food from gari. He milled gari into fine flour and blended it with sugar, powdered milk and salt. The product can be used in baking or as an instant breakfast food or as a thickening agent in soup. Results of this study have not been commercialized. Experiments on the use of cassava starch to fortify locally milled wheat flour for biscuits and cakes have also heen successful (Andah 1975). Flour with 10 per cent starch provided superior baking qualities than wheat flour alone."},{"index":12,"size":61,"text":"Student studies (Amaning-Kwarteng 1974, Essien 1974, Obuobi 1974, Dadzie 1975, F1eishcher 1975, Odoi 1976, Dodoo 1981, Yinka 1982, and Adarkwa-Ntiamaoh 1985) on the use of cassava in livestock feeding were carried out in the Department of Animal Science, University of Ghana. Finally, Blay and Budu (1987) have recently conducted a study on drying methods for the production of more wholesome kokonte."},{"index":13,"size":83,"text":"Agronomic research on cassava includes studies on fertilizer requirements, plant density, planting methods and cassava based intercropping. The absence of economic studies on cassava in Ghana is rather striking. The economic implications of all the agronomic studies will have to be evaluated if more meaningful and acceptable recommendations are to be made to farmers. Current use and availability of vital inputs including land, labor, fertilizer and credit need to be examined to explain the rather small size of holdings and apparently low yields."},{"index":14,"size":136,"text":"Evaluation of the cost of production of traditional products such as gari, agbelima and kokonte will help determine possible areas for cost reduction. Similar evaluations should also be conducted on new products being developed to determine their economic feasibility. Studies on demand and supply for cassava products should be initiated. Price and income elasticities of demand are required for the evaluation of the impact of price and income policies. For the same reasons supply response parameters need to be estimated. Interregional flows and consumption rates of cassava and its products have to be established to determine deficit/surplus regions and implications for policy. The profitability of using cassava in feed rations needs to be evaluated. Substitution of maize for cassava in feeds must be based on relative returns from the final product and not on cost reduction. "}]},{"head":"Cassava production","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"In Nigeria, cassava can grow as far as latitude 13° north of the equator and, as high up as 2,000 m above sea level. However, soil and climatic factors, such as rainfall, restrict its production mainly to areas lying between the guinea savanna and the rain forest vegetation zones."},{"index":2,"size":164,"text":"Cassava growing areas in Nigeria can be grouped into three: major, medium and marginal, based on production levels and percentage of households cultivating cassava. The major cassava producing states are in order of importance -Bendel, Imo, Oyo, Anambra, Benue, Rivers and Cross River. In these states, the estimated annual production ranges from 100,000 tannes in Cross River to 463,(0) toones in Bendel. In all these states, with the exception of Cross River, more than 50 per cent of the households are reported to cultivate cassava (table 4.1). Medium cassava producing states are Kwara and Ondo where the annual production figures lie between 50,000 and 100,000 tonnes. Over 50 percent of the households in these two states are estimated to cultivate cassava. The remaining states are classified as marginal cassava producers as the annual production is estimated at less than 50,000 tonnes. Apart from Lagos and Ogun states, less than 50 per cent of the households are estimated to cultivate cassava (table 4.1). Cassava utilization"},{"index":3,"size":144,"text":"Cassava is used mainly for human consumption, although small proportions of the total prOduction are used in livestock feed and as industrial raw material. Cassava in its various processed forms is used to prepare a wide range of meals in Nigeria, eba, prepared from gari, is the most popular cassava meal in all of Nigeria. It is estimated that about 70 per cent of the total cassava harvest is processed into gari (Ngoddy 1977). Lajun, prepared from flour, is very popular especially in the western states of Nigeria. Fufu prepared from cassava fermented in water, is very popular in the eastern states and Bendel, especially in the rural areas. Tapioca, cassava roots parboiled, sliced, fermented overnight in water, washed and dried is also popular in the eastern states and Bendel. Pure cassava starch is cooked and eaten with banga soup, mainly in Bendel State."},{"index":4,"size":39,"text":"The processing of each of the products from which these meals are prepared involves some fermentation. In addition to processed cassava products, fresh roots of low cyanide varieties are eaten raw, boiled or roasted in some parts of Nigeria."},{"index":5,"size":111,"text":"Cassava is now used as a carbohydrate base in compounding livestock feed, as a partial substitute for maize. By-products from cassava processing are widely used to feed chicken and goats in the traditional sector. In the industrial sector, there are at least five large-scale cassava starch mills. There is great potential for cassava starch utilization in Nigeria's wood, paper, textile, sweetener and alcoholic beverages industries, to name a few. These industries largely depend presently on imported starch. The current erratic supply from domestic sources, is due to the large demand for cassava for human consumption. Unless supplies increase the potential for the use of cassava in industry will not be realized."}]},{"head":"Cassava trade","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"Although there are speculations about the informal trade in gari across the borders of Nigeria to other West African countries there is no record of such trade. There is extensive internal trade in cassava mainly for human consumption. This trade is largely in processed products and generally between rural and urban areas. Even in the extreme north of Nigeria where production is limited, processed cassava products are sold in urban centres."}]},{"head":"Research on cassava","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":156,"text":"The Several high-yielding, disease and pest tolerant varieties of cassava, for example, U/41044 and Um06 developed at NRCRI, and TMS 30555, TMS 30572 and TMS 30211, developed at IITA, have been released to Nigerian farmers. In addition, based on the results of uniform yield trials, NRCRI has also released as planting material four top selections labelled 8212, 8210, 8220, and 8208. These varieties are resistant to major cassava pests and diseases such as cassava mealybug (CMB), cassava green spider mite (GSM), cassava bacterial blight (CBB), and cassava mosaic virus disease (CMD). An integrated approach involving chemical and cultural control measures (early planting, and planting depth) has proved effective in combating the CMB and GSM. Bioagents, such as Epidinocarsis /opezi (the natural enemy of mealybugs) have been bred and released in some locations by !ITA in collaboration with NRCRI. This, in ad'dition to the other technologies has led to a drastic reduction in the population of CMB."},{"index":2,"size":101,"text":"Studies have resulted in the development of technologies for row planting, regular spacing, fertilizer practices for the major soil types, beneficial intercropping systems and optimum time of planting for the various ecological zones. Weed control studies at NRCRI and UTA have shown that weeds can be controlled where cassava is grown as a sole crop or an intercrop by the use of herbicides and live cover crops such as egusi melon (Coiocrilhyis cilm/us). In collaboration with the FAO, the NRCRI has developed a multi-furrow planter and harvester which has proved efficient, although some modifications may be necessary for manufacturing it locally."},{"index":3,"size":67,"text":"Whole cassava meal and cassava peel meal have been developed as a carbohydrate base for poultry feed. These can substitute up to 75 per cent for maize depending on the class of poultry and the method of production. Techniques have also been developed for processing cassava into powdered starch and for further processing the powder into cold water starch for textile finishing, home laundry purposes, and adhesives."},{"index":4,"size":102,"text":"One sq em \"'\" 100.000 toni of dried cauava. Limited farming system surveys carried out in the country indicated that farmers practised more intercropping than monoculture. Most cassava varieties grown are local in origin. Estimated average yields of dry roots per hectare for local and improved varieties under farmers' conditions are 1.4 and 5.0 tonnes respectively (MOB 1985). However, at research stations, the yields of local and improved varieties are around 2 and 10 tonnes of dry roots per hectare respectively (Msababa et aI 1985). The production of dry roots from the regions between 1975 and 1987 is summarized in figure 5.1."}]},{"head":"ReJions","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"Cassava is widely grown all over the country. The most important cassava areas are around Lake Victoria (Nwanza, Shinyanga and Mara regions); Lake Tanganyika (Tabora and Kigoma regions); Lake Nyasa (Ruvuma region); along the coastal strip of the Indian Ocean (Tanga and all Zanzibar regions); and along the Ruvuma Valley (Mtwara region). The altitude of these areas is between sea-level and 1500 metres, and rainfall is between 800 mm and 1200 mm per annum. There is not much cassava grown in the higher altitude areas of Mbeya and Iringa regions."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"Important production constraints of cassava in Tanzania are:"},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"i. Disease: The most important cassava diseases are cassava mosaic virus disease (CMO) which causes yield losses of up to 90 per cent in susceptible varieties (Jennings 1970) and cassava bacterial blight (Xanthomonas campes/Tis pv manihotis) which is equally devastating. CMD is widely distributed in the country, whereas CBB is restricted to areas around Lake Victoria and Lake Nyasa."},{"index":4,"size":66,"text":"ii. Pests: Termites, cassava green mite (Mononychellus spp) and cassava mealybug (Phenococcus maniho/J) are the most serious pests of cassava in the country. The corresponding estimates of yield losses in susceptible varieties caused by these pests are 39 to 49 per cent (AIR1984), 50 to 80 per cent (Shukla 1986), and 52 to 100 per cent (Msabaha 1987). All the pests are widespread except cassava mealybug."},{"index":5,"size":24,"text":"iii. Agronomy: Most farmers do not follow recommended agronomic practices. Frequently, cassava is planted late and left to grow with weeds particularly in monoculture."},{"index":6,"size":47,"text":"iv. Lack of improved planting materials: There is no institution responsible for the multiplication and distribution of the improved materials to farmers. Consequently, farmers plant any variety available. In most cases sucb varieties have low genetic potential in yield or poor resistance to major pests and diseases."},{"index":7,"size":27,"text":"v. Poor marketing inrrastructure: Most cassava producing centres are in the rural areas. Transport from the production centres to marketing places in urban centres is very costly."},{"index":8,"size":12,"text":"vi. Cultural: Some tribes have customs which prohibit consumption of cassava-based products."}]},{"head":"Ulilizalion of cassava","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Cassava processing is mostly done by women. Processing metbods differ depending on the end product. The most common methods for processing cassava into dry chips and flour are summarized in figures 5.2 and 53."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"Processing for immediate use involves peeling and roasting on charcoal or frying in oil to provide a quick meal. Processing of cassava leaves involves pounding or crnshiug the leaves before cooking. Sometimes the leaves are soaked in water before cooking to reduce the HCN level."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"A small percentage of the processed cassava is utilized in domestic animal feed. In 1985, the Tanzania Animal Feeds Company used dry cassava in manufacturing animal feed for poultry and pigs (MALO 1987)."},{"index":4,"size":232,"text":"The poultry feeds contained 5 to 10 per cent cassava flour and the feeds for pigs contained 20 per cent cassava flour (Msabaha et al 1986). The manufacturing of sucb ~va-ba'sed feeds was, however, stopped because it was expensive. Cassava is processed into starch at the Tanzania Starch Manufacturing Company located in Mwanza. The factory has a capacity to process 40 tonnes of wet cassava or 15 tonnes of dry cassava per day (MALO 1987). The starch is used by some textile,. paper and coufectionery industries in the country. Factors which limit the consumption of cassava have not been thoroughly assessed. However, consumer prices of preferred cereals are relatively more subsidized than the consumer price of cassava. There is lack of Improved varieties which are high yielding and moderately resistant to CMD and green spider mite have been developed. Multiplication of improved materials on station and distribution to nearby farmers is carried out on a limited scale. A germplasm collection consisting of local and exotic (improved lIT A planting material) varieties has been established. There are about 370 varieties in the collection which have been classified as 'bitter', 'intermediate', or 'sweet', Preliminary work has been done to assess the efficiency of traditional processing methods of cassava, and on the utilization of cassava-based products in formulating livestock feed. The work was carried out at Sokoine University of Agriculture and the results are promising."},{"index":5,"size":272,"text":"Although the resources to carry out research continue to be restrictive, work continues. The breeding program aims at developing low HCN varieties which are high-yielding and resistant to major pests and diseases. Agronomy activities will focus on the improvement of cassava-based farming systems, collecting baseline data and developing systems for the use of inorganic and organic fertilizers. Surveys to establish the distribution of major pests and diseases will be carried out along with the development of Integrated Pest Management (IPM). Biological control, host plant resistance and cultural control will be the main components of the IPM. Methods to improve traditional processing and belter postharvest storage technologies will be tested. Potential uses of cassava will be studied. The multiplication of planting materials will be carried out along with on-farm evaluation of promising clones. The training of staff to carry out the researcb activities, however, will depend on the availability of scholarships/fellowsbips from donor agencies. CASSAVA is the most important root crop in Uganda. Among African countries Uganda ranks fifth in both the quantity produced and the area of land under cassava. In 1983, over 3.2 million tonnes of fresh cassava roots were produced (fig. 6.1). Total production in 1986 was estimated to increase by 30 per cent. There was a general increase both in land area and quantity produced throughout the period 1971-83. There was a sharp decline between 1976 and 1978 which can be attributed to the acute shortage of agricultural inputs in the country, particularly hoes and animal•drawn implements. The problem was further worsened by the ill effects of war in 1979, which severely reduced productivity in the entire agricultural sector."},{"index":6,"size":94,"text":"After the war, production of cassava dramatically increased from 848,000 tonnes in 1979 to 3,239,000 tonnes by 1983, a four-fold increase; and from a yield of 3,793 kglha in 1978 to 9,677 kglha in 1981. These improvements are the result of the government's present policy of reviving the entire agricultural sector through the provision of agricultural inputs and incentives. During the same period, Ugandan farmers shifted away from growing cash crops, such as cotton, which demand high labour input and yield low financial returns, when compared to food crops, such as cassava and maize."},{"index":7,"size":95,"text":"Cassava ranks second among major food crops in Uganda. It is preceded only by bananas and closely followed by sweet potatoes and finger millet. With its relatively low labor demand and high-yielding ability, cassava has more advantages than most other crops. At present it is grown in all the districts of Uganda particularly in the relatively drier Eastern and Northern Regions where it commands a major role as a staple food. In the Central Region and some colder areas of the Western Region, cassava has been largely replaced by plantains and sweet or Irish potatoes."},{"index":8,"size":130,"text":"Cassava is mainly grown by smallholder farmers on plots varying from 0.1 ha in the Lake Victoria region to 0.9 ha in the Eastern, Northern and Northwestern regions. Stem cuttings, about 30cm long, are planted horizontally in the ground at spacings of about 1m x 1m. About 30 per cent of the total cassava is planted with the first rains, 50 per cent of it is intercropped with various annual crops, such as groundnuts, beans or maize, which are harvested after three to four months to leave pure stands of cassava. Commercial planting of cassava is rare, although the Lira Starch Factory has a large estate of cassava in the Northern Region. Because of the subsistence nature of cassava cultivation in Uganda, the use of fertilizers and herbicides are rare."},{"index":9,"size":308,"text":"Cassava is generally ready for harvesting twelve months after planting. Where cassava is intended for sale, the whole field may be harvested at once; however, when intended for family use, it is harvested as needed. Traditional processing methods were found to vary among regions, depending on the varieties grown, krcal customs, and tastes. Raw sweet cassava is eaten in Lira, Apach and Iganga districts. In Iganga, raw cassava is ooly eaten during the harvest of other crops like groundnuts, millet, cotton and sorghum, when farmers spend the whole day in the fields harvesting and no cooking is done. In Apach and Lira, raw cassava is eaten as a snack and thirst quencher. Sweet cassava roots are also roasted with or without the peel. Although some. cyanide is present in unscraped roots, this is destroyed by heat. The moist soil on the surface of the root dries and falls away when it is exposed to the sun or fire for some time. The roots are then buried in hot asbes at temperatures of 100 to 150 degrees centigrade or are placed in hot cinders and turned continuously for 20 to 30 minutes. Roasted cassava is common among school children as a snack, especially among children in boarding schools. Boiled and mashed cassava is a popular food in Uganda. The roots are peeled, scraped and then washed in water. The peeled roots are cut up and split to remove the fibrous core. The roots are then put in cold water and boiled. When the roots are soft they may be masbed or pounded and eaten with a sauce. In Iganga the roots are boiled with spices and with other foods like groundnuts, simsim and mutton. Cassava roots are also steamed between banana stalks and leaves, which impart a certain flavour to the roots which is popular in Iganga and Kampala."},{"index":10,"size":107,"text":"Traditionally, the problem of storage has usually been overcome by leaving the roots in the ground until needed. If more cassava is harvested than needed, however, the excess is peeled and sliced into chips and allowed to dry for three or four days in the sun. The dried slices or chips are then stored in a cool dry place, usually in tins and granaries. When the chips are to be eaten, they are ground into flour called moko mogo or unga, which is used in preparing kwon or ugali. Kwon is prepared by adding cassava flour to boiling water un til a thick firm paste is formed."},{"index":11,"size":167,"text":"Cassava flour may also be mixed with millet or sorghum in a ratio of two parts cassava to one pari millet, or three parts cassava to one part sorghum. The proportions tend to vary depending on the availability of either cereals or cassava, or on how soft the bread should be. When the cereals have been exhausted, the pure cassava flour is eaten. In Lira and Apach, mixtures of cassava and millet or cassava and sorghum are ground and the Hour is used to make porridge. In Apach the chips are allowed to ferment for three to four days until they get mouldy. The mould is scraped off and the chips are further dried in the sun. The fermentation imparts a Havour to the Hour which the consumers rmd desirable. The cassava and grain flour mixtures are also processed into other edible products like bread, chapatis and pancakes. The proportions are indeterminate and depend on the availability of the grain Hour; sometimes pure cassava flour is used."},{"index":12,"size":29,"text":"Local alcohol, enguli, waragi or kwete, is distilled from dry cassava roots for drinking. Industrial starch is manufactured at the Lira Starch Factory, about 200 miles north of Kampala."},{"index":13,"size":65,"text":"Cassava as a source of cash income for the farmer According to a recent on-farm survey by the Uganda Root Crops Improvement Programme, out of the total cash earnings from farm produce, 80 per cent and 60 per cent are earned by farmers from the sale of cassava in Soroti/Kumi and Tororo districts respectively. Cassava is sold as fresh roots, dry chips, flour or waragi."}]},{"head":"Production constraints","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":120,"text":"i. Disease: Bacterial diseases reported in Uganda include cassava bacterial blight (CBB), bacterial leaf spots and stem gall, possibly due to Agrobacterium tumefaciens. Among viral infections, only cassava mosaic virus disease (CMD) occurs in the country. Fungal diseases recorded are brown leaf spot, concentric ring leaf spot, anthracnose, vascular wilt, root rot and white root rot. Cassava bacterial blight and cassava mosaic virus disease are the most serious diseases of cassava in the country. Cassava bacterial blight exhibits wide pathogenic variability in Uganda and detailed studies on the distribution, symptoms, methods of innoculation, epidemiology and control of CBB in Uganda have been made. The planting of CBB resistant varieties in experimental plots has demonstrated the most effective form of control."},{"index":2,"size":183,"text":"Cassava mosaic virus disease belongs to the gemini virus group and occurs throughout the country where it causes serious economic loss. The disease is transmitted by the whitefly vector, Bemisia tabaci, generally under natural field conditions through infected planting material. Past research efforts in East Africa concentrated on developing CMD resistant cassava varieties and releasing them to farmers. In the early 1950's two CMD resistant varieties known as bukolasa 8 and 11 were released to farmers to replace the common susceptible local varieties. This program proved very successful, but with the general breakdown of agricultural services in the 1970's as a result of political instability, farmers relaxed the mosaic control regulations. The result is that cassava mosaic virus has become the most serious cassava disease causing the greatest economic loss of cassava in the country today. Recent research at Mugaga, Kenya and at Serere, Uganda has indicated that CMD can be effectively controlled by the use of mosaic free planting material and roguing, When this practice is combined with the planting of resistant to moderately resistant varieties, the control can be most effective."},{"index":3,"size":105,"text":"ii. Pests: In Uganda the cassava (green) mite comprises four tetranychid mites, Mononychellus tanajoa (Bondar), Tetranychus te/arius L. (= T. unicae Koch), T. cinnabarinus (Boaisd), and Oligonychus gossypii (Zacher). Of these, only M. tanajoa, the green mite, is of economic significance in cassava. M. tanajoa is widespread and is considered to be the most destructive pest of cassava in Africa. It is most destructive during the dry season, when severe infestations cause heavy defoliation of the plants. Control measures cur~ rently being tested include releasing phytosid mites (natural enemy of the green mite) in infested areas, and by distributing the newly developed resistant variety, Ebwanateraka."}]},{"head":"STATUS OF DATA ON CASSAVA IN COSCASTUDY COUNIRIES","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"iii. Poor agronomic practices: A recent on•farm survey carried out by the Uganda Root Crop Improvement Programme indicated that the farmers' agronomic practices in the production of cassava are poor. Even simple measures such as timely planting and optimum spacing of cassava are lacking. The recent survey also showed that labor costs appear higher than the cost of using herbicides. A reduction in the number of hand weedings through timely use of herbicides could reduce weeding costs. There is a need to introduce herbicides, to advise farmers on optimal spacing and to recommend better intercropping systems. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure Figure 1.1 Figure 1.2 Figure 1.3 Figure 2.1 Figure 2.2 Figure 3.1 Figure 3.2 Figure 5.1 Figure 5.2 Figure .5.3 Figure 6.1 "},{"text":" Fig 1.1 Agr..-ologlcal zones or Cameroon "},{"text":" CASSAVA RESEARCH, PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION IN NIGERIA B. O. Ugwu, O. Ajobo and G. Orkwor Introduction CASSAVA (Manihot esculenta Crantz) was introduced into the coastal areas of Nigeria in the last half of the 16th century by the early Portuguese explorers. Since then cassava has become a major staple food crop. It supplies about 70 per cent of the daily calorie intake of over 50 million Nigerians. "},{"text":" 19 "},{"text":" National Root Crops Research Institute (NRCRI) in Umudike in eastern Nigeria is mandated by the federal government to carry out research on cassava. However, there are a number of research institutes in Nigeria which are also involved in cassava research. They include the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (!ITA), Ibadan; the Federal Institute of Industrial Research (FIIRO), Oshodi; the Project DeVelopment Agency (PRODA), Enugu; the Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR), Samaru; and the Institute of Agricultural Research and Training (IAR&T), Ibadan. Cassava research is also being carried out in some universities. Such research covers almost all aspects of cassava production, processing, distribution and consumption. "},{"text":" ON CASSAVA rNCOSCA STUDY COUNrR!ES "},{"text":" variety in the cassava-based products in the local markets and cassava-based dishes in restaurants and hotels. At present, common cassava-based products in the markets are limited to fresh cassava roots and leaves and dry cassava chips and flour. Most of the cassava products in the market are low in quality, have short shelf- "},{"text":" Figure 5.3 Tanzania: Wet method of processing cassava roots Source: MAM., Msa\".ha, V ,M. Kepakepa. and H.S.N. Las_I, 1986, "},{"text":" . Otim-Nape and I. U. A. Opio-Odongo Cassava production "},{"text":"Table 1 . 1 Table 1 . 2 Table 1 .3 .3 Table 1.4 Table 1.4 Tableau 2.1 Tableau 2.1 Table 3.1 Table 3.1 Table 3.2 Table 3.2 Table 3.3 Table 3.3 Table 3.4 Table 3.4 Table 3.5 Table 3.5 Table 3.6 Table 3.6 Table 3.7 Table 3.7 Table 3.8 Table 3.8 Table 3.9 Table 3.9 Table 4.1 Table 4.1 Table 5.1 Table 5.1 Table 5.2 Table 5.2 Table 5.3 Table 5.3 Table 6.1 Table 6.1 Table 6.2 Table 6.2 Table 6.3 Table 6.3 Table 6.4 Table 6.4 "},{"text":" STA11JS OF DATA ON CASSAVA IN COSCAS11JDY COUi'ITRIEScassava and cassava products. There are no time series data available on the production and consumption levels of cassava products, nor on the source and quantities of cassava glues and starches used in local crafts and industrial establishments. Ie manioc est Ie troisieme produit vivrier de la Cote d'Ivoire apres I'igname et la banane plantain. II reprt,sente en moyenne 20 pourcent de la production totale des racines-tubercules et du plantain. En raison de sa grande plasticite aux plans pedologique et climatique, sa culture est largement repandue dans tout Ie pays avec, toutefois, une certaine predominance pour la region Sud qui a fourni, en moyenne, 40 pourcent de la production nationale de 1960 ii. 1984. Les autres zones importantes sont Ie Centre et 1'0uest (tableau 2.1, figures 2.1 et 2.2).ConsommationAvec une consommation par habitant 30 kg par an, Ie manioc est run des aliments de base en COte d'Ivoire auquel les menages affectent environ 15 pour cent du budget consacre aux produits vivriers. Les formes de consommation sont nombreuses et varient selon les ethuies et les regions. Les principales formes sont par ordre croissant de complexite: Filter Sediment DIJ' I 5lJu:I:h FilterSedimentDIJ'I 5lJu:I:h 2 2 Table 1.3 Cameroon: Characteristics of agro-ecological zones Zone Area (ha) Altitude (m) Rainfall (mm) LE MANIOC EN COTE D'JVOIRE Area cropped (ha) Table 1.3 Cameroon: Characteristics of agro-ecological zones Zone Area (ha) Altitude (m) Rainfall (mm) LE MANIOC EN COTE D'JVOIREArea cropped (ha) Sudano...sahelian 3,426,000 Mainly low <900 411,700 Sudano...sahelian3,426,000Mainly low<900411,700 Guinea sudanian Adamaoua plateau 6,199,200 6.779,800 Kouadio Tano et N'dri Coulibaly low 900 to 1500 .± 1000 1000 to 1500 150,000 83,000 Guinea sudanian Adamaoua plateau 6,199,200 6.779,800 Kouadio Tano et N'dri Coulibaly low 900 to 1500 .± 1000 1000 to 1500150,000 83,000 Southern plateau 22,503,200 SOO to 850 1500 to 2500 518,400 Southern plateau22,503,200SOO to 8501500 to 2500518,400 Coastal lowland 4,513,000 010500 .±2500 282,000 Coastal lowland4,513,000010500.±2500282,000 Western highlands Production 3,119,000 1200 to 1800 1500 to 2500 521,700 Western highlands Production3,119,0001200 to 18001500 to 2500521,700 46,540,200 SELON les statistiques officielles de la production agricole, TOTAL 1.966,800 46,540,200 SELON les statistiques officielles de la production agricole, TOTAL1.966,800 Source: Based on 1984 agricultural census data. Source: Based on 1984 agricultural census data. Table 1.4 Cameroon: Daily calorie intake Table 1.4 Cameroon: Daily calorie intake from root,tuber and plantain crops, from root,tuber and plantain crops, 1979-1981 1979-1981 Source Calorie/Capita/Day SourceCalorie/Capita/Day Cassava 235 Cassava235 Yam 83 Yam83 Cocoyam 128 Cocoyam128 Sweet Potatoes 34 Sweet Potatoes34 Plantain 193 Plantain193 Total Roots, Tubers Total Roots, Tubers and Plantains 673 and Plantains673 Overall calorie Overall calorie consumption from consumption from all sources 2410 all sources2410 Source: FAO, Food Balance Sheets, 1979..81. Source: FAO, Food Balance Sheets, 1979..81. "},{"text":"Figure 2.2 Cote d'll'oire: Rendement moyen en manioc en quintaux I ha Institut des Savanes de Bouake (IDESSA), ce programme est execute dans Ie cadre d'un reseau multilocal. 11 porte a la fois sur les techniques culturales et l'amelioration varietale, Les recherches realisees de 1977 a 1984, ont permis de disposer de recommandations pratiques sur la culture du manioc en Cote d'Ivoire. Ces recommandations concernent Ie choix et la preparation du sol et du materiel vegetal, la plantation (dates, modalites et densites), la fertilisation, I'entretien et la lutte contre les maladies et les parasites. Deux groupes de variNes etaient conseillees aux paysans. II y a d' une part les varietes a potentiel de production moyen (15 a 25 t/ha); elles sont tardives (18 mois), et a utilisation polyvalente (consommation en srATUS OF DATA ON CASSAVA IN COSCA SIlJDY COUNTRIES srATUS OF DATA ON CASSAVA IN COSCA SIlJDY COUNTRIES Etat de la recherche sur Ie manioc Etat de la recherche sur Ie manioc De fa<;on generale, on peut dire que la recherche sur Ie manioc a ete tres timide et les resultats relativcmcnt mayens. Ainsi au niveau agroeconomique, I'essentiel des travaux realises ant ete concentres sur la description De fa<;on generale, on peut dire que la recherche sur Ie manioc a ete tres timide et les resultats relativcmcnt mayens. Ainsi au niveau agroeconomique, I'essentiel des travaux realises ant ete concentres sur la description des systemes de production, de transformation artisanale et de distribution dans les centres urbain •. Seuls des systemes de production, de transformation artisanale et de distribution dans les centres urbain •. Seuls quelques travaux recents abordent l'analyse economique des systemes de production ainsi que I'efficacite des quelques travaux recents abordent l'analyse economique des systemes de production ainsi que I'efficacite des procedes de transformation artisanale. procedes de transformation artisanale. La recherche agronomique a, de son cote, conduit un programme plus structure sur I'amelioration et Ie La recherche agronomique a, de son cote, conduit un programme plus structure sur I'amelioration et Ie • Production: statistiques de productions et superficies pour I'ensemble des vivriers de 1947 ii. 1985. • Pluviometrie: donnees pour les principales villes de 1951 ii. 1987. • Population: recensement general de la population en 1975 et 1987 et apres 1987. > 100 ~ 9(1•100 .. 80-90 II 6O-SO ¢! GUIGLU • 29 B 40-50 D < 4il d'aprts stl:llistiques .ll.wicotes, 1979 Source: lDESSA KORHOGO • 23 developpement de la culture. Confie a I' Regions 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1984 I DC, Section Manioc Sud 209 237.0 Z715 366.3 400.7 509.8 Eo. 23 24.5 33.0 58.6 44.5 54.3 Centre Ouest 19 22.0 22.0 58.2 137.5 162.2 Ouest 83 85.0 81.5 156.t 151.6 188.5 Centre 78 86.0 102.0 268.3 204.6 250.3 Nord 38 45.0 30.0 31.0 71.1 84.9 Ensemble manioc 450 499.5 540.0 938.5 1010.0 1250.0 ~ 50-<0 • Consommation: enquete budget consommation aupres des menages en 1979, et depms, enquete permanente aupre. d' un echantilloD plus reduit de menages. Les quantites de produits ainsi que Ensemble racines 2243 2580.0 2<)22.7 4545.5 4980.0 4190.0 tubercules plantain • Production: statistiques de productions et superficies pour I'ensemble des vivriers de 1947 ii. 1985. • Pluviometrie: donnees pour les principales villes de 1951 ii. 1987. • Population: recensement general de la population en 1975 et 1987 et apres 1987. > 100 ~ 9(1•100 .. 80-90 II 6O-SO ¢! GUIGLU • 29 B 40-50 D < 4il d'aprts stl:llistiques .ll.wicotes, 1979 Source: lDESSA KORHOGO • 23 developpement de la culture. Confie a I' Regions 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1984 I DC, Section Manioc Sud 209 237.0 Z715 366.3 400.7 509.8 Eo. 23 24.5 33.0 58.6 44.5 54.3 Centre Ouest 19 22.0 22.0 58.2 137.5 162.2 Ouest 83 85.0 81.5 156.t 151.6 188.5 Centre 78 86.0 102.0 268.3 204.6 250.3 Nord 38 45.0 30.0 31.0 71.1 84.9 Ensemble manioc 450 499.5 540.0 938.5 1010.0 1250.0 ~ 50-<0 • Consommation: enquete budget consommation aupres des menages en 1979, et depms, enquete permanente aupre. d' un echantilloD plus reduit de menages. Les quantites de produits ainsi que Ensemble racines 2243 2580.0 2<)22.7 4545.5 4980.0 4190.0 tubercules plantain les depenses de consommation sont suivies. • Prix: suivi permanent des prix au consommateur des principaux vivriers depuis 1960, ii. Abidjan et Pourcentage manioc 45 47 50 39 39 40 les depenses de consommation sont suivies. • Prix: suivi permanent des prix au consommateur des principaux vivriers depuis 1960, ii. Abidjan et Pourcentage manioc 45 47 50 39 39 40 dans quelques autres villes. Certaines donnees de prix au producteur existent egalement ; depuis 2 dans quelques autres villes. Certaines donnees de prix au producteur existent egalement ; depuis 2 ans on a dans donnees regulieres sur les prix de gros des produits vivriers. ans on a dans donnees regulieres sur les prix de gros des produits vivriers. \"\" \"\" "},{"text":"Table 3 Crop 1984 1985 1986 Crop198419851986 Maize Cassava 724,000 813,000 405,000 356,000 450,000 375,000 Maize Cassava724,000 813,000405,000 356,000450,000 375,000 Sorghum 251,000 250,000 240,000 Sorghum251,000250,000240,000 Millet 231,000 222,000 240,000 Millet231,000222,000240,000 Yam 223,000 111,000 120,000 Yam223,000111,000120,000 Rke 69,000 87,000 90.000 Rke69,00087,00090.000 Source: Ministry of Agriculture. Source: Ministry of Agriculture. Tahle 3.2 Ghana: Ranking of crops by total output Tahle 3.2Ghana: Ranking of crops by total output Gross Production ('000 tonne) Gross Production ('000 tonne) Crop 1984 1985 1986 Crop198419851986 Cassava 4,065 3,075 3,040 Cassava4,0653,0753,040 Maize 574 395 495 Maize574395495 Sorghum 176 185 190 Sorghum176185190 Millet 139 120 140 Millet139120140 Yam 725 S60 Yam725S60 Rice 76 80 Rice7680 Source: Ministry of Agriculture. Source: Ministry of Agriculture. 11 11 "},{"text":"Table 3 Agricultural gross domestic productSource: Ministry of Agriculture, 1981. .3 Ghana: Contribution of various components ofagricnlture to AGDP, 1987 .3Ghana: Contribution of various components ofagricnlture to AGDP, 1987 PRODUCT Cassava Maize Fish Cocoa Cotton Tobacco Sorghum/Millet Rice Oil palm Yam Plantain Cocoyarn Vegetables Poultry (birds) Sheep (head) Goats Cattle Forest!! Others Total 1 Unless otberwise stated 3 Production/(tonDes) 1 2,943,000 553,000 350,000 210,000 2,000 2,000 300,000 81,000 51,000 1,0C)1,000 1,005,000 1,000,000 125,000 6,000,000 500,000 500,000 200,000 2 C 1.00 = US $0.0025 3 Estimate AGDP = Revenue (C Million)2 117,720 21,120 28,000 74,000 450 272 9,000 5,670 4.590 70,070 60,300 50,000 12.500 3,600 4,000 3,000 10,000 60,000 544,292 Share in AGDP (%) 22 4 5 14 2 1 1 13 11 9 2 1 1 1 2 11 100 PRODUCT Cassava Maize Fish Cocoa Cotton Tobacco Sorghum/Millet Rice Oil palm Yam Plantain Cocoyarn Vegetables Poultry (birds) Sheep (head) Goats Cattle Forest!! Others Total 1 Unless otberwise stated 3 Production/(tonDes) 1 2,943,000 553,000 350,000 210,000 2,000 2,000 300,000 81,000 51,000 1,0C)1,000 1,005,000 1,000,000 125,000 6,000,000 500,000 500,000 200,000 2 C 1.00 = US $0.0025 3 Estimate AGDP = Revenue (C Million)2 117,720 21,120 28,000 74,000 450 272 9,000 5,670 4.590 70,070 60,300 50,000 12.500 3,600 4,000 3,000 10,000 60,000 544,292Share in AGDP (%) 22 4 5 14 2 1 1 13 11 9 2 1 1 1 2 11 100 "},{"text":"Table 3 ,4 Ghana: Area planted and production of cassava by region, 1986 and 1987 annual ,4Ghana: Area planted and production of cassava by region, 1986 and 1987 annual average average Region Area ('000 hal Production ('000 lannes) % of Total production RegionArea ('000 halProduction ('000 lannes)% of Total production Western 52 338 10.8 Western5233810.8 Central 45 335 10.0 Central4533510.0 Eastern Greater Accra 82 6 489 32 18.3 1.1 Eastern Greater Accra82 6489 3218.3 1.1 Volta 40 255 8.8 Volta402558.8 Ashanti 75 600 21.7 Ashanti7560021.7 Brong-Ahafo 85 722 245 Brong-Ahafo85722245 Northern Upper East U.E£:.r West 22 o o 139 o o 4.7 0.0 0.0 Northern Upper East U.E£:.r West22 o o139 o o4.7 0.0 0.0 Total 407 2,910 100.0 Total4072,910100.0 Source: Ministl)' of Agriculture, 1987. Source: Ministl)' of Agriculture, 1987. "},{"text":"Table 3 national average field size of 2,4 hectares of cassava per farmer was reported in 1986, In 1987, fresh root Yields ranged from a low of 5.5 tonne/lIa in Greater Accra to 8.5 tonne/ha in Brong-Ahafo (table 3.7)_ .6 Ghana: Cassava production systems by region, 1986 .6Ghana: Cassava production systems by region, 1986 Pure stands As domi,nant in crop As subsidiary crop in mixture Pure standsAs domi,nant in cropAs subsidiary crop in mixture miXture miXture Re~ion Area ~hal % Area !h'l % Area ,ha2 % Re~ionArea ~hal%Area !h'l%Area ,ha2% Western 3,400 7 19,200 37 28,400 56 Western3,400719,2003728,40056 Central 21,000 45 4,000 8 22,000 47 Central21,000454,000822,00047 Eastern 26,000 35 10,000 14 37,000 51 Eastern26,0003510,0001437,00051 Greater Accra 2,000 39 900 17 2,300 44 Greater Accra2,00039900172,30044 Volta 16,000 45 8,000 22 12,000 33 Volta16,000458,0002212,00033 Ashanti 4,500 6 19,400 28 46,100 66 Ashanti4,500619,4002846,10066 Sroog-Ahara 0 0 7,500 9 77,500 91 Sroog-Ahara007,500977,50091 Northern 0 0 1,000 5 19,000 9S Northern001,000519,0009S Upper West 0 0 0 0 0 0 Upper West000000 UEEer East 0 0 0 0 0 0 UEEer East000000 Total Ghana 72,900 18 70,000 18 244,300 63 Total Ghana72,9001870,00018244,30063 Source: Ministry of Agriculture, 1987. Source: Ministry of Agriculture, 1987. Table 3,7 Ghana: Estimated yields of fresh Table 3,7 Ghana: Estimated yields of fresh cassava roots by region, 1986 and 1987 cassava roots by region, 1986 and 1987 annual average annual average Region tonne/ha Regiontonne/ha Western 65 Western65 Central 75 Central75 Eastern 6.0 Eastern6.0 Greater Accra 5.5 Greater Accra5.5 Volta 6.5 Volta6.5 Ashanti 8.0 Ashanti8.0 Brong-Ahafo 8.5 Brong-Ahafo8.5 Northern 65 Northern65 Upper East Upper East Upper West Upper West "},{"text":"Table 3 17 17 .8 Ghana: Projections of demand and production .8Ghana: Projections of demand and production (mllonnes) of cassava, 1984-1989 (mllonnes) of cassava, 1984-1989 Year Demand Production Surplus YearDemandProductionSurplus 1984 1985 1.875 1.932 4.065 3.075 2.19 1.14 1984 19851.875 1.9324.065 3.0752.19 1.14 1986 1987 1988 1989 1.993 2.007 1.870 2.020 3.040 2.943 a 2.170'\" 2.310 3 1.05 0.94 0.20 0.20:1 1986 1987 1988 19891.993 2.007 1.870 2.0203.040 2.943 a 2.170'\" 2.310 31.05 0.94 0.20 0.20:1 :INet production allowing for postharvest losses. :INet production allowing for postharvest losses. Source: Ministry of Agriculture, 1987. Source: Ministry of Agriculture, 1987. Marketing and trade in cassava Marketing and trade in cassava "},{"text":"Table 3 .9 Ghana: Export ofgari,I985 to 1st quarter of 1988 .9Ghana: Export ofgari,I985 to 1st quarter of 1988 Year Quantity (Tonne) US$ Destination YearQuantity (Tonne)US$Destination 1985 N/A 122.00 Togo 1985N/A122.00Togo 1986 55 10,155.80 UK, West Germany 19865510,155.80UK, West Germany 1987 53 8,642.85 UK, LSA 1987538,642.85UK, LSA 1988 52 12,07355 UK, LSA CANADA 19885212,07355UK, LSA CANADA Source: Ghana Export Promotion Council Source: Ghana Export Promotion Council Status of cassava research Status of cassava research "},{"text":"Table 4 . 1 Nigeria: Cassava production, annual averages for 1982/83 and 1983/84 cropping seasons by state State Production ('000 tonnes) % of Households cultivating cassava StateProduction ('000 tonnes) % of Households cultivating cassava Anambra Bauchi 213 o 76 0 Anambra Bauchi213 o76 0 Bendel 463 92 Bendel46392 Beoue Borno 173 o 78 0 Beoue Borno173 o78 0 Cross River 101 15 Cross River10115 Gongola 22 17 Gongola2217 Imo 395 96 Imo39596 Kaduna Kano 11 6 13 15 Kaduna Kano11 613 15 Kwara Lagos Niger 73 7 6 70 n 42 Kwara Lagos Niger73 7 670 n 42 Ogun Dodo Oyo 11 67 300 88 n 89 Ogun Dodo Oyo11 67 30088 n 89 Plateau 7 25 Plateau725 Rivers Sokoto 127 o 95 Rivers Sokoto127 o95 "},{"text":" high HCN residues. The Tanzania Bureau of Standards (TBS) is working on standards for dry chips and flour. The Tanzania Food and Nutrition Centre (TFNC) and Sokoine University of Agriculture are working on improving the efficiency of methods for reducing HCN during processing.Cassava research and trainingThe National Root and Tuber Crops Improvement Program in the mainland is fine 'ed by government, while the component program in Zanzibar is financed by both government and the Inter~ational Development Research Centre (IORC), In general, the resources for research have been very limited, however the program has been able to train staff to build up in-program capability. Scholarships received from the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (lIT A), Thadan, helped to train a good number of the staff. lives and relatively lives and relatively Common Common for both sweet and bitter for both sweet and bitter varieties varieties Scrape to remove Dry together with Scrape to removeDry together with fungal growth fungal growth fungal growthfungal growth I I Pound (stone, I I Pound (stone, mallet) Scrape off fungus mallet)Scrape off fungus sun dry-(approx. I after frying sun dry-(approx. Iafter frying Grind to flour forugali 2 days) I Pound to get Pound to pt ' ur Grind to flour forugali2 days) I Pound to getPound to pt ' ur 'udaga' for use Grind to flour 'udaga' for useGrind to flour [n 'ugali' for uga1i. [n 'ugali'for uga1i. Figure 5-2 Tanzania: DI')' method or procesIiq cassava in the lake zone areas Figure 5-2 Tanzania: DI')' method or procesIiq cassava in the lake zone areas Source: M.A.M. Msabaha V.M. Kepakepa, and H.s.N. Laawall986. Source: M.A.M. Msabaha V.M. Kepakepa, and H.s.N. Laawall986. 25 25 "},{"text":"Table 5 . 2 Tanzania: Cost of energy from major staples Staples KcaVlOOg • TShs/1000Kcal StaplesKcaVlOOg• TShs/1000Kcal Maize 362 4.70 Maize3624.70 Rice 354 9.89 Rice3549.89 Wheat flour 350 9.89 Wheat flour3509.89 Sorghum 353 5.10 Sorghum3535.10 Millet 365 6.30 Millet3656.30 Cassava (d!)') 342 351 Cassava (d!)')342351 'TShs!1.0 ~ US $0.005 'TShs!1.0 ~ US $0.005 Source: Jonsson 1986. Source: Jonsson 1986. Table 5.3 Tanzania: Percentage of Table 5.3 Tanzania: Percentage of total energy intake from the total energy intake from the consumption of cassava by regions consumption of cassava by regions Region % of energy intake from Region% of energy intake from cassava cassava Mtwara 595 Mtwara595 Kigoma 59.0 Kigoma59.0 Mwanza 55.3 Mwanza55.3 Lindi 40.9 Lindi40.9 Mara 35.7 Mara35.7 Ruvuma 295 Ruvuma295 Morogoro 22.4 Morogoro22.4 Shinyanga 19.4 Shinyanga19.4 Coast 16.0 Coast16.0 Kagera 10.0 Kagera10.0 Tanga 9.3 Tanga9.3 Tabora 75 Tabora75 Rukwa 6.7 Rukwa6.7 Mbeya 5.1 Mbeya5.1 Arusha 4.1 Arusha4.1 Iringa 4.0 Iringa4.0 Singida 1.9 Singida1.9 Kilimanjaro 1.8 Kilimanjaro1.8 Dadama 1.4 Dadama1.4 Dat-es.Salaam n.' Dat-es.Salaamn.' Zanzibar (all regions) n.' Zanzibar (all regions)n.' n.a --not applicable n.a --not applicable Source: Jonsson 1986. Source: Jonsson 1986. "},{"text":"Table 6 .1 Uganda: Regional variation in areas .1Uganda: Regional variation in areas under cassava, 1981•1983 average under cassava, 1981•1983 average Region Area ('000 ha) % RegionArea ('000 ha)% Northern 128.28 37.82 Northern128.2837.82 Eastern 89.79 26.48 Eastern89.7926.48 Western 77.07 22.72 Western77.0722.72 Southern 44.01 12.98 Southern44.0112.98 (Central) (Central) "},{"text":"Table 6 . 2 Uganda: Relative importance (%) oCmajor staple fooda by area, 1987In general, cassava is a main component of the food system and is eaten througbout the year. Sweet (low cyanide) varieties are consumed raw, roasted, boiled, or dried and milled into Dour. Food preferences amona the people of Tororo and Soroti/Kumi districts of Uganda indicate that cassava is eaten in combination with other starches (table 6.3). Area Grains Plantain/Banana Cassava Potato AreaGrainsPlantain/BananaCassavaPotato Lake Victoria crescent 30 60 5 5 Lake Victoria crescent306055 Northern Bugania 20 60 15 5 Northern Bugania2060155 BusogalBukedi 50 25 10 IS BusogalBukedi502510IS Bupu/Sebei 40 40 5 15 Bupu/Sebei4040515 Teso 70 25 5 Teso70255 Karamoja 4S 55 Karamoja4S55 Lango/Achol SO 45 5 Lango/AcholSO455 W. Nile/Madi 4S SO 5 W. Nile/Madi4SSO5 Bunyororroro 30 IS 45 10 Bunyororroro30IS4510 AnkoJe 40 SO 5 5 AnkoJe40SO55 Kigezi 60 IS 5 20 Kigezi60IS520 National 39 33 20 8 National3933208 Utilization of cassava Utilization of cassava Table 6.3 Uganda: Food preCueaces amonl Table 6.3Uganda: Food preCueaces amonl farmers in the Eastern and Northern repons farmers in the Eastern and Northern repons "},{"text":"Food mixtures Perccntacc farmen amplcd in diitricbii Tororo Soroti/Kumi Cauava + millet SO.O 32.5 Cauava + milletSO.O32.5 Cuava + iOqhum 44.0 47.5 Cuava + iOqhum44.047.5 Caiiava + sweet potatOCi 0.0 20.0 Caiiava + sweet potatOCi0.020.0 Casava alone 6.0 0.0 Casava alone6.00.0 Total 100.0 100.0 Total100.0100.0 "},{"text":"Source: Uganda National Root CropI Improvement Propamme. "},{"text":"Table 6 . 4 Uganda: Relative importance ('!'o) of major staplefoods, 1965-1966 and 1970-1986 Year Cereals Plantain Cas5ava Potato YearCerealsPlantainCas5avaPotato 1%5-66 44 30 18 8 1%5-664430188 1970-71 31 37 22 10 1970-7131372210 1975-70 30 55 33 12 1975-7030553312 1980-81 28 32 30 10 1980-8128323010 1981-82 28 32 29 11 1981-8228322911 1982-83 28 31 28 13 1982-8328312813 1983-84 19 41 23 17 1983-8419412317 1984-85 27 35 26 12 1984-8527352612 1985-86 27 35 26 1985-86273526 "}],"sieverID":"c92f7508-12bd-45fd-ab68-e3b4cd18040b","abstract":""}

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+ {"metadata":{"id":"01920f7512dd0084bfc671b1ea8a58c0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6a080a30-b474-43e5-99e5-5423295600ef/retrieve"},"pageCount":28,"title":"Mixed Models and Multilevel Data Structures in Agriculture","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"Hierarchical or multilevel data structures can occur in many areas of agricultural research -for instance in on-farm trials, where there can be information at the village, farm and plot or animal level. Experiments in animal breeding are often concerned with attributing variation in traits of offspring, such as their growth, to the sires and dams from which they were bred. Researchers in this discipline are therefore familiar with the idea that livestock data often have some hierarchical structure with different levels of variation."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"Analysis of variance -except in balanced or nested designs -has been difficult to apply to data with a multilevel structure. Mixed modelling is becoming a standard approach for analysing these types of data, particularly since it can deal with complicated or \"messy\" structures. The mixed model facilities are now available in some of the more powerful statistical packages such as Genstat and SAS."},{"index":3,"size":67,"text":"There seems to be some \"mystique\" surrounding these methods, and our claim is that there should not be. The purpose of this guide is to review the general concepts of mixed models. We illustrate by example how to recognise the structure in the data and how to fit and interpret a mixed model analysis. The reader is expected to be familiar with simple analysis of variance methods."},{"index":4,"size":57,"text":"Genstat is used to illustrate the methodology and its interpretation. The facilities in SAS are similar, though details of using the software and the presentation of output are different. Our aim here is to discuss the methodology rather than software, and so we have chosen to use only one package to illustrate the analysis and its interpretation."}]},{"head":"Examples","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"We use three examples. Example 1 is a fairly traditional agricultural experiment, and is included to show how mixed modelling links to more traditional analyses. Example 2 is an on-farm trial with a slightly \"messy\" hierarchical structure. We use it to show how the ideas of example 1 can be extended to other situations, and to demonstrate the benefits of mixed modelling. Example 3 is a more specialised example of a breeding trial; with it we discuss the implications of formulating models in different ways."}]},{"head":"Example 1: Fodder Production Trial","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"In the Central Kenya Highlands, where maize is the most important staple, the availability of fodder is a major constraint on livestock production. It has been suggested that maize thinnings be used as animal fodder. A randomised complete block experiment, with six blocks of three main plots of equal size, was carried out at a research station near Nairobi to investigate different planting densities and thinning methods. The objective was to identify a practice that would increase forage production without compromising the harvest grain yield for human consumption (Methu et al., 2001)."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"Maize was planted using densities of two, three or four seeds per hole, and planting density was randomised to the plots such that there was one plot of each planting density per block. Spacing between holes was the same for all plots."},{"index":3,"size":112,"text":"Thinning was carried out on plots planted with more than two seeds per hole -at 8 and 14 weeks for the plots with four seeds per hole, and at 14 weeks for the plots with three seeds per hole -so that from 14 weeks onwards all plots had two seeds per hole. There were also two thinning practices: the removal of the smallest plant from the hole, and the removal of the second largest plant from the hole. To incorporate this into the experiment, the three-and four-seed plots were subdivided into two and these two sub-plots were randomly allocated to one of the different thinning practices. The two-seed plot was not subdivided."},{"index":4,"size":42,"text":"At weeks 8 and 14 the amount of green forage (kg/ha of Dry Matter) was recorded for the plots which were thinned. At the end of the study, at week 28, grain yield (also in kg DM/ha) was determined for all plots."}]},{"head":"Example 2: Concentrate Feeding Trial","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":174,"text":"Dairy production is an important source of income for many smallholder households in the highlands of East Africa. The large majority of farmers feed a low, flat rate of concentrate to their cows throughout lactation. This is primarily because of cash flow problems and not being able to pay for concentrates ahead of having milk to sell. The data used in this example are from a pilot study of small-holder farmers in Kiambu district in Central Kenya. The aim was to test the feasibility of changing farmers' concentrate allocation practice by shifting the concentrates to early lactation. This was to be achieved by arranging for their farm cooperative to allow them extra credit at the beginning of a cow's lactation (Romney et al., 2000). The data comprised weekly records of milk yields and concentrates offered for the first 12 weeks of lactation, and approximately fortnightly thereafter. Data were collected between March 1999 and March 2000, and complete datasets were achieved for 65 cows belonging to 53 households and calving between March and September 1999."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"The objective of the analysis described here is to determine (a) the influence of household (farm) and cow factors on milk yield, and (b) the relationships between milk yield and concentrate fed at different phases of lactation. Five six-week sampling periods up to 30 weeks of lactation were defined, and average daily milk yield (kg/day) in these six-week intervals was estimated for each animal from fitted lactation curves."}]},{"head":"Example 3: Sheep Breeding Trial","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"Helminths constitute one of the most important constraints to livestock production in the tropics. Breeding for disease resistance may be one solution. The data used in this example are from a study on the Kenya coast between 1991 and 1997 (Baker, 1998). The purpose of the experiment was to compare the genetic resistance to helminthiasis of two indigenous breeds of sheep -Dorper and Red Maasai -and to use this information alongside survival rate to compare the overall productive performance of each breed."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"Throughout the six years, Dorper (D), Red Maasai (R) and R×D ewes were mated to Red Maasai and Dorper rams to produce a number of different lambs genotypes. For the purposes of this example, however, only the following four offspring genotypes are considered: D×D, D×R, R×D and R×R. These comprised 882 lambs born to 74 sires and 367 ewes. Thus, each ewe gave birth on average to more than two lambs, each in a different year."},{"index":3,"size":48,"text":"Data on aspects of growth and survival were collected on the lambs. Here, for the purpose of demonstration, we consider just the body weight (kg) at weaning of 700 lambs that survived to weaning with the objective of determining the differences in growth between breeds to this time."}]},{"head":"Mixed Models and Data Structure","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"Mixed model methodology 1 takes its name from the fact that the elements of the model underlying the analysis can be a mixture of what are called fixed and random effects. Below we explain these different components of a mixed model, and show how mixed modelling can deal with the analysis of data from multilevel structures."}]},{"head":"Fixed and Random Effects","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"In describing variation in data, an effect is some characteristic or trait which is known -or thought -to have some impact on the measured result, such as weaning weight of lambs."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"Experimental treatments are often -though not always -fixed effects. The different planting densities of example 1 would be one such example. The three planting densities were specifically chosen for investigation in order to quantifying the differences, if any, amongst them. Fixed effects are summarised by means and standard errors."},{"index":3,"size":46,"text":"Another example of a fixed effect would be the sex of the offspring lambs in the breeding experiment. Whilst it is not an effect which can be specifically designed into the study, we should nevertheless want to quantify the difference in growth between males and females."},{"index":4,"size":59,"text":"In contrast, the influence of the ram on the growth of its offspring in a breeding experiment is usually a random effect, since the researcher is interested in quantifying how much variability in the growth is due to the sire of the lamb, as opposed to comparing individual rams within the experiment itself. Random effects are summarised by variances."},{"index":5,"size":49,"text":"By defining an effect as random, we are visualising the set of units under investigation as a representative sample from a wider population. Thus, in the breeding example, the rams whose offspring are under investigation are regarded as randomly selected members of all rams belonging to a particular breed."}]},{"head":"Multilevel Structure","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"In multilevel data structures there are different types of investigational units 2 at different layers -e.g. plots within farms, or animals within herds -and attributes associated with these different units whose effects we wish to assess -e.g. planting density, thinning practice, breed or sex of the animal."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"The response of interest, such as crop yield or weaning weight, is usually measured at the lowest layer, but the variation in these responses is due to variability at the different layers. For example variation in crop yields collected in an on-farm trial is partly due to farm-to-farm variability and partly to plot-to-plot variability. To incorporate these different levels of variability into our mixed model for hierarchical data, we specify the units in the layers as random effects."},{"index":3,"size":87,"text":"The attributes of the units (e.g. planting density) are usually fixed effects. By correctly identifying which attributes occur at each layer, the mixed model can extract the residual, unexplained, variation within the layers, which is necessary for determining the precision of the comparisons of the attributes. This idea is similar to the split-plot ANOVA which has two parts, a main plot part and a sub-plot part, each with its own residual variance, and where the main plot and sub-plot treatment factors are tested at their relevant level."},{"index":4,"size":52,"text":"By specifying the units in a layer as random, we assume that, within a layer, the units are \"independent\" of one another. This means that, in the fodder production trial for instance, after allowing for differences amongst the blocks, there is no correlation between the yields in different plots within a block."},{"index":5,"size":70,"text":"Correctly identifying the layers in the data, and the different characteristics or attributes associated with them, is crucial to successful modelling of multilevel data. To help recognise the structure in data we use what we describe as a \"mixed model tree\" to develop the different layers pictorially. We hope this tool will help researchers identify the hierarchical structures of their data and consequently formulate and interpret a mixed model analysis."}]},{"head":"Example 1: Fodder Production Trial","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Recognising the Structure","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"The figure below depicts the full mixed model tree for this first example. To the left we describe the layers, and to the right the characteristics of the experimental material which can be attributed to the different layers. Since the layout is the same within each block, detailed layering is shown for only one block in the tree."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"The six blocks describe the way the experiment was laid out -they thus represent the top layer. Each block was divided into three main plots, represented by the small boxes within the larger box. This is the second layer, the one at which the three planting density treatments are randomised, as shown on the right of the diagram."},{"index":3,"size":79,"text":"Two of the main plots (with 3 and 4 seeds per hole), but not the one with 2 seeds per hole, are subdivided into two sub-plots, so the sub-plots constitute the third layer of investigational units. Method of thinning is randomised to these sub-plots, and so the actual treatments applied to the sub-plots are combinations of planting density and thinning practice. Method of thinning is, therefore, an effect at this lower level, as is the density × thinning interaction."},{"index":4,"size":50,"text":"The above diagram represents the structure of the data on grain yield collected at the end of the experiment when the crop was harvested. As the tree shows, yield data are collected from one main plot (2 seeds per hole) and from four sub-plots (3 and 4 seeds per hole)."},{"index":5,"size":66,"text":"For the green forage yield data collected at 14 weeks, however, there are only two main plots per block, since no thinning is carried out on the plots planted with 2 seeds per hole. Plots planted with 3 or 4 seeds per hole are thinned at 14 weeks -yield data are all from the four subplots in a block, and so the mixed model tree becomes:"},{"index":6,"size":62,"text":"The above multilevel data structure at 14 weeks is that of a balanced split-plot experiment -there are yield data for each of the two sub-plots from each of the two main plots per block. These data would normally be analysed by a simple split-plot analysis of variance. However, they can also be analysed as a mixed model, as we shall see later."},{"index":7,"size":85,"text":"The green forage yield data collected at 8 weeks are only collected for the main plots with 4 seeds per hole, and so the mixed model tree simplifies even further. There are now only two layers in these data -blocks and sub-plots to which thinning treatments are randomised. With only one main plot per block, the main plot effect cannot be distinguished from the block effect. This is just a randomised block structure, with two units per block. We will not consider these data further."}]},{"head":"Analysis","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":170,"text":"The Genstat output for the mixed model analysis of the 14-week green forage yields is presented in Figures 1(a) to 1(c) below. Since this data set is a balanced split-plot experiment it would normally be analysed by analysis of variance 3 ; and so, for interest, and so that the reader can see the transition from analysis of variance to mixed modelling, this approach is also presented in the Appendix. Figure 1(a) summarises the mixed model specification in Genstat, with a brief explanation of the Genstat syntax. Block, main plots within blocks and sub-plots within main plots are declared to be random effects -thus setting up the hierarchical structure -whilst planting density, thinning and the density × thinning interaction are all fixed effects. The important point to note is that the different layers in the data must be specified in the \"random model\" correctly. The software is then able to work out from this and the layout of the data in the data file how to attach each attribute in"}]},{"head":"Genstat syntax for fixed model:","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Main effects of density and thinning, and the density × thinning interaction."}]},{"head":"Genstat syntax for random model:","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Blocks, main plots within blocks, and sub-plots within the main plots."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"the \"fixed model\" to the different layers, so that the user does not have to be so concerned about this. The results of the analysis are shown in Figure 1(b)."},{"index":3,"size":60,"text":"The first point to notice from Figure 1(b) is that, although the degrees of freedom for each of the fixed effects of planting density, thinning and density × thinning are as one would expect, the significance tests provided by Genstat for these effects are now Wald 4 tests, and not the F-tests we are used to with analysis of variance."},{"index":4,"size":108,"text":"The Wald tests in the mixed model framework investigate the same hypotheses as the F-tests in the split-plot analysis of variance -i.e. null hypothesis of no effect -but unlike the F-statistics, which follow an exact F-distribution, the Wald test statistics follow a Chi-squared ( 2 χ ) distribution, but only approximately. The main points to be aware of are that (a) the validity of the Wald testing depends on the sample size being large enough (the sample size is quite small in this example), and (b) the tests are more liberal than the F-tests, with the significance levels of the two becoming more similar with increasing sample size."},{"index":5,"size":80,"text":"In our example, the significance level for the comparison of methods of thinning is p=0.003 in the split-plot ANOVA. This compares with p<0.001 for the Wald value of 15.7 found by a 2 χ test with 1 degree of freedom. Both methods give similar conclusions: there is no effect of planting density on the 14-week green forage yield regardless of which plant is thinned (Wald statistic of 0.1), but the yields differ significantly as a result of different thinning practices."},{"index":6,"size":88,"text":"The second point to notice is that the stratum variances, and their associated degrees of freedom, in the mixed model output are the same as the residual mean squares in the three strata in the analysis of variance output. These stratum (or layer) variances are estimates of the variation among blocks, among main plots within the blocks and between sub-plots within the main plots. Just like the residual mean squares in the ANOVA table, they are concerned with the variability in the yield data summarised at each layer."},{"index":7,"size":56,"text":"The mixed model analysis also gives estimated variance components. In traditional designed experiments these are usually of little interest, and so tend not to be presented as part of the ANOVA output. There are instances, however, when these components are of interest in their own right, and we return to this idea in the third example."},{"index":8,"size":40,"text":"Finally the mixed model gives us estimates of treatment means -referred to in Figure 1(c) as 'predicted means' -and standard errors of differences. These are identical to the corresponding values in the split-plot analysis of variance shown in the Appendix."}]},{"head":"Figure 1(c)","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"*** As stated before, data from a balanced split-plot experiment are usually analysed using a split-plot analysis of variance. Above we have shown that this approach is just a simple example of a mixed model. Therefore either method could be used. Many multilevel structures though are not balanced -as is often the case in on-farm trialsand there is then no analysis of variance equivalent to the split-plot ANOVA; in such cases researchers are advised to move to mixed modelling."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"The aim of this trial was to see whether there could be increased forage yield for livestock without affecting grain yield at harvest for human consumption. Below we consider the analysis of the grain yield, but only selected parts of the output are presented in Figure 1(d); the Genstat commands to request the analysis are the same as before and are not given."},{"index":3,"size":127,"text":"The data structure is no longer balanced in the sense that, since thinning took place on only two of the three planting density plots, grain yields are available for one main plot and for four sub-plots per block. The mixed model successfully takes this into account, as can be seen from the degrees of freedom for the fixed effects. As before, there are 2 degrees of freedom for the planting density main effect (since it is possible to compare all three densities at the main plot level) and 1 degree of freedom for the thinning main effect. For the density × thinning interaction, though, there is only 1 degree of freedom, since we now compare the difference between the two thinning practices for only two planting densities."},{"index":4,"size":86,"text":"The unbalanced structure is also responsible for the degrees of freedom for the stratum variances now being \"effective\" values of 9.79 and 10.21 (instead of 10 and 10). The analysis demonstrates no effect of density of planting (with subsequent removal of one or two plants) on harvested grain yield. Furthermore, removal of the second largest rather than the smallest plant did not appear to significantly reduce grain yield (the Wald 2 χ statistic needs to exceed 3.84 to represent a significant effect at the 5% level)."}]},{"head":"Example 2: Concentrate Feeding Trial","index":15,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Recognising the Structure","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"The objective here was to look at the effects of various factors on milk yield collected over different sampling periods from cows at several farms. Exploratory analysis of the data indicated that farm income, cow size (as determined by measurement of its heart girth) and season of lactation could be important explanatory variables. Milk yield was also thought to vary with phase of lactation and to be linearly related to the level of concentrate fed."},{"index":2,"size":98,"text":"There are three layers of investigational units in our mixed model tree, namely farm, cow within farm, and sampling period within cow. Sampling periods are more difficult to visualise as a random effect than farm or cow in view of their serial nature. They do, however, represent a layer of within cow variation, and need to be taken into account in the hierarchical structure of the data. We assume here the usual assumption of independence amongst the sampling periods. This is an example of repeated measurement data, to which we will return at the end of this section."},{"index":3,"size":58,"text":"Almost all farms had either one or two cows, and each cow provided milk yield for no more than the five sampling periods. To illustrate this we have shown the layering at two farms, one with two cows and one with only one; and layering for two cows, one with 5 sampling periods and one with 4 periods."},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"Farm income is clearly an attribute of the farm, and heart girth an attribute of the cow."},{"index":5,"size":45,"text":"The sampling periods can be characterised by the season when sampling occurs and the phase of lactation. The level of concentrate fed varied in the different sampling periods, and is therefore an effect at the sampling period layer, as is the phase × concentrate interaction."}]},{"head":"Analysis","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"The Genstat model specification is given in Figure 2(a). Fixed effects are farm income (classified into 6 categories), heart girth and average concentrate fed, as covariates, and phase of lactation and season of lactation, each with 5 levels, as factors."},{"index":2,"size":207,"text":"The interaction between phase of lactation and concentrate fed is also included. Random effects are farm, cow within farm and sampling period within cow. A second point to note also relates to the \"messy\" structure of data. Most farms (42) in the study only had one cow, 10 farms had 2 cows and one farm had 3 cows. The experimental design of example 1 was completely balanced in a way that allowed the information on each attribute to be retrieved exclusively from the layer at which it was defined. In this example here, because of the large amount of confounding between farm and cow, the information on the effect of heart girth comes both from the cow layer and the farm layer, (i.e. farms where there is only one cow). In these situations mixed model analysis combines all the relevant information from different levels to produce estimates of effects and standard errors. This ability to extract and combine information from different levels, and attach a correct measure of precision to the estimates, is what makes mixed modelling so useful. A consequence, however, is that exact significance tests of hypotheses are no longer possible, and we depend more on the large sample properties needed for the Wald tests."},{"index":3,"size":114,"text":"The analysis shows that level of milk yield was positively related to the size of the cow (heart girth), though, because of the confounding between cow and farm, this may be more a characteristic of farm management than the cow itself. Milk yield varied with season and was reduced between June and October (the second two seasonal periods, J-J and A-O). It also decreased from an average of 14.5 kg/d during the first 12 weeks of lactation to 9.9 kg/d between 25 and 30 weeks. The effect of concentrate on milk yield within cow was positive only during phases 2 to 5 of lactation. This is reflected in the significant phase x concentrate interaction."},{"index":4,"size":92,"text":"We return briefly to the issue of repeated measurements. Earlier we introduced the idea that the units within a layer were \"independent\" of one another. With repeated measurements -as in our sampling periods -this may not be true. When measurements are collected successively within an individual unit, they are often correlated -with higher correlation between measurements that are close together in time and lower correlation between measurements that are further apart. There are further facilities within mixed modelling to handle repeated measurement structures, but they are beyond the scope of this guide."}]},{"head":"Example 3: Sheep Breeding Trial","index":18,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Recognising the Structure","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"In this example we compare the performance of lambs of Dorper and Red Maasai breeds and their crosses in terms of just one trait -weaning weight. Preliminary analysis of the data indicated that the lamb's sex and its age at weaning were likely to influence weaning weight, as were the breed of the ram and the ewe. The age of the ewe was also thought to influence the growth of a ewe's offspring."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"Both rams and ewes were each selected at 'random' from two breeds, and mated to produce their offspring. Since the selections of ram and ewe were made in parallel, both can be represented as investigational units at a top layer. Breeds for each sex are attributes at these two top layers, while age of ewe is also an attribute at the ewe layer."},{"index":3,"size":36,"text":"In the mixed model tree below we have attempted to show that there were more ewes than rams, that each ram mated with several ewes, and that there was only one offspring for any one mating."},{"index":4,"size":68,"text":"The offspring lambs are the investigational units at the next layer down. Their attributes include year of birth, sex and age at weaning. Since rams and ewes are mated both within and across breeds to produce their offspring, the interaction of ram breed and ewe breed is also at this level, and we have also included, for later comparative purposes, the interaction term of ram breed × year."}]},{"head":"Analysis","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":143,"text":"The effects of individual rams and ewes on offspring growth are defined as random effects -the remaining effects are fixed. Preliminary analysis suggested that the effect of the age of a ewe on the weaning weight of its offspring was curvilinear and could be represented by a quadratic function. Weaning age was linearly related to weaning weight. The Genstat specification of these fixed and random effects is given below in Figure 3(a). The Wald statistics in Figure 3 (b) demonstrate the highly significant fixed effects of year of birth, age of dam (described by linear and quadratic terms dam_ageL and dam_ageQ, respectively), age at weaning and, to a lesser extent, sex on weaning weight. As in the last example, the reader should note that these data are unbalanced, and so each Wald statistic corrects for terms already fitted but not those that follow."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"The breed of the ram appeared to play a more significant effect then the breed of the dam on weaning weight and there was no variation in the effect with year."}]},{"head":"Figure 3(c)","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"*** The table of effects (describing the regression coefficients for covariates) and means, in Figure 3(c), demonstrates the lower values of weaning weight in 1994, 1995 and 1996 compared with the other years. Male lambs had slightly higher weaning weights than females. Breed differences were similar for both sexes but the standard error was higher for ewes than rams."},{"index":2,"size":99,"text":"Earlier we introduced the idea that variability in individual response data -in this case weaning weight -comes from the different layers in a hierarchical structure. Mixed modelling estimates the components coming from each layer. These variance components have an important understanding to animal and plant breeders because they provide the basis for calculating genetic parameters such as heritability. In this example the ewe variance component, shown in Figure 3(b), is much higher than the ram component, indicating the maternal influence on growth to weaning. The 'genetic' variation in lamb weaning weight is therefore primarily associated with the lamb's dam."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"For the three examples we have used the idea of random effects solely to incorporate the layers into our mixed models. Sometimes we also want to declare an attribute of interest, such as year of birth, as random rather than fixed. Why should we do this, and what implications does it have on the analysis?"},{"index":4,"size":218,"text":"If such an effect is defined as random, then any interaction involving it and any other effect, fixed or random, will also be random. For instance when year is declared random, the random breed × year interaction is the random variation of the breed effects across the years. Within the mixed model the average breed effects are then compared with these year-to-year breed differences. Consequently the Wald statistics are usually smaller than in the fixed effects model, and the standard errors of the estimates are larger. Inferences about the breeds are then for a population of years which the sample of six years represents. The analysis with year taken as random is shown below in Figure 3(d). Since the breed × year interaction was negligible, similar results were obtained to those shown in Figure 3(c) above. Whilst the choice of whether an effect should be fixed or random depends on the interpretation that the researcher wants to put on his analysis, it must also depend on whether or not it is sensible to visualise the effect as a random sample from some much larger population. In this example, where there are only six years, one might want to consider whether that sample is large, or long, or random enough to be representative of the wider population of time."},{"index":5,"size":102,"text":"To summarise, the difference between declaring an effect as fixed or random depends on the inferences one wants to make. When year is a fixed effect inferences about the performance of the breeds relates to the six years in question. To generalise conclusions about breed effects to a much wider time spectrum, then year and the year × breed interaction must be in the model as random effects. The other situation where attributes are commonly taken as random is when an effect, such as a blocking factor, e.g. herd, has many levels, and summarising it in terms of a variance seems justified."},{"index":6,"size":18,"text":"In such instances treating the effect as random, rather than fixed, often makes the model easier to fit."}]},{"head":"And finally…","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Throughout this guide we have restricted discussion on mixed modelling in agriculture to the most obvious situation of messy multilevel structures. However, the methodology is very powerful and can be used in a range of other situations -we have already mentioned repeated measurements as one example. Here we briefly discuss some of the strengths and limitations of the mixed model approach."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"One strong reason for using mixed modelling is that it can deal effectively with layers in the data, and can give more valid, though theoretically approximate, significance tests and standard errors -something that conventional analysis of variance methods cannot do except in one or two specific circumstances."},{"index":3,"size":58,"text":"Secondly, it has the ability, with unbalanced structures, to combine information from different layers in the data. (Readers who are familiar with the analysis of lattice designs will recognise that this is akin to \"recovering inter-block information\".) This has the added advantage of improving the precision of fixed effect comparisons such as the experimental treatments or other covariates."},{"index":4,"size":93,"text":"The one slight drawback of the model is that initially it seems relatively complex compared to analysis of variance. For a start, the model is more difficult to specifyone needs to correctly identify which effects are random and which are fixed. The resulting computer output is also less familiar and less easy to use than ANOVA outputs. However, researchers who are familiar with split-plot analysis of variance will probably have less difficulty with formulating the model, since the principles of identifying more that one layer of variation in the data is the same."},{"index":5,"size":98,"text":"In conclusion, we have introduced the idea of the mixed model tree as an aid to identifying hierarchical data structure. Then, when there is such a structure, we have shown how to request the appropriate mixed model analysis. It is our hope that an understanding of the contents of this guide may lead to a better ability on the part of the reader to recognise the correct analysis. Finally, a clear awareness at the planning stage of the different layers in a proposed study can help to ensure that the resulting design has sufficient replication at each layer."},{"index":6,"size":21,"text":"Appendix: Balanced Split-plot Analysis of Variance for the 14-week forage dry matter data from the fodder production trial of Example 1"},{"index":7,"size":29,"text":"The output below shows the appropriate split-plot analysis of variance for the two layers of the variation in the experiment and means and standard errors of differences between means. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure Figure 1(a) "},{"text":"Figure Figure 1(d) "},{"text":"Figure Figure 2(a) "},{"text":"Figure Figure 3(a) "},{"text":"Figure Figure 3(d) "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":"Table of predicted means for density *** predicted means for density *** density 3 4 density34 1455 1397 14551397 Standard error of differences: 159.7 Standard error of differences:159.7 *** Table of predicted means for thinning *** *** Table of predicted means for thinning *** thinning L S thinningLS 1645 1207 16451207 Standard error of differences: 110.5 Standard error of differences:110.5 *** Table of predicted means for density.thinning *** *** Table of predicted means for density.thinning *** thinning L S thinningLS density density 3.00 1663 1248 3.0016631248 4.00 1627 1167 4.0016271167 Standard error of differences for same level of factor: Standard error of differences for same level of factor: density thinning densitythinning Average 156.2 194.2 Average156.2194.2 Maximum 156.2 194.2 Maximum156.2194.2 Minimum 156.2 194.2 Minimum156.2194.2 "},{"text":" , at the 5% significance level). But one must be careful. The data structure here is quite clearly unbalanced. There are different numbers of cows within the farms and different numbers of sampling periods for the different cows. When data are unbalanced 5 the order in which fixed effects are included and tested is important. ***** REML Variance Components Analysis ***** Response Variate : milk Fixed model : Constant+income+girth+phase+season+avconc+phase.avconc Random model : farm+farm.cow+farm.cow.sampling Number of units : 289 *** Estimated Variance Components *** Random term Component S.e. farm 5.649 3.815 farm.cow 8.092 3.413 farm.cow.sampling 2.575 0.251 *** Approximate stratum variances *** Effective d.f. farm 64.676 48.97 farm.cow 36.362 13.02 farm.cow.sampling 2.575 211.01 *** Wald tests for fixed effects *** Fixed term Wald statistic d.f. income 7.9 1 girth 28.0 1 phase 267.2 4 season 13.8 4 avconc 3.7 1 phase.avconc 18.2 4 * All Wald statistics are calculated ignoring terms fitted later in the model From the analysis in Figure 2(a), each of the Wald statistics shows some degree of significance, except perhaps the term for average concentrate. (As mentioned earlier, Wald statistics follow approximately a Chi-square distribution with 2 1 χ and 2 4 χ = 3.84 *** Table of effects for income *** 0.7689 : standard error 0.4904 *** Table of effects for girth *** 0.2635 : standard error 0.05479 *** Table of effects for avconc *** -0.2142 : standard error 0.1426 *** Table of effects for phase.avconc *** phase 1-6 0.0000 7-12 0.6148 13-18 0.5637 19-24 0.3339 25-30 0.6792 Standard error of differences: Average 0.1913 Maximum 0.2269 Minimum 0.1614 *** Table of predicted means for phase *** phase 1-6 7-12 13-18 19-24 25-30 14.49 14.56 13.05 11.24 9.92 Standard error of differences: Average 0.3732 Maximum 0.4531 Minimum 0.3049 *** Table of predicted means for season *** season M-M J-J A-O N-D J-M 13.10 11.84 12.09 12.81 13.42 Standard error of differences: Average 0.4338 Maximum 0.5632 and 9.49 respectivelyFigure 2(b) Minimum 0.3209 ***** REML Variance Components Analysis ***** Response Variate : milk Fixed model : Constant+income+girth+phase+season+avconc+phase.avconc Random model : farm+farm.cow+farm.cow.sampling Number of units : 289 *** Estimated Variance Components *** Random term Component S.e. farm 5.649 3.815 farm.cow 8.092 3.413 farm.cow.sampling 2.575 0.251 *** Approximate stratum variances *** Effective d.f. farm 64.676 48.97 farm.cow 36.362 13.02 farm.cow.sampling 2.575 211.01 *** Wald tests for fixed effects *** Fixed term Wald statistic d.f. income 7.9 1 girth 28.0 1 phase 267.2 4 season 13.8 4 avconc 3.7 1 phase.avconc 18.2 4 * All Wald statistics are calculated ignoring terms fitted later in the model From the analysis in Figure 2(a), each of the Wald statistics shows some degree of significance, except perhaps the term for average concentrate. (As mentioned earlier, Wald statistics follow approximately a Chi-square distribution with 2 1 χ and 2 4 χ = 3.84 *** Table of effects for income *** 0.7689 : standard error 0.4904 *** Table of effects for girth *** 0.2635 : standard error 0.05479 *** Table of effects for avconc *** -0.2142 : standard error 0.1426 *** Table of effects for phase.avconc *** phase 1-6 0.0000 7-12 0.6148 13-18 0.5637 19-24 0.3339 25-30 0.6792 Standard error of differences: Average 0.1913 Maximum 0.2269 Minimum 0.1614 *** Table of predicted means for phase *** phase 1-6 7-12 13-18 19-24 25-30 14.49 14.56 13.05 11.24 9.92 Standard error of differences: Average 0.3732 Maximum 0.4531 Minimum 0.3049 *** Table of predicted means for season *** season M-M J-J A-O N-D J-M 13.10 11.84 12.09 12.81 13.42 Standard error of differences: Average 0.4338 Maximum 0.5632 and 9.49 respectivelyFigure 2(b) Minimum 0.3209 "},{"text":"Table of *** Table of predicted means for year.ram_brd *** *** Table of predicted means for year.ram_brd *** ram_brd D R ram_brdDR year year 91 12.96 12.31 9112.9612.31 92 11.62 10.50 9211.6210.50 93 11.67 11.44 9311.6711.44 effects for dam_ageL *** 94 9.62 9.67 effects for dam_ageL *** 94 9.62 9.67 95 9.75 9.12 959.759.12 96 2.338 10.24 : standard error 10.14 0.2345 962.338 10.24: standard error 10.140.2345 *** Table of effects for dam_ageQ *** Standard error of differences: Average 0.4510 *** Table of effects for dam_ageQ *** Standard error of differences: Average0.4510 Maximum 0.5602 Maximum0.5602 -0.2893 : standard error Minimum 0.03192 0.3423 -0.2893 : standard error Minimum0.03192 0.3423 *** Table of effects for wean_age *** *** Table of effects for wean_age *** 0.06694 : standard error 0.008690 0.06694 : standard error0.008690 *** Table of predicted means for year *** *** Table of predicted means for year *** year 91 92 93 94 95 96 year919293949596 12.64 11.06 11.55 9.65 9.44 10.19 12.6411.0611.559.659.4410.19 Standard error of differences: Average 0.3280 Standard error of differences:Average0.3280 Maximum 0.4007 Maximum0.4007 Minimum 0.2591 Minimum0.2591 *** Table of predicted means for sex *** *** Table of predicted means for sex *** sex F M sexFM 10.55 10.96 10.5510.96 Standard error of differences: 0.1629 Standard error of differences:0.1629 *** Table of predicted means for ram_brd *** *** Table of predicted means for ram_brd *** ram_brd D R ram_brdDR 10.98 10.53 10.9810.53 Standard error of differences: 0.1830 Standard error of differences:0.1830 *** Table of predicted means for ewe_brd *** *** Table of predicted means for ewe_brd *** ewe_brd D R ewe_brdDR 10.99 10.52 10.9910.52 Standard error of differences: 0.2722 Standard error of differences:0.2722 *** Table of predicted means for ram_brd.ewe_brd *** *** Table of predicted means for ram_brd.ewe_brd *** ewe_brd D R ewe_brdDR ram_brd ram_brd D 11.08 10.88 D11.0810.88 R 10.89 10.17 R10.8910.17 Standard error of differences: Average 0.3163 Standard error of differences:Average0.3163 Maximum 0.3530 Maximum0.3530 Minimum 0.2578 Minimum0.2578 "}],"sieverID":"336c98d0-6d72-4824-a731-675176e82dec","abstract":""}

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+ {"metadata":{"id":"01b8226b1fb50f303ed7e06f10dbc914","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H031103.pdf"},"pageCount":18,"title":"Watershed development in SAT India-a review of topics for further research Paper presented at water policies future workshop, 3-5 October 2002 by Jetske Bouma","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":198,"text":"In time, the design of watershed development projects has changed from mere attention for the implementation of technical soil and water conservation measures to the broader socio-economic and hydro-ecological context in which the watershed is used. Natural resource management became an important part of watershed development as the sustainable management of upstream natural resources (forests, grazing lands) improves the water availability and quality of the land downstream. Poverty reduction increasingly became important as evidence indicates equity to be an important prerequisite for the sustainability of water and natural resources management (Adolph, 1999). Since 1990, the Government of India has invested on a large scale in watershed development through the \" National watershed development project for rainfed areas\". Andhra Pradesh is at the forefront of implementation, receiving in the 90s up to 50% of the total budget available. Besides the watershed development projects implemented by the government of Andhra Pradesh, international donors and local NGO's are investing in the development of micro-watersheds as well. Some of the major projects by international donors taking place at present involve projects of the Worldbank, DFID (AP Rural livelihoods programme) and several bilateral projects (APWELL), besides numerous projects by local and international NGO's."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"For a number of reasons watershed development is increasingly seen as the central focus for rural development:"},{"index":3,"size":108,"text":"-Agricultural production in irrigated areas is stagnating and further development of rainfed areas is necessary to take up the momentum of productivity growth. -The increased scarcity of water is affecting rural livelihoods in multiple ways. In fact, increased water scarcity is seen as the major constraint for livelihood security and rural development in India' s semi-arid zones (ICRISAT 2001). -The degradation of natural resources (soil erosion, groundwater depletion, deforestation etc) affects rural livelihoods and has made the current development pathway unsustainable -The increasing 'privatisation' of the common resource base has left landless and marginalized households with a lack of access to the resources necessary to sustain their livelihoods."},{"index":4,"size":56,"text":"Although the main focus in watershed development has been on the improvement and development of agricultural land and water uses (improved soil moisture, increase productivity of rainfed agriculture, increased water security), attention is now spreading to non-agricultural water uses (livestock, drinking water), non-land based livelihood strategies (forest products, off farm employment) and groundwater issues as well."},{"index":5,"size":155,"text":"The few ex-post evaluations that have actually analyzed the outcomes of watershed development show quite disappointing results: the results are so-far not so positive and most of the improvements that were realized were short-lived. Although several reasons can be identified on the assessment side of why this might be the case (complexity of the evaluation, long time scale for ecological effects, non-tangible project effects), attention is focusing on the question how the effectiveness of watershed projects might be improved. The evaluations all point in the same direction; Participatory, demand oriented projects that were responsive to community needs have been most successful. The problem is that these are also the projects that were most site specific and difficult to replicate; not accidentally the most successful projects were NGO led. Besides, the sustainability of these projects is yet to be assessed, as even the projects that were implemented first cannot yet prove community resource management to work."},{"index":6,"size":102,"text":"The following will review some of the literature with regard to watershed development in India's semi arid tropics. Some attention will be paid to the socio-economic characteristics of India's semi-arid tropics and the institutional setting in which watershed development takes place as well. The review will end with a first screening of some research that is being done with regard to the issues of replicability and sustainability of watershed development. The aim of the review is not to cover the whole literature on participatory watershed management in India's semi-arid tropics, but to have a first screening of relevant topics for further research."},{"index":7,"size":153,"text":"Watershed development in Andhra Pradesh/SAT India Although watershed development has received a lot of attention in the last two decades, the concept is not new. Since 1939 the government of India has stimulated the development and protection of watersheds, and since the 1970s the state and national government have been actively involved in soil and water conservation of microwatersheds (Springgate et al 2001). At the level of the community, the history of land and water conservation is much and much older, many communities sharing a tradition of collective, village level water harvesting and distribution, soil conservation, grazing and forest management. In most villages these traditional techniques have been deserted however, and little traditional collective land and water management arrangements still persist. Opinions differ about the reasons why, although research indicates increased population pressure, economic development, and the centralization of natural resource management to have probably played an important role. (Springgate 2001, Adolph 1997)."},{"index":8,"size":220,"text":"Fact is that, the loss of management systems for common property resources has been a critical factor in the increased over-exploitation, poor upkeep and physical degradation of the natural resource base (Pretty & Ward 2001). Elsewhere, private ownership or operation of surface and groundwater use for irrigation have replaced the collective systems, with has often marginalized the position of the landless and rural poor. As the range of NGO's involved in watershed development is quite large, it is difficult to give a general picture of the approach used. Most NGO's however regard watershed development as a means to improve the livelihood security of the rural poor. As such, they generally pay a lot of attention to community needs and to the capacity of communities to manage their resources in a sustainable and equitable way. As many of the rural poor are landless, much attention is paid to improve the availability of nonagricultural land and water uses, to ensure that the rural poor benefit from watershed development as well. An extra reason to make sure the poor benefit is that if the poor are unable to maintain or enhance their livelihood through access to existing or new benefits streams, the tendency is for common-property resource arrangements to break down, resulting in a downward spiral of poverty and natural resource degradation. (Farrington)"}]},{"head":"Managing watersheds for rural development","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"To get a picture of the extent to which improved watershed management might actually contribute to the further development of India's SAT, it is important to understand the mechanisms through which poverty, natural resource degradation and low agricultural productivity are related. As mentioned before, there are effectively 4 routes through which the rehabilitation and development of water scarce watersheds is expected to contribute to rural development:"},{"index":2,"size":198,"text":"1. Increased agricultural productivity 2. Increased water security 3. Improved quality of natural resources and sustainability of agricultural production 4. A more equitable and sustainable management of the common resource base Before elaborating the ways in which watershed management is expected to contribute, it is important to have a picture of the broader socio-economic and biophysical characteristics of SAT India. The green revolution that greatly improved agricultural productivity in other regions of India largely bypassed SAT India. The poor natural resource base of these areas did not seem to provide a very secure basis for agricultural development and the expected productivity gains were relatively low. However, as agricultural production in the irrigated, ' Green revolution' areas is stagnating, policy makers are increasingly looking at rainfed agriculture to take up the momentum of productivity growth (Rosegrant et al, 2001). Besides, for the 300 million people that depend on these regions, agriculture is the main source of income. To improve rural conditions, public investments and policy interventions are needed, not only for agricultural development, but for the alleviation of poverty and sustainability of the natural resource base as well. The question is how watershed development might contribute to these goals."},{"index":3,"size":209,"text":"First, watershed development can contribute by making rainfed agriculture more productive. In degraded watersheds, fertile soils and scarce water get lost, degrading the resource base on which agriculture depends. By capturing the rainwater (in soil, tanks, ponds or groundwater aquifers) both soil degradation and water scarcity can be reduced, increasing the availability of (irrigation) water and reducing the risk of drought. Besides, rainfed agriculture is relatively knowledge extensive, with many potential improvements to be made. The development of drought resistant varieties and on-plot soil and water conservation can improve agricultural productivity in a major way, agricultural R&D being one of the main drivers of further agricultural development (ICRISAT 2001, Wani et al 2000). As far as the economics of dryland agriculture are concerned, strategies that reduce the uncertainty of rainfed agriculture are important as the agroclimatic conditions of low and uncertain rainfall, soil heterogeneity and a short cropping season have a strong effect on the household and village economics of the region (Walker and Ryan, 1990). This will involve attention for mechanisms to improve water security, farming practices that allow farmers to react to uncertain rainfall in a flexible way, soil and water conservation measures to increase soil moisture and agricultural R&D to improve the drought resistance of crops."},{"index":4,"size":137,"text":"However, although increased productivity of rainfed agriculture might be important from a food security point of view, it remains unclear to what extent rural households actually depend on rainfed agriculture for their livelihood. In fact, the land and water conservation mechanisms required to improve the productivity of rainfed agriculture are so labour intensive, that small scale producers are often reluctant to invest. With increased out migration, they earn more working elsewhere then they would by farming their low productivity lands. Besides, land holdings are on average so small, that the space needed for conservation measures is relatively large. Finally, a large part of the rural poor has no access to land and an increased agricultural productivity will not directly serve their needs. However, they might benefit indirectly, as increased productivity would involve increased employment opportunities as well."},{"index":5,"size":71,"text":"Second, watershed management contributes to poverty reduction by improving the availability of water. Have the advantages of increased water availability already been discussed with regard to agricultural water use, an increased security of water has some important other benefits as well. The rural poor, as well as the rural non-poor for that matter, depend on surface and/or groundwater in different ways. The different water uses might be grouped under three categories:"},{"index":6,"size":15,"text":"1. Reproductive water uses Drinking water, water for household food production, cooking and washing etc."}]},{"head":"Productive water uses","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Agricultural water use, water for livestock, other direct productive water uses"}]},{"head":"Indirect effects of other water uses","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Industrial water use and hydropower (employment), ecological water uses"},{"index":2,"size":166,"text":"The availability of water not only influences livelihood security by its direct and indirect water uses, but through the security of its supply as well. Floods and droughts for example have a large impact on livelihood security, as the poor have little means to insure themselves against such external shocks. The inability to deal with external shocks is in fact part of the definition who the poor are: using the definition of livelihoods by Chambers, livelihood insecurity might be defined as the inability to cope with and recover from stresses and shocks, the inability to maintain the capabilities and assets available while at the same time undermining the natural resource base. Poverty in these terms is nothing less then a vicious circle of degraded resources, degraded assets and degraded capabilities, that all increase the susceptibility of poor households to shocks. In principle, sound watershed management should be capable of breaking this circle, by managing the scarce water and land resources in a sustainable and equitable way."},{"index":3,"size":123,"text":"Third, watershed management is supposed to improve the quality and sustainability of the natural resource base, by reforestation, protection of common lands from over grazing, ground water recharge and a reduction of soil erosion. This serves rural development in a couple of ways both through the increased agricultural productivity and improved water security already mentioned, but also through the direct benefits households derive from the environmental services the natural resource base provides. Most important will be an increased availability of fuel and fodder. Other benefits might involve the use of medicinal plants, wild foods, construction material and non-timber forest products, assuming that the harvesting is managed in a sustainable way. Improving the sustainability of resource use will benefit long-term agricultural development as well:"},{"index":4,"size":10,"text":"Halting groundwater depletion will be essential for future agricultural production."},{"index":5,"size":297,"text":"Finally, watershed development contributes to rural development by stimulating a more equitable and sustainable use of the common resource base. To illustrate the increasing 'privatisation' of the common resource base in SAT India the changes in agricultural water use might serve as an example. In the last 30 years, the source of agricultural water use changed from communal tank irrigation to private well irrigation. This shift started already in the 70s, but the use of tubewell/ groundwater irrigation really increased in the last 10 years. The growth of tubewell irrigation was possible because of the increased availability of cheap electricity and borewell drilling techniques. The advantage of using groundwater over surface water irrigation is that no valuable land is lost to store water. Besides, the evaporation loss of aquifer water storage is much lower then that of tank water storage and as long as groundwater does not get depleted, water security is relatively high. The increased use of groundwater irrigation improved agriculture productivity. However, the shift also represents a shift from communal to private water sources, leaving households that could not afford to drill a well without access. The security of some came at the expense of others, as the lowering groundwater level negatively affected other water uses as well. Although in time, the technology of borewell drilling is expected to become cheaper, the rate at which groundwater is currently used does not seem to be sustainable, in other words; those with access are using up the common resources of all. Whether the change from communal to private water sources has actually resulted in increased income differentiation at the village level remains unclear, but to use groundwater irrigation as strategy for rural development, both the sustainability and equity of ground water use would need to be improved."},{"index":6,"size":192,"text":"Farrington (1999) mentions two concerns why an equitable watershed management is important. First, the poor own only limited private resources, and thus depend more heavily on access to common resources. The commons constitute a high proportion of individual watersheds and will continue to do so for the foreseeable future. Second, there are important linkages between equity and sustainability, both institutional and environmental. For instance, if the poor are unable to maintain or enhance their livelihood through access to existing or new benefits streams, then the tendency will increase for common-property resource management arrangements to break down into an open access ' free for all'. Similarly, if common pool resources are taken over by the more wealthy and so effectively privatized, then public funds effectively subsidise the creation of a private resource by the more wealthy. Increases in population pressure have in some cases led to the breakdown of traditional common property arrangements, leading to a vicious spiral of free-for-all open access and inability of the poor to engage in long term environmental restoration. The key step to a win-win dynamics is the creation of equitable and transparent institutions to manage the commons."},{"index":7,"size":45,"text":"Managing watersheds for rural development thus seems to be a potentially important strategy to reduce poverty, improve the management of natural resources and increase agricultural productivity. But what has watershed development been able to achieve in practice? This will be addressed in the next paragraph."},{"index":8,"size":219,"text":"employment. Box 1 Village and household economics in India's semi-arid tropics: 1974-1985(Walker & Ryan, 1990) The main difference that distinguishes dryland farming from agriculture in non-SAT regions is rainfall uncertainty at planting. This has an impact on other factors as well, like the increased importance of synchronic timing of operations, the impact of covariate production risk and the increased impact of soil heterogeneity. Although all dryland agriculture depends on the southwest monsoon of June-October, the standard deviation of rainfall security and intensity in SAT is quite high. This, together with the large variety in soil types, makes that agrcoclimatic conditions (soil moisture, cropping season etc.) are variable for the different SAT regions as well. Land is mostly privately owned, and around 30% of the population is landless (mainly dalits). Land is unequally distributed: in 1975 60% had holdings smaller then 2 ha and only 5% of holdings exceeds 10 ha. In all villages, irrigation increased during the study period: in 1975 about 12% of total gross cropped area was irrigated, but by 1984 the area had increased to 20% (mainly groundwater irrigation) Since then, groundwater irrigation has increased even more. In the same time the area of common lands, used for grazing, fuel and fodder, steadily decreased: in 1950s 20% was common, in 1989 this was less then 10%."},{"index":9,"size":250,"text":"Although the study villages were selected on the basis of the least possible external influences (roads, government interventions etc.) they were representative for SAT India. Seasonal out-migration was even in these isolated villages quite important, with over 40% of all population leaving for work elsewhere. The average village had around 14-22 different castes, dalits constituting 10-25%, muslims or buddists less then 10%. To give an impression of differences in productivity of dryland vs irrigated farming: the same farmer who harvests 200-400 kg per ha of dryland crops, harvests 2 to 4 ton per ha of paddy on irrigated fields. Lower lands (with potentially more water and/or irrigation ) are saved for high value crops. Agricultural practices and crop choice varied widely in the study villages, ranging from traditional, low input to modern, intensive cropping systems. With regard to income, crop revenues and labor earnings were dominant income sources. Livestock was less important, contributing on average 15% to household income, and 8% to wealth. Poorer households, like landless shepherds, derived a much larger part of their income from livestock, and also for women livestock seemed to play an important role. Still, 2/3 of the rural poor had livestock to supply them with manure, milk, meat and/or draught power and as cash buffer and insurance. For the use of livestock for draught power, bullocks, buffalo's en cows were used. Still, many smallholders could not afford to keep this type of livestock as because of fodder scarcity the costs of maintenance were high."},{"index":10,"size":209,"text":"Average income did not differ much for different farm sizes: landless were on average not worse off then medium size landowners. Apparently, in these dryland villages, the resource base of small and medium size holdings was not sufficiently well endowed to enable their owners to attain higher per capita incomes then landless laborers. 2/3 of the households moved in and out of poverty during the study period. Households that did not fall below the poverty line had often both a secure income source (government job) and more diversified income sources. However, the structurally poor are disproportionally low caste with small or no land holdings. During the study period some upward mobility could be recorded, but much more downward mobility, spurred by bad luck (investing in dry holes looking for groundwater, diseases), alchoholism, gabbling and/or dowry problems (many daughters) Household income variability was on average 30%, (most stable 10% most unstable 80%), variability being larger in drought prone areas and for landless households. Labor earnings were important to dampen household income variability: households with no able bodied, healty family member available suffered most from income variability. Although remittances and gifts played a role in mitigating household volatility, the main income smoothing took place through the local financial market (consumption credit)."},{"index":11,"size":242,"text":"With regard to household risk management, two types of risks were examined: a) severe and prolonged drought b) rainfall insecurity affecting income but not threatening existence. In face of severe covariate risk like droughts, farm management methods are usually ineffective in preserving crop income (and external interventions are needed). In more normal years, crop diversification and intercropping partially ironed out fluctuations in crop income, at least in the rainfall assured regions. Rural public works (food for work) were the main institutional response in times of scarcity. Intermediate to moderate levels of farmer risk aversion often did not have a direct bearing on decisions in technology choice because tradeoffs between risk and expected profitability were nonexistent or negligible. The labour was hardly segregated by caste, but strongly by gender; Men supply most of the labour for crop production, women for the hired labour market. Wages of women were 57% from those of men Women generally worked 10-30% longer hours, as they are responsible for domestic work, food and fuel gathering/processing and handicrafts. There were some regional differences in crop labor use intensities, although in general smaller plots were more labour intensive then larger plots. Asset ownership seemed to be strongly and inversely related to labor market participation. Because of a decrease in the number of landless labourers (due to land distribution, out-migration) and the increased profitability of non-agricultural activities (toddy and livestock production, small enterprises) local labor markets were tightening at the time."},{"index":12,"size":93,"text":"The results of watershed development in India's semi-arid tropics. Although in the last decade in India 500 million dollars has annually been invested in government related watershed development, the impact of this investment has to date been quite disappointing. Few studies have been able to actually assess the effects as the complexity of watershed management and the intangibility of the benefits have complicated the evaluation. Besides, few projects have been completed long enough to actually measure their long-term performance (time lag ecological effects, time lag to measure the sustainability of institution building efforts)."},{"index":13,"size":271,"text":"The most extensive evaluation of watershed development in India's semi-arid tropics, has been the study by Kerr et al (2000), who evaluated the performance of 86 watershed projects, implemented by both government agencies and NGO's, in different villages in Maharahstra (70) and Andhra Pradesh ( 16). Their analysis compared pre and post conditions in the study villages, studying performance indicators such as changes in access to irrigation and drinking water, employment opportunities, soil erosion and protection of uncultivated lands and the revenues from common lands (fuel and fodder). At the plot level performance indicators included changes in cropping intensities, yields, soil erosion and annual net returns. The analysis was supplemented by qualitative information about the effect of the project on different interest groups, like farmers with and without access to irrigation, landless people, shepherds and women. Kerr et al. distinguish two types of watershed projects in SAT India: increased water harvesting and improved rainfed agriculture (Kerr et al, 2000) In hilly regions (mainly Maharahstra), water harvesting projects are most popular, as these projects allow for an increase of irrigated area with large productivity gains as result. In flat areas (mainly Andhra Pradesh), opportunities for water harvesting are much less and attention focuses on improving the productivity of rainfed agriculture with on site water and soil conservation and improved cropping patterns. In fact, the projects of the Department of Agriculture (NWDPRA) mainly focus on improving the productivity of rainfed agriculture, while the projects of the Department of Rural development (DPAP) focus on water harvesting. NGO's usually do both, especially those in Andhra Pradesh (the ones in Maharasthra mainly focus on water harvesting)."},{"index":14,"size":207,"text":"Findings supported the hypothesis that more participatory projects (implemented by NGO's) performed better then their more technocratic, top-down counterparts (implemented by government agencies) (Kerr et al 2000). In fact, the projects that provided both a participatory approach and sound technical know how (NGOgovernment collaborations) performed best of all. Participatory projects were more successful in managing common lands, reducing soil erosion, expanding the area under irrigation (mainly in Maharashtra) and improving the productivity of rainfed agriculture. Landless and farmers without access to irrigation indicated to have benefited less from the projects then those with access to land and water: they were less satisfied with the outcome of the project. (Kerr et al, 2000). but to what extent this was a result of the project remained unclear. The same held for yield increases, which were highly variable among villages, and among project and nonproject villages as well. As the analysis performed was qualitative, outcomes were not very robust. However, groundwater availability did seem to have improved in the study villages as well as soil moisture in the vicinity of check dames. Did the benefits of soil moisture mainly accrue to the households owning the land near the check dam, the benefits of increased groundwater availability were shared by all."}]},{"head":"Since the research of","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":133,"text":"Farrington et al (1999) give an overview of several watershed project evaluations as well. Results indicate that successful projects have in fact reduced rainwater run-off and recharged ground and surface water aquifers, improved drinking water supply, increased the irrigated area, changed cropping patterns, crop intensity and agricultural productivity, increased availability of fuel and fodder, improved soil fertility and changed the composition of livestock. An evaluation of the watershed portfolio of the Worldbank (2000) showed similar results: successful projects contributed to both agricultural productivity, natural resource protection and reduced soil erosion. The impact of successful projects on poverty alleviation and the long-term sustainability of project results were less clear: Although some projects did seem to have paid attention to the needs of the landless and poor, their impact on poverty reduction was not assessed."},{"index":2,"size":131,"text":"Has the potential of watershed development to serve as a catalyst for rural development been proved in some projects, the majority of interventions has failed to deliver results. Besides, of even the most successful projects the effects on poverty reduction remained unclear. In some cases, the poor actually became worse off, because the measures for soil and water conservation restricted their access to common resources (forests, common lands). Failing to account for the needs of the poor not only makes watershed development less effective in reaching one of it's main goals, it also affects the sustainability of the total results. If the poor are unable to maintain or enhance their livelihood through access to existing or new benefits streams, the tendency will increase for common-property resource management arrangements to break down."},{"index":3,"size":82,"text":"To get more grip on the factors that actually determine project success, the following will focus on the factors that made the participatory NGO approach so successful. As this question has been at the centre of much of the literature on common property management, social capital and community participation, some attention will be paid to this literature as well. The aim again is not to give a complete overview, but to merely perform a first screening of relevant issues for further research."}]},{"head":"Improving the effectiveness of watershed development","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":160,"text":"What is it that made the approach of NGO's so successful and how can this approach be scaled up? In his study, Kerr distinguishes two features that make NGO programs differ from government projects: scale of operations and staffing time. While government projects have huge budgets and work in hundreds of villages, NGO's mostly work in a handful of villages. They devote more staff time per village and they often work on a variety of activities in addition to watershed management. Although NGO projects are on average 20-40% more expensive, they are still more cost-effective then the cheaper, but not so effective, top-down approaches. Second, while government employees concerned with watershed management are almost exclusively trained in agricultural sciences and engineering, NGO staff members include more non-technical staff trained in community organization. NGO's typically devote a lot of time to project preparation: in fact, many NGO's first get involved in other village development activities before venturing off in watershed development."},{"index":2,"size":301,"text":"Similar factors were found to explain the success of several Worldbank projects. Demand orientation and responsiveness to community needs were key to the success of the better performing watershed projects with community participation in the planning and design of the project from the very start. Efficient, committed and accountable project management proved important as well, especially with regard to the projects ability to deal with the recurring institutional constraints. Then, successful projects made sure that the technologies chosen responded to the farmers own felt needs and that locally available resource were used for project implementation. Finally, the sequencing of activities seemed important, focusing activities first on the generation of short-term results. This way, farmers became interested and more susceptible to the need to invest in measures to generate long-term benefits as well. (Boersema, 2000) Both studies point to the importance of project preparation, demand orientation and institution building as key factors to determine project success. In all these, community participation is central, as the community will need to sustain the results after the project has gone. Participation in itself will not guarantee the outcomes to be sustainable. In fact, Boersema (2000) argues that in many projects high subsidies and other inducements have distorted the true nature of demand. While impressive rates of participation might be achieved on the short term, the uncertainty of benefits on the long term and lack of mechanisms to ensure long term cooperation might lead unsustainable results once the project ends. In many instances, this has derived from a mistaken assumption that what might be socially optimal in terms of overall environmental improvements will also be optimal from an individual point of view. After all, many of the benefits watershed development generates are long term and collective, the watershed being a typical example of a common good."},{"index":3,"size":173,"text":"In fact it might be argued that the main reason why watersheds became degraded in the first place is because of a lack of mechanisms to manage the common resource base in an effective way. Although traditionally, collective mechanisms did exist, these institutions were in time replaced by either private property rights (drilling of private borewells, redistribution of common lands) or not replaced at all. Historical studies in South India reveal that the number of communal water harvesting structures (tanks) increased with population density up to a level of 220 persons/km2. Above this level the number of communal irrigation tanks started to decline, supposedly because of the deterioration of administrative structures for tank maintenance and repair and the increasing pressure on the catchment area (Van Oppen andSubba Rao, 1980, in Adolph, 1999). Other mechanisms might have existed for the management of common resources like ground and surface water, forests and grazing lands as well, but due to the increased population pressure and other developments affecting local resource use these institutions eroded as well."},{"index":4,"size":346,"text":"Institutions are needed to regulate the rights and duties of individuals and to enforce commonly agreed rules and regulation. Without institutions to coordinate resource use, demand might easily exceed supply resulting in a so-called ' tragedy of the commons' where resources get depleted and everybody is worse of. Wades work (1988) in South India shows that large differences exist with regard to the existence of institutional mechanisms to coordinate the use of common resources. In villages where common resources are scare and the externalities of over-use are high (environmental costs of resource degradation, loss of revenue from common lands, reduced availability of water etc), villagers have developed rules and regulations to cope with externalities, as well as institutional arrangements to enforce them (quoted in Adolph, 1997) However, the extent to which communities are able to manage their resources depends on the characteristics of the community as well. For example, homogeneous communities will more often be capable to establish effective coordination mechanisms then heterogeneous societies. A study in Ethiopia (McCarthy et al 2001) showed cooperation to be positively related to factors that increase the profitability of common resource use, but negatively related to the total number of households, the use of the common resource by non-community members and the heterogeneity of wealth. Also, common property resources became increasingly privatized when levels of cooperation were low. This last trend might apply to India as well, were the decline of collective tank irrigation was preceded by an increase in private well irrigation. The dynamics of common property management might in fact follow an inverse U-curve, increasing with population pressure up to a certain point, after which the pressure on the resource base becomes thus that private mechanisms start to take over. This would not be a problem if public access could be guaranteed; the increased 'privatisation' of common resources could actually improve resource efficiency and sustainability, as ownership induces maintenance and investment as well. The problem is that public access is not guaranteed and the poor are left with less access to the resources most important for their livelihood."},{"index":5,"size":64,"text":"In the last 10 years a lot of attention has been paid to common resource management. Social scientist, policy makers and NGO's have been trying to understand the mechanisms that make collective coordination mechanisms work, and much experience has been gathered with regard to community participation and local institution-building to make groups of people responsible for the long term management of their resource base."},{"index":6,"size":80,"text":"In a review of experiences, Pretty & Ward (2001) estimate that in the last decade around 408.000-478.000 local groups have been established, in an effort to build local institutions for the management of watersheds, forests, irrigation, farmers research, micro credit and integrated pest management. They conclude that there is surprisingly little empirical evidence about the differing performance of these groups, and that little is known about the factors that determine whether these groups will be sustainable in the long run."},{"index":7,"size":146,"text":"The lack of empirical research has made it difficult to test the hypotheses derived from the many models developed to analyse how collective management institutions work. Much of the non-conceptual work on social capital, collective action and community participation is rather descriptive, listing the factors that have contributed to the success of a specific project or case. Although this information is useful to help replicate participatory and collective action approaches on a larger scale, it does not answer the question why. This question will need to be answered to actually design projects with sustainable results. Ostrom (1990Ostrom ( , 1993) ) has addressed this issue with regard to irrigation. Her conclusion with regard to the question why so many investments in irrigation have proved not to be sustainable is because of adverse incentives in the design, finance, construction, operation, maintenance and use of the infrastructure developed."},{"index":8,"size":147,"text":"Farrington et al (1999) reach a similar conclusion when analyzing the factors that determine watershed development success. Although not stated explicitly, the indicators he distinguishes to help explain successful approaches are in fact all positive incentives for increased cooperation. Incentives are little else then a combination of motivation, knowledge, trust and all these other factors that determine whether people or organizations are willing to become active and engage in interaction or not. Adverse incentives arise when people or organizations act on behalf of reasons that are different then the transaction concerned (strategic behaviour) or when the information on which decisions are based has been distorted. Without wanting to elaborate the issue of incentives and institutional arrangements at this point any further, it is important to note that for a thorough understanding of the question why certain institutional arrangements work it is necessary to understand the mechanisms underneath."},{"index":9,"size":39,"text":"Finally, a workshop by Knox et al ( 2001) brought together the key research findings with regard to collective resource management in watersheds. With regard to the factors that determine watershed management to be sustainable they concluded the following:"},{"index":10,"size":161,"text":"-Robust collective management is likely to depend on the level of existing community organization and social capital, that is, the strength of the norms and social relations that enable people to work together to achieve their goals -Existing community organizations rarely incorporate all of the stakeholders with interests in watershed management. However, the extensive nature of resources and the interdependency of users at the watershed level make it very important for all stakeholders to participate in the development and implementation of watershed management techniques and practices. -Attempts to organize collective action along strict hydrological boundaries generally fail -The size and social structure of communities sharing the watershed are likely to be important: small communities are usually more unified. -Market forces can either weaken or strengthen the incentives for collective action -Insecure property rights to cropland can reduce incentives to invest in soil and water conservation. -Watershed systems are highly complex, with multiple users, over multiple scales, making conflict resolution mechanisms important."}]},{"head":"Conclusion/ Topics for further research","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"The objective of this paper was to perform a first screening of relevant issues for further research. Although only part of the literature on watershed development has been reviewed, some general conclusions might be drawn."},{"index":2,"size":145,"text":"First, in the process of transformation from soil and water conservation to integrated rural development, the relation of the concept of 'watershed development' with the watershed has become more abstract, and the term ' watershed development' more diffused. To address the main problems of India's semi arid tropics, it seems important to restrengthen the relation with the watershed and make water leading. Water scarcity being the main constraint of India's SAT, focusing watershed development on improving the security and accessibility of water resources on the long run seems an important strategy for sustainable development. Putting water management at the front of watershed development will not only contribute to rural development by increasing the security of agricultural water use, it will improve livelihood security in other ways as well (drinking water, water for livestock and all other water uses that directly or indirectly affect rural livelihoods)."},{"index":3,"size":111,"text":"Bringing water back into watershed development has implications for the scope and scale of analysis. With regard to the scope of analysis, the analysis would not be confined to water use alone: Land and water are intrinsically linked, and what happens in the catchment will affect water resources, be it in the quality or the quantity of the water available. Looking at land and water uses the analysis would need to include all livelihood activities that use the watershed in one way or the other, ranging from household production (collection of fuel, drinking water, food production), agriculture and the use of the forest and the common resource base (livestock, fishing, forestry)."},{"index":4,"size":154,"text":"With regard to the scale of analysis, by definition 'watershed management', implies a scale that is larger then the village. After all, the watershed is nothing less then a river basin, all waters draining to a common stream. This stream, the water flow, should be accounted for when analysing issues concerning watershed development, as water saved in one place might lead to a reduction elsewhere: This might solve issues at one location, but at the cost of a worsening of conditions elsewhere. From an institutional perspective, choosing the watershed as the functional unit greatly complicates the analysis as on the level of the watershed usually no coordination mechanisms exist. This has led several authors (Kerr et al, 2002, Farrington et al. 2000, Knox et al 2001) to conclude watershed projects should chose the village as the scale of analysis, assuming collective action and common resource management on the level of the watershed won't work."},{"index":5,"size":44,"text":"Examples from Sri Lanka (Jinapala et al. 1999) and Europe (EU Waterframework Directive, 2000) have proven this assumption wrong, and although complicated, the establishment of watershed and river basin authorities can be an effective way of accounting for up/down stream issues in watershed management."},{"index":6,"size":248,"text":"Second, improved livelihood security being the most important objective for the development of India's semi-arid zones, it is of crucial importance that watershed development addresses the needs of the poorest. For a long time, poverty alleviation was regarded as synonymous with agricultural economic growth, as increased agricultural productivity was supposed to result in increased incomes for the rural poor. Without contesting the importance of productivity growth, by now it has become clear that poverty is affected by more then income alone. To ensure their livelihood, rural households pursue a whole range of activities, depending on the assets and capabilities available to them. Rainfed farming is one of them, but livestock production, off-farm employment and natural resource harvesting might be important livelihood activities as well. A framework that allows for a more integrated analysis of the means and mechanisms with which households try to ensure their livelihoods is the sustainable livelihood framework promoted by DFID (1999). Looked at from the livelihood perspective, poverty alleviation should focus on reducing the risk of livelihood insecurity, a livelihood being sustainable when it can cope with and recover from stresses and shocks, maintain and enhance its capabilities and assets while not undermining the natural resource base. Understanding the way watershed development can contribute to livelihood security is important to improve the impact of watershed development on the poor. This will require insight into the way households cope with water scarcity and other environmental risks in the activities they pursue to secure their livelihood."},{"index":7,"size":98,"text":"Third, to improve the effectiveness of watershed development, empirical research is needed in to the mechanisms through which poverty, natural resource degradation and low (agricultural) productivity are related. The few evaluations that have been performed to improve the effectiveness of watershed management have mainly focused on the way projects have been implemented. The participatory NGO approach being more successful then the top down approach used by the state, participatory watershed management has become the main strategy to improve project implementation. However, less attention has been paid to the influence local conditions have had in explaining the projects success."},{"index":8,"size":160,"text":"The heterogeneity of SAT India, both in terms of agro-ecological and socio-economic characteristics, affects project implementation in different ways. Regions with good market access and a well-developed non-agricultural sector might depend less on the watershed for their livelihood security then areas that are more remote, while the environmental impact of land and water use will be determined not only by household water use but by the bio-physical characteristics of the ecosystem as well. To be able to design effective interventions it will be necessary to understand the influence of local conditions on project performance and to identify the trade-offs between equity, efficiency and sustainability that locally exist. This will need to involve not only an analysis of the broader welfare effects of land and water uses in the watershed (environmental impact and economic value of the different land and water uses) but of the accessibility of land and water resources as well (access of the poor to land and water)"},{"index":9,"size":25,"text":"Fourth, to ensure watershed projects to be sustainable in the long run, more insight is needed into the mechanisms that make community watershed management work."},{"index":10,"size":256,"text":"Although attention has focused on improving the success of implementation, the key step to a win-win dynamics is the creation of equitable and transparent institutions to manage the watershed on the longer term. Might household level analysis answer the question how households cope with resource scarcity and environmental risks, households alone are not in the position to influence the circumstances that determine the security of their resource base. Can households to some extent manage the quality of their lands (a private resource), the security of the common land and water resources depends on the extent to which the community (or even communities at the scale of the watershed) is capable of managing these in a sustainable and equitable way. Although much research has been done with regard to common resource management, empirical research into the conditions that determine community watershed management to be successful has been lacking. Recent micro-scale empirical research has shown a large heterogeneity in environmental management by the rural poor to exist (Scherr 2000). Local endowments, conditions affecting the adoption of resource conserving technologies and local institutions supportive of the poor proved to be key in determining the outcomes. Getting insight into the conditions that determine local communities to be successful in the management of their common resource base (homogeneity of the population, scarcity of natural resources, external costs of over use, distribution of assets, size of the population) will help increase the sustainability of watershed development, not only for project implementation but for the long term management of the watershed as well. "}]},{"head":"Literature","index":8,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" Kerr et al., little empirical research seems to have been done to measure the impact of watershed development on rural livelihoods. Reddy et al (2001) tried to evaluate the impact of watershed development in 4 villages in Andhra Pradesh. Their study ' Watershed development and livelihood security' was much less extensive and elaborated then the study performed by Kerr et al. It proved difficult to distinguish what effects might be contributed to what: irrigation did improve, "},{"text":" -Adato & Meinzen-Dick \"Assesing the impact of agricultural research on poverty using the sustainable livelihoods framework\" EPTD discussion paper 89, IFPRI (2002) -Adolph, \" People's participation in NRM-experiences from watershed management projects in India\" ICRISAT/University of Hohenheim (1999) -Barbier & Bergeron \"Natural resource management in the hillsides of Honduras-Bioeconomic modeling at the micro watershed level\" research report 123, IFPRI (2001) -Boerema \" Watershed management: a review of the Worldbank portfolio\" Rural development department (2000) -Chadwick et al. \" A field methodology for assessing the impact of policy on rural livelihood systems\" working paper 10, Livelihood-policy relationships in South Asia, DFID et al. (2002) -Chung \" The contribution of wild foods to household survival strategies: lessons for agricultural researchers\", ICRISAT/Brown University (1997) -Farrington et al \" Participatory watershed management\" Oxford University Press (1999) -Farrington & Lobo \" Scaling up participatory watershed development in India: Lessons from the indo-german watershed development programme\" ODI (1997) -Hazell & Fan \" Balancing regional development priorities to achieve sustainable and equitable agricultural growth\" chapter 9 in \"Tradeoffs or Synergies-Agricultural intensification, economic development and the environment\" Lee & Barett (eds) CABI publishing (2001) -Hazell et al. \"Investing in poor people in less favoured areas\", IFPRI/WAU (2002) -Jinapala et al. (1996) \" Multi level participatory planning for water resources development in Sri Lanka\" IIED gatekeeper paper, no. 62 -Johnson, Ravnborg, Westerman & Probst \" User participation in watershed management and research\" Capri working paper 19 (2001) -Karanth & Abbi \"Participatory integrated development of watershed-report of a participatory impact assessment' SDC (2001) -Kerr & Chung \" Evaluating watershed management projects\" Capri working paper 17, IFPRI (2001) -Kerr, Pangare, Lokur Pangare & Kolavalli \"The Role of Watershed Projects in Developing Rainfed Agriculture in India\", Executive summary for the Worldbank, www.worldbank.org (2001) -Kerr & Chung \" Evaluating watershed management projects\" Capri working paper 17, IFPRI (2001) -Kerr, J., G. Pangare, V.Lokur Pangare and P.J.George \"An evaluation of dryland watershed development projects in India\", EPTD discussion paper no. 68 (2000) -Knox, Brent Swallow & Johnson, \"Conceptual and methodological lessons for improving watershed management and research\" Capri policy brief (2001) -Lee, Barett, Hazell and Southgate \" Assessing tradeoffs and synergies among agricultural intensificiation, economic development and environmental goals: conclusions and policy implications\" chapter 24 in \"Tradeoffs or Synergies-Agricultural intensification, economic development and the environment\" Lee & Barett (eds) CABI publishing (2001) -Mangurkar, Ravi Kumar & Schild \" Livestock-environment interactions in watersheds in India\" SDC (2001) -Mazzucato, Niemeijer, Stroosnijder & Roling \" Social networks and the dynamics of soil and water conservation in the Sahel\" Gatekeepers series no. 101, IIED (2001) -McCarthy, Kamara & Kirk \"The effect of environmental variability on livestock and land use management: The Borana plateau, South Ethiopia\" (2001) IFPRI-EPTD discussion paper 75 -Meinzen-Dick & Adato \"Assessing the impact of agricultural research on poverty using the sustainable livelihoods framework\" EPTD discussion paper 89, IFPRI (2002) -Ostrom, Schroeder & Wynne \"Institutional incentives and sustainable developmentinfrastructure policies in perspective\", Westview Press (1993) -Pender, Scherr and Duron \" Pathways of development in hillside areas of Honduras: causes and implications for agricultural production, poverty and resource use\" chapter 10 in \"Tradeoffs or Synergies-Agricultural intensification, economic development and the environment\" Lee & Barett (eds) CABI publishing (2001) -Pretty & Ward, \"Social capital and the environment\", World development (2001), vol. 29 (2) 209-227 -Reddy \" Quenching the thirst: the cost of water in fragile environments\" Development and Change , Vol 30 (1999) p 79-113 -Reddy et al, \"Watershed development and livelihood security: an assessment of linkages and impact in Andhra Pradesh, India\", DFID et al. (2001) -Rhoades, \"Participatory watershed research and management: where the shadow falls\", IIED Gatekeepers series 81 (2001) -Rosegrant, Cai, Cline and Nakagawa \" The role of rainfed agriculture in the future of global food production\", EPTD discussion paper 90, IFPRI (2001) -Ryan, J & D.Spencer \"Future challenges and opportunities for agricultural R&D in the semi-arid tropics, ICRISAT (2001) -Sherr \"A downward spiral? Research evidence on the relationship between poverty and natural resource degradation\" Food Policy 25 (2000) p 479-498 -Seeley, Batra & sarin \" Women's participation in watershed development in India\" IIED gatekeeper series 92 (2001) -Shallow, Garrity & van Noordwijk \" The effects of scales, flows and filters on property rights and collective action in watershed management\", Capri working paper 16, (2001) -Shiferaw, Anupama, Nageswara & Wani, \" Socioeconomic characterization and analysis of resource use patterns in community watersheds in SAT India\", ICRISAT(2001) -Singh & Hazell \" Rural poverty in semi arid tropics of India: identification, determinants & policy interventions\" ICRISAT (1989) -Springate-Baginski et al, Watershed development in AP-a policy review\", working paper 5, DFID et al (2001) -Walker & Ryan, \"Village and household economies in India's semi-arid tropics\" John Hopkins University Press (1990) -Wani et al. (eds) \" Improving management of natural resources for sustainable rainfed agriculture-proceedings of the training workshop on on-farm participatory research methodology, ICRISAT/ADB/IWMI (2001) -Wani & Rego (eds) Improving management of natural resources for sustainable rainfed agriculture-proceedings of the traveling workshop-cum-field visit to benchmark watersheds\" ICISAT/ADB (2000) "},{"text":" Watershed development projects are implemented through different channels.Adolph (1999) distinguishes the following: 1. National programs under Department of Agriculture and Cooperation (MoAC): the National Watershed Management Project for Rainfed Areas (NWMPRA) 2. National programs under Department of Rural Areas and Employment (MoRAE): the drought prone area program (DPAP), the desert development program (DDP), the integrated wasteland development project ( IWDP), the Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY) and the Employment assurance scheme (EAS). Since 1995, the projects implemented through this channel have to be participatory. 3. National projects funded by multi lateral donors. 4. State programs 5. Operational research projects (ORP) or model watersheds under the Indian council for Agricultural research (ICAR): In 1983 the government of India started 47 model watershed projects in dryland areas with technical supervision from the Central Research Institute for Dryland agriculture (CRIDA)The central role in most of the current projects initiated by the government is played by the project implementing agent, the PIA, who basically controls and manages the funds. The PIA might be a government agency, research institute or an NGO and is controlled by the Department of Rural Development and the Zilla Parishad (district level authority).For the short term implementation of watershed development projects, the Andhra Pradesh government has bypassed the Panchayats, by creating watershed associations. Baumann (chapter 6, Farrington et al 1999) questions whether this is a problem, comparing the institutional role designed to Panchayati Rai institutions with the institutional and developmental needs of participatory watershed management. He concludes that although both PRI as the watershed guidelines aim to decentralize control over development to local communities, the former is a constitutional part of Indian democracy while the latter is an executive order of a ministry: There is no contradiction in establishing watershed associations within a PRI, as both serve different purposes.Only when watershed associations become involved in the broader rural development of the community do the responsibilities of PRI and watershed associations start to mix. An example of the latter are the so-called 'watershed plus' projects. This term was coined An example of the latter are the so-called 'watershed plus' projects. This term was coined during the design of the western Orissa Rural livelihoods project in India and involves during the design of the western Orissa Rural livelihoods project in India and involves activities usually not associated with watershed management. Activities might include activities usually not associated with watershed management. Activities might include improved water management, minor irrigation, drinking water and sanitation improved water management, minor irrigation, drinking water and sanitation improvement, forestry and interventions to address the specific needs of the poorest improvement, forestry and interventions to address the specific needs of the poorest (including credit, collection and processing of non-timber forest products) aquaculture, (including credit, collection and processing of non-timber forest products) aquaculture, vegetable/fruit garden activities and local crafts. Although the development of 'watershed vegetable/fruit garden activities and local crafts. Although the development of 'watershed plus' projects seems to be rather new, many of the NGO related watershed development plus' projects seems to be rather new, many of the NGO related watershed development projects might be regarded as such as NGO's usually become involved in community projects might be regarded as such as NGO's usually become involved in community development before they actually start work on the watershed. development before they actually start work on the watershed. From a formal institutional point of view, the Panchayati Rai institutions (the rural local From a formal institutional point of view, the Panchayati Rai institutions (the rural local bodies) (PRI) should play a role in the implementation of watershed development as well, bodies) (PRI) should play a role in the implementation of watershed development as well, as the recently adapted 73 rd constitutional amendment act strengthened the position and as the recently adapted 73 rd constitutional amendment act strengthened the position and role of PRI to plan and manage rural development (including watershed management, role of PRI to plan and manage rural development (including watershed management, agriculture, soil conservation, social forestry, farm forestry, fuel and fodder and the agriculture, soil conservation, social forestry, farm forestry, fuel and fodder and the "}],"sieverID":"f4c317e0-c5c5-4a2d-8489-96a76a4d36a3","abstract":"Although under the title 'watershed management' a variety of activities is being pursued, the goal of most watershed projects is to increase agricultural productivity by improved soil and water conservation at the level of the micro-watershed. However, watershed projects might also involve reduced siltation of downstream water tanks, decreased water pollution and/or the implementation of integrated water management (Worldbank, 2000). Springgate et al. (2001) define watershed development as \"the development of a watershed through changes in structural and non-structural activities taken up in a watershed, and the resultant changes in ecological variables (such as land use, vegetative cover, in situ soil moisture and groundwater level) and their economic impact\". On the macro level, the watershed is nothing less then a river basin, on the micro level the watershed is the hydrological unit from which all waters drain to a common stream."}

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+ {"metadata":{"id":"01c274a48d249d3233421d9230b4e6d8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/1493/WF_1806.pdf"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"FLYER | 1897 ทางโครงการนี ้ ได้ ค้ นหาประสบการณ์ ต้ นแบบต่ างๆ การเรี ยนรู ้ จากโครงการต่ างๆของกองทุ นสิ ่ งแวดล้ อมโล (GEF) ที ่ ผ่ านมา และโครงการหลั กอื ่ นๆนอกเหนื อจากโครงการของ GEF ที ่ เกี ่ ยวข้ องกั บแนวปะการั ง และระบบนิ เวสต่ างๆที ่ เกี ่ ยวข้ อง ทางโครงการนี ้ มุ ่ งไปที ่ การจำแนก วิ เคราะห์ และนำบทเรี ยนรู ้ ต่ างๆไปสู ่ การปฏิ บั ติ ตามแลจั ดทำทรั พยากรข้ อมู ลท ี ่ ดี หลั งจากนั ้ นก็ เผยแผ่ ข้ อมู ลนี ้ ไปทั ่ วสากลเพื ่ อใช้ ในการคิ ดและพั ฒนาโครงการในอนาคต ห้ องความรู ้ และปฏิ บั ติ การที ่ ดี ที ่ สุ ดของกองทุ นสิ ่ งแวดล้ อมโลก (GEF LL Toolkit) เป็ นสถานที ่ ซึ ่ งใช้ ค้ นหาข้ อมู เพื ่ อการ วาแผนและสนั บสนุ นการจั ดการในแนวปะการั ง โดยการบริ การเครื ่ องมื อต่ างๆผ่ านทาง website รวมถึ ทางซี ดี -รอม (CD-ROM) อี กด้ วย Toolkit นี ้ เป็ น \"ห้ องฐานความรู ้ ที ่ มี การแก้ ไขเพี ่ มเติ มข้ อมู ลใหม่ ๆตลอดเวล\" เป็ นหั วข้ อที ่ เกี ่ ยวกั บการจั ดก ารแนวปะการั ง และจะพลั กดั นอย่ างไรให้ เกิ ดการพั ฒนาที ่ ดี ขึ ้ น รวมทั ้ งสามารถคาดการณ์ จากข้ อมู ลเหล่ านี ้ ได้ GEF LL Toolkit นี ้ จะให้ บริ การอยู ่ ที ่ http://gefll.reefbase.org และจะมี การปรั บปรุ งข้ อมู ลทุ กๆ 3 เดื อน เพื ่ อให้ ได้ ข้ อมู ล เกี ่ ยวกั บการจั ดการแนวปะการั งที ่ ทั นต่ อเหตุ การณ์ รวมทั ้ งยั งมรายชื ่ ออี เมลล์ (http://lists.reefbase.org/mailman/listinfo/ lessons.learned) และห้ องสนทนา (weblog) สำหรั บกลุ ่ มผู ้ จั ดการแนวปะการั งเพื ่ อพู ดคุ ยแลกเปลี ่ ยนความคิ ดและประสบ การณ์ ต่ างๆ GEF LL Toolkit ยั งประกอบไปด้ ว 8 หั วข้ อที ่ มี การพู ดถึ งมายื ดยาว วึ ่ งแต่ ละหั วข้ อก็ เป็ นประเด็ นหลั กเกี ่ ยวกั บการจั ดการแนวปะการั ง าร่ วมโครงการและมี ส่ วนเกี ่ ยวข้ อง • นโยบา กฎหมาย และการบั งคั บใช้ กฏหมาย • การจั ดการระบบนิ เวศวิ ทยาพื ้ นฐาน • การติ ดตามตรวจสอบและการประเมิ นผลการจั ดการแนว ปะการั ง • การจั ดการเกี ่ ยวกั บด้ านความสามารถด้ านการศึ กษา และด้ านความรู ฐานความรู ้ เพื ่ อการเรี ยนรู ้ และหลั กปฏิ บั ติ ในการจั ดก ารแนวปะการั ง GEF Lessons Learned website ฐานข้ อมู ลปะการั งโลก ศู นย์ นานาชาติ เพื ่ อการจั ดการทรั พยกรสิ ่ งแวดล้ อมทางน้ PO Box 500 GPO, 10670 ปี นั , มาเลเซี ย โทร. +(60-4) 626 1606 แฟกซ์ +(60-4) 626 5530 อี เมลล์ : [email protected] ฐานข้ อมู ลปะการั งโล website: http://www.reefbase.org ห้ องความรู ้ และปฏิ บั ติ การที ่ ดี ที ่ สุ ดของกองทุ นสิ ่ งแวดล้ อมโล (GEF LL) : http://www.reefbase.org © 2008 ศู นย์ นานาชาติ เพื ่ อการจั ดการทรั พยากรสิ ่ งแวดล้ อมทางน้ สงวนลิ ขสิ ทธิ ์ ข้ อมู ลนี ้ อาจจะมี การจั ดทำซ้ ำโดยไม่ ได้ รั บอนุ ญาติ แต่ จะได้ รั บการอนุ มั ติ จากทางศู นย์ นาน าชาติ เพื ่ อการจั ดการทรั พยกรสิ ่ งแวดล้ อมทางน้ ำ (WorldFish Center) partnership • excellence • growth | www.worldfishcenter.org ้ ได้ รั บการสนั บสนุ นจากกองทุ นสิ ่ งแวดล้ อมโลก (GEF) และองค์ การสิ ่ งแวดล้ อมโลก (UNEP) และโครงการอื ่ นๆที ่ มี ส่ วนร่ วมด้ วย ได้ แก่ เครื ่ อข่ ายการแลกแปลี ่ ยนความรู ้ เรื ่ องน้ ำระหว่ างประเทศ (IW:Learn) องค์ การอนุ รั กษ์ ธรรมชาติ (TNC) กองทุ นสั ตว์ ป่ าโลก (WWF) องค์ การอนุ รั กษ์ พลั งงานระหว่ างประเทศ (CI) เครื อข่ ายแนวปะการั งระหว่ างประเทศ (ICRAN) เครื อข่ าย การติ ดตาทตรวจสอบแนวปะการั งโลก (GCRMN) องค์ การมหาสมุ ทรและบรรยากาศแห่ งชาติ (NOAA) พวกเรารู ้ สึ กตื ่ นเต้ นมากที ่ จะได้ เผยแพร่ แผ่ น CD และเวปไซท์ นี ้ หวั งว่ าคงจะเป็ นประโยช์ แ ก่ ท่ าน ถ้ าหากท่ านพบว่ าข้ อมู ลในนี ้ ไม่ ถู กต้ อง ยั งไม่ มี การเพิ ่ มเติ มปรั บปรุ ง หรื อเราไม่ ได้ รั บ ข้ อมู ลที ่ ควรจะรู ้ กรุ ณาติ ดต่ อหรื อแจ้ งให้ พวกเ ราทราบได้ ทุ กเมื ่ อที ่ [email protected] เพื ่ อท ี ่ พวกเราจะได้ ปรั บปรุ งข้ อมู ลให้ ทั นต่ อเหตุ การ ณ์ และเป็ นประโยช์ แก่ ท่ านทั ้ งหลายต่ อไป GEF Lessons Learned CD GEF Lessons Learned Toolkit "}],"sieverID":"951ba62d-2033-42ce-9b6e-0eb0ef41b205","abstract":""}

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+ {"metadata":{"id":"01f1d078a41c4036b91fd3fbff56cf3d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0c2c5c6e-39fd-4a9f-b04c-5d391aaa3dab/retrieve"},"pageCount":18,"title":"Key programs to address infectious diseases (including zoonoses, food safety & AMR)","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"ILRI is co-hosted by both the governments of Ethiopia and Kenya, with offices in 12 other countries, among this 4 countries in Asia (China, India, Nepal and Vietnam)."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"ILRI has approximately 600 permanent staff (40% female and 60% male). • ILRI works through partners ➢ Well connected network (national, regional and international) ➢ Active MOU with more than 20 partners in the region (currently, KT, AIDKR and CNU (upcoming) in South Korea)"}]},{"head":"Capacity building (by","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Importance of Livestock","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"• ILRI researcher are members in relevant expert panels and working groups "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" for East and SEA (Hanoi) -23 staff (including 4 expats, 3 PHD students) -Vets, geneticists, economist, gender, M&E • Importance of livestock and challenges • Programs on zoonoses, AMR and food safety (One Health framework) • Animal health with emphasis on African swine fever "},{"text":"✓✓✓✓ Epidemiology and control of ASF ✓ Development of a Safe DIVA vaccine ✓ Pig value chain development Outputs: Pig Value Chain understanding ✓ Enhanced capability for the disease surveillance (e.g., mobile PCR pen-side test) Monitoring of clinical and epidemiological features of ASF (Virus threshold, transmission models) ✓ Economic impact of ASF ✓ SAPLING (Low-costs biosecurity improvement) Outputs: Risk pathways and risk factors identified ✓ Recommendations on compensation schemes ✓ Demonstration farms (SAPLING) Major challenges & gaps • Availability and quality of diagnostic assays • So far, no scalable ASF vaccine • Feasible low-cost biosecurity approaches (e.g., small-scale sector) CGIAR ILRI's comparative advantage • Interdisciplinary research team covering wide range of expertise (vet, public health, economist, climate change, feed, genetics, M&E/impact and social science including gender) "},{"text":"➢ WHO expert panel traditional markets in ASEAN ➢ Working groups & partnerships ➢ Wildlife Alliances • The only CG centre doing research entirely on livestock systems • Research across CGIAR centres covering entire food systems • Profound experience on research targeting small scale farming systems and traditional livestock value chains • Novel approaches/tools/strategies developed and/or tested ➢ Participatory risk assessment and epidemiology ➢ Proven approach to de-risk traditional markets ➢ Behavioural nudges to support interventions ➢ Women's Empowerment in Livestock Index (WELI) ➢ Operating One Health Resource Centres and field sites ➢ ILRI One Health Strategy recently launched • Documented impact on livestock systems "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" Demand for livestock derived food will keep growing Beef Milk BeefMilk 200.00 200.00 200.00200.00 160.00 160.00 160.00160.00 120.00 120.00 120.00120.00 80.00 80.00 80.0080.00 • Demand for milk, meat, eggs is increasing 0.00 40.00 0.00 40.00 • Demand for milk, meat, eggs is increasing0.00 40.000.00 40.00 fastest in LMICs driven by population, rising fastest in LMICs driven by population, rising incomes and urbanization incomes and urbanization • 70% of livestock-derived foods consumed • 70% of livestock-derived foods consumed in LMICs are • Produced on small-scale farms 200.00 Poultry 200.00 in LMICs are • Produced on small-scale farms200.00Poultry200.00 160.00 160.00 160.00160.00 • Sourced in informal markets 80.00 120.00 80.00 120.00 • Sourced in informal markets80.00 120.0080.00 120.00 40.00 40.00 40.0040.00 0.00 0.00 0.000.00 Projections based on IMPACT model, Dolapo Enahoro (ILRI) Projections based on IMPACT model, Dolapo Enahoro (ILRI) "}],"sieverID":"1f39e7cc-9f1d-4711-b479-f04548183f31","abstract":""}

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+ {"metadata":{"id":"01fad58e0fc6692eda8acfe2d47e8cbe","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f175794d-48b4-46f2-be89-97236f31fc15/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Background","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"Although generally viewed as of secondary importance to rice, root and tuber crops (including potato, sweetpotato, cassava and yam) are popular with small-scale farmers throughout Asia. Grown as staple foods for household consumption, roots and tubers provide a good source of energy, vitamins and micronutrients. They grow in challenging conditions, survive the extreme weather events (e.g. typhoons) increasingly frequent in the region, can often be harvested piecemeal over the growing season, provide business opportunities in local markets, and are often the responsibility of women. These crops have the potential to make a much larger contribution to building food and nutrition security and climate-resilient livelihoods throughout the continent. "}]},{"head":"Objectives","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"The overall goal of this project was to enhance food security and climate resilience among poor farming households in upland and coastal communities within the Asia-Pacific region. The objectives were to: a) identify needs and opportunities through vulnerability assessments (while paying attention to gender equity issues); b) work with local partners to design and implement innovations that enhance food resilience; and c) develop and validate effective partnership strategies with large-scale IFAD investment projects to take technological, commercial and institutional innovations to scale."}]},{"head":"Approach","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":166,"text":"Phase I of FoodSTART generated a wealth of useful evidence and lessons on how roots and tubers contribute to food security among poor farming households, especially indigenous groups living in remote rural areas. By developing and promoting suitable methods, tools and best practices, the project identified how and where governments should best invest their resources to achieve significant impact. FoodSTART+ has further developed this knowledge base to include the cross-cutting issues of vulnerability and resilience to climate change. The aim was to identify how to build the capacity of rural communities to adapt and create resilient livelihoods based on root and tuber crops, and then to develop a robust and integrated model combining research and development that could be rolled out on a large scale through IFAD investment and other partnership projects. Success was predicated on the influence of FoodSTART+ on IFAD investment projects and profile their national implementing agencies which are expected to achieve impact at scale in part through adoption of the project's innovations."}]},{"head":"Achievements","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"Working with IFAD investment partners, the project team produced scoping studies in all target countries and developed collaborative work plans for highpotential sites in India, Indonesia, the Philippines and Vietnam. This led to the establishment of implementation partnerships-based on joint identification and fundingwith several influential programs targeting sustainable rural development, natural resource management and livelihood improvement. The team also developed a specific tool-the 'partnership health check-up'-to monitor the various contributions to, and support within, partnerships, as well as their transparency, accountability and overall efficiency. The results were shared with the partners to further improve implementation. Gender responsiveness was ensured through an initial checklist, and the gathering of input and feedback to improve implementation."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"New technologies were introduced, tested and promoted to improve productivity and post-harvest management. These included nutrient-rich varieties of orange-fleshed sweetpotato and yellow-fleshed cassava, dual-purpose sweetpotato for food and feed, improved multiplication FoodSTART is part of the CGIAR research program on Roots, Tubers, and Bananas (RTB) and draws on the scientific resources and expertise of this global program."},{"index":3,"size":46,"text":"of sweetpotato to produce clean planting materials, enhanced production and storage of seed potato, climate-smart root and tuber production methods, and processing of cassava and sweetpotato for food and feed. Proven innovations were mostly introduced via the 'farmer business school' (FBS) approach developed under phase I."},{"index":4,"size":63,"text":"FoodSTART+ further developed and scaled up the FBS approach to enhance post-harvest management, strengthen value chains and increase farmers' incomes. Capacity-building activities helped increase knowledge among local agricultural extension staff, farmer associations and women's groups, helping to support livelihoods based on small-scale, value-added businesses supplying fresh and processed products. Project staff developed monitoring guidelines and simplified learning guides to complement existing training manuals."},{"index":5,"size":78,"text":"FoodSTART+ published a range of training materials and communication products designed to share knowledge and lessons learned. While impact among end-user beneficiaries was the main goal of the partner IFAD investment projects rather than FoodSTART+, the grant project reached 3,251 end-users (of which 1,888 are female) as of December 2018. During the final six months of the project (Jan-July 2019), the partnerships were consolidated further, with an emphasis on completing the planned knowledge dissemination and policy engagement activities."}]},{"head":"Key outputs","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Prioritize and map target areas 102%"},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"Identify, establish, and monitor research-for-development partnerships 103%"},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"Identify gender-sensitive innovations for building climate-resilient livelihoods 97%"},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"Implement research for development actions to promote innovations 130% Document best practices and outcome stories and disseminate knowledge to support national and regional policy-making 84% "}]},{"head":"Duration","index":6,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"© CIP/S. Fajardo Roots and tubers have great potential to support food security and resilient livelihoods among the poorest and most vulnerable people around the globe. FoodSTART, which promotes innovations for enhanced production and marketing of these underexploited crops, has completed a second phase in Asia. "},{"text":" donors and organizations that globally support its work through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund: www.cgiar.org/funders This publication is copyrighted by the International Potato Center (CIP). It is licensed for use under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License "}],"sieverID":"58825ca6-436e-4d41-80eb-39c05fc60fb7","abstract":""}

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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0273a04804121f3f9b16be47e79358b1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/3869/94480c18f49e1b5e7f724fe96936595c.pdf"},"pageCount":15,"title":"Cell wall disruption: An effective strategy to improve the nutritive quality of microalgae in African catfish (Clarias gariepinus)","keywords":["accessibility","algae","digestibility","disruption treatments","nutrient utilization","rigid cell wall"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":". However, for intact algae, the cell walls may be an important factor limiting the digestibility. Previously, it has been shown that cell wall structure is an important factor determining lipid extraction from microalgae for biofuel production (Lee, Lewis, & Ashman, 2012;Lee, Yoo, Jun, Ahn, & Oh, 2010). Knowledge on effect of microalgal processing on cell wall integrity and subsequent effects on nutrient accessibility and digestibility will enhance better utilization of microalgae in fish feeds. Therefore, the aim of this study was to assess the effects of cell wall disruption on accessibility and digestibility of nutrients from microalga in African catfish. In addition, the results from African catfish were compared to those from Nile tilapia (Teuling, Wierenga, Agboola, Gruppen, & Schrama, 2019), to determine the effects of fish species on utilization of the disrupted microalga."},{"index":2,"size":131,"text":"There is variability in digestibility of microalgae in fish. The digestibility of nutrients from microalgae has been suggested to be influenced by their intrinsic cell wall structure (Scholz et al., 2014;Teuling et al., 2017), their nutritional composition (Becker, 2007) and the digestive physiology of fish species (Burr, Barrows, Gaylord, & Wolters, 2011;Teuling et al., 2017). Protein apparent digestibility coefficients (ADCs) of Arthrospira sp., Chlorella sp., Nannochloropsis sp. and Scenedesmus sp. were reported to be 81%, 80%, 72% and 67%, respectively, in both Nile tilapia and African catfish (Teuling et al., 2017). The lower ADCs reported for Nannochloropsis sp. and Scenedesmus sp. were attributed to the rigidity of their cell walls (Teuling et al., 2017). The cell wall properties determine to which extent the nutrients are made accessible to the digestive enzymes."},{"index":3,"size":154,"text":"Based on this, microalgae with less rigid cell walls or membranes (such as peptidoglycan in Arthrospira) are hypothesized to have better nutrient digestibility coefficients than those with very rigid (or: poorly digestible) cellulosic cell wall (e.g. the cell wall of Scenedesmus spp.). Similar nutrient apparent digestibility coefficients observed in tilapia and African catfish could be attributed to the dominance of rigid microalgae cell wall over other factors, such as nutritional composition or the digestive physiology of fish. Nannochloropsis gaditana contains cellulosic cell walls with additional mass of lipids known as \"algaenan\" covering the cell wall (Scholz et al., 2014). These cell walls can be degraded using cellulases (Scholz et al., 2014), but these are not secreted by the digestive system of fish (Lindsay & Harris, 1980;Shi et al., 2017;Yigit & Olmez, 2011). Studies have suggested that cellulase can be formed by microflora present in the intestines (Hlophe, Moyo, & Ncube, 2014;Lindsay & Harris, 1980)."},{"index":4,"size":183,"text":"To increase better utilization of microalgae, that is increase nutrient accessibility and digestibility from microalgae in fish, cell wall disruption could be an effective strategy. The impact of cell wall disruption on nutrient accessibility and digestibility from microalgae has received little attention in digestion trials. The few available studies have shown that cell disruption increases accessibility of astaxanthin (Sommer, Potts, & Morrissy, 1991) and protein (Komaki et al., 1998;Teuling et al., 2019) from different microalgae by 2%-60%. In addition, the extractability of lipids from microalgal cells can be improved by up to 3-4 times by disrupting the cells (Lee et al., 2012Lee et al., 2010). The variability observed in these studies is due to the differences in microalgae species, types of disruption treatment and the impact generated on the microalgae cells. To determine the impact of cell wall disruption treatments, methods were developed by Teuling et al. (2019) to quantify nutrient accessibility from disrupted microalgae. That study also shows a strong positive correlation between in vitro accessibility and in vivo digestibility of nutrients from disrupted microalgae in Nile tilapia (Teuling et al., 2019)."},{"index":5,"size":66,"text":"Cell wall disruption is the process of disrupting the native, intact cell wall structures, leaving the inner cell intact, but the structure of the cell wall damaged. Cell disintegration, on the other hand, entails rupturing the entire cells, where the cells are no longer recognized as intact cells under the microscope. Both methods can be used to release nutrients or bioactive constituents embedded within the cells."},{"index":6,"size":193,"text":"Cell wall disruption and cell disintegration can be done through mechanical and non-mechanical treatments (Günerken et al., 2015;Lee et al., 2012). Maintaining the nutritive quality of bioactive components within the algae cells should be of utmost concern during the selection of disruption treatments. Enzymatic and chemical treatments are believed to modify the nutritive quality of intracellular constituents (Lee et al., 2010). Thus, these are less preferable than mechanical treatments such as bead milling (Engler, 1985;Günerken et al., 2015;Kula & Schütte, 1987;Lee et al., 2012), ultrasonication (Borthwick et al., 2005;Chandler et al., 2001;Günerken et al., 2015) and homogenization (Kula & Schütte, 1987;Shirgaonkar, Lothe, & Pandit, 1998). Mechanical treatments also have varying effects on microalgal cells. Mechanical treatments such as bead milling (Engler, 1985;Günerken et al., 2015;Kula & Schütte, 1987;Lee et al., 2012) can be used to completely disrupt the cell wall leading to full disintegration of the cell. Other physical treatments such as freezing (Lee et al., 2012;Mazur, 1969), freeze-drying (Lee et al., 2012) and thermal (Mendes-Pinto, Raposo, Bowen, Young, & Morais, 2001;Ometto et al., 2014) keep the cells intact, but can create partial disruption or little perforation of the microalgal cell wall structure."},{"index":7,"size":18,"text":"It was hypothesized that different cell wall disruption treatments lead to different accessibility of nutrients from the microalga."},{"index":8,"size":108,"text":"Additionally, it is expected that accessibility of nutrients after the cell wall disruption of microalgae will correlate positively with nutrient digestibility in African catfish. Irrespective of the disruption treatments, it is hypothesized that herbivorous fish (e.g. Nile tilapia) are able to access and digest nutrients from microalga better than omnivorous fish (e.g. African catfish). To test these hypotheses, six different microalgal treatments (1 untreated and 5 treated N. gaditana) were fed to African catfish (Clarias gariepinus) at a 30% inclusion level in the diet and these data were compared with earlier published data on Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) fed the same batch of diets (Teuling et al., 2019)."}]},{"head":"| MATERIAL S AND ME THODS","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"| Nannochloropsis gaditana treatments","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"The N. gaditana was treated based on the methods described by Teuling et al. (2019). In summary, the N. gaditana biomass was obtained from Algaspring after being harvested, washed and centrifuged (Almere, The Netherlands). Subsequently, the viscous algae paste of 20% (w/w DM) resulting from centrifugation was subjected to different physical or mechanical treatments in order to rupture or weaken the microalgae cell walls."},{"index":2,"size":91,"text":"One portion of the viscous algae known as untreated group A. Bachofen Maschinenfabrik, Muttenz, Switzerland), using 0.5 mm yttria-stabilized zirconia grinding beads, type ZY Premium (Sigmund Lindner, Warmensteinach, Germany). The pump speed was set at 20 L/hr and milling speed at 14 m/s. During milling, the milling chamber was cooled with running water to prevent protein deteriorating reactions and to ensure microbial safety. The algae suspension was passed through the mill three times to break the majority of the algal cells. Cell disruption was monitored by microscopy (Teuling et al., 2019)."},{"index":3,"size":48,"text":"All the treated and untreated samples, except FRD were drum dried, during which the algae products were dried within ~7 s on drums heated to 130°C. The FRD sample was freeze-dried. All algae samples were dried (both drum drying and freeze-drying) to a product of >900 g/kg DM."}]},{"head":"| In vitro accessibility measurements of nutrients","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Microscopic analysis, in vitro protein hydrolysis, nitrogen solubility, ion leaching, fat extractability and buffering capacity tests were used to quantify the extent of disruption on microalgae cells."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"Extensive description of methods and results of these accessibility tests can be found in Teuling et al. (2019). These results were used to assessed the relationship between the in vitro accessibility of nutrients and their corresponding digestibility in African catfish."}]},{"head":"| Fish trial","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"In the current experiment, animals were not exposed to invasive techniques or discomfort related to the experimental treatments."},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"Fish were not anesthetized or euthanized as part of the experimental procedures. This experiment was evaluated by the Animal Welfare Body of Wageningen University. The Animal Welfare Body approved this experiment and judged the procedures applied to the animals in this experiment to be below the threshold for being an animal experiment. "}]},{"head":"| Diets","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"The basal diet was formulated as in subsequently extruded (through a 2 mm die) into sinking pellets. Prior to feeding, the diets were sieved (2 mm) to remove the fine particles."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"Proximate composition of the different treated N. gaditana biomass is represented in Table 2. Also, the composition and chemical constituents of the experimental diets are presented in Table 3."}]},{"head":"| Fish, rearing and housing facilities","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"The experiment was performed at the Aquaculture Research Facility (ARF) of the Wageningen University and Research (WUR), The"}]},{"head":"Netherlands. Mixed sex juveniles African catfish (Clarias gariepinus,","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"Fleuren en Nooijen strain) were obtained from commercial breeder (Fleuren en Nooijen, The Netherlands) two weeks prior to the commencement of the trial. All tanks were connected to the same recirculation system, resulting in a common water supply and ensuring the same water quality for the inflow of each tank. The system consisted of a sump, settling tank and trickling filter with a water refreshment of 300 L/day. Each individual tank was connected to a swirl separator (AquaOptima AS, column height 44 cm; diameter 24.5 cm). The swirl separators, with detachable glass bottles, were used to collect faeces and count feed spills for each tank separately."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"The flow rate in each tank was set at 7 L/min using a hand-held liquid rotameter. All tanks were equipped with a cylindrical shaped air stone. for African catfish throughout the duration of the experiment."}]},{"head":"| Experimental procedure","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"After two weeks on pre-experimental diets, the African catfish with an average initial body weight of 40 ± 2.96 g were sorted, batch weighed and randomly distributed to 21 tanks of 60 L water each."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"The 21 tanks were divided over three racks of seven tanks each."},{"index":3,"size":126,"text":"Each tank was randomly stocked with 30 fish. The seven experimental treatments were randomly distributed over all the tanks. Each treatment was replicated thrice. The fish were fed restrictively to keep the amount of feed on dry matter (DM) basis per tank per day the same. Fish were fed at 18 g/kg 0.8 BW/day. The daily amount of feed was increased throughout the experiment by predicting fish growth and weight, using the average start weight of the fish (all treatments) and an expected feed conversion ratio (FCR) of 1. These were used to create the feeding lists. The feeding list for a particular tank was subsequently adapted according to the mortality recorded in that tank. Fish were hand-fed twice a day at 9:00 and 15:30 hr."},{"index":4,"size":57,"text":"Uneaten pellets recovered from the settling units were recorded per tank after each feeding moment. Prior to each feeding, the collection bottles (21 in number) were attached to each settling tank to collect the uneaten pellets. The weight of the uneaten pellets was after which the fish were counted and group weighed to estimate the growth performance."}]},{"head":"| Analytical procedure and calculations","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"| Growth performance","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"The average fish growth (g) was calculated as the difference between the average initial (W i ) and average final (W f ) body weight of fish. The specific growth rate (SGR) was calculated as SGR = (LNW f -LNW i ) × 100/day, where d is the duration of the experiment in days. The daily feed intake was recorded by weighing the given feed and the uneaten pellets. The feed conversion ratio (FCR) was calculated using the total feed intake (on dry matter basis)"},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"and fish weight gain per tank. Protein efficiency ratio was calculated from total protein ingested and fish weight gain per tank. Fish survival per tank was calculated as (N f /N i ) × 100%, where N i and N f represent initial and final number of fish, respectively."}]},{"head":"| Digestibility","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"The apparent digestibility coefficients (ADCs) of dry matter (DM), crude protein (CP), crude fat, total carbohydrates, starch, non-starch polysaccharides (NSP), ash and minerals of all diets and test ingredients were calculated, with the use of Yttrium as inert marker. The ADCs of diets were calculated using the formula of Cheng and Hardy (2002); "}]},{"head":"| Chemical analysis","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":136,"text":"The freeze-dried samples of algae, feeds and faeces were ground to pass through a screen (1 mm size) of a mill grinder (Retsch ZM 200, Germany) at 1,200 rpm, prior to chemical analyses The DM content was determined by drying samples for at least 4 hr at 103°C until constant weight (ISO 6496, 1983). Ash content was determined by incineration using a muffle furnace for 4 hr at 550°C (ISO 5984, 1978). The CP (N × 6.25) was analysed by the Kjeldahl method (ISO 5983, 1979). Crude fat was measured by petroleum-ether extraction (Soxhlet method, ISO 5986). Energy content was measured using bomb calorimetry by direct combustion (IKA® werke, C7000; IKA analysentechnik, Weitershem, Germany). Yttrium and minerals in feed and faeces were analysed by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICPOES) using the standard NEN 15510 (2007)."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"Total starch was determined in duplicate using the total starch assay method C (AOAC Method 996.11 (AOAC, 2012)) from Megazyme (Megazyme International, Ltd, Wicklow, Ireland). In this method, the total starch includes resistant starch, digestible starch, free glucose and maltodextrins. D-glucose was used for calibration and standardized regular maize starch as a control."},{"index":3,"size":64,"text":"Neutral carbohydrate composition was determined in duplicate based on the alditol acetates procedure, as previously described by Teuling et al. (2017). The monosugar constituents of the total carbohydrates were expressed in anhydrous form. Total uronic acid content was determined according to an automated colorimetric m-hydroxydiphenyl assay, which was described by Teuling et al. (2017). All chemical analyses were performed in triplicate unless otherwise stated."}]},{"head":"| Statistical analysis","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Statistical analyses were performed using the SPSS statistical software package version 22.0 (IBM Institute, Armonk, NY, USA)."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"Data on fish performance and ADCs of nutrients were tested for treatment effect using the one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA)."},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"Significant differences (p < 0.05) between means were detected"},{"index":4,"size":71,"text":"using the Tukey test. Correlation coefficients between the in vitro accessibility parameters (degree of hydrolysis, nitrogen solubility and ion leaching) and ADCs of nutrients (dry matter, crude protein, gross energy, crude fat, ash and phosphorus) were examined using Pearson's correlation coefficients. Linear and quadratic relationships between the in vitro accessibility measurements (degree of hydrolysis, nitrogen solubility and ion leaching) and ADCs of protein and fat were evaluated through the regression analysis."},{"index":5,"size":66,"text":"Probability levels of less than 0.05 were considered to be statistically significant, and levels between 0.05 and 0.1 were considered a trend. In addition, fish species, treatment and their interaction effect on ADCs of microalgae were tested using an 2-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) by combining the reported data on Nile tilapia (Teuling et al., 2019) and the data of the current study on African catfish."}]},{"head":"| RE SULTS","index":15,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"| Fish performance","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"The survival rate (mean of 95%) was unaffected by the disruption treatments (p > 0.05) (Table 4). The feed conversion ratio (FCR), protein efficiency ratio (PER) and daily growth (g/d) were different (p < 0.005) among all the treatments. The average feed intake "}]},{"head":"| Digestibility","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Tables 5 and 6 show the apparent digestibility coefficients (ADCs)"},{"index":2,"size":135,"text":"of nutrients in the experimental diets and microalgae. On diet level, ADCs of total carbohydrates, starch, NSP, ash and calcium were similar (p > 0.05) for all the disruption treatments. The mean ADC of starch for all the diets was 98%. ADCs of DM, CP, GE, crude fat, phosphorus, copper and magnesium were affected (p < 0.05) by the disruption treatments. The ADCs (in %) of CP for BEM (84%) diet was better than that of L40 and FRO (mean ADC = 80%). The ADCs of CP for UNT, PAS and FRD diets (mean = 77%) were similar, but lower than of BEM, L40 and FRO diets. The ADC of crude fat for BEM (82%) diet was similar to REF diet (85%), and better than UNT, PAS, FRD, FRO and L40 (mean ADC = 68%)."},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"On microalgae (ingredient) level, ADCs of total carbohydrates and ash were unaffected (p > 0.05) by the disruption treatments. "}]},{"head":"ADCs","index":18,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"| Correlation between the in vitro accessibility measurements and in vivo nutrient digestibility","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":185,"text":"Accessibility of nutrients varied among the disruption treatments (Teuling et al., 2019). Nitrogen solubility, degree of protein hydrolysis and ion leaching of microalgae increased by 1%-12%, 1%-10% and 6%-35%, respectively, with different cell wall disruption treatments (Teuling et al., 2019). Table 7 shows the correlation between in vitro accessibility measurements (nitrogen solubility, degree of hydrolysis and ion leaching) and in vivo nutrient digestibility of microalgae (ADCs of DM, CP, GE, fat, ash and P). Protein digestibility strongly correlated (r > 0.90) with degree of hydrolysis, nitrogen solubility and ion leaching. Also, fat digestibility has a strong positive correlation (r > 0.85) with degree of hydrolysis and nitrogen solubility. Furthermore, it was tested whether the relationships were best described by a linear or quadratic equation (Table 8, Figures 1 and 2). ADCs of protein and crude fat had significant linear and quadratic relationships with the degree of hydrolysis and ion leaching of the microalgae. Protein ADC had significant linear relationships with nitrogen solubility of the microalgae, but they were not quadratically related. Fat ADC had both linear and quadratic relationships with nitrogen solubility of the microalgae."}]},{"head":"| Effects of fish species on digestibility of the microalgae","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"The differently treated and untreated microalgae were previously tested in Nile tilapia (Teuling et al., 2019). Comparing the results obtained in tilapia with the current experiment showed that microalgae were differently digested in both fish species (Table 9). For CP and fat, there was a significant interaction between cell wall disruption treatments and fish species. The ADCs of protein of microalgae (with different treatment) was 1%-5% higher in Nile tilapia than in African catfish. Also, the ADCs of crude fat were higher (6%-12% higher) in Nile tilapia than in African catfish. For energy, ash and P, the interaction was absent, but there was a significant fish species effect."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"Similar to ADCs of protein and fat, ADCs of DM, energy and phosphorus were higher in Nile tilapia than in African catfish."}]},{"head":"| D ISCUSS I ON","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Microalgae are gaining increasing attention as new protein source in aquafeed. The rigidity of the microalga cell walls could have a strong influence on the accessibility of the nutrients to digestive enzymes."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"The current study examined the effect of cell wall disruption on nutrient accessibility and digestibility of N. gaditana in African catfish."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"Inclusion of 30% intact (UNT diet) microalgae decreased growth performance in African catfish to the REF diet. FRO, FRD and PAS diets showed similar growth performance in African catfish as the UNT diet. However, cell disintegration by bead milling (BEM) and disruption of cell walls by cold pasteurization (L40)"},{"index":4,"size":10,"text":"showed identical growth performance in African catfish as the ref-"},{"index":5,"size":34,"text":". This shows that 30% of the diet of African catfish could be substituted with any of the BEM or L40 algae biomass while maintaining the same performance. Compared to the UNT diet, L40"},{"index":6,"size":55,"text":"and BEM diets increased biomass gain (g/fish), FCR and PER of African catfish by 17%, 11% and 15%, respectively. The FCR (mean FCR = 1.01) observed in this trial generally performed better than diets containing Spirulina (FCR = 1.28) and Cladophora (FCR = 1.09) biomass previously used elsewhere for African catfish (Promya & Chitmanat, 2011)."},{"index":7,"size":336,"text":"The apparent digestibility coefficients (ADCs) of experiment diets and microalgae support the growth performance indices earlier reported in this experiment. As expected, increased digestibility of nutrients led to better feed efficiency and biomass gain of to hydrolyze NSP from vegetal sources (Leenhouwers, Veld, Verreth, & Schrama, 2007). The ADCs values for NSP (3%-24%) in all the experimental diets are similar to or lower than values recorded in previous experiments (Leenhouwers et al., 2007;Teuling et al., 2017). Cell disintegration by bead milling (BEM) and disruption of cell walls by freezing (FRO) and cold pasteurization (L40) increased protein digestibility of microalgae relative to the intact microalgae (UNT). Cell wall disruption by pasteurization (PAS) and freeze-drying (FRD) had no effect on protein digestibility compared to the untreated microalgae (UNT). The ADC of protein for intact N. gaditana was lower than those measured for fishmeal and for soybean meal in African catfish by Fagbenro and Davies (2001). Fat digestibility of microalgae was only increased by bead milling (36% increase from UNT). The increase in growth performance and nutrients digestibility of microalgae in African with L40 and BEM treatments shows that disruption treatments could be an effective strategy to reduce the negative impact of rigid cell walls on utilization of microalgae in fish. In the case of N. gaditana, the cellulosic algaenan bilayer cell walls are very resistant to digestive enzyme hydrolysis (Scholz et al., 2014;Staehelin & Pickett-Heaps, 1975). There are variations between this study and an earlier study on intact N. gaditana in African catfish (Teuling et al., 2017). In the current experiment, the FCR and ADC of protein (1.04 and 59%) for intact N. gaditana were relatively lower than the measured values in the previously cited experiment (0.89 and 72%). It should be mentioned that the N. gaditana used in the present study was a different strain (AS1405) than the algae used in the previous study (AS1301), and that the average initial fish size (44 g) in the current experiment was lower than in the previous experiment (70 g)."},{"index":8,"size":143,"text":"It has been previously shown that the different disruption treatments used in this study result in different levels of nutrient release from the microalgae (Teuling et al., 2019). The different disruption treatments were found to increase the release of different nutrients from microalgae by a factor of 0.2-4.3 compared to the intact microalgae (Teuling et al., 2019). Milder physical treatments (PAS, FRD, FRO and L40) causing partial porosity of the cells are sufficient to cause the release of protein, nitrogen and ions, while fat accessibility requires complete breakdown of the cells (Teuling et al., 2019). Despite the increase in nutrients accessibility after the disruption treatments (Teuling et al., 2019), cell wall disruption treatments such as PAS, FRD and FRO did not improve growth performance (as seen in their FCR and biomass gain) and digestibility of microalgae in African catfish relative to intact microalgae."},{"index":9,"size":162,"text":"The maillard reaction products (MRP) quantified by Teuling et al. (2019) showed that this observation is unconnected with formation of MRP after the microalgae processing. MRP contents of microalgae were higher in PAS and FRO treatments, but lower in FRD treatment compared to the UNT (Teuling et al., 2019). Also, there was no correlation between MRP contents in microalgae (data from Teuling et al. (2019)) and ADCs of microalgae (protein and fat; Table 10). Thermal treatments of feeds and feed ingredients are generally known to cause formation of MRP, with reduced bioavailability of amino acids (especially lysine), and overall nutritional quality of protein (Hulshof, Bikker, Poel, & Hendriks, 2016;van Rooijen, 2015;Rutherfurd, 2010;Villanea, 2017). Since it has been ascertained that utilization of microalgae after the cell wall disruption seems to be unconnected to MRP formation, it is therefore difficult to conclude on those factor(s) or elements responsible for the lower utilization of microalgae after the PAS, FRO and FRD cell wall disruption treatments."},{"index":10,"size":93,"text":"The variability in nutrient release with different disruption treatments was in line with the performance and nutrient digestibility data observed in this experiment. Correlation tests showed that microalgal nutrient digestibility was influenced by the accessibility of nutrient from microalgae. Nitrogen solubility, degree of hydrolysis and ion leaching measurements positively correlated with the ADCs of protein and fats (see Table 8, Figure 1). The positive, but rather weak correlation between the ion leaching and fats digestibility was an indication that relatively large porous cells are needed to increase the accessibility and digestibility of fats."},{"index":11,"size":43,"text":"Fat extractability improved by 400% with BEM treatment, but no effect was observed with other treatments (Teuling et al., 2019). It can be argued that the difference in accessibility of fats and other nutrients was due to the variation in their structural conformation."},{"index":12,"size":71,"text":"Lipids (predominately triglycerides) in plant materials, including microalgae are embedded within the intracellular spaces (Maurer et al., 2013). Therefore, one could speculate that cell wall disruption causing partial perforation of algal cells only allows release of protein, but not phospholipids, and triglycerides embedded within the intracellular spaces. This could be the ultimate reason why bead milling is a widely used disruption technique to improve lipid extractability during biofuel production from microalgae."},{"index":13,"size":167,"text":"There was variation in the use of treated and untreated microalgae by African catfish and tilapia. Protein and fat digestibility of microalgae were both affected by the interaction effect (algal treatments vs. fish species). This implies that the difference in ADCs between the two fish species was dependent on the different cell wall disruption treatments. Irrespective of algal treatments, tilapia had better capacity to digest the microalgae than African catfish. ADCs of protein for microalgae was higher by 1%-5% in tilapia compared to catfish. In addition, ADCs of fats was also higher by 6%-12% in tilapia than catfish. As expected, herbivorous fish (e.g. Nile tilapia) are able to digest plant ingredients better than omnivorous fish, like catfish. Hlophe et al. (2014) show that tilapia through their intestinal microflora has more capacity to produce endogenous cellulase than catfish before feeding. In addition, the low pH conditions in Nile tilapia (which can reach pH 2 at 7 hr after feeding) (Saravanan et al., 2013) are more suited to digest "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"( UNT) received no further treatment. The other viscous algae paste received 1 out 5 physical or mechanical treatments: PAS, FRO, FRD, L40 and BEM representing pasteurization, frozenthawed, freeze-dried, commercially processed (NutriSpring �� Liquid 40, Algaspring, NL) and bead-milled biomass, respectively. A total of six different algal treatments were used in this experiment. The UNT ingredient was considered as the negative control and the BEM sample as a positive control. The conditions applied for the treatments were as follows: (a) the PAS sample was pasteurized using a heat exchanger at 80°C for 20 s. (b) The FRO and FRD samples were frozen at -18°C. The FRO samples were thawed at 4°C (after ~2 weeks frozen storage). Freezing and thawing were performed in small batches to ensure microbial safety. (c) The L40 sample is a commercially available product (\"NutriSpring® Liquid 40\") provided by AlgaSpring. The L40 N. gaditana biomass (grown and harvested by AlgaSpring) received a physical treatment, similar to pasteurization. No additives were used in the production of L40. Commercially processed (L40) is otherwise called cold pasteurized samples throughout this document. (d) The BEM samples were diluted to 14% [w/w DM] and subsequently bead milled to disrupt the algal cells. The bead milling was performed on a DYNO-Mill type ECM-AP05 LAB (Willy "},{"text":" TA B L E 3 Analysed proximate composition of experimental diets a fed to juvenile African catfish (Clarias gariepinus).Values are presented as means, in g/kg DM, unless stated otherwise correlated to equal weight of fresh pellets by multiplying the number of uneaten pellets with the average weight of a pellet. Daily feed intake was calculated from feed fed to fish and weight of recovered uneaten pellets. The diets were kept under refrigerated (4°C) conditions throughout the experiment. 100 g sample of each diet was taken every week. The feed samples were pooled per diet and stored (4°C) until further analysis.Faeces were collected for digestibility measurements on the 3rd, 4th and 5th week of the experiment. Another set of collection bottles (different from the one used for collecting uneaten pellets) were attached to each of the settling tanks a day preceding the faecal collection. The collection bottles were placed in a styrofoam box filled with ice water to avoid bacteria degradation of nutrients in the faeces. At the end of afternoon feeding (ca. 16:30 hr), the faeces collection bottles were attached to settling tanks and removed before morning feeding (ca.8:30 hr) the next day. Excess water on top of each bottle was carefully removed, and the remaining sedimented faecal matter was collected in separate aluminium trays for each tank. These faecal samples were immediately frozen after each collection. Faeces from the same tank were pooled into the same aluminium trays per week and subsequently freeze-dried before further processing. Additionally, faeces from the same tanks for all the three weeks (i.e. weeks 3, 4 and 5) period were pooled together and used for laboratory analyses. The experiment lasted for 5 weeks, "},{"text":" where Y d and Y f are the Yttrium content in the diets and faeces, respectively. N d and N f represent the nutrient content in the diet and faeces, respectively.The Yttrium and nutrient contents in both feeds and faeces were expressed as g/kg DM. The ADCs in the test ingredients (microalgae) were calculated using the following formula(Sugiura, Dong, Rathbone, & Hardy, 1998);where ADC ti is the ADC of the test ingredient (%), ADC td is the ADC of the test diet (%), ADC rd is the ADC of the reference diet (%), D ref is the nutrient content (g/kg DM) or the kcal/g gross energy of the reference diet and D ing is the nutrient content (g/kg DM) or the gross energy (kJ/g) of the ingredient. All calculations were on dry matter basis. "},{"text":"( in DM) was different among all the treatments. The average initial body weight of fish was 44 and statistically similar (p > 0.05) for all the treatments. The biomass gain increased by 13% in L40 and BEM diets, compared to the UNT, PAS, FRD and FRO diets. The FCR in REF (0.93) was lower than for UNT, PAS, FRD and FRO diets (1.06 ± 0.019). The FCR in L40 (0.92) and BEM (0.93) were decreased by 11% relative to the UNT diet, and thereby reached similar FCR as the REF diets (0.93). "},{"text":"F I G U R E 1 Relationships (linear) between the apparent digestibility coefficients (%ADC) of protein and fat from Nannochloropsis gaditana in juvenile African catfish and in vitro nutrient accessibility measurements of Nannochloropsis gaditana-nitrogen solubility, degree of protein hydrolysis and ion leaching. Significant (p < 0.05) relationships are indicated by solid lines y = 1.4429x 48.349 R² = "},{"text":"F I G U R E 2 Relationships (quadratic) between the apparent digestibility coefficients (%ADC) of protein and fat from Nannochloropsis gaditana in juvenile African catfish and in vitro nutrient accessibility measurements of Nannochloropsis gaditana-nitrogen solubility, degree of protein hydrolysis and ion leaching. Significant (p < 0.05) and non-significant (p > 0.05) relationships are indicated by solid and dotted linesApparent digestibility coefficient (%ADC) of nutrients from untreated and treated Nannochloropsis gaditana a in juvenile Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and African catfish (Clarias gariepinus). Values are means and the pooled standard error of the mean (SEM) "},{"text":"TA B L E 1 0 Pearson correlations (r) between apparent digestibility of treated or untreated Nannochloropsis gaditana in juvenile African catfish (Clarias gariepinus) and corresponding contents of maillard reaction products (MRP) formed after the cell disruption treatments of microalgae Values in parenthesis are p-values for the correlation tests. a Pearson correlation coefficients (r) between apparent digestibility coefficient values (n = 18) and the mean values of MRP measurement (n = 6). b Level of MRP in the microalgae; FUR-furosine; CEL-carboxyethyllysine; CML-carboxymethyllysine. ** p < 0.01 * p > 0.1. "},{"text":"to juvenile African catfish Diets Reference diet Test diets TA B L E 1 Formulation of experimental diets fed Basal ingredients (g/kg) Basal ingredients (g/kg) Maize 134 93.8 Maize13493.8 Wheat 200 140 Wheat200140 Wheat bran 50 56 Wheat bran5056 Wheat gluten 125 87.5 Wheat gluten12587.5 Rape Seed Meal 125 87.5 Rape Seed Meal12587.5 Fish meal (CP > 68%) 125 87.5 Fish meal (CP > 68%)12587.5 Soya bean meal (RC < 50) 125 87.5 Soya bean meal (RC < 50)12587.5 Fish oil 25 17.5 Fish oil2517.5 Soya oil 25 17.5 Soya oil2517.5 CaCO 3 8.0 5.6 CaCO 38.05.6 Mono-calcium phosphate 12.0 8.4 Mono-calcium phosphate12.08.4 L-Lysine HCl 2.0 1.4 L-Lysine HCl2.01.4 DL-methionine 3.0 2.1 DL-methionine3.02.1 L-threonine 1.0 0.7 L-threonine1.00.7 Vitamin-mineral premix a 10.0 7.0 Vitamin-mineral premix a10.07.0 Yttrium oxide 0.2 0.2 Yttrium oxide0.20.2 Test ingredients (w/w%) Test ingredients (w/w%) Nannochloropsis gaditana b - 300 Nannochloropsis gaditana b-300 a Mineral premix composition (mg/kg reference diet): 50 iron (as a Mineral premix composition (mg/kg reference diet): 50 iron (as FeSO 4 •7H 2 O); 30 zinc (as ZnSO 4 •7H 2 O); 0.1 cobalt (as CoSO 4 •7H 2 O); 10 FeSO 4 •7H 2 O); 30 zinc (as ZnSO 4 •7H 2 O); 0.1 cobalt (as CoSO 4 •7H 2 O); 10 copper (as CuSO 4 •5H 2 O); 0.5 selenium (as Na 2 SeO 3 ); 20 manganese (as copper (as CuSO 4 •5H 2 O); 0.5 selenium (as Na 2 SeO 3 ); 20 manganese (as MnSO 4 •4H 2 O); 500 magnesium (as MgSO 4 •7H 2 O); 1 chromium (as MnSO 4 •4H 2 O); 500 magnesium (as MgSO 4 •7H 2 O); 1 chromium (as CrCl 3 •6H 2 O); 2 iodine (as CaIO 3 •6H 2 O). Vitamin premix composition CrCl 3 •6H 2 O); 2 iodine (as CaIO 3 •6H 2 O). Vitamin premix composition (mg/kg reference diet): 10 thiamine; 10 riboflavin; 20 nicotinic acid; 40 (mg/kg reference diet): 10 thiamine; 10 riboflavin; 20 nicotinic acid; 40 pantothenic acid, 10 pyridoxine; 0.2 biotine; 2 folic acid; 0.015 cyanoco- pantothenic acid, 10 pyridoxine; 0.2 biotine; 2 folic acid; 0.015 cyanoco- balamin; 100 ascorbic acid (as ascorbic acid 2-phosphate); 100 IU alpha- balamin; 100 ascorbic acid (as ascorbic acid 2-phosphate); 100 IU alpha- tocopheryl acetate; 3,000 IU retinyl palmitate, 2,400 IU cholecalciferol; tocopheryl acetate; 3,000 IU retinyl palmitate, 2,400 IU cholecalciferol; 10 menadione sodium bisulphite (51%); 400 inositol; 1,500 choline (as 10 menadione sodium bisulphite (51%); 400 inositol; 1,500 choline (as choline chloride); 100 butylated hydroxytoluene; 1,000 calcium propio- choline chloride); 100 butylated hydroxytoluene; 1,000 calcium propio- nate. b Untreated, pasteurized, frozen-thawed, freeze-dried, commer- nate. b Untreated, pasteurized, frozen-thawed, freeze-dried, commer- cially processed (NutriSpring® Liquid 40) or bead-milled biomass of cially processed (NutriSpring® Liquid 40) or bead-milled biomass of Nannochloropsis gaditana. With exception of the freeze-dried sample, all Nannochloropsis gaditana. With exception of the freeze-dried sample, all algae biomass was drum dried. algae biomass was drum dried. "},{"text":"Table 1 . From this basal diet, 6 other . From this basal diet, 6 other diets containing the differently treated or the untreated N. gaditana diets containing the differently treated or the untreated N. gaditana were formulated (based on test ingredient preparation explained in sec- were formulated (based on test ingredient preparation explained in sec- tion 2.1). The control feed consisted of 100% basal diet, the treatment tion 2.1). The control feed consisted of 100% basal diet, the treatment diets UNT, PAS, FRO, FRD, L40 and BEM contained 70% basal diet and diets UNT, PAS, FRO, FRD, L40 and BEM contained 70% basal diet and 30% of the differently treated N. gaditana, respectively. Yttrium oxide 30% of the differently treated N. gaditana, respectively. Yttrium oxide (Y 2 O 3 ) was included as an inert marker for digestibility studies. The (Y 2 O 3 ) was included as an inert marker for digestibility studies. The diets were formulated to meet the nutrient requirement for African cat- diets were formulated to meet the nutrient requirement for African cat- fish (NRC, 2011). All diets were produced by Research Diet Services fish (NRC, 2011). All diets were produced by Research Diet Services (Wijk bij Duurstede, The Netherlands). The dried algae materials were (Wijk bij Duurstede, The Netherlands). The dried algae materials were mixed with other dietary ingredients, hammer milled, mixed with oil and mixed with other dietary ingredients, hammer milled, mixed with oil and "},{"text":" . On diet level, fish on diets containing BEM and L40 microalgae had better protein digestibility and better FCR than the rest of the algal treatments. The nutrients of BEM and L40 were digested to the highest extent (68%-84%) and the nutrients of PAS to the lowest extent (63%-75%) among the microalgae diets. As expected, starch was almost fully digested in all the experimental diets. The NSP contents of the diets are poorly digested by the African catfish. TA B L E 7 Pearson correlations between apparent digestibility TA B L E 7 Pearson correlations between apparent digestibility coefficient (ADC) of treated or untreated Nannochloropsis gaditana coefficient (ADC) of treated or untreated Nannochloropsis gaditana in juvenile African catfish (Clarias gariepinus) and corresponding in in juvenile African catfish (Clarias gariepinus) and corresponding in vitro accessibility measurements vitro accessibility measurements Pearson correlation coefficients (r) a Pearson correlation coefficients (r) a ADC of nutrients Nsol. b DH b Ion b ADC of nutrientsNsol. bDH bIon b Dry matter 0.73 *** 0.73 *** 0.68 ** Dry matter0.73 ***0.73 ***0.68 ** Crude protein 0.93 *** 0.94 *** 0.89 *** Crude protein0.93 ***0.94 ***0.89 *** Gross energy 0.85 *** 0.85 *** 0.76 *** Gross energy0.85 ***0.85 ***0.76 *** Crude fat 0.86 *** 0.85 *** 0.75 *** Crude fat0.86 ***0.85 ***0.75 *** Ash 0.40 * 0.38 * 0.45 * Ash0.40 *0.38 *0.45 * Phosphorus 0.61 ** 0.62 ** 0.65 ** Phosphorus0.61 **0.62 **0.65 ** p (linear p (quadratic p (linearp (quadratic Y X Equation R 2 component) * component) * YXEquationR 2component) *component) * Protein ADC (%) Nsol. (%) Y = 48.35 (1.44) + 1.44 (0.14) X 0.86 <0.001 - Protein ADC (%)Nsol. (%)Y = 48.35 (1.44) + 1.44 (0.14) X0.86<0.001- Y = 41.20 (6.17) + 2.72 (1.07) X − 0.05 0.88 - 0.247 Y = 41.20 (6.17) + 2.72 (1.07) X − 0.050.88-0.247 (0.041) X 2 (0.041) X 2 DH (%) Y = 53.40 (1.14) + 1.90 (0.18) X 0.88 <0.001 - DH (%)Y = 53.40 (1.14) + 1.90 (0.18) X0.88<0.001- Y = 46.95 (2.66) + 4.27 (0.92) X − 0.16 0.92 - 0.020 Y = 46.95 (2.66) + 4.27 (0.92) X − 0.160.92-0.020 (0.061) X 2 (0.061) X 2 Ion (%) Y = 42.83 (2.79) + 0.51 (0.07) X 0.79 <0.001 - Ion (%)Y = 42.83 (2.79) + 0.51 (0.07) X0.79<0.001- Y = 65.64 (7.81) − 0.68 (0.39) X + 0.01 0.87 - 0.008 Y = 65.64 (7.81) − 0.68 (0.39) X + 0.010.87-0.008 (0.001) X 2 (0.001) X 2 Crude fat ADC (%) Nsol. (%) Y = 21.68 (4.61) + 2.63 (0.40) X 0.73 <0.001 - Crude fat ADC (%)Nsol. (%)Y = 21.68 (4.61) + 2.63 (0.40) X0.73<0.001- Y = 58.51 (15.03) − 3.95 (2.61) 0.81 - 0.023 Y = 58.51 (15.03) − 3.95 (2.61)0.81-0.023 X + 0.25 (0.09) X 2 X + 0.25 (0.09) X 2 DH (%) Y = 31.09 (3.37) +3.43 (0.53) X 0.73 <0.001 - DH (%)Y = 31.09 (3.37) +3.43 (0.53) X0.73<0.001- Y = 50.48 (7.82) − 3.68 (2.71) X + 0.48 0.81 - 0.018 Y = 50.48 (7.82) − 3.68 (2.71) X + 0.480.81-0.018 (0.18) X 2 (0.18) X 2 Ion (%) Y = 15.08 (8.10) + 0.85 (0.19) X 0.56 <0.001 - Ion (%)Y = 15.08 (8.10) + 0.85 (0.19) X0.56<0.001- Y = 87.80 (21.16) − 2.94 (1.06) + 0.05 0.76 - 0.003 Y = 87.80 (21.16) − 2.94 (1.06) + 0.050.76-0.003 (0.013) X 2 (0.013) X 2 "}],"sieverID":"33b5ca60-e5a0-4f5c-b9b3-3025d9ad9a30","abstract":"There is a limited supply of fishmeal/fish oil for feed in aquaculture.Stagnation in total supply from fish bycatch (FAO, 2016), as well as increasing demand of fishmeal/oil for aquaculture feed production (Belton, Bush, & Little, 2017;FAO, 2016), are two major reasons responsible for the limited supply. As a result, there is a renewed interest in the use of novel feed resources for aquafeed. Microalgae, one of the novel feed ingredients, have been studied during the lar-"}

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+ {"metadata":{"id":"02a38ccccdc964bd768c96d40c1e8be2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5b31d736-ee3f-4fae-96d1-138eb3e518d8/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"Study #2133 Contributing Projects: • P21 -Assessing incentives for scaling up mitigation at different stakeholder levels: 'No-regret' mitigation strategies in rice production","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Links to the Strategic Results Framework:","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"Sub-IDOs:"},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"• Reduced net greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture, forests and other forms of land-use "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"innovation(s) or findings that have resulted in this outcome or impact: <Not Defined> Innovations: <Not Defined> (More sustainably managed agro-ecosystems) Is this OICR linked to some SRF 2022/2030 target?: Yes Is this OICR linked to some SRF 2022/2030 target?: Yes SRF 2022/2030 targets: SRF 2022/2030 targets: • Reduce agriculturally related greenhouse gas emissions compared to business-as-usual scenario • Reduce agriculturally related greenhouse gas emissions compared to business-as-usual scenario 2022 2022 Description of activity / study: <Not Defined> Description of activity / study: <Not Defined> Geographic scope: Geographic scope: • Sub-national • Sub-national Country(ies): Country(ies): • Thailand • Thailand Comments: 6 provinces in central Thailand, 100,000 farmers Comments: 6 provinces in central Thailand, 100,000 farmers Key Contributors: Key Contributors: Contributing CRPs/Platforms: Contributing CRPs/Platforms: • CCAFS -Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security • CCAFS -Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security Contributing Flagships: Contributing Flagships: • FP3: Low emissions development • FP3: Low emissions development Contributing Regional programs: Contributing Regional programs: • SEA: Southeast Asia • SEA: Southeast Asia Contributing external partners: Contributing external partners: • GIZ -Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit / German Society for • GIZ -Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit / German Society for International Cooperation International Cooperation CGIAR CGIAR "}],"sieverID":"0c76c19c-0fa3-4dfb-a743-e7c51ef61f5b","abstract":"The NAMA facility funded with 250k Euro the development of a Thai Rice NAMA full proposal that highlights LED measures for low-emission rice farming. The proposal expects to reach 100,000 rice farmers and 420 agricultural mitigation service providers in 6 provinces of Thailand potentially contributing to GHG reduction of about 1 million tons of CO2eq and transforming the rice sector in target provinces towards low-carbon production."}

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+ {"metadata":{"id":"031426d74b0146c4bb4e9dbcdf5f3de4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6737c504-1d84-4222-b352-411c7477cbc6/retrieve"},"pageCount":32,"title":"Livestock, Climate, and Security: A Policy Coherence and Awareness Analysis","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Executive Summary","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"The African livestock sector is expected to grow exponentially in importance both economically and nutritionally in the coming decades. In the context of Kenya specifically, human population, per-capita income, and urbanisation rates -key drivers for an increased usage of animal source food -are all expected to drastically increase in the coming decades. Yet despite the sector's growing importance for Kenya and the African continent more broadly, there remain notable barriers to sustainable development within the context of livestock. One of the most important of these is the climate crisis and the impacts it will likely have on livestock production systems and value chains, the ecological contexts they exist within, and the communities reliant upon them."},{"index":2,"size":147,"text":"Within Kenya, the arid and semi-arid land regions (ASALs) -where the livestock sector forms one of if not the key source of income for many communities -are some of the most exposed and vulnerable landscapes within Kenya in terms of climate change-related impacts, which affect key ecological variables such as pasture growth and quality, the availability of water resources, and the threat of livestock diseases. These areas are also characterised by longstanding challenge to human development, insecurity, and fragility, including a lack of infrastructure and market access, limited availability of public goods such as healthcare and education, and widespread poverty. Conflicting land use and natural resource management systems -both between different ethno-cultural groups and between traditional and 'formal' institutional arrangements -have further engendered a tradition of competition and conflict over access and usage of resources, and climate-related factors are becoming increasingly interwoven into these sub-national conflict systems."},{"index":3,"size":198,"text":"Given this complex environment, ensuring coherence and coordination between different policy sectors and interventions is critical to avoid negative externalities and unintended consequences. Furthermore, given the presence of conflict and fragility in these contexts, ensuring conflict sensitivity and adopting a pro-peace lens are also essential in order to avoid doing harm and unwittingly contribute to local conflict dynamics. This is certainly also the case for climate adaptation and mitigation interventions in this space, which are likely to have economic, social, political, technological, ecological, and nutritional repercussions. If not cognisant of this interconnectivity -and if designed and implemented in ways that are insensitive to local conflict dynamics and drivers -interventions may heighten the risk of maladaptation and conflict. This report therefore analyses the degree of horizontal coherence that exists across policies and strategies from sectors relevant to climate security in Kenya -including livestock, adaptation, mitigation, and peace and security (see methodology for full list of sectors); the degree of vertical coherence between national and sub-national level policy outputs for or containing components related to livestock, adaptation, mitigation, and peace and security; and the extent to which these outputs can be deemed sensitive to climate-related security risks and climate-peace opportunities."},{"index":4,"size":139,"text":"Several key trends emerged from this analysis. Firstly, with regards to the relationship between climate, the environment, and livestock, it is evident that the relationship between the natural environment (natural resources) and the livestock sector was much more commonly discussed in policy and strategy documents from across all sectors than the relationship between livestock and climate change. This means that the role and importance of natural resources for livestock production systems and value chains is quite commonly recognised, whereas climate change's escalatory and detrimental effects on said natural resources is less commonly discussed. It is also evident that regarding the presence of specific livestock adaptation and mitigation actions within livestock sector-specific policies, mitigation actions are virtually entirely absent. This trend is also apparent across other sectors, with specific mitigation actions generally featuring much less frequently than specific adaptation actions."},{"index":5,"size":121,"text":"Secondly, in terms of climate security sensitivity and overall awareness of livestock and climate-related security risks, policy and strategy documents -including those livestock sector-specific ones -are overall slightly more likely to draw a link between livestock, the natural environment, and potential security risks as opposed to the relationship between livestock, climate change, and potential security risks. The importance of natural resources for livestock production systems is therefore recognised fairly consistently, whereas the role that climate change-related impacts may play in undermining availability and accessibility of said natural resources is less frequently discussed. This trend also plays out with regards to the intersection of the environment, livestock, and security, which is discussed more frequently than the relationship between climate, livestock, and security."},{"index":6,"size":103,"text":"The results also revealed a very clear gap in conceptual engagement across essentially all policy sectors regarding the intersection of climate, livestock, and gender-based violence (GBV). A similar gap can be seen in the fact that the majority of sectors included in this analysis (bar peacebuilding and social cohesion and, to a lesser extent, development and DRR) displayed no evidence of engaging with or operationalising the principles of conflict sensitivity and 'do no harm'. Furthermore, results also suggest that there is very little cross-fertilisation across the different sectors within this analysis in terms of usage and deployment of conflictrelated analyses and climate-related analyses."},{"index":7,"size":151,"text":"Finally, with regards to cross-sectoral and cross-scalar integration, it is apparent that there is a greater degree of horizontal coherence amongst national level policy and strategy outputs produced in sectors relevant to climate security than there is vertical coherence between the sub-national and national level. Climate and environment policies appear to enjoy the greatest degree of mainstreaming across all sectors, whilst peacebuilding and social cohesion policies do not appear to be integrated very well with other policy fields. Additionally, climate and environment policies are also the area where there exists the greatest degree of vertical coherence between sub-national and national governance levels. The livestock sector appears to be very coherent with climate and environment, integrated to a degree with DRR strategies and policies, but not at all coherent with peacebuilding and social cohesion. The following recommendations were produced to begin addressing some of the gaps and shortcomings identified in the analysis:"}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":179,"text":"The livestock sector constitutes a significant component of the global economy, contributing to economic growth, poverty reduction, and forming a crucial source of nutrition for millions. This is particularly the case for the Kenyan economy, with the sector contributing between 10-13% of national gross domestic product (GDP) and employing up to 50% of the agricultural labour force when factoring in related upstream value chains (Kenya Market Trust, 2020). Production of livestock-related products occurs predominantly through pastoralists, who own an estimated 70% of national livestock, valued at USD 834 million (Kenya Market Trust, 2020). The majority of pastoralist livestock production systems are located in arid and semi-arid land regions (ASALs), which make up over 70% of Kenya's landmass and where income levels are amongst the lowest in the country. Livestock production is particularly salient in these ecological zones, as the potential for crop growth is limited by moisture availability. Cattle, camels, sheep, and goats raised in pastoral systems can in such contexts therefore take advantage of seasonal vegetation growth, thereby forming the only viable form of agriculture (de Haan, 2016)."},{"index":2,"size":138,"text":"The livestock sector is also expected to exponentially grow in importance both economically and nutritionally in the coming decades. Africa is currently undergoing substantial demographic, socio-economic, political, policy, and technological transformations that will likely have significant implications for the agricultural sector. The continent's population is, for example, expected to reach 2.5 billion by 2050 compared to 1.2 billion today; 56% of people will live in urban areas, an increase of 16% from the present day; and GDP is estimated to almost triple (Food and Agricultural Organisation, 2018). As economic development progresses, increasingly well-off consumers will likely move away from low-cost, cereal-based diets and start purchasing the high-value proteins offered by meat, milk, and other livestockrelated products (Food and Agricultural Organisation, 2018). Livestock producers and associated value chains will therefore likely see an expansion in the decades to come."},{"index":3,"size":142,"text":"In the context of Kenya specifically, the United Nation's Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) finds that the three key drivers for animal source food -human population, per-capita income, and urbanisation rates -are anticipated to drastically change in the coming decades. From 1980 to 2012, the Kenyan population grew by over 26 million, and in the next 38 years it is projected to increase by about 50 million, reaching 96 million people by 2050. Whereas in 2012 around 24.4% of Kenyans lived in urban areas, projections indicate that by 2050, just over 46% of the population will live in urban areas. And finally, GDP per capita -a proxy of consumer purchasing power -is estimated to increase from about USD 1200 per capita per year to above USD 2900, representing a more than double increase, between 2012 and 2050 (Food and Agricultural Organisation, 2018)."},{"index":4,"size":68,"text":"Whilst policy and decisionmakers working on the livestock sector must certainly consider the potentially negative externalities of expanding the scope and improving the productivity of livestock production systems -such as attendant environmental impacts and the increased risk of public health threats -these trends also represent an opportunity for the inclusive transformation of Kenya's livestock sector, particularly as smallholder producers become more interwoven with national, regional, and global markets."},{"index":5,"size":273,"text":"Yet despite the sector's growing importance for Kenya and the African continent more broadly, there remain notable barriers to sustainable development within the context of livestock. One of the most important of these is the multivariate impacts of the climate crisis on livestock production systems and value chains, the ecological contexts they exist within, and the communities reliant upon them. The ASALs are some of the most exposed and vulnerable landscapes within Kenya in terms of climate change-related impacts, which affect key ecological variables such as pasture growth and quality, the availability of water resources, and the threat of livestock diseases. Whilst the relationship between livestockrelated incomes and climate variables -particularly temperature and precipitation -is nonlinear (Kabubo-Mariara, 2009;Lagat & Nyangena, 2017), it is also clear that particularly temperature increases are likely to significantly impact livestock production and incomes associated with it. Lagat and Nyangena (2017) find, for example, that high temperatures reduce grassland productivity, leading to a decline in animal and productivity and thereby fetching lower market prices. High rainfall may cause livestock keepers to switch from livestock to crops due to an increasingly conducive environment for crop production, but also cause floods and facilitate the spread of livestock diseases. An increase in temperature by 1% would decrease livestock net farm revenue by about 38%, whilst a 1% increase in rainfall would reduce the livestock net revenue by just under 2% (Lagat and Nyangena, 2017). Transforming the sector to become less vulnerable to climate change-related impacts is therefore imperative, and these efforts are made all the more crucial given the important role it is expected to play in Kenyan national development going forward."},{"index":6,"size":185,"text":"In response to these challenges, research has found that -at the household and community level -pastoralist and agro-pastoralists in Kenya that are reliant upon livestock for their livelihoods and communal identity have adopted a variety of coping strategies -some production-related, others more market-based -in order to weather increasingly severe and frequent climatic shocks (Kabubo-Mariara, 2008). In preparing for and recovering from shocks such as droughts, pastoralists and agro-pastoralists have been found to engage in activities to preserve pastures, storing adequate amounts of and diversifying types of feed, stocking drugs for treating animals, de-worming healthy stock, changing and diversifying animal breeds, moving animals to other sites, and selling large stock (Ifejika Speranza, 2010;Silvestri et al., 2012). More recently, Quandt (2021) -exploring the human experience of coping with drought through narratives from farmers in Isiolo County, Kenya -classified adaptation responses to climate change into four categories, namely, livelihood diversification (such as through relying on mixed production systems); longer-term coping strategies (shifting crop varieties and implementing irrigation); short-term coping strategies (casual labour and selling livestock); and erosive coping strategies (illegal grazing, reliance on food aid, and producing charcoal)."},{"index":7,"size":56,"text":"Measures designed to reduce vulnerability, exposure, and sectoral emissions whilst also building the adaptive capacity of those active within the sector are also being actioned at the institutional level. In her analysis of Kenya's climate, livestock and agriculture, development, and land and environment policies, Ashley (2019) . These policies contain minimal mitigation-related provisions, however (Ashley, 2019)."},{"index":8,"size":121,"text":"Other livestock-specific adaptation and mitigation measures are present within Kenya's United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change's (UNFCCC) mandated reporting structures, including the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) and the National Adaptation Plans (NAPs). Previous work in this regard has demonstrated that the livestock sector is central to Kenya's climate change ambitions, being the largest source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the agricultural sector more broadly and accounting for over 50% of emissions in the Second National Communication. The sector is therefore a key target of UNFCCC-oriented mitigation efforts. A Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Action (NAMA) strategy was as of 2020 proposed but not yet implemented for dairy, and whilst other livestock industries also have mitigation potential, technical feasibility, costs, and benefits"},{"index":9,"size":92,"text":"have not yet been assessed in detail (Mbae et al., 2020). The livestock sector also features within Kenya's NAP, which recognises the increasingly detrimental impacts climate change is having on livestock production systems (particularly in ASAL areas), citing the effects of more frequent drought and flooding on livestock morbidity and mortality (National Adaptation Plan (NAP), 2015). The NAP also sets out a set of sector-specific short-, medium-, and long-term sub-actions to enhance the resilience of the livestock value chain, which mainly address gaps that currently exist in financing, awareness, capacity, and technology."},{"index":10,"size":166,"text":"It is clear, then, that the livestock sector forms a crucial component of Kenya's development trajectory, is on the frontline of the climate crisis and its impacts (particularly in the ASAL counties) and features substantially in some of the most important climate adaptation and mitigation initiatives enacted by the Government of Kenya. Adopting a system's approach, however, underlines the fact that the livestock sector in Kenya (and the various production systems and value chains contained within it) are intrinsically interconnected to a variety of other sectors, system dimensions, and scales. Systems thinking emphasises the idea that problems and issues are interconnected, and solutions designed to counteract them must consider other problems and factors within the nexus (Fernandes Torres et al., 2019;Morales-Muñoz et al., 2022). This is certainly the case for the livestock sector, as adaptation and mitigation interventions in this space are likely to have economic, social, political, technological, ecological, and nutritional repercussions. If not cognisant of this interconnectivity, such interventions heighten the risk of maladaptation."},{"index":11,"size":187,"text":"Maladaptation can be defined as \"action taken ostensibly to avoid or reduce vulnerability of other systems, sectors, or social groups\" (Barnett & O'Neill, 2010), and can occur at a range of scales. Erosive coping strategies -as previously mentioned -for instance represent a maladaptation risk at the community and sub-national level. At the institutional scale, the risk of maladaptation often manifests itself at the level of policies and strategies. The potential for impacts of policy interventions in the sector to cascade and have unpredictable knock-on effects -such as undermining economic development, contributing to political instability, and exacerbating human insecurity -is high, particularly in contexts characterised by fragility and pre-existing conflict. These unforeseen effects may arise as a consequence of a lack of crosssectoral coordination and a lack of conflict-sensitive design and implementation of policies and programs (Rüttinger et al., 2015). It is paramount, therefore, that policy-and decisionmakers strive to ensure, firstly, that policy and strategy outputs from across scales and sectors are coherent with one another's goals and activities and do not contradict or undermine one another, and secondly, that policy formulation and implementation are conflict-sensitive in nature."},{"index":12,"size":202,"text":"There are, in fact, important examples of how adaptation and mitigation interventions that lacked conflict-sensitivity produced unintended and counterproductive impacts within the literature. Effective and equitable implementation of the UNFCCC's Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) program, for instance, is heavily dependent on addressing improved forest governance and controlling forest-linked corruption. Pre-existing corruption in contexts where REDD is implemented could work against the conservationist and developmental motivations behind the scheme by skewing the establishment of baseline carbon data or the monitoring of avoided emissions or benefits to local communities, and may also create additional incentives and opportunities for corrupt activities. Public officials might, for example, engage in corruption to extract rents from REDD resource, bringing with it the 'resource curse' (Bofin et al., 2011). Implementation efforts of REDD programs that remain insensitive to such risks may inadvertently contribute to undermining legitimacy and trust in government. Additionally, program design that is inadequately responsive to local socio-political dynamics can also entrench pre-existing inequalities, demonstrated by an REDD program in Nepal which actually worsened livelihood insecurity and the potential for land conflict, as the alternative livelihood strategies provided to the Chepang ethnic community were not suitable for all groups (Patel et al., 2013)."},{"index":13,"size":353,"text":"A closer look at Kenya -particularly the ASAL areas -reveals an intervening context characterised by similar complexity, highlighting the need for conflict-sensitive, integrated, and nexus-based approaches to policymaking and implementation. The ASALs have long suffered challenges to human development, including a lack of infrastructure and market access, limited availability of public goods such as healthcare and education, and widespread poverty. Conflicting land use and natural resource management systems -both between different ethno-cultural groups and between traditional and 'formal' institutional arrangements -have further engendered a tradition of competition and conflict over access and usage of resources (Mwangi, n.d.). Climate-related factors are, however, becoming increasingly interwoven into these sub-national conflict systems, exacerbating existing fault lines and acting in tandem with other factors to catalyse more frequent and more deadly violence. Climate-related stressors on natural resource availability have for instance been recorded to cause pastoralists to change their traditional migratory routes and timings, resulting in migration to the same scarce resources (water or pasture), leading to clashes between different groups. Whereas such conflicts may have in the past been largely resolved through traditional dispute resolution mechanisms and through tribal elders, increasingly dire livelihood conditions have served to undermine such efforts (Mwangi, N.D.). Pastoralists are also increasingly encroaching upon land used by sedentary agriculturalists in pursuit of land suitable for grazing, again contributing to inter-communal clashes (Dutta Gupta et al., 2021). More frequent droughts have also contributed to food insecurity and higher incidences of livestock raiding, which -although a longstanding cultural phenomenon within and amongst ASAL communities -have become more frequent and deadlier due to sustained ecological stress and the prevalence of small arms. Banditry too has increased, particularly along frequently used migratory routes. Figure 1 -a spatial representation of fatalities from protests, riots, and episodes of violence related to livestock within Kenya from 2015 to 2020 -shows that such events are quite widely distributed across Kenya and across areas with different production systems. The map also highlights how in many cases this conflict occurs in border areas -either inter-state or inter-country -thereby emphasising the importance of having a unified policy approach to dealing with such events."},{"index":14,"size":195,"text":"Adaptation and mitigation policies seeking to build the resilience of the livestock sector to climate change must therefore remain cognisant of these dynamics and understand how interventions may interact with them. Simultaneously, efforts towards conflict prevention, conflict transformation, and peacebuilding in Kenya's conflict-affected areas must be climatesensitive and recognise the risk multiplier role that climate change-related impacts can play in triggering and sustaining violent conflict, particularly amongst and between pastoral and agro-pastoral groups. Ensuring the conflict-and climate-sensitivity of these different yet increasingly interconnected sectors therefore requires a whole-of-government approach to policy formulation which is able to ensure policy coherence and effective coordination across different siloes and sectors in order to do no harm (Anderson, 1999). But beyond conflictsensitivity and doing no harm, there are also key synergies between climate action and peacebuilding that can result in the effective tackling of interconnected problems and issues. Using the theory of co-benefits, Morales-Muñoz et al. ( 2022) argue that climate action contains clear entry points for contributing to a sustainable peace, and that -vice versapeacebuilding efforts can create an enabling environment for effective adaptation and mitigation. Cross-sectoral coherence can also ensure that these opportunities are taken advantage of."},{"index":15,"size":103,"text":"The purpose of this analysis is, therefore, to analyse the degree of horizontal coherence that exists across policies and strategies from sectors relevant to climate security in Kenyaincluding livestock, adaptation, mitigation, and peace and security (see methodology for full list of sectors); the degree of vertical coherence between national and sub-national level policy outputs for or containing components related to livestock, adaptation, mitigation, and peace and security; and the extent to which these outputs can be deemed sensitive to climate-related security risks and climate-peace opportunities. On the basis of these assessments, a set of policy recommendations are made to help address potential gaps."}]},{"head":"Methodology","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"This report introduces a mixed method to assess the degree of policy coherence and awareness from a perspective of integrated climate security programming across policy documents relevant to the livestock sector and climate security in Kenya. The data featured in the analysis includes 56 policy documents from five sectors: agriculture, development, disaster risk deduction (DRR), environment, land, livestock, and peacebuilding and social cohesion (Table 1). Of these documents, 32 are issued by national authorities while the rest was published by county-level governments from three counties: Baringo, Busia, and Laikipia."}]},{"head":"Policy Sector","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":202,"text":"No Policies produced prior to 2007 were not included in the initial dataset in order to ensure the relevancy of the results, and in order to reflect the fact that the topic of climate security still represents a fairly new thematic intersection for many (Conway, 2021). The data was collected manually from institutional websites and repositories to represent a wide as possible sample that is still relevant to livestock production systems and their potential role within the climate security nexus. To qualify, documents had to have constituted either a formal policy or a formal strategy output produced by a policymaking or governance entity at the national or regional level. This excluded grey literature or third-party analyses or evaluations of policies and strategies. After the data collection phase, the documents were converted into a homogeneous digital format and parsed into a dataset, which was analysed via an automated content analysis. Using a Python script that was derived from the work of Scartozzi published in International Peacekeeping and International Studies Perspective (2022a, 2022b), the text in the documents was lowercased, stemmed, and removed of stop words. The text was then tokenized into individual sentences that were then assessed via a series of pre-defined queries."},{"index":2,"size":152,"text":"The assessment of the documents was made using 25 variables and 64 proxy measurements outlined in the assessment framework (Table 2). Overall, the content analysis assessed the engagement of documents with topics pertaining to security, livestock, and climate. The content analysis also evaluated the levels of horizontal and vertical integration in the areas of climate and peacebuilding and the presence of conflict sensitive programming. Finally, in support of the content analysis, the study also looked at the geographic distribution of households involved in livestock production and violence linked to livestock. The data on violence was retrieved from the ACLED dataset for a period ranging from 2015 to 2020. The dataset was filtered to only include events which had descriptions that were related to livestock. The household data was retrieved from Kenya's 2019 Census (Kenya National Bureau of Statistics, 2019). The document contains evidence of having conducted or calling for a peace analysis"}]},{"head":"24_2","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"The document contains evidence of having conducted or calling for a conflict analysis or management strategy climate analysis 25"},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"Policy displays evidence of the following forms of climate-related analysis: climate change vulnerability assessments, social vulnerability assessments, risk and resilience analysis, gender-sensitive risk and resilience analysis. "}]},{"head":"Results","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"The discussion of the results of this analysis is structured in an iterative manner. Firstly, the interpretation will focus on the intersection between livestock, climate, and environment."},{"index":2,"size":145,"text":"The results specifically record the extent to which (and how) climate, environment, adaptation, and mitigation feature within livestock-specific strategies and policies and vice versa (the extent to which livestock features within policies and strategies relating to climate and environment), as well as what specific programmatic activities in the realms of livestock adaptation and mitigation appear to feature most prominently within policy and strategy documents. The second stage of interpretation will then evaluate the degree to which policy and strategy documents from across different sectors and scales can be deemed climate security-sensitive, how frequently climate-related security risks are discussed in relation to livestock, and how said risks tend to be understood (for example, in relation to what specific natural resource or climate impact). Finally, this section will evaluate the degree to which different sectors and scales can be considered horizontally and vertically coherent with one another."}]},{"head":"Stage 1: Livestock, climate, and environment","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":293,"text":"With regards to the relationship between topics related to livestock, climate, and the environment within livestock-related policies and strategies, it is evident that 100% of livestock-related policy documents demonstrated at least one instance of engagement with the relationship between livestock and the environment and the effects of climate change on livestock (or vice versa) (variables 9 and 10) (figure 2). When disaggregated to the mean of engagement, however (which records the average percentage of sentences dedicated to each topic within all livestock-related policies), it becomes evident that just under 50% of sentences are related to the relationship between livestock and the environment (natural resources), whereas only around 8% of total sentences demonstrated engagement with the relationship between livestock and climate change. This degree of disparity is somewhat surprising, as it appears to indicate that whilst the dependency of livestock production systems on the natural environment is widely recognised and discussed, the extent to which and how climate change may affect this relationship is discussed much less frequently. With regards to the frequency with which livestock sector policy documents appear to include content related to the sector's role in relation to climate mitigation and climate adaptation, the mean of engagement is low comparative to the frequency with which livestock is discussed in the context of the environment and climate change more broadly (variables 11 and 12) (figure 2). Just over 1% and 2% of sentences in livestock sector policy documents appear to discuss livestock in relation to mitigation and adaptation respectively. This is perhaps to be expected to some extent, as these discussions may largely feature as part of specific adaptation and mitigation activities (which are more likely to feature in action plan policy components) and therefore would feature less frequency in the analysis."},{"index":2,"size":100,"text":"The sector that appears to discuss livestock in relation to mitigation appears to be disaster risk reduction, likely due to the fact that the keywords deployed as part of the content analysis to identify mitigation-related topics overlap significantly with efforts to 'mitigate' the effects of climate change on livestock production systems, rather than these policies and strategies being directly related to emissions reductions (figure 2). Documents from the livestock sector itself are most likely to discuss adaptation in relation to livestock amongst the sectors included in the analysis, followed by documents produced as part of the climate and environment sector."},{"index":3,"size":315,"text":"With regards to policy documents produced as part of the climate and environment sector, it is again apparent that 100% of analysed documents feature at least one mention of the livestock sector in relation to the natural environment, whilst 88% of documents feature at least one reference of the livestock sector in relation to climate change (figure 1). Turning to the mean of engagement, however, shows that only 6.3% of sentences across all climate and environment policies and strategies included in the analysis feature a discussion on livestock, of which 5.4% and 3.6% discuss livestock in relation to the natural environment and climate change respectively (variables 9, 10, and 11). Given the current and future preponderance of the livestock sector for the Kenyan economy and livelihoods, the comparatively limited degree of attention attributed to livestock within climate and environment-related policies and strategies is somewhat surprising. This is particularly the case given how overall, nearly 60% of sentences within climate and environment policies and strategies make reference to the natural environment, and just under half appear to discuss climate change (variables 1 and 2). That said, it is also true that livestock sector-specific policies do discuss the implications of climate change for the sector to a much greater degree. There does not appear to be a significant disparity across national and county level policy outputs with regards to the above trends and patterns (figure 3). National level documents tend to have a slightly higher frequency of engagement than county level documents across the majority of variables, with a few exceptions. Most notably, county level documents are marginally more likely to contain sentences discussing the relationship between livestock and security (variable 13); livestock, environment, and security (variable 14); and livestock, climate, and security (variable 15). This may be due to their ability to discuss context-specific issues and dynamics in greater detail, as opposed to national level overviews."},{"index":4,"size":168,"text":"In terms of the extent to which and nature of engagement with specific livestock adaptation and mitigation actions feature across policy documents, the results suggest that -within livestock sector-specific policies -just under 2% of sentences contain reference to specific adaptation activities, whilst no livestock sector-specific policy appears to outline mitigation actions for the sector (variables 22 and 23) (figure 2). This comparatively low number is again not unexpected given the degree of specificity involved in this measurement, however, the ubiquitous absence of any form of mitigation action within the sector does perhaps indicate that there remains something of a shortfall within Kenyan livestock policies as to how the sector could contribute to mitigation efforts and targets. This trend is also the case across other sectors, with specific mitigation actions featuring much less frequently than specific adaptation actions. The sector most likely to discuss livestock-specific mitigation actions and activities is climate and environment, whilst there are also limited mentions in this regard within the agricultural, development, and land sectors."},{"index":5,"size":167,"text":"In regard to mitigation and adaptation strategies, we see a wide range of approaches across documents. On mitigation, some documents -such as the National Climate Change Action Plan (2018)(2019)(2020)(2021)(2022) On adaptation we see a broader set of strategies than on mitigation. The documents with the most comprehensive engagement appear to be the 2013 and 2018 National Climate Change Action plans, which call for the establishment of fodder banks, strategic reserves price stabilization schemes, livestock-based food reserves, selective breeding, and livelihood diversification. In these two documents we also find proposal on an inventory of indigenous knowledge, livestock insurance schemes, early warning systems, early action, stocking rates, vaccination campaigns, disease control mainstreaming. Early warning systems and insurance mechanisms are also featured in numerous other documents, often framed as a solution to protect livelihoods generated by the livestock sector in face of climate changes. In conclusion, it should be noted that livestock specific adaptation or mitigation strategies are not mentioned in any documents from the peacebuilding and social cohesion sector."}]},{"head":"Stage 2: Climate Security-sensitivity","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":409,"text":"Some clear trends and gaps emerge when policy content is evaluated against the backdrop of sensitivity to climate-related security risks. Firstly, it is evident that the relationship between the natural environment and security (particularly in relation to natural resources) is discussed to a fairly significant degree across the majority of policy sectors (variable 6). Just over 8% of all sentences in agricultural sector-specific policies discuss environment and security concerns (potentially explained by the fact that key terms such as 'food security' and 'nutritional security' likely feature heavily in these outputs), whilst livestock sector-specific policies discuss environment and security issues in just under 8% of sentences (figure 4). Land, peacebuilding and social cohesion, and development-related policies also appear to engage with this relationship to a comparatively high degree. Engagement with climate securitysuch as specifically recognising the role played by climate change in impacting natural resources and thereby indirectly influencing conflict dynamics and risk -is however somewhat less prevalent, with agriculture and DRR policies discussing this relationship the most (with 3.7% and 3.2% of sentences discussing this relationship respectively) (variable 7) (figure 4). This appears to indicate that policy documents are somewhat more likely to engage with the relationship between natural resources and security rather than necessarily reflect on the escalatory effects that climate change may have on these dynamics, although the latter is still present to a lesser degree within the documents subjected to analysis. Secondly, it is particularly notable how policy and strategy documents produced as part of the peacebuilding and social cohesion sector do -in keeping with the above trend -display evidence of engagement with the relationship between the natural environment and security (5.8% of sentences) whilst displaying absolutely no engagement with the relationship between climate and security (figure 4). Furthermore, whilst the relationship between livestock and security is discussed in 2.3% of sentences in policies extracted from this sector, and the relationship between livestock, the environment, and security are present in 0.6% of sentences, discussion on the intersection of climate, livestock, and security is again entirely absent. This indicates that although the natural environment and natural resources are considered to have implications for peace and security, recognition of the role played by climate change in potentially exacerbating pre-existing insecurity and heightening the risk of conflict is entirely absent. How these dynamics may interact with the livestock sector and associated systems of production (such as pastoralism and agro-pastoralism) is similarly entirely absent from peacebuilding and social cohesion policies."},{"index":2,"size":136,"text":"Thirdly, it is apparent that livestock sector-specific policies and strategies are most likely to discuss the relationship between environment, livestock, and security (variable 14), as well as the relationship between climate, livestock, and security (variable 15). Agricultural and development sectors are also likely to discuss this relationship. Climate and environment sector-specific policies and strategies are -overall -amongst the least likely to discuss this intersection, with 1.2% of sentences appearing to engage with climate, livestock, and security. However, it is notable that of the nearly 3% of sentences from climate and environment sector-specific policies that do discuss climate and security, quite a large proportion is in the context of livestock. This does suggest that -however limited overall engagement may beclimate-related security risks are frequently understood through the lens of livestock within the climate and environment policy realm."},{"index":3,"size":233,"text":"Interestingly, it appears that when security is discussed in relation to climate and livestock, conceptualisations of security across all sectors are more likely to be realised through a more 'traditional' security understanding, as opposed to a human security lens. This means that words such as 'battle', 'conflict', 'insurgency', and 'violence' are present more often in sentences referring to both climate and livestock than words related to human security, such as 'community', 'economic', 'food', 'health', or 'political'. This may suggest that although links between climate, livestock, and conflict are understood at least to some extent, the intermediary variables that engender this causal sequence (such as detrimental impacts on livelihoods, eroding communal identities, and food and nutritional insecurity) are given less attention. The results also suggest that a clear gap exists within policies from across all the analysed sectors with regards to the intersection of climate/environment, livestock, and gender-based violence (GBV) (variable 15.4). 0.1% of sentences from policy documents produced by agricultural, development, DRR and land sectors respectively displayed evidence of engaging with the intersection of environment, livestock, and GBV, whilst only 0.1% of policy documents in the development sector did so for the intersection climate, livestock, and GBV (figure 4). By contrast, conceptualisations of livestock, climate, and security being anchored around crime are more common (variable 15.5), with 0.4 % and 0.3% of total sentences in DRR and agricultural policies discussing this intersection specifically."},{"index":4,"size":91,"text":"Finally, with regards to the variables in the framework that are more oriented towards programming planning and implementation, it is evident that there is very little technical cross-fertilisation with regards to climate-and conflict-based analyses and tools. Whilst peacebuilding and social cohesion policies are recorded to emphasise the importance of conflict-sensitivity (variable 24), for instance, principles of conflict sensitivity were entirely absent from policies produced by livestock, land, environment, and agricultural sectors (figure 4). DRR policies were the second most likely sector to display evidence of conflict sensitivity, followed by development strategies."},{"index":5,"size":91,"text":"A similar trend emerges regarding the extent to which policies and strategies from across different sectors appear to conduct conflict-related (conflict analysis, pro-peace analysis, conflict driver mapping, etc.) (variable 24.2) and climate-related analyses (climate vulnerability analysis, site analysis, etc.) (variable 25). Policies and strategies from the peacebuilding and social cohesion, DRR, and development sectors were the only sectors to display (very limited) evidence of having conducted a form of conflict-related analysis, whilst land, livestock, and peacebuilding and social cohesion policies in turn failed to engage in any kind of climate-related analysis."}]},{"head":"Stage 3: Horizontal and Vertical Coherence","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"The third and final results section will evaluate the degree to which -based on evidence of engagement within the policy and strategy documents -cross-sectoral coherence exists between the sectors and scales subjected to analysis. Whilst further research into specific institutional arrangements, structures, and processes is needed to comprehensively evaluate cross-sectoral integration and coherence, this document level analysis aims to provide at least a cursory indication of the extent to which policies from across the sectors make reference to or engage with one another."},{"index":2,"size":134,"text":"Firstly, with regards to climate policy integration (variable 16) -designed to capture crosssectoral engagement with climate and environmental policies specifically -it is evident that 100% of livestock sector-specific policies make reference to or engage with at least one climate and environment-specific policy (figure 2). This indicates that livestock policies are arguably very integrated and coherent with climate and environment policies. The sectors that by contrast appear to demonstrate the least amount of cross-sectoral engagement with climate and environment-related policies and strategies are land and peacebuilding and social cohesion, of which half of documents subjected to analysis demonstrated evidence of engagement. Overall, however, engagement with climate and environment policies is fairly substantial across all policy sectors, with at least half of all documents from a given sector making reference to a climate and environment policy."},{"index":3,"size":119,"text":"Secondly, however, a different trend emerges in terms of peacebuilding and social cohesion policy integration (variable 17), for which cross-sectoral coherence appears much more limited. Policies from the climate and environment, land, and livestock sectors do not appear to make any reference to or link with any national or sub-national peacebuilding and social cohesion policy. Only a handful of agricultural and development policies appeared to engage with peacebuilding and social cohesion policies, whilst a quarter of DRR policies appeared to do so. The DRR sector therefore appears to be the sector that is most coherent with the peacebuilding and social cohesion sector, whilst coherence appears to be entirely lacking for policies from climate and environment, land, and livestock sectors."},{"index":4,"size":180,"text":"Thirdly, in terms of DRR policy integration, half of Climate and Environment, land, and livestock policies made reference to at least one DRR policy and strategy. Just under a fifth of agriculture sector-specific policies and around a third of development strategies displayed similar evidence of engagement, whilst no peacebuilding and social cohesion policies appear to demonstrate coherence. With regards to scale, national level documents generally appear to have a higher degree of horizontal coherence with other national level policies and strategies than sub-national level documents have vertical coherence with national level documents (figure 3). Overall, 3.2% of national level documents contain a reference to a climate or environmental policy (variable 16), whereas only 1% of sub-national level documents did so. 0.2% of sentences of national level documents made reference to peacebuilding and social cohesion policies and strategies, whereas no sub-national level policies appear to have engaged with peacebuilding and social cohesion policies. Finally, whilst 0.8% of sentences in national level policy documents contain evidence of making reference to DRR strategies, only 0.2% of sentences in sub-national level documents did so."},{"index":5,"size":131,"text":"In summary, therefore, particularly weak policy integration and coherence appears to be present between the majority of sectors subjected to analysis and peacebuilding and social cohesion policies, which received very limited engagement across the board. Notable in this regard is the fact that DRR policies are those most likely to be coherent with this sector, which may suggest -in line with previous research (Schapendonk et al., publication pending) -that the intersection between climate and security in Kenya currently tends to be conceived of predominantly as a consequence of short-term extreme weather events, upon which the majority of policy design and formulation is based. Peacebuilding and social cohesion policies themselves are in turn unlikely to demonstrate coherence with climate and environment policies, and surprisingly do not make reference to any DRR strategies."},{"index":6,"size":111,"text":"Comparatively strong integration appears to exist between climate and environment and the majority of the other sectors subjected to analysis, suggesting that climatic and environmental priorities and objectives have been fairly successfully mainstreamed across a variety of policy realms. DRR policies also appear to be somewhat integrated across sectors, although substantially less so in the case of peacebuilding and social cohesion, agriculture, and development strategies. Regarding the livestock sector specifically, it appears that the sector is well-integrated with national and sub-national level climate and environment policies and strategies, whilst showing a more limited engagement with the DRR sector and not appearing to engage at all with peacebuilding and social cohesion policies."},{"index":7,"size":56,"text":"In terms of scale, it appears that vertical coherence between national and sub-national level policies and strategies is strongest in the realm of climate and environmental policies, whereas it appears to be non-existent in the peacebuilding and social cohesion policy field. Sub-national policies also demonstrate a very limited degree of engagement with DRR policies and strategies."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"This analysis has sought to analyse the degree of horizontal coherence that exists across policies and strategies from sectors relevant to climate security in Kenya (livestock, adaptation, mitigation, and peace and security); the degree of vertical coherence between national and sub-national level policy outputs for or containing components related to livestock, adaptation, mitigation, and peace and security; and the extent to which these outputs can be deemed sensitive to climate-related security risks and climate-peace opportunities. Several key lessons learned have been generated on the basis of these lines of inquiry."},{"index":2,"size":165,"text":"Firstly, with regards to the relationship between climate, the environment, and livestock, it is evident that the relationship between the natural environment (natural resources) and the livestock sector was much more commonly discussed in policy and strategy documents from across all sectors than the relationship between livestock and climate change. This means that the role and importance of natural resources for livestock production systems and value chains is quite commonly recognised, whereas climate change's escalatory and detrimental effects on said natural resources is less commonly discussed. Furthermore, whilst the engagement of livestock sector-specific policies with the topic of climate and environment was quite substantial, the extent to which policy and strategy documents from the climate and environment policy sphere discussed livestock was notably less frequent in nature. Whilst this is somewhat surprising giving the current and expected future importance of the livestock sector for the Kenyan economy and diet, it should also be recognised that climate and environmental priorities are present in livestock sector-specific policies."},{"index":3,"size":158,"text":"It is also evident that regarding the presence of specific livestock adaptation and mitigation actions within livestock sector-specific policies, mitigation actions are entirely absent. This trend is also apparent across other sectors, with specific mitigation actions generally featuring much less frequently than specific adaptation actions. Given the fact that mitigation actions are entirely absent in livestock sector-specific policies subjected to analysis here, however, this does indicate that a gap remains in terms of the design and implementation of livestockspecific mitigation actions. This result is broadly in line with the work of Ashley (2019), who identifies that mitigation activities relating specifically to livestock in Kenya are less welldeveloped than those relating to adaptation. Moreover, on both adaptation and mitigation strategies, it appears that most documents put forward broad proposals for strategies rather than discuss the implementation or operationalization. A richer variety of adaptation strategies also appear to be put forward, with mitigation strategies generally being far fewer in number."},{"index":4,"size":176,"text":"Secondly, in terms of climate security sensitivity and overall awareness of livestock and climate-related security risks, policy and strategy documents -including those livestock sector-specific ones -are overall slightly more likely to draw a link between livestock, the natural environment, and potential security risks as opposed to the relationship between livestock, climate change, and potential security risks. The importance of natural resources for livestock production systems is therefore recognised fairly consistently, whereas the role that climate change-related impacts may play in undermining availability and accessibility of said natural resources is less frequently discussed. This trend also plays out with regards to the intersection of the environment, livestock, and security, which is discussed more frequently than the relationship between climate, livestock, and security. There is also a degree of cross-sectoral variability in the extent to which the intersection of climate, livestock, and security is discussed. Whereas all sectors subjected to analysis demonstrate at least limited evidence of engagement with this intersection, policies extracted from the peacebuilding and social cohesion sector did not engage with this relationship at all."},{"index":5,"size":213,"text":"The results also revealed a very clear gap in conceptual engagement across essentially all policy sectors regarding the intersection of climate, livestock, and GBV. This dimension of the climate security nexus remains severely underexplored within the policies subjected to analysis, despite the urgent need to recognise how climate change can cause genderdifferentiated impacts, including with regards to violence. Economic and livelihood insecurity that may emerge as a consequence of climate change-related impacts on pastoralist and agropastoralist production systems can, for instance, make adolescent girls more vulnerable to early marriage; spur on male out-migration in seek of employment, which can in turn increase the insecurities and responsibilities faced by female-headed households in increasingly challenging environmental contexts; and expose women to increased domestic violence due to not being able to manage the impacts of climate change at household level (UNEP et al., 2020). Criminal activities such as poaching, raiding, and illegal resource extraction are often associated with GBV, whilst in the aftermath of extreme weather events, women are often at risk of being victims of sexual exploitation, domestic violence, and human trafficking. Given the fact that climate change and environmental degradation can contribute to an increased risk of GBV through numerous causal pathways, this forms a policy area where urgent investment and attention is required."},{"index":6,"size":159,"text":"A similar gap can be seen in the fact that the majority of sectors included in this analysis (bar peacebuilding and social cohesion and, to a lesser extent, development and DRR) displayed no evidence of engaging with or operationalising the principles of conflict sensitivity and 'do no harm'. Furthermore, results also suggest that there is very little cross-fertilisation across the different sectors within this analysis in terms of usage and deployment of conflict-related analyses and climate-related analyses. Policies and strategies from the peacebuilding and social cohesion, DRR, and development sectors were the only sectors to conduct a form of conflict-related analysis, whilst land, livestock, and peacebuilding and social cohesion policies in turn failed to undertake any kind of climate-related analysis. It therefore appears, firstly, that integrated analytical tools and frameworks to evaluate climate-related security risks are absent, and secondly, that current analytical approaches in both conflict and climate realms are not deployed by those working in the other field."},{"index":7,"size":139,"text":"Finally, with regards to cross-sectoral and cross-scalar integration, it is apparent that there is a greater degree of horizontal coherence amongst national level policy and strategy outputs produced in sectors relevant to climate security than there is vertical coherence between the sub-national and national level. Climate and environment policies appear to enjoy the greatest degree of mainstreaming across all sectors, whilst peacebuilding and social cohesion policies do not appear to be integrated very well with other policy fields. Additionally, climate and environment policies are also the area where there exists the greatest degree of vertical coherence between sub-national and national governance levels. With regards to the livestock sector specifically, it is appears to be very coherent with climate and environment, integrated to a degree with DRR strategies and policies, but not at all coherent with peacebuilding and social cohesion."},{"index":8,"size":101,"text":"Recommendations 1) Mainstream conflict-sensitivity principles and conflict-sensitive approaches to planning, design, and implementation in livestock sector-specific policies: although there remains scope for improvement, recognition of climate security and climaterelated security risks specific to the Kenyan socio-political and biophysical context were present within a substantial sub-section of the 56 policies subjected to analysis. Specifically, an argument could be made that whilst the role played by environmental factors (natural resource availability, access, etc.) in influencing and triggering livestock-related conflict is widely recorded, the potentially escalatory role played by climate change impacts on those resources is recorded less frequently and should therefore be increased."},{"index":9,"size":152,"text":"However, our results made apparent that beyond the peacebuilding and social cohesion and DRR policy sectors, no other sector's policy or strategic outputs appeared to include any reference to conflict-sensitivity practices or principles. This is somewhat surprising for the livestock sector in particular, given how pastoral and agro-pastoralist production systems are predominant in contexts and geographies where conflict and fragility are not uncommon. It is also somewhat disconcerting, as it appears to indicate that when programmatic actions related to adaptation, mitigation, development, value chain creation and others are undertaken, they are designed, planned, and implemented without consideration for local conflict dynamics and how the intervention may affect these. By failing to do so, interventions run the risk of undermining human insecurity, negatively impacting or strengthening existing local power dynamics and structures, and increasing the risk of conflict -in other words, do harm (examples of this can be found elsewhere in this report)."},{"index":10,"size":123,"text":"Our first recommendation is, therefore, for the principles of conflict sensitivity to be mainstreamed throughout livestock sector-specific policy design. This will likely involve stepping beyond the existing conceptual recognition of climate and environment-related security risks in challenge statements, and building the technical capacities within ministerial staff to conduct conflict-related forms of analyses. This is particularly so as our results also suggest that conflict-related analyses are very much limited to policies produced as part of the peacebuilding and social cohesion, DRR, and development sectors. Specific training needs assessments should as a first step be conducted within national and sub-national livestock sector institutions to gauge what capacity gaps may exist with regards to conflict sensitivity, after which tailored training programmes and procedures can be designed."},{"index":11,"size":92,"text":"2) More attention, investment, and research efforts should be channelled towards illuminated the relationship between climate change, livestock production systems, and gender-based violence (GBV): our content analysis revealed how virtually every sector included in the analysis omitted any discussion on this perhaps underexplored yet critical nexus. As discussed in the conclusion, research conducted on this topic has revealed several potentially different causal pathways through which climate change impacts may contribute to forms of violence that must be assessed in an intersectional way to truly understand and subsequently mitigate their gender disaggregated nature."},{"index":12,"size":112,"text":"Given the essentially ubiquitous absence of this topic within all policy and strategic outputs, this second recommendation draws attention to the need for -firstly -more research on this intersection at the sub-national within Kenya, as the exact causal pathways through which GBV could emerge may differ across various socio-economic and biophysical contexts. Secondly, in order to begin designing programmatic interventions that can counter this specific set of relationships, more efforts at coordination and integration should be made with some of Kenya's gender-related strategies, such as the 2019 National Policy on Gender and Development. These strategies form an existing legislative platform upon which programs responding to this nexus could be designed and implemented."},{"index":13,"size":164,"text":"3) More efforts should be made to design and implement integrated, livestock sectorspecific adaptation and mitigation actions that can simultaneously build resilience to climate impacts and address risks for human security and conflict: despite an apparently relatively widespread recognition of climate-related security risks -both related to the livestock sector specifically and not -evidence of conflict sensitive, propeace, integrated climate-peace programming remains largely absent. There therefore exists a need to work across siloes to a much greater degree and ensure that program planning is conducted through a human security lens and involves a diverse set of sectoral stakeholders throughout the project life cycle. In practice, this would mean bringing together cross-disciplinary teams including those able to understand climate science; those able to understand adaptation, disaster risk reduction, and resilience building; and those able to understand conflict and peacebuilding dynamics and processes. Whilst this is a challenge, it is critical for the design of programming that responds to the multi-layered risk landscape facing contexts in Kenya."},{"index":14,"size":193,"text":"Specifically, we recommend that efforts are dedicated towards realising the potential co-benefits for peace and security that creating an inventory of indigenous knowledge, livestock insurance schemes, early warning systems, and early action systems would hold. These livestock-specific adaptation actions were found frequently within the policies and strategies subjected to analysis, and on the surface, are well-suited to including specific components and indicators related to peace and security. As a first step, we recommend creating peace and security-related theories of change (ToCs) that outline a clear set of expected outcomes and co-benefits, constructed on a set of baseline assumptions. For the creation of an inventory of indigenous knowledge, for instance, an example ToC statement could be 'if indigenous practices are recorded and collated in a participatory and collaborative manner, then participation of conventionally marginalised groups in policy-and decision-making processes will improve and state-society relations will be enhanced'. To build a robust evidence base, we also recommend regularly revisiting these assumptions and ToCs throughout a project lifecycle, experimenting with a varied set of intervention types and implementation modalities, and readjusting activities where necessary on the basis of regular context assessments and analysis (de Coning, 2018)."},{"index":15,"size":164,"text":"4) More effort should be given towards improving policy coherence and integration between peacebuilding and social cohesion, climate and environment, and livestock sector policies: as our results indicate that there exists a fairly poor degree of crosssectoral coherence between these three sectors, strengthening cross-sectoral coordination across this tripartite for the purposes of managing and mitigating climate-related security risks is particularly crucial. Specifically, we recommend that a new institutional space is created -or an existing one expanded or re-orientedwhere actors from the climate and environment, peacebuilding and social cohesion, and livestock sectors are able to coordinate and engage in joint program planning, design, and implementation. Progress has already been made within Kenya on integrating DRR -specifically drought management and mitigation -with development and peace and security-sensitive approaches, for example through the Ending Drought Emergencies Common Program Framework. This existing institutional blueprint could either be expanded or serve as a model for the expansion of integrated program design and implementation into livestock adaptation and mitigation actions."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Heatmap of fatalities from protest, riots, and episodes of violence related to livestock. "},{"text":" words related to the biosphere 1_2 the document mentions words related to the hydrosphere 1_3 the document mentions words related to the land 1_4 the document mentions words related to climate or weather events 1_5 the document mentions words related to the impact of climate or weather events 2 climate change 2_1 the document specifically mentions climate change and related processes 2_2 A document that directly mentions climate change also mentions climate or weather processes 2_3 A document that directly mentions climate change also mentions words related to the impact of climate or topics pertaining to human security (e.g., loss of livelihood, food, migration, and water security) 5_2 the document mentions topics pertaining to traditional security (e.g., conflict, war, organized violence) 5_3 the document mentions topics pertaining to environmental security (resource competition, a link between environmental factors and human security 6_2 the document makes a link between environmental factors and traditional security 6_3 the document makes a link between environmental factors and environmental security 6_4 the document makes a link between environmental factors and gender violence 6_5 the document makes a link between environmental factors and crime climate and security 7_1 the document makes a link between climate and human security 7_2 the document makes a link between climate and traditional security 7_3 the document makes a link between climate and environmental security 7_4 the document makes a link between climate and gender violence 7_5 the document makes a link between climate and crime livestock 8 the document mentions the livestock sector livestock and environment 9_1 the document mentions the livestock sector in relation to biosphere 9_2 the document mentions the livestock sector in relation to hydrosphere 9_3 the document mentions the livestock sector in relation to land 9_4 the document mentions the livestock sector in relation to climate and weather 9_5 the document mentions the livestock sector in relation to the impact of climate or weather events livestock and climate 10_1 the document mentions the livestock sector in direct relation to climate change 10_2 the document mentions the livestock sector in relation to the impact of climate and weather processes (in a document that discusses climate change) 10_3 the document mentions the livestock sector in relation to climate and weather processes (in a document that discusses climate change) livestock and mitigation 11 the document mentions the livestock sector in relation to mitigation livestock and adaptation 12 the document mentions the livestock sector in relation to adaptation livestock and security 13_1 the document mentions the livestock sector in relation to human security 13_2 the document mentions the livestock sector in relation to traditional security 13_3 the document mentions the livestock sector in relation to environmental security 13_4 the document mentions the livestock sector in relation to gender violence 13_5 the document mentions the livestock sector in relation to crime livestock, environment and security 14_1 the document makes a link between the livestock sector, environmental factors and human security disaster risk integration 18 Document makes reference to disaster risk reduction strategies or legislation (note down which) adaptation strategies for the livestock sector (note down which ones) Livestock climate mitigation strategies 23 Document identifies specific mitigation strategies for the livestock sector (note down which ones) conflict-sensitivity 24_1 "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Document's engagement with assessment variables, divided by policy sectors. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Document's engagement with assessment variables, divided by policy scale. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Extent of thematic engagement with security and conflict sensitivity, divided by sectors. "},{"text":". of national-level policies No. of county-level policies Total no. of documents Agriculture 6 0 6 Agriculture606 Development 6 22 28 Development62228 Disaster risk reduction 7 1 8 Disaster risk reduction718 Environment 7 1 8 Environment718 Land 2 0 2 Land202 Livestock 2 0 2 Livestock202 Peacebuilding and social cohesion 2 0 2 Peacebuilding and social cohesion202 "},{"text":"Table 1 . Documents divided by sector. "},{"text":"Table 2 . Climate and environment, livestock, and peace and security assessment variables. "},{"text":" and the Climate Smart Agriculture Strategy (2017) -delineate broad objectives, such as the reduction of GHG emissions via manure management, and efficiency in livestock management. Other documents, for example Baringo County's 2013 Integrated Development Plan, instead put forward specific plans for energy efficiency, such as the use of renewable energy sources and energy efficient light bulbs in slaughterhouses. Finally, some documents (see for instance the Climate Smart Agriculture Strategy, 2017) mention the need for low emissions technologies, capacity building, and guidelines to manage livestock feed from farm residues and manure. "}],"sieverID":"8fee9a9d-8bca-45a0-9e98-9eb3355c004f","abstract":"Mainstream conflict-sensitivity principles and conflict-sensitive approaches to planning, design, and implementation in livestock sector-specific policies 2) More attention, investment, and research efforts should be channelled towards illuminated the relationship between climate change, livestock production systems, and gender-based violence (GBV)3) More efforts should be made to design and implement integrated, livestock sectorspecific adaptation and mitigation actions that can simultaneously build resilience to climate impacts and address risks for human security and conflict 4) More effort should be given towards improving policy coherence and integration between peacebuilding and social cohesion, climate and environment, and livestock sector policies"}

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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0340a2c4a3e1cfddbdd6461080382842","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c6113bc7-e35e-43e3-a258-e390ca138954/retrieve"},"pageCount":10,"title":"CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) Organisational Baseline Study: Overview report for Tra Hat CSV, Vietnam (VN03)","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"This report covers the Organisational Baseline Study (OBS) for the CCAFS Climate-Smart Village Tra Hat in the South Viet Nam. During October 2014 interviews were conducted with local stakeholders at ten organisations who are working or collaborating with farmers and/or the community in Vinh Loi district, Bac Lieu province."},{"index":2,"size":149,"text":"The Tra Hat CSV is located near the coastal area, at tail end of a primary canal of Quan Lo Phung Hiep system (QLPH), the Mekong Delta of Vietnam, it usually causes lack of fresh water in from QLPH in dry season. There are two distinct dry season (December to April) and rainy season (May to November) which typhoon happens seldom in rainy season. Protected by dyke and sluice system of QLPH in Bac Lieu province, Tra Hat has not been affected by saline intrusion for last 15 years. The main farming systems in the village comprise two or three rice crops per year, small livestock as pig, chicken and ducks. Besides, mixed fruit garden and cash crop are often blended in residential area. Ground water and water in ponds is popular in household to provide domestic water, raising fish or garden irrigation and livestock, especially in dry season."},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"The objectives of the OBS study are to:"},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":" Provide indicators to monitor changes in behaviours and practices of locally relevant organisations that have climate change related activities in Bac Lieu over time"},{"index":5,"size":24,"text":" Understand the provision of information/services at the local level that informs farmers' decision making about their livelihood strategies in response to climate change"},{"index":6,"size":26,"text":"This OBS report also supplements to the quantitative Household Baseline Survey (HBS) and the qualitative Village Baseline Studies (VBS) in Tra Hat CSV and surrounding villages."}]},{"head":"INTERVIEWED ORGANISATIONS","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":158,"text":"Prior to this study, the team conducted a participatory village survey VBS at Tra Hat. The villagers who participated the VBS survey (15 male and 15 female each meeting day) were asked to create an institutional landscape of their community by listing the most important organisations that were often active in the area and then providing information on how they involved in the activities of community. Particularly, the participants were asked what organisations were involved in food security activities during food crisis situation, and in natural resource management (NRM) activities. Among the organisations recommended by farmers for the OBS, some organisations that were believed not to be relevant or not available to interview during OBS would be eliminated. In addition, some other potential organisations were added for OBS. As a result, key-informant interviews from ten organisations were carried out in the OBS. Details of the methodology and topic guide for the OBS are found in the CCAFS website."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"After the VBS in Tra Hat, there was seven were selected for interview to the OBS (Table 1) and three more were added during interview campaign based on the interviewer's assessment (Table 2). The preferred key informant from the interviewed organisation was the one who is familiar with the organisation's work and strategy and aware of the activities that are conducted in the field. A questionnaire was used to guide the semi-structured interview."},{"index":3,"size":86,"text":"During the interview, additional questions about the CCAFS Situation Analysis and Needs Assessment Report were also asked. One interview lasted about 1.5-2 hours in average. The interviewee shared all the information or activities that her union is working and collaborate with other institutions in the district. Agribank is one of three banks identified by the focus-group participants. The Agribank provides credit schemes to farmers but focuses more on commercial than social policy aspects. Agribank was eliminated, as we were unable to contact a sufficiently authoritative person."}]},{"head":"Medicine and Pharmacy Hospital University of Ho Chi Minh city","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"One of memorable activities of this hospital. However, it is organized and connected with the Sub-Department of Medicine of Vinh Loi district. Besides, women group of Chau Thoi commune and Tra Hat village directly collaborate to implement the health care check-up for women in Tra Hat. Thus this hospital is eliminated and the above involving institutions were included in this OBS."}]},{"head":"Eliminated organisations","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Why they were not included","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Department of Medicine of Bac Lieu province","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"There has been connection as the same situation of the Medicine and Pharmacy Hospital University of Ho Chi Minh City. The connection is the Sub-Department of Medicine of Vinh Loi district."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"Club of Traditional music (Don ca tai tu)"},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"Woman group mentioned about this club during the VBS discussion. However, it has not related with agricultural activities."}]},{"head":"Policeman of Tra Hat village","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Already interview head of village, head of woman group and farmer association at village level. Besides, this organization has not related much to agricultural activities."}]},{"head":"Veteran association of Tra Hat village","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"Already interviewed head of village, head of woman group and farmer association at village level, they are also members of Veteran association. However, this organization has not much related to agricultural activities in the village."}]},{"head":"SUMMARY OF ACTIVITIES","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"The summary below includes the key activities of ten interviewed organisations that relate to (1) natural resources management, (2) food security, disaster risk response and prevention, and (3) climate change adaptation and mitigation activities at province, district and commune levels. A summary for each organisation is given in Table 4."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"Table 4 shows that most of the interviewed organisations were involved in disaster risk response or activities related to climate change (six for each topic) and only four in natural resource management. Two of the interviewed organisations were not directly involved in any of the activities."}]},{"head":"For natural resources management","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"At the province level, Bac Lieu Department of Agriculture and Rural Development (DARD) is responsible for agriculture, water management (canal system and sluice gates), weather information and natural disaster for the whole Bac Lieu. Land management is responsible by Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DONRE)."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"At the district level, Sub-Department of Agriculture and Rural Development of Vinh Loi district collaborates with other Sub-Departments, i.e. Natural Resources and Environment, to manage in natural resource management such as land and water resource management. At the commune level, Chau Thoi commune carries out all NRM related activities with famers/ in the village. Activities are usually transferred by the organizations at district level."},{"index":3,"size":36,"text":"DARD and its sub-levels focus on all activities that relate to agricultural management and transferring technologies. The market information is responsible by the Department of Commerce; however, this institution has little control on the market price."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"Organizational structure from provincial to village and organizations is presented in Annex 2."}]},{"head":"For food security, disaster risk response and prevention","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"Food security in this site means the quality of food, nutrition or any activities which generate income for farmers. It does not mean lack of food or hunger. Besides, household income is low and much depended by rice production. Thus, for those months far from harvesting time, they express their difficulties due to lack of home supply (sell paddy to have cash to buy food or less food collected from farm) and lack of cash to buy food (pork, beef or fish)."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"At the district level, Sub-Department of Agriculture and Rural Development (Sub-DARD) of Vinh Loi district recommend and monitor what varieties are transferred and cultivated/reared at households. They also responsible for supporting seed and techniques for farmers to overcome crisis, such as when pest outbreak and extreme weather occur."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"Vinh Loi has scarcely received typhoon or natural disaster, so the responses by interviewees for this risk is not so clear. However, those activities are duty of Department of Agriculture and Rural Development."}]},{"head":"Activities related to climate change","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"There are much difference in understanding and activities regarding to the climate change between local stakeholders in organizations from provincial to village levels. At the provincial and district levels, the interviewed authorities has perceived basic understanding about climate change and propose measures to cope with climate change activities for their organizations. However, there are very limited activities related to climate change in Bac Lieu, especially in Vinh Loi district and Chau Thoi commune. At the commune and village levels, most of the key informants do not understand the term of climate change, especially the woman or even staff who is responsible agriculture at commune and village levels."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"The reasons are still limited training for staff in different roles about the knowledge of climate change and how to link those information and knowledge to their own work."},{"index":3,"size":80,"text":"According to the key informants, the responses to climate change in Bac Lieu is not significant implemented in present due to lack of budget and personnel. However, the key informants at provincial and district level listed activities that Bac Lieu province and Vinh Loi district that they should focus to cope with climate change. They also propose the prioritization for cultivation and husbandry activities for both coastal (i.e. Gia Rai or Dong Hai) and inland districts (i.e. Vinh Loi district). "}]},{"head":"IMPLICATIONS FOR CCAFS","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Natural resource management needs more attention to monitoring the quality soil and water in Vinh Loi district and Chau Thoi commune. Due to Chau Thoi locates at the tail end of the canal in QLPH system, it has more difficulties to control the quality of soil and water for their production."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"DARD and Sub-DARD are responsible for transferring technologies to farmers. However, market related making decision is not belong to their task. Market is one of factors affecting technology transferring."},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"The most critical aspects of food security presented by the informants are (i) income generating activities, (ii) nutritional information, (iii) food safety monitoring."},{"index":4,"size":72,"text":"Women Union at provincial, district, commune and village levels collaborate with other departments to support the implementation of activities in Tra Hat village. They actively collaborate with Health department, social policy bank and DARD/Sub-DARD to transfer technologies and propaganda (i.e. agricultural activities, loans for the poor, saving for women group and health care services for children and women) to village level. However, they lack of knowledge and financial support for their work."},{"index":5,"size":99,"text":"Exchange staff, one of the activities/policies of the administrative system in Vietnam by 5 year-term, helps them experience in different fields and roles. However, they may lack of professional knowledge and skills, especially when just holding their positions. For example, one staff responsible for propaganda and youth union in Chau Thoi commune in the previous term is assigned to responsible for agricultural activities in Chau Thoi commune this term. However, he has little knowledge and experience related to agriculture and less staff at commune level, he has to spend quite long time to learn and adapt to his work "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Table 1 . List of interviewed and omitted organisations in Bac Lieu province Interviewed organisation Main areas of activity Remarks on the interviewee and the process of the interview Plant Protection Facilitates awareness-raising and Interviewee: deputy head of Plant protection Plant ProtectionFacilitates awareness-raising andInterviewee: deputy head of Plant protection Division, Department of training on agricultural production division (female) Division, Department oftraining on agricultural productiondivision (female) Agriculture and Rural Development of Bac Lieu Province for Bac Lieu farmers Connects farmers for agricultural techniques and plant protection for Bac Lieu province The interview went on well with contribution and sharing information. Responsible for large area of Bac Lieu province with limited budget from the local Agriculture and Rural Development of Bac Lieu Provincefor Bac Lieu farmers Connects farmers for agricultural techniques and plant protection for Bac Lieu provinceThe interview went on well with contribution and sharing information. Responsible for large area of Bac Lieu province with limited budget from the local government and due with the trend farmers government and due with the trend farmers applying more and more fertilizers and applying more and more fertilizers and agrochemicals. agrochemicals. Veterinary Division, Manage husbandry activities and Interviewee: deputy head of Veterinary Veterinary Division,Manage husbandry activities andInterviewee: deputy head of Veterinary Department of veterinary for the whole Bac Lieu (male) Department ofveterinary for the whole Bac Lieu(male) Agriculture and Rural province. Agriculture and Ruralprovince. Development of Bac Development of Bac Lieu Province Lieu Province Sub-Department of Reviews, revises and implements the Interviewees: Head of Sub-DARD (male) Sub-Department ofReviews, revises and implements theInterviewees: Head of Sub-DARD (male) Agricultural and Rural Development of Vinh Loi district, Bac Lieu province annual plan for agricultural production from the province based on the five-year-plans; Revises and implements policies The unit provided a large range of information including an overview of the agricultural production in Vinh Loi district and particularly in Chau Thoi and Tra Hat Agricultural and Rural Development of Vinh Loi district, Bac Lieu provinceannual plan for agricultural production from the province based on the five-year-plans; Revises and implements policiesThe unit provided a large range of information including an overview of the agricultural production in Vinh Loi district and particularly in Chau Thoi and Tra Hat related to agricultural production and village. related to agricultural production andvillage. technical support; He also introduced the Head of Sub- technical support;He also introduced the Head of Sub- Conducts training on farming Division of Plant Protection to interview for Conducts training on farmingDivision of Plant Protection to interview for techniques for farmers and introduces more detail in agricultural activities in Vinh techniques for farmers and introducesmore detail in agricultural activities in Vinh new technology and equipment for Loi district. new technology and equipment forLoi district. agricultural production. agricultural production. Chau Thoi commune, To be responsible for administrative Interviewee: Head of Chau Thoi Commune Chau Thoi commune,To be responsible for administrativeInterviewee: Head of Chau Thoi Commune Vinh Loi district, Bac management of socio-economic of (male) Vinh Loi district, Bacmanagement of socio-economic of(male) Lieu province Chau Thoi commune (agriculture, Lieu provinceChau Thoi commune (agriculture, industrial, security, and defence) industrial, security, and defence) Tra Hat village, Chau To implement all the activities at Interviewee: Head of Tra Hat village (male) Tra Hat village, ChauTo implement all the activities atInterviewee: Head of Tra Hat village (male) Thoi commune, Vinh village level and collaborate with Thoi commune, Vinhvillage level and collaborate with Loi district, Bac Lieu other institutions at the same level to Loi district, Bac Lieuother institutions at the same level to province implement activities requested from provinceimplement activities requested from Chau Thoi commune Chau Thoi commune Woman union of Tra This organization collaborates with Interviewee: Head of Woman Union of Tra Woman union of TraThis organization collaborates withInterviewee: Head of Woman Union of Tra Hat village, Chau Thoi other institutions in Tra Hat village to Hat village (female) Hat village, Chau Thoiother institutions in Tra Hat village toHat village (female) commune, Vinh Loi implement activities requested from commune, Vinh Loiimplement activities requested from district, Bac Lieu Chau Thoi commune, especially district, Bac LieuChau Thoi commune, especially province related to health services for women provincerelated to health services for women and childen as well as micro credit and childen as well as micro credit for the poor household. for the poor household. Farmer association of To implement and cooperate Farmer association ofTo implement and cooperate Tra Hat village, Chau activities related to agriculture. Tra Hat village, Chauactivities related to agriculture. Thoi commune, Vinh Thoi commune, Vinh Loi district, Bac Lieu Loi district, Bac Lieu province province "},{"text":"Table 2 . List of interviewed organisations added by Tra Hat team Organisations added by Tra Hat CSV Team Activities and/or justification for inclusion Remarks on the interviewee and process of the interview Sub-Department of Important for provincial Interviewee: Head of Sub-Department of Sub-Department ofImportant for provincialInterviewee: Head of Sub-Department of Plant Protection Vinh administration and providing services Plant Protection of Vinh Loi district (male). Plant Protection Vinhadministration and providing servicesPlant Protection of Vinh Loi district (male). Loi district, Bac Lieu province regarding agricultural production, forestry, salt production, aquaculture, Committee for storm and flood prevention, food safety and Natural More detail from this Sub-Department was conducted due to the problem of using agrochemical and agricultural activities. Loi district, Bac Lieu provinceregarding agricultural production, forestry, salt production, aquaculture, Committee for storm and flood prevention, food safety and NaturalMore detail from this Sub-Department was conducted due to the problem of using agrochemical and agricultural activities. Resource Management. Resource Management. Sub-Department of Woman group mentioned about Interviewee: Head of Sub-Department of Sub-Department ofWoman group mentioned aboutInterviewee: Head of Sub-Department of Medicine, Vinh Loi health care activities organized by Medicine of Vinh Loi district (male). Medicine, Vinh Loihealth care activities organized byMedicine of Vinh Loi district (male). district, Bac Lieu province Medicine and Pharmacy Hospital, department of Medicine of Bac Lieu Hospital. Actually, those institutions collaborate with Sub-department of Even this institution does not much related to agricultural activities. However, the interviewee pay much attention district, Bac Lieu provinceMedicine and Pharmacy Hospital, department of Medicine of Bac Lieu Hospital. Actually, those institutions collaborate with Sub-department ofEven this institution does not much related to agricultural activities. However, the interviewee pay much attention medicine of Vinh Loi district to medicine of Vinh Loi district to provide health services to woman in provide health services to woman in Tra Hat village. Tra Hat village. Women Union of Vinh Women Union of Chau Thoi village Interviewee: Head of Women Union of Vinh Women Union of VinhWomen Union of Chau Thoi villageInterviewee: Head of Women Union of Vinh Loi district, Bac Lieu and Tra hat village and often mention Loi district (female) Loi district, Bac Lieuand Tra hat village and often mentionLoi district (female) province about women union of Vinh Loi provinceabout women union of Vinh Loi district. Besides, most of the district. Besides, most of the activities at commune and village activities at commune and village level depend on the district level. We level depend on the district level. We also need to understand how this also need to understand how this union work in different level, union work in different level, especially how the link with each especially how the link with each other and other local government other and other local government institutions. institutions. Women union group contribute Women union group contribute greatly to launch the agricultural greatly to launch the agricultural technologies as well as policies from technologies as well as policies from the central, provincial government to the central, provincial government to district, commune and village levels district, commune and village levels and individual farmers and women. and individual farmers and women. "},{"text":"Table 3 . List of organisations eliminated by Tra Hat CSV team Eliminated organisations Why they were not included Bank for Agriculture Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development and Rural Development (Agribank) (Agribank) "},{"text":"Table 4 . Key activities of ten organisations related to natural resources management, food security and climatic stress Interviewed oorganisations Mission of organization that related to Natural resource management Food security; disaster risk response and prevention Climate change adaptation and mitigation 1. Plant protection Guide farmers to apply More focus/pay Involving in projects working 1. Plant protectionGuide farmers to applyMore focus/payInvolving in projects working division, Department sustainable management attention to transfer related to climate change. division, Departmentsustainable managementattention to transferrelated to climate change. of Agriculture and and use of natural agricultural of Agriculture andand use of naturalagricultural Rural Development of resources, irrigation technologies for food Rural Development ofresources, irrigationtechnologies for food Bac Lieu Province system management security Bac Lieu Provincesystem managementsecurity 2. Veterinary Animal and aquaculture Monitor animal health Suggest strategies to adapt and 2. VeterinaryAnimal and aquacultureMonitor animal healthSuggest strategies to adapt and division, Department production and seedling and disease outbreak for mitigate climate change from division, Departmentproduction and seedlingand disease outbreak formitigate climate change from of Agriculture and quality assurance sanitation changing seasonal calendar, of Agriculture andquality assurancesanitationchanging seasonal calendar, Rural Development of animal cages, vaccination and Rural Development ofanimal cages, vaccination and Bac Lieu Province techniques (biogas, microbial Bac Lieu Provincetechniques (biogas, microbial fermented litter) fermented litter) 3. Sub-department of General monitoring in Responsible for Not much related 3. Sub-department ofGeneral monitoring inResponsible forNot much related agricultural and rural agriculture and irrigation monitoring weather agricultural and ruralagriculture and irrigationmonitoring weather development of Vinh in Vinh Loi district information development of Vinhin Vinh Loi districtinformation Loi district, Bac Lieu Loi district, Bac Lieu province province "},{"text":"Interviewed oorganisations Mission of organization that related to Natural resource management Food security; disaster risk response and prevention Climate change adaptation and mitigation 4. Sub-plant Responsible for both Changes of diseases related to 4. Sub-plantResponsible for bothChanges of diseases related to protection division cultivation and plant climate change and solutions protection divisioncultivation and plantclimate change and solutions Vinh Loi district, Bac protection activities Vinh Loi district, Bacprotection activities Lieu province Lieu province 5. Sub-department of None Implementation None 5. Sub-department ofNoneImplementationNone health, Vinh Loi programs at provincial health, Vinh Loiprograms at provincial district, Bac Lieu level related to nutrition, district, Bac Lieulevel related to nutrition, province sanitation, child and provincesanitation, child and pregnant health. pregnant health. 6. Women union of Collaborate with other Micro credit for pig None 6. Women union ofCollaborate with otherMicro credit for pigNone Vinh Loi district, Bac organizations to rearing and production Vinh Loi district, Bacorganizations torearing and production Lieu province implement/transfer Lieu provinceimplement/transfer information to commune information to commune and village and village 7. Chau Thoi Overall activities at Overall activities at None 7. Chau ThoiOverall activities atOverall activities atNone commune, Vinh Loi district level. district level. commune, Vinh Loidistrict level.district level. district, Bac Lieu district, Bac Lieu province province 8. Tra Hat village, Collaborate with Collaborate with None 8. Tra Hat village,Collaborate withCollaborate withNone Chau Thoi commune, commune staff to transfer commune staff to Chau Thoi commune,commune staff to transfercommune staff to Vinh Loi district, Bac information and transfer information and Vinh Loi district, Bacinformation andtransfer information and Lieu province technology to villagers technology to villagers Lieu provincetechnology to villagerstechnology to villagers 9. Woman union of Not much related Micro credit to the poor None 9. Woman union ofNot much relatedMicro credit to the poorNone Tra Hat village, Tra and nearly poor Tra Hat village, Traand nearly poor Hat village, Chau Hat village, Chau Thoi commune, Vinh Thoi commune, Vinh Loi district, Bac Lieu Loi district, Bac Lieu province province 10. Farmer Water and land uses and Promote production None 10.FarmerWater and land uses andPromote productionNone association of Tra Hat protection association of Tra Hatprotection village, Tra Hat village, Tra Hat village, Chau Thoi village, Chau Thoi commune, Vinh Loi commune, Vinh Loi district, Bac Lieu district, Bac Lieu province province "},{"text":"List of institutions interview for the Baseline Organizational Survey No. Name of Organization to be interviewed Date of interview Interviewer ).At village level, head of village is the contact person to inform villagers activities from commune level. Besides, other representatives such as Women Union, Farmer Association, Youth Union, etc. in the village work together with head of village (Annex 2). The village needs the technical and administrative support and budget for their work from organizations at commune, district and provincial levels.DARD and Sub-DARD are suitable institutions to support village to carry out activities of CSV. Annex 1. 1 Division of Plant Protection, Bac Lieu 23 October, 2014 Truong Thi Ngoc Chi Annex 1. 1 Division of Plant Protection, Bac Lieu23 October, 2014Truong Thi Ngoc Chi province, Vietnam province, Vietnam 2 Division of Veterinary, Bac Lieu province, Vietnam 23 October, 2014 Ngo Thi Thanh Truc 2Division of Veterinary, Bac Lieu province, Vietnam23 October, 2014Ngo Thi Thanh Truc 3 Office of Agriculture and Rural Development, Vinh Loi district, Bac Lieu Province, Vietnam 22 October, 2014 Ngo Thi Thanh Truc 3Office of Agriculture and Rural Development, Vinh Loi district, Bac Lieu Province, Vietnam22 October, 2014Ngo Thi Thanh Truc 4 Sub-division of Plant Protection, Vinh Loi district, Bac Lieu province, Vietnam 22 October, 2014 Ngo Thi Thanh Truc 4Sub-division of Plant Protection, Vinh Loi district, Bac Lieu province, Vietnam22 October, 2014Ngo Thi Thanh Truc 5 Office of Health, Vinh Loi district, Bac Lieu province, Vietnam 22 October, 2014 Ngo Thi Thanh Truc 5Office of Health, Vinh Loi district, Bac Lieu province, Vietnam22 October, 2014Ngo Thi Thanh Truc 6 Women Union, Vinh Loi district, Bac Lieu Province, Vietnam 22 October, 2014 Truong Thi Ngoc Chi 6Women Union, Vinh Loi district, Bac Lieu Province, Vietnam22 October, 2014Truong Thi Ngoc Chi 7 Head of Chau Thoi commune, Bac Lieu province, Vietnam 22 October, 2014 Ngo Thi Thanh Truc 7Head of Chau Thoi commune, Bac Lieu province, Vietnam22 October, 2014Ngo Thi Thanh Truc 8 Head of village, Tra Hat village, Chau Thoi 23 October, 2014 Ngo Thi Thanh Truc 8Head of village, Tra Hat village, Chau Thoi23 October, 2014Ngo Thi Thanh Truc commune, Vinh Loi district, Bac Lieu commune, Vinh Loi district, Bac Lieu province, Vietnam province, Vietnam 9 Head of Farmer Union, Tra Hat village, Chau 18 October, 2014 Le Minh Duong 9Head of Farmer Union, Tra Hat village, Chau18 October, 2014Le Minh Duong Thoi commune, Vinh Loi district, Bac Lieu Thoi commune, Vinh Loi district, Bac Lieu province, Vietnam province, Vietnam 10 Women Union, Tra Hat village, Chau Thoi 18 October, 2014 Ngo Thi Thanh Truc 10Women Union, Tra Hat village, Chau Thoi18 October, 2014Ngo Thi Thanh Truc commune, Bac Lieu province, Vietnam commune, Bac Lieu province, Vietnam "}],"sieverID":"8330837f-5fbe-4429-87ac-cc0a98568e27","abstract":""}

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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0366a655ba892124e7ec71ff73af43c2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/65c18b50-82a4-41e4-afc4-db64e625d636/retrieve"},"pageCount":8,"title":"Harnessing the power of partnerships for cassava transformation","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"Realising the crucial role of effective partnerships in achieving shared goals, the African Cassava Agronomy Initiative (ACAI) is investing significant efforts in cultivating and fostering the right partnerships in its cardinal aim of reducing the cassava yield gap in Africa. The ACAI project team is sparing no effort in ensuring effective collaboration among partners from the experimental phase to development, and use of the tools that will support appropriate management of cassava to realise the crop's fullest potential on farmers' fields."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"The initial engagement of key stakeholders has been realized through the implementation of activities related to the project's output 4.5: Cassava clusters established with engagement of all major stakeholders operating within cassava value chains in the target countries, led by the Africa Soil Health Consortium in collaboration with CABI."},{"index":3,"size":103,"text":"The ACAI Project Coordinator, Dr Abdulai Jalloh noted that even though the entry point of ACAI is the yield gap, it was imperative for strategic consideration of the cassava value chain and inclusiveness of all stakeholders. According to him, ACAI is conscious of the mistakes of past interventions where bottlenecks were considered in isolation. He emphasised that ACAI would direct efforts towards reducing the yield gap which would eventually increase cassava production while ensuring impacts along the value chain with a view to having sustainable improvement in cassava production, processing and utilization; and impact on the economic development of individuals, communities, and countries."},{"index":4,"size":56,"text":"Mr James Watiti of CABI who is leading the establishment of cassava value chain clusters emphasised that it was very crucial to bring all stakeholders together and hold meaningful conversation in an open manner. He stressed that as long as there is candid conversation among partners, issues and challenges can be addressed and synergies capitalized on."},{"index":5,"size":68,"text":"In a bid to map key value chain actors with regards to ACAI interventions in Nigeria and Tanzania, key actors ranging from farmers, researchers, extension services, development workers, processors as well as input dealers notably fertilizers are being engaged by both IITA and CABI. The main aim is to establish contacts among relevant actors for learning and information sharing that will benefit the participating partners associated with ACAI."}]},{"head":"Staggered Planting technique excites Psaltry","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":153,"text":"In Nigeria, the IITA-ACAI/CABI team met with the management of the fertilizer company, NOTORE, together with a representative of SG2000 in Abuja in June. During the discussions in Abuja, Dr Innocent Okuku, a manager with NOTORE, said that the company had been striving to come up with fertilizer products that would meet the need of cassava growers particularly with regards to dry root yield and starch quality. He noted that it had been a challenge to cater for cassava against the relatively higher demand for fertilizers for other crops like maize, rice and vegetables. He, however, expressed confidence that an exclusive blend for cassava would go a long way in encouraging farmers to use fertilizers on the crop. Dr Okuku said he was eagerly looking forward to results of ACAI field trials that could inform blending and production of fertilizer blends that could meet the need of farmers in the shortest possible time."},{"index":2,"size":194,"text":"On his part, Mr Idris S. Garko informed the team that SG 2000 had been recording substantial increases in cassava yields from farmers applying fertilizers. He mentioned that most farmers were increasingly using fertilizers due to its proven benefits. He, however, noted that a more research based exclusive fertilizer blend for cassava would be most welcomed by the farming community. Mr Garko added that SG2000 had confidence in the ACAI project, and that was why it was partnering with the project by providing field staff that were identifying farmers and establishing research plots on farmers' fields. He said the farmers were part and parcel of the trials and would more likely adopt the results. During discussions with the CAVA II team, the coordinator of CAVA II expressed satisfaction for collaborating with ACAI in implementing the various trials linked to the use cases, and noted that CAVA II was in a strategic position to contribute towards the value chain analysis to ensure sustainable gains for all actors along the value chain. He informed the team that CAVA II emphasis is on ethanol, chips and starch with the overall aim of increasing farmers' access to market."},{"index":3,"size":91,"text":"ACAI team with CAVA II in FUNAAB supply. He informed the team that they have installed equipment that determines the starch content of each batch of cassava supplied and that they pay suppliers according to the total starch content of cassava roots. He welcomed the ACAI Staggered Planting experimentation that is investigating the variation of starch content with variety as well as season and management practice particularly fertilization. Mr Vandy is looking forward to the results that will enable farmers to have higher root yields as well as higher starch content."},{"index":4,"size":89,"text":"During the team's visit to the Psaltry processing plant, the Head of Farm Mechanization, Mr John Vandy said that the factory could only operate at about 60 percent of full capacity due to inadequate raw materials. He welcomed the ACAI project, and expressed optimism that it would help farmers to increase their yields so that the factory could operate at full capacity. Mr Vandy also mentioned that they were having challenges with the low level of starch content of local varieties as well as the seasonal variation of cassava "}]},{"head":"Minjingu Mines and Fertilizer Company advises ACAI team","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":215,"text":"At the Minjingu Mines and Fertilizer Company, the General Manager, Mr Anup Modha recounted his long experience in blending various fertilizers for key crops particularly cereals and vegetables. Mr Modha gave a brief history of the company noting that it initially started with phosphate supply, and then gradually moved on to blending with other key nutrients. He advised the ACAI/ CABI team to be very inclusive in implementing ACAI and that ACAI should not waste efforts in reinventing the wheel. He said that ACAI should consider the various products in the market that were already known and accepted by the farmers, and then build on them. In his remarks, the ACAI Project Coordinator, Dr Abdulai Jalloh assured Mr Modha that ACAI is certainly cognisant of the failures of earlier interventions and ACAI would rather build on ongoing initiatives than duplicating efforts. He said that an ongoing literature review is expected to capture all ongoing and past initiatives together with their successes and failures. These will inform further ACAI interventions. Dr Jalloh promised to work with Minjingu and other fertilizer companies, and noted that he is anxiously looking forward to a time when the company will blend fertilizers that would be informed by ACAI results. After the meeting, the team visited the mining and blending site."},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"Phosphate layers at Minjingu site."},{"index":3,"size":85,"text":"The Executive Director of the National Root Crops Research Institute (NRCRI) Umudike, Dr Julius C. Okonkwo has hailed the efforts of ACAI and promised to provide support to his staff that are participating in the project. During one of the routine field monitoring visits in the Eastern part of Nigeria, the ACAI project team paid a courtesy call on the Executive Director of NRCRI to brief him on the progress made in establishing trials and sensitizing farmers on the potential benefits of the project's interventions."},{"index":4,"size":114,"text":"Dr Okonkwo expressed satisfaction on the ever flourishing collaboration between NRCRI and IITA-a relationship that has existed since IITA was established. He noted that ACAI is a remarkable project in that it is tackling one of the long standing challenges to cassava production. Dr Okonkwo was particularly impressed by the degree of collaboration among the key stakeholders along the cassava value chain. He expressed confidence that such cooperation and dedication of the partners is bound to make a major impact on cassava production in the country. He commended the ACAI Project Coordinator, Dr Abdulai Jalloh and his team for working so excellently with his staff, and encouraged the team to continue the good job."},{"index":5,"size":85,"text":"Nigeria's premier root crops research institute pledges support to ACAI Dr Okonkwo requested Dr Jalloh to convey his special thanks to the Director General of IITA, Dr Nteranya Sanginga, and his staff, as well as the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation for supporting two of his staff-one with a full scholarship and another support for thesis research associated with the ACAI project. He said such assistance was invaluable to the institute and would go a long way in strengthening the research capacity of the NRCRI."},{"index":6,"size":187,"text":"Earlier, after introducing his colleagues to the ED, Dr Jalloh gave an overview of the project and thanked the Executive Director for making his staff available to the project and, more importantly, for pre-financing crucial project activities. The ACAI project Leader observed that had the Executive Director not intervened with such support, the project would not have established the impressive number of trials that were time bound. Over 90 percent of the targeted 667 trials under the ACAI project have been established across diverse agroecologies and socioeconomic environments in the two project countries -Nigeria and Tanzania. Further establishment has been halted to ensure that those already planted have a good chance to establish properly and withstand the ensuing drought period. Meanwhile considerations are being made for planting during the second planting season in September and October in Nigeria, and Tanzania, respectively. Incidentally the two countries cover all the range of agroecologies and socioeconomic environments that exist in sub-Saharan Africa. This diversified coverage is crucial in ensuring extrapolation of the results of the project to other countries with respect to the agroecologies they share with the project countries."},{"index":7,"size":23,"text":"With the large number of trials now established across the diverse agroecologies and the indepth data collection at farm level in Nigeria and"}]},{"head":"ACAI trials update: 90 percent of trials established in diverse agroecologies","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"Tanzania, ACAI is set to unlock the potential of cassava on farmers' fields thereby providing an opportunity for improved yields and incomes for farmers."},{"index":2,"size":113,"text":"The Coordinator of the ACAI project, Dr Abdulai Jalloh noted that the misconception that \"cassava does not need fertilization\" has undermined the potential of the root crop, and limited its benefits to farmers. He cautioned that growing cassava without appropriate fertilization does not only undermine the potential of the crop but also leads to nutrient mining in the already impoverished soils. \"This situation can only lock the farmers into perpetual poverty,\" he said. He expressed optimism that the results of the fertilizer trials would not only enable the farming community to appropriately manage soil fertility but also minimise costs through the targeting of appropriate nutrient dosage that would reduce costs and maximise yields."},{"index":3,"size":130,"text":"The African Cassava Agronomic Initiative (ACAI) project has given high priority to enhancing the capacities of researchers from the National Agricultural Research System (NARS). This need has been highly prioritized by the project in view of the relatively less attention given to cassava agronomy research as compared to other related disciplines. The determination to adequately equip the NARS partners to effectively collaborate in data collection was demonstrated in the training of a critical mass of NARS scientists and technicians in both Nigeria and Tanzania. In Tanzania, a total of 11 NARS personnel (consisting of 8 males and 3 females) were trained while a total of 20 NARS personnel ACAI prioritizes capacity building of NARS for cassava transformation in Africa (consisting of 13 males and 7 Females) were trained in Nigeria."},{"index":4,"size":84,"text":"The training covered non-destructive sampling, data management and modelling. An evaluation after the training revealed that participants had enhanced capacity in collecting key morphological traits of cassava as well as associated intercrops (sweet potato and maize). Participants were also taught how to electronically record data using the Open Data Kit (ODK), which ensures safe storage of data as well as processing for analysis. In addition, the participants had an insight into modelling with a view to adapting the cassava growth model to African conditions."}]},{"head":"Field work in Tanzania","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"The Cassava Seeds System's project known as, Building An Economically Sustainable, Integrated Seed System for Cassava in Nigeria (BASICS), is making progress towards attaining the milestones set for this year. Following its launch in April 2016, the four-year project is gathering pace in areas of science and business issues across the cassava value chain. "}]},{"head":"Participants in a training session","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":370,"text":"The African Development Bank (AfDB) through the Technologies for Africa Agricultural Transformation (TAAT) program plans to scale-out some of the technologies coming from the IITA Cassava Weed Management Project, and the African Cassava Agronomy Initiative (ACAI). Of interest to the TAAT program is also the cassava seeds system where innovations from the Building an Economically Sustainable, Integrated Seed System for Cassava in Nigeria (BASICS) will play a role. The selection of research outputs/ technologies from these three Bill & Melinda Gates funded projects (IITA-CWMP, ACAI and BASICS) is a significant milestone. The TAAT Program is a pan African initiative funded by the AfDB, and to be implemented by CGIAR and other national and international agricultural institutions. The aim of the program is to scale-out proven agricultural technologies with the view of cutting down Africa's food import bill while at the same time creating wealth and jobs. The TAAT is harnessing a basket of proven technologies, some of, which have remained on the shelves or have been piloted across the continent and elsewhere. Under the IITA-CWMP, the TAAT program is considering the mechanical weeding and herbicides options for its cassava intensification component. The Purdue University don joins IITA-CWMP in on-farm set up with farmers, and captured their perceptions on weed control and their willingness to participate in the project. In his note, Prof Weller remarked: \"I was impressed by farmers' commitment and excitement about the weed management project. The farmers have high expectations for the project as they know the severity of weed interference in their cropping systems and the difficulty in managing weeds effectively and economically.\" He commended the efforts by the IITA-CWMP research team in successfully setting up the on-farm trials, and encouraged robust communication between IITA and project partners to ensure efficient and timely collection of data. According to him, \"I feel that the IITA team has been doing an extraordinary job of managing the field sites and coordinating activities at the large number of sites where research has been conducted.\" He noted that the project is on-target and accomplishing its stated goals over the course of the first 2 plus years. Dr Alfred Dixon, Project Leader of IITA-CWMP, commended Prof Weller for his commitment to the IITA-CWMP. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" L-R: Dr Jalloh (ACAI Coordinator), J. Watiti (CABI), Dr Okuku (NOTORE) Dr Alokit (CABI), NOTORE staff, and Mr Garko (SG2000) CAVA II reiterates commitment to work with ACAI In Oyo and Ogun States, ACAI has engaged the Cassava Adding Value for Africa -phase II (CAVA II), and Psaltry. CAVA II is mainly engaged in flour production while Psaltry processes cassava into starch. Before the discussions with the CAVA II team that was hosted by the Federal University of Agriculture in Abeokuta (FUNAAB), the ACAI team met with the Vice Chancellor of the University, Professor O.B. Oyewole. The VC welcomed the ACAI team and encouraged both IITA and FUNAAB members to work in harmony for the successful implementation of the project. He thanked the team for the fruitful collaboration and support to research particularly the award of scholarships to staff members of the university. "},{"text":" results to commence blending cassava specific fertilizers CAVA-TFNC wants cassava production expanded in Tanzania In Tanzania the IITA-ACAI/CABI (Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International) team met with four key actors along the cassava value chain. These include CAVA-TFNC (Tanzania Food and Nutrition Center), Farm Concern International (FCI), Minjingu; and MEDA. The Country Manager of TFNC, Ms Grace Mahende noted that in Tanzania cassava has not grown out of the original production areas in the country, and that there is need to expand the production of the crop to other parts of the country. She said that the thrust of FNTC was increased diversity of cassava products while improving the quality and safety of such products. Ms Mahende pledged continued support to the efforts of ACAI since their organization stands to benefit from the ACAI interventions. At the FCI headquarters, the Senior Programme Manager for Private Sector Partnerships, Mr Winston Mwombeki expressed willingness to collaborate M TFNC Country Manager, Ms Grace N. Mahende (second left), ACAI Project Coordinator, Dr Jalloh (left); and other officials from CABI and TFNC with ACAI in identification of farmers and establishment of trials. According to him, the team at FCI already has a framework in the form of Commercial Villages to capitalize on demand driven technologies that will transform the fortune of cassava farmers in Tanzania. Senior Programme Manager for Private Sector Partnerships, Mr Winston Mwombeki (Second from left); and officials from CABI, ACAI, and FCI "},{"text":" Dr Guillaume Ezui (ACAI post Doc), Dr Jalloh (ACAI Coordinator), Dr Julius C. Okonkwo (ED, NRCRI), Dr Christine Kreye (ACAI Agronomist), and Dr Adeyemi Olojede (ACAI Coordinator at NRCRI) "},{"text":" IITA and Context are working towards significantly increasing the seed multiplication ratio through a novel technology imported from Argentina. Working in close collaboration with the Flour Mills of Nigeria, this component met in IITA, Ibadan in the last week of June to draw out plans to set up three facilities where this fast multiplication technology will be piloted. Fera of UK, on the other hand, organized a workshop in Umudike earlier in June to develop a plan in partnership with National Agricultural Seed Council (NASC), and National Root Crops Research Institute (NRCRI) in improving the entire cassava seed certification system in Nigeria. Julian Smith of Fera said \"We need a light touch certification that farmers and others can afford.\" In the coming months, teams from NASC and NRCRI will travel to the United Kingdom, and East Africa to learn the best practices in seed certification and adapt them to suit the local context in Nigeria. NASC is also planning to set up a world class 'Center of Excellence' for seed certification in Shedda near Abuja. Due to the bulky nature and high quantities Cassava Seeds System project makes progress of stems required for planting, only a localized seed production and supply system will work. Towards this, the Catholic Relief Services (CRS) is building a network of Village Seed Entrepreneurs (VSEs) in the Benue region and NRCRI is doing the same in the environs of Umudike. The VSEs will be trained to produce certified seeds of improved cassava varieties close to the areas of need and make available these stems for sale to the farmers located in their vicinity. In an effort to fulfil this vision, the project recently conducted a Training of Trainers for private and public extension agents who will provide technical and business support to the VSEs in Benue state. The training was conducted from June 1 -3, 2016 in Otukpo, Benue state, and was attended by two female and 12 male trainees from the Benue State Agricultural and Rural Development Authority (BNARDA), and the Justice Development and Peace Commission (JDPC) of Gboko, Makurdi and Otukpo. CRS, IITA and NASC facilitated the capacity building workshop, which included both theory and practical field sessions covering the best practices of high quality stem production, stem certification, and business practices of selling stems to farmers. Funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, BASICS is a new project that is working on both the science and the business aspects of the cassava seed system to address the constraints of cassava seed production through empowerment of local entrepreneurs and champions of cassava industry. The project is principally implemented by the CGIAR Research Program on Roots, Tubers and Bananas (RTB) which is led by International Potato Center (CIP). "},{"text":" AfDB to scale-out research outputs from IITA-CWMP and ACAI staggered planting technology being promoted by the ACAI is also a key component of the program. Dr Jonas Chianu, Principal Agricultural Economist, and Task Team Leader with the AfDB, said the innovations being chosen under the TAAT program were careful selected from hundreds of submissions received across the world. Addressing researchers and partners during the pre-appraisal meeting on 18 July, Dr Chianu said the selected technologies would help Africa to transform its agricultural space. The pre-appraisal meeting held 18-31 July 2016 was declared open by the Director General of IITA, Dr Nteranya Sanginga, who was represented by the Deputy Director General (Partnerships for Development), Dr Kenton Dashiell. A woman using a motorized mechanical weeder to weed in a cassava farm Prof Weller (second from right) with a contact farmer during on-farm set up Stephen Weller, a professor of weed science at Purdue University was in Nigeria to assist the IITA Cassava Weed Management Project in setting up the 2016 on-farm trials. Prof Weller, who was in Nigeria 5-14 June 2016 visited farmers' fields in Oyo and Ogun state and interacted "},{"text":" The IITA-Cassava Weed Management Project has conducted a Training of Trainers program for 60 persons including extension service providers, spray service providers, and other partners. The ToT covered areas such as the Safe Use of Herbicides, Herbicides Safety and Application, Gender, Effective Meeting, Group Formation, Participation, Cassava Agronomy, Basics of Computer, Adult Education, and Report writing. The training held 18-23 April was in response to the gaps earlier identified during the Training Needs Assessment of extension staff in Nigeria. Resource persons for the training were drawn from the University of Agriculture Makurdi, University of Ibadan, Federal University of Agriculture Abeokuta, National Root Crops IITA -CWMP conducts Train of Trainers for 60 extension service providers and Spray Service Providers Research Institute Umudike, IITA and Esto Perpetua Development Initiative (EPDI). The sessions on Safe Use of Herbicides, and Herbicides Safety and Application received support from Bayer CropScience. Dr Mohamed Elsherif of Bayer CropScience, and Prof Friday Ekeleme, Principal Investigator for IITA-CWMP, took participant through practical demonstrations of spraying with knapsack sprayers and boom sprayers. Participants were also taught the principles of calibration as a prerequisite for effective spraying. Godwin Atser, Communication & Knowledge Exchange Expert, gave participants nuggets on participation and effective meeting, and its application at the community level. Earlier, the Project Leader of the IITA-CWMP, Dr Alfred Dixon called on participants to make the best use of the training. He said the training was designed to enable them carry out their responsibilities more effectively. Represented by Prof Ekeleme, Dr Dixon reiterated that the resource persons for the ToT were carefully selected. At the end of the training, participants commended the IITA-CWMP for building their capacities. Olatoye Abiodun, an extension agent and one of the participants, said, \"This training is timely and useful not just for training others but for practical application on my farm.\" Yet another participant, Betty Vembe noted, \"This training makes our job easier. I appreciate the IITA-CWMP.\" Participants during a practical session Caliberating a boom sprayer Dr Elsherif IITA -CWMP conducts Train of Trainers for 60 extension service providers and This newsletter is produced by the Cassava Weed Management Project in collaboration with the ACAI and the BASICS projects. Advisers: Drs Bernard Vanlauwe, Alfred Dixon, Abdulai Jalloh, Hemant Nitturkar, and Friday Ekeleme. Editor: Godwin Atser ([email protected]) Writers: Godwin Atser, Abdulai Jalloh, and Timilehin Osunde The African Cassava Agronomy Initiative (ACAI) and the IITA Cassava Weed Management Project (IITA-CWMP) have launched Cassava Matters on Whatsapp as a strategy to link cassava actors on a mobile platform. The launch of the mobile platform is part of the recommendation of the Training Needs Assessments (TNA) which was conducted by the IITA-CWMP in 2015 that revealed that the mobile phone is the most used and preferred channel of communication between extension agents and farmers. The Whatsapp platform has been commended by cassava actors as it provides timely solutions to farmers and other users. Actors on the platform include policymakers, development partners, cassava farmers, processors, researchers, spray service providers, agrodealers, industrial users of cassava, cassava stem producers, and journalists among others. Godwin Atser, IITA Communication & Knowledge Exchange Expert, said the Cassava Matters platform demonstrated the power of information & communication technologies (ICTs) to agricultural transformation. \"On the Cassava Matters platform, Cassava Matters on Whatsapp gives farmers real time solutions ACAI, IITA-CWMP and BASICS commend IITA-BoT decision to allow Dr Sanginga another 5 years we see farmers being connected to markets, knowledge on weed control being shared, and queries being answered in real time,\" he said. Several farmers and other stakeholders are testifying to the benefits of the Cassava Matters whatsapp platform. Mr Kolawole Awoyinka, of the Justice Development and Peace Movement wrote: I have testimony on this platform, as a result of information exchange on Vitamin A cassava gari, my office has sold half a tonne of this product within a week. Thanks to Godwin Atser for including JDPM OYO on this platform.\" There are also testimonies of farmers being linked to buyers of cassava stems and even farm machinery. Dr Rodgers Obubo commented that the platform is a powerful tool to transform cassava in Nigeria.Researchers and staff working under the African Cassava Agronomy Initiative, IITA-Cassava Weed Management Project, and the Building An Economically Sustainable, Integrated Seed System for Cassava in Nigeria (BASICS) project have lauded the decision by IITA Board of Trustees (BoT) allowing Dr Nteranya Sanginga to lead IITA for another five years as the Director General. On Thursday, Dr Bruce Coulman, Chair of IITA BoT in a mail circulated on his behalf by Jenny Cramer announced, \"Dr Nteranya Sanginga has accepted our offer of an additional five year term as Director-General, beginning 01 November, 2016.\" This resolution, researchers say, brings stability and continuity to cassava research in particular, and the IITA in general. Since assumption in office in 2011, Dr Sanginga championed the rejuvenation of IITA and the resuscitation of key programs to help change Africa's agriculture narrative. For instance, the investment in the Weed Science Program facilitated the funding of the Cassava Weed Management Project, the investment in IITA Youth Agripreneurs has attracted the interest of several African countries, development partners, and the AfDB. The cassava bread program revived the interest of African governments in cassava production with Nigeria reintroducing the 10 percent cassava inclusion in wheat bread policy. Dr Sanginga has more than doubled the Institute's budget and during his tenure, staff morale has remained high. He initiated and completed in record time the Science Buildings/Hubs in Tanzania, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Zambia. His concept of delivery has led to the building and establishment of the Business Incubation Platform in Ibadan while IITA Cotonou has been transformed to a Center of Excellence for research on biotic stresses linked to climate change. Dr Coulman said IITA had undergone a period of unprecedented growth in its science capacity under Sanginga's first five years of leadership. Dr Sanginga remained committed to his vision that Africa can feed itself and that science and technology are the key enablers that would make the vision come true. Cassava Matters whatsapp page Dr Sanginga "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "}],"sieverID":"8a632b94-9518-457c-bf0c-7594d5dc1636","abstract":""}

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Box 783 258 1 481000 P.O. Box 783258 1 481000 JAT Complex, Rua 1231 No. 41 [email protected] JAT Complex, Rua 1231 No. [email protected] Maputo, Mozambique Maputo, Mozambique +258-21-352050 Irene de Souza +258-21-352050Irene de Souza +258-82-3174800-7, +258-21-352085 Agricultural Activities Manager +258-82-3174800-7, +258-21-352085Agricultural Activities Manager [email protected] USAID Mozambique [email protected] Mozambique http://www.usaid.gov P.O. Box 783 http://www.usaid.govP.O. Box 783 JAT Complex, Rua 1231 No. 41 JAT Complex, Rua 1231 No. 41 Elsa Mapilele Maputo, Mozambique Elsa MapileleMaputo, Mozambique Rural Enterprise Advisor +258-1 35 20 59 Rural Enterprise Advisor+258-1 35 20 59 USAID Mozambique +258-1 35 20 85 /35 21 00 USAID Mozambique+258-1 35 20 85 /35 21 00 P.O. Box 783JAT Complex, Rua 1231 No. 41 [email protected] P.O. Box 783JAT Complex, Rua 1231 No. [email protected] Maputo, Mozambique Maputo, Mozambique +258 (21) 35 20 87, (82) 310 6690 Kristjan Suuma +258 (21) 35 20 87, (82) 310 6690Kristjan Suuma +258 21 35 20 85 Portfolio Coordinator +258 21 35 20 85Portfolio Coordinator [email protected] SNV Mozambique [email protected] Mozambique +258 1 486 790, +258 1 486 792 +258 1 486 790, +258 1 486 792 Filipe Pequenino [email protected] Filipe [email protected] Food Security Coordinator Action AID Food Security Coordinator Action AID International CP 2608 Nuno Mathias International CP 2608Nuno Mathias Maputo First Secretary MaputoFirst Secretary Mozambique Portuguese Embassy MozambiquePortuguese Embassy 258 1314 342/5 Maputo, Mozambique 258 1314 342/5Maputo, Mozambique 258 1314346 +258 82 300 563, +258 1 491172 258 1314346+258 82 300 563, +258 1 491172 [email protected] [email protected] [email protected]@embpormaputo.org.mz Harumi Maruyama Reene Desjardins Harumi MaruyamaReene Desjardins Project Formulation Adviser Especialista de Agric. Project Formulation AdviserEspecialista de Agric. Japan International Cooperation Agency CIDA Japan International Cooperation AgencyCIDA P.O. Box 2650 Mozambique P.O. Box 2650Mozambique Av. 24 de Julho N° 7, 5° andar, Escritório A, B e F +258 1 499 899, +258 1 493 739 Av. 24 de Julho N° 7, 5° andar, Escritório A, B e F+258 1 499 899, +258 1 493 739 Maputo, Mozambique [email protected] Maputo, [email protected] +258 1 486 357, +258 1 486 356 +258 1 486 357, +258 1 486 356 [email protected] Suzanne M. Poland [email protected] M. Poland Food For Peace Officer Food For Peace Officer Heather Cameron US Agency for International Development Heather CameronUS Agency for International Development Counsella Development JAT II Building Rua 1231, no. 41, Bairro Central Counsella DevelopmentJAT II Building Rua 1231, no. 41, Bairro Central Canadian High Commission Maputo, Mozambique Canadian High CommissionMaputo, Mozambique Mozambique 2581 492 623 21352052, 182 304 1130, 21352085 Mozambique 2581 492 62321352052, 182 304 1130, 21352085 [email protected] [email protected] "},{"text":"Agriculture and Natural Resources Policy Analysis Network Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources Policy Analysis Network FANRPAN Todd Thomson Todd Thomson Agriculture Development Officer Agriculture Development Officer USAID USAID AT II Building Rua 1231, no. 41, Bairro Central AT II Building Rua 1231, no. 41, Bairro Central Maputo, Mozambique Maputo, Mozambique +258 1 352 054, +258 1 352 085 +258 1 352 054, +258 1 352 085 [email protected] [email protected] Aboubacar Koda Traore Aboubacar Koda Traore Programme Coordinator ICT CCSD CTA Programme Coordinator ICT CCSD CTA P.O. Box 380, 6700 P.O. Box 380, 6700 AJ Wageningen AJ Wageningen Netherlands Netherlands +31 317 467 158, +31 317 460 067 +31 317 467 158, +31 317 460 067 [email protected] [email protected] Andre Vugayabagabo Andre Vugayabagabo Special Advisor to the Director Special Advisor to the Director CTA CTA P.O. Box 380, 6700 P.O. Box 380, 6700 AJ Wageningen, Netherlands AJ Wageningen, Netherlands 00 31 317 467 158, 00 31 317 460 067 00 31 317 467 158, 00 31 317 460 067 vuga@cta. vuga@cta. "},{"text":"int Hildreth Ann John-Charles Secretary Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Co STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDERSTAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER DIRECTORY DIRECTORY2006 2006 DIRECTORY DIRECTORY2006 2006 DIRECTORY DIRECTORY2006 2006DIRECTORY DIRECTORY2006 2006 -Manager ICM Skills and Systems Dept: CTA operation ACP-EU P.O. Box 380 6700 AJ Wageningen, Netherlands +31 (317) 467155, +31 317 460067 [email protected] www.cta.int Izonebi Rodger Obubo Training Programmmes Manager CTA P.O. Box 380 AJ Wageningen Netherlands +31 317 467 146, +31 64 1746989 Thierry Doudet P.O. Box 380, 6700 AJ Wageningen, Netherlands 31 317 467 127, 31 317 460 067 [email protected] Prof Derrick Thomas Agricultural Research Manager Office for Economic Policy and Regional Development, EU (EPRD) Szkolna 36A Street, 25-604 Kielce Poland +48 41 345 32 71 -74, +48 41 315 25 87 [email protected] [email protected] Rukeramihigo Protais Project Manager German Agro Action P.O. Box 4740, Gitarama Province Kigali, Rwanda +250 5 62 895, +250 0853 23 29 +250 5 62 895 [email protected] Dioum Baba General Coordinator CMA/AOC BP 15799 Dakar, Senegal +221 869 11 90, +221 869 11 93 [email protected] Carolina Julai Grants Officer Southern Africa Trust P.O. Box 1234, Halfway House South Africa 27 (11) 313 3065, 27 (11313) 3853 [email protected] AJ Wageningen, Netherlands FUNDING PARTNERS Jacquie Dias Information Assistant European Centre for Development Policy Management Onze Lieve Vrouweplein 21 6211 HE Maastricht Netherlands 31 (43) 350 2918, 31 (43) 350 2902 [email protected] www.ecdpm.org John Komen Program Manager Program for Biosafety Systems (PBS) Duinoordstraat 69, 2023 WC Haarlem, Netherlands +31-23-5263125, +31-84-7247818 [email protected] www.ifpri.org/themes/pbs/pbs.htm Jose Filipe Fonseca Senior Programme Coordinator CTA P.O. Box 380, 6700 AJ Wageningen, Netherlands +31 317 467 158, +31 317 460 067 [email protected] Karen Hackshaw Programme Coordinator IPSD CTA P.O. Box 380, 6700 AJ Wageningen, Netherlands +31 317 467 158, +31 317 460 067 [email protected] Oumy Khaïry Ndiaye Manager CTA P.O. Box 380, 6700 Diana Watson Developement Attache: European Union P.O. Box 945, Groenkloof 0027 Pretoria, South Africa 27 12 452 5200 / 452 5244 27 12 460 9923 Mandivamba Rukuni Program Director FUNDING PARTNERS FUNDING PARTNERS FUNDING PARTNERS -Manager ICM Skills and Systems Dept: CTA operation ACP-EU P.O. Box 380 6700 AJ Wageningen, Netherlands +31 (317) 467155, +31 317 460067 [email protected] www.cta.int Izonebi Rodger Obubo Training Programmmes Manager CTA P.O. Box 380 AJ Wageningen Netherlands +31 317 467 146, +31 64 1746989 Thierry Doudet P.O. Box 380, 6700 AJ Wageningen, Netherlands 31 317 467 127, 31 317 460 067 [email protected] Prof Derrick Thomas Agricultural Research Manager Office for Economic Policy and Regional Development, EU (EPRD) Szkolna 36A Street, 25-604 Kielce Poland +48 41 345 32 71 -74, +48 41 315 25 87 [email protected] [email protected] Rukeramihigo Protais Project Manager German Agro Action P.O. Box 4740, Gitarama Province Kigali, Rwanda +250 5 62 895, +250 0853 23 29 +250 5 62 895 [email protected] Dioum Baba General Coordinator CMA/AOC BP 15799 Dakar, Senegal +221 869 11 90, +221 869 11 93 [email protected] Carolina Julai Grants Officer Southern Africa Trust P.O. Box 1234, Halfway House South Africa 27 (11) 313 3065, 27 (11313) 3853 [email protected] AJ Wageningen, Netherlands FUNDING PARTNERS Jacquie Dias Information Assistant European Centre for Development Policy Management Onze Lieve Vrouweplein 21 6211 HE Maastricht Netherlands 31 (43) 350 2918, 31 (43) 350 2902 [email protected] www.ecdpm.org John Komen Program Manager Program for Biosafety Systems (PBS) Duinoordstraat 69, 2023 WC Haarlem, Netherlands +31-23-5263125, +31-84-7247818 [email protected] www.ifpri.org/themes/pbs/pbs.htm Jose Filipe Fonseca Senior Programme Coordinator CTA P.O. Box 380, 6700 AJ Wageningen, Netherlands +31 317 467 158, +31 317 460 067 [email protected] Karen Hackshaw Programme Coordinator IPSD CTA P.O. Box 380, 6700 AJ Wageningen, Netherlands +31 317 467 158, +31 317 460 067 [email protected] Oumy Khaïry Ndiaye Manager CTA P.O. Box 380, 6700 Diana Watson Developement Attache: European Union P.O. Box 945, Groenkloof 0027 Pretoria, South Africa 27 12 452 5200 / 452 5244 27 12 460 9923 Mandivamba Rukuni Program Director FUNDING PARTNERS FUNDING PARTNERS FUNDING PARTNERS +31 317 460067 www.southernafricatrust.org WK Kellogg Foundation +31 317 460067 www.southernafricatrust.orgWK Kellogg Foundation [email protected] South Africa [email protected] Africa 27 82 448 7927, 27 12 342 3617 27 82 448 7927, 27 12 342 3617 [email protected] [email protected] "},{"text":"Agriculture and Natural Resources Policy Analysis Network Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources Policy Analysis Network FANRPAN STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDERSTAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER DIRECTORY DIRECTORY2006 2006 DIRECTORY DIRECTORY2006 2006 DIRECTORY DIRECTORY2006 2006DIRECTORY DIRECTORY2006 2006 FUNDING PARTNERS FUNDING PARTNERS FUNDING PARTNERS FUNDING PARTNERS FUNDING PARTNERS FUNDING PARTNERSFUNDING PARTNERS FUNDING PARTNERS Nick Clinch John Ingram Marija Brdarski Cherly Jackson Nick Clinch John IngramMarija Brdarski Cherly Jackson Business Development Manager GECAFS Executive Officer / COST ESSEM DC Programme Officer Regional Coordinator: USAID Business Development Manager GECAFS Executive Officer / COST ESSEM DCProgramme Officer Regional Coordinator: USAID GRM International Vice-Chair Sida-Division for Rural Development Office of Press Relations, Ronald Reagan Building GRM International Vice-ChairSida-Division for Rural Development Office of Press Relations, Ronald Reagan Building Private Bag X38 Hatfield 0028 Environmental Change Institute Sveavagen 20 105 25, Stockholm, Sweden Washington D.C. 20523-0016, USA Private Bag X38 Hatfield 0028 Environmental Change InstituteSveavagen 20 105 25, Stockholm, Sweden Washington D.C. 20523-0016, USA Pretoria, South Africa Oxford University Centre for the Environment +46-8-6985238, +46-8-6985653 202 219 0504, 202 219 0509 Pretoria, South Africa Oxford University Centre for the Environment+46-8-6985238, +46-8-6985653 202 219 0504, 202 219 0509 +27 12 362 1499, +27 72 309 4097 South Parks Road [email protected] [email protected] +27 12 362 1499, +27 72 309 4097 South Parks [email protected] [email protected] +27 12 362 1412 Oxford OX1 3QY, United Kingdom +27 12 362 1412 Oxford OX1 3QY, United Kingdom [email protected] +44 1865 285 175, +44 7771 854 870 Anthea Kerr David Nielson [email protected] +44 1865 285 175, +44 7771 854 870Anthea Kerr David Nielson +44 1865 285 534 Agricultural Advisor: DFID Senior Economist: The World Bank +44 1865 285 534Agricultural Advisor: DFID Senior Economist: The World Bank Paula Chalinder [email protected] 1 Palace Street, London SWIE SHE 1818 H Street, NW (MS J5-506) Paula Chalinder [email protected] Palace Street, London SWIE SHE 1818 H Street, NW (MS J5-506) Senior Advisor United Kingdom Washington D.C. 20433, USA Senior AdvisorUnited Kingdom Washington D.C. 20433, USA DFID Southern Africa Kerry Albright +44 20 7023 1027, +44 20 7023 0342 202 473 1001, 203 614 1406 DFID Southern Africa Kerry Albright+44 20 7023 1027, +44 20 7023 0342 202 473 1001, 203 614 1406 South Africa Convener of Facilitation and Mentoring Services [email protected] South Africa Convener of Facilitation and Mentoring [email protected] +27 12 431 2120, +27 12 342 3429 Natural Resources International +27 12 431 2120, +27 12 342 3429 Natural Resources International Park House, Bradbourne Lane, Aylesford Deborah B Campbell Park House, Bradbourne Lane, AylesfordDeborah B Campbell Kent ME20 6SN, United Kingdom President/CEO Kent ME20 6SN, United KingdomPresident/CEO +44 1732 878683, +44 1732 220497 Dbyard International, USA +44 1732 878683, +44 1732 220497Dbyard International, USA [email protected] 301 292 96 30 [email protected] 292 96 30 [email protected] [email protected] Rachel Slater Rachel Slater Senior Adviser, Growth: DFID Senior Adviser, Growth: DFID 1 Palace Street, London SWIE SHE 1 Palace Street, London SWIE SHE United Kingdom United Kingdom +44 207 0231008, +44 207 0230417r- +44 207 0231008, +44 207 0230417r- [email protected] [email protected] Victor Madzhakapita Victor Madzhakapita Programme Director Alonzo Dority Programme Director Alonzo Dority World Vision SAPO Senior Associate World Vision SAPO Senior Associate South Africa Africa Global South Africa Africa Global +27 11 375 4600, +27 11 475 0334 USA +27 11 375 4600, +27 11 475 0334 USA [email protected] 202 464 6240, 202 464 6248 [email protected] 202 464 6240, 202 464 6248 [email protected] [email protected] W Ramoshaba W Ramoshaba Program Manager Andrew Olson Program Manager Andrew Olson Rural Livelihoods, USAID South Africa Special Assistant David Howlett Rural Livelihoods, USAID South Africa Special AssistantDavid Howlett P.O. Box 43 USAID Team Leader, Growth and Livelihoods Franklin Moore P.O. Box 43 USAIDTeam Leader, Growth and Livelihoods Franklin Moore Pretoria, 0027, South Africa Office of Press Relations, Ronald Reagan Building Central Research Department Policy and Director Pretoria, 0027, South Africa Office of Press Relations, Ronald Reagan BuildingCentral Research Department Policy and Director +27 (012) 452 2000 Washington D.C. 20523-0016, USA Research Division: DFID Environment & Science Policy: USAID +27 (012) 452 2000 Washington D.C. 20523-0016, USAResearch Division: DFID Environment & Science Policy: USAID +27 (012) 452 2399 202 7125625, 202 216 3426 Abercrombie House, East Kilbride Office of Press Relations, Ronald Reagan +27 (012) 452 2399 202 7125625, 202 216 3426Abercrombie House, East Kilbride Office of Press Relations, Ronald Reagan [email protected] [email protected] Glasgow G75 8EA, United Kingdom Building, Washington D.C. 20523-0016 [email protected] [email protected] G75 8EA, United Kingdom Building, Washington D.C. 20523-0016 44 (0)1355 843373, 44 (0) 7770702289 USA 44 (0)1355 843373, 44 (0) 7770702289 USA 44 (0)1355 843539 202 712 1863 44 (0)1355 843539 202 712 1863 [email protected] [email protected] "},{"text":"Agriculture and Natural Resources Policy Analysis Network Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources Policy Analysis Network FANRPAN STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDERSTAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER DIRECTORY DIRECTORY2006 2006 DIRECTORY DIRECTORY2006 2006 DIRECTORY DIRECTORY2006 2006DIRECTORY DIRECTORY2006 2006 FUNDING PARTNERS FUNDING PARTNERS FARMER ORGANISATIONS FARMER ORGANISATIONS FUNDING PARTNERS FUNDING PARTNERS FUNDING PARTNERS FUNDING PARTNERS FARMER ORGANISATIONS FARMER ORGANISATIONSFUNDING PARTNERS FUNDING PARTNERS Jack Johnson Tijain Sallah Loretta Shaw Patrick Phipps Jack Johnson Tijain SallahLoretta Shaw Patrick Phipps President Lead Operations Officer Executive Secretary Food Aid /Food Security Coordinator President Lead Operations OfficerExecutive Secretary Food Aid /Food Security Coordinator Edenic Agriculture Foundation The World Bank, 1818 H Street USAID /USDA/University of Missouri European Commission Delegation -Harare Edenic Agriculture Foundation The World Bank, 1818 H StreetUSAID /USDA/University of Missouri European Commission Delegation -Harare P.O. Box 10914, Atlanta GA 30310, USA NW (MS J5-506), Washington D.C. 20433 Office of Press Relations P.O. Box MP620, Mount Pleasant P.O. Box 10914, Atlanta GA 30310, USA NW (MS J5-506), Washington D.C. 20433Office of Press Relations P.O. Box MP620, Mount Pleasant +1 301 423 1183 USA Ronald Reagan Building Harare +1 301 423 1183 USARonald Reagan Building Harare [email protected] [email protected] Washington, D.C. 20523-0016, USA Zimbabwe [email protected] [email protected], D.C. 20523-0016, USA Zimbabwe tvedeld@worldbank +1 202 219 0490, +1 202 219 0506 263 4 338158/64 tvedeld@worldbank+1 202 219 0490, +1 202 219 0506 263 4 338158/64 Jean Paul Chausse [email protected] 263 91 436 877 Jean Paul [email protected] 263 91 436 877 Advisor, Customs and Trade Facilitation Tom Hobgood [email protected] Advisor, Customs and Trade Facilitation Tom [email protected] The World Bank Technical Advisor, Africa Bureau: USAID Megan Sibole The World Bank Technical Advisor, Africa Bureau: USAIDMegan Sibole 1818 H Street, NW (MS J5-506) Office of Press Relations Special Assistant to the Executive Director Tom Barrett 1818 H Street, NW (MS J5-506) Office of Press RelationsSpecial Assistant to the Executive Director Tom Barrett Washington D.C. 20433, USA Ronald Reagan Building The World Bank, 1818 H Street Rural Livelihoods Adviser Washington D.C. 20433, USA Ronald Reagan BuildingThe World Bank, 1818 H Street Rural Livelihoods Adviser +1 202 473 1002, +1 204 614 1406 Washington, D.C. 20523-0016 NW (MS J5-506), Washington D.C. 20433 Dept for International Development +1 202 473 1002, +1 204 614 1406 Washington, D.C. 20523-0016NW (MS J5-506), Washington D.C. 20433 Dept for International Development [email protected] USA USA Box 1030 [email protected] USAUSA Box 1030 +1 202 712 1172, +1 202 712 1388 +1 202 458 7806, +1 202 522 1585 6th Floor, Corner House +1 202 712 1172, +1 202 712 1388+1 202 458 7806, +1 202 522 1585 6th Floor, Corner House [email protected] [email protected] Samora Machel Avenue [email protected]@worldbank.org Samora Machel Avenue Harare Harare William Akiwumi Pedro Sanchez Zimbabwe William AkiwumiPedro Sanchez Zimbabwe Project Director Director 263 4 774 719 Project DirectorDirector 263 4 774 719 USAID/AFR/SD-USDA Tropical Agriculture Columbia 263 11 869 591 USAID/AFR/SD-USDATropical Agriculture Columbia 263 11 869 591 Office of Press Relations USA 263 4 775 695 Office of Press RelationsUSA 263 4 775 695 Ronald Reagan Building +1 845 680 4452, +1 845 680 4870 [email protected] Ronald Reagan Building+1 845 680 4452, +1 845 680 4870 [email protected] Washington, D.C. 20523-0016, USA [email protected] Washington, D.C. 20523-0016, [email protected] +1 202 219 0489, +1 202 219 0508 Mary Hall +1 202 219 0489, +1 202 219 0508Mary Hall wakiwumi@afr-sd Rick Scobey Deputy Team Leader wakiwumi@afr-sdRick Scobey Deputy Team Leader Sector Manager Danish Embassy Sector Manager Danish Embassy Goran Forssen The World Bank Rue Breydel 44, 1040 Goran ForssenThe World Bank Rue Breydel 44, 1040 Program Officer-Farmers 1818 H Street NW Brussels, Belgium Program Officer-Farmers1818 H Street NW Brussels, Belgium Swedish Cooperative Center (SCC) Washington D.C. 20433, USA +32 2 282 96 79, +32 2 282 96 65 Swedish Cooperative Center (SCC)Washington D.C. 20433, USA +32 2 282 96 79, +32 2 282 96 65 Zimbabwe +1 202 458 4056, +1 202 522 1659 [email protected] Baldwi Eccabeth Shuma Zimbabwe+1 202 458 4056, +1 202 522 1659 [email protected] Baldwi Eccabeth Shuma Julie Dana 263 4 707494 / 263 4 737 492 [email protected] [email protected] Executive Director Julie Dana 263 4 707494 / 263 4 737 [email protected] [email protected] Executive Director Commodity Risk Management Group 263 4 700136 Tanzania Seed Trade Association (TASTA) Commodity Risk Management Group 263 4 700136Tanzania Seed Trade Association (TASTA) The World Bank, 1818 H Street NW [email protected] Tammy Plamer Box 15216, Arusha, Tanzania The World Bank, 1818 H Street NW [email protected] Plamer Box 15216, Arusha, Tanzania Washington, DC 20433, USA Africa Regional Coordinator +255 27 254 8054, +255 741 653320 Washington, DC 20433, USAAfrica Regional Coordinator +255 27 254 8054, +255 741 653320 +1 202-458-4988, +1 202-550-6325 1 Mabel Ndakaripa Hungwe USAID +255 27 254 8054 +1 202-458-4988, +1 202-550-6325 1 Mabel Ndakaripa HungweUSAID +255 27 254 8054 +1 202-522-5708 Manager Office of Press Relations [email protected] +1 202-522-5708 ManagerOffice of Press Relations [email protected] [email protected] WKKF Program in Zimbabwe Ronald Reagan Building [email protected] WKKF Program in ZimbabweRonald Reagan Building 42 Mt Pleasant Drive, Mt Pleasant Washington, D.C. 20523-0016, USA Canute Hyandye 42 Mt Pleasant Drive, Mt PleasantWashington, D.C. 20523-0016, USA Canute Hyandye Julie Howard Harare, Zimbabwe +1 254 734 600776, +1 646 792 4314 Environmental Officer for Executive Director Julie Howard Harare, Zimbabwe+1 254 734 600776, +1 646 792 4314 Environmental Officer for Executive Director Executive Director 263 4 745269 [email protected] Tanzania Farmers Association Network MVIWATA Executive Director 263 4 [email protected] Tanzania Farmers Association Network MVIWATA Partner to Cut Hunger & Poverty in Africa 263 0 91262443 Tanzania Partner to Cut Hunger & Poverty in Africa 263 0 91262443Tanzania Washington D.C. USA 263 4 745261 +255 22 2775592, +255 22 2701407 Washington D.C. USA 263 4 745261+255 22 2775592, +255 22 2701407 +1 202 479 4501, +1 202 488 0590 [email protected] [email protected] +1 202 479 4501, +1 202 488 0590 [email protected]@cats-net.com [email protected] [email protected] 20 20 20 20 "},{"text":"Agriculture and Natural Resources Policy Analysis Network Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources Policy Analysis Network STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER DIRECTORY DIRECTORY2006 2006 STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER DIRECTORY DIRECTORY2006 2006 STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER DIRECTORY DIRECTORY2006 2006 STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER DIRECTORY DIRECTORY2006 2006 STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER DIRECTORY DIRECTORY2006 2006 STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER DIRECTORY DIRECTORY2006 2006 FANRPAN STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER DIRECTORY DIRECTORY2006 2006 STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER DIRECTORY DIRECTORY2006 2006 STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER DIRECTORY DIRECTORY2006 2006 STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER DIRECTORY DIRECTORY2006 2006 STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER DIRECTORY DIRECTORY2006 2006 STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER DIRECTORY DIRECTORY2006 2006 STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER DIRECTORY DIRECTORY2006 2006 STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER DIRECTORY DIRECTORY2006 2006 STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER DIRECTORY DIRECTORY2006 2006 FANRPANSTAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER DIRECTORY DIRECTORY2006 2006 STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER DIRECTORY DIRECTORY2006 2006 STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER DIRECTORY DIRECTORY2006 2006 GOVERNMENT GOVERNMENT NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS GOVERNMENT GOVERNMENT GOVERNMENT GOVERNMENT LEARNING INSTITUTIONS LEARNING INSTITUTIONS LEARNING INSTITUTIONS LEARNING INSTITUTIONS NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS PRIVATE SECTOR PRIVATE SECTOR GOVERNMENT GOVERNMENT NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS GOVERNMENT GOVERNMENT GOVERNMENT GOVERNMENT LEARNING INSTITUTIONS LEARNING INSTITUTIONS LEARNING INSTITUTIONS LEARNING INSTITUTIONS NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS PRIVATE SECTOR PRIVATE SECTOR Paul Jessen Titi Pitso Bella Mpofu Danuioua Adanou Sara Mbago-Bhunu A Shawa Paul Jessen Titi Pitso Bella MpofuDanuioua Adanou Sara Mbago-Bhunu A Shawa Director -Research & Training Manager: African Conflicts in Southern Africa Seed Specialist Director Economic Advisor MP, P.O. Box 29, Chikangawa Director -Research & Training Manager: African Conflicts in Southern Africa Seed SpecialistDirector Economic Advisor MP, P.O. Box 29, Chikangawa Ministry of Agric. Water and Rural Programme Markville Investments Ministry of Agriculture Dev. SNV Malawi Ministry of Agric. Water and Rural Programme Markville InvestmentsMinistry of Agriculture Dev. SNV Malawi Development The African Centre for the Constructive Resolution Suite 360, Plot Number 21513 Nigeria Plot 693 Lunzuwa Road Central Town 8351849 Development The African Centre for the Constructive Resolution Suite 360, Plot Number 21513Nigeria Plot 693 Lunzuwa Road Central Town 8351849 P.O. Box 86322, Eros Park, Windhoek Private Bag X018 Private Bag 254 +227 73 36 34, +227 732008 P.O. Box 410576 Amshawa2001yahoo.com P.O. Box 86322, Eros Park, Windhoek Private Bag X018 Private Bag 254+227 73 36 34, +227 732008 P.O. Box 410576 Amshawa2001yahoo.com Namibia Umhlanga Rocks 4320, South Africa Gaborone [email protected] Kasama, Zambia Namibia Umhlanga Rocks 4320, South Africa [email protected] Kasama, Zambia +264 61 2087658, +264 61 2087767 +27 31 502 3908, +27 31 502 4160 Botswana +260 04 222988, +260 04 222986 Abraham Simama +264 61 2087658, +264 61 2087767 +27 31 502 3908, +27 31 502 4160 Botswana+260 04 222988, +260 04 222986 Abraham Simama [email protected] [email protected] +267 3911907, +267 3911830 Moh Magaji [email protected] Managing Director [email protected] [email protected] +267 3911907, +267 3911830Moh Magaji [email protected] Managing Director [email protected] Director [email protected] Simama General Dealers Ltd [email protected] [email protected] Simama General Dealers Ltd Vitjitua Kangueeni Wendel Parham Fed. Min of Agric. P.O. Box X42, Crossroads Vitjitua Kangueeni Wendel ParhamFed. Min of Agric. P.O. Box X42, Crossroads Chief Consultant Information Resource Manager Christof Batzlen Nigeria Absolom Masendeke Malawi Chief Consultant Information Resource Manager Christof BatzlenNigeria Absolom Masendeke Malawi Ministry of Finance CARDI Consultant +234 8033058905, +23409 3144140 Programme Team Leader 01770621/08829089, 1773730 Ministry of Finance CARDI Consultant+234 8033058905, +23409 3144140 Programme Team Leader 01770621/08829089, 1773730 Namibia P.O. Box 212, UWI Campus GFA Consulting Group [email protected] Intermediate Technology Development Group [email protected] Namibia P.O. Box 212, UWI Campus GFA Consulting [email protected] Intermediate Technology Development Group [email protected] +264 81 251 2976, +264 6122 1436 St Augustine, Trinidad & Tobago Eulenkrugstr, 82, 22359, Hamburg Zimbabwe +264 81 251 2976, +264 6122 1436 St Augustine, Trinidad & Tobago Eulenkrugstr, 82, 22359, HamburgZimbabwe [email protected] +1 868 645 1208 Germany O. Onabanjo +263 1140 9644, +263 4 788157 Anastazia Chimbindu [email protected] +1 868 645 1208 GermanyO. Onabanjo +263 1140 9644, +263 4 788157 Anastazia Chimbindu [email protected] 60306105 Deputy Director Federal Ministry of Agric & Rural [email protected] Project Officer [email protected] 60306105Deputy Director Federal Ministry of Agric & Rural [email protected] Project Officer Agoro Olayiwola [email protected] Nigeria Nelson Trust Agoro Olayiwola [email protected] Nelson Trust Senior Scientific Officer Howard Elliot +235 9 314 1458, +236 9 314 28 Enerst Mupunga P.O. Box 31 Senior Scientific Officer Howard Elliot+235 9 314 1458, +236 9 314 28 Enerst Mupunga P.O. Box 31 Department of Agricultural and Natural Sciences, Senior Technical Advisor Saurabh Mehra [email protected] Regional Director Thyolo, Malawi Department of Agricultural and Natural Sciences, Senior Technical Advisor Saurabh [email protected] Regional Director Thyolo, Malawi Federal Ministry of Science and Technology ASARECA Managing Director Practical Action Southern Africa 9100520 Federal Ministry of Science and Technology ASARECA Managing DirectorPractical Action Southern Africa 9100520 Federal Secretariat Complex P.O. Box 765, Entebbe, Uganda Olam Ghana Ltd Daphrose Gahakwa Number 4 Ludlow Road, Newlands [email protected] Federal Secretariat Complex P.O. Box 765, Entebbe, Uganda Olam Ghana LtdDaphrose Gahakwa Number 4 Ludlow Road, Newlands [email protected] P.M. B331, Abuja +256 41 322 594, +256 78 312 649 Ghana Minister of State Box 1744, Harare P.M. B331, Abuja +256 41 322 594, +256 78 312 649 GhanaMinister of State Box 1744, Harare Nigeria +256 41 321 126 +233 21 255266, +233 21 227089 Ministry of Agric. And Animal Resource Zimbabwe Augustine Phiri Nigeria +256 41 321 126 +233 21 255266, +233 21 227089Ministry of Agric. And Animal Resource Zimbabwe Augustine Phiri +234-803-452-6695 [email protected] [email protected] Rwanda +263 4 776631-3, 776107, +263 4 788157 Chairperson National Cassava Association +234-803-452-6695 [email protected] [email protected] +263 4 776631-3, 776107, +263 4 788157 Chairperson National Cassava Association [email protected] 250 85053, 250 585057 [email protected] P.O. Box 40563, Lilongwe 4 [email protected] 85053, 250 585057 [email protected] P.O. Box 40563, Lilongwe 4 www.fmst.gov.ng Isaac Joseph Minde Moses Onim [email protected] Malawi www.fmst.gov.ng Isaac Joseph Minde Moses [email protected] Malawi Programme Coordinator Managing Director [email protected] Jonah Muchabaiwa 09280903/08858144 Programme Coordinator Managing [email protected] Jonah Muchabaiwa 09280903/08858144 Alexander Emiko Gbiwen ASARECA-ECAPAPA Lagrotech Seed Company Executive Director Alexander Emiko Gbiwen ASARECA-ECAPAPA Lagrotech Seed CompanyExecutive Director Assistant Director P.O. Box 765, Entebbe, Uganda Kenya Ernest Ruzindaza National Association of Non-Governmental Austin Mpira Assistant Director P.O. Box 765, Entebbe, Uganda KenyaErnest Ruzindaza National Association of Non-Governmental Austin Mpira Ministry of Agriculture & Rural Development +256 41 321780 / 321751/2 +254 57 202 4182, +254 57 202 4182 Diirector of Planning Organisation Photo-Journalist: Freelance Consultant Ministry of Agriculture & Rural Development +256 41 321780 / 321751/2 +254 57 202 4182, +254 57 202 4182Diirector of Planning Organisation Photo-Journalist: Freelance Consultant Nigeria +256 71 567202, +256 41 321777 [email protected] Ministry of Agric. & Animal Resources Box CY Causeway P.O. Box 1688 Nigeria +256 71 567202, +256 41 321777 [email protected] of Agric. & Animal Resources Box CY Causeway P.O. Box 1688 +234 9 314 1458, +235 9 314 2728 [email protected] Rwanda Harare, Zimbabwe Lilongwe +234 9 314 1458, +235 9 314 2728 [email protected] Harare, Zimbabwe Lilongwe [email protected] Peter Wancoube 250 85053, 250 585057 +263 4 708761 / 732612, +263 4 794973 Malawi [email protected] Peter Wancoube250 85053, 250 585057 +263 4 708761 / 732612, +263 4 794973 Malawi Seyfu Kettema Managing Director [email protected] [email protected] 9455364 Seyfu Kettema Managing [email protected] [email protected] 9455364 D. Adebiy Executive Secretary Services Vegetable Seeds, East Africa D. Adebiy Executive Secretary Services Vegetable Seeds, East Africa Personal Ass. To Hon. ASARECA Kenya Diene Ndiobo Rumbidzai Chitombi Personal Ass. To Hon. ASARECA KenyaDiene Ndiobo Rumbidzai Chitombi Minister of State P.O. Box 765, Entebbe +254 20 533 477, +254 20 533 905 Director Programme Officer Minister of State P.O. Box 765, Entebbe +254 20 533 477, +254 20 533 905Director Programme Officer Nigeria Uganda [email protected] Ministry of Agriculture Food Security Network Trust (FOSENET) Nigeria Uganda [email protected] of Agriculture Food Security Network Trust (FOSENET) +235 9 314 1931, +234 9 314 2728 +256 41 320212 Senegal 182 Samora Machel Avenue/Eighth Street +235 9 314 1931, +234 9 314 2728 +256 41 320212Senegal 182 Samora Machel Avenue/Eighth Street [email protected] +221 64 64 68, +221 864 64 85 P.O. Box GD 236, Greendale [email protected]+221 64 64 68, +221 864 64 85 P.O. Box GD 236, Greendale [email protected] Harare, Zimbabwe [email protected] Harare, Zimbabwe +263-4 722 427, +263 -4 722425 +263-4 722 427, +263 -4 722425 [email protected] [email protected] 47 47 47 47 "},{"text":"Agriculture and Natural Resources Policy Analysis Network Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources Policy Analysis Network FANRPAN STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDERSTAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER DIRECTORY DIRECTORY2006 2006 DIRECTORY DIRECTORY2006 2006 DIRECTORY DIRECTORY2006 2006 DIRECTORY DIRECTORY2006 2006 DIRECTORY DIRECTORY2006 2006DIRECTORY DIRECTORY2006 2006 PRIVATE SECTOR PRIVATE SECTOR PRIVATE SECTOR PRIVATE SECTOR PRIVATE SECTOR PRIVATE SECTOR PRIVATE SECTOR PRIVATE SECTOR PRIVATE SECTOR PRIVATE SECTOR PRIVATE SECTOR PRIVATE SECTOR PRIVATE SECTOR PRIVATE SECTORPRIVATE SECTOR PRIVATE SECTOR Barney Kamvazina Bankies Malan Dr Manjul Anand Christa Joubert Barney Kamvazina Bankies MalanDr Manjul Anand Christa Joubert Marketing Manager Manager: Agribusiness Input Manager Director Marketing Manager Manager: AgribusinessInput Manager Director Farmers Organisation Ltd 10th Floor Absa Towers, 160 Main Street Export Trading Co. Ltd Majesco Insurance Brokers CC Farmers Organisation Ltd 10th Floor Absa Towers, 160 Main StreetExport Trading Co. Ltd Majesco Insurance Brokers CC P.O. Box 1916, Blantyre, Malawi P.O. Box 7735, Johannesburg 2000 P.O. Box 51722, Limbe, Malawi Prospectstreet 1274, Hatfield P.O. Box 1916, Blantyre, Malawi P.O. Box 7735, Johannesburg 2000P.O. Box 51722, Limbe, Malawi Prospectstreet 1274, Hatfield 01873088/08514818, 1873452 South Africa 01756527/08205764, 1756525 Pretoria, South Africa 01873088/08514818, 1873452 South Africa01756527/08205764, 1756525 Pretoria, South Africa [email protected] +27 11 350-6197, +27 11 350-5494 [email protected] +27-012 -3626671, +27-086 504 5192 [email protected] +27 11 350-6197, +27 11 [email protected] +27-012 -3626671, +27-086 504 5192 [email protected] [email protected] Brown J.L. Mwale Absa.co.za Dr. Evans Chipala Dawid Snyman Brown J.L. Mwale Absa.co.zaDr. Evans Chipala Dawid Snyman Secretary General Chief Execuitve: Auction Holdings Ltd Agri Specialist Secretary GeneralChief Execuitve: Auction Holdings Ltd Agri Specialist Malawi Mild Producers Association Ben Holtzhausen P.O. Box 40035, Kanengo, Lilongwe 4 Agribusiness Malawi Mild Producers Association Ben HoltzhausenP.O. Box 40035, Kanengo, Lilongwe 4 Agribusiness P.O. Box 376, Lilongwe, Malawi Director Malawi Absa Building, Cnr Kruger and Human Street P.O. Box 376, Lilongwe, Malawi DirectorMalawi Absa Building, Cnr Kruger and Human Street 01766657/8553508, 1766567 Holtzhausen Financial Services 01710377/09727205, 1710964 Krugersdorp, South Africa 01766657/8553508, 1766567 Holtzhausen Financial Services01710377/09727205, 1710964 Krugersdorp, South Africa P.O. Box 2365, Wingate Park 0153 [email protected] +27 11 951 3613, +27 82 491 2150 P.O. Box 2365, Wingate Park [email protected] +27 11 951 3613, +27 82 491 2150 Bryson Nkasala South Africa [email protected] Bryson Nkasala South [email protected] Journalist +27 12 345 4071, +27 82 788 9113 E.R.D. Matabwa Journalist +27 12 345 4071, +27 82 788 9113E.R.D. Matabwa The Despatch Newspaper +27 12 345 4093 Operations Executive Dirk Esterhuizen The Despatch Newspaper +27 12 345 4093Operations Executive Dirk Esterhuizen Private Bag 181, Lilongwe [email protected] Auction Holdings Ltd Agric. Economist Private Bag 181, Lilongwe [email protected] Holdings Ltd Agric. Economist Malawi P.O. Box 40035, Kanengo Lilongwe 4 Agricultural Business Chamber MalawiP.O. Box 40035, Kanengo Lilongwe 4 Agricultural Business Chamber 01751639/09638119, 1751638 Bev Shafto Malawi C/O Schoeman & Adries Street 01751639/09638119, 1751638 Bev ShaftoMalawi C/O Schoeman & Adries Street [email protected] Auditors And Accountants -AMG Global 01710012/ 0881983, 1712094 Pretoria, South Africa [email protected] Auditors And Accountants -AMG Global01710012/ 0881983, 1712094 Pretoria, South Africa Postnet Suite 301 [email protected] +27 12 322 7181, +27 72 5688 575 Postnet Suite [email protected] +27 12 322 7181, +27 72 5688 575 Daniel Manyowa Private Bag X 29 2052 +27 12 320 0787 Daniel Manyowa Private Bag X 29 2052+27 12 320 0787 Progrmme Manager Gallo Manor Emily Banda [email protected] Progrmme Manager Gallo ManorEmily Banda [email protected] Youth in Sustainable Agriculture South Africa Program Manager Youth in Sustainable Agriculture South AfricaProgram Manager C/O Box 2518 +27 11 656-6021, +27 11 656 6019 Participatory Rural Development Organization Fjay C/O Box 2518 +27 11 656-6021, +27 11 656 6019Participatory Rural Development Organization Fjay Blantyre, Malawi [email protected] (PROs) Sure Travel Samber Blantyre, Malawi [email protected](PROs) Sure Travel Samber 01673136/09626061, 1670150 [email protected] P.O. Box 268, Mponela, Malawi Equity Park, Block A, 257 Brooklyn Road 01673136/09626061, 1670150 [email protected]. Box 268, Mponela, Malawi Equity Park, Block A, 257 Brooklyn Road [email protected] 08577441/01286355, 1286355/411 Private Bag X19, Menlo Park [email protected]/01286355, 1286355/411 Private Bag X19, Menlo Park Bully Botma [email protected] Pretoria, South Africa Bully [email protected] Pretoria, South Africa Don Kaluwa Deputy President +27 12 -362 4242, +27 086 687 3762 Don Kaluwa Deputy President+27 12 -362 4242, +27 086 687 3762 Account Relationship Manager Agric. South Africa Felix Jumbe [email protected] Account Relationship Manager Agric. South AfricaFelix Jumbe [email protected] National Bank South Africa STAM National Bank South AfricaSTAM P.O. Box 123, Lilongwe +27 82 826 6607, +27 56 515 3488 C/O Private Bag 30650, Lilongwe 3 Francois Smit P.O. Box 123, Lilongwe +27 82 826 6607, +27 56 515 3488C/O Private Bag 30650, Lilongwe 3 Francois Smit Malawi [email protected] Malawi Agri Specialist: Agribusiness Malawi [email protected] Agri Specialist: Agribusiness 01753080/8846080, 1752940 01925351/09911556, 1726920 24th Floor, Volkskas Building 01753080/8846080, 175294001925351/09911556, 1726920 24th Floor, Volkskas Building [email protected] Charles D. January [email protected] Cnr Pretorius & Van Der Walt Street [email protected] Charles D. [email protected] Cnr Pretorius & Van Der Walt Street Marketing and Comm. Director Pretoria, South Africa Marketing and Comm. DirectorPretoria, South Africa Douglas D. Mandala Intshona Fertilizer (Pvt) Ltd +27 12 310 7068, +27 82 370 0499 Douglas D. Mandala Intshona Fertilizer (Pvt) Ltd+27 12 310 7068, +27 82 370 0499 Marketing Manager 43 Ross Str, Potch Industria, Potchefstroom +27 12 320 7358 Marketing Manager 43 Ross Str, Potch Industria, Potchefstroom+27 12 320 7358 Rab Processor Ltd P.O. Box 19707 [email protected] Rab Processor Ltd P.O. Box [email protected] P.O. Box 30806, Lilongwe 3, Malawi Noordbrug 2522, South Africa P.O. Box 30806, Lilongwe 3, Malawi Noordbrug 2522, South Africa 01710006/08839087, 1710405 +27 21 84 823 7035, +27 21 809 2187 01710006/08839087, 1710405 +27 21 84 823 7035, +27 21 809 2187 [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] "},{"text":"Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources Policy Analysis Network Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources Policy Analysis Network FANRPAN STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER DIRECTORY DIRECTORY2006 2006 FANRPANSTAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER DIRECTORY DIRECTORY2006 2006 REGIONAL INSTITUTIONS REGIONAL INSTITUTIONS REGIONAL INSTITUTIONS REGIONAL INSTITUTIONS Albert Muchanga Kennedy Masamvu Albert MuchangaKennedy Masamvu Deputy Executive Secretary Director: SADC Regional Remote Sensing Unit Deputy Executive SecretaryDirector: SADC Regional Remote Sensing Unit Southern African Development Community Private Bag 0095 Southern African Development CommunityPrivate Bag 0095 Private Bag 0095, Gaborone Gaborone, Botswana Private Bag 0095, GaboroneGaborone, Botswana Botswana +267 3951863, +267 3972848 Botswana+267 3951863, +267 3972848 +267 395 1863, +267 397 2848 /3181070 [email protected] +267 395 1863, +267 397 2848 /[email protected] [email protected] [email protected] Keoagile Molapong Keoagile Molapong Angelo Mondlane Agricultural Research Expert: SADC Secretariat Angelo MondlaneAgricultural Research Expert: SADC Secretariat Principal Economist SADC House Private Bag 0095, Gaborone Principal EconomistSADC House Private Bag 0095, Gaborone SADC Secretariat Botswana SADC SecretariatBotswana SADC House Private Bag 0095 +267 3951863, +267 3972848 SADC House Private Bag 0095+267 3951863, +267 3972848 Gaborone, Botswana [email protected] Gaborone, [email protected] +267 395 1863 +267 395 1863 [email protected] Margaret Nyirenda [email protected] Nyirenda Director, FANR SADC Director, FANR SADC Bentry Chaura Private Bag 0095, Gaborone Bentry ChauraPrivate Bag 0095, Gaborone Senior Economist: FANR/SADC Secretariat Botswana Senior Economist: FANR/SADC SecretariatBotswana SADC House, Private Bag 0095 +267 395 1863, +267 397 2848 SADC House, Private Bag 0095+267 395 1863, +267 397 2848 Gaborone, Botswana [email protected] Gaborone, [email protected] +267 39 51 863 +267 39 51 863 [email protected] Phera Ramoeli [email protected] Ramoeli Head-Water Division Head-Water Division Happias Kuzvinzwa SADC Secretariat Happias KuzvinzwaSADC Secretariat Advisor, Customs and Trade Facilitation: SADC SADC House Private Bag 0095 Advisor, Customs and Trade Facilitation: SADCSADC House Private Bag 0095 Private Bag 0095, Gaborone, Botswana Gaborone, Botswana Private Bag 0095, Gaborone, BotswanaGaborone, Botswana +267 395 1863, +267 715 10081 +267 395 1863, +267 397 1848 +267 395 1863, +267 715 10081+267 395 1863, +267 397 1848 +267 397 2848 /3181070 [email protected] +267 397 2848 /[email protected] [email protected] [email protected] Prega Ramsamy Prega Ramsamy Innocent Modisaotsile Deputy Executive Secretary Innocent ModisaotsileDeputy Executive Secretary SADC/EU HIV Project Manager: SADC SADC SADC/EU HIV Project Manager: SADCSADC Private Bag 0095, Gaborone, Botswana Private Bag 0095 Private Bag 0095, Gaborone, BotswanaPrivate Bag 0095 +267 395 1863 / 3611869 Gaborone, Botswana +267 395 1863 / 3611869Gaborone, Botswana +267 71723204, +267 3972848/ 3181070 +267 395 1863, +267 3972848 +267 71723204, +267 3972848/ 3181070+267 395 1863, +267 3972848 [email protected] [email protected] [email protected]@sadc.int Jabulani Mthethwa Remmy Makumbe Jabulani MthethwaRemmy Makumbe Senior Trade Expert Director, Infrastructure and Services: SADC Senior Trade ExpertDirector, Infrastructure and Services: SADC SADC Secretariat Private Bag 0095, Gaborone SADC SecretariatPrivate Bag 0095, Gaborone SADC House Botswana SADC HouseBotswana Private Bag 0095, Gaborone, Botswana +267 395 1863, +267 71444655 Private Bag 0095, Gaborone, Botswana+267 395 1863, +267 71444655 +267 395 1863, +267 397 2848 +267 397 2848 /3181070 +267 395 1863, +267 397 2848+267 397 2848 /3181070 [email protected] [email protected] [email protected]@sadc.int 55 55 55 55 "},{"text":"Agriculture and Natural Resources Policy Analysis Network Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources Policy Analysis Network FANRPAN STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER DIRECTORY DIRECTORY2006 2006 DIRECTORY DIRECTORY2006 2006 DIRECTORY DIRECTORY2006 2006 DIRECTORY DIRECTORY2006 2006 DIRECTORY DIRECTORY2006 2006 DIRECTORY DIRECTORY2006 2006 DIRECTORY DIRECTORY2006 2006 DIRECTORY DIRECTORY2006 2006 REGIONAL INSTITUTIONS REGIONAL INSTITUTIONS REGIONAL INSTITUTIONS REGIONAL INSTITUTIONS RESEARCH INSTITUTIONS RESEARCH INSTITUTIONS RESEARCH INSTITUTIONS RESEARCH INSTITUTIONS REGIONAL INSTITUTIONS REGIONAL INSTITUTIONS REGIONAL INSTITUTIONS REGIONAL INSTITUTIONS RESEARCH INSTITUTIONS RESEARCH INSTITUTIONS RESEARCH INSTITUTIONS RESEARCH INSTITUTIONS Stefan T. M. De Keyser Michele McNabb Stefan T. M. De KeyserMichele McNabb Technical Advisor Coordinator: FEWSNET Technical AdvisorCoordinator: FEWSNET SADC P.O. Box 4739 SADCP.O. Box 4739 Private Bag 0095, Gaborone Maputo Private Bag 0095, GaboroneMaputo Botswana Mozambique BotswanaMozambique +267 36 11 832, +267 39 72 848 +258 1 461872, +258 82 311410 +267 36 11 832, +267 39 72 848+258 1 461872, +258 82 311410 [email protected] +258 1 460588 [email protected]+258 1 460588 [email protected] [email protected] Ibrahim Hassan Ibrahim Hassan Ambassador NEPAD Steering Committee Blein Roger Ambassador NEPAD Steering CommitteeBlein Roger Egypt Consultant, Agriculture EgyptConsultant, Agriculture 0202 5749539 / 020 122714272 ECOWAS 0202 5749539 / 020 122714272ECOWAS 0202 5747 406 Secretariat Building, 60 Yakubu Gowon Crescent 0202 5747 406Secretariat Building, 60 Yakubu Gowon Crescent [email protected] Asokoro [email protected] Abuja Abuja Brave Rona Ndisale Nigeria Brave Rona NdisaleNigeria Head of Division, Rural Economy +234 33134700457 Head of Division, Rural Economy+234 33134700457 African Union Commission [email protected] African Union [email protected] P.O. Box 200130 P.O. Box 200130 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Christian Taupiac Addis Ababa, EthiopiaChristian Taupiac 251-1 51 77 00 ext 238 / 51 12 03 ES Advisor: ECOWAS 251-1 51 77 00 ext 238 / 51 12 03ES Advisor: ECOWAS 251-1 51 60 62 Secretariat Building, 60 Yakubu Gowon Crescent 251-1 51 60 62Secretariat Building, 60 Yakubu Gowon Crescent [email protected] Asokoro [email protected] Abuja Abuja Evance Chapasuka Nigeria Evance ChapasukaNigeria Deputy Representative: FEWSNET +234 9 314 7647-9, +234 9 314 7646/3005 Deputy Representative: FEWSNET+234 9 314 7647-9, +234 9 314 7646/3005 P.O. Box 30455 [email protected] P.O. Box [email protected] Lilongwe 3, Malawi Lilongwe 3, Malawi 01754892/09937296, 1754892 Daniel Eklu 01754892/09937296, 1754892Daniel Eklu [email protected] Director, Dept. of Agriculture [email protected], Dept. of Agriculture ECOWAS ECOWAS Martin Bwalya Secretariat Building, 60 Yakubu Gowon Crescent Martin BwalyaSecretariat Building, 60 Yakubu Gowon Crescent NEPAD, Malawi Asokoro NEPAD, MalawiAsokoro [email protected] Abuja [email protected] Nigeria Nigeria Assetou Kanoute +234 9 314 7647-9, +234 9 314 7646/3005 Assetou Kanoute+234 9 314 7647-9, +234 9 314 7646/3005 Acting Coordinator [email protected] Acting [email protected] ROCARPA/WECANPAR ROCARPA/WECANPAR Mali Mali 223 222 0033 223 222 0033 [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] 56 56 56 56 "}],"sieverID":"7a05b32c-f1a7-43f8-a23d-ac85a587f3a8","abstract":"FANRPAN's mission is to co-ordinate, influence and facilitate policy research, analysis and dialogue at the national, regional and global levels in order to develop the Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources sector through networking, capacity building and generation of information for the benefit of all stakeholders in the SADC region.The FANRPAN objectives are to:"}

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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0468f9943b937f8fb87627d205accb7a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0238ece6-9113-41a3-b41f-5fb55d73c8d7/retrieve"},"pageCount":105,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"Las preguntas especificas cuestionadas al momento de planear el establecimiento de las parcelas de preproducción, darán origen a respuestas especificas. Las respuestas especificas se mediran en terminos de \"registros\" que pueden tener validez o pueden ser inservibles, si no se definen normas de manejo que permitan confiar en la información."}]},{"head":"NORMAS DE MANEJO","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"En termino s generales, se podrían establecer tres normas de manejo:"},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"7.1 Relevancia Se deben descartar preguntas que no sirvan para identificar en fo~ precisa, la clase de registros que se requiere colectar."}]},{"head":"Confiabilldad","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Se debe tener seguridad en la evaluación de los instrumentos empleados en la toma de registros, hojas de campo."}]},{"head":"Validez","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Los instrumentos empleados deben ser factibles de ser usados en los sistemas de medición de los registros."}]},{"head":"REGISTROS","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Es la clase de información que se requiere tomar en función del tiempo a través del proceso. Los registros se aplican: a. En un tiempo definido. Encuestas. b."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"En diferentes períodos de tiempo. Seguimiento."}]},{"head":"CLASE DE REGISTROS","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"En la toma de información a nivel de unidad muestral, se pueden relacionar registros de diferente \"clase\" . El tratamiento que se da a cada \"clase\" de registros, debe ser diferencial por parte del entrevistador."}]},{"head":"Datos","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Son registros concretos para variables con unidades de medida."}]},{"head":"Opiniones","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Son registros que se originan de criterios mentales."}]},{"head":"Preferencias","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Son registro que indican prioridades. 9.4 Conocimiento Son registros que indican caracterización de los problemas."}]},{"head":"FORMA DE REGISTROS","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"A las preguntas especificas puede corresponder respuestas con dos formas de registros: 10.1 Definidas Preguntas para responder con detalles."}]},{"head":"Indefinidas","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Preguntas con respuestas\"de tipo general. Normalmente son de caracter."}]},{"head":"RECOLECCION DE REGISTROS","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"El proceso de recolección de registros debe guiarse con los siguientes criterios:"}]},{"head":"Manejo","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Es la secuencia de pasos que se deben seguir para tomar información a nivel de unidad muestral."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"Seleccionar el temario Describir el temario Definir las variables 11.2 Identidad Se debe conservar uniformidad en los registros en el mismo temario y entre diferentes temarios."}]},{"head":"Normalidad","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Que se pueda homologar, comparar registros en el mismo temario o en diferentes temarios."},{"index":2,"size":2,"text":"-20 -"}]},{"head":"congruencia","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Que existe correspondencia y similitud entre indicadores en el mismo temario y entre diferentes temarios."}]},{"head":"Precisión","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Que exista correspondencia entre el registro tomado y el fenómeno observado."}]},{"head":"Estabilidad","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Que exista correspondencia entre el registro y el fenómeno observado a través del tiempo."}]},{"head":"CODIFICACION DE REGISTROS","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"En la toma de datos a nivel de finca se cumple un proceso donde se aplican los siguientes procedimientos:"}]},{"head":"Codificación","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Es el proceso de transcribir los registros de la unidad muestral a una hoja de codificación."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"12.2 Hoja de codificación Es un formato diseñado para guardar los registros transcritos."}]},{"head":"Hoja de campo","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Es una hoja de codificación, diseñada como un cuestionario."}]},{"head":"DEFINICION DE TEMARIOS Y ARCHIVOS","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Cada temario se codifica en una \"hoja de campo\"."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"Cuando se lleva a una \"base de datos\", una hoja de campo se denomina \"un archivo\". Cada temario está definido en base a preguntas de \"identificacion\" y preguntas \"descriptivas\"."},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"En la hoja de campo corresponden a variables de identificación y variables descriptivas."},{"index":4,"size":22,"text":"En la base de datos, las variables se definen como \"campos\" donde se guardan registros de identificación y registros descriptivos del temario."}]},{"head":"BASE DE DATOS","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Una base de datos puede estar compuesta de uno o varios archivos."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"-21 -Un archivo de base de datos lo integran dos componentes: l."},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"La distribución de entrada de los registros."}]},{"head":"2.","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"El tipo de registros 14.1 Distribución Se refiere a la organización de los registros dentro del archivo."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"Trabajando como un modelo organiza los registros como filas y columnas. relacional, la base de datos una tabla de dos dimensiones:"},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"Una fila es una \"entrada de registros\" de una entrada simple."},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"Una columna es un \"campo de registros\". almacenamiento para guardar un elemento simples de una entrada."}]},{"head":"El tipo","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Es una unidad de de los registros Se refiere al ordinal del registro. caracter, fecha, logistico, memorando."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"Puede ser númerico, 15. DEFINJ:CION DE ARCHIVO Un archivo se define con los siguientes componentes:"},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"15.1 Ndmero (field) Número del campo."},{"index":4,"size":4,"text":"15.2 Nombre (field name)"},{"index":5,"size":5,"text":"Nombre abreviados de los campos."},{"index":6,"size":3,"text":"15.3 Tipo (type)"},{"index":7,"size":3,"text":"Ordinal del campo."},{"index":8,"size":35,"text":"15.4 Amplitud (width) Número de caracteres. 16. MANEJO DE ARCHIVOS Trabajando con parcelas de preproducción, cada uno de los objetivos especificos ha sido definido como un \"temario\". Cada temario ha sido definido como un \"archivo\"."},{"index":9,"size":29,"text":"Lo que se tiene actualmente es un grupo de siete temarios o archivos, con registros sobre el ambiente de la finca y los sistemas de producción (Diagrama No. 3)."},{"index":10,"size":27,"text":"Estos archivos se pueden manejar en forma independiente, uno por uno, a nivel de computador personal o en forma global, todos juntos, a nivel de computador central."},{"index":11,"size":17,"text":"El manejo global de los archivos se ejecuta a través de variables comunes o variables de identificación."},{"index":12,"size":16,"text":"Todos los archivos presentan un grupo de variables de identificación, las cuales se han definido como: "}]},{"head":"2.","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"3."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"-4."},{"index":3,"size":3,"text":"1 Sistemas 5."},{"index":4,"size":1,"text":"6."},{"index":5,"size":1,"text":"-,"},{"index":6,"size":38,"text":". Aplicando los criterios conceptualizados en la sección correspondiente a la toma de información a nivel de finca, para orgaizar registros en una base de datos, la información debe cumplir con las normas de relevancia, confiabilidad y validez."},{"index":7,"size":22,"text":"El manejo de las variables involucradas en cada uno de los temarios del proyecto \"parcelas de preproducción\" se evalúa aplicando estos criterios."}]},{"head":"CLASE DE REGISTROS 17.1 Datos","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Son preguntas de forma definida."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"En todos los temarios se tiene datos concretos y definidos. a."},{"index":3,"size":4,"text":"De tipo númerico b."},{"index":4,"size":4,"text":"De tipo carácter c."},{"index":5,"size":6,"text":"De tipo númerico más carácter d."},{"index":6,"size":16,"text":"De carácter más númerico Estos datos deben mantener la identidad en el tiempo y el espacio."},{"index":7,"size":9,"text":"Tomando como ejemplo temario número 6. Insumos de producción."},{"index":8,"size":14,"text":"En dos periodos de tiempo, no se deben cambiar los nombres de las variables."},{"index":9,"size":24,"text":"NUHEAGIUCU NOMARREGLO Año de referencia. (01/15/91) Tienen que estandarizar la \"unidad\" y la \"medida\". Las unidades pueden cambiar 2de 1 hasta 100 6 pás."},{"index":10,"size":16,"text":"La medida no ca~ia: cuadra (7050 mts \" plaza (6400 mts \" hectárea (10000 mts ,."},{"index":11,"size":4,"text":"-2 17.1.2 Carácter Letras."},{"index":12,"size":23,"text":"Deben de conservar la \"amplitud y la clase\". La amplitud se refiere al número de caracteres definidos inicialmente para cada campo y variable."},{"index":13,"size":16,"text":"La clase se refiere al diseño del caracter, sin cambiar la forma: mayúscula, minúscula, con s1mbolos."},{"index":14,"size":10,"text":"Tomando como ejemplo el temario No. 6, insumas de producción."},{"index":15,"size":45,"text":"El número entre parentesis indica la amplitud definida inicialmente para cada campo. NUMEAGRICU (4) NOMARREGLO (10) Trabajando con diferentes unidades muestrales, al referirse al mismo registro, deben conservar los mismos conceptos de unidad y medida para registros nÚlllericos, amplitud y clase para registros de carácter."},{"index":16,"size":27,"text":"Trabajando con registros nÚlllericos en diferentes temarios el ejemplo de unidad y medida sera (ver hoja de codificación). Se aplica el mismo procedimiento de estandarización de registros."}]},{"head":"CODIFICAc:rON","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"En el proceso de transcribir los registros de la unidad muestral a la hoja de campo, se deben seguir normas que ayudan a los estados de inventario, limpieza y análisis de las variables descriptivas. Las normas de manejo de los registros se podrian agrupar en las siguientes definiciones:"}]},{"head":"Localización","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"La distribución de entrada de los registros en cada campo, se ajusta al tipo de registros."}]},{"head":"Númerico","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"Númerico. Se inicia de derecha a izquierda. Las variables de identificación, cinco en total para el caso que nos ocupa son especificas para cada temario, agricultor, encuestador, tecno1ogia y sector."}]},{"head":"VARIABLES DESCRIPTIVAS","index":30,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Comúnes","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Hay variables que son comunes y se emplean en varios archivos. Su manejo debe cumplir con el criterio de identidad, es decir conservar uniformidad en los registros en lo que se refiere a la amplitud y la clase. Estas variables son:"}]},{"head":"Número del lote","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Al referirse al lote principal, en el primer plano el proyecto se identifica como el número 1."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"si cambia de lote en el siguiente periodo por rotación de cultivos, se debe colocar el número asignado al diagramar inicialmente el plano de la finca."}]},{"head":"Nombre del arreglo","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Identifica si se hace referencia al sistema de cultivo o al cultivo en particular."}]},{"head":"Especificas","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Las variables descriptivas especificas se aplican a cada temario en particular. Sobre el manejo de la información de cada temario, se pude concluir lo siguiente:"}]},{"head":"Localización de la finca","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Es un temario fácil de manejar con la ayuda del protocolo."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"Se deben relacionar muy bien el número y el nombre del agricultor. Se debe identificar la fecha de referencia."}]},{"head":"Sistemas de producción","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Es un temario delicado de manejar. Implica contacto con el agricultor y observación.directa del lote principal."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"Se debe definir el tipo de arreglo o cultivo, fechas, distancias e identificaciones de clones sembrados."}]},{"head":"Procedencia de la semilla","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Es un temario fácil de manejar con la ayuda del protocolo."}]},{"head":"Compra y almacenamiento","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Es un temario que presenta preguntas de forma indefinida, con registros de clase \"preferencia\", un poco dificiles de codificar."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"Es necesario aplicar el criterio de estratificación como se explicó anteriormente. En preparación a las actividades realizadas con mano de obra se les antepone el prefijo FRE. Pretumba, prelimpia, prequema. CUando. en diferentes dominios de recomendación se aplican diferentes actividades con diferentes denominaciones, por ejemplo, en la habilitación del suelo, \"despalite\", \"destronque\", \"despaje\", \"deshoje\", para facilitar el manejo de estos registros se deben agrupar bajo un solo nombre. En nuestro caso, en la actividad preparación identificariamos tres grandes grupos:"}]},{"head":"PRHABILI.","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Habilitación manual del terreno~"}]},{"head":"PRPARACI.","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Preparación manual del terreno."}]},{"head":"PMAQUINA.","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Preparación con máquina, que podría incluir las actividades."}]},{"head":"MAQARADA.","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Preparación maquinaria arada."},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"MAQRASTRA. Preparación maquinaria rastra."}]},{"head":"MAQSUROO.","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Preparación maquinaria surcada."}]},{"head":"siembra","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Se refiere a todas las labores ejecutadas alrededor de esta actividad, que impliquen uso de mano de obra, el manejo y la aplicación de la semilla."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"Las labores más frecuentes alrededor de esta actividad son:"},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"Adquisición, preparación, tratamiento y almacenamiento de semilla."},{"index":4,"size":8,"text":"Ahoyada, siembra, resiembra y raleo de la planta."}]},{"head":"Malezas","index":45,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Es la actividad manual de erradicar malas hierbas."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"-32 -20.2.5.4 Herbicidas Es la actividad manual de erradicar quimicamente malas hierbas."}]},{"head":"Insecticidas","index":46,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Es la actividad manual de proteger químicamente el cultivo."}]},{"head":"FUngicidas","index":47,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Es la actividad manual de proteger químicamente el cultivo."}]},{"head":"Labores","index":48,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Se refiere a prácticas auxiliares, específicas de cada sector, que implica uso de mano de obra, acarreo de agua, poda de arboles cercanos, arreglo sercas, quebrada de bejucos, tutoreada."}]},{"head":"Cosecha","index":49,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Se refiere a todas las labores ejecutadas alrededor de esta actividad, que implica el uso de mano de obra: destronque, arranque, llevar sacos, amarrar sacos, acarreo, desgrane."}]},{"head":"Insumos de producción","index":50,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Es un temario complejo, con preguntas de forma definida e indefinida y registros de clase preferencia y conocimiento."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"La dificultad en codificar se debe a la falta de mantener el criterio de identidad en el mismo sector o entre sectores."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"En este temario se registran las cantidades físicas empleadas de los insumos identificados como: abonos, fungicidas, insecticidas, semillas, abono foliar, herbicidas, fungicidas, cebos, empaques."}]},{"head":"Rendimiento de yuca y asociados","index":51,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Es un temario con preguntas de forma definida y registros de clase \"datos\" pero de manejo cuidadoso."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"Se trabaja con muestra aleatorias dentro del lote principal. Con la ayuda del \"protocolo\" se facilita el manejo. Se aplicó a cada agricultor en forma individual y a cada actividad realizada en forma particular."}]},{"head":"De insumas","index":52,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Se aplica a cada agricultor en forma individual y a cada insumo aplicado en forma particular."}]},{"head":"De cosecha","index":53,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Se aplica cada agricultor en forma individual y a cada periodo de cosecha en forma particular."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"Trabajando con el temario No. 5, actividades de producción. Agricultores socios de las asociaciones de productores seleccionados en el estudio de parcelas de preproducción."}]},{"head":"2.","index":54,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Agricultores no socios productores seleccionados en preproducción."},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"de las asociaciones de el estudio de parcelas de 14. EDAGRICULT. Edad del agricultor. (2). 15. ASOCIADO. Si es miembro de alguna asociación de productores y procesadores de yuca. Se registra con \"S\" para afirmativo o \"N\" para negativo."},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"16. NOMBRASOCI. El nombre de la asociación. (12). 17. DIRECTIVO. si es miembro de la junta directa de la asociac~on (1). Se registra con \"S\" para afirmativo o \"N\" para negativo. FESIECULT2. Fecha de siembra del segundo cultivo."},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"(mes-dia-año). (8) • la. FESIECULT3. Fecha de siembra del tercer cultivo."},{"index":5,"size":8,"text":"(mes-dia-año). Identifica el nUmero de la tarjeta. (1)."},{"index":6,"size":1,"text":",11."},{"index":7,"size":9,"text":"NUMEAGRlCU. El consecutivo para identificar al agricultor numéricamente. (3)."}]},{"head":"NOMENCUEST. Nombre del encuestador.. Las iniciales","index":55,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"(2) • 3."}]},{"head":"NIVELTECNI. recomendado = 02","index":56,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Nivel de tecnología (2). Para el nivel = 01. Para el nivel tradicional o testigo 4. "}]},{"head":"NUMESECTOR.•-NÜ","index":57,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"20.","index":58,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"2.1.","index":59,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"No. ' &. Periodo de referencia ."}]},{"head":"81-88","index":60,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Nombre comercial cultivo 89-98"}]},{"head":"RECOMENDACIONES","index":61,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Las parcelas testigo tienen gran importancia en el análisis de la información, ya que nos permiten identificar los componentes de los sistemas de producci6n utilizados en la regi6n y aquellos que pueden ser utilizados como indices de la adopción de' la nueva tecno10gia."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"Por ello cuando se decide escoger un sector determinado para el trabajo en parcelas de pre-producción es necesario garantizar primero la parcela testigo, pués en la mayoria de los casos es comprensible que los ,agricultores contactados prefieran tener parcelas con tecno10gia recomendada. Asi mismo en la medida en que incluyamos más parcelas, tendremos menos posibilidades de estar señalando un patrón de cultivo equivocado en una región dada."},{"index":3,"size":90,"text":"Una limitación importante de la recolección de la información es la falta de una lista única de actividades, 10 que lleva a una gran dispersi6n de nombres para actividades que en realidad o son la misma o se puede asumir que están dirigidas a una misma tarea. En este año, luego del análisis del primer año de recolección de la información, se espera contar con esa tabla, que servirá también para establecer las fuentes de costo a considerar en los análisis de este aspecto de los sistemas de producción. '"},{"index":4,"size":96,"text":"Parcelas de preproducción de alrededor de una hectárea parecen ser las más apropiadas. En parcelas más pequeñas no solamente se corre con el peligro de perder la' información de cosecha por imposibilidad de atender en el momento oportuno al agricultor, si no que también, los factores de conversión a una hectarea se vuelven más grandes. Además, los agricultores tienen problemas para calcular los jornales y los insumas gastados en un área tan pequeña; lo que desmboca generalmente en una sobre-estimaci6n de los costos. También un área grande es más representativa de la finca y del sector."},{"index":5,"size":64,"text":"Otros métodos de análisis como los de agrupación pueden ser intentados con el propósito de conocer adopción en terminas globales. Así mismo, los procedimientos de regresión pueden ser de utilidad si queremos en el tiempo conocer la sostenibilidad de los sistemas y establecer indices de degradación de los diversos componentes bióticos, especialmente el suelo en cuanto hace a reserva de nutrimentos y erosión. .n."},{"index":6,"size":2,"text":"í&. '2..:5."},{"index":7,"size":4,"text":"'l. 5. 6. 7."},{"index":8,"size":1,"text":"a."}]},{"head":"9.","index":62,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"~o."}]},{"head":"U.","index":63,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"~."},{"index":2,"size":109,"text":"-'\"\"~'\"'-~~ '\"'m_ ~~ ... ' . ,~.~\" '''\"-. __ .\" \" .. En los cuatro sectores descritos la mayor parte del area sembrada en yuca se encuentra en cultivo asociado (Cuadro' 3). Del are a total de la finca, menos del 40% es cultivada en yuca. Es importante señalar que en el sector 6 el area de la finca es de 220 ha, debido a que se trata de una hacienda intervenida por el INCORA con propósitos de parcelación, pero en la cual no se han trazado aún limites para cada agricultor. Cuadro 3. Area promedio de la finca (ha) y área' dedicada al cultivo de yuca (ha) •"}]},{"head":"Sector","index":64,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Area Total Area Monocultivo Area Asociada NiveldeTecnoloqia En los sectores 4 y 5 el 50% de los agricUltores tienen educación primaria, mientras que en el sector 7 mas del 80% tiene esa misma educación (Cuadro 4). La edad promedio de los agricultores se encuentra alrededor de los 41 años."},{"index":2,"size":118,"text":"En el cuadro 5 se puede apreciar la estructura de la tenencia de tierra en las parcelas de preproducción. Las tierras prestadas, corresponden a áreas generalmente cedidas por un familiar y sobre las cuales el agricultor no paga arriendo alguno. Asi mismo, en el sector 6, al agricultor la tierra se le consideró prestada, pero en este caso se trató de un arreglo temporal y sin documentos escritos entre las partes (Adjudicatarios del INCORA y el agricultor). En los sectores de estudio, se puéden distinguir dos sistemas principales de cultivo asociado de yuca: yuca x maiz y yuca x maizjjñame. En el cuadro 6 se puede apreciar la distribución de esos arreglos en las parcelas de preproducción. ."},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":"La no presencia de parcelas testigos en el sector 4 y 6 son una limitante para el análisis de la información, no obstante a partir del segundo año ya han sido establecidas."},{"index":4,"size":110,"text":"Dado que los componentes de un paquete tecnológico son multiples y relacionados con diversas actividades del proceso de producción, se ha sugerido que su adopción se identífique por el uso de dos o tres componentes de esa tecnología. Las parcelas de preproducción nos han permitido realizar un esquema del sistema de producción en cada nivel de tecnología y en cada sector considerado. Las actividades fueron divididas en 6 grupos para facilitar su observación: 1) Labores de Preparación; 2) Labores de Siembra: 3) Control de Malezas: 4) Labores de Cultivo; 5) Control de Plagas y 6) Labores de Cosecha. En el cuadro 7, se pueden observar las actividades de cada grupo."},{"index":5,"size":53,"text":"Cuadro 7. Grupos de actividades de,producción en las parcelas de preproducción. La dificultad para definir claramente dos actividades parecidas o para establecer la diferencia o la similitud de dos actividades en zonas diferentes, hace posible ,que en algunas labores de preparación se presente redundancia, como en el caso de tumba y desmonte. ."}]},{"head":"Grupo","index":65,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"En las labores de siembra se ha incluido la apertura de los hoyos para la siembra de ñame y yuca, aun cuando es claramente una labor de preparación de terreno, en aras de darle unidad a cada grupo de operaciones."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"Control de malezas y control de plagas son en realidad labores de cultivo, pero dada su importancia en la determinación de la adopción de tecnología y su frecuencia, se consideraron en forma independiente."},{"index":3,"size":36,"text":"El acarreo de agua en las labores de cultivo hace referencia a el agua utilizada en la aplicación de agroquímicos. La quebrada es la operación de doblar el maiz una vez ha llegado a madurez fisiológica."},{"index":4,"size":15,"text":"El control biológico incluye la liberación de insectos benéficos y la aspersión de insecticidas microbiológicos."},{"index":5,"size":2,"text":"• \""},{"index":6,"size":56,"text":"El transporte interno en cosecha, es la operación de llevar el producto desde el sitio donde se cosechó hasta el lugar de acopio en la finca, y generalmente hace uso de jornales. El transporte externo generalmente se realiza sobre una distancia mayor que el anterior y por lo general utiliza vehiculos de tracción animal o mecánica."},{"index":7,"size":33,"text":"En el Cuadro 7 se pueden observar las variedades de maiz utilizados en las parcelas de preproducción. En todas las parcelas con nivel de tecnolog1a 1, se utilizaron variedades de lCA recientemente liberadas."},{"index":8,"size":63,"text":"En el sector 5, se observa cierta inclinación de los agricultores por los materiales tradicionales, pero maiees liberados por ICA como H-154, han empezado a tener alguna relevancia. En el sector 7, algunos maices comercializados por entidades privadas como los eERES, están disponibles para los agricultores, sin embargo los maices liberados por lCA han llegado a representar el 60% de los maices utilizados."},{"index":9,"size":60,"text":"Cuadro 8. Variedades de maiz utilizadas (%) en las parcelas de preproducción. El uso de las variedades de maices mejorados, parece indicar que en el sector. 7 la adopción de tecnologia va más rápido que en el sector ' 5, pero en general se observa que existe una buena percepción de los agricultores acerca de este componente del paquete tecnológico."},{"index":10,"size":32,"text":"Se utilizó un análisis gráfico para establecer la cronologia de las actividades sobre un plano cartesiano. Asi, cada grupo de actividades se pudo representar para cada sistema de producción y cada sector."},{"index":11,"size":29,"text":"Debido a qus el material obviamente es profuso solamente analizaremos el ,',stema de producción Yuca x Maiz en eÍ sector 5 Y Yuca x MaizjjÑame en el sector 7."},{"index":12,"size":32,"text":"Las Figuras 1 a 12 muestran los dos sistemas anteriormente señalados. Sobre el eje de las abscisas, se encuentra el lapso de dias entre la actividad dada y la siembra de yuca."},{"index":13,"size":17,"text":"Valores negativos, solo indican que esa actividad en particular fué realizada antes de la siembra de yuca."},{"index":14,"size":55,"text":"Sobre el eje de las ordenadas se encuentra la frecuencia con que se realizó esa actividad. En la parte inferior de las graficas se encuentran las actividades previamente reseñadas en el Cuadro 7, seguidas de una letra Y, M o N, según fuera el caso relacionarla con la yuca, el maiz o el ñame respectivamente."},{"index":15,"size":15,"text":"Las actividades no especificas para cada cultivo, no tiene ninguna letra despues de la actividad."},{"index":16,"size":32,"text":"si estas graficas son reproducidas en acetatos, es fácil superponer dos gráficas diferentes y conocer que clase de actividades son comunes a diferentes sectores o niveles de tecnologia según sea el caso."},{"index":17,"size":59,"text":"Cuando se hace lo primero dentro de un mismo nivel de tecnologia, se esta comparando en realidad la influencia de las variaciones climáticas sobre las actividades de producción. Cuando se hace lo segundo en un mismo sistema de produccion, lo que se está encontrando es el impacto de la adopción de la nueva tecnologia sobre las actividades de producción."},{"index":18,"size":53,"text":"Cada figura es el resultado del promedía de todas las parcelas establecidas y representa por ello el sistema promedio de producción para el arreglo dado. Basta que un agricultor practique una operación para que ella salga representada en el esquema. Entre mas alta sea la barra de la actividad, mas frecuentemente es realizada."},{"index":19,"size":80,"text":"En labores de preparación (Figura 1), las tres operaciones mas frecuentemente usadas en el sistema Yuca x Maiz son limpia, arada y rastrillada. si bien es cierto el grueso de las actividades se inician alrededor de los 60 dias antes de la siembra de yuca, en ocasiones estas tareas pueden comenzar hasta 120 dias antes. El hecho de que la cobertura empiece a elimin,arse con tanta anticipación puede ser un factor que influya más tarde sobre la erodabilidad del terreno."},{"index":20,"size":42,"text":"Las mismas labores que fueron más frecuentes en el anterior sistema de producción lo son en el sistema Yuca x Maiz/jÑame (Figura 2). El terreno permanece más tiempo sin cobertura después de el rastrillo, pero como consecuencia probablemente por falta de lluvias."},{"index":21,"size":18,"text":"Además hay mayor número de actividades, lo que parece mostrar,que el área es mas varible que la anterior."},{"index":22,"size":165,"text":"La mayor parte de las operaciones de siembra se realizan entre 1 día antes y seis días después de la siembra de yuca en el sistema Yuca x Maiz (Figura 3). En los dos niveles tecnológicos la siembra de maiz es posterior a la siembra de yuca y en el caso del nivel de tecnología recomendado se realizan dos prácticas adicionales despues de los diez dias de siembra: resiembra de los dos cultivos. \",,,,,,,,, '\" .! .. \",,,,,.,,.!,,,,,,,,!,,,,,,,J.).,,I,,,,, ' i' \" ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ,,,,,.,,,,,,, \",!\" i, , ~ 'l' \" , \" \" , , \" \" \" \" , , \" \" I \" \" , En el sistema Yuca x Maiz/ /Ñame la siembra de maiz y ñame es anterior a la siembra de yuca: 45 y 19 dias respectivamente (Figura 4). La resiembra de yuca se realizó únicamente en el nivel de tecnología reco~endada a los 16 dias de siembra."},{"index":23,"size":98,"text":"En el control de malezas (Figura 5), la recomendación claramente está señalando la aplicación de un herbicida de pre-emergencia y dos controles manuales a los 38 y a los 138 dias después de siembra, en el sistema Yuca x Maiz y ocasionalmente hay una aplicación extra de herbicida alrededor de los 50 dias después de la siembra. En el caso del nivel de tecnología II, la aplicación del herbicida no se hace en pre-emergencia, a pesar de que se trata de herbicidas para ese uso. Eso hace que se tengan que hacer hasta 5 controles manuales de maleza."},{"index":24,"size":22,"text":"La primera aplicación de herbicida se hace_después de la siembra de ñame y maiz en el sistema Yuca x Maiz//Name (Figura 6)."},{"index":25,"size":147,"text":"En el nivel de tecnología tradicional, esa aplicación está precedida por un control manual de malezas. Una segunda aplicación de herbicidas en la tecnología recomendada ~o es frecuente, pero si es común a los dos niveles tecnológicos hacer treer controles manuales de malezas, como resultado de la diversidad biológica del sistema, al contrario del sistema Yuca x Maiz del sector 5, donde se llegan hasta cinco controles manuales. si utilizamos el uso de herbicidas pre-emerge~tes corno criterio de la adopción de tecnología, tenemos que señalar que al contrario de las variedades de maiz, la adopción es más que limitada, en los dos sistemas Yuca x Maiz y Yuca x MaizllÑame. Por otra parte parece que este puede ser uno de los aspectos que debe ser materia de afinamiento en las parcelas de preproducción, con el propósito de entregar al agricultor una recomendación clara para obtener mejores resultados."},{"index":26,"size":80,"text":"Como se habia señalado antes, el control de plagas se hace solamente ante la aparición o indicios de ella. En la Figura 7 se puede observar la cronología del control de plagas. La tecnología tradicional solo hace control quimico en insectos plagas en maiz, mientras la tecnología recomendada, hace uso del control integrado de plagas, haciendo más aplicaciones y liberación de insectos benéficos, fundamentalmente para prevenir la bacteriosis y controlar ataques de Erynnis ello, en el sistema Yuca x Mai2."},{"index":27,"size":27,"text":"La tecnología recomendada en el sistema Yuca x Maiz//Ñame, dedicó todo su esfuerzo en control de enfermedaes, en la aplicación de fungicidas para el ñame (Figura el."},{"index":28,"size":9,"text":"El nivel tradicional de tecnología no hi20 control alguno."},{"index":29,"size":76,"text":"Esta amplia variación en los patrones de control plagas y enfermedades en cultivos asociados de yuca, refuerza la idea de qUe este componente tecológico no debe ser tomado como un índice de la adopción de tecnología, en lugares donde la presión de enfermedades y plagas no es significativo. Lo mismo se aplicaria en el caso del :11.\", 1, \" 1 \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" ' \" \"\",1,.\"\"\"!\",,,.I, ' j I l ."},{"index":30,"size":42,"text":", \" , , \" \" ' 1 B e B FUNGICIOA_Y Labores de control de plagas en el sector 7 en el sistema de producción yuca x maiz x ñame en las parcelas de preproducción en la Cos.ta Norte de Colombia."},{"index":31,"size":4,"text":"• tratamiento de semilla."},{"index":32,"size":105,"text":"Debido a la clasificación de las labores escogida, la labores de cultivo se vieron sustancialmente reducidas (Figura 9). Como la abonada no habia sido implementada en este primer año para el sistema Yuca x Maiz, la tecnolog1a recomendada no presentó actividad alguna y en la tecnolog1a tradicional solo se detect6 el acarreo de agua en muy baja frecuencia 11). Como vimos anteriormente, ésta tecnologia realizó una serie de actividades dirigidas espec1ficamente al ñame como abonada y aplicación de fungicidas. Esto unido al establecimiento de una mayor densidad 'de siembra (8476 YS 6302 plantas/ha), son los responsables de los mayores rendimientos obtenidos (6067 vs 4546 kg/ha)."}]},{"head":"Costos de Producción","index":66,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"La misma estructura de actividades' utilizada para describir los sistemas de producción fue empleada para establecer los costos de prOducción. En los Cuadros 12 y 13, la mano de obra se contabilizó como \"Jornales\", el arrendamiento de maquinaria como \"Arriendo\", y los diveros productos, incluida la semilla, como \"Insumas\". Todos los precios corresponden a la época en que se tomó la información. Para cada sector y nivel de tecnolog1a, los costos son un valor medio de los agricultores en cada sección."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"Es posible hacer un desglose más completo para cada sistema, por ejemplo por cultivo involucrado, pero para los propósitos de este trabajo esta estructura de costos es suficiente."},{"index":3,"size":113,"text":"La relación Beneficio/Costo, resultó de tomar el ingreso total y dividirlo por los costos de producción, as1 entre mas grande sea esta relación, más eficiente será el sistema de producción. Las principales fuentes de costo en los dos sistemas son los jornales dedicados a control de malezas (26% en YxM y 19% en YxM//Ñ) y a la cosecha (20% en YxM y 22% en YxM/IÑ). En el cuadro 14 se pueden observar los jornales utilizados en cada una de las acti vldades consideradas. Se ve claramente que el costo unitario de los jornales varia entre sectores y que la intensidad de uso de los jornales es mayor en los sectores 4 y 5."},{"index":4,"size":72,"text":"Es importante sefialar que la tecnolog1a recomendada utilizó menos mano de obra, en el sistema Yuca x Maiz. CUadro 14. Jornales utilizados en las ., .... de !' .. Se eseeraba que la mayor bio-diversidad del sistema Yuca x Maiz//Name, se tradujera en una menor utilización de mano de obra en el control de malezas, pero la información recolectada no parece indicarlo as!, o por lo menos no en la cantidad esperada."},{"index":5,"size":48,"text":"Es claro también, que en los costos de producción y en el cálculo de la mano de obra, están implicados los patrones micro-regionales de cultivo. Sobre ellos no solamente están actuando factores culturales, también ejercen gran influencia el costo de la mano de obra y obviamente la oportunidad."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" DE LA INFORMA.CION "},{"text":"19. 5 Número del sectorIdentifica la localización o dominio de recomendación. "},{"text":"~I 11 I I I 1 I I I [[1 Ol I I I 1 , WII I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 ! I I ! íl I 1 I I I I o 1 I I I I I ! I I I 1 I . o [ilID rn rn OJ dí I IIJ] I 1111 1 I 1111\\1 11 I 111I 11 I I o I 11 IIIIDTII ~I [[ID [[1 m [1J [11 I I I 1 I I I 1 1 I I I I I 1 1 !., 1 1 I [ I , 1 I I 1 O I I I I 1 ¡TI I I I I [9J lirJ-' I UJ rn OJ o 111 I I11 1I 11 I I I I I!' I 1]] IITllTl o I I I I 1 IIlJJII El ~n1J ITI OJ [JJ I i I I 11 \" 1 11 \" 1 I I I I I 111 1 ! I 11 1 I I 1 o I 111 1 1 11 JI[J o ITIT_U rn DJ [[11 I I l•' I , I 11 1 I I 1 ! l' I 1I l • I ! 1 n ' •1 I 1 I o l•' I 1 11111 Irl ~ liIIJ] O] OJ tIJ I I I 1 I I U I I I I 1. L,U 1 I ! 1 , I , ! ! I I 1 , I 1 I o I I 1 I 1 I I 11 ITI B 0II1J UI [L! m 11 ¡ ! 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I 111 I I I 11 I I I I Iill rn I I I 1../ I :~ -:I~~_ Pn1_ . . . . {\"*\"\"1. 1M\" I~ 11I I I I r I 1111111'1ll ¡ I I 1I I LIIJ rn 1II ¡-II ~2 . !3. i~ . 1IIIIIIIIIIIIIII/IZIIII.2121~III{lol•l] Illfl'lll!E[ 11'IlIlilol/jM] !4 2 0'04],! ~ 1I I 1 I 1 I I 1I I 1 ' 1 1 I 1.t12J I 1 lilel\" I I I I~I•I I mtF0 um I l' iIA.110V1/111 o 111'1 I I 1, I I I 1 Id 111311.1 I 1 1, 1. 1 , (311 I I ¡Ha m~F10] 0fI I 1' 1 IJ12Iol/lfJ1] ~ ~ ~/' ~ '! • : El DI I I 1 I 1 , 1I 1 1 I lit I j 1 I I 1 I 1 I 1 l,' '1 I 1-1 1 rn 1¡[.zI/1~\"VlMI ... o 1 1I 1 I I I I I I I I I 1 I 1 I 1 I I I I I I 1 \"1 1•1 I I 1 1' ,[ 1 m ]/lz1l131 o Vlfi 9 1 \" \" [tllll 111'11111,'1111111111111111'1 \"111-11 rn 113,k12l o ll' 1-1Ig ::::;:II~¡ ¡ ti : ! : : ; : i ] : : ; : : 1 El W~/t1111/1/131•11í111111111111 ¡ 1111-1 IIII-IIOJ J ol711r 11 1 \" , 0Itl1lilblll¡lblol,0111111111111111 ¡.¡ 1111-11 m nn 20 l,:: ',(':': t!l ItI\"~I21 1 !Jjt,tlol, Pi 1 1 I I I I I I I I 1 1 1 I I ' -1 I I , 1-' I!JJ I \\3l&l#hlol ! , . . B [11 I I I I I I I TI r r I I 1 , 11 I I I I , , I H 1 1 I 1 ,. r lID í L ITn~r n í I 1 11 1 r III I~ I ¡ 1\" I 1 I lit I I 1 1 I I I I 1 I I I I 11 1 I \"1 11 1 1 l.-11m I I ,II,n ,-o 1I11I nll §] 1 1 I I ' 1 1-1 I I ' 1 I I I I I I 1 I I I I 1 I 1 I 1 r I•¡i I I 1 1-1 1 OJ fIn 1 I I I 1 1 I I I I rTn I~ nrm ülW i , 1 , \"1 I I I , , 1 1,' , 1-1 1 I I I 1•11 OJ I r 11 1 1 I I 1 I 1 I I I ITI] ~ I I I 1 !.I W 1_' , I 1 I 1 1 1 I I I I I I I 1 I 1-1 I I I 1 1-1 ¡ DJ 1 ¡ l' I 1 1I IJ 1 1 1 I Tr]] J [11 1I1 I 11 ID _1 I LJI] mnrn [IJ]•O 1I 1 1-11 rn [.1 I I 1 1 11 I 11 [[ I cm i~, "},{"text":"Cuadro 4 . Nivel educativo (%) y edad promedia (años) de los agricultores en la Parcelas de Preproducción. 4 y 7 más del 50 de la tierras son de propiedad del agricultor, pero también más del 30% son arrendadas. En el sector 5 la mayor parte son asignadas. Cuadro 5. Tenecia de la tierra (%) en las parcelas' de preproducción. "},{"text":"10 ~ Figura 1. Labores de preparación en el sector 5 en el. sistema de producción yuca x maíz en las parcelas de pre-producción en la Costa Norte de Colombia. "},{"text":"Figura 2 .Figura 3 . Figura 2. Labores de preparación en el sector 7 en el sistema de producción yuca x ma.l.Zll:ñame ~n 1~~ n~~~ol~~ ñc n~o_n~~ñl1~~i~n on l~ rnQr~ Nnr~A n~ rnlnmhia_ "},{"text":"\" "},{"text":"LABORES- Figura 4. Labores de siembra en el sector 7 en el en las parcelas de pre-producci6n en la "},{"text":" ARR[~!O.YUCAUAI! HIYE! DE TECHOLDCIA-I +-<-+ IIERUICIDA.1 .......... mm.l Il-G-e YA l[l U , 110 SluBRA DE YUCA <-+-+ HERBICIDA.! ......... UAlElA.! EHHl mElA.! "},{"text":"Figura 5 . Figura 5. Labores de control de malezas en el sector 5 en el sistema de producción yuca x maíz __ ~ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1 __ ~_ ~_~ ~_~~1~~~~~n on 1~ ~nQ~~ Nnrt~ rl~ Colombia. "},{"text":" ¡aRESlO'lUCAIAll HIIEl DE IECHOlOCIA-! "},{"text":"Figura 7 . Figura 7. Labores de control de plagas en el sector 5 en el sistema de producción yuca x malz en las parcelas de ore-producción en la Costa Norte de Colombia "},{"text":" Figura 8. "},{"text":"Figura 9 .Figura 11 .Figura 12 . Figura 9. Labores de cultivo \"'n •'1 sector 5 en el sistema de producción yuca x maiz en las uarcelas de pre-producción en la Costa NnrtA de Colombia. "},{"text":"9 . Rendimientos de Yuca en las parcelas de pre-producci6n. "},{"text":"Cuadro 12 . Costos de producción en el sistema de producción Yuca x Maiz (~ corrientes). "},{"text":" en el anterior sistema. "},{"text":" productivo. El I~I i~bl ~ cm rn IV~Gl4IRllILlElilE1QJUI/IEIt.! 1111 111-1 ~~~OIM!A!td @ ~~IMa I1II1I o fITTtM 0m [Ji] cm iXíLÚl4ILIBII1LklAI~{k~uiluIAtAA 11 111PIf{I/IMIA~1 .~ 1dfíEI~AlGl4~JEiOJi1 o 1111,0 ~ rn rn IPIAlclMElc!oLliluIAIIGlALlHIAllJluIEILI I I 11P!f{!/IMIAIBI~ IdtlElúllllGllIlPlooRI o 1 1 11/1 6 1 ~ rn mlIPlEOLIALVi~bSj;L&~IRJoU7t I1 I , , I ~RI/~ltt~1 ~ IC!¡jElAÁA~~IEitJ!IRI ~llill ! I rn rn [[] n.11111111111111111 ! l' 1I ! LLU 1II O I r 1I m! 1 ¡ 11 -23 - LOCALIZACION DEL AGRIC~LTOR -23 -LOCALIZACION DEL AGRIC~LTOR CENTRO INTERNACIONAL D~ AGRICULTURA TROPICAL CENTRO INTERNACIONAL D~ AGRICULTURA TROPICAL PROGRAHA DE YUCA PROGRAHA DE YUCA 6. EVALU9. NUMEROLOTE. Número del lote sobre el cual se está RENDIMIENTO DE YUCA Y ASOCIADOS 26. FECCOSECHA. Fecha de cosecha. PARCELAS DE PREPRODUCCION (8). TARJETA No. 1 PAGINA No. 1 6. EVALU9. NUMEROLOTE. Número del lote sobre el cual se está RENDIMIENTO DE YUCA Y ASOCIADOS 26. FECCOSECHA. Fecha de cosecha. PARCELAS DE PREPRODUCCION (8). TARJETA No. 1 PAGINA No. 1 llevando el registro. (2). AREASEMBRA. Area total sembrada del cultivo. Hectárea (6.3). CLASINSUMO. Clase de insumo. (8). ABONOS, FUNGICIDA, INSECTICI, SEMILLAS, ABONOFOLI, HERBICIDAS, FUNGICIDAS, CEBOS. CODISISTEM. CMito del sistema del lote principal (3) • YUCA YUCAMAIZ .. 'iMA YUCAÑAME MAIZÑAME Estimar densidad aparente en yuca. == MÑA YUCMAIÑAME == YMN Plantas sembradas cosechadas, raíces comerciales y no comerciales. 01/01/91 '\" 06/01/91 = primer semestre segundo semestre .. YÑA METODO 7. 8. : Estimar la producción total considerando: semestre. .. YUC OBJETIVOS: ESTIMAR COMPONENTES DE RENDIMIENTO POR UNIDAD DE 27. AÑOAGRICOL. Año agricola. (8). Fecha de referencia. AREA. Se debe especificar si se trata del primer o segundo llevando el registro. (2). AREASEMBRA. Area total sembrada del cultivo. Hectárea (6.3). CLASINSUMO. Clase de insumo. (8). ABONOS, FUNGICIDA, INSECTICI, SEMILLAS, ABONOFOLI, HERBICIDAS, FUNGICIDAS, CEBOS. CODISISTEM. CMito del sistema del lote principal (3) • YUCA YUCAMAIZ .. 'iMA YUCAÑAME MAIZÑAME Estimar densidad aparente en yuca. == MÑA YUCMAIÑAME == YMN Plantas sembradas cosechadas, raíces comerciales y no comerciales. 01/01/91 '\" 06/01/91 = primer semestre segundo semestre .. YÑA METODO 7. 8. : Estimar la producción total considerando: semestre. .. YUC OBJETIVOS: ESTIMAR COMPONENTES DE RENDIMIENTO POR UNIDAD DE 27. AÑOAGRICOL. Año agricola. (8). Fecha de referencia. AREA. Se debe especificar si se trata del primer o segundo 9. 18. AÑOAGRICOL. Año agricola. (8). Fecha de referencia. CLASUNIDAD. Clase de unidad. (8). LITRO, LIBRAS, Se debe especificar si se trata del primer o segundo Estimar humedad en granos. PLANTAS, COLINO, VARETAS, PRESA. 10. CANTUNIDAD. cantidad de unidades. (8.2) 11. COSTUNIDAD. Costo de la unidad. (6). semestre. IDENTIFICACION primer semestre 01/01/91: 06/01/91: segundo semestre TARJETA. Identifica el número de la tarjeta (1). 9. 18. AÑOAGRICOL. Año agricola. (8). Fecha de referencia. CLASUNIDAD. Clase de unidad. (8). LITRO, LIBRAS, Se debe especificar si se trata del primer o segundo Estimar humedad en granos. PLANTAS, COLINO, VARETAS, PRESA. 10. CANTUNIDAD. cantidad de unidades. (8.2) 11. COSTUNIDAD. Costo de la unidad. (6). semestre. IDENTIFICACION primer semestre 01/01/91: 06/01/91: segundo semestre TARJETA. Identifica el número de la tarjeta (1). l. 12. COSTOTOTAL. Costo total, producto de la cantidad por NUMEAGRICU. El consecutivo para identificar al agricultor numéricamente. (3). su costo. (6). V. HOJAS DE CAMPO l. 12. COSTOTOTAL. Costo total, producto de la cantidad por NUMEAGRICU. El consecutivo para identificar al agricultor numéricamente. (3). su costo. (6). V. HOJAS DE CAMPO 2. NOMENCUEST. Nombre del encuestador. Las iniciales. 2.NOMENCUEST. Nombre del encuestador. Las iniciales. (2) • (2) • 3. NlVELTECNI. Nivel de tecnolog1a. (2). Para el nivel recomendado = 01; para el tradicional o testigo = 02. 3.NlVELTECNI. Nivel de tecnolog1a. (2). Para el nivel recomendado = 01; para el tradicional o testigo = 02. Cad. En este archivo se registran los cultivadores con conjunto respuesta afirmativa. Si aplica el insumo y poque lo 4. NuMESECTOR. Número del sector (2). Criterio similar a conjunto productivo. Municipio 01 CPl aplica. Codo Conjunto Municipio Ponedera, Santo Tomas 02 CP2 Baranoa, Luruaco, sabanalarga -303 CP3 Juan de Acosta ~04 CPl Región Caribe, Toluviejo, San Onofre. \"205 CP2 Región Sabana, Corozal, Los Palmitos, San Juan de Betulia, Sampués. .06 CP3 Montes de Maria, Sincelejo, Colosó, 16. DEFIMOTIVO. Definir el motivo por el cual se aplica el 01 CPl Ponedera, Santo Tomas insumo. (36). 02 03 CP2 CP3 Baranoa, Luruaco, sabanalarga Juan de Acosta Por ejemplo: 04 CPl Región Caribe, Toluviejo, San Para agriCUltores con tecnolog1a recomendada y Onofre. tradicional: 05 CP2 Región Sabana, Corozal, Los ABONO. Qué elemento aporta ese abono al cultivo (nombre del elemento). Palmitos, San Juan de Betulia, Sampués. Ovejas, Sampués. 07 CPl Sahagún, Chinú. ciénaga de Oro, La Unión, 08 CP2 Lorica, Momil, Purisima, San Bernardo, San Antero, Arima, San Andrés. 5. por la cual se aplica ese herbicida. DESCRIPCION HERBICIDA. Nombre común de la maleza más importante DESCRIPCION INSECTICIDA. Nombre común del insecto más importante 06 CP3 Montes de Maria, Sincelejo, Coloso, Ovejas, Sampués. por el cual aplica ese insecticida a ese cultivo. FUNGICIDA. importante cultivo. 07 CPl Sahagún, Ciénaga de Oro, La Unión, Chinú. Nombre común de la peste -enfermedad-más 08 CP2 Lorica, Momil, purísima, San por la cual aplica eses fungicida a eses Bernardo, San Antera, Arima, San Andrés. Cad. En este archivo se registran los cultivadores con conjunto respuesta afirmativa. Si aplica el insumo y poque lo 4. NuMESECTOR. Número del sector (2). Criterio similar a conjunto productivo. Municipio 01 CPl aplica. Codo Conjunto Municipio Ponedera, Santo Tomas 02 CP2 Baranoa, Luruaco, sabanalarga -303 CP3 Juan de Acosta ~04 CPl Región Caribe, Toluviejo, San Onofre. \"205 CP2 Región Sabana, Corozal, Los Palmitos, San Juan de Betulia, Sampués. .06 CP3 Montes de Maria, Sincelejo, Colosó, 16. DEFIMOTIVO. Definir el motivo por el cual se aplica el 01 CPl Ponedera, Santo Tomas insumo. (36). 02 03 CP2 CP3 Baranoa, Luruaco, sabanalarga Juan de Acosta Por ejemplo: 04 CPl Región Caribe, Toluviejo, San Para agriCUltores con tecnolog1a recomendada y Onofre. tradicional: 05 CP2 Región Sabana, Corozal, Los ABONO. Qué elemento aporta ese abono al cultivo (nombre del elemento). Palmitos, San Juan de Betulia, Sampués. Ovejas, Sampués. 07 CPl Sahagún, Chinú. ciénaga de Oro, La Unión, 08 CP2 Lorica, Momil, Purisima, San Bernardo, San Antero, Arima, San Andrés. 5. por la cual se aplica ese herbicida. DESCRIPCION HERBICIDA. Nombre común de la maleza más importante DESCRIPCION INSECTICIDA. Nombre común del insecto más importante 06 CP3 Montes de Maria, Sincelejo, Coloso, Ovejas, Sampués. por el cual aplica ese insecticida a ese cultivo. FUNGICIDA. importante cultivo. 07 CPl Sahagún, Ciénaga de Oro, La Unión, Chinú. Nombre común de la peste -enfermedad-más 08 CP2 Lorica, Momil, purísima, San por la cual aplica eses fungicida a eses Bernardo, San Antera, Arima, San Andrés. 5. NOMCULTIVO. Nombre del cultivo cosechado. (9). 5.NOMCULTIVO. Nombre del cultivo cosechado. (9). 6. NUMEROLOTE. Número del lote. (2). 6.NUMEROLOTE. Número del lote. (2). "},{"text":" Izllllll1 ~ Dl1 CID L luc lA (ID] I 11•lplllillól'III¿,lAflfl•ltJ~lIí1oIM~11 o lel l/bit ~ rn [fi] u1c1AiMlA11 ~I 1 I rmJ I I 1,101, lzI IplJ1J1211lllM1lolJ\\AlkJlllI71 \" SISTEMAS DE PRODUCCION \"SISTEMAS DE PRODUCCION CENTRO INTERNACIONAL DE AGRICULTURA TROPICAL CENTRO INTERNACIONAL DE AGRICULTURA TROPICAL PROGRAMA DE YUCA PARCELAS DE PREPRODUCCIDN PROGRAMA DE YUCA PARCELAS DE PREPRODUCCIDN TARJETA No. 2 PAGINA No. 1 TARJETA No. 2PAGINA No. 1 ~ .s., :'_1 1-¡IJ EJ lillml [giaJ Oll []il --/.kIAWIAI,liI~lt111Kl11 I H\"ltlíll\"lilI13Io0rlrllt>W!¡loll1fI11 II-:ZIJ \"'''-12 ;¿J-Zl ;1.'-;' )'1-\"''' o ~ .s., :'_1 1-¡IJ EJ lillml [giaJ Oll []il --/.kIAWIAI,liI~lt111Kl11 I H\"ltlíll\"lilI13Io0rlrllt>W!¡loll1fI11 II-:ZIJ \"'''-12 ;¿J-Zl ;1.'-;' )'1-\"''' o 11-34 11-34 EDUCACION Nivel de educación 35-40 EDUCACIONNivel de educación35-40 NUDEPARTAII Número del departamento 41 NUDEPARTAIINúmero del departamento41 MUNIClPIO Nombre del municipio 42-52 MUNIClPIONombre del municipio42-52 VEREDA Nombre de la vereda !>3-62. VEREDANombre de la vereda!>3-62. AREAFINCA Area de la finca 63-68 AREAFINCAArea de la finca63-68 AREYUCAIION Area yuca monocultivo 69-74 AREYUCAIIONArea yuca monocultivo69-74 AREYUCASOC Area yuca en asociación 75-80 AREYUCASOCArea yuca en asociación75-80 CODEREGIST Código de registro 81 CODEREGISTCódigo de registro81 EDAGRICUL Edad del agricultor 82-83 EDAGRICULEdad del agricultor82-83 ASOCIADO Miembro de asociación 84 ASOCIADOMiembro de asociación84 NQMBRASOCI Nombre de la asociación 85-95 NQMBRASOCINombre de la asociación85-95 DIRECTIVO Tiene cargo directivo? 96 DIRECTIVOTiene cargo directivo?96 CARGODlREC Nombre del cargo directtvo 97-108 CARGODlRECNombre del cargo directtvo 97-108 VIVENFINCA Vive en la finca? 109 VIVENFINCAVive en la finca?109 TENENCIA Tenencia de la tierra 110-116 TENENCIATenencia de la tierra110-116 AÑOAGRlCOL periodO de referencia 117-124 AÑOAGRlCOLperiodO de referencia117-124 "},{"text":" El '-ll..J1Jtl ~ []J rn lMIAl-,lzl 1 1 I I I 1 D11 Icl'ikilplllldll 1 I 1/ ¡il ~g §?U ~ tI! 1 3 11/\\31081 [J] íTIl ~c!AII l' 1I1 rnJlplRlolPl/IAIIII.11 11 1I1 IJ] rm~ 1 3 1 1/131 \\ruJ rn [lillMA~ltl 1 '1 I D1llp\\RIgeJil4l mili 1III 11] [TI] El 1 3 1 jt!ll1lm! [Jl] 1T1lI\"síil/lZll I 1 \\ I I [[llcloF11pl~191 [Jn;V1I~l/lllplslll/l\"!ol El !311dg Iflál Dlll 11\\ @ujclAI 1I1 I I1 fl7l pi IOlpl'¡AI I1 11 n 1 \\1111 I (J]] o 1311/01~ cm Ll1J 1MlAIltzlllllll [TI] ' cl o !.'1lf1Rlflll1ffi I~I/IL §I~ I fIit1O\\ o 0]1~ ~ 01J cm 1~lulclAI i 1I I ! I OIlIPIRlPlpl,IA! [~I 111111 I1 11 1 rm , i PROCEDENCIA DE LA SEHILLA , iPROCEDENCIA DE LA SEHILLA CENTRO INTERNACIONAL DE AGRICULTURA TROPICAL TARKETA No. 3 PAGINA No. 1 TARJETA No. 3 PAGINA No. 2 PARCELAS DE PREPRODUCCION PROGRAMA DE YUCA PARCELAS DE PREPRODUCCION CENTRO INTERNACIONAL DE AGRICULTURA TROPICAL PROGRAMA DE YUCA SISTEMAS DE PRODUCCION PROCEDENCIA DE LA SEMILLA CENTRO INTERNACIONAL DE AGRICULTURA TROPICAL TARKETA No. 3 PAGINA No. 1 TARJETA No. 3 PAGINA No. 2 PARCELAS DE PREPRODUCCION PROGRAMA DE YUCA PARCELAS DE PREPRODUCCION CENTRO INTERNACIONAL DE AGRICULTURA TROPICAL PROGRAMA DE YUCASISTEMAS DE PRODUCCION PROCEDENCIA DE LA SEMILLA r::!f.i::t, 5-' ,:?-8 'f-IO II-;;'{) . . ;;'/-J2 23-21 2'-3.3 3¡l-) , 'ID-I/!l r::!f.i::t, 5-' ,:?-8 'f-IO II-;;'{) ..;;'/-J2 23-212'-3.33¡l-) ,'ID-I/!l No. Nombre Descripción Columna No.NombreDescripciónColumna o NUTAIlJETA Nomero aa la tarjeta 1 oNUTAIlJETANomero aa la tarjeta1 1 NUl!EAGRICO Ndaero ael agricultor 2-4 1NUl!EAGRICONdaero ael agricultor2-4 2 NUHENCOEST Nombre del. encuestador 5-6 2NUHENCOESTNombre del. encuestador5-6 3 NlVELTECNI Nivel de teanolog1a 1-8 3NlVELTECNINivel de teanolog1a1-8 4 NUMESECTOR NOmero del sector 9-10 4NUMESECTORNOmero del sector9-10 5 NOMARREGLO Nombre del arreglo 11-20 5NOMARREGLONombre del arreglo11-20 6 l/UHEROLOTE Nomero del lote 21-22 6l/UHEROLOTENomero del lote21-22 7 ARESISTIlMA Area del sistema 23-28 7ARESISTIlMAArea del sistema23-28 8 FESIECOLTl Fecha de siembra cultivo1 29-36 8FESIECOLTlFecha de siembra cultivo129-36 9 FESIECULT2 Fecha de siembra cultivo2 37-44 9FESIECULT2Fecha de siembra cultivo237-44 10 FESIECULT3 Fecha de siembra cultiv03 45-52' 10FESIECULT3Fecha de siembra cultiv0345-52' 11 DISURCULTl Distancia surcos cultivol 53-57 11DISURCULTlDistancia surcos cultivol53-57 12 DIPLACOLTl Distancia plantas oultivol 58-62 12DIPLACOLTlDistancia plantas oultivol 58-62 13 DISURCOLT2 Distancia surcos oultivó2' 63-61 13DISURCOLT2Distancia surcos oultivó2'63-61 14 DIPLACULT2 DIstancia plantas oultivo2 68-72 14DIPLACULT2DIstancia plantas oultivo2 68-72 15 DISURCOLT3 DistancIa surcos cultivo) 13-76 15DISURCOLT3DistancIa surcos cultivo)13-76 16 DIPLPCDLT3 Distancia plantas cultivoJ 71-80 16DIPLPCDLT3Distancia plantas cultivoJ 71-80 17 VARCOLTIV1 Variedad ler. cultivo 81-90 17VARCOLTIV1Variedad ler. cultivo81-90 ! ¡ . í 18' El nT.r-, I T nTI [LJ I I I I I 11 1I r 1I [lIIJ :: ':: VARCOLTIV2 \" RCOLTIV3 DESISTEN 19, 20. ' n , ' El 1111 ! l,llllJ OnTll [ID 11! Iln-llL..-i 2_1 _AR-\"--_ _ _ ---Variedad 2do. cultivo 91-100 OAGRICOL ! ¡ . í18' El nT.r-, I T nTI [LJ I I I I I 11 1I r 1I [lIIJ :: ':: VARCOLTIV2 \" RCOLTIV3 DESISTEN 19, 20. ' n , ' El 1111 ! l,llllJ OnTll [ID 11! Iln-llL..-i 2_1 _AR-\"--_ _ _ ---Variedad 2do. cultivo 91-100 OAGRICOL "},{"text":" El / 6 1 1II [TI m DJ /11111 1I L 1I rn 111-' 111IIIII1I II1II 1IIIll flll I /-111 El [ffi] OJ [) rn Imlll rill !TI []Jill DIIIIIII amll [J DJJ 11•111 \\ \\ INSUMOS DE PRODUCCION ~ INSUMOS DE PRODUCCION~ CENTRO INTERNACIONAL DE AGRICULTURA TROPICAL CENTRO INTERNACIONAL DE AGRICULTURA TROPICAL PROGRAMA DE YUCA PARCELAS DE PREPRODUCCION PROGRAMA DE YUCA PARCELAS DE PREPRODUCCION TARJETA No. 6 PAGINA No. 2 TARJETA No. 6PAGINA No. 2 ,; EJ 11 I 1II/IIIIgl~IOlollvleIAJlfl;?:lol{18J ~A~k)0mJI_NO. __ \"u_ .... _.a _ _ _ ,53-5 t \" \"\"-' \" l5-;>2 1J -fa ~ 0]]/1.3101 1 1 1/1310101 IVI-l/ltll.r!TIJ ~1¡jJ1/lollJfl'll: O ~l [¡LI WG 11~111OIoloI181~IBlolslol 1 1 Itll.¡j/1~lt>l/lII1r 1 ~f f1L@oJOO 11 131\\1j QIOI 181EiJ.ALIAI' il¡;O [01&\"110 / 111: : ,; EJ 11 I 1II/IIIIgl~IOlollvleIAJlfl;?:lol{18J ~A~k)0mJI_NO. __ \"u_ .... _.a _ _ _ ,53-5 t \" \"\"-' \" l5-;>2 1J -fa ~ 0]]/1.3101 1 1 1/1310101 IVI-l/ltll.r!TIJ ~1¡jJ1/lollJfl'll: O ~l [¡LI WG 11~111OIoloI181~IBlolslol 1 1 Itll.¡j/1~lt>l/lII1r 1 ~f f1L@oJOO 11 131\\1j QIOI 181EiJ.ALIAI' il¡;O [01&\"110 / 111: : 1. 2.. 3. 't. 15. 9. 010. 1.2..3.'t.15.9.010. "},{"text":" WJ 0ZJ I 1 11•11 H.. ._ro _u ___ . . ~III. GI<tIIIII'¡fllll \\.¡111111 ¡;l¡.r! CID ~ 111/\" I .~ ::=:. o IIIIM 1I1 ~I{j 1I ! 1.2121111 ~L211IIJ @]¡J m 1•11 ~ =~ TARJETA•No. 9 PAGINA No.2• TARJETA•No. 9PAGINA No.2• JI o 1II IJql 11I IJlolllll:rlzlll 1 1.11,1 _t __ .\",_ SI-oS.. ...'_'0 tl-' .. •• ,,_~o +1-1~ :w.¡If, ?'-Io JI o 1II IJql 11I IJlolllll:rlzlll 1 1.11,1 _t __ .\",_ SI-oS.. ...'_'0 tl-' .. •• ,,_~o +1-1~ :w.¡If, ?'-Io i ... i... "},{"text":" Se identificaron cuatro componentes del paquete tecnológico como indices de adopción: Herbicida Pre-emergente, Maices Mejorados, Fertilización y Control Integrado de Plagas. Sin embargo, solo los dos primeros fueron considerados, puesto que la fertilización fuá únicamente recomendada en el sistema Yuca )C Maiz/ /Ñame en el primer año y la aplicación del control integrado es más específico del sitio. Cuadro 6. Sistemas de producción utilizados en las parcelas de Cuadro 6. Sistemas de producción utilizados en las parcelas de preproducción (%) • preproducción (%) • Sector Yuca )C Maiz Nivel De Tecnología Yuca x Maiz//Ñame SectorYuca )C Maiz Nivel De Tecnología Yuca x Maiz//Ñame 1 11 1 11 111111 4 67 33 46733 5 80 100 20 O 58010020O 6 100 O :... 6100O:... 7 53 40 47 60 753404760 "},{"text":" Grupo de actividades de producción en las parcelas de preproducción (Cont.). Cuadro 7. Grupo Labores Cuadro 7. GrupoLabores Labores de Siembra Hoyada Picada Labores de SiembraHoyada Picada Preparación de Semilla Preparación de Semilla Resiembra Siembra Resiembra Siembra Tratamiento de Semilla Tratamiento de Semilla Control de Malezas Herbicida Control Manual Control de MalezasHerbicida Control Manual Labores De cultivo Abonada Acarreo de Agua Labores De cultivoAbonada Acarreo de Agua Quebrada Quebrada Raleo Raleo Control de Plagas Control Biológico Cebos Control de PlagasControl Biológico Cebos Fungicidas Fungicidas Labores de Cosecha Insecticidas -Cosecha Desgrane Labores de CosechaInsecticidas -Cosecha Desgrane Transporte Interno Transporte Externo Transporte Interno Transporte Externo Labores Labores Labores de Preparación Arada Labores de PreparaciónArada Azadoneada Caballoneo Azadoneada Caballoneo Desmonte Desmonte Despalite Despalite Destronque Destronque Hachado Limpia Hachado Limpia Quema Quema Rastrillada Tumba Rastrillada Tumba "},{"text":" Los rendimientos de maiz estuvieron estrechamente relacionados con la densidad de siembra (Cuadro 10). ,En el sistema Yuca x Maiz, la tecnología recomendada utilizó densidades alrededor de 12290 plantas/ha con un rendimiento promedio de 1328 kg/ha, mientras que la tecnología tradicional usó 14902 plantas/ha obteniendo un rendimiento de 1857 kg/ha. En el sistema Yuca x Maiz//Ñame, la tecnologia recomendada uso densidades de siembra de 28547 plantas/ha con un rendimiento de 3485 kg/ha, mientras que la tecnología tradicional obtuvo 2856 kg/ha de maiz con una densidad de 24209 plantas/ha. Cuadro 10. Rendimientos de Maiz 'en las parcelas de preproducción.El hecho de que se hayan obtenido rendimientos de maiz más altos en el sistema Yuca x Maiz/ /Ñame, a pesar de que se presenta mayor competencia inter-especifica~' en el sistema Yuca x Maiz, significa que en este ultimo necesitamos reconsiderar las densidades de siembra para explotar más su potencial de producción. cuadro 11. Rendimiento de Ñame en las parcelas de pre-producción.Tal vez en la producción de ñame se puede detectar más fácilmente el impacto de la nueva tecnolog1a sobre los rendimientos (CUadro NT = 2 NT=2 Arreglo Sector N YxM 4 3 NT = 1 Sector N Rend. Rend. 122J.J. Dens. Dens. 7379 NT -2 N N Rend. Rend. , , Dens. Dens. ! I Arreglo Sector N YxM 4 3 NT = 1 Sector N Rend.Rend. 122J.J. Dens.Dens. 7379 NT -2 N N Rend.Rend. , , Dens.Dens. ! I 4 2 5 3733 19 J.J.695 7516 6762 6 1126J. 4703 425373319J.J.695 7516676261126J.4703 5 4 6 4583 1 J.J.266 8800 6366 1 1000 2667 54645831J.J.266 88006366 110002667 6 7 8 16902 6982 \". 5 9581 7759 678169026982\".595817759 Y x M//Ñ 7 7 4 7583 1 12883 8565 6366 9 '-, 4940 6706 Y x M//Ñ 7747583112883 85656366 9'-, 49406706 5 3 4287 5691 5342875691 6 6 7 7 4763 5696 6 5485 8224 7747635696654858224 . Arreglo Sector N NT = Rend. 1 Dens. N NT' -2 Rend. Dens; i . ArregloSector NNT = Rend.1 Dens.NNT' -2 Rend. Dens; i y x M 4 3 922 9263 y x M439229263 . 5 17 1492 13646 9 1332 11200 .5171492136469133211200 6 J. 1248 10300 6J.124810300 7 7 1J.J.6 10582 5 2802 21566 771J.J.6105825280221566 Y x M//Ñ 4 1 3550 25933 Y x M//Ñ41355025933 5 4 3029 5466 1 2582 15333 : 54302954661258215333 : 6 6 7 6 3779 31038 9 2887 25196 763779310389288725196 "},{"text":" Cuadro 13. Costos de Producción en el sistema de Yuca x Maiz/I~ En el sistema de Yuca x Maiz, las parcelas de nivel tecnológico recomendado, presentan una mayor relación costo beneficio, lo que hace suponer que las innovaciones tecnológicas hacen más efeciente el sistema de producción.Lo mismo sucede en el sistema Yuca x MaizjjÑame, donde además, esta relación costo beneficio en general SECTOR 4 5 5 7 7 SECTOR45577 TECNOLOGIA 1 1 2 1 , 2 TECNOLOGIA1121,2 Costo Costo lL 117900 190941 99250 123840 133359 lL11790019094199250123840133359 .~. ..... ,..i ,t,n 4200 25250 12250 15571 21522 .~...... ,..i ,t,n420025250122501557121522 Siembra 15800 26025 12000' '16585 18344 Siembra158002602512000''1658518344 Cultivo .. 1 , .... 3600 9333 1500 4333 'O O 4100 7971 5500 O Cultivo .. 1 , .... 3600 9333 1500 4333'O O4100 79715500 O Malezas 49900 41250 38000 38871 40977 Malezas4990041250380003887140977 Cosecha 42900 84750 37000 40742 47016 Cosecha4290084750370004074247016 lI,.,.; .. nr'ln 29000 18500 30000 16514 22144 lI,.,.; .. nr'ln2900018500300001651422144 ~ .... ,...,i nn 25000 18500 30000 16514 16666 ~.... ,...,i nn2500018500300001651416666 Cosecha 4000 O O O 5478 Cosecha4000OOO5478 ~ 75481 37231 73435 ••••4'2496 -~-.-50479 23904 82285 24541 65214 ~7548137231 73435••••4'2496 -~-.-50479 23904 8228524541 65214 Siembra 'P1 ~ Siembra . . , Malezas Malezas Cultivo Cultivo Cosecha 30480 7992 37360 17700 25136 11721 O 8700 O ' 10085, 10013 40066 13685 9950 10984 O 8700 O 8200 1797 .42276 O 4703 7657 O O 3500 9751 10786 37475 18061 18049 15542 8700 2827 ,O . 13136 51387 O 1298 7327 10107 O O 6500 Siembra 'P1 ~ Siembra . . , Malezas Malezas Cultivo Cultivo Cosecha30480 7992 37360 17700 25136 11721 O 8700 O' 10085, 10013 40066 13685 9950 10984 O 8700 O8200 1797 .42276 O 4703 7657 O O 35009751 10786 37475 18061 18049 15542 8700 2827 ,O.13136 51387 O 1298 7327 10107 O O 6500 Cosecha TOTAL TOTAL 6300 197075 222381 '7183 178967 282876 6250 177575 179729 3600 134580 222639 O 144167 220717 Cosecha TOTAL TOTAL6300 197075 222381'7183 178967 2828766250 177575 1797293600 134580 222639O 144167 220717 ~ .,., -'l -I1n i .. ni-, -'I;mi .. n\"'\"\" Maiz ($65jkg) 230750 196885 167830 245635 187655 ~ .,., -'l -I1n i .. ni-, -'I;mi .. n\"'\"\" Maiz ($65jkg)230750196885167830245635187655 Maiz($65jkg) 'iuca ($1_8jkg) 59930 231894 96980 77166 86580 72540 85734 182130 98730 Maiz($65jkg) 'iuca ($1_8jkg)59930 23189496980 771668658072540 85734182130 98730 Yuca ($18jkg) Ñame ($75jkg) 219798 279975 210510 343725 202698 200025 304236 568725 172458 370500 Yuca ($18jkg) Ñame ($75jkg)219798 279975210510 343725202698 200025304236 568725172458 370500 INGRESOS INGRESOS 279728 742619 307490 617776 289278 367855 376776 900094 354588 656885 INGRESOS INGRESOS279728 742619307490 617776289278 367855376776 900094354588 656885 Benef./Costo Benef.jCosto 1.4 3.3 I 1.7 2.2 J 1.6 2.0 2.8 4.0 2.5 3.0 Benef./Costo Benef.jCosto1.4 3.3 I1.7 2.2 J1.6 2.02.8 4.02.5 3.0 "}],"sieverID":"8b0cad36-5f79-4f0d-9f2f-15c51fe2edd4","abstract":"El propósito de escribir un manual de procedimiento dirigido a técnicos promotores agricolas vinculados al proceso de transferencia de tecnología, es ayudar a identificar los aspectos más importantes de que influyen en este proceso y la factibilidad de poder ser evaluados.No se prentende cubrir todas las areas implicadas en el proceso de transferencia tecnológica.Simplemente definir objetivos en base a preguntas básicas y establecer criterios de manejo de ciertos instrumentos que nos pemitan transcribir esas preguntas en mecanismos operacionales."}

data/part_4/047cc2ef15712fd28d087b9b687cc3fc.json ADDED Viewed

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+ {"metadata":{"id":"047cc2ef15712fd28d087b9b687cc3fc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/45d76d9a-fc17-4e55-9a24-4b7df4ebe9ac/retrieve"},"pageCount":26,"title":"Research support to address barriers and accelerate the impact of the Great Green Wall Initiative","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Policy coherence at regional level","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"The Africa Union's Great Green Wall Initiative Strategy and tenyear Implementation Framework, drafted in December 2022, reiterates the need to facilitate collaboration between stakeholders -including strengthening linkages with the research community -to coordinate and scale actions towards achieving its goals."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"In addition the recent UNCCD Landmark Report on the implementation status of the GGWI highlighted the lack of its prioritisation in national environmental and climate priorities, and the resultant lack of integration in relevant sector strategies, policies, and action plans."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"UNCCD. The Great Green Wall: Implementation Status and Way Ahead to 2030. 7 September 2020."},{"index":4,"size":43,"text":"The report also highlighted weak institutional and coordination structures for implementation, including the exchange and flow of information at multiple scales. The African Union and partners of the GGWI call upon all stakeholders, and the research community, to assist in addressing these challenges."},{"index":5,"size":30,"text":"there is a renewed momentum for research that is tailored in response to national and regional government priorities and community needs, through demand-driven processes of adequate stakeholder engagement and inclusivity."}]},{"head":"Addressing bottlenecks of the GGWI","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"S E C T I O N 1","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Enhance governance, coordination and inclusion","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"There is difficulty with adopting a landscape approach that transcends jurisdictional boundaries and traditional sectors (agriculture, environment, forestry, water, energy, land use and decentralization)."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"There is also a lack of policy stakeholder involvement in the operational and strategic management of the GGWI initiative, including of local authorities, producer organisations and civil society. Some practical research tools that can be developed to overcome this hurdle, including research that maps policy linkages and commitments between GGWII and other multilateral processes, ie. the action plans of the UNCCD, UNFCCC and UNCBD, as well as establishing multi-stakeholder, multisector platforms to promote coordination and dialogue at various scales."}]},{"head":"Promote research, science, technologies and innovation, as well as strengthen the policy to science interface","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Knowledge developed through UNCCD processes, and other SLM adaptation/mitigation projects is poorly disseminated and largely unknown."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"In addition, the role of science and research in informing the GGWII is not well emphasized."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"There is no specific scientific advisory structure at the African or national levels. It is therefore important that the research community assists with the integration of research within national coalition. It is also important that research is packaged in a way that it meets the needs of policy makes and helps to inform decision making."},{"index":4,"size":45,"text":"There is a need for the mapping and organisation of research initiatives. The GGWI secretariat can undertake an initial scoping exercise to determine the direction and focus of its research needs in order to ensure that research partners are supporting a unified, coherent, overall objective."}]},{"head":"Advocacy, communication, awareness raising, education","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"There is a lack of understanding of the importance and value of GGWI, as well as drylands in general. There is also a need to emphasise that the GGWI is a development plan for drylands and not a tree planting initiative."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"The GGWI therefore needs to build/ market itself better as a resilience building initiative. Research organisations can assist with the development and sharing of success stories for the capitalisation and popularisation of good practices of sustainable land management, including community practices and traditional knowledge."},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"Equally, important lessons can be learnt through sharing failed experiences. Experiences in the economic valorisation and monetisation of natural resources that strongly encourage local communities to adopt and adapt the concept and operational modalities of the GGWII. Research entities can contribute to dialogue forums to share lessons among stakeholders, member states and project partners."}]},{"head":"Promotion of livelihood opportunities","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"A key need of the GGWI is the promotion of a green/ restoration economy through the valorisation of natural resources within the framework of the creation of value chains, including the implementation of non-timber forestry products processing infrastructures and the creation of green jobs."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"This includes efforts to facilitate access to finance for SMEs and overcome market-entry barriers to international markets arising from complex standards and regulations, as well as the economic diversification, on-site processing of products and marketing and the creation of value addition at the local level."},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"Research can assist with scoping and lesson sharing to promote contextspecific livelihood alternatives in the dryland areas, as well as to explore the enabling environment to enhance their success. This includes, for example, the creation of polyvalent vegetable gardens for women for income generation and ensuring food and nutrition security."}]},{"head":"Promotion of livelihood opportunities","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"With the onset of COVID-19, as well as regional security issues, the GGWI is no longer viewed as a government priority as it has been in the past in some countries. It has failed so far to deliver the large-scale change that was originally envisaged, and therefore not only has this resulted in a lack of commitment from sectoral ministries to coordinate finances, but the funding that is available, is being prioritized elsewhere."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"The draft AU GGWII Strategy further highlights the need to facilitate dialogues for enhanced Public -Private -Philanthropic -Partnerships, including the exploration of new areas of financing opportunities i.e. through carbon markets and trust-based grants. Building national capacity to mobilize domestic and international financial resources with a view to mastering the procedures for accessing the main sources of financing is also key."}]},{"head":"Policy and Enabling Environment","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"The lack of land use policies and laws are being challenged within GGWI member states, particularly in countries like Ethiopia and Sudan. The GGWI countries need land use policies and governance structures so that the communities have ownership, tenure and resource use rights to successfully restore degraded lands and avert recurrent droughts and loss of livelihoods. Other challenges include the lack of synergy at the national level, and the issue of ministries working in silos."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"Communities often do not believe that they will receive the benefits of the GGWI, particularly in the initial phase where they do not readily see the benefits. Government support is critical to help encourage communities to participate in GGWI activities, until the point where they start to see the benefits of the initiative."}]},{"head":"Institutional Relationships and Partnerships","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Partnerships are not being funded, given that this is not a traditional funding line item. There is also a need for more national engagements to break down the silos that are a major barrier to effective communication and coordination."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"An example of a success partnership includes the Permanent Interstate Committee for Drought Control in the Sahel (CILSS) and AGRHYMET's development of a national platform to work together across countries and create a common programme of work."}]},{"head":"Research and Academia","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"There is a lack of availability and sharing of information between research houses and government departments. This is associated with the lack of funding available for research, as well as the absence of clear communication pathways to share knowledge, particularly indigenous knowledge. While it is critical that science is linked to policy, it is equally critical that indigenous knowledge is taken into consideration when policies are developed and updated."}]},{"head":"Promoting Practice and Capacity Development","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"With regards to promoting practice and capacity development, technologies exist, but these are not always accessible, particularly at the grassroots level. The GGWII needs to reach out to civic societies and the private sector to mobilise resources and enhance the resilience of communities. Research support and capacity development can be directed to assist designated implementing institutions as well as local communities, both of whom play key roles in the outcome of the GGWI projects."}]},{"head":"Research that can help to overcome the GGWI challenges and barriers","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"S E C T I O N 2","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Research that can help to overcome the GGWI challenges and barriers","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"One CGIAR -the unified Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centers -is well placed to provide overall analytical and strategic guidance to support the GGWI Secretariat, regional bodies and partners achieve its key strategic objectives."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"Through its long history of focus in the areas of land management, natural resource governance, climate change and climate resilient development, One CGIAR research is contributing to achieve the objectives of the GGWI, both from a country and regional perspective."}]},{"head":"Research that can help to overcome the GGWI challenges and barriers","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"For example, there are abundant technologies, best practices, scientific information and experiences that can be mainstreamed into GGWI from existing research sites and through documenting good indigenous practices. There is also new research that is being undertaken to highlight promising technologies and practices to support farmers and local communities."}]},{"head":"Research that can help to overcome the GGWI challenges and barriers","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"One CGIAR attempts to produce research that promotes a nexus approach to sustainable land, water, and soil management integrates biodiversity conservation and governance across sectors and scales. Its various research houses produce scientific, practical and traditional knowledge that promote multidisciplinary and participatory research and the R&D, tailored to Africa's unique position. Its initiatives look to develop and strengthen appropriate knowledge management, sharing and coordination mechanisms, including the establishment of science-policy working groups to promote the uptake of science into decision making."}]},{"head":"Research that can help to overcome the GGWI challenges and barriers","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"One CGIAR can help to clarify the conceptual framing for the GGWI and to help emphasise its shift from a focus on tree planting to a more integrative development perspective that aims to transform the lives of those living in the Sahel by creating a mosaic of green and productive landscapes."}]},{"head":"Research that can help to overcome the GGWI challenges and barriers","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"There is part of a growing response that highlights the role of regenerative grazing and silvopastoral systems as a central part of a holistic response to curb climate change and promote ecosystem and human health. GGWI needs to clearly define its value-add at the country level and One CGIAR research can align to make this 'pathway' clearer."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"One CGIAR research encourages countries to investigate the systemic challenges of land degradation and climate change, to build transformative systemic climate resilience of smallscale farmers and rural communities."},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"Regenerative grazing for climate ecosystem and human health (for COP27). November 2022. https://savory.global/regenerative-grazing-forclimate-ecosystem-and-human-health-cop27document/"}]},{"head":"Research that can help to overcome the GGWI challenges and barriers","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"One CGIAR research encourages countries to investigate the systemic challenges of land degradation and climate change, to build transformative systemic climate resilience of small-scale farmers and rural communities."},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"One CGIAR also has expertise in partnership brokering and can help to develop and enhance partnerships through promoting strategic knowledge alliances for actions and innovations. Through its experience in facilitating multi-stakeholder, multisectoral platforms, the One CGIAR projects and initiates (such as ClimBeR) are facilitating stakeholder dialogues in the region to promote the coordination of various groupings."}]},{"head":"Recommendations","index":21,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"S E C T I O N 3","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"The GGWI can be seen as a unifying platform for sustainable development and poverty reduction policies and activities in the drylands of Africa, focused currently on the Sahel/Sahara."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"The GGWI provides a point of mutual convergence and synergy for other Rio conventions, including for climate change, biodiversity, land degradation, disaster risk management and health."},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"There are enormous opportunities to leverage GGWI to achieve food security and poverty reduction goals through diversification of agriculture and production systems to boost food production and create employment opportunities, particularly for women and youth in arid zones. However, ccoherent and coordinated research efforts are still needed to support the challenges experienced in the implementation of the GGWII over the past ten years."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"eb4342c3-0cc3-4c59-8741-d5ca7316f609","abstract":"In addition to the focus countries, regional engagement and a series of virtual events and stakeholder interviews have been synthesised into the knowledge series. We would like to thank the time and expertise from stakeholders for interviews, workshops, regional events and sharing their insights towards this important project."}

data/part_4/04bca160674be73be1558843c75e60be.json ADDED Viewed

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+ {"metadata":{"id":"04bca160674be73be1558843c75e60be","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/21b19c48-a58b-47e1-b5df-b03b812aecec/retrieve"},"pageCount":19,"title":"Negotiating across difference: Gendered exclusions and cooperation in the shea value chain","keywords":["Shea (Vitellaria paradoxa)","value chains","gender","Burkina Faso","social inclusion/exclusion","collectives"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":139,"text":"Shea nuts are obtained from the shea tree (Vitellaria paradoxa), which grows across a 5000 kilometre-wide expanse of semi-arid savanna, south of the Sahara. Women living in the 'shea belt' transform shea nuts into a multi-purpose butter that represents the primary source of dietary fat for many agriculturalists living in the species' range. For centuries, the shea value chain -that is, the sequence of processes in which shea nuts are collected, transformed into butter, transported, traded and consumed -has provided a primary source of income for women from agricultural groups (Chalfin, 2004). The growth of the international shea trade and emerging specialty markets in the global North since the 1990s have generated new contexts for actors along the chain, including the women who sell the product at its source in the villages of Burkina Faso (Elias and Saussey, 2013)."},{"index":2,"size":128,"text":"Improved prospects in the shea trade have led the government of Burkina Faso to promote the importance of this commerce for women's empowerment and support the product's export. In its forestry programme, the Burkinabe`government has advocated upgrading the trade and modernising a traditional division of labour where women are economically marginalised due to their isolation from markets (Westholm and Arora-Jonsson, 2015). Various actors, including national and international non-governmental organisations (NGOs), multilateral institutions, and the private sector have converged in giving shape to the shea value chain (Laube, 2015). The result has been the emergence of what we call the 'alternative' strand of the value chain, in which shea butter production and sale have moved from an individual endeavour in the longstanding 'conventional' strand to a collective female enterprise."},{"index":3,"size":93,"text":"Yet, policy and NGO discourses around shea have paid little heed to the processes of social inclusion and exclusion that mediate gains in an increasingly segmented shea value chain. Shea producers are frequently portrayed as an undifferentiated group of poor women who benefit equally from collective participation in alternative value chain configurations. 1 Scarce attention is given to the 'horizontal relations' (e.g. Leslie and Reimer, 1999) that shape unequal prospects for producers from different geographical areas, ethnicities and ages within new marketing arrangements, which undermines efforts to promote equity within the value chain."},{"index":4,"size":211,"text":"Value chains are normally studied with an inherent political economy logic, with a focus on vertical linkages among actors fulfilling different functions in the chain (e.g. Gereffi et al., 2005). Yet, a growing body of feminist scholarship has shown how value chain development and economic globalization reproduce ever greater differences in horizontal relations; that is, among actors occupying the same function in the chain in a particular region (Bair, 2010;Tsing, 2016). In a time where value chains are said to be becoming more buyer driven and quality considerations are foremost (Ponte, 2005), we highlight the primary role that social relations across gender, ethnic, and age groups as well as geographies play in determining the opportunities to be seized at the bottom of the shea value chain. We glimpse the possibilities that can be opened up for greater equity for producers on the ground; not automatically by their inclusion in value chains or in collectives, but by paying heed to the structural, organizational and political work required to bring about a more equitable trade. The challenge rests in meaningfully integrating vertical and horizontal factors in value chain analyses to understand whether or how prospects arising within a chain can translate into improved livelihoods for impoverished chain actors (Bolwig et al., 2010;Jarosz, 2008)."},{"index":5,"size":135,"text":"In what follows, we unpack the movement of different actors in and out of the shea value chain as the chain assumes new configurations. We begin with an overview of the precepts of value chain analysis, before presenting the methodology for the study. We then analyse the inclusion of women into the conventional strand of the value chain, wherein women's labour results in low margins and where female shea nut collectors risk loosing their prevailing access to the resource and trade. Subsequently, we turn our focus to the convergence of interests that led to the parallel creation and support of women's collectives that emerged, like many others in the Global South, from development discourses on gender equality and empowerment (Arora-Jonsson, 2013), and that enabled some producers to tap into a more promising shea butter market."}]},{"head":"Conceptualizing cooperation in the midst of exclusions in the shea value chain","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"Drawn from the work of Hopkins and Wallerstein (1986: 159), the most widely cited definition of a commodity or value chain is ''a network of labour and production processes whose end result is a finished commodity.'' The shea value chain centres on a specific product -shea butter -and encompasses diverse actors situated at various geographical scales and spaces, ranging from the individual and household realms to the spheres of enterprises and nation states. Through successive transactions or 'nodes' where value addition occurs, shea nuts are transformed materially (into butter) and symbolically (into a natural cosmetic with the potential to empower African women) and profits are generated (Elias and Saussey, 2013)."},{"index":2,"size":325,"text":"Despite the importance of gender in early value chain conceptualizations and the feminist scholarship on production and reproduction that emerged in the 1970s, gender has more or less disappeared from mainstream accounts of value chains (Dunaway, 2014). However, as inter-disciplinary interest in the approach has grown, there have been renewed calls to move beyond vertical linkages of value chains, to consider how social relations and historically rooted, place-based factors -or 'horizontal' elements -shape the chains (Bair and Werner, 2011;Leslie and Reimer, 1999;Ramamurthy, 2000Ramamurthy, , 2004)). Drawing on feminist theory, this literature has shown that value chains and markets are embedded in gender norms, ideologies and power relations operating across scales -from the household to the global (gendered) economy -that define chain dynamics (Barrientos, 2001;Dunaway, 2014). Gender specific constraints -including norms stipulating acceptable work for women and men, women's typically lower education levels or skills, time poverty, competing work demands in the reproductive sphere and unequal access to and control of assets -have been shown to affect women's ability to make decisions and to access more profitable nodes and value chains (Coles and Mitchell, 2011;Dolan, 2001;Quisumbing et al., 2015). In an iterative manner, participation in value chains (re)produces and can reform gender relations; for instance, by altering the gender division of labour, affecting women's asset ownership, and fostering women's empowerment (Barrientos, 2001;Quisumbing et al., 2015;Said-Allsopp and Tallontire, 2014). Many methodological toolkits have been developed to guide value chain interventions in enhancing gender equity and women's livelihoods (KIT et al., 2012;Mayoux and Mackie, 2008;Riisgaard et al., 2010). Yet, the challenge of integrating vertical and horizontal dimensions in value chain analyses remains. As Bolwig et al. (2010: 185) argue: ''integrating horizontal aspects into value-chain analysis requires more than a cursory look at the incomes of participants, or even at local income distributions. Rather, it requires a contextual analysis of local social process, teasing out the implications of power relations and resource access for participants' social agency and empowerment.''"},{"index":3,"size":178,"text":"Central to this analysis are the processes of social inclusion and exclusion that mediate the interest and ability -or inability -of value chain actors to benefit from a given value chain. In this respect, Carr and Chen (2004) distinguish between new opportunities for women in the global economy and the often questionable quality of women's employment, including the typically low benefits they capture in relation to the labour they invest as producers in global value chains. Yet, few authors, like Ramamurthy (2000), carefully consider how intersecting relations of power reproduce exclusions for different groups of women in particular value chain 'places' or nodes. In her analysis of the textile industry in India and Japan, Ramamurthy (2000: 571) shows that ''changing material conditions of productionlabour arrangements, capital intensive hybrid agriculture, export agriculture -act recursively with ideologies of gender and those of caste and class to produce a systematicity that colludes with, rather than radically transforms patriarchy.'' In so doing, she demonstrates how multi-faceted individual and collective identities are constitutive of, and constituted by, the production and consumption of commodities."},{"index":4,"size":97,"text":"Understanding processes of inclusion and exclusion further requires attention to the ways personal motivations influence participation in value chains. Hence, we examine value chain processes from the perspective of women producers and workers to explore motivations and move beyond asset-based analyses of factors influencing participation. By 'giving voice' to producers and traders in the shea value chain, we examine how exclusions can also result from personal motives not to engage in certain social interactions, and heed the call for more qualitative research and process evaluations to understand the impacts of value chain development (Quisumbing et al., 2015)."},{"index":5,"size":154,"text":"We examine the sites where the shea value chain touches down geographically and demonstrate that new relations of shea butter production and trade have generated positive effects for some producers and less so for others. The premise of third world gender inequality has provided legitimacy to development agencies to intervene in local gender relations and support women's collectives. Arora-Jonsson's (2013) research with women's groups in India demonstrates that while not all collectives are empowering or emancipatory as often assumed in development discourses, outside support can open up space for action for women who choose to come together across lines of class or ethnicity around issues that concern them, in the shea case, as female producers. Applying this thinking, we explore how the shea producers' Union, built up with national and international support, enabled women from different social groups to negotiate coinciding and competing interests, wherein diverse cooperative arrangements differentially favour some members over others."},{"index":6,"size":152,"text":"Following Bolwig et al.'s (2010) framework for integrating vertical and horizontal elements in value chain analyses, we analyse the inclusion of new actors such as FulBe women and male nut collectors in existing or new value chains or strands, the negotiations of positions through which chain actors can participate in the value chain under new terms, as well as the expulsion of some actors from the chain as it assumes new configurations. We specifically unpack the shea value chain's producer and small-scale trader nodes, where poverty impacts are typically the strongest, in Burkina Faso's province of Sissili. Paying heed to relations of ethnicity, geography and age, we examine how social differences are bound up with the production and trade of shea nuts and butter. This calls attention to aspects of exclusion in the emergent, alternative strand of the shea value chain, thus cautioning against easy solutions to complex relations on the ground."}]},{"head":"Methodology","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Situating the study: Social relations of shea collection and processing in the province of Sissili"},{"index":2,"size":98,"text":"The shea value chain on which we focus originates in the province of Sissili, in the centralwest region of Burkina Faso. The province is multi-ethnic, with its indigenous Gurunsi residents outnumbered by the predominantly Moose migrants who arrived in successive waves since the 1970s (Howorth and O'Keefe, 1999). In addition, FulBe agro-pastoralists migrated from the Sahel in search of pasture and dry season watering-points and became sedentarized in the area (Oue´draogo, 2003). Relations were particularly fragile between these herders and local agriculturalists, who complained that FulBe livestock trampled crops in their fields (various interviews, Breusers et al., 1998)."},{"index":3,"size":113,"text":"Shea nut collection and processing are traditionally performed by women in agricultural ethnic groups, such as the Moose and Gurunsi, who rely on vegetal fat in their diets. In contrast, pastoralists such as the FulBe are not in the habit of collecting or processing shea nuts. In Sissili's rural areas, female farmers of all wealth classes make shea butter given their agricultural lifestyles, the often relatively limited differentiation across class, and the lack of alternative incomes. In contrast, in urban areas, only poorer women process shea butter, due to the high labour and drudgery it requires, the relatively low returns to labour, and the association of this activity with a lower class endeavour."},{"index":4,"size":114,"text":"Shea nut gathering traditionally occurs according to normative rules about where and how the activity should be conducted. In fields cultivated by indigenous Gurunsi farmers, shea nuts are the right of the land's custodian. Men typically grant their wives access to nuts on cooperatively farmed household fields, and married women retain collection rights on their personal plots. In fields temporarily 'borrowed' by migrants from Gurunsi hosts, migrants do not have exclusive rights over valuable tree products. In unclaimed lands used for pasture, fuelwood and plant collection, nut collection is traditionally open to all on a first-come-first-serve basis. As we discuss below, however, these traditional access rules are being challenged as shea nuts gain value."}]},{"head":"Fieldwork in Sissili","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":172,"text":"The first author carried out fieldwork between October 2006 and March 2007 in the province of Sissili's villages of Prata (rural), Lan (peri-urban), the town of Le´o, and in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso's capital. Sissili has long been integrated in local and international shea butter markets due to its shared border with Ghana and its Sudanian climate, which favours the growth of shea trees. Le´o is the seat of the former Union des groupements de productrices de produits karite´de la Sissili et du Ziro (UGPPK), now renamed the Fe´de´ration NUNUNA and the largest union of shea butter producers in the country. At the time of this study (2006)(2007), the Union comprised over 1200 women producers organised in 33 primarylevel women's groups located throughout Sissili and Ziro. 2 Outside organizations provided the Union with essential support, consisting of funding, organizational expertise and infrastructure. The all-women association included Gurunsi and Moose women, predominantly from rural areas. The large majority of the members were impoverished and relied on shea butter sales as a primary economic activity."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"Adapting Bolwig et al.'s (2010) framework, we sought data from four types of actors: (1) chain actors who were directly involved in within-chain exchanges of products (producers and vendors); (2) external actors who provided services to chain actors (NGOs and certification agencies); (3) actors who withdrew from the value chain or one of its strands (expelled/excluded actors); and (4) non-participants who never participated in the value chain or in a given strand of the value chain (shea producers' husbands)."},{"index":3,"size":95,"text":"The chain actors interviewed included 78 Gurunsi and Moose Union members from Le´o, Lan, and Prata as well as rural non-member shea kernel and/or butter vendors of Moose or FulBe origin (n ¼ 21). Questions centred on their livelihoods, shea-related activities and social relations within their place of residence. The husbands (n ¼ 85) of all these women, when possible, were interviewed to understand how they perceived their wives' participation in the shea value chain. Sex-disaggregated focus groups held with butter producers and their husbands in Lan and Prata provided group perspectives on these issues."},{"index":4,"size":59,"text":"All of the shea nut and butter vendors (n ¼ 31) encountered at Le´o's weekly marketsome of whom were and others who were not Union members (expelled or excluded actors)were also interviewed. Questions centred on the shea market and reasons why producers chose to participate, not to participate or to leave the different strands of the shea value chain."},{"index":5,"size":107,"text":"Key informant interviews were carried out with each executive officer of the UGPPK and with NGO personnel (n ¼ 19) (external actors) who supported shea butter producers in Ouagadougou and Le´o. Direct observation and detailed notes taken by the first author, who lived among shea producers in the villages and town where the study took place, complemented these data. A shea market analysis consisting of observation of prices and product qualities and informal conversations with vendors was carried out in Le´o on a biweekly basis throughout the fieldwork. Financial records of the Union provided information on production quantities, prices and the shea-related incomes of interviewed Union members."},{"index":6,"size":45,"text":"Interview data were analysed qualitatively for recurring themes. Based on the information gathered from shea producers, vendors and from interviews with NGO personnel, consultants and academics, we trace the shea value chain within Burkina Faso and beyond, relying on secondary sources to complete the analysis."}]},{"head":"The shea butter value chain","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":148,"text":"The growth in international shea sales has engendered changes in Burkina Faso's local and national shea markets. Approximately half of shea nuts produced are still consumed within producing countries (Reynolds, 2010;Rousseau et al., 2015). The rest is primarily exported to two multinational industries. The first and largest is the agro-food industry, which consumes 90 per cent of the shea butter used outside of the African continent as a 'hidden' ingredient in margarine, pastries, animal feeds, and as a cocoa butter equivalent in chocolate (Yinug and Fetzer, 2008). Demand from this industry is longstanding and drives the first strand of the international shea value chain, wherein atomized small-scale shea butter producers sell their shea kernels and butter informally on the local market for meagre returns. We term this the 'conventional' strand, as it describes the trade relations that existed long before development interventions weighed in on the value chain."},{"index":2,"size":121,"text":"The second, newer player is the cosmetics industry, which values shea butter for its moisturizing and healing properties. Since the 1990s, the integration of shea butter in 'natural' and high-end lines of cosmetics has represented a minor but fast-growing market for the product (Masters et al., 2004;Yinug and Fetzer, 2008). As opposed to multinational food companies that import raw shea kernels, some cosmetics companies have shown a willingness to import artisanally processed shea butter, partly in an effort to demonstrate social corporate responsibility (Elias and Saussey, 2013). This has created potential for value-added activities among producers and created an alternative strand of the value chain, wherein producers supported by NGOs associate and process shea butter for improved returns through specialty markets."}]},{"head":"Conventional strand of the shea butter value chain","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"The conventional strand of the shea butter value chain we observed originated in rural areas of Sissili. Women, predominantly Gurunsi and Moose, often accompanied by their children, performed the labour-intensive task of shea nut collection from June to September. After boiling, drying and shelling shea nuts, they typically retained a portion of their nuts for processing and household consumption and sold the rest. Despite low returns, shea income represented one of the few revenue-generating opportunities, as shea processing falls within the female sphere of activities and barriers to entry into the trade are relatively slim. On a small scale, the main inputs required to enter the trade are (a great deal of) labour, shea nuts, firewood and water."},{"index":2,"size":137,"text":"The shea kernel collectors interviewed and described above also sold kernels to fellow female villagers, female acquaintances in neighbouring villages or through kinship networks to relatives from their native village. The women who purchased their kernels processed them into butter for local sale, often through similar networks, or for use in cooking dishes for sale as street food. The rural Gurunsi and Moose women who collected shea nuts and sold shea kernels also supplied a portfolio of tree products (primarily shea and ne´re´-Parkia biglobosa) and crops grown on their personal fields to several dispersed markets in rotating village markets or nearby towns, such as Le´o. 3 In those marketplaces, town-based shea kernel vendors -both women and men, also of Moose and Gurunsi origin -purchased their kernels and marketed them along with a range of cereals and foodstuffs."},{"index":3,"size":165,"text":"The structure of this shea value chain strand matched that traced by Rousseau et al. (2015): a pyramidal supply chain wherein town-based vendors sold kernels for low profits to town-based female shea butter producers, or to male, mid-level vendors or agents of Moose or Ghanaian origin, who in turn supplied wholesalers further along (downstream -towards the end user) the value chain. Gross margins per volume of kernels sold were similar across nodes of the value chain, as, ''as a low value high-volume market, it is the volume of shea traded that makes the difference in business income'' (Rousseau et al., 2015: 416). Yet, vendors traded in progressively larger kernel quantities and realized greater profits moving downstream the value chain. As Chalfin (2004) observed, wholesalers worked on behalf of large-scale Ghanaian importers or urban-based Burkinabe`exporters. Via this handful of exporters, shea kernels made their way to West African coastal countries and overseas to European, Indian, Malaysian and Japanese agro-food industries and refineries (Rousseau et al., 2015)."},{"index":4,"size":141,"text":"To a lesser extent, shea kernels were industrially processed in West Africa before being exported to the West. This was increasingly the case due to stricter European and Japanese environmental legislation against 'dirty' (polluting) industries -such as oil seed crushing that generates organic solid waste, residues and by-products, and particulate (atmospheric) and greenhouse gas emissions -in their own countries (Ferris et al., 2001: 25). Capitalizing upon market opportunities emerging from this legislation, small to medium scale oil mills that extract shea butter proliferated in Ghanaian towns (Lovett, 2003). These African mills supplied shea butter to European refineries, and largely accounted for the drastic increase in the proportion of shea butter (versus raw nuts) exported from Africa -from 10 to 35 per cent between 2005 and 2010 (Reynolds, 2010). This contributed to the surge in demand for shea kernels from Ghanaian importers."},{"index":5,"size":105,"text":"A distinguishing feature of this strand of the value chain was that it comprised shea kernels of all qualities, which male mid-level vendors or agents purchased in large volumes, indiscriminately, at low prices for subsequent industrial processing. Some of the kernels sold were even rancid and would previously have been considered worthless for eating and exchange purposes. The new market for poor quality kernels expanded the availability of shea kernels for sale and the economic opportunities of local shea kernel vendors, all the while reproducing uneven geographical relations (Bair and Werner, 2011) as the polluting work of butter extraction was increasingly concentrated in West Africa."}]},{"head":"Alternative strand of the shea butter value chain","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"Like in the conventional strand of the shea butter value chain, in the alternative strand, rural women mainly of Moose and Gurunsi origin collected shea nuts in farm areas, fallows or woodlands. Alternatively, they purchased kernels from other rural shea kernel collectors and vendors. Beyond this point, the two strands of the chain diverged, as shea butter producers came together in associations at various levels to supply the cosmetics industry. Within this new configuration, opportunities for remuneration could be higher for a premium quality product, particularly when supplying alternative, 'ethical' outlets such as the fast growing fair trade and organic certified markets."},{"index":2,"size":175,"text":"Capitalizing upon consumer interest in alternative consumption as well as advances in the shea cosmetics market, NGOs and multilateral organizations such as UNIFEM worked to enhance women's incomes in Africa. Through shea butter projects, they provided financial and technical support to producer associations, and transformed shea processing from an informal activity carried out by atomized, geographically dispersed female producers into a formal enterprise of producers associated in first, second and sometimes third-level associations (women's groups organized in union structures, organized in a federation of unions). NGOs were instrumental in helping informal village-level women's groups (Groupements villageois fe´minins or GVFs) to come together and obtain formal status as associations, and in securing and maintaining international clients, meeting international quality standards, and acquiring third-party fair trade and organic certification. As opposed to individual producers, producer collectives demonstrated the capacity to supply large quantities of quality shea butter to international clients within reasonable delays. Moving production to the villages offered new economic prospects, and created the possibility of introducing shared labour-saving technologies, such as mills and improved cookstoves."},{"index":3,"size":61,"text":"The UGPPK on which we focus was created within the context of one such shea butter project. The Union's stated economic and social goals included strengthening the capacity of its member producers, promoting local development and empowering women. Each GVF had three elected representatives and an executive committee composed of eight women (seven of whom were from Le´o) chaired the Union."},{"index":4,"size":105,"text":"National and international shea butter orders were channelled through the Union's head office that distributed orders to member GVFs, which allocated quotas to member producers. Most producers were illiterate and from remote areas lacking infrastructure and market information. The Union offered them a unique opportunity to tap into relatively remunerative international commercial circuits. The Union sold butter directly to international importers -the main one being the French multinational company L'Occitane -that integrated it in their cosmetics products (Elias and Saussey, 2013). The value chain was greatly shortened and the superior remuneration producers received for a high-quality product featured prominently in the multinational company's marketing strategy."},{"index":5,"size":69,"text":"In this alternative strand of the shea value chain, producers had to respect deadlines, quotas and stringent international quality standards. Much NGO emphasis was on providing training in standardized production methods, which required additional inputs, particularly in labour. In contrast to the conventional strand, here shea butter producers were attentive to kernel quality, carefully sorting kernels prior to their processing, and could pay a premium for high quality material."},{"index":6,"size":101,"text":"In sum, the two strands of the shea value chain were conditioned by distinct international markets for shea butter. In the first, demand for inexpensive nuts traded via Ghanaian businessmen for the agro-food industry drove low quality transactions among atomized shea kernel traders. In the second, European demand for high quality butter generated an alternative, higher-value market premised on cooperative production arrangements requiring producer knowledge and skills to generate a quality product. As detailed below, horizontal factors, such as gender and ethnicity, positioned actors differently vis a`vis these strands, and influenced their capacity and motivation to participate in the value chain."}]},{"head":"Negotiating spaces in the shea value chain Inclusion of new participants","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":231,"text":"As explained above, shea nut collection and processing are traditionally the purview of agricultural ethnic groups, such as the Gurunsi and Moose. Yet, as the shea market expanded, many FulBe pastoralists who settled in and around Le´o began partaking in the shea trade. Gurunsi, Moose and FulBe women reported that since early 2000, increased competition had triggered changes in access rights to shea nuts and collection activities. Nearly all participants claimed that nuts were being gathered from their fields before dawn, prior to their own arrival in their fields. Gurunsi women mainly attributed these 'thefts' to Moose and FulBe women, and explained that when caught, trespassers were verbally insulted and may have their nuts confiscated. Punishment depended on factors such as the familiarity between the land user and the intruder, the number of times the culprit had trespassed, and the indigenous or migrant status of the intruder. Moose nut collectors Asse´tou from Lan and Tibila from Prata corroborated that if they were found in Gurunsi fields, they would be disparaged (pejoratively referred to as 'Gaoulia', meaning person of the bush) and chased. 4 In contrast Gurunsi women openly collected nuts from Moose-farmed fields and Moose women were compelled to passively tolerate this act to avoid problems with their hosts. When other migrant Moose or FulBe women gathered nuts in their fields, however, they chased them away and sometimes confiscated their pickings."},{"index":2,"size":127,"text":"Moose and FulBe migrants additionally reported conflicts over shea nuts in unclaimed lands. Due to competition, Gurunsi collectors were allegedly asserting greater rights to nuts on these lands than Moose and FulBe 'strangers', whose nuts they had begun to confiscate. Migrant FulBe and Moose women explained that, as was the case in Gurunsi fields, indigenous nut collectors could confiscate their shea nuts, insult or threaten them if they encountered them gathering nuts in the bush. FulBe women reported that in some instances, clashes had escalated. These incidences depict the weakness of migrants' claims over shared resources that had become scarce as they gained value. Moreover, they demonstrate how prospective gains in the increasingly lucrative shea nut market were intensely negotiated among ethnic groups in the study sites."},{"index":3,"size":108,"text":"In light of fierce competition for shea nuts, Moose collector Koulsoum stated that during the shea season ''you must not be lazy.'' Nouria, her Moose neighbour, concurred that you must wake up at ''the crow's first song'' to arrive in your fields before others do. Stiff competition led some women to sleep in their fields during the rains, whereas others rushed there in the morning by bicycle, when possible. Older women, who required rest and moved more slowly, were disadvantaged by this competition. In fact, many older Gurunsi shea butter producers reported purchasing the greater portion of their shea nuts because they could no longer collect substantial quantities."},{"index":4,"size":166,"text":"Despite the strain competition for shea nuts had placed on inter-ethnic relations, Gurunsi producers explained that new economic prospects in the shea trade had also prompted fruitful knowledge and commercial exchanges among local ethnic groups. Recognizing the need to access large quantities of quality kernels to sustain their high-grade shea butter production, these Gurunsi women had taught FulBe women to collect and prepare quality kernels. FulBe women had become reputed for preparing high quality kernels, which Gurunsi women purchased and processed into butter for sale to the UGPPK. FulBe nut vendors' attention to product quality had thus allowed them to carve out a niche in the alternative strand of the value chain. Although they competed in their shea nut collection activities, Gurunsi women admitted that the relatively small quantity of nuts the FulBe collected did not represent a threat to their shea enterprise. In this case, the alternative strand of the shea value chain fostered cooperative relations in unconventional ways in the midst of ethnic differences."},{"index":5,"size":72,"text":"As shea nuts gained value, young men also became involved in nut collection and trade. Male gatherers collected shea nuts on a bicycle, motorcycle or donkey cart, which helped them canvass greater and more distant areas than women. Access to these assets gave them a comparative advantage over women; particularly, as rising kernel prices coupled with years of poor yields had required nut collectors to explore remote areas to find untapped trees."},{"index":6,"size":75,"text":"Young men brought shea nuts home to their mothers or wives, who prepared and sorted them for sale. Some men offered women money for their labour, but most retained the lion's share of revenues. Others sold the nuts they gathered to their wives for use in their buttermaking enterprise. In this way, men competed for nuts with women, all the while making shea nuts available for their wives' shea butter business through a market transaction."},{"index":7,"size":183,"text":"Yet, male collectors' lack of attention to kernel quality hindered their integration in the alternative strand of the value chain, where butter (and thus kernel) quality considerations and related skills were critical. In contrast, although men represented a small minority of nut gatherers, their greater access to social and financial capital and to means of transport helped them capture market opportunities in the conventional strand, confirming that genderspecific control over assets can give men the upper hand in value chains (Quisumbing et al., 2015). The more remunerative nodes of this strand of the value chain also continued to be dominated by men, thanks to their expansive networks of vendors and access to capital. Although women's associations represented a force to be reckoned with in the alternative strand of the shea value chain, men's involvement at the nut collection node of the conventional strand could jeopardize women's hold over one of the region's female economic opportunities. Male takeover of value chain production activities traditionally under women's purview has been reported in other contexts as these activities become more remunerative (Dolan, 2001;Njuki et al., 2011)."}]},{"head":"Women's participation under new terms","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"Aside from the arrival of new actors in the shea value chain, nearly all (90%) of the Union members interviewed stated that they were already involved in the conventional shea kernel and/or butter trade prior to the creation of the Union. They had chosen to participate in the alternative strand of the value chain for income, but also to a great extent because of the social benefits they experienced in the Union, which are explored below. Income figures from the UGPPK help contextualize this sentiment."},{"index":2,"size":131,"text":"Based on UGPPK records for the 2005-2006 and 2006-2007 shea seasons, there were significant differences in producer earnings along the rural to urban continuum (Table 1). Remuneration ranged from 2.07 to 3.11 USD PPP per kilogram for non-fair trade certified sales to international clients to 4.96 USD PPP per kilogram of butter when supplying the certified fair trade market. 5 The low end of this spectrum (2.07 USD PPP) also corresponded with the average income for one kilogram of shea butter sold in the conventional strand. The costs of producing quality butter for the Union -factoring in the cost of shea kernels, which were commonly collected rather than purchased -were highest in Le´o, where producers paid to use labour-saving technologies and running water (not available in rural areas) at Union headquarters."},{"index":3,"size":237,"text":"Hence, net returns were quite low, particularly considering that at the very least over 2.5 hours of labour were required to produce one kilogram of shea butter, excluding the time required to collect water and firewood (see Elias, 2010). Yet, shea revenues were one of the only sources of income available to rural women in the study sites, which illuminates their economic significance, and particularly that of the more lucrative fair trade market, for producers. Moreover, the fact that the UGPPK remunerated women in lump sums, as opposed to the small amounts women could earn periodically from local shea butter sales, enabled members to make productive investments rather than only spending their money on immediate needs. 6 The fair trade market was not available to all producers, however. The Union's by-laws allocated production quotas to members according to their performance during previous orders. Producers with a demonstrated ability to fulfil large orders on time were apportioned larger quotas of higher return, fair trade orders. Urban producers, who had access to laboursaving technology and running water, had supplied larger quantities of shea butter to the Union during non-fair trade certified orders than their rural counterparts. In so doing, they had gained access to the fair trade market. Hence, rural producers -while able to capture some opportunities in the alternative strand of the shea value chain -could not benefit to the same extent from this strand as urban producers."},{"index":4,"size":289,"text":"Evidence that the fair trade system bypassed the most marginal producers is nothing new (Henderson, 2008). Studies have shown that producer groups with greater assets and skills can better satisfy the demands of a specialty niche market and of third-party certifying agencies, leading critics to state that fair trade is only reaching an elite group of producers (Taylor et al., 2005). In the case of the UGPPK, this was reinforced by the Union's internal policies. Although Prata's producers, as Union members, were eligible to supply the fair trade market, the Union's policies, drafted in Le´o, legitimized the exclusion of rural producers from more remunerative orders. Spatial aspects became a dividing line among producers, as physical distance from the Union's centre also laid grounds for social and political distance that marginalized many rural producers from lucrative opportunities. This situation underscores the importance of exploring distributional issues within, and not merely across, groups participating in alternative markets, and of examining the role of informal and formal procedures -even those intended to promote transparency and equity, such as the Union's by-laws -in influencing distributional outcomes. Coupled with their limited access to fair trade sales, rural producers felt demotivated to participate in the Union due to a lack of trust towards the Union's executive officers. This sentiment was fuelled by poor circulation of information to and knowledge among members in the Union's periphery. Tensions arose when butter was weighed and collected from rural GVFs because members -who were accustomed to selling their product locally according to volume-based measures -lacked understanding of the weighing process. Rural producers felt cheated by urban officers who remunerated them according to the mass of the butter they produced, with some women contemplating abandoning the Union over this issue."},{"index":5,"size":251,"text":"In parallel, however, other producers described their motivation to participate in the Union based on its role in cementing social relations. This was particularly the case among GVF representatives, who came together across villages during Union assemblies, learned from each other and forged friendships. It was also most evident in Le´o, where Union headquarters became a common site of production. Women, at times of different ethnic groups, supported each other's production, particularly during the most demanding steps in the process, and encouraged each other as they talked and enjoyed each other's company while working. Participation in the Union had made producers feel less isolated and had engendered benefits beyond the economic (c.f. Arora-Jonsson, 2013). As one middle-aged Moose producer explained, ''when you're alone at home, you have too much time to think of your problems, but when you're surrounded by other people, you feel better because you see that they also suffer, maybe even more than you do, and with their husbands as well.'' A recurrent sentiment among urban members was that UGPPK headquarters represented a secure feminine space, which they frequented in good and bad times, even when not producing butter. Bintou, a Gurunsi member from Le´o, emphasized that the UGPPK's buildings and equipment are in the Union's name, and thus in women's name. In a context where women scarcely owned any property or physical assets, these buildings were a source of security and pride, and as a number of producers indicated, they attested to the professionalism of their enterprise."},{"index":6,"size":87,"text":"According to Union members, this feeling of professionalism, which motivated their participation in the alternative strand of the shea value chain, was also fostered by the NGO trainings. These took on particular importance as they were often the only form of formal education women had received. A common observation during interviews with producers and their husbands was that this 'professionalization' of the shea trade had also affected gender relations, as many husbands reported gaining respect for their wives' skills and appreciated consuming their quality butter at home."},{"index":7,"size":155,"text":"In fact, all of the rural members' spouses we spoke with accepted their wives' involvement in the Union largely due to the significance of the additional income, however small, for their household. In a focus group held with members' husbands in Lan, one man expressed his satisfaction by rhetorically asking: ''Who is happier: a person whose hunger is satisfied or a person who is hungry?'' Male acceptance of their wives' participation in the Union was favoured by the fact that shea processing traditionally falls within the sphere of female responsibilities and sits comfortably with their relationship and lifestyle. For example, Hamadou, an older Moose man from Lan, stated that making shea butter is ''a female activity, so there is no point in prohibiting my wife from practicing it.'' The alternative strand of the shea butter value chain thus garnered most men's support by reproducing and reaffirming traditional gender roles at the value chain's producer node."},{"index":8,"size":278,"text":"In Le´o, however, problems arose when women gained power vis a`vis their husbands and no longer fulfilled their expected roles within the household. Dissatisfied husbands were primarily those married to the UGPPK's executive officers, who worked long hours at Union headquarters and occupied publicly visible leadership positions within the Union. In two such households, serious marital problems transpired. Salif, the husband of one of the Union's Gurunsi executive officers, conveyed his grievances: ''My wife no longer cooks and could spend one week without bringing me water. She could spend three to five days without seeing me because she leaves early and comes home late. When I ask my children where their mother is, they say: 'she is at the Union.' Sometimes the men here even have to clean and feed the young children. Clearly, my wife is nobody's wife anymore if she does not see her husband and serve him.'' Other grievances were related to the awkwardness of women earning more money than their husband due to sales to the Union. As Salif indicated, ''If a woman is your responsibility, it's shameful for her to buy her own things. When you are economically weaker than your wife, you can't carry out relations with her. She will insult you if you approach her in the night. It's not good. Her behaviour can bring me problems, even with the family counsel.'' Three executive officers admitted that tensions with their spouse weighed heavily upon them. Their willingness to engage in the Union despite conflictual relations at home may be seen as a stance taken as 'women' to challenge inequalities in the home, strengthened by their association's gendered group identity (Arora-Jonsson, 2013)."}]},{"head":"Beyond the Union: New relations amid exclusions","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"Intra-household dynamics also resulted in the exclusion of some women from the Union, however. Karim and Sibdou, two Gurunsi men from Prata, confided in us that some of their fellow villagers had failed to see the benefit of the UGPPK and made their wives withdraw from the Union. Likewise, Abdou, a Moose resident in Le´o, acknowledged that some of his acquaintances forbade their wives from participating in the Union. We were unable to identify and interview these men since participants maintained their anonymity, yet the concerns outlined above may reveal the reservations guiding their decision. Gender relations were thus important in shaping value chain dynamics."},{"index":2,"size":138,"text":"Other factors leading to women's exclusion from the alternative strand of the shea value chain included the physically taxing nature of shea butter processing. The drudgery of transforming shea nuts particularly precluded older women from producing the relatively large quantities of butter required for delivery to the Union at once during orders. In contrast, it was easier for them to produce smaller quantities of shea butter for sale on the local market in the conventional strand of the value chain. In fact, the average age of the Union members interviewed was 46, 36 and 45 years old in Le´o, Lan and Prata, respectively. Older women who could draw on their social networks, mainly their daughters or daughtersin-law, could request them to produce shea butter on their behalf. Some others opted not to join the Union for this reason."},{"index":3,"size":167,"text":"Ethnic divisions also reasserted themselves in some cases. Poor ethnic integration was evident in Prata, where Moose women such as Zali preferred not to join the Union than to work with its Gurunsi members. In a focus group with Moose women held in the village, participants explained that indigenous Gurunsi residents monopolized village assets, for instance by assuming priority at the water pump even if they arrived there after their Moose counterparts, making production difficult. While we cannot establish whether these dynamics were reproduced in other villages, it is telling that nearly all of the UGPPK's GVFs comprised only Gurunsi women, and merely four Moose GVFs figured among the Union's 33 constituent groups. Other women, such as Koura, a Gurunsi producer in her mid-30s, claimed to have been excluded from GVFs or from the Union because they did not get along with their more powerful members. Politics of exclusion thus contributed to shaping Union membership, and influenced who could reap benefits in this alternative value chain configuration."},{"index":4,"size":165,"text":"The 20 shea butter producers we interviewed who sold shea butter in Le´o but had not joined the Union also faced new challenges amid a reorganization of the shea value chain. Many were from Le´o's peripheral neighbourhoods where there were no women's groups formed to join the Union. They remarked that prior to the Union's creation, local shea butter producers marketed butter out of their homes and in marketplaces. The large number of producers who sold shea butter in local trade hubs such as Le´o attracted shea butter wholesalers from Ouagadougou and other Burkinabe`cities on a weekly basis. Since the UGPPK began securing international contracts in 2004, however, most local shea butter producers joined the Union and largely reduced or altogether stopped selling their butter at the local market. Katia, a Gurunsi producer who sold her butter in Le´o, remarked that the local supply of shea butter had thus shrunk and urban wholesalers had abandoned their trips to these markets in search of the product."},{"index":5,"size":158,"text":"Whereas the shea kernel vendors described earlier found that they benefited from an increased demand for their product from the Union's member producers, the non-member shea butter producers we met in Le´o found that there is no more money to be earned in their trade outside of the Union. ''The Union has stolen the market,'' remarked Djamila, a Gurunsi producer. Non-member producers we interviewed remained in the business for lack of alternative economic options. Moreover, Daphne´e, a Gusunsi producer, justified her continued engagement in the local shea butter market by explaining that they ''were born into it. We do it to avoid crossing our arms and waiting.'' Being a shea butter producer was a way of life, transmitted from mother to daughter. As part of a livelihood style and constitutive of identity, women were reluctant to altogether abandon the activity. Nonetheless, some shea producers had become discouraged and renounced the trade, focusing on selling vegetables or yogurt instead."},{"index":6,"size":204,"text":"Those producers who continued in the trade were affected by changes in the quality of shea butter sold on the local market (Focus group with Lan's shea vendors). Training in standardized production methods had altered the quality of butter produced by Union members, some of whom also continued to sell butter on the local market. These producers explained that they were less concerned with quality when processing butter for this market, but they applied some of the techniques they learned in the alternative strand and supplied butter deemed of superior quality than previously available locally. Eager to produce a competitive product, nearly half of the non-member producers we interviewed had also adopted aspects of these processing techniques, which they learned from their Union member counterparts. While they did not receive a premium for this butter, they believed that quality improvements made their product more attractive to clients. In this way, their relations with women involved in the alternative strand of the value chain had allowed them to acquire knowledge to survive in the increasingly competitive conventional strand of the chain. In contrast, producers who continued selling a more traditional, odorous, yellower butter were further marginalized and risked exclusion from the local shea butter market."}]},{"head":"Rethinking vertical and horizontal relations in value chains","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"The shea case illustrates how shifts in value chains engender processes of social inclusion and exclusion through which different actors are motivated and able -or not -to benefit from new market opportunities. Local growth in the conventional strand of the value chain provided a market opportunity for some women, but offered them low returns, and their labour was enrolled in fuelling profits concentrated in the hands of wholesalers in Ouagadougou and Ghana who could market larger quantities of the product. Moreover, women forfeited a portion of the market to young men with the assets required to outcompete them at the nut collector/rural kernel vendor node."},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"At the same time, the consolidation of the alternative strand of the shea value chain and the creation of the Union present a new picture. The Union allowed producers to access more remunerative markets for their product and for women to strengthen their social ties. It strengthened a sense of identity, common culture, and community among urban members that encouraged them to produce for the Union. Yet, these processes were unequal, nuanced and ambiguous."},{"index":3,"size":111,"text":"Our analysis presents two important insights for value chain analyses. The first concerns the need to consider cross-cutting axes of social differentiation in understanding value chains. Vertically, gender was a primary factor determining participation in the shea value chain, with women concentrated in their traditional roles of shea nut collectors and processors and men with capital occupying the downstream, more remunerative nodes. Horizontally, gendered access to resources coupled with an expanding market for shea kernels encouraged the integration of young men and threatened women's monopoly at the collector node. Gender relations contributed to shaping women's (in)ability to join the Union, as their relations with their husbands enabled or hindered this participation."},{"index":4,"size":223,"text":"Unpacking producers' gendered identities revealed how geography, age, ethnicity and inter-personal (dis)agreements created an exclusionary force that deterred certain women from engaging in the alternative and more lucrative strand of the value chain. Spatial divides across rural and urban areas created cleavages as some rural producers were distrustful of the Union's urban leaders and as urban GVFs captured the greater share of remunerative orders. The uneven global geographies (Bair and Werner, 2011) between the polluting industry in West Africa and Europe evident in the conventional strand were underlined by geographical inequalities of urban and rural in Burkina itself. Older women were disadvantaged by production processes that marginalized them in the alternative strand of the value chain and as the skewed ethnic makeup of the Union suggests, social relations, in this case based on ethnicity or indigenous versus migrant status, played a significant role in shaping access to new market opportunities. This was due not only to potential asset-based differences across groups, but also to social dynamics across groups that made it difficult for them to act collaboratively in some configurations within the Union. Paying greater attention to such social dynamics can enhance the analytical purchase of the gender in value chains literature, which has tended to focus on structural gendered barriers to entry in value chains (Carr and Chen, 2004;Coles and Mitchell, 2011)."},{"index":5,"size":143,"text":"Second, the creation of the alternative strand promoted cooperative relations, in tension with prevailing axes of differentiation within the household and at the level of the Union, across geographic spaces, within and among groups. New male collectors competed for shea nuts with their female counterparts, while making nuts available to their wives to pursue their enterprise, albeit at a price. Older women who were outcompeted by their younger counterparts at times relied on the labour of their daughters or daughters-in-law to produce butter on their behalf. At the village level, Gurunsi Union members and Moose and FulBe non-members competed over shea nuts, even as Gurunsi women taught FulBe women to prepare quality nuts and purchased these for processing. In Le´o and elsewhere, Union members sold shea kernels to each other, and both competed and collaborated in the collection and purchase of quality kernels."},{"index":6,"size":154,"text":"Across villages, GVFs dealt with different access to labour-saving technology, decisionmaking over Union policies, and quotas for remunerative contracts. Urban GVFs were better poised to capture benefits than rural GVFs. Yet the Union's urban executive officers had to retain the interest of rural members, without whom it would not be possible to produce the shea butter quantities needed to fulfil international contracts. Managing relationships across GVFs and promoting inter-group and inter-village collaboration showed the most promise for the sustainability of the enterprise, and social benefits motivated producers to engage in the alternative strand of the value chain. Thus, despite axes of social differentiation and exclusion, the space provided by the Union and the new strand configuration also led to cooperative relations among groups, even as they competed for a space within the chain. These spaces were intensely negotiated, as actors collaborated when they believed that doing so was more favourable for them than non-cooperation."},{"index":7,"size":126,"text":"In this respect the space opened up by outside interventions and provided by the Union was an important aspect of the trade for women. Although we cannot assume that this would be true of all collectives, such a space outside the home, sanctioned by outside authority, eager to empower women, can enable women to forward their own agendas. Yet, we need to be alert to how these empowering collectives can bring new exclusions in their wake. Outside intervention can reinforce existing relations, but can also engender possibilities for new (cooperative and competitive) relations of production. Members cooperate -sometimes in unconventional ways -when doing so outweighs the costs of collaboration, and this may provide them with an identity and support structure beyond the merely economic (Arora-Jonsson, 2013)."},{"index":8,"size":155,"text":"Keeping sight of the power relations structuring interactions on the ground, we must consider how outside organizational support can reduce rather than exacerbate existing inequalities based on ethnicity, class, and other axes of social differentiation. NGOs and other organizations must recognize that interventions that affect market relations reach into the multiple arenas of social life, such as within the household. Importantly, geography needs to be considered so that development interventions do not (re)create new or existing rural and urban (or North-South) cleavages. In this respect, institutions that respond to different conditions of production across geographies as well as better information sharing and representation of rural producers in decision-making positions would help redress imbalances across the rural-urban continuum. Rather than mere inclusion of women in value chains, this calls for an acknowledgment of power relations throughout the value chains' vertical but also horizontal links to bring about more equitable relations. Yinug F and Fetzer J (2008) "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Table 1 . Shea butter production and trade figures(2005)(2006)(2007). Mean % fair trade Mean % fair trade Mean annual Mean annual Approximate remuneration/total Mean annualMean annualApproximateremuneration/total mass (kg) of remuneration production (fair trade þ mass (kg) ofremunerationproduction(fair trade þ shea butter (USD PPP) from cost (USD non-fair trade) shea butter(USD PPP) fromcost (USDnon-fair trade) sold to Union/ sales to Union/ PPP)/kg remuneration sold to Union/sales to Union/PPP)/kgremuneration Site N producer SD producer SD shea butter from Union SiteNproducerSDproducerSDshea butterfrom Union Le ´o (urban) 32 219.11 128.43 613.43 271.77 1.91 54 Le ´o (urban)32 219.11128.43 613.43271.77 1.9154 Lan (peri-urban) 21 83.96 40.86 181.02 91.18 1.61 13 Lan (peri-urban) 21 83.9640.86 181.0291.18 1.6113 Prata (rural) 21 24.63 9.73 45.57 22.53 1.61 0 Prata (rural)21 24.639.7345.5722.53 1.610 Source: Adapted from Pouliot and Elias (2013). Source: Adapted from Pouliot and Elias (2013). "},{"text":" Sub-Saharan Africa: Factors affecting trade patterns of selected industries. Washington, DC: United States International Trade Commission (USITC).Marle`ne Elias is a Gender Specialist at Bioversity International. Her research focuses on gendered dimensions of forest management, local ecological knowledge(s), and agri-food value chains, predominantly in West Africa. Methodologically, her interests include participatory approaches to research for development and feminist political ecology.Seema Arora-Jonsson is Associate Professor at the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences. Her research deals with the intersecting fields of gender, development and environmental governance. She works on questions of citizenship in environmental governance, institutions and rural development, and questions of identity, gender, ethnicity, race and class. Issues of research approach engage her (a) the doing of the research -participatory research, ethics and (b) analytically -analysing environmental questions in a North-South perspective in the globalizing context of environmental governance. "}],"sieverID":"5cf3a3ec-59b9-4a61-a0bb-e8da563677ee","abstract":"Shea butter, derived from the African shea tree, has acquired a pivotal position in global agro-food and cosmetics industries. In Burkina Faso, public and private actors as well as civil society are converging upon the product to boost the incomes of rural female producers. As a result of these trends, the shea value chain is increasingly segmented; shea nuts are sold in a low-return, conventional market and simultaneously enter an alternative, high-value niche market. In the latter strand of the value chain, some producers are improving their prospects by forming an association. Tracing relationships across the two strands, we demonstrate how 'horizontal' relations based on gender, ethnicity, age and geography contribute to shaping participation and benefit capture in the shea value chain. We argue that processes of social inclusion and exclusion operate in parallel, as differentiated actors both cooperate and compete to secure their place within the chain. While collective organizing brings positive social and economic benefits, we show that producers' associations need not be empowering for all women. The significance of collective enterprises, but also their drawbacks must be considered when valorising pathways to women's empowerment. Our study reinforces calls for greater integration of horizontal elements in value chain analyses."}

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+ {"metadata":{"id":"04d2962188ca3ec6c3150d0cbe0abc24","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/cbb643ef-3264-4a29-8caa-d162e96abfa0/retrieve"},"pageCount":13,"title":"NJAS -Wageningen Journal of Life Sciences","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"Investments into intensification of agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) have resulted in increased production over the past years, but a 'green revolution ' has not yet emerged (Dawson et al., 2016). Moreover, current gains may stand to be in danger because of rapid population growth, climate change, scarcity of resources such as land, water and energy (Pretty, 1997;Woodfine, 2009;Snapp et al., 2010). In addition to that recent yields of some crops have remained stagnant causing food shortages and malnutrition (The Montpellier Panel, 2013)."},{"index":2,"size":137,"text":"Benefits of intensification in Asia were quite visible, especially increases in crop yields and farm incomes, during the green revolution. However, the negative environmental externalities from the practices have reoriented the focus to the sustainability aspects of intensification (Jhamtani, 2010). Sustainable intensification involves application of multiple inputs, technologies and practices in an integrated way to increase agricultural productivity while simultaneously increasing the contribution to natural capital and environmental services (Pretty, 1997;Godfray et al., 2010). Sustainable intensification practices (SIPs) cover areas like crop improvement, soil conservation, conservation agriculture, integrated pest management, horticultural, livestock and fodder management and aquaculture (Pretty et al., 2011). In addition, they are aimed at maintaining biodiversity, reducing soil erosion, reducing impact of drought, and limited use of inorganic fertilizers and agro-chemicals to avoid pollution (Vanlauwe and Giller, 2006;Giller et al., 2011;Pretty et al., 2011)."},{"index":3,"size":160,"text":"Determinants of acceptance and use of agricultural technologies have been widely highlighted by the literature on technology adoption (Teklewold et al., 2013;Manda et al., 2015;Kotu et al., 2017). These studies primarily focus on socio-economic factors (e.g. age, gender, resource endowment) and bio-physical factors (e.g. soil, topography) to explain adoption decisions (Manda et al., 2016;Teklewold et al., 2013). In contrast, socio-psychological farmer features such as motivations and perceptions that could influence adoption have received less attention in the adoption literature. However, few studies (e.g. Greiner and Gregg, 2011;Zabala et al., 2017) have highlighted the importance of motivational aspects. For instance, Greiner and Gregg (2011) found that economic, conservation, lifestyle and social motivations influenced farmers' adoption of conservation practices in Australia. Veisi et al. (2017) in Iran identified economic, health, safety, and environment motivations as factors affecting farmers' decision-making on adoption of organic farming. In Mexico, personal, environment, and economic motivations influenced the probability to adopt silvopastoral system (Zabala et al., 2017)."},{"index":4,"size":150,"text":"Furthermore, studies on motivations (e.g. Greiner and Gregg, 2011;Veisi et al., 2017) largely focused on motivations that drive adoption of individual technologies without examining the effect of these motivations on farmers' decision-making regarding interacting inputs, technologies and practices in the whole-farm context. The objective of this study is to bridge this gap by exploring farmer motivations and perceived impediments that could influence adoption of SIPs and to assess the effect of motivations on farmers' decisions to adopt SIPs, using farm household data from northern Ghana. Farmers in northern Ghana face similar agro-ecological and socio-economic challenges as most farmers in SSA. Therefore, we expect results from this study to aid policymakers and researchers design better extension strategies that can stimulate adoption of SIPs within SSA. We also expect that the findings would contribute to the paucity of literature on how motivations influence farmers' decisions to adopt agricultural technologies and farming practices."}]},{"head":"Conceptual framework","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":143,"text":"The literature on technology adoption stipulates three adoption decision paradigms: innovation-diffusion-adoption, economic constraint, and adopter-perception (Adesina and Zinnah, 1993). Innovation-diffusion-adoption is anchored on the premise that adoption decisions are based on assembling information, revising the information and re-evaluating decisions (Feder et al., 1985). The demerit of this paradigm is that it failed to incorporate characteristics of the individual. The economic constraint paradigm is based on the concept of utility maximization and assumes that individuals will adopt a technology when utility associated with the new technology is greater than the existing utility. However, the concept ignored intangible factors such as personal preferences and objectives (Adesina and Zinnah, 1993;Negatu and Parikh, 1999). Adopter-perception is based on the idea that individuals adopt innovative technologies when they acknowledge the need to do so. This paradigm incorporates influences of personal and (Ervin and Ervin, 1982;Lynne et al., 1988)."},{"index":2,"size":355,"text":"The first two paradigms on technology adoption have been extensively discussed in the adoption literature as opposed to the last paradigm, with attention lacking, especially for the effects of personal or socio-psychological factors on decisions to adopt new agricultural technologies. Socio-psychological issues such as motivation are considered as important factors that influence human behaviour and performance (Pannell et al., 2006). Motivations could influence farmers' adoption decisions (Pannell et al., 2006), and reflect goals and aspirations that farmers wish to achieve in the long-run (Farmar-Bowers and Lane, 2009). Similarly, the same motivations drive producers to become farmers in the first place (Watt and Richardson, 2007). Further, motivation is often categorised as either intrinsic or extrinsic (Ryan and Deci, 2000). Intrinsic motivation is anchored on interest and satisfaction derived from activities, while extrinsic motivation is based on outcomes and rewards that are separated from the core activities, and characterised by external control and coercion (Prager and Posthumus, 2010). Chirkov et al. (2003) and Moller et al. (2006) argued that the probability of adoption and sustained use of technology, and of good implementation is enhanced when motivation is intrinsically driven. Furthermore, farmers' desire to achieve their future aspirations or goals can be constrained by numerous factors, such as lack of resources, policies and regulation, low returns on investment, climatic condition, risk and uncertainty, etc. (Marra et al., 2003;Pannell et al., 2006). As it is entirely personal, the perception about these constraints varies among farmers (Anderson et al., 1988). Fig. 1 depicts the pathways via which motivations can influence farmers to adopt SIPs. It is expected that external drivers like policy and regulations, climate change and price volatilities can coerce or force farmers into adopting SIPs, which would be classified as extrinsic motivation. In addition, social influence or supports from family, relatives or the community can influence adoption of SIPs. Nevertheless, impediments that are internal to the farm system such as unfavorable farm conditions (e.g. soil characteristic), unavailability of key resources or farm inputs and lack of social support are expected to negatively affect the intrinsic motivation for sustainable intensification and thereby reduce the probability of adoption of SIPs."}]},{"head":"Material","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Description of study area","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":157,"text":"Ghana is divided into ten regions. The northern part of the country consists of Northern region, Upper West region, and Upper East region (Fig. 2). The regions are situated within the Guinea (Northern and Upper West) and the Sudano-sahellian (Upper East) agroecological zones. Compared to other regions of Ghana, the three northern regions have higher poverty rates (WFP, 2012;GSS, 2014;Cooke et al., 2016), a higher degree of crop failure, a higher drought risk, lower adaptive capacity, and therefore a high degree of farmer vulnerability (Antwi-Agyei et al., 2012). Furthermore, the regions are characterised by erratic rainfall patterns and high temperatures (WFP, 2012). The soils in the regions are shallow with underlying iron-pans that make crop production difficult (Quansah, 2004). The majority of the inhabitants, who are smallholder farmers, cultivate cereals (e.g. maize), legumes (e.g. beans) and vegetables (e.g., cabbage), as well as raise large (e.g., cattle) and small ruminants (e.g., sheep, goat), poultry, and pigs (GSS, 2014)."},{"index":2,"size":98,"text":"To help improve the cereal-legume based farming systems in the regions, the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) under the program called Africa Research in Sustainable Intensification for the Next Generation (Africa RISING) in 2012, disseminated three sustainable intensification practices (SIPs) across some districts in the regions as part of the numerous project activities conducted. The SIPs were (1) improved maize varieties; (2) cropping system strategies; and (3) combined practices (SIPs). In addition, farmers were trained on good agronomic practices such as correct timing and application of organic and inorganic fertilisers, weed control, pesticide application, and row planting."},{"index":3,"size":167,"text":"The first SIP, improved maize varieties 1 (e.g., drought-tolerant maize, extra-early maize, and Striga 2 (Vigna unguiculata)-resistant maize), was aimed at improving household food security and farm incomes through increased crop yields (Larbi et al., 2014). It was also targeted at helping farmers adapt to climate changes. For example, the extra-early maize varieties mature very early (in approximately 60 days) and allow farmers to escape dry spells and frequent droughts. The second SIP consists of various cropping system strategies (e.g. cereallegume strip cropping, cereal-legume crop rotation). This was aimed at enhancing the ecosystem services of the cropping system: nitrogenfixation, pest reduction, weed control and carbon sequestration (Altieri, 1999;Jhamtani, 2010;Snapp et al., 2010). Soil fertility, soil organic matter content, and soil water retention capacity are improved when crop residues from maize and legume are incorporated into the soil (Vanlauwe et al., 2014). The second SIP was also directed at reducing costs of inorganic fertilizers and at controlling weeds, such as Striga, a major weed found in the regions."},{"index":4,"size":92,"text":"The third SIP combined the other two SIPs and was targeted at achieving all the benefits of the first and second SIPs. Several studies have shown the importance of adopting both improved maize varieties and cropping system strategies. For example, it improves soil productivity, increases crop yields, helps reduce the use of inorganic fertilizer and agrochemicals, helps control soil erosion, reduces weed population, etc. Kotu et al. (2017) found that farmers who adopted two or more sustainable intensification practices in Ghana attained higher yields compared to those who adopted a single technology."}]},{"head":"Data","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":159,"text":"The dataset used in this analysis was derived from a cross-sectional survey of farmers who have adopted SIPs since 2012. The survey was carried out between February and March 2016 within AfricaRISING project intervention districts Savelugu-Nanton and Tolon-Kumbungu in the Northern region, Kassena-Nankana and Bongo in the Upper East region, and Wa-West and Nadowli in the Upper West region. A multistage sampling procedure was used to collect data from 290 farm households that have adopted one or more SIPs. First, two to three communities were purposively selected based on the size and the number of farmers in each community. Second, twenty to forty farm households were randomly sampled from each community. A structured questionnaire was used to elicit information on socio-economic characteristics, soil characteristics, motivation and impediment. Questions on motivation (see Appendix, Fig. A1) and perceived impediments (see Appendix, Fig. A2) were adapted from studies by Marra et al. (2003); Maybery et al. (2005), and Greiner and Gregg (2011)."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"Respondent farmers indicated their response to each statement using a pre-defined five-point Likert-scale ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree."}]},{"head":"Methods","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Identification of factors of motivation and perceived impediment to adoption of SIP","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":131,"text":"We used explorative factor analysis (EFA) to identify intrinsic factors that motivate farmers to adopt SIPs. EFA identifies latent or unobserved variables that explain the proportion of variance shared among two or more observed variables (Field, 2013;Kabacoff, 2015). Before EFA, responses on motivation and impediment that resulted in low inter-correlation (r < 0.3) were deleted, resulting in 278 responses (i.e. 96% response rate). In addition, we did not detect any extreme correlation (r > 0.8) in the data set. The data was also appropriate for EFA: a good Kaiser-Meyer Olkins (KMO > 0.7) was obtained for motivation (0.81) and impediment (0.77) respectively, and the analysis showed significance of the Barlett test for motivation (χ 2 (66) = 1192.5, P < 0.05) and impediment (χ 2 (36) = 730.281, P < 0.05)."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"To interpret the motivational factors, we used the Varimax rotation since we expect the factors to be uncorrelated. We calculated the Cronbach alpha value to determine the degree of cohesion within each factor, and the violin plots with Tukey multiple comparison test to compare the derived factors of motivation and impediment within and between regions (Park et al., 2014;Hintze and Nelson, 1998). We used parallel analysis to confirm the number of factors of motivation and impediments that had to be extracted (Kabacoff, 2015)."}]},{"head":"Effect of factors of motivation on farmers' decisions to adopt SIPs","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"We used the multinomial logit model (Madalla, 1983) to examine the effect of motivational factors on farmers' decisions to adopt SIPs. Several studies have used models such as probit, logit, or bivariate probit to examine the effects of socio-economic factors on farmers' decisions to adopt agricultural technologies (Andvig, 2000). The advantage of the multinomial logit over other models is that the multinomial model allows analysis of decisions across several categories, such as cropping system strategies, improved maize varieties, and the combined practices (Nkamleu and Kielland, 2006)."},{"index":2,"size":97,"text":"We assumed that a respondent farmer, i, face a choice between three SIPs(s): cropping system strategies, improved maize varieties, and the combined SIPs, thus = s 1, 2, 3 (Nkamleu and Kielland, 2006). To examine how factors of motivation and socio-economic factors (Z) influence farmers' decisions to adopt SIPs (s), the choice probability is defined by the multinomial logit model (1). To estimate the model, we normalized on one category by equating it to one. In our analysis, we used cropping system strategies as a reference category. The parameters, β i's, are estimated with the models below."}]},{"head":"= = +","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"= e e P(Y s) 1 for s 1"},{"index":2,"size":88,"text":"Several socio-economic variables have been shown to influence farmers' adoption of agricultural technologies in northern Ghana (Doss and Morris, 2001;Kotu et al., 2017). We considered age, gender and educational level of the household head, total number of livestock owned, household size, land size, distance to the market, access to extension services, agro-ecological zone, and quantity of inorganic fertiliser in the model. We included the derived factors of motivations 1 These are open pollinated improved maize seeds developed by IITA in conjunction with the Savanna Agricultural Research Institute (SARI)."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"2 This is a witch weed that competes with other plants for soil nutrients."},{"index":4,"size":154,"text":"as independent variables in the analysis. A description of the explanatory variables used and their hypothesized effect on farmers' adoption of SIPs are briefly discussed below. Age, measured in years, was expected to reduce the adoption of SIPs. Due to the accumulated experience with regards to production technologies, physical and social capital by older farmers, they often tend to be less likely to adopt modern agricultural technologies compared to younger farmers, who often times tend to be more flexible to agricultural innovations (Kassie et al., 2013). The gender of the household head, measured as a dummy variable, influence farmers adoption of agricultural technologies in Ghana. Doss and Morris (2001) showed that female farmers in Ghana are less likely to adopt new agricultural practices due to limited access to resources such as land, education and extension services. We therefore expected adoption of SIPs in male headed households to greater than those of the female compatriots."},{"index":5,"size":107,"text":"Educated household members (measured as number of years of schooling) were expected to be aware of benefits associated with SIPs, since they are be able to acquire, process and use information easily (Pender and Gebremedhin, 2007). Hence, we hypothesized a positive relationship between education and SIPs. Livestock (measured in Tropical Livestock Units) plays an essential role in most farms in northern Ghana. For instance, they are used for ploughing, for carting produce between homestead and market, for conveying inputs from the market, and sometimes serve as security (i.e. sold to raise money) during emergencies. Hence, we anticipated a positive relationship between adoption of SIPs and livestock ownership."},{"index":6,"size":118,"text":"Household size (measured in number) was used as a proxy for available labour in the household. We expected that the larger the household size, the more labour will available for crop production, and therefore the more likely the household will adopt SIPs (Pender and Gebremedhin, 2007). We therefore hypothesized that household size would correlate positively with adoption of SIPs. Access to agricultural extension services (measured as a dummy variable) is expected to influence adoption of agricultural technologies (Kassie et al., 2013). This is because through agricultural extension services, farmers tend to become aware of new technologies and learn how to implement them in their fields. We therefore anticipated a positive correlation between access to extension services and SIPs."},{"index":7,"size":123,"text":"Farm size (measured in hectares) can influence the adoption of new technologies (Kassie et al., 2013). For example, farm households with larger farm size can decide to allocate more land to new practices such as the combined SIP. This means that households with larger farm size would be more inclined to adopt SIPs compared with those with less land. Nevertheless, households with larger farm size might use less intensive methods than those with less farm size (Kassie et al., 2013). Overall, we anticipated that households with larger farm size will be more likely to adopt the SIPs compared to households with smaller farmer size. Further, the longer the distance to markets, the less likely that farmers would adopt SIPs (Kassie et al., 2013)."},{"index":8,"size":164,"text":"The three regions are characterized by two agro-ecological zones (measured as dummy variable), namely, the Guinea savanna zone (comprising the Northern region and Upper West region) and the Sudan savanna zone (Upper East region). Farmers in the Sudan savanna zone are more prone to drought than those in the Guinea savanna zone (Antwi-Agyei et al., 2012;WFP, 2012). Therefore, we expected farmers in the Sudan savanna zone to adopt more of improved maize varieties (e.g. drought tolerant maize or extra-early maturing maize variety) and the combined SIPs. Further, we expected the agroecological zone to partially reflect soil characteristics that could explain preferences to certain crops and practices. For example, cereal crops such as millet and sorghum, which require less rains and can withstand less fertile soils, are widely grown by farmers in the Upper East region compared to those in the Northern region and the Upper West region. Therefore, we expected farmers with poor fertile soils to adopt soil-enhancing technology such as the combined SIPs."},{"index":9,"size":90,"text":"There might also be direct simultaneity between amount of organic or inorganic fertiliser applied and adoption of improved maize varieties (Smale et al., 1995). Failure to control this can bias the result estimates. Therefore, we followed Manda et al. ( 2016) by using the average rate of fertilizer application at the community level to prevent biasing the estimates. Furthermore, we included the factor scores of the identified motivational factors as independent variables in the analysis. We hypothesized that these identified factors may have positive or negative relationship with the SIPs."},{"index":10,"size":80,"text":"One underlying assumption of the multinomial logit is Independence of Irrelevant Alternative (IIA). This means that choosing one alternative level (e.g. improved maize varieties) over another should not be influenced by the presence of another choice (e.g. combined SIPs) (Hilbe, 2009). We used Hausman and McFadden tests to confirm IIA. Further, interpreting logit coefficients is tedious, hence, we adopted the relative risk ratio (i.e. exponentiated value of the logit coefficients) approach to ensure easy interpretation of the coefficients (Hilbe, 2009)."},{"index":11,"size":54,"text":"The entire analysis was conducted with R version 3.3 (R Core Team, 2016). Factor analyses was conducted using the \"psych\" package (Revelle, 2011).Visualization of Likert scores was conducted using the DevTools package (http://jason.bryer.org/likert/), and the multinomial logit was estimated using the \"nnet\" package (Ripley and Venables, 2016) and the \"mlogit\" package 3 (Croissant, 2013)."}]},{"head":"Results and discussion","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Use of sustainable intensification practices","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"The adoption of SIPs by respondent farmers varied across the three regions (Table 1). The adoption rate of improved maize cultivars was the highest in the Northern region (93%), and most farmers combined these with cropping system strategies (56%), so that the percentage of farmers only practicing cropping systems strategies was low (7%). In the Upper East Region, the percentage of farmers applying cropping system strategies was the highest among the three regions while the percentage of applying improved varieties is the lowest (Table 1). In Upper West Region, relatively high percentage of farmers adopt improved varieties only."}]},{"head":"Table 1","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Percentage of respondent farmers applying sustainable intensification practices (SIPs) in three regions (Upper West, Upper East and Northern) in the north of Ghana."}]},{"head":"SIPs","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Upper West region (n = 96) Upper East region (n = 70) Northern region (n = 112)"},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"Cropping system strategies only 33% 36% 7% Improved maize variety only 45% 26% 37% Combined practices (improved maize variety and cropping system strategies) 22% 38% 56% Total using improved maize varieties (2 + 3) 67% 64% 93% Total using cropping system strategies (1 + 3) 55% 74% 63%"},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"3 The \"mlogit\" package helped to test assumption of IIA."}]},{"head":"Motivational factors","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"Farmers' ratings of motivations were highest in the Upper West Region followed by Upper East and Northern regions respectively (Fig. A1). Nonetheless, similarities in ratings were observed among the regions. For example, respondent farmers in the Upper East and the Upper West regions rated the item 'the SIPs are easy to be adopted by other farmers' equally, whereas respondent farmers in the Upper East and the Northern regions rated the item 'the SIPs demand less labour input compared with old practices' the same."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"EFA on motivation produced a three-factor model (Table 2). The factors explained 50% of the variance within the data set. The Cronbach alpha values revealed a strong coherence within each factor with 0.73 each for factor 1 and factor 2, and 0.75 for factor 3. The first factor"}]},{"head":"Table 2","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"Factor loadings of motivational items in the three-factor model resulting from explorative factor analysis. The term 'eco' denotes ecological. Factor loadings > 0.4 are highlighted in bold. captured issues of 'ease of implementation', and 'satisfaction', and was therefore called 'personal satisfaction'. This factor suggests that the first group of respondent farmers were motivated by the broader livelihood benefits associated with the SIPs rather than pure economic/financial reasons. This result is consistent with the findings of Zabala et al. (2017), who found that these types of farmers are often more interested in self-sufficiency rather than external payment or income."},{"index":2,"size":110,"text":"The second factor was denoted 'eco-diversity' and represented items related to 'crop diversity', 'lower input use attributed to farming system diversification', and 'improved household dietary diversity', suggesting that the second group of respondent farmers were more motivated by the diversity of crops and the nutritional benefits associated with adopting the SIPs. Finally, the last factor, 'eco-efficiency', captured issues of 'environment improvement', 'land productivity', and 'increase income', indicating that the combination of economic/financial and environmental benefits could be a motivating factor for adopting SIPs. This finding supports previous studies (e.g. Maybery et al., 2005;Greiner and Gregg, 2011) that found an integrated perspective on financial and environmental performance influencing farmers' adoption behaviours."},{"index":3,"size":118,"text":"Differences in the mean factor score and the distributional pattern (i.e. shape, bumps and peak) for motivation types were observed between regions (Fig. 3), suggesting that the levels of motivation for the various perspectives of satisfaction, diversity and efficiency among respondent farmers varied within and between the regions. For example, the distributional patterns for personal satisfaction significantly differed between the three regions (Fig. 3A). Conversely, for eco-diversity (Fig. 3B) the means and distributional patterns for the Upper West and the Upper East (UW-UE) regions are similar, suggesting that farmers in these regions are motivated by the same reasons. However, the mean and distributional patterns for the Northern region differ from that of Upper West and Upper East regions."}]},{"head":"Perceived impediment factors","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"The rating scores for impediments were systematically highest in the Northern Region followed by Upper East and Upper West regions (Fig. A2). However, similarities in the rating scores were also observed between the regions. Respondent farmers in all regions rated the items 'concern with what the community might think about me' equally, whereas no significant differences were found between Upper West and Upper East and between Northern and Upper West regions for the item 'uncertainty about the future gain of adopting the SIPs'."},{"index":2,"size":124,"text":"EFA on impediments produced a three-factor model, which explained 51% of the total variance within the data set (Table 3). The Cronbach alpha values revealed a strong cohesion within each factor with factor 1 possessing an alpha value of 0.75, 0.76 for factor 2 and 0.71 for factor 3. The first factor, 'uncertainty', represented constraints based on the view that SIPs may not be practicable in the future. This factor included social forms of uncertainty such as 'I am concerned with what the community might think about me', besides unfavorable weather conditions and unstable commodity prices. This finding is consistent with the results of Greiner and Gregg (2011), who found that perceived uncertainty about the future influenced farmers' adoption of conservation practice in Australia."},{"index":3,"size":114,"text":"The second factor was related to social environment (i.e. lack of support from community, relatives and friends) and therefore we termed this factor as 'absence of social support'. This factor indicates that the second group of respondent farmers perceived the absence of social support as an impediment to the adoption of SIPs. This finding supports the results of Jordan (2005), who found that absent social support influenced farmers adoption of sustainable agriculture practices in Georgia, USA. The final factor captured issues related to the lack of capacity building and finance, and therefore we called it 'resource constraints'. Respondent farmers that scored high on this factor perceived lack of resources constraining their adoption of SIPs."},{"index":4,"size":95,"text":"Differences in distributional patterns (i.e. shape, bump and peak) were observed for the impediment factors between the regions, indicating that the levels of perceived impediments among respondent farmers in each region varied. By contrast, when similar factors of impediment are compared between regions (Fig. 4), no statistically significant differences in mean factor scores were observed for uncertainty and resource constraints, with the exception of a difference in resource constraints between Upper West and Upper East regions. Also, statistically significant differences in mean factor scores were observed for absence of social support across the three regions."}]},{"head":"Table 3","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Factor loadings of impediment items in the three-factor model resulting from explorative factor analysis. Factor loading > 0.4 is highlighted in bold."}]},{"head":"Factors motivating farmers' decision to adopt SIPs","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"Table 4 shows the parameter estimates for choice of SIPs by respondent farmers in northern Ghana. The preference for SIPs is expressed relative to cropping system strategies, which has a reference value of 1. Our result confirmed the assumption of IIA (χ 2 (15) = 141.93, P > 0.05). In addition, the Wald χ 2 test rejected the null hypothesis that the explanatory variables are jointly equal to zero, suggesting that the explanatory variables can explain variability in the adoption of SIPs."},{"index":2,"size":188,"text":"Results showed that indeed some of the factors of motivation influenced farmers' decisions to adopt SIPs. For instance, farmers motivated by personal satisfaction are less likely to adopt only improved maize varieties (59%) and the combined SIPs (23%) compared to cropping system strategies (100%). The coefficients are statistically significant, which may indicate that farmers motivated by personal satisfaction somewhat preferred the cropping system strategies together with the improved maize varieties due to benefits associated with cropping system strategies, especially to the soil. Adoption of the SIPs may translate into increases in maize yields, which could lead to more food for the household. Furthermore, farmers motivated by eco-efficiency were 47% more likely to adopt improved maize varieties compared with only cropping system strategies. The coefficient is statistically significant, suggesting that farmers motivated by eco-efficiency may perhaps be driven more by the increases in crop yields, income and efficient fertilizer management associated with dissemination of the SIPs. This result supports the findings of Manda et al. (2016), who found that in Zambia increased in maize yield and income influenced farmers' adoption of sustainable agricultural practices such as improved maize varieties."},{"index":3,"size":147,"text":"In addition to the motivational factors, some of the socio-economic variables also influenced farmers' decisions to adopt SIPs. For instance, the results show that larger farm size was related to a reduction in the preference of adopting improved maize varieties relative to cropping system strategies. This finding is in line with the results of Kotu et al. (2017), who found that households that own large farm sizes are more likely to adopt cropping system strategies in the three regions. Male headed households were much more likely to adopt improved maize varieties and the combined SIPs. The coefficients were statistically significant, indicating that male-headed households may have more access to resources compared to female-headed household. This is consistent with the findings of Doss and Morris (2001) who found that in Ghana, women's lack of access to resources (e.g., education, extension services) prevent them from adopting new agricultural practices."},{"index":4,"size":132,"text":"Results also show that for a one-unit increase in extension services, the relative risk ratio of adopting improved maize varieties increased by 72% for improved maize varieties and 10% for the combined SIPs. This result underlines the essential role extension services play in promoting agricultural technologies via education and training of farmers on good agronomic practices, as well as linking farmers to markets (Adegbola and Gardebroek, 2007). Finally, the result shows that farmers in the Sudan savanna zone were less likely to adopt only improved maize varieties (82%) compared to their compatriots in the Guinea savanna zone. This finding is not surprising because the dominant crops grown by farmers in the zone are millet, sorghum, and legumes, although studies (e.g., Ellis-Jones et al., 2012) suggested that the cultivation of maize is increasing."},{"index":5,"size":106,"text":"Overall, our findings have several implications for future research targeted at spurring adoption, adaption, and ownership of agriculture technologies and practices among farmers. For example, our results that personal satisfaction and eco-efficiency influenced adoption indicate that insights or inputs from social (e.g. economists) and natural (e.g. environmentalist) scientists would be needed in developing agricultural innovations such as SIPs. To understand also unanticipated consequences in relation to for example gender relations, it would be essential to bring together different disciplines to explore potential tradeoffs related with the dissemination and development of agricultural technologies and practices. Such an initiative would help in developing solutions to mitigate unwanted outcomes."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"Sustainable intensification practices can play an essential role in ameliorating challenges that cause low crop yields and farm incomes and can support adaptation to climate change. These challenges are currently faced by many smallholder farmers in developing countries, in SSA. Most previous adoption studies have focused on how socioeconomic factors influence adoption of new agricultural technologies with limited emphasis on how socio-psychological issues such as motivations influence farmers' adoption and decision-making. This study contributes to the literature by identifying the motivational factors and perceived impediments that influence adoption of SIPs and whether identified motivations affect farmers' decisions to adopt SIPs, using sample data collected from farm households in northern Ghana."},{"index":2,"size":196,"text":"Findings showed that motivational factors differed between the three study regions, with a stronger importance of personal satisfaction and eco-diversity in the Northern region than in Upper East and Upper West regions. The distributions of scorings for personal satisfaction within the regions was different, but for eco-diversity similar distributions were observed for all three regions. The impediment factors of uncertainty and resource constraints were similarly experienced among farmers in the three regions, but the lack of social support was a more important factor in the Northern region than in Upper East and Upper West. These trends in regional differences in motivational and impediment factors suggest that to spur adoption of SIPs across the regions, both general and regional specific dissemination strategies need to be developed and employed in disseminating SIPs, instead of the conventional approach where similar disseminating strategies are used in all three regions. Results also showed that personal satisfaction and eco-efficiency positively correlated with the adoption of SIPs, indicating that dissemination strategies that focus on these attributes of SIPs can be used to spur adoption. Finally, findings from this study suggest that improvements in extension services would motivate farmers' adoption of improved maize varieties."},{"index":3,"size":101,"text":"The current study focused on the cereal-based farming system in the region. However, it will be interesting to extent such analysis to other improved agricultural practices (e.g. soil and water management) and farming systems (e.g. legume-based, livestock) in the region. Also, since farmers' adoption of technology varies significantly across time and space, it will be essential in the future to use panel data to assess whether intrinsic motivation changes across time and space. Nonetheless, this study showed that motivational factors should be considered systematically in combination with socio-economic farm features and external drivers to inform on-farm innovation processes and supporting policies. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 1 . Fig. 1. Conceptual framework of farmers' motivations and perceived impediments to adoption of SIPs. The orange boxes indicate motivational aspects, the green boxes relate to available farm technologies and practices, while the blue boxes represent the internal and external impediments. The dashed line indicates the farm system boundary. Arrows indicate positive or negative influences. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) "},{"text":"Fig. 2 . Fig. 2. Africa RISING intervention districts and communities in northern Ghana. (Use colour). "},{"text":"Fig. 3 . Fig. 3. Regional comparison of Personal satisfaction (A), Eco-diversity (B) and Eco-efficiency (C). The point-range denotes mean ± standard deviation. The lower section represents multiple comparison of similar factors of motivations across regions (the bar line represents 95% confidence interval of the differences). UW denotes Upper West region, UE represents Upper East region, while Northern region is represented by NR. "},{"text":"Fig. 4 . Fig. 4. Regional comparison for Uncertainty (A), Absence of social support (B) and Resource constraints (C). The point-range denotes mean ± standard deviation. The lower section represents multiple comparison of similar factors of motivations across regions (the bar line represents 95% confidence interval of the differences). UW denotes Upper West region, UE represents Upper East region, while Northern region is represented by NR. "},{"text":"Fig. A2 . Fig. A2. A comparison of perceived impediment response rating across the three northern regions of Ghana. "},{"text":" "},{"text":"Table 4 Relative risk ratio estimates of choice of SIPs by respondent farmers in northern Ghana. Improved maize varieties Combined SIPs Improved maize varietiesCombined SIPs Coefficient t-statistic Coefficient t-statistic Coefficientt-statisticCoefficient t-statistic Male headed 4.889*** 2.024 2.512*** 1.735 Male headed4.889***2.0242.512***1.735 household household Age 1.016 0.201 1.042 0.618 Age1.0160.2011.0420.618 Age square 1.000 −0.189 1.000 −0.648 Age square1.000−0.1891.000−0.648 Education 1.028 0.252 1.024 0.244 Education1.0280.2521.0240.244 Household size 1.045 0.629 1.017 0.273 Household size1.0450.6291.0170.273 Farm size 0.818** −1.969 0.932 −1.307 Farm size0.818**−1.9690.932−1.307 Extension services 1.718*** 0.210 1.100 0.210 Extension services1.718***0.2101.1000.210 Livestock ownership 0.991 −0.960 1.005 0.857 Livestock ownership0.991−0.9601.0050.857 Distance to market 1.119 0.970 1.009 0.932 Distance to market1.1190.9701.0090.932 Amount of fertilizer 0.991 −0.813 0.992 −0.813 Amount of fertilizer0.991−0.8130.992−0.813 applied applied Sudan savanna 0.177*** −1.001 0.560*** 0.317 Sudan savanna0.177***−1.0010.560***0.317 Personal satisfaction 0.408*** −2.525 0.766* 0.492 Personal satisfaction0.408***−2.5250.766*0.492 Eco-diversity 0.859 −0.563 0.928 0.746 Eco-diversity0.859−0.5630.9280.746 Eco-efficiency 1.468*** 1.037 0.982 0.956 Eco-efficiency1.468***1.0370.9820.956 Constant 0.759*** −0.117 1.455*** 0.195 Constant0.759***−0.1171.455***0.195 Number of observation(n) 277 Number of observation(n) 277 Log likelihood −243.133 Log likelihood−243.133 Wald testχ 2 (2) 52.141*** Wald testχ 2 (2)52.141*** "},{"text":"Table A1 Parameter estimates for choice of SIPs by respondent farmers. **P < 0.001, **P < 0.05, and *P < 0.10. The reference SIP is cropping system strategies. Improved maize varieties Combined SIPs Improved maize varietiesCombined SIPs Coefficient t-statistic Coefficient t-statistic Coefficientt-statisticCoefficientt-statistic Male headed household 1.587*** 2.024 0.921*** 1.735 Male headed household1.587***2.0240.921***1.735 Age 0.016 0.201 0.041 0.618 Age0.0160.2010.0410.618 Age square −0.000 −0.189 −0.000 −0.648 Age square−0.000−0.189−0.000−0.648 Education 0.028 0.252 0.023 0.244 Education0.0280.2520.0230.244 Household size 0.044 0.629 0.009 0.273 Household size0.0440.6290.0090.273 Farm size −0.200** −1.969 −0.071 −1.307 Farm size−0.200**−1.969−0.071−1.307 Extension services 0.540*** 0.210 0.095 0.210 Extension services0.540***0.2100.0950.210 Livestock ownership −0.009 −0.960 0.005 0.857 Livestock ownership−0.009−0.9600.0050.857 Distance to market 0.113 0.970 0.009 0.932 Distance to market0.1130.9700.0090.932 Amount of fertilizer applied −0.009 −0.813 −0.008 −0.813 Amount of fertilizer applied−0.009−0.813−0.008−0.813 Sudan savanna −1.729*** −1.001 −0.579*** 0.317 Sudan savanna−1.729***−1.001−0.579***0.317 Personal −0.895*** −2.525 −0.228* 0.492 Personal−0.895***−2.525−0.228*0.492 Eco-diversity −0.152 −0.563 −0.075 0.746 Eco-diversity−0.152−0.563−0.0750.746 Eco-efficiency 0.384*** 1.037 −0.018 0.956 Eco-efficiency0.384***1.037−0.0180.956 Constant −0.275*** −0.117 0.375*** 0.195 Constant−0.275***−0.1170.375***0.195 Number of observation(n) 277 Number of observation(n) 277 Log likelihood −243.133 Log likelihood−243.133 Wald testχ 2 (2) 52.141*** Wald testχ 2 (2)52.141*** "}],"sieverID":"11b0afb3-84ee-482b-97f2-73777e36ae12","abstract":"Socio-economic factors that influence the adoption of management practices and technologies by farmers have received wide attention in the adoption literature, but the effects of socio-psychological farmer features such as perceptions and motivations have been analysed to a lesser extent. Using farm household survey data from three regions in northern Ghana, this study explores farmers' motivations and perceived adoption impediments for three sustainable intensification practices (SIPs): improved maize varieties, cropping system strategies, and combined SIPs (i.e. improved maize and cropping system strategies), and the effect of motivational factors on decisions to adopt SIPs. First, explorative factor analysis (EFA) was used in identifying factors of motivations and impediments for adoption of SIPs. Then, a multinomial logit model was used to analyze the effect of socioeconomic farm characteristics and motivational factors on farmers' decisions to adopt SIPs. EFA identified three motivational factors: personal satisfaction, eco-diversity and eco-efficiency, which differed in importance between the three regions. Across these regions, higher scores for aspects of personal satisfaction were associated with lower interest in improved maize varieties compared to cropping system strategies, while the opposite was true for eco-efficiency which was related to a stronger preference for improved maize varieties. Uncertainty, absence of social support, and resource constraints were identified as impediment factors. The logit model demonstrated that extension services seemed to support the use of improved maize varieties more than the implementation of cropping system strategies. We conclude that motivational factors significantly influence farmer adoption decisions regarding sustainable intensification practices and should be considered systematically in combination with socio-economic farm features and external drivers to inform on-farm innovation processes and supporting policies."}

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+ {"metadata":{"id":"051375299a3b02f35f08bdd76dbc579d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/95194f41-a8b7-48a0-9d8a-618c70694bb9/retrieve"},"pageCount":11,"title":"Communication and Knowledge Management (CKM) in the Sustainable Intensification of Mixed Farming Systems Initiative","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Communications within the Initiative","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Goal: support and enhance the research effort through targetted strategic communications and support in knowledge management."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"• Focused on supporting specific outcomes (policy, farmer, resource mobilization, etc) • Tailor products to different needs (language, format, etc) • Multimedia: video, news, written, audio, social media, etc "}]},{"head":"Strategic Comms","index":2,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"CKM goals for the initiative • Enhance the Initiative's external communication (informing and • Enhance the Initiative's external communication (informing and engaging with its stakeholders); engaging with its stakeholders); • Contribute to translating initiative outputs into outcomes and • Contribute to translating initiative outputs into outcomes and getting knowledge into use; getting knowledge into use; Engagement • Strategic partner engagement • Organizing and facilitating events Engagement• Strategic partner engagement • Organizing and facilitating events Knowledge Management • Collaborative spaces for internal learning and collaboration • Document/data management Knowledge Management• Collaborative spaces for internal learning and collaboration • Document/data management "},{"text":"lockstep with the broader One CGIAR goals. CKM within the One CGIAR Publish a thought piece for the SI-MFS Initiative Develop a CKM strategy/plan for the initiative Activity Global activities ( approaches within One CGIAR. Global communication and knowledge sharing Global • Move towards common Q.1 Q.2 Q.3 Q.4 System/Country 2022 Deliverables are developing guidelines now. • Communications and outreach group Publish a thought piece for the SI-MFS Initiative Develop a CKM strategy/plan for the initiative Activity Global activities (approaches within One CGIAR. Global communication and knowledge sharing Global • Move towards common Q.1 Q.2 Q.3 Q.4 System/Country 2022 Deliverables are developing guidelines now. • Communications and outreach group Publish a short teaser video/whiteboard animation for the Initiative Develop country briefs (highlighting peculiarities of each site) Develop a communications branding toolkit for the Initiative (one identity!) Set up SI-MFS initiative website Regular learning seminar/webinar series Global • Branding, templates, etc to follow Global • Services to be provided and how still Global not sorted but we will work with center Global comms to coordinate efforts for now Global Publish a short teaser video/whiteboard animation for the Initiative Develop country briefs (highlighting peculiarities of each site) Develop a communications branding toolkit for the Initiative (one identity!) Set up SI-MFS initiative website Regular learning seminar/webinar seriesGlobal • Branding, templates, etc to follow Global • Services to be provided and how still Global not sorted but we will work with center Global comms to coordinate efforts for now Global Collaboration space for initiative stakeholders and partners Set up an accessible online repository Coordinate organization of initiative inception meetings First initiative learning event Annual reports for the SI-MFS Initiative • A team of communication and Global knowledge management experts Global drawn from various CGIAR centers Global already collaborating to support SI-Global MFS activities. and a modest budget available • Communications work plan developed Global Collaboration space for initiative stakeholders and partners Set up an accessible online repository Coordinate organization of initiative inception meetings First initiative learning event Annual reports for the SI-MFS Initiative• A team of communication and Global knowledge management experts Global drawn from various CGIAR centers Global already collaborating to support SI-Global MFS activities. and a modest budget available • Communications work plan developed Global "},{"text":"initiative-wide) Linkages with other Initiatives/ One CGIAR efforts • Embedded into the One CGIAR Communication and Outreach Task forces that are contributing to the broader strategy.• Also providing support for other One CGIAR Initiatives.• Vastly experienced global team with background in other bilateral projects that provide a sound springboard for delivering a vibrant CKM for SI-MFS (next slide) "}],"sieverID":"523745f0-7f77-455c-90ca-5f209424adbd","abstract":""}

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+ {"metadata":{"id":"05609fbb9fd2c9abf04d5602561944c4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/50173405-193f-4aca-b90a-47aa7f68f3f8/retrieve"},"pageCount":32,"title":"Políticas aplic&das al sector lechero en la región. • • • . • • . Opciones de política","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":". ."}]},{"head":".","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"externa de estas regiones para su abastecimiento."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"Un aspecto característico de la oferta de lec~e es su inestabilidad •pril)C1.pH1111ente debido a razones clill15ti.cas~ En Africa las sequías hnn sido un fuerte limitante al crecimiento de la producción."},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"Rusia que produce el 21% del total mundial continúamente ve afectada su pro¿ucciún"}]},{"head":"•","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"por problemas de clima y de disponibilidad de piensos, por. cj effiJ)10 en el período 1984/85 se espera uua baja de la producción rusa por la baja oferta de piensos esperada para este año."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"Se aprecian g!\"'andes diferencias en productividad entre regiones geográficas. La producción por vaca en ordeno en l~orte Améric.'l es once."},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":"veces más alta que la Africana y casi seis veces más alta que la de América Latina. Estas diferencias obedecen princip21mcnte a razones de clima, razas y sistemas de alimentació¡) (Cuadro 4)."}]},{"head":"Comercio de leche y productos l~ctcos","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"En g.eneral los pal_ses e.n de.sarrollo son uutosuficienti:;s en prodl.!(;.ción y productos lácteos; como 12:~cepciones importantes apúr:ecen 15."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"Unión Soviética que es importador•neto de lácteo3 y Estados Unido:: un importador neto de quesos, especial:wcnte de. que.80S de mayor eleboración y ~\"'sto."},{"index":3,"size":46,"text":"Los países en desarrollo de Afri.c.a, Asia y !illlt2rica Latina [;p.staToa . en 1983 aproximadamente• 4.400 mi.llúnes G~ dólilres en imp?rtac::\"o:l.2.s de lc~he y productoG láct:eos, de los cuaJes cerca de la mitnJ corrcspondiG D. import:.1ciones de lecbe en polvo, una cuarta parte a impGru¡(.~:i(Jnc:s d<::"},{"index":4,"size":37,"text":"DwntequiJ.la y la cuarta parte restanuc a leche fresca, condensada, evuporaui..\\.) queso y cuajada (Cuadro 5). En conjunto los poí~,;c~,> en desarrollo importan del 75/~ al 80% del volumen total de ]2clll::': y productos lácteos comerc.ializados ínternncíonalmcnte."},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"Lur; áreas en de.si.Lrrollo úpayte. de gastG.r un \\101u\"P.1en :iml)ortante Ol'."},{"index":6,"size":23,"text":"sus divisas en lmportacioncs de láctcofl, el nivel ue éstas es crvcíenlL' a 10 largo del tiempo. En el período 1970/83. las import<!cione,;"},{"index":7,"size":23,"text":"Africnnas de lecllé en polvo crecieron él una t,lt¡a ¡n'.=:diéL anual del lO. (¡% Y , 4las de Asia al 5.57. (Cuadro 6)."},{"index":8,"size":23,"text":"De todas las importaciones Latinoamericanas de lácteos, las de leche en polvo son' las que .aás han crecido, 4.3% por año (Cuadro 6)."},{"index":9,"size":21,"text":"Las importaciones de mantequilla han .sido crecientes \"D.' Africa y Asia, 8.1% Y 6.% r\"spectivamente por año (C;Uadro 7). América La,tina"},{"index":10,"size":51,"text":"• muestra una tendencia decreciente en sus importaciones de ~ste producto, los cuales declinaron a razón de 2.5% por año en ,,1 período en referencia. Un hecho ü!1portante en el mercado cundía.l de Ir.':-.EteclUilLl es la aparición de Estados Unidos como exportador lleta de impÜl•\\..i.lncia eLl L1 década de los ochenta."},{"index":11,"size":20,"text":"Algunos de los princjpales importd'dorcs netos de mantequilla cor.:o la Unión Soviética, que compran aproxir::adamente un 20% de la li'lar,tequil1<l."},{"index":12,"size":23,"text":"del mercado mundial, y los países de Europa Oriental, en los últir.:os años h&n' disúdnuido sus compras por su cscC1sa. d:l.sponjbilidacl de d::\"vis<Js."},{"index":13,"size":48,"text":"La mayor, dinámica de crecimiento se observa en el merc~do mundic:~l de queso y cuajada, Asia y Africa incremc.ntaror: sus volúmenes • ajos nivele~ nutrictonalcs, no solo dependen de las importaciones de ',eche, sino que miÍ s del 30;; de é~tas entra como ayuda alimenticia (VON tlASSOIT, 1985)."}]},{"head":"4,","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"Mercado mundial, precios y políticas La ~aqlCte,-íBtica principal del nc:rcado mundial de leche ha sido el ,exceso de ofér¡:a sobre der.¡anda, 10 cllal ha deprimido los precios 1 , externos y obligado a los países exportadores a tomar diversas medidas • de política, para atenuar el efecto Locivo de la caida de los precios , internacionales, sobre los ingresos de los productores."},{"index":2,"size":125,"text":"~.Los precios ínternactonales -de la mantequj.lla cayeron de \" 8,pro:dmadamcntc US$2 ,'400/ ton en Di~iembre de 1982 a tinos US$L 500 en el primcI semestre de 1985. Esta misca tendencia decrec.iente se observa en o: ~ns productos lácteos coruo Rueso, leche entera en polvo y leche en polvo deslú\"ta,ia (Fi,gura 1), .i I I Con el propósito de 'controlar el exceso de oferta, determiuado en parte por la e:::.;cn~~a dinamica de' la deI!landa in.í:.en.'IHc:to11_al que a su vez CG influcnc.i<lda p()r la cuida de los ingresos en los p8ísc~ comprad.orcB pO l.' la recesión ecoDóm\"ica ue los últimos años y a la escasez U.8 c1ivicD.s y endCUG31r,iclitü externo de algunos países, ésto último principa.lr:1cnte en América Latina, :.::;e han tomado diversas medidas tendi.entes a controlurlo."},{"index":3,"size":98,"text":"Los stoCleE de intervención de mantequilla y lec\\¡e desnat:ldc, en polvo de la Com1lnidad Económica EU):opea, y de los Estados Unidos hiln crecido accl~radQ1Jlcntc. Los stocks de le.che dcsnat<lda en polvo de 1':1 CEE entro 1979 y 1984 se duplicaron y los de Estados Unidos crccicrnn 2.6 veces. Los ntocks de mantequilla evolucionaron igualmr:l1tl' e[1 torm:i rápida (Cuadro 10). Asociado con esas políticas de almacc'namj\"ento se han tomado medidas de precios al productor y de promoción del. COnsumo doméstico para atenuar la sobresaturación de ofert? Estados Unidos ha empleado diversos mecanismos de política, que se pueden resumir en:"},{"index":4,"size":46,"text":"• a) Descenso de los precios reales internos a través de ajustes en el precio de garantía. Las proyecG:iones para este año estiman una baj a de producción, con respecto al año pasado, de 3% en la CEE y de 1,% en los E. t~dos Unidos."},{"index":5,"size":75,"text":"No existen perspectivas en el corto plazo de un mejoramiento de las . ccndiciones de demanda g10bal ~ El convenio int_ernaciotlF.l de leche y productos lát.:teos) que opera dentro del GATT, corre pc.lir,ro como consecuencia de la ncgntiva de la CEE de el.in.innr stocks de manL~qui II i1 vieja (rDl1ciD.) y sus ventas por debajo del precio mínimo dc:.l Ct~1'T ,1 {{uBia y paíficH en deS{[lTOllo. A 10 anterior se suma el retiro de lo:;"},{"index":6,"size":12,"text":"Estados rJlliJos y Austria de dicho couvenio~ Desde fines de ]984 tlD¿)"},{"index":7,"size":23,"text":"proporc:::í (\\n creciente del comerc1.0 intérnacional de liícteoE; Be ha efectuado por debajo d<.! 108 niveles de precio mínimo establecido:.; por el convenio."},{"index":8,"size":78,"text":"A corto plazo no hay evidenc:ías de. En Brasil la política de precios ha desem¡>eñado un importDutc pa¡>el, sesún Agroanalisis (FVG, 1985), la lechería en' este ¡>\"ís, sin recibir el apoyo financiero adecuado y sujeta a nna política de precios administrados, ha sido tratada no como un producto esenci<ll en la di~ta que hay que estimular, sino más bicn como •un producto que por su alta incidencia en el costo de la l2.anast.a familiar debe n¡antenerse controlado ."},{"index":9,"size":43,"text":"Las consec\"uellcias para el consunddor final de este tipo de política es que la industria pasa a concentrarse en la producción dG productos de un mnyor valor agregado,. con mayor margen de comercialización, y de difícil adquisición para los consumidores de meuür ingreso."},{"index":10,"size":76,"text":"La baja de los precios mundiales de. los, lácteos ha influenciado los precios de leche no puede ser independiente de la de precios para carnl2, ya que e;stos sistemas de producción mixto, tienen gran capacid;:,d de adaptación a los cambios en precios relativos, por lo cual una polític.a de control de precios de leche y libertad de precios de la carne, hace que los productores pasen fácilmente de producir leche a ca rne j' viceversa ."},{"index":11,"size":71,"text":". . . Igualmente dentro de estos sistemas mixtos los ciclos de precioc. Lle la producción vacuna de alguna mane.ra est{¡n incídíeDdo sobre los niveles producidos de leche, por lo cual las políticas anticlclicas aplicaJas a lL ;,roducción vacuna también afectan a la lechería. En el corto' pla:w no se visualfzan canibios significativos en los excedentes del mcn.:..:.do externo por lo cual los precios permanecf..:rán en un nivel bajo y é~;¡-o"},{"index":12,"size":43,"text":"•contjnuará forzando los precios domésticus a la baja) de cO-;'1tinuar expandiéndose las importaciones de la reBión tal C0EIO ha ocurrj de, (:11 años recientes. La capacidad importador'::-l dcr:2ndcra él su vez de. cumo evolucionen los ingresos de los países, su situación de bnlanzu."},{"index":13,"size":5,"text":"comercial y de endeudamiento externo."},{"index":14,"size":34,"text":"A más largo plazo, se espera que las medidas de control de le producci6n impllcstas por los países con excedeutes rindan frutus y lo~; precios de leche y lácteos vuelvan a sus niv81es non'lales."},{"index":15,"size":31,"text":"La lechería en la re~ión tiene buen<.-:.s perspectivas, desde el pUlltO de Vist~1 del gran potencJ al de JeUlanda determin\"do por les b\"j os ;tnventario de CORFO (1984) Chi 1(, 4"},{"index":16,"size":25,"text":"---$/Utro . NORES (1980). \"Casto en carne de res Y pro<iuctoS lácteos por estrato de ingreso. en doce ciudades de Am6rica Latina\". CIAT, segundo borrador."},{"index":17,"size":42,"text":"IlNlV f,RSIDAJ) CATOLiCA DE CHILE (1984) • Panorama t:conóll\\ico de la ¡\\r,t:icult~. Santiago, Chile. Julio VON l'u\\SSOV, Va1entín \\l. (1985). \"Dairy imports into Sub-Sallaran Africa and (l1eír polícy ir.;plícatio ns \".' ILCA Bull etil1 No. 2 J, Adjis Ababa, Ethiopia, Enero ."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" .l.o de productos lácteos Como se argument6 anteriormente la región es importadora neta de leche y productos. Licteos y que esta dependencia del mercado externo se ha acentuadó a través del tiempo.De un. total de 731 millones de d6lares gastados en 1983 por América Latip\" en importaciones de•producton lácteos, dos terceras partes corresponden a importaciones de leche en p'olvo.La evolución del comercio de lácteos ha tenido incidencta sobre l,q' producclón de la región. Anteriormente se mostró el lento crecimiento de la producción de leche en América Latina part.icularmente en los últimos años, que ba coincidido con una\" situac.ión de E:.xceso de ofC'.rta enel Tilcrcado mundial. La depresi6n de 103 precios internacion<lle.s ha permitido a muchos países efectuar compras cada vez crecientes ce. leche con el propósito de mantener bajos laG precios él nivel consumidor, esU: tipo de política ha limitado seriamente las posibilic]O,des del sector lechero doméstico de crecer y aumentar su productividad . . .5.3 Políticas aplicadas ál sector .1:.ech~_ en la región En la mayoría de los países el principal instrumento de política ?p]:i.cado ha sido el control de precio:::, entre estos países se ~•.leden citar 13rúsil,. Colombia, Venezuela y Perú. Este control ha t<onido variados ré:sultados. Algunos pníBBs solamente han controlado el prccjo de la leche líquídd, dejando lihre.s ,los precios de les otros 1¿:¿ctco3. E~ta política de precios discriminatoria ha incentivado la industrinlizaci6n de la lec.he lo cual probaLle:nente lJrl deteríoradu 1.'1 oferta de leche liquida para los grupos de -población de menor it~dreso, Bolivia y Coloml~io. Gon ejemplos de esta situación. En Colombia [; partir de 1979 entró él regir un sistema de 1I11.bertad vigiluda tl de precios 1& cual ha servido P':ll-':\": inc.rementar la producción de productos lácteos má~j elauoraJos. Entre 1979, año en que com0Dzó el régimen de libertad vigi.ln':3 y 1981, la participación de 1<1 leche c;ruda c:n el volumen total de prpducción d<: lácteos, descendió de 25% a 20;~ y el de leche p\"f;L<:urizad\" subió de 23% a 32%. "},{"text":" las altas elasticidades ingreso de la demanda principalmente de productos 'láctcQS de mayor valor agregado, lo cual peDnite esperar que aUnl\",ntos en producción tengan su mercado en la propia r\"'gión.Dado este panorana, se hace necesario que los países de la región , comiencen de;¡de ahora a planear el dEsarrollo futuro de la lechería, diseñando políticas tendientes a acelerar el desarrollo del sector y de esta mnncra asegl~rar el abastecimiento futuro de este alimento básico. "},{"text":" Figura 2.ESl',<Jci,on;¡l-.i.d\"d de 1;) producción de lccJw [¡\",\"ca el!Pall~l!!l:l "},{"text":" \",:; (J.'; del ('che; al prac! \\lC tor en países de AmórtcB tri lil\\<l , H. de y Custavo A "},{"text":"b) Campañas tendientes a incentivar el conSUillO l!oméstico t mediante la investigación y promcción de nuevos productos lácteos. e) Incrementan graduales de los costos de almaccn3.i~iento} de las cantidades adicionales de leche producidas. d) Incentivos a la no comercialización de la leche a través de estímulos al autoconsurno, principalmente en alimentación aniJílal. Con respecto a ésto último, la norma esti.pula que ,;1 productcr Con respecto a ésto último, la norma esti.pula que ,;1 productcr recibe US$0.50 por cada 100 libras de leche no comercializada. recibe US$0.50 por cada 100 libras de leche no comercializada. Los precios de garantía se han reducido, hasta Noviembre del 83 Los precios de garantía se han reducido, hasta Noviembre del 83 e: tnvieron en US$13.10/100 libras, bajando a US$12.60 en Diciembre del e: tnvieron en US$13.10/100 libras, bajando a US$12.60 en Diciembre del "},{"text":"mismo año. El es.taclo financia los programas de investigación para íncremLnt:_~r el consumo doméstieo, a través de un grnvümen 0.1 pxocluC'.tor de US$O.15/100 libras, los cuales pasan a un foncJo part: investigación. El prograr,la de no cOl11crcializaeión se fín&l1cia a través del gravamen a los costos de almacenamiento de lus eunticl¡.¡ues LHlicionalL'~; producidas, por encima de un tope previamente e ;~tabJ.e.ci.c1o. "},{"text":"En el programn de no comcrcializaci611 los productol\"QS ~)C comprometel1 a reducir [...;u producción entre un 5í~ a 30%~ no )JllpurttiTldt) 1¡¡ forma en que. ét;to se logre. Bien puede ser PO}-mayor de~ "},{"text":"de.: vaC:1:;, 7 . 7 . reduccÍón de las raciones de concentrado o nlayor sumini¡;tro de leche 11 reduccÍón de las raciones de concentrado o nlayor sumini¡;tro de leche 11 I , los terneros. Este programa ha tenido una aceptación moderada y el princJpnl cuestlonanlÍcnto que se le hace es que en él participan principalmente I ,los terneros. Este programa ha tenido una aceptación moderada y el princJpnl cuestlonanlÍcnto que se le hace es que en él participan principalmente pequeños productores. cuando los mayores excedentes los generan las • fincas grandes. Igualmc.mte se plantean interrogantes respecto a la pequeños productores. cuando los mayores excedentes los generan las • fincas grandes. Igualmc.mte se plantean interrogantes respecto a la forma en que reaccionarán los productores que no parti.cipan en el forma en que reaccionarán los productores que no parti.cipan en el pror,rama y la incidencia del mismo sobre el nivel de empleo. La CEE ha pror,rama y la incidencia del mismo sobre el nivel de empleo.La CEE ha seguido tair.bién un esquehla de control de la produceíón doméstica, seguido tair.bién un esquehla de control de la produceíón doméstica, fijando cuotas de producci6n que entran dentro del r~giwen d~ precios de fijando cuotas de producci6n que entran dentro del r~giwen d~ precios de garantía. Canadá, Suiza y otros países también han adoptado esta garantía.Canadá, Suiza y otros países también han adoptado esta práctica. práctica. Las expectativas de corto plazo en el mercado mundial de leche y Las expectativas de corto plazo en el mercado mundial de leche y produc.tos lácteos c.s que los precios continuDrán en un bajo nivel y (1\\.10 produc.tos lácteos c.s que los precios continuDrán en un bajo nivel y (1\\.10 los stocks de la CEE y los Estados Unidos continuarán con sus nh'eles los stocks de la CEE y los Estados Unidos continuarán con sus nh'eles récord. Se couHidcra que cualquier cambio en los stocks de l~cteos récord.Se couHidcra que cualquier cambio en los stocks de l~cteos dependerá fundamentalmente del nivel de producc.ión y CQnSl\\.r.lO que dependerá fundamentalmente del nivel de producc.ión y CQnSl\\.r.lO que alcancen la CEE y los Estado's Unidos y la demanda global por alcancen la CEE y los Estado's Unidos y la demanda global por importaciones. importaciones. "},{"text":"generó en la zona tropica14 Cuatro países tropicales, Brasil, Néxico, Colombia y Venezuela, en conjunto producen cerca de dos terceras partes de la producc:ión Latinoameric&lla total (Cuadro 11). este producto. este producto. 5. Evolución de.la lechería en América Latina 5.Evolución de.la lechería en América Latina América Latina en conjunt:o es itaportador neto de leche y productos América Latina en conjunt:o es itaportador neto de leche y productos lácteos, aunque su zona templada genera excedentes exportables. • total de la producción de leche fresca Latinoamericana, 35 millones de Del lácteos, aunque su zona templada genera excedentes exportables. • total de la producción de leche fresca Latinoamericana, 35 millones de Del toneladas ~n 19B3 equivalentes al 7.8% de la producción mundial, el 79% toneladas ~n 19B3 equivalentes al 7.8% de la producción mundial, el 79% La La "},{"text":"tendencia de la tasa de crecimiento de la prouucción de leche es "},{"text":"crédito a los productores y programas de inc.ustria1.Lz&.ción a trnv6s del "},{"text":"ha dado particular impulso a la producción lecbera a través eLC progr2 "},{"text":"sector lechero. La productividaLl, expresaua en kgs de •leche producida por vaca en ordE::iio, es dos veces roás alta en la región terüplada quc en la rer,ión tropical con~u¡~i(~Jr desde el punto de vista del gasLa rcaJ.iz~dü, son lc)s que poseen las clasticj_dacleE m5s bajas, menores ~uc (lech~-; flu.:Lc!il, leche en polvo, qU2S0S y Ina:ntcquil18.) J el resto de productos que t::elit\"JI escasa p<....rticipaci.5n en el gusto total en ] ác te o\":', mue.~tT<)n eLl~:\\\".ici_(L,~h nwyorct::i que 1. Lsto explica la impo:rL.~[~cié] él:cci(~ntc que tldqu.Lc ((\"11efilo:.: productob ~llte ínCl'erilcntos del in~rcso de los consundd()res. Entre 1968/75 Y 1976/73 el índice de Entre 1968/75 Y 1976/73 el índice de autosuficiencia se ha deteriorado bajando de 95% a 91% para la región en autosuficiencia se ha deteriorado bajando de 95% a 91% para la región en En Colombia, en la Costa Norte la principal región productora de conjunto. En Colombia, en la Costa Norte la principal región productora de conjunto. carne del país el 66% de las explotaciones, pueden clasificarse como • ranchos lecheros (IUVAS, 1974), en Panamá se estima que entre un 20~; a • A pesar del deterioro del índice <le autosuficiencia el consumo per carne del país el 66% de las explotaciones, pueden clasificarse como • ranchos lecheros (IUVAS, 1974), en Panamá se estima que entre un 20~; a • A pesar del deterioro del índice <le autosuficiencia el consumo per 25,; de la vacada de carne se ordeña (REIRKE, 1973), en Nicaragua estos cápita se ha incrementado en la región y este incremento obedece a UllcÍ 25,; de la vacada de carne se ordeña (REIRKE, 1973), en Nicaragua estos cápita se ha incrementado en la región y este incremento obedece a UllcÍ estimativos fluctúan entre 70~{ a 75~; (LATINOCOl,SULT, 1975). mayor importación d;e leché y lác'\"teos. El Caribe se destace\"!. por sus En Brc.sil estimativos fluctúan entre 70~{ a 75~; (LATINOCOl,SULT, 1975). mayor importación d;e leché y lác'\"teos. El Caribe se destace\"!. por sus En Brc.sil el ganado de doble propósito constituye el 35% del invQntario gan2dero bajos niveles de autosuficiencia que varían entre 6~~ L'n\",Triníd;;:d Tob3gc el ganado de doble propósito constituye el 35% del invQntario gan2dero bajos niveles de autosuficiencia que varían entre 6~~ L'n\",Triníd;;:d Tob3gc total y el 427: del rebaño de carne (BATISTA DE OLlVElRA y COELUO DE a 42% en Barbados. total y el 427: del rebaño de carne (BATISTA DE OLlVElRA y COELUO DE a 42% en Barbados. ALVARENGA, 1974). ALVARENGA, 1974). "},{"text":"nto se or:i.gi LÓ en el deterioro de los precios Yeales a nível de •producto su ¡>recio. • En la década de los ochenta la produccióú lcc11er2 de Br2sil su ¡>recio.• En la década de los ochenta la produccióú lcc11er2 de Br2sil ha estado estancada,. según varios analistas de este. país se. trata de l.!rJa ha estado estancada,. según varios analistas de este. país se. trata de l.!rJa situación similar a la del período 1969/73 cuando hubo ncccsid<id Je situación similar a la del período 1969/73 cuando hubo ncccsid<id Je recurrir a importacione:s de leche en polvo, es..:=. estancam:i.f;b) Incorporación de nuevas tccnologí.JS~ e.nvasc.s~ n:ejol~;ll~ ... i.Cl)tu de.' recurrir a importacione:s de leche en polvo, es..:=. estancam:i.f;b) Incorporación de nuevas tccnologí.JS~ e.nvasc.s~ n:ejol~;ll~ ... i.Cl)tu de.' la calidad y p\"r\"dbilidatl de los productos. la calidad y p\"r\"dbilidatl de los productos. e) e) de can:pañas publicit.arias, y de can:pañas publicit.arias, y d) V[Lr:i. d)V[Lr:i. "},{"text":"3s 8DlprcS¡ls proouctorns de leche fluíua han saJ iuo dc] mercado por fa) tOo de capital y no poder adapt "},{"text":" Para lacrar avanc-es en producción y produl:tividad, se requiere el disciío y apli.c~~cj Cn de p:..lít:i.cas cohc¡-entes que crc.en un clima prüpicL:'J pa ra la inv(: r ~;iGYi. en leche ría.En razón de que leche y carne son producidas conj l'.~Jtame.nlc en u.n gran número de explotaciones ganaderas dE! la región, la polít.ica de. La polític.a de precios debe ser lo La polític.a de precios debe ser lo suficientemente flexible como para permitir resolver el conflicto de suficientemente flexible como para permitir resolver el conflicto de intereses entre consumidores y productcres., Igualmente estil política , • precios doméb'ticos, ya que los gobif rnos pueden m8.ntcnGr baj os 10s tiene que. estar acompañada de norll1as precisas respecto a 1.a calidad del intereses entre consumidores y productcres., Igualmente estil política , • precios doméb'ticos, ya que los gobif rnos pueden m8.ntcnGr baj os 10s tiene que. estar acompañada de norll1as precisas respecto a 1.a calidad del precioB internos a través de importaciones. producto y de exigencias mínimas para aceptar leche cruda r'ara El CUBdro 19 muestra la precioB internos a través de importaciones. producto y de exigencias mínimas para aceptar leche cruda r'ara El CUBdro 19 muestra la caída en los últimos años de los \"'precios reales de la leche nI productor procesarla posteriormente. caída en los últimos años de los \"'precios reales de la leche nI productor procesarla posteriormente. en vnrios paÍ;:;;8s latjno.::nncricanos. En el períoco 1983/8!+ el precio real en vnrios paÍ;:;;8s latjno.::nncricanos. En el períoco 1983/8!+ el precio real declinó en Ar¡;cntin3 a una tasa anual del 9.1% y en Brasil al 5.4%. Los declinó en Ar¡;cntin3 a una tasa anual del 9.1% y en Brasil al 5.4%. Los precios al prod1Jctor, expresados e1,1-dólares a la tasa de cambio oficial, precios al prod1Jctor, expresados e1,1-dólares a la tasa de cambio oficial, también huu t1cclin&Go notoriamente en los últimos años, en parte ésto es también huu t1cclin&Go notoriamente en los últimos años, en parte ésto es consecuencia de las devaluacioneD 8f8ctuadas por algunos países de la consecuencia de las devaluacioneD 8f8ctuadas por algunos países de la región. región. a) Divisas gas.tadn::; en impo~taciónes. a)Divisas gas.tadn::; en impo~taciónes. b) Desestímulo para• el productor que se refleja en eSC2S8Z de b)Desestímulo para• el productor que se refleja en eSC2S8Z de fluj os de caFi tal hacia el sector, liroitando el C3!~bio fluj os de caFi tal hacia el sector, liroitando el C3!~bio •techológico y los aumentos de productivid.ad, y •techológico y los aumentos de productivid.ad, y e) Imp<'lcto negativo sobre el nivel de empleo, ya que. la lechería e)Imp<'lcto negativo sobre el nivel de empleo, ya que. la lechería es una activiJac. intensiva en mano de olJr3.. es una activiJac. intensiva en mano de olJr3.. Uno de .1()~; ül~trumcntos de política y el que más .se h . . . . . . US&Jo es ,-<L Uno de .1()~; ül~trumcntos de política y el que más .se h . . . . . . US&Jo es ,-<L "},{"text":"Po rcen t aj e vacas en ordeño de Regiones Millones de Millones de población RegionesMillones deMillones depoblación tonelad.as % cabezHs % humana tonelad.as%cabezHs%humana • • Desarroll.adas 377 83.0 113 49.6 26.0 Desarroll.adas37783.011349.626.0 En desarrollo 77 17 .0 115 50.4 74.0 En desarrollo7717 .011550.474.0 Tot:al mundial 454 100.0 228 100.0 100.0 Tot:al mundial454100.0228100.0100.0 Fuente: FAO (1984) Fuente:FAO (1984) Cuadro 2. Participación de las diferentes regiones geográfic2s en le.. Cuadro 2.Participación de las diferentes regiones geográfic2s en le.. producci6n mundial de-leche fresca, 1975-1984 (po;:ccntaj\") producci6n mundial de-leche fresca, 1975-1984 (po;:ccntaj\") Región 1975 Región1975 Africa 2.5 Africa2.5 Asia 6.6 Asia6.6 Europa 41.2 Europa41.2 . OCt>.an Ta 3.3 . OCt>.an Ta3.3 Americ':J Latina 7.3 Americ':J Latina7.3 Norte lUiüSric;l 15.5 Norte lUiüSric;l15.5 Total munclial 100.0 Total munclial100.0 "},{"text":"Fuente! FAO, /lnu.:1rio de Protlucc:Lón (varios ar:.I.:n:;) 17 17 1 Cuadro 3. Tasas de crecimiento anual de la producción mundial de leche C'ntera fresca y del inventario de vacas en diversas 1Cuadro 3.Tasas de crecimiento anual de la producción mundial de leche C'ntera fresca y del inventario de vacas en diversas regióncs del mundo, 197 ~-198I, (porcentaj e) regióncs del mundo, 197 ~-198I,(porcentaj e) Región Producción , Inve.ntario de vacas en ordeno RegiónProducción ,Inve.ntario de vacas en ordeno Africa 1.2 1.8 Africa1.21.8 Asia 5.6 3.7 Asia5.63.7 Europa 1.7 -0.3 Europa1.7-0.3 Oceanía 0.2 -2.1 Oceanía0.2-2.1 América Latina 2.0 2.6 América Latina2.02.6 Norte Anérica 1.1 -0.9 Norte Anérica1.1-0.9 , ProD!cdio mundial 1.6 1.3 ,ProD!cdio mundial1.61.3 i' i' Fuente: FAO, Anuario de Producción (varios años) Fuente:FAO, Anuario de Producción (varios años) Cuadro 4. Producción por vaca en ordeño en diferentes regiones del Cuadro 4.Producción por vaca en ordeño en diferentes regiones del mundo, 1974/76 -1984 mundo, 1974/76 -1984 Región 197 1 ,/76 1980 1980 19B.'~ 1981. Región197 1 ,/761980 198019B.'~ 1981. Afríea Asiél Europa Occnnía América Latina 480 668 3186 2888 963 2.3 8.8 41.7 2.8 7.8 473 679 3505 3103 952 485 2.4 723 8.3 3626 Id. 1 3505 3.0 7.8 957• Afríea Asiél Europa Occnnía América Latina480 668 3186 2888 9632.3 8.8 41.7 2.8 7.8 473 679 3505 3103 952485 2.4 723 8.3 3626 Id. 1 3505 3.0 7.8 957• 15.1, 15.7 15.1,15.7 100.0 100.0 100.0100.0 "},{"text":"Norte Ar;l,érica 4608 5113 5566 del. com\"rcio mundial de le,ohe condensada y evaporada: exportaciones netas, 1970/83 (miles de ton) 18 19 20 18 19 20 • • • • Cuadro 11. Cuadro 11. Cuadro 9. Cuadro 9. Cuadro 5. Cundro 7. Valor rlel comercio mundial de lec),e y productos lácteos: exportaciones netas, 19C3 (millones de US$) Evolución del comercio mundial de mantequilla, 1970-1983 (mil:s de toneladas) Exportaciones Tasa de netas crecimiento Cuadro 5. Cundro 7.Valor rlel comercio mundial de lec),e y productos lácteos: exportaciones netas, 19C3 (millones de US$) Evolución del comercio mundial de mantequilla, 1970-1983 (mil:s de toneladas) Exportaciones Tasa de netas crecimiento , \" J Leche En polvo y evaporada Condensada • quilla Hante--451 -403 -297 Exportaciones netas 1970 Fresca -42 1975 198b 1983 1970 1975 1980 1983 , -186 -231 -428 •,433 -134 -81 -156 -155 :-46 -1213 -158 -419 53 968 432 531 1 396 -6 463 -17 -480 -76 -82 -52.9 -44.9 -138.8 :\"'146.3 403 315 534 480 '-76.9 -99.7 -205.8 -174.5 -3 :'5 3 -6 118.3 112.4 445. t, 263.8 -98 -81 -129 -74 292.1 190.7 245.1 238.1 20 24 20 8 .5 285 80 58 -57.7 -45.7 -84.0 -41. 7 Exportaciones lletas =-= Africa Región Región Africa Asia Asia Europa Oceanía América Latínn Afríca Europa Asia Oceanía Europa América Latina Oceanía Estados unidos Norte t\\mérica América Latina exportaciones -importaci.ones Estados Unidos 0.1 0.1 0.0 66.5 Fuente: FAO, Anuario de \"Producción, (varios años) Queso y cuajada -148 Tasa de Tota 1. crecimiento anual, 1970/83 (%) auual, 1970/83 6.7 (%) 1.1 -13~ 1 -491 -23:•: 2 881 2[;1'.', 6l, 9; (; -76 \"-, 1.4 8.1 5.5 6.5 -2.l 6. L, -6,ü -1. G -~\";'J -395 -2.5 2(; , \" JLeche En polvo y evaporada Condensada • quilla Hante--451 -403 -297 Exportaciones netas 1970 Fresca -42 1975 198b 1983 1970 1975 1980 1983 , -186 -231 -428 •,433 -134 -81 -156 -155 :-46 -1213 -158 -419 53 968 432 531 1 396 -6 463 -17 -480 -76 -82 -52.9 -44.9 -138.8 :\"'146.3 403 315 534 480 '-76.9 -99.7 -205.8 -174.5 -3 :'5 3 -6 118.3 112.4 445. t, 263.8 -98 -81 -129 -74 292.1 190.7 245.1 238.1 20 24 20 8 .5 285 80 58 -57.7 -45.7 -84.0 -41. 7 Exportaciones lletas =-= Africa Región Región Africa Asia Asia Europa Oceanía América Latínn Afríca Europa Asia Oceanía Europa América Latina Oceanía Estados unidos Norte t\\mérica América Latina exportaciones -importaci.ones Estados Unidos 0.1 0.1 0.0 66.5 Fuente: FAO, Anuario de \"Producción, (varios años)Queso y cuajada -148 Tasa de Tota 1. crecimiento anual, 1970/83 (%) auual, 1970/83 6.7 (%) 1.1 -13~ 1 -491 -23:•: 2 881 2[;1'.', 6l, 9; (; -76 \"-, 1.4 8.1 5.5 6.5 -2.l 6. L, -6,ü -1. G -~\";'J -395 -2.5 2(; , Fuente: Fuente: FAO (1984b) FAO~ Anuario de Produccíó~, (varios años) ,Fuente: Fuente:FAO (1984b) FAO~ Anuario de Produccíó~, (varios años) i I Cuadro 10. Stocks de intervención d'.! productos lácteos en Améric.a del . Norte, la Comunidad Econócüca Europ\";¡ y Oceanía, 1979/8 1 , i I Cuadro 10. Stocks de intervención d'.! productos lácteos en Améric.a del . Norte, la Comunidad Econócüca Europ\";¡ y Oceanía, 1979/8 1 , (miles de toneladas) (miles de toneladas) ~ Cuadro 6. Cuadro 8. Producto y región Evolución del comercio mundial de leche en polvo, 1970-1SS3 (miles de toneladas) : Tasa HDUa.l dl.~-Evoluc5.éin del comercio muudiúl de queso y cunjada: exportaciol1eos netas, 1970/83 19/9 .1983 1984 crecit:Lento (miles de toneladas) (%) ~Cuadro 6. Cuadro 8. Producto y región Evolución del comercio mundial de leche en polvo, 1970-1SS3 (miles de toneladas) : Tasa HDUa.l dl.~-Evoluc5.éin del comercio muudiúl de queso y cunjada: exportaciol1eos netas, 1970/83 19/9 .1983 1984 crecit:Lento (miles de toneladas) (%) I I , I I I ¡ ! I , I I Promedio raundí.al Fuente: FAO, Anuario de Producción (varios aucs) 1947 Región Africa Asia Europa Oc('rlllía Amériea Latina E~taJos 0ni.d~}~; Fuente: 1970 -81,.7 -382.6 2(,3.3 2513.'1 -~28.{; 185.4 Exportac.iones netas 1975 1980 -13 1 ;.6 -305.5 -383.8 --783.2 403.4 li57.1 262.5 366.5 -209.1 -560.6 80.6 136.0 1983 .1922 -314.3 •-76'1.3 674.2 34\".0 -397.0 2576 ) ExportaC:lc>ncs nets_s Munr.eg~ill~ R,,¡;ión 1970 1975 1980 19B3 CEE (lO paises) 497 966 1200 Norte.2.U2 J.~ica 101 250 220 Oceanía 79 110 130 Afri<:a -2 l, -32 -1,9 -80 Asía -66 -99 -247 -270 Europa 106 169 387 452 Oceanía 123 88 11.6 107 América Latina -19 -10 -29 -33 Estados Unidos -71 -78 -99 -•107 Total 677 1326 1550 'Leche enJElvo _~.~scremada CEE (JO 1',,1se5) 367 1109 800 Norte21<--.C-f-ica 231 659 600 OCQan.ía 131 149 150 Fuente: FhO, \"Anuario de Producción, (varios anos) Total 729 1917 1550 Qucs~ CEE 343 400 380 Norteo.mérica 284 625 600 Ocear~í3 148 150 97 Total 724 1173 1130 Fuente: Agrarwirtuchaft (1984) 2019 TDSQ de crec.1Lllcntc' 1970/83 (%) JO.6 5.5 7.3 2.2 4.3 2.5 --------~--Tasa de crccimíc.nto 19.3 anual, 19)0/83 16.8 ~%) -----10.4 9.7 11. 4 11.8 -1. O 4.3 18.0 ]6,8 21.0 2.7 3.~ -----]6.3 2,1 16, 1 9.1 9,3 II , I II ¡ ! I , I IPromedio raundí.al Fuente: FAO, Anuario de Producción (varios aucs) 1947 Región Africa Asia Europa Oc('rlllía Amériea Latina E~taJos 0ni.d~}~; Fuente: 1970 -81,.7 -382.6 2(,3.3 2513.'1 -~28.{; 185.4 Exportac.iones netas 1975 1980 -13 1 ;.6 -305.5 -383.8 --783.2 403.4 li57.1 262.5 366.5 -209.1 -560.6 80.6 136.0 1983 .1922 -314.3 •-76'1.3 674.2 34\".0 -397.0 2576 ) ExportaC:lc>ncs nets_s Munr.eg~ill~ R,,¡;ión 1970 1975 1980 19B3 CEE (lO paises) 497 966 1200 Norte.2.U2 J.~ica 101 250 220 Oceanía 79 110 130 Afri<:a -2 l, -32 -1,9 -80 Asía -66 -99 -247 -270 Europa 106 169 387 452 Oceanía 123 88 11.6 107 América Latina -19 -10 -29 -33 Estados Unidos -71 -78 -99 -•107 Total 677 1326 1550 'Leche enJElvo _~.~scremada CEE (JO 1',,1se5) 367 1109 800 Norte21<--.C-f-ica 231 659 600 OCQan.ía 131 149 150 Fuente: FhO, \"Anuario de Producción, (varios anos) Total 729 1917 1550 Qucs~ CEE 343 400 380 Norteo.mérica 284 625 600 Ocear~í3 148 150 97 Total 724 1173 1130 Fuente: Agrarwirtuchaft (1984)2019 TDSQ de crec.1Lllcntc' 1970/83 (%) JO.6 5.5 7.3 2.2 4.3 2.5 --------~--Tasa de crccimíc.nto 19.3 anual, 19)0/83 16.8 ~%) -----10.4 9.7 11. 4 11.8 -1. O 4.3 18.0 ]6,8 21.0 2.7 3.~ -----]6.3 2,1 16, 1 9.1 9,3 "},{"text":"leche: fresca en Améril':a Latina por zonas geográficas y países seleccionados, 1967/74-1983 geográficas y países seleccionados, 1967/74-1983 (miles de toneladas) (miles de toneladas) Producción de Porcentaje Producción dePorcentaje Zona y País leche fresca del total Zona y Paísleche frescadel total 196717[' 1983 , 1983 196717['1983 ,1983 América Latina Tropical 18599 27525 78.& América Latina Tropical185992752578.& Brasil 7525 10700 30.6 Brasil75251070030.6 Héxico 3967 7300 20.9 Héxico3967730020.9 Colombia 3'967 7300 20.9 Colombia3'967730020.9 Venezuela 950 1552 4.4 Venezuela95015524.4 América T~a tina Templada 6474 7[,18 21.2 América T~a tina Templada64747[,1821.2 Argentina . Uruguay 4816 705 5700 818 16.3 2.3 Argentina . Uruguay4816 7055700 81816.3 2.3 Total América Latina 25073 34943 100.0 Total América Latina2507334943100.0 Fuente: CIAT (1985) Fuente:CIAT (1985) Cuadro 12. Cuadro 12. Latina y países seleécionados. Promedios 1968/75-1976/eJ Latina y países seleécionados. Promedios 1968/75-1976/eJ (Porcentaj e) . (Porcentaj e) . Zona y P\"ís Zona y P\"ís \"América L\"tina Tropical \"América L\"tina Tropical Brasil Brasil Héxico Héxico Colombia Colombia Venezuela Venezuela Amé rica L\" tina Telllp L,da Amé rica L\" tina Telllp L,da Argentina Argentina Uruguay Uruguay Total América Latina Total América Latina Fuente: CINf (l ~8S) Fuente:CINf (l ~8S) "},{"text":"y País América Lalina TropJcnl llrdf;i.l México Columbia Ve_ue;:;ucla América I.;ltJ.uü Tc.mpl.'id.:.: I\\rgectiua • Urugu,-\\y . 1 22 23 . 122 23 I Cuadro 15. ICuadro 15. I I .. , C¡tadro 13. Paises latinoamericanos con de la: producción de leche. (porcentaje) mayores tasas de c¡:ccimicnto Promedios 1968/75 -1976/83 I I .. ,C¡tadro 13.Paises latinoamericanos con de la: producción de leche. (porcentaje)mayores tasas de c¡:ccimicnto Promedios 1968/75 -1976/83 .1 I •1 I , • nís Tasas de crecimiento 1968/75 • 1976/83 .1 I •1 I ,• nísTasas de crecimiento 1968/75 • 1976/83 lloHvlu • 7.1 6.5 lloHvlu•7.16.5 JIonduulS 1.3 6.7 JIonduulS1.36.7 l>at'u&.uay 4.6 t •• 7 l>at'u&.uay4.6t •• 7 1República DOIl:inicana 4.6 4.7 1República DOIl:inicana4.64.7 'Cuba 4.8 2.7 'Cuba4.82.7 Fuente: CIAT (1985) Fuente:CIAT (1985) ! ! Cuadro 14. Cuadro 14. Producción por vú(;a Producción por vú(;a 1967/7/¡ 1983 1967/7/¡1983 Tasas de crecÍíaienf:o Tasas de crecÍíaienf:o 1968/75 781 779 \"---85} 1976/83 7~b 1968/75 781 779\"---85} 1976/83 7~b 559 807 559807 3.6 906 4.3 1003 99~: 1.8 0.3 1287 3.6 906 4.3 100399~: 1.8 0.3 1287 4.2 -0.1 1751 5.7 1905 1553 4.3 1.75/! 2.1 1900 3.6 15/1 ::; 4.2 -0.1 1751 5.7 1905 15534.3 1.75/! 2.1 1900 3.6 15/1 ::; TOlal f,mGr'i..ca Latiu¡:-~ 3.4 912 0.1, 956 TOlal f,mGr'i..ca Latiu¡:-~3.4 9120.1, 956 , . . , l ' • I Fuente: CIAT (19S5) -0.1 3.3 1.\"1 1.5 ---- , . . , l ' • IFuente: CIAT (19S5)-0.1 3.31.\"1 1.5 ---- "},{"text":"de leche e índice de autosuficiencia im regiones y países seleccionados de América L.Jtina, 1968Jtina, /75-1976/83 /83 1968/75 1976/83 1968/751976/83 ConsU1no Indico de Consumo lndlce de ConsU1noIndico deConsumolndlce de Región y País per cápita nutúsuficlen,cia per cápita autosuficienc.ia (kg/aÜo) (%) (kg/año) (%) Región y Paísper cápita nutúsuficlen,cia per cápita autosuficienc.ia (kg/aÜo) (%) (kg/año) (%) Amé.rica Latina Tropical 82.6 93,1. • , 93.4 88.8 Amé.rica Latina Tropical82.693,1.•,93.488.8 Brasil 81.5 97.9 87.0 98.2 Brasil81.597.987.098.2 Néxico 84.7 91.1 107.7 88.9 Néxico84.791.1107.788.9 Colombia 103.0 100.0 100.6 94.3 Colombia103.0100.0100.694.3 Venezuela 103.9 84.1 140.7 62.1, Venezuela103.984.1140.762.1, Am6rica Latina Am6rica Latina Templada 183.8 98.9 179.2 99.9 Templada183.898.9179.299.9 Argentina . Uruguay 203.4 255.3 101.0 100.0 200.0 267.5 101. 7 101,t, Argentina . Uruguay203.4 255.3101.0 100.0200.0 267.5101. 7 101,t, Total Am(;rica Total Am(;rica Latina 94.9 94.7 102.7 91.0 Latina94.994.7102.791.0 11 En equivalente de leche fresca, incluye: leche fresca, en polvo, 11 En equivalente de leche fresca, incluye: leche fresca, en polvo, condensada y evaporada. condensada y evaporada. Fuente: CIAT (1985) Fuente: CIAT (1985) "},{"text":"conSURO de lrche y productos lácteos' en . equivalente de;. leche frescB ~ Pror:ledio 1979/81 24 24 I I Cuadro 17. 1'a1s Parti.dpaci6n en el gusto en alime;:tos y elasticidades ingreso de la d\"manda de leche y productos lácteos Proporci6n del gasto en alimentos , Elasticidad ingreso Ciudad Estrato Estrato Estrato Estrato I ICuadro 17. 1'a1sParti.dpaci6n en el gusto en alime;:tos y elasticidades ingreso de la d\"manda de leche y productos lácteos Proporci6n del gasto en alimentos , Elasticidad ingreso Ciudad Estrato Estrato Estrato Estrato más pobre r.üis rico m;í.s pobr,? M{¡P, rico más pobrer.üis ricom;í.s pobr,?M{¡P, rico Brasil! Sao Pau.1o 10.5 10.4 0.87 0.40 Brasil!Sao Pau.1o10.510.40.870.40 Colomhiu: Bo[;ot5 9.6 10.6 0.91 0.52 Colomhiu:Bo[;ot59.610.60.910.52 ehil<., : Santio.go 6.9 9.5 1. 1'6 0.90 ehil<., :Santio.go6.99.51. 1'60.90 Ecuador: Quito 8.7 13.7 0.87 0.51 Ecuador:Quito8.713.70.870.51 Paraguay: Asunción 11.2• 13.2 1. 0.13 Paraguay:Asunción11.2•13.21.0.13 Venezuela! CaraCd-S 13.1 12.7 1.06 O. 'Í 6 Venezuela! CaraCd-S13.112.71.06O. 'Í 6 Fuente: RUBD\\STr:IN y NORES (1980) Fuente:RUBD\\STr:IN yNORES (1980) Cuadro 18. Cuadro 18. Leche fluida Leche fluida corrientE: corrientE: (kg/persona/aiío) . especial (kg/persona/aiío) . especial L\"che en polvo Leche entera Leche desnatada Queso Total L\"che en polvoLeche entera Leche desnatadaQuesoTotal País \"S o• 1, kg % País\"So• 1,kg% r I Alcm:1l1ía Holand\" Estados Unidos U,O. O 77.6 1~2.0 Uru~lwy 157.0 Brasil 59.1 Venc7.ucla 10/,,6 Culomhia. 53.8 /.3.7 47.1. 58.3 90.3 83.6 67.3 71. [3 31.8 55.2 20.8 2.8 6.6 26.6 6.1 17.9 17.2 8.7 1.6 9.3 17.1 8.2 6R.O 113. O 79.0 14. O 5.0 2,4.0 15.0 38.3 177 .1, ) OO. (1 35.3 320.7 lOO.U 32.9 239.& 100.0 8.1 173.8 lOO.G 7.1 70.7 100.0 15.6 1)5.2 lOU. e 20.0 7/¡.9 100. (¡ r IAlcm:1l1ía Holand\" Estados Unidos U,O. O 77.6 1~2.0 Uru~lwy 157.0 Brasil 59.1 Venc7.ucla 10/,,6 Culomhia. 53.8/.3.7 47.1. 58.3 90.3 83.6 67.3 71. [331.8 55.2 20.8 2.8 6.6 26.6 6.117.9 17.2 8.7 1.6 9.3 17.1 8.26R.O 113. O 79.0 14. O 5.0 2,4.0 15.038.3 177 .1, ) OO. (1 35.3 320.7 lOO.U 32.9 239.& 100.0 8.1 173.8 lOO.G 7.1 70.7 100.0 15.6 1)5.2 lOU. e 20.0 7/¡.9 100. (¡ Jam.:lÍca 21. 7 62.3 6.1 17.5 7.0 20.1 31,.8 100.0 Jam.:lÍca21. 762.36.117.57.020.131,.8 100.0 Excluye: leche en polvo, quesillo y yogurt Excluye: leche en polvo, quesillo y yogurt Fuente: FAO (Halanee Shccts) (1984) Fuente:FAO (Halanee Shccts) (1984) "},{"text":"Leche condeusadt~ Leche C'v'-c.porada Húnteq.uilJ a 25 25 Cuadro 19. Precios rcales de la leche a nivel productor en países Cuadro 19.Precios rcales de la leche a nivel productor en países seleccionados. 1978/1984 seleccionados. 1978/1984 ¡ Brasil 1 Colombia?' Argentina 3 ¡Brasil1Colombia?'Argentina3 I Año Cr/li.tro $/li.tro Indie\" del precio re\\.lJ IAñoCr/li.tro$/li.troIndie\" del precio re\\.lJ 1978 .661.79 8.10 74.0 1978.661.798.1074.0 1979 595.06 9.32 77.6 1979595.069.3277.6 1980 626.11 9.64 67.b 1980626.119.6467.b 1981 642.67 9.10 66.6 1981642.679.1066.6 1982 537.79 9.66 54.2 1982537.799.6654.2 I I 1983 1984 517 .85 460.1.2 9.30 8.36 53.7 43./,>< I I1983 1984517 .85 460.1.29.30 8.3653.7 43./,>< Tasa promedjo anual Tasa promedjo anual de crecimiento (%) -5.4 0.3 -9.1 de crecimiento (%)-5.40.3-9.1 * Estimauo * Estimauo Fuente: 1. Brasil: FGV el '1(4) Fuente:1. Brasil:FGV el '1(4) 2. Colombia: FADEGAN (l 984) 2. Colombia:FADEGAN (l 984) 3. Argentina: bANCO 3. Argentina:bANCO 4. Chile: 4. Chile: Elasticidad ingreso Elasticidad ingreso 0.78 0.78 1.85 1.85 0.71 0.71 1. 18 1. 18 1. 54 1. 54 0.59 0.59 Qucs(r~-:; 0.90 Qucs(r~-:;0.90 Quesillo 1.41 Quesillo1.41 YOf,urt 1. 13 YOf,urt1. 13 Crcm:~ : Crcm:~ : [l:cscn 1. 90 [l:cscn1. 90 enlatad\" 1. 41 enlatad\"1. 41 Fuent,,: UNIVERSIDAD CATOLICA DE CHILE (1934) Fuent,,: UNIVERSIDAD CATOLICA DE CHILE (1934) "}],"sieverID":"3720abd4-4168-4e5d-87b3-4e88a0fddcf2","abstract":"La lechería constituye una actividad ,productiva de especial I importanr:ia en todas las regiones del rou~do por razoner. de orden ¡ económico 'y nutricional, éste último aspecto particularmente iro.¡Jortante ! ell las regiones en dC'sarrollo. que poseen una alta proporción de población infantil y que presentan déficits cad~ vez más crecientes en su disponibilidad de leche y productos 15cteos. En contraste las áreas desarrolladas presentan la faceta opuesta con altos niveles nutricionales y una oferta de lácteos muy por encima del consumo doméstico.La lechería es una actividad de pequeños y medianos productores, tanto er. países desarj~oll&dos como Estados Unidos, Canadá ~T los de 13 Comunidad Económica Europea (CEE), y también en países en desarrollo de América Latina, Asia y Afriea.Las políticas de precio e ingreso hall jUbado un rol I'lUy importanl c , en el desarrollo y situación actual del sector lechero en el mundo. En gl.1P1:a1 se puede decír que, los países desarl-Qlludos haD procurado ~ mediante política de precios de sustentación, proteger y estabilizar el ingreso de 105 productores, m.i.entras que 10G país('.s l~n desarrollo con ,défic.its en producción ban tendido a mantener controlados 105 precior..; 3 nivel consumidor para favorecer a los consumi (!ore.s de Laj os in~r(:.scs ~ por ejemplo 811 tmd~.ricél Latina,. •Brasil, Columbiu y Venc.zl..'clü.En este trabDjo se pretende dar una visión general del desdrrollü del sector le.c.hero mundial y latinoamericano en tén'ün0~ de J a cvolur:J Ói.J reciente de. variables como producción, comerc.ia $ consume Y políticas económicas, p.:::.rn establecer elementos de juicio qUiJ permit~jn ce.tcctcr sus tendt.:!lJcias futuras.Producción mundial de lec.he fresca El 83% de la producción mundial de leche fresca se produce en países des&rrolla¡los que cuentan con casi la mitad del inventario de vacas en ordeño y con menos de una tercera parte de la población del t:lUndo (Cuadro 1). Esta situaciór, origina el desequilibrio ya señalado , entre cor¡sumo y producción que posibilita la ex.istencia de flujos, cada vez mayores de leche y productos láctcos~ entre las distintas regiones del munclo.La producción lecherü mundial se concentra principalmente en Europa y Estados Unidos, que en conjunto generan el 55% de la oferta total d\" leche.La participaci6n de los diferentes continentes en la pr6ducci6~ total se mantuvo más o menos constante en el período 1975/84 (Cuadro 2).Europa ü~Jorta el 41% de la producción ffitludíal, seguido de Norte ¡\\..rnéric2(15,:), Asia (8.3%) y América Latina (7.8%). Es particubTmcnte baja la participación de Afríca en el volumen tetal de producción. En Asia 1<l dinámica de crecimiento de la producción lechera es mayor que en el resto de contirrentE;!s. En el perí~odo 1975/[,4 el crccimi8nto dto la producció:J asi.~tica fue de 5.6% po.r año, más de tres veces más rápido qt2 en Europc y Afriea.El crccilllicnto de 18 producción en Asia obedece al ir,•.pulso recib:tdo. por el sect.or lechero en India, China y la República de Corea."}

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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0561a757332f08ccd022c919cb8213e9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/78fdea22-9ca2-4d01-8b0b-a75b7cffc638/retrieve"},"pageCount":3,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Adoption of Genetically Improved Crops","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"By 1998, improved crops derived from agricultural biotechnology had been widely adopted by farmers in the United States and Canada, and new genetically improved GI varieties made up to 25 percent of the U.S. corn, 40 percent of the U.S. soybean, 45 percent of the U.S. cotton, 35 percent of the North American canola, and a smaller percentage of the North American potato crops. The new traits included herbicide tolerance, insect protection, virus protection, and hybridization technology. In 1999, the adoption of these improved crops expanded. In some cases expansion was limited only by seed availability."},{"index":2,"size":98,"text":"Adoption and expansion has also occurred elsewhere, with significant acreage of GI crops being grown in China, Australia, and Argentina. About 28 million hectares were planted worldwide in 1998 and 40 million hectares in 1999 (James 1998(James , 1999)). In most cases, the crops developed outside of North America were extensions (by breeding) into locally adapted germplasm of products already produced in North America. This has not always been the case, and as can be seen from the growing development of products specific or exclusive to developing countries, this could be expected to become the exception over time."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"The development of these improved crops has taken many years and has required many tech-"}]},{"head":"Evolving Role of the Public and Private Sector in Agricultural Biotechnology for Developing Countries","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"Gerard Barry and Robert Horsch nological breakthroughs. The early phase, up to first commercialization in 1995-96, probably took close to 20 years. The ability to transform plants, beginning with petunia and tobacco, and later moving to cotton, potato, tomato, soybean, and corn, and still later to wheat and rice, was often discovered and developed by private and public sector researchers, working together or separately. Not inconsequentially, the early recognition of the promise of biotechnology for the improvement of agriculture was evident by the high level of funding for such research in both sectors in many industrial countries, and in the rapid development and dissemination of technology in this area."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"The product development phase, characterized by the often large-scale production of transformed crop plants and the initial evaluation in field tests, was carried out almost entirely by the private sector."},{"index":3,"size":167,"text":"The next product development phase, including the larger-scale field evaluations and the beginning of the introgression or backcrossing of the trait into a broad germplasm base, was usually a collaboration between private and public sectors and with other private sector entities. For efficiency, most crops use a limited number of genotypes for genetic transformation, but to serve the farmers, and to remain competitive with other aspects of seed research, the successful trait is quickly bred into all appropriate germplasm. No market was served fully at the outset, but within a very few years, the improved traits have been bred into almost all widely used germplasm, and the diversity of availability of these traits is often equal to that of other agriculturally important traits. RR (herbicide tolerant) soybean, for example, was initially launched in the first year, with a small number of seed companies in varieties in a few maturity groups, but very shortly thereafter was available in the germplasm of over 350 seed companies and germplasm providers."},{"index":4,"size":83,"text":"The later stages, including varietal registration trials or other official evaluations, involved the public sector to a large extent. At this point, the private sector, and with seed partners, entered the new crop lines into the appropriate approval processes that are used to evaluate any new seed or plant. In addition, the added regulatory process and registrations involved the public sector entities not only as approval agents, but also in some cases in the production of the appropriate data to support these approvals."},{"index":5,"size":33,"text":"The final stages, including commercialization, advanced demonstration plots, and continued refinement of product use, involved the private and public sectors and often reflected the existing participants in the seed and or processing industries."},{"index":6,"size":63,"text":"The interactions that have been tried so far include collaboratiing with extension services and agricultural universities, testing the improved crops in national seed certification and varietal registration systems, licensing the crop trait (and often codevelopment of these) to national breeding programs or to local seed companies, and involving national, provincial, or state governments to ensure that the needs of their constituents are met."}]},{"head":"Expansion into Developing Countries","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":221,"text":"The continued expansion of agricultural biotechnology products into new areas, and the development of such products that are specific or exclusive to developing countries, are planned and under way. In some cases, direct adoption of already developed traits, such as insect resistance or herbicide tolerance, is planned following breeding into local germplasm and the completion of relevant registration and approvals processes. These phases also require extensive testing under local conditions and refinement of the use of the technologies to maximize their effectiveness in a new environment. This kind of development was also undertaken for the initial launch areas. There is a growing interest and activity in the study and testing of new biotechnology traits that are required to mimic or complement the traits already developed in other areas of the world. Examples of these include the screening and testing of new Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) proteins that may be used to control the different insect pests found in other areas, or that may be used to extend the range and value of other existing approaches Additional areas of research include improvement of efficiencies of genetic transformation in crop subspecies or in new species. This new wave of research is being carried out by public and private sector enti-ties from industrial or developing countries, and may involve partnerships between such entities and regions."},{"index":2,"size":121,"text":"It is possible that very few new forms of interactions may be needed between the private and public sectors for the successful deployment of existing or new products over those already experienced in industrial countries, although there would be differences in degree. These interactions will, as before, reflect the realities of the participation of different private and public sector entities in the development and in the businesses of seeds and agriculture and the most effective combinations that ensure the best delivery of the products to the farmers. In many cases, involvement with national agricultural research systems (NARS) is expected to be productive. Direct involvement with the CGIAR system is a possibility, but is more likely to occur with specific CGIAR centers."},{"index":3,"size":81,"text":"Other models have been used to foster the availability of important products and technologies to those that need them. In some cases, this has involved the transfer of proven technology for crops in developing countries, including technology for virus protection for potato (Mexico), virus protection for sweet potato (East Africa), virus protection for papaya (Southeast Asia), and Pro-VitA for oilseeds (India). The transfers have been accomplished through partnerships of technology holders and parties interested in jointly providing these to new areas."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"The possibility of growing interactions between the private and public sectors has been based on a number of experiences and changes that have occurred over the course of the early phases of the plant biotechnology work. A confidence in, and a fuller understanding of, the different technologies has been gained over time in the development of the earlier commercial products and over a growing geographic base."},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"Regulatory processes have become clearer in many countries, and the private and public sectors have shown commitments to training and other support, and support for local regulatory system development. Most importantly, the movement of agricultural technologies beyond the purview of the private pector originators has often been driven and encouraged by responsible partners, who recognized the need for these technologies for the people and areas that they were committed to serving."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"71546d70-b5e1-4d6a-b5b3-92693fad581e","abstract":"ost agricultural biotechnology products to date have been developed by the private sector. The process involves a number of steps, including the initial invention of transformation technologies and the identification of genes for plant improvement. Largescale production of transformed plants for field testing and intensive agronomic evaluation are required, followed by the detailed guiding of the plants and plant products through national and international registration and regulatory processes. After (or during) these first developmental stages, a relationship was established in the United States between the private sector entities and all of those elements of the agriculture and seed industry (private and public) that were needed to commercialize these new crop products. These partnerships have taken many forms, driven largely by the nature of the seed systems and of the products to be commercialized, and by national and commercial considerations. The public sector participants have included national seed companies, universities and other research entities, and provincial, state and national governments. These partnerships and the shared experiences of the private and public sectors, while largely in more industrialized countries so far, have been repeated to a lesser extent in some developing countries, and support the probability that equally productive interactions will continue in these newer areas."}

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+ {"metadata":{"id":"05f65b0d2873d86300e817975989358a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/946/WF_3057.pdf"},"pageCount":2,"title":"The Program will achieve impact at multiple scales (household, community, province and national as well as amongst program countries) through pathways that include partnerships, knowledge sharing and learning. In Solomon Islands significant benefits will be achieved through direct engagement with partners, including communities in specific research sites in selected program hubs. Research Program on Aquatic Agricultural Systems Research Program on Aquatic Agricultural Systems Research Program on Aquatic Agricultural Systems","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Locations:","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Central Of a total population of just over half a million people, 75% of Solomon Islanders are subsistence-oriented small holder farmers and fishers. Most people live on the coastal margins of the almost 1000 island archipelago while those that live inland have little access to marine resources."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"More than 70% of women and 50% of men are engaged in subsistence agriculture while 50% of women and 90% of men are engaged in fishing activities. In this context aquatic agricultural systems provide an essential source of income, food and well-being for a large part of the population."}]},{"head":"What is an aquatic agricultural system?","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Aquatic agricultural systems are farming and fishing systems where the annual production dynamics of natural freshwater and/or coastal ecosystems contribute significantly to household livelihood, including income and food security. "}]},{"head":"Development Challenges in Solomon Islands Aquatic Agricultural Systems","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Program Summary","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"SoloMon ISlandS"}]},{"head":"Research in Development","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"The Program's research is designed to improve the wellbeing of people dependent on aquatic agricultural systems by addressing the key constraints that are driving poverty and vulnerability in aquatic agricultural systems."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"We have used key hypotheses and theory of change to focus our research on six objectives and associated research themes:"},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"The Program in Solomon Islands will pursue participatory action research in these six areas. The outputs generated will support, inform and guide further investments in each of these. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Declining fisheries resources through increased population pressure and declining habitat quality Climate change impacts on agricultural crops including salt water intrusion to coastal gardens High market transaction costs Poor access to finance Limited access to productive land for development High proportion of youth Gender inequality in development opportunities "},{"text":"Theme 1 : Sustainable increases in system productivity Example research question: Can integrated gardens and land based aquaculture improve nutrition of people without easy access to coastal fisheries? Theme 2: Equitable access to markets Example research question: What are the dynamics of cross scale market chains and their interaction with food security and the cash economy? Theme 3: Social-ecological resilience and adaptive capacity Example research question: Will an integrated approach to CBRM lead to increased resilience of coral reef and mangrove ecosystems? Theme 4: Gender equity Example research question: What are women's roles in the market chain of AAS and how can these be improved for the benefit of both men and women? Theme 5: Policies and institutions to empower AAS users Example research question: What are the success factors for effective CBRM at the community, province and national level? Theme 6: Knowledge sharing, learning and innovation Example research question: What are effective delivery mechanisms for research, information, technology for CBRM, agriculture and aquaculture among national, provincial and community levels? on the Program in the Solomon Islands contact: Dr. Anne-Maree Schwarz, email: [email protected] "}],"sieverID":"92eb076c-8ccd-4299-b69a-fa489df76cae","abstract":""}

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+ {"metadata":{"id":"05ffa57d0e6dffab4e4fa7066857759c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/95e9437e-e2b8-45d6-a684-ce47dc9422aa/retrieve"},"pageCount":8,"title":"Does a gender-sensitive integrated poultry value chain and nutrition intervention in Burkina Faso impact women's empowerment?","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"SELEVER Intervention","index":1,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Treatment effects on (i) empowerment score (ii) empowerment status for men and women and (iii) gender parity Treatment effects on empowerment of women and men by indicator Pro-WEAI diagnostics for strengthening the intervention Discussion Women were targeted by the poultry value chain activities and nutrition BCC: credit, small groups, and one-on-one visits o Training of women village vaccinators (role models) This research was supported by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. Additional support was from the CGIAR Research Program on Agriculture for Nutrition and Health (A4NH), led by IFPRI. ▪ Soutenir l'Exploitation Familiale pour Lancer l'Élevage des Volailles et Valoriser l'Économie Rurale ▪ Nutrition-sensitive poultry value chain intervention implemented by international NGO Tanager ▪ Primary trial outcomes focus on o Diets of women and children o Poultry production, sales, and profits ▪ Secondary trial outcomes include Women's empowerment (this presentation) ▪ Strategies related to women's empowerment o Community sensitization on women's empowerment, including time use, ability to manage resources for their microbusiness Thank you! o Study Design ▪ Mixed-methods approach and cluster-▪ Why were there no significant impacts on women's empowerment? ▪ Acknowledgements: randomized controlled trial ▪ SELEVER and SELEVER+WASH intensive influential groups could lead to impacts on women's empowerment propensity score weighted regression analysis financial accounts, (ii) improving work balance, and (iii) membership in ▪ Treatment on the treated effects estimated with ▪ Pro-WEAI diagnostics suggest focusing on (i) access to credit and ▪ Program impact estimated using ANCOVA and implementors often resist \"give-away\" programs and 2019 from a random sub-sample based interventions, particularly for \"poorer\" households, as funders ▪ Lean season data collected in September 2017 ▪ Important to consider the asset transfer debate alongside market-and completed in August April due to COVID lockdown, resumed in June programs that aim to empower women ▪ Endline data began in March 2020, paused in essential, but not sufficient in agricultural development (post-harvest season) o Productive asset transfers have previously been shown to be ▪ Baseline data were collected in March 2017 o No asset transfers in a resource poor context. treatment arms (present pooled results) o Intervention used a light-touch, information-only approach centered on strengthening market/VC linkages. o ▪ Soutenir l'Exploitation Familiale pour Lancer l'Élevage des Volailles et Valoriser l'Économie Rurale ▪ Nutrition-sensitive poultry value chain intervention implemented by international NGO Tanager ▪ Primary trial outcomes focus on o Diets of women and children o Poultry production, sales, and profits ▪ Secondary trial outcomes include Women's empowerment (this presentation) ▪ Strategies related to women's empowerment o Community sensitization on women's empowerment, including time use, ability to manage resources for their microbusiness Thank you! o Study Design ▪ Mixed-methods approach and cluster-▪ Why were there no significant impacts on women's empowerment? ▪ Acknowledgements: randomized controlled trial ▪ SELEVER and SELEVER+WASH intensive influential groups could lead to impacts on women's empowerment propensity score weighted regression analysis financial accounts, (ii) improving work balance, and (iii) membership in ▪ Treatment on the treated effects estimated with ▪ Pro-WEAI diagnostics suggest focusing on (i) access to credit and ▪ Program impact estimated using ANCOVA and implementors often resist \"give-away\" programs and 2019 from a random sub-sample based interventions, particularly for \"poorer\" households, as funders ▪ Lean season data collected in September 2017 ▪ Important to consider the asset transfer debate alongside market-and completed in August April due to COVID lockdown, resumed in June programs that aim to empower women ▪ Endline data began in March 2020, paused in essential, but not sufficient in agricultural development (post-harvest season) o Productive asset transfers have previously been shown to be ▪ Baseline data were collected in March 2017 o No asset transfers in a resource poor context. treatment arms (present pooled results) o Intervention used a light-touch, information-only approach centered on strengthening market/VC linkages. o "}],"sieverID":"6d74a39a-de1b-4283-8dd8-badbc2f66eb5","abstract":""}

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+ {"metadata":{"id":"06512da3ed10525790fbb834ced2ad02","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/530790a5-9b2a-4c56-97c1-0547ee996b45/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Herramienta de apoyo a la toma de decisiones para el manejo del tizón tardío diseñada para el uso de agricultores de subsistencia","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introducción","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"En los países industrializados, se han desarrollado Sistemas de Apoyo a la Toma de Decisiones para ayudar a los agricultores a lograr un adecuado manejo químico del tizón tardío (TT) de la papa. Estos sistemas han sido desarrollados en regiones temperadas muy diferentes a las regiones tropicales/subtropicales [1], donde los agricultores no tienen los recursos o infraestructura necesaria para el funcionamiento de estos sistemas [3]. En este contexto, CIP ha desarrollado módulos de capacitación y de apoyo a la toma de decisiones para fortalecer las competencias de los agricultores para el manejo del TT [2]."}]},{"head":"Objetivo","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Desarrollar y evaluar una herramienta simple de apoyo a la toma de decisiones para el manejo del TT como complemento a la capacitación ofrecida por CIP."}]},{"head":"Materiales y Métodos","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":200,"text":"Se diseñaron tres herramientas de apoyo a la toma de decisiones de acuerdo a los valores de susceptibilidad de la papa [4]: verde para variedades con valores de 0 a 2 (resistentes), amarillo para variedades con valores de 3 a 5 (moderadamente resistentes) y rojo para variedades con valores en la escala mayores a 6 (susceptibles). Cada herramienta tiene tres círculos concéntricos, el primer círculo exterior representa a las condiciones climáticas propicias para la enfermedad, el círculo intermedio representa al tiempo transcurrido desde la última aplicación de un fungicida y el círculo interno representa la sumatoria de los factores predeterminados para cada factor. La combinación de los factores indica tres posibilidades: 1) no aplicar, 2) aplicar un fungicida de contacto y 3) aplicar un fungicida sistémico. Se utilizó un diseño experimental de Bloques Completos al Azar con tres repeticiones y se calculó el rAUDPC (Área relativa bajo la curva del progreso de la enfermedad) y el coeficiente de Impacto ambiental (IA) para el manejo del TT propuesto por el agricultor y el manejo sugerido según las indicaciones dadas por las herramientas propuestas. Se realizaron experimentos en tres campañas agrícolas en una zona endémica para la enfermedad en los Andes Peruanos."}]},{"head":"Resultados","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"La utilidad de las tres herramientas de apoyo fue demostrada en términos de rAUDPC y valores de IA. El número de aplicaciones de fungicidas disminuyó con el uso de estas herramientas o fue similar al número de aplicaciones usadas por el agricultor. La gran diferencia entre ambos tratamientos fueron los valores más bajos de IA obtenidos con el uso de estas herramientas."}]},{"head":"Conclusiones","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"Las herramientas diseñadas demostraron su utilidad como apoyo en la toma de decisiones para el manejo de TT con agricultores de subsistencia. Deben realizarse experimentos comparativos con otros sistemas de apoyo para validar los resultados."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"11502eed-2156-462c-af84-2000116b677f","abstract":""}

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+ {"metadata":{"id":"067ba8c08f2121ef2b49dadd7b543a6f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/814f136c-d9ad-4dee-95fa-022e8a7191d6/retrieve"},"pageCount":22,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Foreword","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Carlos Pérez del Castillo 3","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":224,"text":"As Chair of the CGIAR Consortium Board I have followed with great interest the presentations and discussions of this electronic consultation on sustainable agricultural intensification (SAI) for Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). I would like to thank all participants for their contributions and tell them they have fulfilled our expectations. We are convinced that the many complex challenges posed to agriculture and human nutrition in the twenty-first century will require intensification and increased productivity of our production systems. It is true also that we cannot keep on conducting \"business as usual\" and a much more responsible and efficient use of our natural resources is required to ensure their sustainability. SAI, as noted in this consultation, is a matter of high priority in research programs (CRPs) conducted by the CGIAR in partnership with the most diverse sectors of society (farmers, national agricultural innovation systems, academia, NGOs, public sector, and private enterprises, particularly small-medium enterprises or SMEs). There are numerous examples of how SAI practices have contributed to the four main objectives of the CGIAR: increase food security; reduce rural poverty; improve the management of natural resources and biodiversity; and improve nutritional levels. CGIAR has mainly concentrated its efforts in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. In Latin America and the Caribbean, we have worked through national agricultural innovation systems, governments, and academy among other actors."},{"index":2,"size":171,"text":"It is our intention in the second phase of the CRPs (which we are currently working on at the CGIAR with multiple partners) to integrate much more than in the past the contributions of Latin America and the Caribbean. We think SAI is a valuable point of entry to more accurately identify current and potential contributions that the region can make to the achievement of the CGIAR development goals. This consultation has allowed to identify from different perspectives, the main challenges and opportunities related to sustainable agriculture intensification in Latin America and the Caribbean, without losing sight that the immense diversity and heterogeneity of agro-ecological and socioeconomic conditions does not allow single solutions. Participants have identified some of the central elements and limitations that should be considered in the design of an action plan for the region. We think there are great opportunities for future cooperation between regional actors involved in the issue. We need, however, to define more precisely the areas of research and intervention that we owe to prioritize."},{"index":3,"size":82,"text":"The action plan should include from the beginning the participation of farmers, the public and private sectors, consumers and civil society. SAI can play an important role in improving the situation of small producers and family farmers, and help people stay in farming. This strategy should include policies, institutions, multi-sectoral approaches, innovations and incentives that enable them to develop the necessary skills. Horizontal integration between producers and contractual arrangements with the private sector will be essential for these actions to be successful."},{"index":4,"size":51,"text":"Finally, strengthening the presence of CGIAR in LAC will also allow, through South-South cooperation, to transfer the successful experiences of the region to other developing countries as well as transferring the knowledge and innovation of other regions to LAC. These are our challenges; from our side, the commitment to address them."}]},{"head":"Process","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":168,"text":"Sustainable Agricultural Intensification (SAI) is becoming a world priority in the search for addressing the many complex challenges facing agriculture in the twenty-first century. In Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) sustainable intensive agriculture is a broad and well-established approach, however, is not yet considered as a vision that requires a global rethinking on how food is produced and consumed. In order to address the gaps in SAI identified for LAC region and taking into account the experience in this field developed by the CGIAR system, the CGIAR Consortium in coordination with key partners and with the sponsorship of Canada's International Development Research Centre (IDRC), proposed an action plan whose first component was a broad electronic consultation. The main purpose of this e-forum was to address key issues regarding the major elements of a sustainable development strategy and raise central questions for an open discussion among interested stakeholders. This electronic consultation had three components with the aim of promoting the dialogue and partnerships on SAI in LAC, namely,"},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"• Component I -Promote the exchange of ideas on a conceptual Framework of SAI from the perspective of LAC • Component II -Share experiences and lessons learned from programs, practices, policies and solutions to address SAI challenges in LAC • Component III -Recommendations on how to increase regional cooperation through the identification of actors and actions, and the role for the CGIAR in this endeavour"},{"index":3,"size":53,"text":"As a follow up of this e-consultation, it is expected to consolidate a regional network to exchange experiences and generate joint actions for greater synergies in agricultural research, and better policies, investments and institutions in LAC. This horizontal exchange of ideas will also allow to confirm a regional SAI agenda with global reach."}]},{"head":"Operating guide","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":160,"text":"Participants were encouraged to register. By signing up, they ensured to get partial summaries and this synthesis report through e-mail. Various documents (both in English and Spanish) were written as reference materials ahead of the econsultation. Documents published by other institutions were available in the language they were published through the website setup for the e-forum. This website also provided details to all who participated in the e-consultation. Contributions were made both in English and Spanish. Participants were assumed to make contributions on their own behalf and not on behalf of their employers (unless indicated otherwise). There was no limit on the number of interventions per participant. There were e-Q&As through the e-forum with some members of the Science Advisory Panel and with those who kindly wrote SAI piece-thinks or provided details of relevant SAI in or to LAC. Partial summary reports were given for components I and II during the electronic consultation. All documents and postings are at http://sai-lac.cgiar.org/."}]},{"head":"Statistics","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"A total of 760 participants from 101 countries (including 25 from LAC) registered for this e-consultation. A 57% has LAC as their main work/action region, while other important regions were Africa (17%), Asia (12%) and Europe (4%). 5% of participants declared to have had a global work scope (Figure 1)."}]},{"head":"Figure 1. Distribution of participants according to continent or work scope","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"Most of the participants (24%) are working in academics, 18% in national research institutes and 11% in government (Table 1). About 19% of the participants were from the private sector civil society organizations such as NGOs and farmers' associations. There was a total of 212 contributions in the e-forum (excluding the e-moderator and the e-consultation team), with most postings in Component I (50%) and Component II (35%). The total views (up until the writing of this Synthesis Report) were 3.000. The Component I was the most read (35%), followed by partial summaries and reminders (28%). The active participation was therefore above expectations as noted elsewhere 4 ."}]},{"head":"Component I -Conceptual Framework of SAI from the perspective of LAC","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":199,"text":"The Latin America and Caribbean (LAC) region has an acceptable environmental performance, but its production potential needs to be set in the context of increasing pressures on the natural resources base, particularly with respect to forestry resources and to the risks confronting agricultural production. The agricultural intensification -increased production, yields or income per unit of land-has essentially relied on greater use of capital, labor, or inputs such as fertilizers or pesticides. The intensification can take various forms depending on climate and land, household resource endowment and socio-economic states, individual choice, agri-food processing and market demands. SAI offers, instead, a pathway towards producing more food with less impact on the environment in LAC, where family farming is a key segment of agriculture and coexists with rural and urban agri-business. A SAI approach for LAC should also take into account food loss, which according to FAO, amounts to 6% of world food loss in this region and to 15% of all available food every year in LAC. About 28% of this food loss occurs at the consumer level, while 28% at production, 17% during distribution and at the market place, 22% during handling and storage, and the remaining 6% when processing."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"The following four questions guided the exchange of ideas in this first component:"},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"1. What are SAI opportunities and pathways in LAC that are currently not exploited?"},{"index":4,"size":38,"text":"2. SAI in LAC can play a dual role through improving global food supplies and contributing to regional poverty alleviation, food security and addressing nutrition challenges. Are these roles conflicting? Under which conditions can they be made reinforcing?"},{"index":5,"size":16,"text":"3. What are key food systems issues or constrains that should be integrated into SAI strategies?"},{"index":6,"size":36,"text":"4. Given that family agriculture is one of the main segments of the region's agriculture, what is the policy and new business models that could serve to support its growth and consolidation within a SAI perspective?"},{"index":7,"size":33,"text":"Box 4.1 Some issues brought by participants for SAI conceptual framework LAC, particularly its Southern Cone, is a global food supplier, however, poverty and food security remain relevant challenges among and within countries."},{"index":8,"size":24,"text":"There will be a challenge for balancing the process (HOW) and content (WHAT) when formulating a SAI strategy and for discussing its core elements."},{"index":9,"size":8,"text":"Soil health is essential for sustainable productivity intensification."},{"index":10,"size":21,"text":"Rise agricultural productivity through low-cost and practices and technology, which depend more on knowledge than on capital, well-suited to family farming."},{"index":11,"size":23,"text":"Research-in-development should consider learning processes that engage farmers in learning-by-doing and discovering, e.g. farmer field schools that are very promising for knowledge-intensive innovations."},{"index":12,"size":16,"text":"SAI approach should include linking farmers to value chains by investing in their education and empowerment."},{"index":13,"size":14,"text":"Policies should help small farmers to access land, credit and markets (avoiding many intermediaries)."},{"index":14,"size":23,"text":"There should be incentives for farmers who adopt and implement SAI because of increasing production or reducing yield gaps while conserving the environment."}]},{"head":"Questions to address","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Are modern cultivars along with agrochemical inputs such as fertilizers and pesticides, and the use of more water the best to increase production when pursuing SAI?"},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"What will be the role of the seed industry for developing sustainable systems for smallholders?"},{"index":3,"size":174,"text":"The exchange of ideas in the first four days of this electronic consultation clearly highlighted that SAI is a high priority because (a) agriculture today requires, without doubt, intensification that needs to be sustainable, and (b) the emerging knowledge for implementing SAI is just in its infancy, which calls for more research on SAI. It was argued that any SAI undertaking should involve, from the onset (i.e. planning), farmers, end-users, civil society organizations, and public and private sectors. Everyone participating in SAI needs to use the same vocabulary and jointly define the approach and methods, which should be culturally sensitive and cost-effective. Hence, stakeholders must be involved in priority setting and on defining the \"road map\" through a participatory bottomup approach that will involve diverse actors along the impact pathways. Their participation should be conscious, committed and responsible. Local innovation systems will play a crucial role for implementing SAI. A challenge could be on the methodology to involve SAI stakeholders in participatory action research (PAR), which should be farmer-led to impact on smallholders' livelihoods."},{"index":4,"size":102,"text":"It will be desirable to analyze actual and potential farm yields to determine yield gaps in each region and identify the most suitable sustainable intensification options. Defining clear goals and indicators for SAI will further allow its monitoring throughout impact pathways and assist on identifying suitable intensification options (ecological, genetic and socio-economic) to achieve targets, which may be disaggregated by sectors or sub-regions. In this regard, SAI must be assessed on technology criteria along with productive, economic, energy, social and ecological efficiencies, e.g. measuring the intensification factor in terms of process efficiency that accounts for relationships of resources and input versus output."},{"index":5,"size":96,"text":"Most participants recognized \"one size does not fit all\" for implementing SAI because its approach depends on agro-ecological, socio-economical, institutional and policy factors, which vary according to the context, and on how to achieve food and nutrition security while reducing poverty and preserving agroecosystems. SAI must therefore consider inter alia indigenous knowledge and resources (particularly biodiversity), ethnic and cultural richness and preferences, species and landscape diversity, and the very particular dichotomy between small and large agriculture in LAC that targets various end-users locally and globally. This also calls for linking farmers to markets and value chains."},{"index":6,"size":50,"text":"The SAI framework should consider a strategic integration with the sustainable food systems framework, which offers the needed urban-rural linkages and through the important urbanization level in the region (currently higher than 75%), include the rapidly changing urban diets focus (and hence the double burden of under and over nutrition)."},{"index":7,"size":51,"text":"Each country policy may influence the intensification options to be pursued while implementing SAI, which should follow a holistic rather than a \"piecemeal\" approach, particularly for addressing the needs of smallholders, peasants and impacting positively on rural livelihoods. SAI programs and projects should be therefore well formulated after sound participatory planning."},{"index":8,"size":57,"text":"The conceptual SAI framework for LAC cannot ignore family agriculture and should consider production system pillars such as soil, crops and their cultivars, plant health and water management along with technology, commercial, institutional and policy innovations. There are, however, several issues to address when developing a SAI strategy that are related to balancing its process and content."},{"index":9,"size":76,"text":"The sustainable intensification of agriculture should aim to enhance family and other farming contributing to food security. SAI should therefore seek improving rural livelihoods and contribute in such a way that smallholders stay in farming, although this will likely depend on the country's policy for agriculture and rural development. There are many success cases on family farming and small-scale entrepreneurship that need to be well documented because some of them may be replicated in other areas."},{"index":10,"size":183,"text":"Revamping extension systems and training along with sustainable agriculture in both at the university and technical institute levels should be pro-actively pursued in LAC. Curricula will likely change for educating on SAI, which requires a philosophy, a holistic approach, and multidisciplinary skills involving many actors throughout the value chain in agri-food systems. This change of education and training at all levels will bring to a larger scale the SAI concept, which must be kept related to agri-food systems. The CGIAR acknowledges SAI as a complex topic that cannot be tackled alone, as CEO Rijsberman pointed out. There are many subjects, from resilience of agroecosystems, to certification systems of agro-food systems at landscape scale that require partnerships with a wide range of stakeholders. In his view, SAI is an overall \"philosophy\" or approach, a way of thinking about how to improve food security, alleviate poverty and preserve agro-ecosystems that, once widely embraced and adopted throughout a research-for-development network, influences all the work done. SAI, in his words, is literally important for all CGIAR Research Programs, being the primary focus for Water Land and Ecosystems."},{"index":11,"size":114,"text":"Professor Dobermann stressed that a systems approach for SAI must look at the full cycle: from the resources to produce food to its actual utilization and consumption. The key issue will be to tailor the SAI approach to the needs of each location because the starting points, specific targets and specific solutions vary widely. In his view, the CGIAR through its multi-disciplinary expertise could take a leadership role in terms of developing the appropriate SAI framework and methods, and facilitate the right networks of public, private and civil society players. The CGIAR, for example, can also assist on developing suitable SAI indicators and metrics to monitor the performance of agriculture and whole food systems."}]},{"head":"Component II -Experiences and Lessons learned in SAI in LAC","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"This second component of this e-consultation was facilitated by exposing six case studies (available at http://sai-lac.cgiar.org/case-studies) that dealt with atlas of yield gap, improving sustainability of ranching in the Amazon through satellite monitoring and improved local governance, innovation to value native potato biodiversity in dynamic markets (the case of the \"Papa Andina\" in Perú), livestock-agriculture-forest integration in Brazil, sustainable modernization of traditional agriculture in Mexico (MasAgro), and integral analysis of production systems in Colombia towards adaptation to climate change."},{"index":2,"size":189,"text":"Participants also communicated their experiences on SAI or related cases. They included zero-till agriculture and direct seeding in Argentina, the sectorial plan for climate change mitigation and adaptation and for the consolidation of the low carbon agriculture (known as ABC Plan) in Brazil, or soil conservation policy in Uruguay, among others. Some participants indicated that agro-ecology should be regarded as the main technological pillar for food sovereignty. In their view peasants already adopted such an approach in LAC and elsewhere as noted in various publications available at http://agroeco.org/publications/Other participants indicated that some farmers, especially those with few assets and in an unfavorable context (about 10 out of 15 million production units), chose diversification strategies of jobs and income, which calls for acknowledging the heterogeneous agro-ecosystems, farming and growers in LAC. In this regard, SAI may be a useful approach to focus the use of resources and maximize their impact at the local, regional and global levels particularly for the remaining 5 million production units, which account for 300 million hectares. The challenge will be how to assist low-productive farming to becoming sustainable, productive and profitable, particularly for poor smallholders."},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"These other four questions guided the exchange of ideas on the second component:"},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"1. What are the major issues emerging from existing SAI experiences in the region?"},{"index":5,"size":22,"text":"2. Given the discussions so far, what could be five new major focus areas for agricultural research on SAI technologies and pathways?"},{"index":6,"size":25,"text":"3. What could be summarized to be the major political, institutional, or technological obstacles to the successful implementation of SAI visions and strategies in LAC?"},{"index":7,"size":36,"text":"4. Which is the most adequate mechanism to promote the exchange of new knowledge and SAI informed experiences among LAC countries facing similar SAI challenges/opportunities? Box 5.1 Some issues emerging from selected case studies and participants"},{"index":8,"size":33,"text":"The importance for country's policy to give priority to food security and agrifood processing industry that minimizes food wastes, which call for postharvest technology to have a high profile in LAC value chains."},{"index":9,"size":19,"text":"LAC should consider contributing to sustainable development goals (SDGs) related to food and nutrition security through a SAI approach."},{"index":10,"size":85,"text":"Actual and potential yield have to be analyzed to know the yield gap to assist finding a strategy suitable for each region under the concept of 'more crop per drop and piece of land'. This research needs to define crops and target regions and determining whether available or new tools are to be used for such a research undertaking whose outputs should guide investments by policy makers, agri-business, civil society and farmers based on an understanding of both yield gaps and the most constraining inputs."},{"index":11,"size":21,"text":"Local knowledge, food preferences and ecology of the region should be taken into consideration while preparing for the SAI in LAC."},{"index":12,"size":31,"text":"Robust tools and metrics for assessing performance and resource use efficiency as well as sustainability will facilitate comparative research to fully unlock the potential and the limitations of the SAI approach."},{"index":13,"size":16,"text":"A much more systematic research to be pursued on pathways to integrate cropping, ranching and agroforestry."},{"index":14,"size":12,"text":"Appropriate and proven technology options are essential for South-South learning and exchanges."},{"index":15,"size":35,"text":"Be proactive on informing LAC policy makers about the impacts of climate change on agriculture, food and nutrition security to influence investments. Modeling, scenario-analysis and science related to climate change can assist in this endeavor."},{"index":16,"size":57,"text":"Further research regarding greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and their implications of intensification will be very important. For example, intensification of agriculture may impact positively by reducing deforestation, but livestock intensification will likely increase GHG emissions from enteric sources. Hence, more quantitative data on both will assist understanding the balance between them, and the related climate change implications."},{"index":17,"size":21,"text":"The horizontal integration that benefits farmers' associations requires institutional strengthening to ensure that rules are clear and efficient when gathering them."},{"index":18,"size":111,"text":"It was noted that the scope for yield increase should be determined before embarking on SAI because yield differs from place to place and depends on various factors. Yield gap analysis assists by revealing the potential opportunity for intensifying agriculture. Baseline data on yield may be the starting point for any undertaking aiming SAI, which should be regarded as an aspiration of what needs to be attained, rather than a \"prescription\" on how to do it. As noted elsewhere, SAI provides a framework for exploring what mix of approaches may work best based on the existing biophysical, social, cultural and economic context, with the goal of improving agricultural system more efficiently."},{"index":19,"size":98,"text":"Some participants indicated that \"producing more with less\" should not be just associated with increasing production per unit area but also by reducing input use, especially those that are becoming scarce (e.g. water) or may damage the environment because of misuse (e.g. fertilizers or pesticides). This definition is important from both environmental and economic viewpoints, to understand yield gaps and to identify promising SAI interventions. A whole-system perspective must also consider productivity for the entire cropping systems and rotations, and for integrated crop-livestock-tree systems to understand yield gaps and to identify the most promising options to narrow them."},{"index":20,"size":94,"text":"It became clear during this exchange of ideas that SAI practices vary because they should relate to the specific characteristics of the site and context. Hence, the success when taking the SAI approach will depends significantly on the ability of farmers to access and adapt cultivation techniques and management of complex resources to the specific attributes of their farms. Likewise, farmersparticularly smallholders-must access appropriate technology options and other research products, and will benefit from knowledge sharing on how to sustainably intensify agriculture, which could be facilitated by information and communication technology, e.g. mobile phones."},{"index":21,"size":44,"text":"High standards and certification systems on agricultural produce call for institutional innovations that enable smallholder and family farming to achieve the necessary scale. Strengthening farmers' associations or any form of integration may allow them to operate efficiently, sustainably and achieve the economies of scale."}]},{"head":"Box 5.2. Summary of interviews to case study proposers","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":"The Professor van Ittersum gave details on how to quantify crop yield gaps in growing areas in the world. It follows a consistent global protocol and uses local data and expertise to validate the yield gap analysis. The Atlas indicates the actual yields for the important food crops, as well as their potential and waterlimited potential yields and the resulting yield gaps. It also includes all underpinning climate, soil, management and modeling information. He shares the knowledge on crop yield gaps (www.yieldgap.org) to allow other users to verify the analysis and to improve it, if they have better data. In his view, completing the Global Yield Gap Atlas remains a research challenge and it will assist on developing the so-called Benchmarking Atlas, which will provide the integrated explanations for yield gaps from a crop-livestock perspective."},{"index":2,"size":169,"text":"Former Minister Roberto Rodrigues argued that agriculture in Brazil needs SAI especially at states in the Northeast and the nearby region of Amazonia (Mato Grosso) where large farms grow continuously soybean, corn and cotton. Because of the emergence of many new pests, as is the case of cotton bollworm in Bahía, it has become necessary to apply pesticides more often, which creates a vicious circle: more applications, more pathogen resistance, more applications and so on. He provided further details about the ABC Plan that includes low carbon agriculture such as agriculture-livestock-forest integration and the recovery of degraded pastures. It was noted that the ABC Plan, also funds the planting of forests, precision farming, organic fertilization of the soil and animal waste treatment. This interview ended with his highlighting about Latin America playing a critical role on global food security because agriculture's output in the region can grow by 40% towards 2020, which will be twice the global growth supply indicated by the OECD and FAO to meet the demand."},{"index":3,"size":136,"text":"There has been to date an almost exclusive focus on deforestation and habitat conversion, when addressing environmental issues in the Amazon according to Dr. Cleary. This focus took attention away from other important issues related to inter alia foraging, agro-silvo-pastoral systems, integration of ranching with cropping and agroforestry, or water and soil. He warns that such an approach that prioritizes the Amazon solely, instead of an integrated national approach, may put pressure on the Cerrado. There are other issues needing attention, e.g. the lack of a strong public research and extension system within the Amazon. Outside a few areas, there is a lack of strong data on what works and does not work. Furthermore many ranchers are experimenting but they lack a mechanism for sharing their results and findings, and exchanging views on them with peers."},{"index":4,"size":124,"text":"Dr. Mario Mondelli and MSc Mariana Hill Lavista described Uruguay's policy that aims at promoting agriculture intensification jointly with soil and water conservation. This policy obliges farmers with 50 or more hectares of continuous cropping to submit a soil management plan, which is a sequence of management techniques that minimizes erosion as per the soil characteristics. There was a high level of compliance in its first year of execution: the submitted plans embraced 94% of cropping area of the country. Soil management plans, in their view, constitute a powerful information system that allows managing natural resources as a public good and monitor farmers' decisions. This system will also provide the opportunity to add value to agriculture by certifying environmental attributes and sustainable production process."}]},{"head":"Component III -How to increase regional cooperation. CGIAR role","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"This e-consultation began in its 10 th day with this component and asking two important overall questions to all participants: (a) How to increase regional cooperation through the identification of actors and actions? and (b) The role of CGIAR?"}]},{"head":"Box 6.1 Issues proposed by participants that CGIAR should follow up","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Alliances of strategic partners working in the SAI are essential. In this regard the CGIAR should work together with other international and sector groups sharing interest on applying SAI."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"LAC cooperation will be further enhanced by the CGIAR through regional SAI programs and projects as well as by organizing annual meetings with researchfor-development partners stakeholders (including policy makers). These meetings will also allow exchanges on advances, hurdles and successes while implementing SAI."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"Training, exchanges and study trips could be facilitated by the CGIAR to enhance regional cooperation."},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"The CGIAR should give priority to research on farmer learning processes for transfer of knowledge-intensive innovations."},{"index":5,"size":66,"text":"Translating the SAI concept into practice requires a better understanding and measuring sustainability quantitatively, as well as recognizing that sustainability will be highly context-specific. Hence developing both metrics to measure and quantify the multiple stands of sustainability with appropriate and robust data sets is both a need and an opportunity. The CGIAR Research Programs (CRPs) should provide strong intellectual and practical leadership in this important area."},{"index":6,"size":41,"text":"'Big data' programs will require extensive collaboration and is an area of growing interest to the private sector. Exploring collaborative opportunities around 'big data' to develop faster and deeper insights into SAI could be an interesting topic for a public-private partnership."},{"index":7,"size":27,"text":"The following four questions guided further the horizontal e-exchange of ideas in Component III, which aided shaping a regional SAI agenda with a potential for global spillovers:"},{"index":8,"size":28,"text":"1. What kind of human and institutional resources will be needed to develop and implement the identified SAI innovations, and by whom and how could they be developed?"},{"index":9,"size":31,"text":"2. Considering that public-private partnerships (PPP) are an efficient and cost effective mean to develop agriculture outcomes, which could be promising approaches to promote PPP solutions for SAI in the region?"},{"index":10,"size":35,"text":"3. What can be learned from SAI success stories in the region that may be further shared with other continents? Through which mechanisms and what could be the role of the CGIAR in this process?"},{"index":11,"size":145,"text":"4. Which critical contributions could the CGIAR make for enhancing SAI in LAC? What kind of partnerships should be emphasized for greater impact? Box 6.2. Summary of interviews to CGIAR Consortium in LAC Four CGIAR Consortium Centers with headquarters in the American continent and the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) provided answers related to the above questionnaire and through relating some of them to SAI case studies they shared with the e-forum participants. Dr. Máximo Torero (International Food Policy Research Institute, IFPRI, Washington DC, USA) indicated that there are great opportunities to increase agricultural productivity and thus increasing production in LAC, but they do not necessarily imply sustainable intensification. He believes that to achieve sustainability it is important to have options such as saving in the use of fertilizers and pesticides, which in turn, are cost-effective and benefits farmers."},{"index":12,"size":165,"text":"In his view, an adequate food and nutrition security strategy that includes SAI should take into account the heterogeneity of farmers and their context, consider the importance of a multi-sectoral approach, aim strengthening institutions to achieve economies of scale (e.g. by linking smallholders to markers by various means), and understand that sustainable productivity requires an integrated system linking agriculture, health nutrition and ecosystems. In his answers, Dr. Elcio Guimaraes (Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical, CIAT, Cali, Colombia) showed how the CGIAR has the ability to team-work and build partnerships (involving public and private sectors, academics, civil society and farmers) that should embrace an integrated system approach for developing technology and other innovations. In his view, the CGIAR can contribute to the adoption of the SAI approach in LAC by promoting and encouraging the exchange of experiences, developing research on priority issues noted by stakeholders, working with partners and influencing decision makers on SAI, spreading SAI benefits, and through capacity building on SAI at all levels."},{"index":13,"size":187,"text":"Dr. Miguel Ordinola (Centro Internacional de la Papa, Lima, Perú) gave details of the case study on \"Papa Andina\", which shows how to facilitate and promote research-for-development with a broad range of partners with the aim of improving both competitiveness and livelihoods of farmers, who are taking advantage of the genetic diversity of the native potato in Perú. Their multidisciplinary approach fosters a process that facilitates, develops and disseminates innovations at different levels with public and private partners. This approach also improves the articulation between production systems and food systems in specific geographic areas to reduce the vulnerability to food insecurity through innovations. The prioritization tool developed by CCAFS, the World Bank, and CIAT identifies potential CSA options, calculate their costs, benefits and effectiveness, and detects any barriers to the adoption of selected portfolios. This tool aims to improve national and regional planning, providing a coherent participatory process to direct investment in agriculture and climate change adaptation. In her view, several actors -including national and regional governments, planners, sub-national and community interest groups, and international financial institutions-, can use this support decision-making tool in any region worldwide."},{"index":14,"size":159,"text":"She also provided some highlights on the case study regarding the integral analysis of production systems in Colombia towards adaptation to climate change, which is co-led by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development with CIAT, and gets backstopping from CCAFS. The national grain growers federation (FENALCE) and the national federation of rice (FEDEARROZ) are essential partners of this project by bringing their expertise and knowledge and providing, more importantly a direct link with farmers, who are the main reason for this initiative. The project has the following priority tasks: building capacity to reduce climate risk by modeling the impacts and seasonal forecasts, closing yield gap through site-specific agriculture, evaluating and generating new adapted technologies, assessing efficient production systems on the use of resources (e.g. water and carbon footprints), and establishing new structures of incentives for adoption such as a low-carbon development strategy. Within this framework and through various activities, actors interact constantly in a process of collaborative learning."},{"index":15,"size":31,"text":"The answers given by the participants and their other comments during this component III of the e-forum are tabulated below and acknowledging the roles given to the CGIAR in this endeavor: "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Table 1 Participants by type (quantity and %) Type of Institutions Quantity % Academic Institutions 185 24.3% Academic Institutions18524.3% National research Institutions 138 18.2% National research Institutions13818.2% Government 87 11.4% Government8711.4% International Agricultural Research Centers 65 8.6% International Agricultural Research Centers658.6% Non-governmental organizations 64 8.4% Non-governmental organizations648.4% Private Companies 63 8.3% Private Companies638.3% Regional organizations 34 4.5% Regional organizations344.5% Farmers Organizations 23 3.0% Farmers Organizations233.0% International organizations 22 2.9% International organizations222.9% Advisory Services 21 2.8% Advisory Services212.8% Development organizations 20 2.6% Development organizations202.6% Foundations 13 1.7% Foundations131.7% Financing institutions 3 0.4% Financing institutions30.4% Others 22 2.9% Others222.9% Total 760 100% Total760100% "},{"text":" The increasing awareness among key actors about the changes brought by SAI brings a new challenge: changing oneself. "},{"text":" second component included interviews related to the Yield Gap Atlas with Professor Martin van Ittersum (Wageningen University and Research, The Netherlands), or about intensifying agriculture in Brazil with former Minister of Agriculture Roberto Rodrigues (now Coordinator, Center Agribusiness Agriculture Roberto Rodrigues (now Coordinator, Center Agribusiness Foundation Getulio Vargas, Brazil) and Dr. David Cleary (The Nature Foundation Getulio Vargas, Brazil) and Dr. David Cleary (The Nature Conservancy). There was a fourth interview that brought soil health to the Conservancy). There was a fourth interview that brought soil health to the attention of this e-forum by Dr. Mario Mondelli and MSc Mariana Hill Lavista attention of this e-forum by Dr. Mario Mondelli and MSc Mariana Hill Lavista (Ministry Livestock, Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery of Uruguay). (Ministry Livestock, Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery of Uruguay). "},{"text":" He acknowledged that variables such as productive diversification, nutrition, education, public awareness and policy advocacy should be included to generate scales. Drs. Bram Govaerts and Víctor López Saavedra (Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo, CIMMYT, El Batán, Mexico) shared the MasAgro strategy that promotes practices, tools and technologies that facilitate a more efficient use of agricultural capital, which is consistent with the principles of sustainable intensification of agriculture for grain production in Mexico. They emphasized that today's challenge is how to produce more with less or how to maximize production without taking up more land while maintaining the natural resources such as soil, water or air quality.Dr. Ana María Loboguerrero(CCAFS, based at CIAT, Colombia) enlightened the e-forum on climate-smart agriculture (CSA), which is, quoting FAO, \"sustainable agriculture that increases productivity, improves resilience, reduce or eliminate emissions of greenhouse gases, and allows the achievement of food security and national development goals.\" CSA includes both traditional and innovative agricultural techniques to boost agricultural productivity and incomes and improve system resilience to climate. She indicated that in order to invest in CSA practices, governments need tools that facilitate the identification of the most appropriate CSA portfolio to achieve food security, adaptation and mitigation goals. "},{"text":"Table 2 -Recommendations: regional cooperation and the role of CGIAR The overall role of the CGIAR Main Goal To become a facilitator of a SAI network in LAC Main GoalTo become a facilitator of a SAI network in LAC Undertakings After Close SAI Develop Working with Undertakings AfterClose SAIDevelopWorking with collecting knowledge learning and development collectingknowledgelearning anddevelopment information gaps by other alliances banks and informationgaps byother alliancesbanks and from various training, of strategic SAI other from varioustraining,of strategic SAIother sources share exchanges partners who investors, sources shareexchangespartners whoinvestors, successful SAI and study are working in help national successful SAIand studyare working inhelp national with regional trips that will the same area partners to with regionaltrips that willthe same areapartners to stakeholders also enhance to ensure formulate stakeholdersalso enhanceto ensureformulate through an regional measureable projects for through anregionalmeasureableprojects for online cooperation success scaling up onlinecooperationsuccessscaling up network and influence promising networkand influencepromising policy SAI policySAI innovations innovations Main Tasks Advocate Bridge Broker Catalyst Main TasksAdvocateBridgeBrokerCatalyst Specific Compile plans, Train on SAI Assist on Research on SpecificCompile plans,Train on SAIAssist onResearch on Activities projects, at all levels: building farmer Activitiesprojects,at all levels:buildingfarmer proposals, farmers, multidisciplinary learning proposals,farmers,multidisciplinarylearning manuals, university teams across processes to manuals,universityteams acrossprocesses to handouts, students, organizations transfer of handouts,students,organizationstransfer of brochures and trainers, engaged in SAI knowledge- brochures andtrainers,engaged in SAIknowledge- videos on SAI researchers, intensive videos on SAIresearchers,intensive and put them extensionists Forge long-term innovations and put themextensionistsForge long-terminnovations into an online and policy- public-private into an onlineand policy-public-private database makers partnerships Develop databasemakerspartnershipsDevelop along the metrics to along themetrics to Influence Organize SAI various SAI measure and InfluenceOrganize SAIvarious SAImeasure and decision meetings for issues needing quantify decisionmeetings forissues needingquantify makers to exchanges of research-for- sustainability makers toexchanges ofresearch-for-sustainability adjust success and development or with sound adjustsuccess anddevelopment orwith sound agricultural issues related for scaling up and robust agriculturalissues relatedfor scaling upand robust policy towards to its adoption and out datasets policy towardsto its adoptionand outdatasets a SAI approach in LAC a SAI approachin LAC Some Some potential potential priority priority research research subject areas subject areas for SAI in for SAI in LAC through LAC through CGIAR- CGIAR- facilitated facilitated partnerships partnerships "},{"text":" Yield gap analysis  Accurate mapping of the farming structure of LAC agriculture  Degraded land rehabilitation  Curbing deforestation  Analysis of the interphases between agricultural and sustainable food systems  Reducing food wastes  Adapting to, and mitigating climate change  Strengthening cooperatives, building local organizations and linking farmers to markets  Using information and communication technology to access information and share knowledge on how to sustainably intensify agriculture  Defining indicators and metrics to monitor SAI undertakings and assist policy makers for enacting incentives through related policy "}],"sieverID":"ad950c82-5ecc-4a4d-8fad-0cc45fa311ff","abstract":"The CGIAR Consortium CGIAR is a global partnership that unites organizations engaged in research for a food secure future. The name CGIAR comes from the acronym for the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research. In 2008 CGIAR underwent a major transformation. To reflect this and yet retain our roots we have kept CGIAR as our name. CGIAR research is dedicated to reducing rural poverty, increasing food security, improving human health and nutrition, and ensuring more sustainable management of natural resources. It is carried out by 15 Centers, which are members of the CGIAR Consortium, in close collaboration with hundreds of partner organizations, including national and regional research institutes, civil society organizations, academia, and the private sector. The 15 Research Centers generate and disseminate knowledge, technologies, and policies for agricultural development through the CGIAR Research Programs. The CGIAR Fund provides reliable and predictable multi-year funding to enable research planning over the long term, resource allocation based on agreed priorities, and the timely and predictable disbursement of funds. The multidonor trust fund finances research carried out by the Centers through the CGIAR Research Programs. We have almost 10,000 scientists and staff, unparalleled research infrastructure and dynamic networks across the globe. Our collections of genetic resources are the most comprehensive in the world."}

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+ {"metadata":{"id":"06bb0f2dc4315a165eb2b2492c495a26","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a7e420a9-79c6-489e-a646-9891c2750270/retrieve"},"pageCount":25,"title":"Implications of the Treaty for the work of the Center","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"• the CBD is not a mechanism of implementation • high costs of the transactions on the exchanges • status of the international collections before 1993, unsettled Why it matters to CIAT Staff?"},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"• CIAT signed its adhesion to the Treaty on October 16 th , 2006 • this adhesion as partner has legal implications • it does not matter where CIAT Staff is located, they cannot ignore the Law"},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"The starting point in 1994 . . ."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"Example of reticulate origin of a modern variety What is \"facilitated access\" ?"},{"index":5,"size":10,"text":"• It is not included on the definitions (art. 2)"},{"index":6,"size":9,"text":"• purposes: research, breeding, training, direct use (art. 12.3)"},{"index":7,"size":11,"text":"• There is no need of individual follow-up, free of charges"},{"index":8,"size":10,"text":"• All passport information must be available with the material"},{"index":9,"size":12,"text":"• Receptor cannot claim IP on the material and its genetic components"},{"index":10,"size":15,"text":"• the material under development shall be made available at the discretion of its developer"},{"index":11,"size":13,"text":"• the material included in the multilateral System remains available to the System"},{"index":12,"size":13,"text":"• the material is obtained through the approval of a standard MTA (SMTA)"},{"index":13,"size":25,"text":"Benefits considered by the Treaty • The Recipient shall not claim any intellectual property or other rights that limit the facilitated access to the material"},{"index":14,"size":14,"text":"• The Recipient shall continue to make the material available to the Multilateral System"},{"index":15,"size":24,"text":"• The Recipient shall pass the material to others persons or entities with a new SMTA, requiring that the conditions of the SMTA apply"},{"index":16,"size":49,"text":"• \"Available without restrictions\": a Product is considered to be available without restriction to others for further research and breeding when it is available for research and breeding without any legal or contractual obligations, or technological restrictions, that would preclude using it in the manner specified in the Treaty."},{"index":17,"size":20,"text":"• \"Genetic material\": means any material of plant origin, including reproductive and vegetative propagation material, containing functional units of heredity."},{"index":18,"size":24,"text":"• \"Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture\": means any genetic material of plant origin of actual or potential value for food and agriculture."}]},{"head":"DEFINITIONS (contin.)","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"•\"Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture under Development\": means material derived from the Material, and hence distinct from it, that is not yet ready for commercialization and which the developer intends to further develop or to transfer to another person or entity for further development."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"•\"Product\": means Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture that incorporate the Material or any of its genetic parts or components, that are ready for commercialization."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"1. Access shall be accorded expeditiously and free of charge."},{"index":4,"size":31,"text":"2. All available passport data and, subject to applicable law, any other associated available non-confidential descriptive information, shall be made available with the Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture provided."},{"index":5,"size":32,"text":"3. Access to Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture under Development, including material being developed by farmers, shall be at the discretion of its developer, during the period of its development."},{"index":6,"size":29,"text":"4. Access to Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture protected by intellectual and other property rights shall be consistent with relevant international agreements, and with relevant national laws."},{"index":7,"size":16,"text":"5. The Provider shall periodically inform the Governing Body about the Material Transfer Agreements entered into."}]},{"head":"1.","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"The Recipient undertakes that the Material shall be used or conserved only for the purposes of research, breeding and training for food and agriculture. Such purposes shall not include chemical, pharmaceutical and/or other non-food/feed industrial uses."}]},{"head":"2.","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"The Recipient shall not claim any intellectual property or other rights that limit the facilitated access to the Material."}]},{"head":"3.","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"The Recipient shall make the Material and the related information about it available to the Multilateral System. RECIPIENT (contin.)"}]},{"head":"4.","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"In case that the Recipient transfers a Material under development to another person or entity, the Recipient shall: a) Do so under the terms and conditions of the new SMTA b) Identify in Annex to the new SMTA the Material received from the Multilateral System c) Notify the Governing Body"}]},{"head":"5.","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":139,"text":"Possibility of incorporating special clauses or collecting royalties, in the case that the material under development is transferred to other Recipients 6. The Recipient will pay to the Governing Body monetary benefits on gross sales, when it commercializes products that incorporate materials that are not available without restrictions 7. The Recipient will pay to the Governing Body a voluntary contribution when there are commercialized products that incorporate materials which are available without restrictions 8. The Recipient shall make available to the Multilateral System all non confidential information that results from research and development carried out on the material 9. Recipient who obtains intellectual property rights on any products developed from the material or its components, obtained from the Multilateral System, and assigns such intellectual property rights to a third party, shall transfer the benefit-sharing obligations to that third party"}]},{"head":"RIGHTS AND OBLIGATIONS OF THE RECIPIENT (contin.)","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"PAYMENT SYSTEM of ECONOMIC BENEFITS from COMMERCIALIZATION"}]},{"head":"PRODUCTS WHICH INCORPORATE MATERIAL NOT AVAILABLE WITHOUT RESTRICTION","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"OPTION A (Article 6.7 SMTA)"},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"1. The Recipient, associates, contractors, licenciates and tenants pay 1.1 % of the gross sales less 30 % (0.77 %)."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"2. It does not cause payment when the material is sold as a commodity."},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"3. When the Recipient obtains the materials by virtue of various SMTA, only the basic payment of numeral 1 is required."},{"index":5,"size":54,"text":"4. The Recipient has the obligation of informing to the Governing Body, within the 60 first days of calendar year, the following: a) Amount of the sales computed in the former calendar year b) Quantity of the payment owed to the Governing Body c) Information on restrictions that have given rise to the payment."},{"index":6,"size":14,"text":"5. The payment is due and payable at the moment of the report presentation."},{"index":7,"size":6,"text":"OPTION B, OPTIONAL (Article 6.11 SMTA)"},{"index":8,"size":211,"text":"1. Payment during the option period of 0.5 % from the sales of the product, and from all sales that realizes the Recipient of other products that belongs to the same crop which are plant resources for food and agriculture 2. The validity of the optional period is 10 years renewable by 5 years period, unless by sending a 6 months previous notice, the Recipient notifies the decision to stop applying at the end of one of these periods 3. The Recipient that transfers the material in a breeding phase, transfers to the new Recipient the obligation to pay 0.5% from the sales of any derivative product, independently of whether or not the product is available without restriction 4. When the Recipient signs other SMTA in relation to materials belonging to the crop, only one of the payments will be caused. The payments are not cumulative. We suggest a move of CIAT towards the implementation of a policy and a procedure that allow to carry out a better follow-up, coordination and control by the Center of the SMTAs, and in general on the different documents and commitments that are established on CIAT materials. This system could be accompanied by a record mechanism and electronic follow-up as occurs in other international organizations."},{"index":9,"size":15,"text":"In these procedures could participate the Genetic Resources Unit and the Legal Office of CIAT."}]},{"head":"CONCLUSIONS","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"1."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"The Treaty means an important breakthrough for the exchange of materials for the purposes of FOOD and AGRICULTURE, and for a better development of this kind of activity by the Centers, but the Treaty does not have a solution to all the situations that can appear in the exchanges."},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"2. The Governing Body is the maximum entity in charge of its compliance, and is the official INTERPRETATION authority."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"3. The EXCHANGE and the ADVERTISING are essential elements of the Multilateral System."},{"index":5,"size":19,"text":"4. The Treaty regulates not only the exchange of RAW GENETIC MATERIALS but also the exchange of IMPROVED MATERIALS."},{"index":6,"size":14,"text":"5. The CGIAR Centres play an important role in the implementation of the Treaty."},{"index":7,"size":33,"text":"6. The Treaty contains a series of modifications on the system that the CGIAR centers must use for the exchange of materials. These changes imply to check the current IPR policy of CIAT."}]},{"head":"Thank you!","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"(inter alia, Gerald Moore, Carmenza Llano, Aracelly Fernández)"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" have a Treaty? why it matters to CIAT Staff • content of the Treaty • Multilateral System of Access and Benefit-Sharing • Annex 1 to the Treaty 2 nd part • The standard MTA and its practical implementation • The report to the Governing Body 3 rd part • Some recommendations and conclusions Why to have a Treaty? "},{"text":" national environment Prior informed consent, mutually agreed terms "},{"text":" "}],"sieverID":"5263ef97-7065-4f82-b070-e39c0eaea724","abstract":""}

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+ {"metadata":{"id":"074a9625ac7e926e3abc84dcc11a2ef2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ec7f027d-be3f-423d-b5cb-e36e8c5d03d2/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"Economic opportunities, empowerment, and rights for indigenous poultry farmers","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":154,"text":"As a strategy to address poverty in Kenya, pro-poor research and development projects are being implemented, focusing on the integration of resource-poor, smallholder households within value chains. In order to participate in and benefit from value chains, however, men and women make choices based on their individual capacities, capabilities and economic opportunities. This is determined by a complex set of factors, many of which are gender related. Women may have access to productive resources but lack control over them, and often have poorer access to capital and technologies than men. Women's participation is usually limited to less profitable stages of the agricultural value chain. Thus, the capacity to make economic choices is influenced, in part, by individual rights and freedoms. This calls for heightened sensitivity to the configuration of relations between men and women so as to identify barriers to entry, define opportunities available to each gender, and facilitate the power dynamics between genders."}]},{"head":"The research opportunity","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"To better understand the synergies between economic opportunity, empowerment and rights, data was collected from beneficiaries of an indigenous poultry value chain project in Naivasha and Malindi sub-counties to help answer the following question:"}]},{"head":"•","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"What are the differences and underlying factors associated with men and women's empowerment in resource-poor, smallholder communities?"},{"index":2,"size":104,"text":"In Naivasha and Malindi, smallholder farmers face high poverty levels. Production of indigenous chickens was considered a pro-poor value chain because it offers immediate returns in nutrition through the consumption of meat and eggs, and makes an important contribution to household income through sales. The enterprise is especially important for women in Kenya because almost all communities put indigenous chickens in the hands of women. However, women are frequently unable to realize the full potential of the chickens they raise, due to a wide range of management constraints related to supplementary feeding, housing, vaccination regimes, pest and disease control as well as organized marketing."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"Methodologyhe empowerment of female and male beneficiaries of the 'improvement of indigenous chicken rearing and management' intervention in Naivasha and Malindi."}]},{"head":"Measuring women's empowerment","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"To capture the complexity and multi-dimensional nature of empowerment, indicators for measuring women's empow- "}]},{"head":"Results and discussions","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Characteristics of respondents","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"The characteristics exhibited by the two communities differed considerably, with most respondents from Naivasha having been resettled there as internally displaced persons and most respondents from Malindi being indigenous to the area. The Naivasha respondents were enterprising, open and receptive of visitors. Conversely, respondents from Malindi were conservative, superstitious, suspicious and interacted poorly with visitors from outside the community."}]},{"head":"Access to land","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"In Malindi, land size ranged between 5.4 and 7.1 acres, whereas in Naivasha, it ranged between 2.5 and 5.2 acres with male headed households (MHH) owning more land than female headed households (FHH) in both places."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"Owning land, and the quality of land owned, determines whether a person can invest in new technologies. For example, a household with secure land tenure on productive land can make long term investment decisions to develop the land because they are motivated to build assets."}]},{"head":"Six dimensions of empowerment","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Dimension 1: Production"},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"The production dimension was composed of two indicators: input into productive decisions and autonomy in production. Women in FHH were the key decision-makers in their households in both sites. In MHH in Malindi, consensus over joint decision-making was attained in four activities: engagement in agricultural production, kinds of inputs to buy, kinds of crops to grow, and when and who to market crop produce. In Naivasha, there was consensus over decision-making between male heads and primary females in MHH, with the exception of non-farm business activities."},{"index":3,"size":87,"text":"Overall, male heads in dual adult households had higher autonomy in production than primary females in MHH in all production activities except chicken rearing and egg trading. Thus, chicken rearing and egg trading appear to provide entry points for reducing the 'gender gap' and provide a platform for household negotiations on production. This conclusion should be made with caution because studies have demonstrated that with commercialization, men often take over women's enterprises and the income share of women declines as the total income from a commodity increases."}]},{"head":"Dimension 2: Resources","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"The resources dimension was composed of three indicators: ownership of assets, purchase, sale or transfer of assets, and access to and decision on credit. Ownership of assets at dissolution of marriage by divorce or separation indicates that most assets would revert to the male household heads (but upon death the assets would be owned by the living spouse and/or children). Joint ownership could be negotiated in the ownership of large livestock such as cattle. In both sites, the only asset that belonged to women that would not shift ownership in case of marriage dissolution was their mobile phone."},{"index":2,"size":81,"text":"Decisions regarding purchase or transfer of assets in MHH involved both the household heads and their wives. Primary males and primary females in MHH could decide whether or not to purchase new mobile phones independently. This was also the only decision that primary females in MHH could make alone. Although a woman can sell a mobile phone and keep the money, the trade off in terms of the loss of autonomy associated with connectivity provided by the mobile phone is great."},{"index":3,"size":91,"text":"Decisions on credit were such that, where women in MHH had taken loans from formal lenders, the decision to borrow and use the income was taken jointly and both parties participated in repayment. In Naivasha, repayment also occurred jointly except for money borrowed from family or relatives. The fact that resources reverted to men in the case of divorce, and that men could overrule the primary women's decisions on all assets except a mobile phone, is an indicator that in terms of resources, men wielded more power than women in MHHs."}]},{"head":"Dimension 3: Income","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"The income dimension had a single indicator, namely the level of input into decision-making over income. More male heads of households than primary females in MHH contributed to decisions on use of income generated from production activities (Table 1)."},{"index":2,"size":99,"text":"More men than women achieved empowerment in the income dimension. Generally, women in MHH were the least empowered in decision-making across all productive resources. In chicken rearing MHH, women were less empowered than men, which may be explained by the fact that while women and children rear the chickens, men have greater control over accruing benefits. This means that propoor research and development projects cannot assume gender equity or enhanced attainment of empowerment for women just because an intervention targets femaledominated activities. Men have also been reported to conduct most chicken sales in parts of The Gambia and Tanzania. "}]},{"head":"Dimension 4: Leadership","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":166,"text":"The leadership dimension was composed of three indicators: group membership, ability to speak in public, and ownership of a national identity card. Group membership revealed that all categories of women were members of micro-finance savings groups while most women in MHH were members of religious groups, which are often homogenous (with almost all group members adhering to ascribed social norms without questioning them) and kin based. Male household heads from both sites had high membership in producer and marketing groups, which are often heterogeneous and non-kin based. Thus, women appeared to be more involved in social groups, whereas men were more likely to be members of an income-generating group. Homogenous and kin-based networks have been associated with poor business prospects and self policing in communities that require women to uphold strict moral codes of conduct. Heterogeneous networks are considered to enhance business prospects. This difference in types of groups may explain why more males achieved the empowerment threshold compared to women, even for women in MHH."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"Women in MHH in Malindi were the most disempowered when it came to public speaking. Malindi is a conservative, patriarchal, traditional society, where culturally, women are required to refrain from speaking in public."},{"index":3,"size":108,"text":"In both study sites, most men in MHH (93.8% in Malindi and 98.2% in Naivasha) and women in MHH (89.8% in Malindi and 89.3% in Naivasha) as well as 100% of women in FHH in Malindi and 95.5% in Naivasha had national identity cards, which they kept themselves. The identity card is a legal document that is issued to each person when they reach 18 years old, and is crucial for all official transactions. Anecdotal evidence from Kenya indicates that some of the most disempowered women -willingly or not -give their husbands their identity cards to keep for them. This was not the case in Malindi or Naivasha."}]},{"head":"Dimension 5: Time","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"The time dimension was composed of two indicators: satisfaction with distribution of workload and satisfaction with leisure time available. Respondents from both sites were more satisfied with the distribution of workload than with their available leisure time. Women in MHH in Malindi were the most dissatisfied with the distribution of their work load and available leisure time. The workload/leisure time imbalance for women can be attributed to traditional roles and responsibilities, but the expression of dissatisfaction by women in Malindi suggests their increased consciousness of the injustice of these traditions."}]},{"head":"Dimension 6: Health","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":139,"text":"The two indicators comprising the health dimension were level of decision-making on one's reproductive health and perceptions towards GBV. Women in MHH had a higher level of decision-making regarding their use or non-use of family planning methods than their husbands. However, male household heads could determine whether or not to have sex, and to protect themselves from HIV and sexually transmitted diseases, better than their wives. FHH in Naivasha were the most disempowered in their ability to discuss their reproductive health concerns with their partners. These findings indicate that the responsibility for birth control is predominantly left to women, but the decision over whether or not to have sex is still predominantly determined by men. Men decide which partner is risky or not, and hence, they are able to protect themselves from sexually transmitted diseases more easily than women."},{"index":2,"size":84,"text":"Results indicate that GBV is a widespread problem among resource-poor agricultural communities in the two study sites. It is also true that people's beliefs are strongly ingrained in their views towards GBV. The fact that many interview respondents believed that GBV should not be discussed in public or reported indicates the risk of under-reporting during the data collection exercise. Since GBV undermines people's wellbeing, more education and awareness is needed in the study sites, in terms of its harmful effects and the legal implications."}]},{"head":"Scoring empowerment","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"Using headcounts, a greater proportion of men than women were empowered in Malindi, while that proportion was almost the same for women and men in Naivasha; using the 6DE, men were more empowered than women in Malindi, while in Naivasha, there was little difference between men and women's level of empowerment. Finally, using the WEAI, women from Naivasha were more empowered than women from Malindi (Table 2). "}]},{"head":"Conclusions and recommendations","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":"Based on these results, it can be argued that entry points for increasing empowerment among male participants are: enhanced decision-making in production, access to and decision-making on credit, capacity to make appropriate reproductive health decisions and change in attitudes towards GBV. Similarly, women's empowerment could be enhanced with: increased access to and decision-making on credit, more control over use of income, better capacity to make appropriate reproductive health decisions and changing attitudes towards GBV. In essence, empowerment is both an outcome and cause of social and economic factors. This signifies that pro-poor projects cannot focus exclusively on approaches that yield income, growth and utility, but must increasingly consider impacts on individual entitlements, capabilities, freedoms and rights in order to achieve a set of positive impacts both for empowerment and for wealth creation among resource-poor households."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"This brief is an excerpt from the study \"Evaluating the impacts of microcredit and value chain programs for livestock on women's empowerment\", led by the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) and conducted with the Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO) with funding from the Ford Foundation (www.fordfoundation.org). This is one of a series of five briefs on livestock and gender, designed and produced by WRENmedia (www.wrenmedia.co.uk)."}]},{"head":"Contact","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Immaculate Maina [email protected] "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" ilri.org Better lives through livestock ILRI is a member of the CGIAR Consortium Box 30709, Nairobi 00100, Kenya Phone: +254 20 422 3000 Fax: +254 20 422 3001 Email: [email protected] Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Phone: +251 11 617 2000 Fax: +251 11 617 2001 Email: [email protected] "},{"text":" Photo credits: Page 1: Immaculate Maina Page 1: ILRI/Stevie Mann "},{"text":" "},{"text":"Table 1 : Percentage of persons empowered in decision-making over income Malindi Malindi "},{"text":"Table 2 : Empowerment scores for indigenous chicken farmers Site Gender Percentage 6DE WEAI SiteGenderPercentage6DEWEAI empowered empowered Malindi Male 59 0.82 MalindiMale590.82 Female 44 0.72 0.697 Female440.720.697 Naivasha Male 60 0.83 Naivasha Male600.83 Female 61 0.82 0.789 Female610.820.789 "}],"sieverID":"c166e97e-c5c1-4891-84bc-d574dd38042e","abstract":""}

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+ {"metadata":{"id":"074cde43070b6d88997598e72adcc9a7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/df6778e0-6783-42dd-b4e1-888096e21700/retrieve"},"pageCount":48,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"l."}]},{"head":"INTRODlICCIOtl","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"El azufre es uno de los 16 elementos lndlspensab1es para la nut~lc1ón de plantas y muchas son sus funclones dentro de la fls101ogía vegetal, se destaca su partlclpaClón cowo componente de a~lnodcldos y enZlmas en la síntesls de proteínas (Tergas, 1977, Terman, 1978) En las legumlnosas toma parte actlva en el proceso de nodulaclón encontrándose respuesta a dlferentes tasas de fertl11zaClón"},{"index":2,"size":544,"text":"En la dleta anlma1 es lndlspensable por su partlclpaClón en varlOS proc~ / sos metabóllcoS, síntesls de los amlnoáCldos clsteína, clstlna y metlonl na (Wllllamson y Payne, 1978). 10 que parece estar relaclonado con la apeteclbl11dad, consumo y dlgestlbl11dad de algunas espeCles forrajeras, prlnclpalmente legumlnosas Rees, Mlnson y Smlth (1973) trabajando cop pasto pangola (Dlg1tar1a decumbens), encontraron aumentos en el porcen-taJe de azufre en teJldo cuando fertIlIzaron con este nutrIente, al mIsmo tIempo que encontraron Incrementos en el consumo voluntarIo, dlgestlbllldad y velocldad de paso por el retículo rumlnal Estos procesos afec tan dlrectamente la productlvldad 6nlmal Se han detectado graves deflclenClas de este nutrlmento en suelos tropIcales, prlnclpalmente OXlso1es y Ultls01es Su dlsponlbl11dad en el suelo está afectado por dIversos factores, antagónlcos en algunos casos La ffilnerallzaclón de la materla orgánlca (Kamprath, 1973, y Probert, 1978), el materla1 parental (Spencer, Bonna, ~loye y Dowllng, 1969) y la preclpltaclón (Terman, 1978) contrlbuyen a aumentar la d1spon1b,11dad del elemento 51n embargo, el consumo por parte de las plantas, las quemas (Kamprath, 1973), y la llxlvlaclón. provocan en muchos casos deflclenclas del nutrlente EXlsten otros factores como varlaClones de pH (Cauto, lath\\lell y Bouldln, 1978), Caf'lblo.s en concentraclones de otros elementos como carbono, nltrógeno y fósforo. pueden provocar camblos en los nlveles de azufre Estas Influenclas aún no han sldo blen determlnadas Vanes metcdo; .~ Mn desarrollado para pr'¡;oaecir o determinar def1clenclas de azufre en el suelo, tanto par medlo de anlllsls de suelo como de tejIdo Andrelol (1977). trabaJando con slete leguITIlnosas tropIcales I y cInco de 1:1 íma templadO encontró n.veles crítIcos de azufre total en tejIdo entre l?J 20i, antes de la floraCIón No encontró estadístH:cme!l te satIsfactorIas las relacIones S sulfato/S total In N/S como [ndlces de defIcIenCIas del mIsmo Por otra parte Spencer (1978) trabajando con trébol ( :1ed I cago sp ) halló cambIos en las concentracIones de azufre total y sulfatos en dIferentes estacIones del año, SIn embargo encontró estable la relaCIón N/S por 10 que la conSIdera más apropIada como índIce de dIagnostIco de deflclenc1as de azufre Mlller y Jones (1977) comprobaron respuesta posItIva de la legumInosa Stylosanthe~ .9ulan~!,~l~ a aplIcacIones de azufre, concluyendo que suelos con menos de 13 ppm extractable con fosfato, pueden conSIderarse defl-Clentes en este elemento, y recomendaron la apllcaClón de 20 a 50 kg S/ha para una máXIma producclón Estos lnvestlgadores demostraron tamb,én una relaclón rus mayor de 17 5 para un rendlmlento supenor al 90% Trabajos reallzados con gramíneas IndIcan respuestas slgnlflcatlvas a la aplIcaCIón de azufre Smlth y Dolby (1977) lnvestlgando con Panlcum maxlmum var Trlchoglume encontraron que concentraclones mayores a~12Xj de azufre en el tejIdo vegetal, eran satlsfactorloS para rendlmlentos máXImos, cuando más del 12% del azufre total en teJldo está en forma de sulfatos, fué conslderado como un contenIdo adecuado, Sln embargo adv1rtleron que cuando el sumInIstro de nItrógeno era alto se alteraba la re-laCIón N/S 2 OBJETIVOS 1 EstudIar el efecto del azufre sobre el creClmlento de tres legumInosas tropIcales, DesModlum ovallfollum (CIAT 350), Stylosanthes capltata (CIAr 1019) y Zornld latlfol1a (CIAr 728) 2 Determl na r 1 a s concentrac IOnes cr ít 1 ,as de azufre y 1 a re 1 aCI ón rus en las mls~as especIes ;gmo ¡ndlce de dIagnóstIco nutrlclonal de este elemento "}]},{"head":"FertIlIzantes e 1noculantes","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":165,"text":"En general se apllcó una fertlllZaClón báSIca de P, K, Ca, t\\g, Zn, Cu, By Mo con los compuestos IndIcados en la Tabla 2 COMO fuente de azufre se usó sulfato de SOdlO Las dOSIS por hectárea y por pote se detallan en la El dlseño usado fue un factorlal 3xlO correspondlcndo a tres legumlnosas troplcales y dlez tratam1entos de azufre con tres repl1caclones total1zando 90 potes (Anexo No 1) y dlstrlbufdos lrrestrlctaMente al azar en el 1nvernadero las unldades experlmentales (potes) fueron dlstrlbuídas lnelal mente según randO'l1lZaC1Ón (Cuadro ,~nexo ?lo 2) y posterlQrmente se hlcleron randomlzaclones mensuales 3 6 Preparaclón de Jlffy pot! y potes los Jlffy pot! para la pregermlnaclón de la semll1a, fueron llenados con arena gruesa lavada con aqua natural Se usaron en el ensayo, ~acetas plástlcas con capacldad total aproxlmada de 2 kg Se colocó,al fondo de cada maceta, papel fIltro y se añadIÓ gravllla lavada y seca para faCll1tar la capllarldad, hasta 1 cm de altura (aproxlmadamente 300 gr)"},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"Se estandarlzó el peso total (pote + papel flltro + gravllla) a 350 gr y fueron añadldos 1 300 gr de suelo seco, quedando un espaclo de 3 cm entre la superflcle del suelo y el borde del pote Se colocó cada pote sobre un plato plástlCO cóncavo para e\\ltar pérdlóa de nutrlmentos por nuevamente los potes alas dose a 1650 gr llX1V1aClón Posterlormente se estandarlzó 15 días para recuperar suelo perdldo, aJustán-3 7 ~!aneJo del experlmento en el lnvernadero"}]},{"head":"El ensayo comprendló tres fases","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":171,"text":"InlClal o de estableclmlento, de exper~ mentaclón proplar,ente dlcha, y flnal Cad~ una de estas fases ldentlflca da por las labores reallzadas en el periodo de tIempo Que tuvo lugar la lnvestlgaclón Se efectuo la slenbra el 18 de dlclembre de 1978 en los Jlffy pots con su flclente sernlla para obtener una germll1aclón supe. lar a las 10 plantas/ Jlffy Se apllca rIego dlarlO con agua destllada ó la fertl11zaClón báslca fue apllcada a los pote; el 20 de dlclembre, aproxlmadamente dos semanas antes del transplante a flnd e lograr un equll1-brl0 químlco en la Soluclón del suelo / los nutrlmentos fueron preparados en Soluclón y agregados en 50 ml/pote de agua delonJzada, ln, Cu, By 110 en otros tratamlentos de azufre tamblén en SOluclón en 50 ml/pote, Cldad de campo con 230 ml de agua Se pesaron luego los se un peso promedlo de 2 011,4 gr con una Sx 4 24 Y CV P, Ca, K y Hg 50 ml/pote Los 11 evando ¡¡ capapotes encontrándQ O 21%"},{"index":2,"size":613,"text":"3' 2 Fase de Experlmentac 1 ón Se transplantó el 5 de enero de 1979 a razón de 10 plantas/pote y se apllcó el lnoculante en 100 ml de agua El rlego apllcado posterlormente varló en cantldad tlempo y locallzaclón (pote o plato) de acuerdo a apreclaClón ,...-------...----_._vlsual En febrero 10 se efectúo el raleo deJando selS plantas/pote En adelante el rlego conSlstlÓ en 111evar los potes al peso en capacldad de campo con agua delonudda 3 Fase Flnal Se efectuaron cortes aproxlmadamente cada 60 días, slendo el prlmero, de 19ualaclón, el 7 de marzo a una altura de 3 5 cm Posterlormente se efectuaron otras dos cosechas el 7 de mayo y el 14 de jUllO Las muestras de teJldo fueron pesadas, secadas para calcular peso seco, mol1dad y anallzadas en laboratorlO Luego del últlmo corte se tomaron muestras de suelo para su caracterlzaclón flnal 4 RESULTADDS y DISCUSIO,¡ Aparte de Clerta tendencla del Styly~~~lhe~ ltata de aunentar el porce~ taje de O1trógeno y por ende la relaclón II/S en el segurdo corte, no se I ! observan los resultados presentados en los cuadros y gráflCOS anexos, respuestas deflnldas en rendlnllento de materla seca, porcentajes de azufre y nltrógeno, y relaclón II/S, por los dlferentes tratdmlento5 de parte de las I azufre ' tres legumlnosas estudladas, a los nlve1es de azufre encontrados en teJldos y la caracterlzaClón flna1 del suelo por tratamlento (Tabla 5), lndlcan que eXlsten suflclentes cantldades de azufre dlSponlb1e en estos suelos los resultados encontrados se contradlcen con lnvestlgaclones preVlas rea-11zadas con suelo de esta mlsma zona, donde se encontró el azufre como 11mltante de la fertl11dad en la legumlnosa Centrosema plumlerl (CIAT Informe Anual, 1977) 51n embargo podría pensarse en la susceptlbl11dad de esta especle a los nlveles de azufre eXlstentes en QU111chao, o en la tolera lCla de las espeCles utll1zadas en el presente ensayo a esos nlveles Por otra parte el hecho de haber tomado el suelo para los dos ensayos de dos lotes dlferentes y la gran heterogeneldad de dlsponlbllldad de nutr1mentos enco~ trados en la zona de QUlllchao, hace presumlr que los dos lotes pudleran contener dlsponlbllldades de azufre dlferentes y de allí la dlferencla en los resultados El alto contenldo de materla orgánlca (7%) obllga a conslderar la poslbl11dad de la mlnerallzaclón del azufre conten1do en los reslduos orgánlcos (Kamprath, 1973, y Probert, 1978), debldo al efecto de los mlcroorganlsmos, altas temperaturas y humedad La dlsturbaclón provocada por la mo1lenda del suelo pudo haber contrlbuído a esta mlnerallzaclón por desmenuzamlento de la materla orgán1ca y ruptura de la estructura la eX1stenc18 de nódulos corrobora la dlsponlb111dad del azufre en el ~ fre y aunque el factor nodulaclón no fue ~uantlflcado se puede consIderar que fue homogeneo para los dlferentes tratamlentos La unlfOllllldad en el azufre dlsponlble encontrado al Ilnal del ensayo en los d1ferentes tratamlentos y en las tres legumInosas (Tabla 4) puede debe~ se rt tle rlQ(\"f5'S('l}n ro :llú:lt:: ti te 1¡llne'Q1J.l\"t.-i,.1I., \"1\"\",,::: f'\\tl'1.,\"U-Mli 1 .... f:. IIIl;.>tto1¡Jtyo\"\" nlsmos del suelo transformando el azufte ¡norganlCO en azufre orgánlco para mantener constantes las relaCIones e, H, P Y S TABLA 5 -Caracterl:aC1Ón Flnal del Suelo Je QUlllchao por tratamlento (promedlo de tres repllcaclones) , 2. Caracterlzar nlveles normales de azufre en dlfprentes lotes de QUlllchao para estudlar su varlabl1ldad y pOSlble lngerencla en 105 resultados obtenldos en 105 dos ensayos dlscutldos 3 Sugerlr a la Secclon de nlcroblología del CIAT desarrollar métodos de lnoculac16n que garantlcen la nodulacI6n efectlva en este tIpO de ensayos 5 Por la duca que ofrece en cuanto al lncremento en dlsponlbl11dad de nutrlmentos, sería recomendable en lugar de moler el suelo, desmoronarlo manualmente con una porra de goma "},{"index":3,"size":2,"text":"..:: z "},{"index":4,"size":59,"text":"25 '?7 1 8!l 12. 15 21 'I¡ 5 93 2 1<10-.12-180b 93 10 '1,0 200 /2 lb ¡, > 7D 12 eh :.'30 13 18 1 3 Bb 14 '7:. 2 11 12. 17 lB 95 lb 91 t ~7 11. 2001 91 20 92. :z 50 I'l, lo 8'1 '/2. 25 C¡9 2i(\" I~ 11 &5 99"},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"'DeE':\",oJ. ovo.ff c.1~T 350 ¡~,.,IQ\",<P t-l I '\" 'N I ,KP~\"!, "},{"index":6,"size":51,"text":",' \" /\"\"\" :,:) t..\" O Ie.~ 244 • e5 ,574 97 14 25 \"15 ;¡ 55 ~5 1& 25 90 ~7 5 .00 252 I~ 1/1') 7~ 23 10 9S 250 b /{.n 'Ir 1.7 /2 104 nI, .. ,ll Ir¡ 1,7 9'1\"4 14 lO 3 2 SI '.It. 15 "}]},{"head":"INTRODUCClOiI","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"La densIdad aparente se def,ne como la relaCIón que eXIste entre la elllasa seca de un suelo y la umdad de volúmen (,ncluyendo espaCIo ocupado por partículas y poros)."},{"index":2,"size":173,"text":"Los valores de densIdad aparente son muy varIables, dependlendo de Jas d,ferentes característ,cas del suelo. A med,da que aumenta el contenIdo de partículas flnas (arcIllas), t,ende a aumentar el espacIo poroso total y por 10 tanto d,sm,nuye la dens,dad La mater,a orgánIca ,nfluye d,smlnuyendo la denSIdad a med,da que aumenta su contenldo El tIpo de arCIlla (2 1 o 1'1) puede ,nflu,r hacIendo var,ar la denSIdad de acuerdo al contenIdo de humedad cuando la proporCIón de arCIllas expanSIbles (2 1) es alta Generalmente la denSIdad aumenta con la profundldad, deb,do a la d,sm,nucIón del conten,do de mater,a orgánIca Por últ,mo el conten,do de los suelos hace var,ar la densldad aparente d,sm,nuyéndola superflclalmente a corto plazo por efecto de la preparaCIón de suelo y 1a lncorporaclón de materla ~rgfinlca, pero aumentfindo a largo plazo prlnclpalmente en las capas infer,ores por efecto de la compactacIón • BaSlcamente son usados los datos de densldad aparente para la conversIón ~e volúmen a peso y Vlseversa en dlferentes tIpOS de cálculos. y para la determlnaclón del espaclo poroso "}]},{"head":"MATERIALES Y METO DOS 3 1 Materlales","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Cll1ndro de borde cortante, caJa para clllndro, aro metálIco, martlllo, taco de madera. navaJa, pala, palin, regla, balde con agua, estufa, balanza"}]},{"head":"2 Procedlmlento","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Se tomó muestras en seIs 51t10$ selecc10nados al azar en un lote virgen homogéneo Para la Selecc1ón de los 51t10S de muestre\" se SlgU1Ó una trayectorla en zlg-zag, con una dlstancla de 20 pasos , entre uno y otro En cada lugar se muestreó en la superflC1e y a 20 cm de profundldad, para un total de doce muestras, tanto en"}]},{"head":"Qulllchao como en Car1magua","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Los Sltl05 fueron numerados la, lb, la Han a la muestra superfICIal y la \"b\" 6a y 6b, correspond1endo a los 20 cm En Qull1cn .. il. lOS puntos 1, 2 Y 3 tiln.o superflc141 como a 20 cm fueron muestreados con su humedad natural Los SItIoS 4, 5 Y 6, en ambas profundldades, se les agregó agua para varIar los con te-.\""},{"index":2,"size":587,"text":"Oldos de humedad y así pOder comparar, tanto la manuabllldad como la Da / Los (ll¡ndros de peso y volúmen conoC1dos (Tabla 1) fueron 1ntrodu-c¡dos al suelo colocándo sobre ellos un 001110 de 19ual dlámetro y un taco de madera, golpeándolos con el martll10 las muestras, dentro del clllndro y tapadas en cajas, fueron pesadas lnmedlatamente para eVltar pérdldas de humedad Luego se Sf'caron en estufa a 95°C por dos dias (hasta peso constante) en QUlllchao, y a l05°C por un día en Carlmagua Por Últln10 se pesaron nuevamente 4 RESULTADOS 4 1 gUll1chao los resultados obtenldos con el suelo de QUll1chao se presentan en el Cuadro 1 Anallzando estos resultados (Cuadro 2), se tlenen los slgulentes puntos 1 Los valores de Da para O cm de profundldad fluctúan entre O 83 Y 1 10 g/cm 3 para contenldos de humedad entre 24 82 Y 29 82% 2 la varlanCla entre los datos no es slgnlflcatlva para nlnguna de las profundldades, encontrándose todos los valores dentro de los límltes de conflanza para un 5% de probabll1dad estadístlca Al secar las muestras ~e QU111chao en la estufa, se observó una ~'sm1nuclón del volumen en las muestras que no reclbleron agua Sallendo fael1mente del Cl'lndro. mlentras que a las que se les agregó agua mantuv1eron su volúmen 101c1a1 Según esto y observando los resultados obtern dos se concluye que hubo Cl erta compactacl ón O arreglo de partículas del suelo de QU111chao cuando se aumentó su contenldo de agua Esto puede deberse a varl0S factores como atracClón por cargas eléctrlcas de las arc1l1as, golpes dados sobre el clllndro, etc que lnteractúan para produclr el efecto de compactaclón En cuanto al aumento de denSldad con la profundldad se expllca por una dlsmlnuclón de la materla orgán1ca Las muestras húmedas fueron ~más facl1mente trabaJadas en QUll1chao y Car1magua tanto para lntro--duclr los cl11ndros al suelo como para enrasarlos, loq.¡e se expllca por el efecto lubrlcante del agua y la plastiCldad que le da a estos suelos el alto contenido de arCl11as REC0I1EtlDi\\C IONES 1. Repetlr el ensayo a varlOS nlveles de humedad en el suelo para comprobar 10$ resultados presentes 2 Usar Cl1.ndros de mayor volúmen para aumentar la precls1ón en la determlnaClón de la densIdad aparente P2 \" Peso caja + cll1ndro + suelo seco por un día a 90 P C \"3 \" Peso caja + Cll1ndro + suelo seco por dos días a 90 Q C Los valores usados para el vlgor de las plantas fueron 1 débll, 2. regular, y 3 vlgorosa, debldo a que el experlmento apenas cuenta con un mes y medlo de establecIdo y el pOCO desarrollo de las plantas no amerltan usar más categcrias Se usó además el gUlón (-) para lndlcar que la espeCle ha desaparecldo de la parcela 3. RESULTADOS El cuadro 1 lndlca en forma general el estado del ensayo péra la fecha actual Algunos ecotlpoS han desaparecldo del ensayo, blen porque la semllla no era vlable o de un porcentaJe de germlnaclón muy baJO, o blen porque al momento del transplante murleron por debl11dad o Inadaptabll1dad al medlo, no querlendo slgnlflcar esto que todas sean susceptlbles a toxlCldad por Aloa baJOS nlveles de fósforo A este grupo pertenecen S. 1 Alrededor del 70% del total de plantas están afectadas por punteaduras clorótlcas prlnclpalmente en hOJas maduras, varlanco la 1ntensldad desde algunos puntos hasta cubrlr caSl la total1dad de la lámlna Aparentemente se trata de un ataque de áfldos 2 Poco desarrollo en general de los ecot1pcS de Stylosanthes cap1tata"},{"index":3,"size":111,"text":"3 El S capltata CIAT-1642 mostró en VarlOS n1veles de Cal y P un sfntoma part1cular enroscam1ento de las hOJas Jóvenes hacla adentro con bordes clorót1cos 4. El ecot1po V1gna adenantha CIATd 016 mostró la meJor toleranC1a a alto Al 1ntercamblable, baJO P, y el mayor desarrollo en tamaño, pero mostró un fuerte ataque de un Insecto coleóptero (pOSIble crlsom §lldae) de §lltros azul brl1ante, cabeza ocre y de 4 a 5 nrn de largo, que perfora las hOJas maduras 5 Se local1zaron algunos síntomas esporád1COS de pos1bles deflc1enelas nutr1clonales como clorOSIS ap1cal en hOjas medIas, quemado en hOjas nadtlr¡¡s t:bfi t5nh dí\" folíolos !I\\!'vh.fnnm\",,,,l¡ clnl\"ql~ ~n lQs protes (Aeschynomene, 1 "},{"index":4,"size":269,"text":"muy débil 3 vigorosa regular de sa pa rec 1 La Estaclón Experlwental ICA-CIAT -Carlmagua, se encuentra locallzada al norte del Departamento del Meta, a pocos kllómetros del río de este mlsmo nombre, a 150 m s n m aproxlmadamente Su topografía es plana, domlnada por sabanas naturales de vegetaclón gramlnífera y en menos proporCIón por bosques de galería, y palmares 10callZados en los márgenes de ríos y caños Estos suelos, provenlentes de sedlmentos de la reglón andlna, se caracterlzan por su buen drenaje, alta aCldez (pH 4 2 -4 8), muy deflclEnte en nutnentes como P, N, K, Ca. r~g, S, etc y un alto porcentaje de saturación de Al Cl1mátlcamente esta reglón posee dos estaclones blen deflnldas (verano e invlerno), con una preClpltaclón cercana a los 2 000 mm anlales, caídos prlnclpalmerte de Abrll a Novlembre Su temperatura medla anual es de 24°C, con 22°C miolma y 31'C máxlma Las característlcas negatlvas de esta reglón, ha cond'Clonado su uso caSl excluSlvamente de la ganadería extenslva 2. OBJETIVOS 1. Real1zar la descr,pclón del perfll del suelo en una cal1cata 10ca11-. , zada en la Estae16n Experlmental de Carlmagua En pr,mer término se procedló a hacer una llmp1eza del perfll de arrlba_ haela abaJO. para 10 cual se fue removlendo el suelo con una navaja, despejando de partículas extrañas a cada horlzonte, en una franja de aproxlmadamente 30 cm en forma vertlcal Luego se dellmltaron los horl- , Se reallzó una comprobaclón vlsua1 de respuesta a nlveles de los tres nutrlmentos 5e comprobaron dlchas observacl0nes con los resultados del ú1tlmo corte, reallzados en ~layo del presente año (Cuadro 1)"}]},{"head":"RESULTADOS","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":201,"text":"Conslderando los efectos prlnclpales de los nutrlmentos en estudlo, se observan respuestas de las tres gramlneas de P cuando los nlveles de N son altos, lo que permlte aflrmar que eXlste lnteraCclón de estos elementos a mveles altos, prlnclpalmente en Andropogon gavanus ¡\\ Se observó mayor respuesta al N por parte de las tres gramíneas 'Se compararon en este caso los promedl0s de los tratamlentos NI y N 2 Vlsualmente se encontró colores más claros en las hOJas de Brachlarla decumbens y Andropogon gayanus a nlve1es baJOS de N Para el azufre no se observaron varlaC10nes aparentes en el campo entre los tres tratamlentos (SI' S2 y 53) en cada parcela, Sln embargo, el Cuadro 1 demuestra Clerta tendenCla a aumentar el rendlmlento de Brachlar~! decumbens a nIveles altos de P y N --Se pudo notar además un síntoma general en todos los tratamlentos. de cloroslS aplcal con necrosls, sIendo en muchos casos el amarl11ento, más fuerte en los bordes de la lámlna EXlsten dudas sobre el causante de éste síntoma entre el K y Mg Sm embargo por los anállSls de teJldo se ha POdldo comprobar que eXlste una deflc1encla de K y que los nlveles de Mg están normales "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" la presente lnvest1gaclón se realnó en un lnvernadero del Centro lnternaclonal de Agr1cultura TropIcal -CIAT, Palmlra Durante el periodo experlmental la temperatura medld fue de 288°C, con una máxlma de 35 6•C y una minlma de 233°C 2 Suelo El suelo utIlIzado en el ensayo corresponde a la capa superflclal (0-20 cm) obtenldo de un área vlrgen en la [staclón Experlmental CIAT-Qul11chao D1Cho suelo corresponde a un Ultlsol Palehumult orfoxlco, arcll1oso, lsohlpertérmlCo, y fue escogldo en base al grado de lnfertllldad PrevIamente fueron tomadas elnco muestras, las cuales fueron anallzadas en labo-ratarlO para su caracter1zaClón qu;m1ca 1nlclal los resultados de este anál1s1s se presenta en la Tabla 1 El suelo fué molldo, tamlzado en malla No 10 (2 m~ ) y secado al 31re TABLA 1 -CaracterlzaClón quimlca 1nlclal del suelo de QUll1chao (0-20 cm) Las legumlnOSas º~sr.o~~~ ovailfollum (CJAT 350), ~osant~E~ ~ata (CIAT 1019) y Zornla }~~lfolla (CIAT 728) usadas en el experlmento fuerOn selecclonadas por estar conslderadas como prom¡,OrlaS para suelos áCldos y de baJa fertllldad por el Programa de Pastos TropIcales del CIAT _La sem!. 11a fue escarIfIcada con una solucIón de hlpoclorlto ~e sodIo al O 5% antes de someterl a a gennl naclón 3 4 "},{"text":" de las 1egumlnosas estudladas en cuanto a rendlmlento en materla seca, porcentaje de azufre y nltrógeno y relaclón N/S, a los tratamlentos de azufre Los nlve1es de azufre detectados tanto en teJldo como en sue10 a1 fl-na1 del ensayo, conflrman la dlsponlbllldad suflclente de este elemen to en el suelo Los tratamlentos de azufre apllcados al suelo fueron ho~ogenlzados po. éste, a nl\\eles entle 25 y 30 ppm de S dlsponlble Dr,a\"ollar un método de anállS1S flacclonado del azufre, pala determlrlar tanto azufre organlco e lnorgánlco, y dlSponlble o no dlsponlble, I t q tanto al lnlClO con~ 11 flnal de los ensayos, a fln de poder lnterpretar los camblOS ocurrldos --' "},{"text":" 1 -70rnill 111tlfol1a CIAT 728 Le[UM 2stylosanthes cnpitatll CIAT 1009 Lc[Um 3 -Desm ovalifoliuM "},{"text":" ),s.s¡ v,¡,J, N I 5 I • I p:¡ .. nJ _1<'::¡\"\"/~~m~t t 'ojo . \"1.1 N/ 5 ! r~ ? ;5'..' ' :;1; 19 21441 'i'!.IO I :1 5 5 ñ r !, 75' 24 1544 lOO • ~ E2;38~12~ 1?7~ 87b!ó ! 10 : 54 ' 3 S 1 23 11(,74 ~?' 10 , 12. ';j ~ ~ ' 1G I 2~ k¡ 7~ 11 ~7 1' 4 .<;7/ 370 1 ¡~ PHI ¡'lB 27 , b .. 5 I : 4 o~ I '27 I 14 9~ 1,,1 'l3 :20 :5\"? 76 25 I 15 21 71 ~7 ,25 SI 370 nl/5c>zIS71.3 30 ; ~ q I .!l. 7:', 1~' 14 17 ;84 ~8 c; N '5 N/o;, ~ .. ~d ~/ol.. I ... ~ % % \"/o O q :'7 2 ~z. .1 P 21 I{, 10<>25 B !l7 2 ~q ,/1 :le ~t\\ 9,1.8 5 B 4 .. Z 42 12. 2~ 25 l' 04 10 13 J\" '2 'b /2 18 ¡'b "},{"text":" Jones 1977 The use of 5011 analysls for predlctlon the response to sulphur of pasture 1egumes In the Australlan Troplcs Aust J 50,1 Res 15 137 12. Rees, M e • o J Mlnson y F W Smlth 1973. The effect of suplementary an fertl11zer sulphur on voluntary lntake. dlgestlbl1lty, retentlon time In the rumen, and slte of dlgestlon of pangola grass In sheep. -J.Agr.Scl 82 419-422 13 Roblnson, P J Y R K Jones 1972 The effect of phosphorus and sulphur fertl11zatlon on the growth and dlstrlbutlon of dry matter, nltrogen phosphorus, and sulphur In Townsvl11e stylo (Stylosanthes humll1S) Aust J Agr Res 23 633 14. Smart, J 1976 TropIcal pulses longman lnc. N Y 236p 15. Smlth, F W , y G R Do1by 1977 Derlvatlon of dlagnostlc lndlces for asses51ng the sulphur status of Panlcum maXlmum var Trlchoglume 50i1 SCl and Plant An 9 221-240 16. Spencer K 1978 Sulphur nutrltlon of clover Effects of plant age on the composltlon-yleld relatl0nshlp SOll Se1 and Plant Anal 9 833-895 17. _________ , O Bonna, O V Moye y E J Dowl1ng 1969 Assessment of the phosphorus and sulphur status of subterranean clover pastures Aust J of Exp Ag and An Husb 9 310 18. Sulphur Instltute Sulphur The essentlal Plant Food element Bulletln 19. Tergas, l E 1977 de las legumlnosas Importancla del azufre en la nutrlelón mlnera1 forraJeras tropleales Turrlalba 7 63 / 20. Terman G l 1978 Atmospherle Sulphur. The agronomle aspects. Teehmeal Bul1etln No 23 21. Wlll1amson G and W J Palne 1978 An lntroductl0n to anlmal husbandry in the Troples longman Ine. N Y • • 'OETERlUNACIOrl DE LA DENSIDAD APARENTE (0<:) POR El METODD DEL CILINDRO EN ~UELOS DE QUILICHAO y "},{"text":" Existen prlnclpalmente dos métodos para la determlnaClón de la densldad aparente, el del cll1ndro y el del terrón o de la paraflna, encon-tr4ndose Clerta tendenCia a obtener valores mayores por el método del terrón.\" t ya que se onllte el espacIo aéreo entre terrones 2 OBJETIVOS l. Determlnar la densIdad aparente en un Ultlsol de QUll1chao y un Ultls01 de Carlmagua 2. Determlnr 51 eXlste correlaClón, entre cOntenIdo de humedad del suelo y la denSldad aparente 3 RecIbIr adlestram1ento en esta práctlca "},{"text":"3 EXlste correlaclón entre las varlaClones de humedad y la Da dentro de los límJtes señalados en el Punto 1 4 EXlste tamblén la tendenCla a aumentar la Da al aumentar la profundldad del suelo la Da a diferentes humedades ya queTas el suelo húmedo b EXlste muy poca varldc1ón de la Da con la profundldad e Los valores de Da para estos suelos fluctúan entre 1 43 Y 1 46 gr/cm 3 hasta una profundldad de 25 cm 5 OISCUSION "},{"text":"3 Repetlr en ensayo en Carlmagua en época seca para conflrmar los resultados encontrados BIBLIOGRAFIA BRADY, ti C 50115 In 1974 Sorne lmportant Physlcal Propertles of ~l1neral The tlature and Propertles of 50115 New York pp 40-70 FORSY The W M 1972 DenSldad Aparente, Porosldad y Espaclo Aéreo~ "},{"text":" Se encontró un mayor creClmlento en general de las especles de ¡ornla y Aeschynomene que en S capltata 7. La únlca espeCle que floreCló es Zornla sp CIAT 9771 "},{"text":" tn~\"\".o,..~n ANOTACIONES DE CAMPO DEL ENSAYO CALxP (23/7/19) "},{"text":" EUSAyQ Efecto de N. 1) y S en el ComportamIento de Brachlarla decumbens, Andropogon gayanus y r1el1nls mlnutlflora en Carlmagua la respuesta de estas tres especIes a tratamIentos de N. p Y S 2 Comparar las respuestas entre las tres especles 3. Observar sfntomas de deflclencla nutrlClonal 4 RealIzar adIestramIento en esta práctIca2. MATERIALES Y t1ETODOSSe realIzó la evaluacIón en dIcho ensayo, Instalado en la zona de \"la PIsta\" en la EstaCIón ExperImental ICA-CIAT Canmagua El dIseño usado fué el de parcelas sub-dlvldldas, completamente al -ezar, correspondIendo las parcelas prIncIpales de los tratamIentos P x N. las subparcelas a las especIes y las sub-sub-parcelas a "},{"text":"1II EXlste respuesta al N por parte de los tres espeCles estudladas 2 No eXlste en general respuesta al azufre QUlzás pueda obtenerse a algún otro factor que esté l1mltando su consumo, o que por su alta movllldad se halla unlformlzado dentro de cada sub-parcela en la soluclón del suelo 3. Aunque se apllcó K, se observan síntomas de deflclenclas después de varlOS meses Esto s1gnlflca que las altas preclpltacl0nes lo llxlvldron, o la planta lo agota muy rápldamente ReClblr adlestramlento en evaluaclón de ensayos de Nutrlclón de Plantas n. MATERIALES Y rlETODOS la evaluaclón se hlZO sobre el ensayo lnstalado en Carlmagua El dlseño de tratamlento es un factorlal, y el dlseño del experlmento de bloques al azar con tres repetlclones los tratamlentos fueron cuatro nlveles de fósforo, tres de potaslo, dos de azufre y dos de magneslo Dentro de cada bloque de gramíneas se apllcaron 12 tratamlentos de combl-naClones de P x K que fue la varlable más estudlada, y tres tratamlentos adlclonales con comblnaclones de S y Mg Dlseño de dlstrlbuclón de tratamlentos randomlzados para cada parcelaP 3 K l I P 3 K 2 ! P 3 K 2 gliSo ~'91,S1 rlgoiSo Mg o PI K21 P2 Ko /P2 Kl I p 2 K2/P3 Ko SI M9J SI M9 l SI rlg 1 ¡SI Mg I 1 S 1 Mg11 Po Ko i Po K l Po KZ IP l Ko i Pl K l I SI M9~ SI ~'gl, SI rlg l ! SI ~'gl i SI 119 1 i "},{"text":" Como lnoculantes se usaron las cepas de Rhlzoblum CIAT 507 para lum ovallfollUm y CIAT 71 para Stylosanthes capltata y ZO!!:'2a latl 11a pr¿paradas en caldo por la SeCCIón r1lcroblo1ogía de Suelos del CIAT Tabla 3 Tabla 3 TABLA 2 - Fertlllzaclón báSIca TABLA 2 -Fertlllzaclón báSIca Elemento I Compuesto DOSIs/ha I mg comp/pote ElementoICompuestoDOSIs/haI mg comp/pote p Ca(H2P04)Z H20 22 O kg P 58 00 pCa(H2P04)Z H2022 O kg P58 00 K KCl 50 O K20 54 00 I KKCl50 O K2054 00I ~'g MgC1Z 20 O kg Ilg 108 00 ~'gMgC1Z20 O kg Ilg108 00 Zn ZnCl 2 O kg Zn 6 70 ZnZnCl2 O kg Zn6 70 Cu CuC12 2H Z O 2 O kg Cu 3 40 CuCuC12 2H Z O2 O kg Cu3 40 B H3 B 03 O 5 kg B 1 90 BH3 B 03O 5 kg B1 90 Mo Na2r1004 O 2 kg Mo O 33 MoNa2r1004O 2 kg MoO 33 TABLA 3 - Tratamlentos de Azufre TABLA 3 -Tratamlentos de Azufre Trat No Fuente kg Sfha mg S/pote mg Na2S04/pote ! Trat NoFuentekg Sfhamg S/potemg Na2S04/pote ! I I 1 2 3 4 5 í:i 7 8 9 10 I I NaZS04 \" H . . \" 11 \" \" \" \" I I ° O 2 5 5 O 10 O 12 8 14 O 16 O 20 O 25 O 30 O , O 00 1 09 2 17 4 33 <; ;le¡ 6 07 5 93 8 65 10 83 12 99 I O ° 65 O 129 5 259 2 :<l. ,0 362 9 414 7 518 4 648 O 777 5 I I1 2 3 4 5 í:i 7 8 9 10I INaZS04 \" H . . \" 11 \" \" \" \"I I° O 2 5 5 O 10 O 12 8 14 O 16 O 20 O 25 O 30 O,O 00 1 09 2 17 4 33 <; ;le¡ 6 07 5 93 8 65 10 83 12 99IO ° 65 O 129 5 259 2 :<l. ,0 362 9 414 7 518 4 648 O 777 5 "},{"text":" ~,; .ff _1941. '7074 ItI q t' \"1 lb 5 ~ 340,;?!: }7°) fA I~ 'lo 54 \"131ft _If. 21 \\W 2.5 5 o .3 39 ,2c I~ l' / ~ :-'1 30 , :5 o • :1 .40, 2.' ;11. Z'. 71 5'1 :1 $ 6 ~ 3 H I r 16 12. 71 2/1, :1 $ 6 ~ 3 H I r 16 12. 71 2/1, 5 -4 z J~\"i:]x 1177 17771 5 -4 z J~\"i:]x 1177 17771 ji.) 47 3>°1/9\\7168703' ji.)47 3>°1/9\\7168703' 12. 50 34, .r I(...3112!1 /4 .; s '3~11::.r 12. 50 34, .r I(...3112!1 /4 .; s '3~11::.r "},{"text":" 1977 The effect of sulphur on the growth. sulphur an .n1trogen concentratlons. and crlt,ca1 sulphur concentratlons of sorne troplcal and temperate pasture legumes. Aust.J.Agr Res 28 807-820 2. Centro lnternaclonal de Agrlcultura Troplcal 1978 Programa Ganado ~~ de Carne ~ Informe Anual Cal1. Colomb,a p A-49 3. Couto. W • D.J Lathwell y O.R.Bould,n. 1978 Sulfate sorbt10n by --~o oXlsols and an alflsol of the troplCS SOl' $cl.127 108-112 Quagllato 1970 Responses of four troplcal legumes and -of,locerne to varlOUS levels of sulphur Pesq Agr Braz 5 .359. 10. 1976 Studles o, \"aval1able and Isotoplcally 10.1976 Studles o, \"aval1able and Isotoplcally -exchangeable sulphur In some NorthQueensland so115. Plant and 5011 -exchangeable sulphur In some NorthQueensland so115. Plant and 5011 45. 461 45. 461 -~. .Kamprath E.J 1973 Azufre~' ~n resúmen de las investlgaciones -~. .Kamprath E.J 1973 Azufre~' ~n resúmen de las investlgaciones -~dafo'óglcas en la Amérlca Latina Troplcal Ed P A Sánchez North -~dafo'óglcas en la Amérlca Latina TroplcalEd P A Sánchez North _-JCarol1na Agrlcultural Experlment Statlon. Technlcal Bullet,n 219 _-JCarol1na Agrlcultural Experlment Statlon. Technlcal Bullet,n 219 ~p.195-198 ~p.195-198 -¡o 4Miller, C.P. R K Jones ~977 ~utrlents requerlrnents of Stylosanthes -¡o 4Miller, C.P. R K Jones ~977 ~utrlents requerlrnents of Stylosanthes cguianens,s pasture on a euchrozem lnNorthQueensland. Aust.J of cguianens,s pasture on a euchrozem lnNorthQueensland. Aust.J of • -JB. ~unns. D N ~97a S011 aCldlty and nodulatlon In Mlneral nutrltlon --Exp.Agr~and AOlm Husb 17 607 , • • -JB. ~unns. D N ~97a S011 aCldlty and nodulatlon In Mlneral nutrltlon --Exp.Agr~and AOlm Husb 17 607 , • -Df legumes ln troplcal aod subtroplcal~olls CSTRO. Ed C.S_AndreW5 y -Df legumes ln troplcal aod subtroplcal~olls CSTRO. Ed C.S_AndreW5 y E~S.Kamprath pp 247-264 E~S.Kamprathpp 247-264 9. -Probert, M E 1978 Aval1ablllty of phosphorus and sulphur 10 troplcal 9. -Probert, M E 1978 Aval1ablllty of phosphorus and sulphur 10 troplcal -~o11s ln relatlon to legume growth In Mlneral nutrltlon of leg~~es -~o11s ln relatlon to legume growthIn Mlneral nutrltlon of leg~~es in troplcal and sub-trop1cal so11s. Ed C.S Andrews y E S Kanprath in troplcal and sub-trop1cal so11s. Ed C.S Andrews y E S Kanprath 1PP.313-328 1PP.313-328 "},{"text":"= Peso caJa + cll1ndro vacío + suelo seco P s = Peso suelo seco Toxlcldad por AlumJnlo y BaJos Nlveles de Fósforo de 58 EcotlpOS de Categoría Ir en CarlmaglJa\" ecotlpoS lnvestlgados se lIstan en el Cuadro 1 y la evaluaclón se hlZ0 aprecIando vlsualmente el vlgor de las plantas, anotañao-además el número de ellas por parcela -2 - -2 - CUADRO 2. ANALISIS ESTADISTICO DEL TOTAL DE MUESTRAS PARA LAS DOS PROFUNDIDADES / CUADRO 2.ANALISIS ESTADISTICO DEL TOTAL DE MUESTRAS PARA LAS DOS PROFUNDIDADES / Prof Po (gr) -SuperVlsor Colaborador la 134 72 (cm) 2a 140 70 O cm 3a 135 18 l' 1 OBJETIVOS Hum. V cm 3 -74 4 eX) 74 4 74 4 Da Dr José G Sallnas -Da PI PH (gr) (gr) (gr) P2 --Ing Ramón Gualdrón 266 8 132 08 239 59 • x egr/cm 3 (gr/cm 3 274 9 134 20 249 50 268 9 133 72 240 50 Ps (gr) 104 87 52 108 80 105 32 Da gr/cm J 1 41 , S x 1 46 1 42 1 43 CV % Hum % -20 6 18 9 21 2 Le 5% Le 1% f¡ r 2 ~ Prof Po (gr) -SuperVlsor Colaborador la 134 72 (cm) 2a 140 70 O cm 3a 135 18 l' 1 OBJETIVOS Hum. V cm 3 -74 4 eX) 74 4 74 4Da Dr José G Sallnas -Da PI PH (gr) (gr) (gr) P2 --Ing Ramón Gualdrón 266 8 132 08 239 59 • x egr/cm 3 (gr/cm 3 274 9 134 20 249 50 268 9 133 72 240 50Ps (gr) 104 87 52 108 80 105 32Da gr/cm J 1 41 , S x 1 46 1 42 1 43CV %Hum % -20 6 18 9 21 2Le 5%Le 1%f¡r 2 ~ 4a 136 00 1. Reallzar una evaluaclón vlsual del ensayo para detenmr,ar en prl-i3 9 271 2 135 20 245 33 109 33 1 48 19 1 4a136 00 1. Reallzar una evaluaclón vlsual del ensayo para detenmr,ar en prl-i3 9 271 2 135 20 245 33 109 33 1 4819 1 ~ 24 82 74 4 mera lnstancla la adaptabl1ldad de estos ecotlpoS a las cond1c10-o 83 262 9 132 20 237 05 107 28 1 44 29 82 1 10 0.96 o 01 o 1 10.41 70-1 22 .56-1.36 18 9 73 9 265 2 129 62 238 68 103 10 1 40 20 5 nes de alto porcentaJe de saturaclón de Al y baJos nlve l es de P , 21 52 1 15 28 53 1 23 1 18 00027 0.0519 4.40 1 05-1 31 .97-1.39 I 93 .87 85 .73 eXlstentes en la zona de Carlmagua -74 4 278 2 143 62 251 39 116 81 1 57 18 7 737 262 5 127 74 238 25 103 49 1 40 2. Determlnar su respuesta a comblnaclones de cuatro nlveles de Al 130 77 o 6a 135 58 5a 20 t' ~ lb 134 58 2b 134 76 19 O 20 cm 3b 130 04 74 4 260 3 130 26 233 95 103 91 1 40 1 46 20 2 y cuatro de P ~24 82 74 4 mera lnstancla la adaptabl1ldad de estos ecotlpoS a las cond1c10-o 83 262 9 132 20 237 05 107 28 1 44 29 82 1 10 0.96 o 01 o 1 10.41 70-1 22 .56-1.36 18 9 73 9 265 2 129 62 238 68 103 10 1 40 20 5 nes de alto porcentaJe de saturaclón de Al y baJos nlve l es de P , 21 52 1 15 28 53 1 23 1 18 00027 0.0519 4.40 1 05-1 31 .97-1.39 I 93 .87 85 .73 eXlstentes en la zona de Carlmagua -74 4 278 2 143 62 251 39 116 81 1 57 18 7 737 262 5 127 74 238 25 103 49 1 40 2. Determlnar su respuesta a comblnaclones de cuatro nlveles de Al 130 77 o 6a 135 58 5a 20 t' ~ lb 134 58 2b 134 76 19 O 20 cm 3b 130 04 74 4 260 3 130 26 233 95 103 91 1 40 1 46 20 2 y cuatro de P 4b 135 58 3 ApreClar cualquler otro factor que esté afectando al ensayo 74 4 270 O 134 42 243 78 108 20 1 45 19 5 4b 135 58 3 ApreClar cualquler otro factor que esté afectando al ensayo 74 4 270 O 134 42 243 78 108 20 1 4519 5 5b 137 10 74 4 269 2 132 10 242 00 105 90 1 42 19 8 5b 137 1074 4269 2132 10242 00105 901 4219 8 6b 138 54 .... 4. Servlr como práctlca de adlestramlento 74 4 278 5 139 96 251 22 112 68 1 51 19 5 6b 138 54 .... 4. Servlr como práctlca de adlestramlento 74 4 278 5 139 96 251 22112 681 5119 5 2. MATERIALES y ~IETODOS 2. MATERIALES y ~IETODOS Po = Peso caJa + cl11ndro vacio Po = Peso caJa + cl11ndro vacio 9 O La evaluaclón se hlZO en un ensayo de campo. lnstalado a prlnClpl0S PI = Peso caJa + clllndro vacío + suelo humedo de Junlo con un dlseño de bloques dlVldldos en 58 parcelas, dlstrl- 9 OLa evaluaclón se hlZO en un ensayo de campo. lnstalado a prlnClpl0S PI = Peso caJa + clllndro vacío + suelo humedo de Junlo con un dlseño de bloques dlVldldos en 58 parcelas, dlstrl- bUldos completamente al azar Sln repllcacl0nes Las parcelas fueron bUldos completamente al azar Sln repllcacl0nes Las parcelas fueron de 2 5 x 25m de 2 5 x 25m PH ~ Peso suelo humedo Los tratamlentos apllcados fueron los slgulentes PH ~ Peso suelo humedo Los tratamlentos apllcados fueron los slgulentes Hum (%) = PH -Ps Co PH el O x 100 .5 ton/ha de cal do lomítl ca ton/ha de cal dolomítlca Po PI O kg P/ha 16 6 kg P/ha Hum (%) =PH -Ps Co PH elO x 100 .5ton/ha de cal do lomítl ca ton/ha de cal dolomítlcaPo PIO kg P/ha 16 6 kg P/ha e2 e3 1 O 5 O ton/ha de cal dolomítlca RESUMEN tor/ha de cal dolomítlca P2 117 3 kg P/ha P: 277 4 kg P/ha e2 e31 O 5 Oton/ha de cal dolomítlca RESUMEN tor/ha de cal dolomítlcaP2 117 3 kg P/ha P: 277 4 kg P/ha Prof (cm) Da (gr/cm 3 ) Hum {%} Prof (cm)Da (gr/cm 3 )Hum {%} O 1 43 19 87 O1 4319 87 20 1 46 19 45 201 4619 45 ! e ! e "},{"text":" Al grupo elnco perten~een las espeeles más adaptadts a las condlclones naturales de los suelos de Carlmagua y que no den mucha respuesta-a El eeotlpo Zornla sp CIAT 9648 aparecló únlcamente en Clnco parcelas, pero mostró buen desarrollo Fue la únlca Zornla de hábltO erecto El cultlvar S capltata CIAT 1686 no fue eonslstente en sus respuestas Además se hleleron las slgulentes obs~rvaclones • O • o 3 --4 - • O • o3 --4 - S. capltata CIAT 1342 Zorma aff tenulfolla CIAl 7?14 ~ S. capltata CIAT 1342Zorma aff tenulfolla CIAl 7?14 ~ ,\" S capltata CIAl 1414 S capl ta ta CIAl 1419 los tratamlentos Zornla sp Zornla latlfol1a CIAl 9215 CIAT 9225 ,\"S capltata CIAl 1414 S capl ta ta CIAl 1419 los tratamlentosZornla sp Zornla latlfol1aCIAl 9215 CIAT 9225 S. capltata CIAr 1497 S eapltata CIAT 1441 Zornla latlfolla CIAT 9896 S. capltata CIAr 1497 S eapltata CIAT 1441Zornla latlfollaCIAT 9896 S. capltata CIAr 1520 Z. LatlfoTla CIAT 9282 S. capltata CIAr 1520 Z. LatlfoTla CIAT 9282 S. capltata CIAT 1691 Z sp CIAT 9648 S. capltata CIAT 1691 Z sp CIAT 9648 S. capltata CIAT 1781 S. capltata CIAT 1781 Estas espeCles qUlzás están 11mltaéas en su desarrollo por otros fac- Estas espeCles qUlzás están 11mltaéas en su desarrollo por otros fac- tores nutrlclonales, aCldez o toxlCldaé por alumlnlO tores nutrlclonales, aCldez o toxlCldaé por alumlnlO Al tercer grupo pertenecen las que son susceptlbles a toxlCldad por Al tercer grupo pertenecen las que son susceptlbles a toxlCldad por Al. pero responden al encalado Entre éstas tenemos Al. pero responden al encalado Entre éstas tenemos S. capl tata CIAT 1642 Zornla sp CIAT 9226 S. capl tata CIAT 1642Zornla spCIAT 9226 S capltata CIAr 1899 Zornla sp CIAT 9265 S capltata CIAr 1899Zornla spCIAT 9265 S. capltata CIAT 194:: Zarn18 sp CIAT 9267 S. capltata CIAT 194::Zarn18 spCIAT 9267 S. humlles CIAT 1222 Zornld sp CIAT 9284 S. humlles CIAT 1222Zornld spCIAT 9284 S huml1es CIAT 1303 Zornla sp CIAl 9600 S huml1es CIAT 1303Zornla spCIAl 9600 S bracteata CIAT 1582 Zornla sp CIAl 9616 S bracteata CIAT 1582Zornla spCIAl 9616 S. bracteata CIAT 1643 Zornla sp CIAl 9771 S. bracteata CIAT 1643Zornla spCIAl 9771 D. barbatum CIAl 3063 Zarma braslllana CIAT 9681 D. barbatum CIAl 3063Zarma braslllanaCIAT 9681 9 Zorma braSlllana CIAT 9684 9Zorma braSlllanaCIAT 9684 En el grupo cuatro ublcamos los ecotlpoS que poseen tolerancla a Al En el grupo cuatro ublcamos los ecotlpoS que poseen tolerancla a Al y que responden a P y que responden a P S. capltata CIAT 1318 S. capl tata CIAT 1323 Zarma sp Zorma sp \\ CIAl 928t CIAl 9<:92 S. capltata CIAT 1318 S. capl tata CIAT 1323Zarma sp Zorma sp\\CIAl 928t CIAl 9<:92 S. capl tata CIAT 1325 Aeschynomene hlstnx CIAT 9666 S. capl tata CIAT 1325Aeschynomene hlstnxCIAT 9666 S. ca pi tata CIAT 1504 Aescrynamene hlstrlx CIAT 9690 S. ca pi tata CIAT 1504Aescrynamene hlstrlxCIAT 9690 S. bracteata CIAT 1281 Zornla latlfol1a CIAl 9151 S. bracteata CIAT 1281Zornla latlfol1aCIAl 9151 Vlgna adenantha CIAT 4016 Vlgna adenantha CIAT 4016 "},{"text":" Con ayuda del Apéndlce 1 del llbro S011 Taxonomy, y de acuerdo a las característlcas, se fue denomlnando cada horl~onte anotándose su respec- -2 --3 * -2 --3 * 5. CONCLUSrmlES 5. CONCLUSrmlES ,- TenIendo en cuenta el aumento gradual del contenldc de arcIlla con la ,-TenIendo en cuenta el aumento gradual del contenldc de arcIlla con la profund1dad (CIAl, Informe Anual 1977), la presencIa de oXldos h1dratados profund1dad (CIAl, Informe Anual 1977), la presencIa de oXldos h1dratados tlva profunoldad de hlerro y alum,nlo (calor amarIllo rOJIzo), arcIllas tIpO 1 1 (poca tlva profunoldad de hlerro y alum,nlo (calor amarIllo rOJIzo), arcIllas tIpO 1 1 (poca expansIbIlIdad), deflclenclas de nutrImentos, y en general a las caracte-Posterlormente se claslflcó cada une de ellos en las dlferentes caracte-rtstlcas descrItas en el cuadro anexo, se pl,ede claSIfIcar este suelo ristlcas físlcas enumeradas en el cuadro anexo, segúr las tablas conte-nldas en el Apéndlce 1 del 5011 Taxonomy como pertenecIente al orden OXlso1 (Smlth, 1955) expansIbIlIdad), deflclenclas de nutrImentos, y en general a las caracte-Posterlormente se claslflcó cada une de ellos en las dlferentes caracte-rtstlcas descrItas en el cuadro anexo, se pl,ede claSIfIcar este suelo ristlcas físlcas enumeradas en el cuadro anexo, segúr las tablas conte-nldas en el Apéndlce 1 del 5011 Taxonomy como pertenecIente al orden OXlso1 (Smlth, 1955) Para determ¡naC1Ón de los colores se hace necesarlO el concurso de una taba1 Munse11, de la cual no se dlSPUSO, por 10 que no se descrlbló esta • 6. BIBLIOGRAFIA , Para determ¡naC1Ón de los colores se hace necesarlO el concurso de una taba1 Munse11, de la cual no se dlSPUSO, por 10 que no se descrlbló esta • 6. BIBLIOGRAFIA , caracter1stlca 1. Centro InternacIonal de AgrIcultura TropIcal (1978) Programa Ganado caracter1stlca 1. Centro InternacIonal de AgrIcultura TropIcal (1978) Programa Ganado de Carne In Informe Anual 1977 Call, Colombla P 4-48 de Carne In Informe Anual 1977 Call, Colombla P 4-48 Para la textura se amaóó entre los dedos pulgar e índlce, añadlendo agua, Para la textura se amaóó entrelos dedos pulgar e índlce, añadlendo agua, una muestra de cada horlzonte 2. Smlth, G D (1965) OXlsols In Lectures on 5011 Classlflcatlon En esta forma se aprecló el contenldo una muestra de cada horlzonte 2. Smlth, G D (1965) OXlsols In Lectures on 5011 Classlflcatlon En esta forma se aprecló el contenldo aparente de arena y arcl11a Ghent, Belglan $011 SClence Soclety No 4 pp 83-93 aparente de arena y arcl11a Ghent, Belglan $011 SClence Soclety No 4 pp 83-93 Para la estructura se desmoronó una porclón de cada horlzonte y se 3. U S Department of Agrlculture (1965) Apendlx 1 In S011 Taxonomy Para la estructura se desmoronó una porclón de cada horlzonte y se 3. U S Department of Agrlculture (1965) Apendlx 1 In S011 Taxonomy compararon sus agregados con los dlbuJados en el Apéndlce 1 Washlngton, D D pp 459-477 compararon sus agregados con los dlbuJados en el Apéndlce 1 Washlngton, D D pp 459-477 En la determlnaClón de la conslstencla se desmenuzó caca una de las mues- En la determlnaClón de la conslstencla se desmenuzó caca una de las mues- tros y según la tabla respectlva se determlnó su frlabl11dad tros y según la tabla respectlva se determlnó su frlabl11dad o o la conslstencla mOJada se determlnó agregando agua y amasando entre los o ola conslstencla mOJada se determlnó agregando agua y amasando entre los dedos dedos Para determlnar el 1ímlte, se observó la forma de ocurrenCla de los Para determlnar el 1ímlte, se observó la forma de ocurrenCla de los camblos de color tanto horlzontal como vertlcalmente camblos de color tanto horlzontal como vertlcalmente Por últlmo se anotó cua1quler observaclón especlal de los horlzontes Por últlmo se anotó cua1quler observaclón especlal de los horlzontes 4 RESULTADOS 4RESULTADOS En el cuadro bnQ~O se presentan las caracter1sttcas de!Crltas En el cuadro bnQ~O se presentan las caracter1sttcas de!Crltas o o o o "}],"sieverID":"e6bb8120-0a8f-42bf-84a4-72d93638e733","abstract":""}

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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0873a5760121e30048a840deea8b46a3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a6863884-50e7-47a0-acb5-9b09361ebf72/retrieve"},"pageCount":27,"title":"4. Willingness to pay for market information received by mobile phone among smallholder pineapple farmers in Benin 1","keywords":["information asymmetry","contingent valuation","food quality","market price","willingness to pay 4.1 Introduction"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":244,"text":"Information asymmetry refers to the fact that many transactions are characterised by incomplete, imperfect or unbalanced information among the transactional parties (Claro et al., 2004;Williamson, 1985). The quality of agricultural products and their safety attributes depend on how they were grown in the field; for instance by organic or conventional farming methods. Such information is obviously known to the farmer, but not to third parties, because the cultivation practices cannot be determined simply by looking at the final product (Mikami and Tanaka, 2008). In contrast, buyers in the markets are much better informed about market prices and their fluctuations. This issue of information asymmetry becomes more important when the number of intermediaries (collectors, middlemen, wholesalers, and retailers) along the supply chain increases. If price information is distributed asymmetrically between farmers and buyers, the market for agricultural products may fail to achieve an efficient resource allocation because of (the risk of) moral hazard or adverse selection (Akerlof, 1970;Holmstrom, 1979;Ozer and Wei, 2006;Resende-Filho and Hurley, 2012). These informational problems could be avoided if farmers had access to accurate market information, like current prices (Mikami, 2007). Reduced information asymmetry between farmers and buyers implies a more informed trade, which, in turn, increases the market impact of the buyers' trades. Hence, farmers may be able to increase their profit by sharing cost information with buyers. When there is high information asymmetry between farmers and buyers, this generally results in low profits for the farmers (Mendelson and Tunca, 2007)."},{"index":2,"size":280,"text":"The introduction of mobile phones has brought new possibilities for people to communicate and share information, for instance, on markets and services. The impact of this development was felt across all sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries. For example, in Ghana, farmers in Tamale are able to send a text message to learn about maize, pineapple and tomato prices in Accra, over 433 kilometres away. In Niger, day labourers are able to call acquaintances in Benin to find out about job opportunities without making the US$ 40 trip (Aker and Mbiti, 2010). In Kenya, those affected by HIV and AIDS can receive text messages daily, reminding them to take their medicines on time (Pop-Eleches et al., 2011). Citizens in countries as diverse as Kenya, Nigeria and Mozambique are able to report violent confrontations via text messages to a centralised server that is viewable, in real time, by the entire world (Aker and Mbiti, 2010). In Benin, data has been collected for decades on market prices of food products (ONASA, 2011), but this information fails to reach users (farmers, traders and processers) at the right time in an accessible and usable manner. On the one hand, research suggests interesting strategies on how to promote agricultural extension services to farmers, but on the other hand it is unclear how this information must be managed. Therefore, it was investigated if and how the mobile phone can be used in the pineapple chain, which is one of the promising export crops in Benin, where the above mentioned challenges of information asymmetry are present and where there is limited access to high income markets by smallholders farmers because of the quality norms and standards barriers they face."}]},{"head":"Willingness to pay for market information","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"Although the increased market information flow (especially on commodity prices) can potentially benefit marketing of all kinds of crops, it has a larger impact on reducing information asymmetry on market prices for perishable products, where quality is strongly related to the freshness at the time of exchange (Kalyebara et al., 2007;Muto and Yamano, 2009). The new flow of information made available by mobile phones in African countries can help farmers and traders by providing accurate market information, allowing them to transport and trade their perishable products quickly to avoid spoilage. Access to information by mobile phones can also help farmers to decide whether or not to accept the price offered by traders, by obtaining price information from other sources."},{"index":2,"size":101,"text":"Mobile phone services that provide accurate and up-to-date market information can be financially supported by governments, development projects, investment programs, or international partners for development (Donner, 2009;Donner and Escobari, 2010;Kizito, 2011). In Mali, for instance, contracting for the provision of market information is at the national level, but with a mix of funding sources from public and private sectors (Kizito, 2011). In most of the cases, however, these services do not sustain after the development and investment programs terminate, which raises doubts as to the (perceived) benefits of these services to users and users' respective willingness to pay for the services."},{"index":3,"size":81,"text":"A number of questions have, so far, not been answered in the literature. First, to which extent are smallholder farmers able and willing to pay a premium to access market information services -excluding external subsidies? Second, does the market price and quality information asymmetry really matter in supply chains? Answering these questions will help design a short message service (SMS) based framework for sustainable and efficient market information systems (MISs) that are easily accessible for smallholder farmers in less developed countries."},{"index":4,"size":109,"text":"With respect to these issues, much has been written on the role of information and communication technologies in Africa with a special focus on factors that affect the spread of mobile coverage and the impact of mobile phone use on pro-poor labour market access, employment creation and health care (Aker, 2008;Bosch, 2009;Brouwer and Brito, 2012;Buys et al., 2009;Lawson-Body et al., 2011;Maranto and Phang, 2010;Porter, 2012;Porter et al., 2012). However, most of these studies did not investigate the perceptions of the subscribers and the premiums they are willing to pay for a sustainable use of the mobile phone as a device to access market information in rural and peri-urban areas."},{"index":5,"size":72,"text":"As elucidated by Donner (2008) and Aker and Mbiti (2010), economic research on smallholders' adoption and use of mobile phones in less developed countries has been limited. Using a contingent valuation approach, the present study aims to assess farmers' willingness to use a mobile phone to supply and receive market and quality information on agricultural products, as well as to investigate the premium that they are willing to pay for these services."}]},{"head":"D.D.A.A. Arinloye et al.","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"First, an explorative case study was undertaken in Ghana -a country with many years of experience in mobile phone-based market information management -to gain further insight into smallholders' perceptions of SMS-based MIS. Lessons learnt from Ghana were used to design a survey to investigate the premium that pineapple farmers in Benin are willing to pay for receiving SMS-based product price information (hereafter called price-SMS) and SMS-based product quality information, such as information on standards, inputs and crop diseases (hereafter called quality-SMS). The outcome of this study was used to formulate policy and development recommendations for improving market access of smallholder pineapple farmers and agrifood chain actors."},{"index":2,"size":84,"text":"The remainder of the chapter is organised as follows. First, we present an overview of the pineapple supply chain in Benin. Second, we present the analytical framework, and explain the methods we used for data collection and analysis. Third, the major findings and lessons learnt in Ghana and the major findings of the econometric analysis of farmers' willingness to pay for price-SMS and quality-SMS in Benin are presented. The implementation strategies and implications for policy and practitioners are put forward in the last section."}]},{"head":"Overview of pineapple supply chains in Benin","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"There are five main supply chains for pineapple in Benin: the domestic fresh chain, the domestic juice chain, the regional fresh chain, the international fresh chain and the dried pineapple chain (Figure 4.1)."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"• Domestic fresh consumption. This marketing channel is one of the major outlets in Benin, absorbing about 35% of production in 2010. The produce is sold at urban (Dantokpa in Cotonou) as well as rural (Glo-Djigbé, Sekou, Sèhouè, Zinvié, Ouegbo, Ze) markets."},{"index":3,"size":98,"text":"• The West African (regional) markets for fresh pineapple. The supply of pineapples in Benin exceeds national demand. Therefore, producers need to find other marketing channels to sell their surplus pineapples. Although there are no official statistics on the quantity of pineapples exported to neighbourhood countries, it is estimated to be around 40% of the national production. Wholesalers in Dantokpa market (Cotonou) stated that the Nigerian market alone absorbs more than 40% of the national production. Regional export markets operate differently from the European and Asian export markets and are dominated by informal transactions with lower quality requirements."},{"index":4,"size":78,"text":"• Juice from fresh pineapple. Pineapple juice is produced in traditional and semiindustrial processing factories and packed in 0.25 or 0.33 litre bottles. This market channel is not well developed and is dominated by individual traditional producers and some farmers' associations. The juice is mainly sold on the domestic market and not exported to Europe, because of shelf-life difficulties. This channel consumes almost 15% of national production (which increases the domestic consumption of fresh pineapples to about 50%)."}]},{"head":"Willingness to pay for market information","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":124,"text":"• Fresh pineapple exports. The international market (beyond West Africa) accounts for about 2% of total production. This market includes EU countries (France, Belgium, Luxembourg, Italy, Germany, the Netherlands), Asian countries (United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia) and North African countries (Algeria and Libya). Exports, either by air or by sea, are problematic. Until 2008, plane freight cost 518 €/tonne by KLM/Air France and 609 €/tonne on DHL 2 . By boat, the freight cost is 380 €/tonne, less expensive than by plane, but it is necessary to ship quite large batches. International exports require a wide range of additional inputs (boxes, bags, and other packaging materials) to ensure that the perishable fruit is effectively preserved. These inputs need to be available and affordable."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"• Dried pineapple and marmalade export chain. This market channel is not well developed. The major destinations are France, Switzerland, Belgium and Austria. The Tropical Fruit Drying Centre (CSFT-Benin) is the main factory that supplies dried pineapple export from Benin, including pineapple marmalade and syrup."},{"index":3,"size":120,"text":"Participation in the export chain involves fulfilling certain quality attributes, such as size, sugar content, and the absence of external and internal damage. These attributes determine the price paid. The lowest prices for pineapple in the rural, urban and regional markets are recorded during May and June. One respondent indicated that one of the main causes is market competition with other fruits (oranges, mangoes, and bananas), which ripen in the same period. Farmers selling during this period report prices that are below the costs of production, but these can be compensated for by an increase in price from July to September. During this period, the average price of 4.1. Fresh and processed pineapple markets (adapted from Agbo et al., 2008)."},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"Fresh export to EU (2%) forty pineapples 3 can be as much as US$ 30 corresponding to US$ 0.75/kg (for the 'Smooth cayenne' cultivar)."},{"index":5,"size":263,"text":"There are three causes for the annual cycle of price fluctuations. First, pineapple production in Benin mainly depends on natural rainfall patterns that do not allow farmers to apply inputs, mainly fertilisers and ethylene for flowering induction treatment (FIT), during the dry seasons. In south Benin the dry season occurs in December, January and early February. It is difficult to apply the FIT at this time, meaning that there is a shortage of pineapples eight months later, between July and September. Second, there is a socio-cultural condition that affects the profitability of pineapple chains: Muslims' fasting period generally falls in the period between July and September. During this period there is a peak in the demand for fruits, and the local prices experience a significant increase. In the normal season a bunch of forty Cayenne smooth pineapples might fetch between 2,500 and 3,500 CFA Francs 4 , or even as little as 1,500 CFA Francs. In the period of Ramadan the same fruit might sell for between 4,000 and 5,000 CFA Francs and large size fruits might even reach 11,000 CFA Francs. The market price for the 'Sugarloaf ' variety is normally between 1,500 and 2,000 CFA Francs (for forty), but can increase to 2,500 or 4,000 CFA Francs during the fasting period. Aware of this price fluctuation, farmers now try to manage their production systems so that they can produce during the peak price season. Third, a similar pattern of seasonal demand from other neighbouring countries with significant Muslim populations, such as Nigeria, Burkina Faso and Niger, adds to this high price."}]},{"head":"Data collection and methods","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Research models","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"The analytical framework used in the present study is built around three complementary methods of econometric modelling. We first estimated the determinants of mobile phone use (using a Probit model to take selection bias into account). In the second stage, the factors relevant to explaining farmers' willingness to pay (WTP) for MIS were assessed, using an Ordered Probit model. Finally, the extent to which farmers are ready to pay an affordable price for this service was estimated using a Censured Tobit model approach. This section presents a detailed explanation of each of these analytical approaches."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"In general, the endogeneity issue 5 related to the difficulty of disentangling the effect of using a mobile phone (or not) on the willingness to pay for a MIS is a key determinant"}]},{"head":"Willingness to pay for market information","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"in the analytical framework. Hence, rejecting the null hypothesis by observing the significance of the explanatory variables in the model may not imply any causality in terms of farmers' effective WTP. A third driver -the use of a mobile phone -may also affect the dependent variables, inducing a spurious correlation and a selection bias that may lead to erroneous conclusions. The presence of this bias can be tested for by including a sample selection term in the regression. To take account of a possible sample bias that may be related to the inclusion or not of mobile phone users in the model, we first ran a Probit model to generate the Inverse Mill's Ratio (IMR) ( 2008), which was later on included in the Ordered Probit and Tobit models."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"For the Probit model, we define the dependent variable as a dummy with a value of 1 if the farmer has an operating mobile phone and 0 if not. Following White (2004) this leads to a 'selection equation' presented as follows:"},{"index":3,"size":99,"text":"where Z * ij is a variable defining whether the farmer has already access to (and uses) a mobile phone or not, and W ij presents a set of explanatory variables. The IMR is then generated from the parameter estimates of the Probit regression of Equation 1. In the second step, using only the observations of farmers who have and use this technology, and including the IMR as a dependent variable, we estimated the WTP Ordered Probit (Equation 4) and the Tobit (Equation 5) models. For the WTP Ordered Probit, the general analytical framework consists of the following equation:"},{"index":4,"size":137,"text":"where Y ij is the target dependent variable (with 5 level Likert scale responses), X ij is a set of control and independent variables and ε j is a vector of error terms. More specifically, the null hypothesis is that all the slope coefficients of the explanatory factors (X ij ) are equal to zero (H 0: α ij = 0). The basic assumption is that a farmer will only express a WTP if he has an operational mobile phone. While Y ij = s (with s = 1-5) implies that the equation has been precisely measured, there exists an unobservable (latent) variable Y * ij , such that η ss ≤ Y ij ≤ η s with s = 1-5. Following Verbeke and Ward (2006), farmers' WTP for the mobile phone-based MIS is expressed as follows:"},{"index":5,"size":1,"text":"(3)"},{"index":6,"size":77,"text":"The variable Y ij is observed only when Z * ij is larger than zero (Equation 1). Hence, the expected farmers' WTP, premised upon the possession of a working mobile phone in the Ordered Probit model is expressed as: (4) Where Ø is the probability density function of a univariate normal distribution and Φ is the cumulative distribution function. The term Ø(X i P α i ) / Φ(X i P α i ) is the IMR."},{"index":7,"size":61,"text":"To assess if the WTP for mobile-based MIS was sufficiently high, farmers were asked the amount of money they would be willing to spend to get that service. If they did not express a WTP of any premium, the measure of desire is zero (Paolisso et al., 2001). Following Maddala and Lahiri (2006), the estimated Tobit model is expressed as follows:"},{"index":8,"size":1,"text":"(5)"},{"index":9,"size":75,"text":"where π ij is the amount of money i that farmer j is ready to pay to get or supply market information using a mobile phone (assuming current possession of an operational mobile phone) (Z * ij >0), X ij is the set of explanatory variables that are hypothesised to affect the amount that farmer j is willing to pay, β ij is the parameter to be estimated and ε j the error terms' vector."},{"index":10,"size":65,"text":"If the IMR has a significant coefficient in both Equation 4and 5, this means that running the regression models without differentiating between farmers who are using a mobile phone from those who are not -as a basic condition -would have led to selection bias. Before running the econometric models, each variable was checked for normality using a Skewness and Kurtosis tests (D'agostino et al., 1990)."},{"index":11,"size":189,"text":"From the literature, several factors (X ij ) are hypothesised as affecting farmers' willingness to adopt innovations (Adegbola and Gardebroek, 2007;Adesina and Zinnah, 1993;Adesina et al., 2000;Binam et al., 2004;Feder et al., 1985;Herath and Takeya, 2003;Sall et al., 2000). These factors include socio-economic characteristics, such as age, farming experience and income or profit (Adegbola and Gardebroek, 2007;Adesina and Zinnah, 1993;Arinloye et al., 2010a). The farmers' dynamic capability, i.e. their aptitude to be flexible in response to the market and environment changes, is also a determinant (Clark and Fujimoto, 1991;Wang and Ahmed, 2007;Woiceshyn and Daellenbach, 2005). The awareness level, which is determined by contact frequency with extension agents and support received or membership of an association, has also been found to significantly affect farmers' willingness to change (Adegbola and Gardebroek, 2007). The institutional environment and market context in which farmers are embedded, also determine their decisions about whether or not to adopt a new technology (Adegbola and Gardebroek, 2007; Thangata and 4. Willingness to pay for market information Alavalapati, 2003). Detailed descriptions of these variables as included in the models and the hypothesised coefficient signs are presented in Appendix 4.1."}]},{"head":"Data collection","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":140,"text":"Data used in this study were collected in two phases. First, an exploratory case study (Yin, 1994) was undertaken in Ghana, predominantly to understand Ghanaian experiences in managing market information with smallholder farmers using mobile phone SMS, and to learn how subscribers perceive and appreciate this innovation in the agrifood sector. During this case study, 45 key informants were interviewed using a non-structured protocol and selected on a non-probabilistic basis. Respondents were chosen on the basis of their experiences and knowledge of the pineapple, production, marketing, supply chain organisation, the use of mobile phone in agriculture, and the existing institutional environment. Detailed information on the categories of actors interviewed in Ghana can be found in Table 4.1. Lessons learnt from this case study in Ghana were used to design a survey in Benin on price-SMS and quality-SMS willingness to pay."},{"index":2,"size":213,"text":"In Benin, data were collected with a pre-tested, semi-structured survey questionnaire, which consisted of a combination of closed questions, Likert scales with a 5-point format (Allen and Seaman, 2007;Jamieson, 2004) and open questions. Figure 4.2 shows the mobile phone network of one mobile phone operator (MTN©) in Benin in 2012. It shows that most of the subscribers are located in southern Benin where our study was undertaken. From the literature (Arinloye et al., 2010b(Arinloye et al., , 2012) ) we learnt that more than 95% of pineapples produced in Benin are from southern Benin, in particular from the Atlantique Department. Respondents from this area were selected using a randomly stratified sampling scheme (StatPac, 2010). The criteria used were the acreage under pineapple cultivation in 2009 (differentiated into small scale (<1 ha), medium scale (between 1 ha-5 ha) and large scale (>5 ha)), the supplied market channels (local or export markets), the location of the pineapple farm (i.e. distance to the main market centre in Cotonou, see Figure 4.2) and the support of extension agents. Farmers were contacted with the assistance of agricultural extension officers, who provided the names and addresses of lead farmers in the villages where they intervene. Pineapple producers' associations and councils constituted a second source of information on pineapple farmers."},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"After data collection, incomplete questionnaires and non-qualifying respondents (i.e. farmers who did not provide accurate information) were eliminated, resulting in a final list of 285 observations in Benin. For data analysis we combined both descriptive and econometric approaches."},{"index":4,"size":84,"text":"To design the WTP questions and assess the premium that farmers are willing to pay, we set a maximum affordable amount in order to avoid exaggerated and uncontrolled answers from respondents. The amount that was fixed, was based on a World Bank survey (World Bank, 2010), that estimated the affordable tariff for a prepaid mobile phone to be US$ 8 per month in the sub-region. This served as a reference to fix the maximum premium threshold at 4,000 CFA Franc (US$ 7.96) per month."},{"index":5,"size":81,"text":"A correlation matrix and the descriptive statistics of the variables included in the models are presented in Appendix 4.2. The correlation coefficients were less than 0.4, generally indicating weak relations (Peters et al., 1997). This clearly shows that the variables were sufficiently independent to be modelled without multicollinearity problems (Verbeek, 2008). We used STATA SE software (Statacorp, College Station, TX, USA), which also controlled for the models' robustness -using the robust option. The Robust standard errors are reported in Table 4.2."}]},{"head":"Mobile phone-based market information system experiences in Ghana:","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Esoko case study"},{"index":2,"size":97,"text":"The exploratory case study in Ghana was aimed at gaining insights into smallholders' perceptions about an existing SMS-based market information system. Esokoformerly known as TradeNet -is an agricultural market information platform created in 2006 with the objective to disseminate useful market information to smallholder farmers in less developed countries (https://esoko.com). The organisation is active in 16 East and West African countries, including Ghana. It is a response to the explosive growth of mobile services in Africa. Esoko is a private initiative based in Accra, Ghana, supported by a team of over 60 local developers and support staff."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"Although the knowledge that farmers have is often underestimated, an asymmetry of information exists throughout agriculture, which rewards some and excludes others."},{"index":4,"size":166,"text":"To overcome this situation, Esoko assists smallholder farmers by providing them with a package of weekly advisory services including current market prices, matching bids and offers, weather forecasts, and news and tips. How does the Esoko platform help Ghanaian farmers? When questioned, farmers answered that the SMS services help them to improve their price negotiation capacities, find alternative markets, and enable them to sell timely at better prices. The platform provides automatic and personalised price alerts, buy and sell offers, bulk SMS messaging and stock counts. Services provided have transformed mobile phones into market bulletins and increased their utility beyond voice and text. It has succeeded mainly because it allows text messages to be sent and received in several languages, including local languages, and provides real-time commodity prices. Mobile phone applications include the provision of market information and electronic trading platforms, where farmers and traders can access information on commodities being (or to be) sold, their prices, the identity of their buyers and extension service messages."},{"index":5,"size":173,"text":"Like all businesses, farming is based on having the right information at the right time. Farmers need to know what crops to plant to obtain the best return on their investment of time and money. Ghanaian farmers have shown interest in using their mobile phones to get a good yield, and in accessing the appropriate fertilisers and pesticides to apply to their crops. SMS-based market information is also helpful for buyers who sometimes have no information about what is growing where and in what quantity. Esoko has been able to respond to this demand by providing accurate and updated prices, offers and profiles. This data can be accessed by any mobile phone user anywhere in the country covered by the mobile phone network. SMS alerts are sent out either as-they-happen (offers to buy and sell) or on specific days of the week (prices), depending on the subscriber's preference. For farmers, text messages by phone were helpful in reducing costs for searching for information and significantly reduced information asymmetry and misunderstandings with their buyers."},{"index":6,"size":64,"text":"However, the major challenge expressed by illiterate farmers (more than 40% do not have formal education and 35% have less than primary school level) was that they always have to ask the assistance of their children or neighbours to help them to read or send messages. In rural areas this is sometimes coupled with a lack of infrastructure, such as electricity to charge phones."}]},{"head":"Information asymmetry and importance of mobile phone use by smallholder pineapple farmers in Benin","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":183,"text":"As stated in the introduction, market information asymmetry is a major factor affecting farmers' income in agrifood chains. As evidence, the price of pineapple at the farm gate is generally very low compared to the price at which it is sold to consumers, even in the same area. For example, our investigation shows that the price of 40 mediumsized pineapples of the 'Smooth cayenne' variety (i.e. about 50 kg) varies between 2,500 CFA Francs (US$ 5) and 9,000 CFA Francs (US$ 18) at different periods on the local market, and can even reach 10,000 CFA Francs (US$ 20) during the Ramadan, the fasting period of Muslims, when demand is high. Farmers receive on average only 3,500 CFA Francs (US$ 7) of this. Medium and large-sized pineapples of the second 4. Willingness to pay for market information variety, 'Sugarloaf ', were sold to consumers on local markets for prices between 1,500 CFA Francs (US$ 3) and 4,500 CFA Francs (US$ 9) and this can reach a pick of 15,000 CFA Francs (US$ 30), while the average farm-gate price is 2,200 CFA Francs (US$ 4."},{"index":2,"size":144,"text":"3) for about 40 kg. This shows how variable and unstable the market price can be in the same location. Farmers indicated that they were not aware of the prices at which traders resell their products. For instance, in the survey area, more than 86% of farmers do not know the price paid by the third buyer of their products, as traders do not reveal such information to them. The other 14% of farmers who are (indirectly) informed about traders' market prices, either get the information by travelling to these markets to sell other agricultural products, such as maize, cowpea, and cassava, or by calling their relatives on these markets. This information asymmetry issue is reinforced by their low bargaining power in pineapple transactions (Arinloye et al., 2012). The consequence is that farmers do not know what pineapple farmers in other villages were paid."},{"index":3,"size":119,"text":"As witnessed in Ghana, an SMS-based platform that provides farmers with up-to-date market prices and also asks questions and receives answers from a remote computerbased platform could be a solution to these problems. This would allow farmers to have more information and therefore more bargaining power in their transactions with traders. This platform can match farmers' queries with a database of information about prices in local, urban and regional markets and send answers back to the farmers. Critical market information, such as price, offers, inventories, questions and answers about diseases, can be uploaded and shared through SMS by anyone with a mobile phone. The present study in Benin sheds light on farmers' responsiveness to a mobile phone based MIS."},{"index":4,"size":186,"text":"First of all, it is important to know the proportion of smallholder farmers who are currently using a mobile phone as a communication tool in the study area. Our result shows that the use of mobile phone is widespread in the rural areas in Benin as reflected by the sample of pineapple farmers. On average, 87% of the sample use a mobile phone (Appendix 4.1), a value which does not differ much from the subscription proportion (80%) in SSA (World Bank and ITU, 2012). This can be explained by the increasing network coverage in rural areas. As shown in Figure 4.2, the population covered by Benin's five service providers (MTN©, Moov©, BBCom©, Libercom©, and Glo©), in 2010 was estimated to be 90%, much higher than in SSA in 2009 when it was estimated at 53% (World Bank, 2011;World Bank and ITU, 2012). Several factors can explain this high mobile phone adoption rate: falling communication costs (Sey, 2010), population density, increasing per capita income, and, especially, competition among mobile phone operators (as demonstrated by several authors (Aker, 2008;Aker and Mbiti, 2010;Demirhan et al., 2006;Lin et al., 2011)."},{"index":5,"size":104,"text":"In general, most pineapple farmers were positive about using their mobile phone to access and supply market information (4.4 on a 5-point scale). In other words, farmers (strongly) agreed about using their mobile for receiving and supplying market prices, and offering their products to potential buyers all over SSA (at least in the countries covered by Esoko). Farmers also expressed a high level of interest (4.3 on a 5-point scale) in using this tool to get information that could help them improving their product quality and meeting market standards, such as information on agricultural practices, input supply, quality control and questions/answers on disease control."},{"index":6,"size":55,"text":"The descriptive statistics show that farmers are generally willing to pay an average premium of 1,268 CFA Francs (US$ 2.5) per month to get price-SMS and almost the same average price (1,200 CFA Francs ~ US$ 2.4) to receive quality-SMS. This shows that farmers are equally interested in both product price and product quality information."}]},{"head":"Farmers' willingness to pay for a mobile-based market information system in Benin","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":172,"text":"As presented in Table 4.2, the IMR was not significant for the WTP for either the price-SMS, or quality-SMS. This implies that there was no need to consider selection bias issues by including users and non-users of mobile phone in the models. In other words, both current and potential mobile phone users were highly interested in paying to get and supply information via SMS. The Wald test examines whether any of the parameters of the model that currently have non-zero values could be set to zero without any statistically significant loss in the model's overall goodness of fit (α 1j = α 2j = α 3j = jtα ij = 0). It tests the overall significance of the variables included in the econometric models (McGeorge et al., 1997;Ryan and Watson, 2009). Results show that the Wald Chi 2 is statistically significant at the 1% level, which indicates that the set of coefficients of the model are jointly significant and that the explanatory power of the factors included in the model is satisfactory."}]},{"head":"Determinants of mobile phone use","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"The Probit model of the determinants of mobile use shows that farmers' age, education level, profit margin, farm size, distance to the urban centre and contact frequency with public extension service agents, are significantly correlated with the mobile phone usage in Benin. Among these factors, education level, profit, and contact frequency with extension service agents showed a positive correlation with the adoption at a 1% significance level. In other words, farmers who use a mobile phone mostly have a higher education level, higher farming profit margins and more frequent contact with the extension service."},{"index":2,"size":123,"text":"The results also show that mobile phone users are mostly younger, located close to the main roads and urban centres and produce on small-sized farms. These findings are in line with the expected correlation coefficient sign (Appendix 4.1) and add to the existing literature, especially the publications of Aker and Mbiti (2010) and Buys et al. (2009), who have found that the mobile network coverage probability is positively related to income per capita, closeness to the main urban centres and to the main 4. Willingness to pay for market information road. Most of the mobile phone users are smallholder farmers, which does not come as a surprise since 88% of the farmers produce pineapple on less than 5 hectares (Arinloye et al., 2012)."}]},{"head":"Determinants of farmers' willingness-to-pay for quality-SMS and price-SMS","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":177,"text":"The results of the econometric model of the factors that affect farmers' WTP for SMS based-quality showed that farmers who are most likely to pay for these services are smallholder famers who are located far from the urban centre (Cotonou), trade mostly with buyers coming from urban markets, and have little contact with the agricultural extension service (Table 4.2). In most of the cases these farmers have either received technical support for on-farm quality improvement from their buyers or from nongovernmental organisations (NGOs). In fact, most farmers selling to exporters and some urban wholesalers have specific contracting farming arrangements with their buyers (the outgrowing scheme, Arinloye et al., 2012), who provide technical or financial assistance in terms of training, input supply and loans to support the outgrowers and help them meet their specific quality requirements. We can therefore conclude that those who are highly interested in quality-SMS, are farmers with past experiences of having received capacity building or training on product quality improvement and who are aware of the importance of product quality in the supply chain."},{"index":2,"size":119,"text":"Apart from the distance to the urban centre, all the factors that affect farmers' WTP for quality-SMS also significantly affect the WTP to pay for price-SMS, with the same coefficient signs. This implies that farmers who are willing to pay for these services are also smallholder farmers, located far from the urban centre, not trading with local market traders but with those coming from urban or regional areas, having little contact with agricultural extension services and receiving technical support for on-farm quality improvement from their buyers. Additionally, they are mostly smallholder farmers with lower farming profit margins (P<0.05) than the average pineapple profit in the study area, which is estimated at 400,000 CFA Francs (US$ 795) per cropping campaign."}]},{"head":"Premium to be paid for quality-SMS and price-SMS","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"Since the results from the Probit and Ordered Probit models presented so far do not allow isolating the marginal effects of each explanatory variable associated with the expected premium (amount) to be paid for both services, we ran a Censored Tobit regression. The goal was to determine how much each set of regressors, such as socioeconomic characteristics, market attributes, marketing channels and institutional support received, accounts for farmers' WTP."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"Here also, the IMR are not significant, implying that there was no need to consider selection bias issues in the Tobit models. Results show that the F statistics are statistically significant at the 1% level indicating that the subsets of coefficients of the model are jointly significant and the explanatory power of the factors included in the model is satisfactory."},{"index":3,"size":404,"text":"The marginal effect of the factors included in both Tobit models and their significance level are presented in Table 4.3. In terms of socio-economic characteristics, an increase in farmers' age by one year would decrease the premium they are ready to pay by 28 CFA Francs (US$ 0.05) per month for quality-SMS and by 36 CFA Francs (US$ 0.07) per month for price-SMS. This confirms the result of the ordered Probit model of WTP, which indicated that younger farmers are more willing to pay a higher price than older and experienced farmers. Apparently they are also inclined to pay a higher price for price-SMS than for quality-SMS. This can be explained by young farmers having a longer planning horizon and being more willing to take risks (Zegeye et al., 2001). Moreover, farmers who showed a dynamic capability (e.g. having changed their farming practices in response to market and environmental changes to meet their buyers' requirements in the last five years) are willing to pay an additional premium of 371 CFA Francs (US$ 0.74) per month for quality-SMS and even more (394 CFA Francs ~ US$ 0.78 per month) for price-SMS than farmers who showed less dynamic capability. As for the farm size, we found that a reduction of the covered land by one hectare led to an increase of the accepted premium of 183 CFA Francs (US$ 0.36) per month for quality-SMS. A reason for this might be the predominance of pineapple supply chain by small-scale farmers mostly cropping less than one hectare of pineapple. Most of these farmers have shown more interest in the use of mobile phone to get price and quality information as they are the most concerned by this lack of information as compared to the very few big farmers. The pineapple farm ratio indicates farmers' cropping diversification (or specialisation). The results showed that an increase of diversity by 1% leads to an increase of the acceptable premium of 867 CFA Francs (US$ 1.73) per month for quality-SMS. This can be explained by the fact those farmers, with diversified production system, think beyond and have seen the application and relevance of this SMS service in other value chains (i.e. maize, cashew, cassava, shea) which are also affected by weak access to market information and demand attributes especially for international markets. The issue of market information asymmetry is not only observed in pineapple chain, but along the agriculture sector in Benin."},{"index":4,"size":188,"text":"When looking at the market attribute factors, an increase of the distance between farm and main market centre by 1 km, decreases the premium that farmers would be willing to pay for price-SMS by 15 CFA Francs (US$ 0.03) per month. As far as the institutional support factors are concerned, farmers having regular contact with extension agents showed an interest in paying a higher premium of 536 CFA Francs (US$ 1.06) per month for quality-SMS and 257 CFA Francs (US$ 0.51) per month for price-SMS compared to those who do not have this contact. Moreover, farmers who have received support for quality improvement of their products would pay an additional premium of 330 CFA Francs (US$ 0.65) per month for quality-SMS and 132 CFA Francs (US$ 0.26) per month for price and offer SMS compared to those without any quality support experience. Summarising, farmers who are most willing 4. Willingness to pay for market information to pay for quality and price SMS are small-scale young famers, showing dynamic capability in improving and diversifying their agricultural practices and production systems, and located closest the city centre and urban markets."}]},{"head":"Concluding remarks","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":293,"text":"The present study assesses the determinants of farmers' willingness to use a mobile phone to supply and receive market information on the price and quality requirements for agricultural products, and the premium they are willing to pay for these services. This would be a useful strategy for overcoming information asymmetry in the pineapple supply chain. Using an exploratory case study in Ghana to gain insights into smallholders' perceptions about SMS-based market information systems, followed by an in-depth survey in Benin, the results showed the high potential of mobile phones to improve smallholder agriculture in rural areas of SSA. In Ghana, and other countries where Esoko is active, such a system allows farmers to get market information at the right time. Lessons learnt from this case study may be of great importance in developing and promoting agrifood quality improvement and market access, not only in Benin but also across other SSA countries that face the same challenges. Despite the existence of national institutes and support services involved in quality control and strengthening actors' capacity to comply with quality standards, there is a clear need to design a better mechanism for coordinating the supply chain. If small scale producers are to respond to the quality norms and standards for regional and international markets they need to make investments in their production. Additional investments, either from state, financial partners or NGOs, are needed for building roads, cold chain facilities, safe handling and storage facilities, chemical waste disposal pits, hand washing facilities, personal protective equipment, knapsack sprayers, and certified planting material. Pineapple production in Benin is recognised as having a huge potential. The supply chain is showing an increased international orientation despite the low adaptive capacities of smallholder farmers to comply with foreign norms and quality standards."},{"index":2,"size":173,"text":"Even when mobile phones can enhance access to resources and information, they cannot replace investments in public goods, such as roads, electricity and water. In the absence of a proper infrastructure, smallholder farmers will face problems with efficiency and competitiveness (Roberts and Grover, 2012). As such, it is unrealistic to rely on improved access to market information as the only strategy for improving chain performance by smallholder farmers. A mobile MIS approach needs to be embedded in an enabling political and institutional environment, involving value chain actors to find a holistic solution to the pending issues of information asymmetric and market access. Poor infrastructure remains an obstacle to the development of many communities. Markets with a surplus are disconnected from markets with a deficit (and vice versa). Over the last twenty years the Beninese government through ONASA and INSAE 6 has been collecting information about markets, but has not created the channels to deliver this information to the general public or to farmers, certainly not at a speed to make it commercially valuable."},{"index":3,"size":260,"text":"Implementing the mobile-based MIS, while simultaneously improving related infrastructures, may significantly contribute to helping rural communities to improve their livelihoods by achieving a better product quality and facilitating market access at national and continental levels. Such recommendations have been made by several authors (Cavatassi et al., 2011;Mwesige, 2010;Thiele et al., 2009Thiele et al., , 2011)), who call for multi-stakeholder platforms that will strengthen public and private actors' partnerships and enable smallholders to gain sustainable access to high income markets. The private sector could provide platform coordination and management staff (like Esoko is doing), important value chain actors (such as farmers' organisations) and 4. Willingness to pay for market information a mobile phone operator can serve as the intermediary between subscribers and the computer-based platform. The public sector could provide support through existing national statistical and market information management institutes (for monitoring the collection of and profiling market information) and research institutes and quality control services (to provide reliable answers to chain actors' requests on quality, inputs, and diseases). It could also provide support services that monitor and build the capacity of smallholders and the infrastructure facilities that they need -such as rural roads, packaging and cooling facilities, and finance. As suggested by White (2004), this would create an enabling environment for innovation and help deliver the resources required to build a complex multidimensional and dynamic range of knowledge, skills, actors, institutions and policy within specific political-policy structures capable of transforming knowledge into useful processes, products and services for agriculture. These recommendations could serve as a guideline for policymakers and practitioners."},{"index":4,"size":143,"text":"Even though farmers showed a high willingness to pay for a mobile phone-based MIS, it remains important to assess how the existing infrastructure and institutional environment can support such a process and make it effective. This offers opportunities for future development and policy-oriented research. One important limitation of the present study is that farmers' dynamic capabilities have been measured by asking them if they have ever changed their farming practices. Having changed farming practices, possibly only once and only slightly, does not necessarily show the dynamic attitude of the farmers. Entrepreneurship attitude could be measured by asking about farmers' changes in market orientation, in realising new resource configurations, strategies and organisation routines (Eisenhardt and Martin, 2000;Yin et al., 2013), as well as about their flexibility in addressing rapidly changing environments (Teece et al., 1994). Future investigations could put some emphasis on these aspects."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure Figure 4.1. Fresh and processed pineapple markets (adapted from Agbo et al., 2008). "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4.2. Mobile phone network in Benin with study areas, and distance to the main urban market in the south of the country (Adapted from MTN-Benin, 2012). "},{"text":".A.A. Arinloye et al. D.D D.D Local process to juice Local process to juice (15%) (15%) Regional fresh export Regional fresh export (40%) (40%) Local fresh consumption Local fresh consumption (35%) Dried pineapple export (35%)Dried pineapple export (8%) (8%) "},{"text":"Table 4 . 1. Categories of actors interviewed in Ghana. Categories Categories "},{"text":".A.A. Arinloye et al. "},{"text":"Table 4 . Variables Determinant of Determinant of WTP for SMS Determinant of WTP for VariablesDeterminant ofDeterminant of WTP for SMSDeterminant of WTP for mobile phone use on quality SMS on price mobile phone useon qualitySMS on price Socio-economic and farm age - age Socio-economic and farmage-age characteristics education level - - characteristicseducation level-- profit margin - profit margin profit margin-profit margin farm size farm size farm size farm sizefarm sizefarm size Market attributes distance distance distance Market attributesdistancedistancedistance Market channels targeted - local market local market Market channels targeted-local marketlocal market Institutional support public support public support public support Institutional supportpublic supportpublic supportpublic support - quality support quality support -quality supportquality support Inverse Mill's ratio (IMR) - -0.85 (1.81) -1.59 (1.98) Inverse Mill's ratio (IMR)--0.85 (1.81)-1.59 (1.98) Observations 285 247 247 Observations285247247 Wald chi 2 (df) 53.4(16) *** 90.51 (17) *** 53.46 (17) *** Wald chi 2 (df)53.4(16) ***90.51 (17) ***53.46 (17) *** Pseudo R 2 0.38 0.14 0.12 Pseudo R 20.380.140.12 Log pseudolikelihood -69.14 -212.93 -181.32 Log pseudolikelihood-69.14-212.93-181.32 "},{"text":"Table 4 . 3. Marginal effects after Tobit models for expected premium to be paid (in CFA Francs) for quality and price SMS.1 Variables Premium for quality-SMS Premium for price-SMS VariablesPremium for quality-SMSPremium for price-SMS Socio-economic age -28.0 *** -35.8 *** Socio-economicage-28.0 ***-35.8 *** and firm characteristics education level -6.7 -44.8 and firm characteristicseducation level-6.7-44.8 farming experience 1.2 18.1 farming experience1.218.1 dynamic capability 370.9 ** 394.2 ** dynamic capability370.9 **394.2 ** profit margin -183.3 ** -80.5 profit margin-183.3 **-80.5 farm size -183.3 *** -181.8 farm size-183.3 ***-181.8 pineapple farm ratio -867.1 *** -187.2 pineapple farm ratio-867.1 ***-187.2 Market attributes information time 22.4 25.5 Market attributesinformation time22.425.5 distance -5.1 -14.8 *** distance-5.1-14.8 *** Market channels export market 43.9 403.9 Market channelsexport market43.9403.9 local market 12.5 44.1 local market12.544.1 Institutional support extension service support 536.1 *** 256.9 * Institutional supportextension service support536.1 ***256.9 * market support 58.2 73.6 market support58.273.6 quality support 330.1 *** 131.7 ** quality support330.1 ***131.7 ** farming support -23.7 75.2 farming support-23.775.2 input support -3.1 25.5 input support-3.125.5 Inverse Mill's Ratio (IMR) 1,523.1 2,747.1 Inverse Mill's Ratio (IMR)1,523.12,747.1 Observations 247 234 Observations247234 F statistic (df1; df2) 4.9 (17; 230) *** 4.13 (17;217) *** F statistic (df1; df2)4.9 (17; 230) ***4.13 (17;217) *** Log pseudolikelihood -1,849.1 -1,730.6 Log pseudolikelihood-1,849.1-1,730.6 "}],"sieverID":"5d150489-e3d1-4ed6-a451-733dfc792869","abstract":"Access to up-to-date information on market prices and quality requirements remains a key issue for smallholder farmers' access to high income markets. The aim of this chapter is to explore the problem of information asymmetry between farmers and buyers in the pineapple supply chain in Benin, and to assess strategies using mobile phones to overcome this problem. Data was collected from an exploratory case study in Ghana and a survey with 285 farmers in Benin. Results show that farmers face market information asymmetry leading to lower prices and income. In Ghana, market price alerts through mobile phones messaging allowed decreasing transaction costs for farmers. In Benin, farmers expressed a willingness to pay a premium of up to US$ 2.5 per month to get market price and quality information. Econometric analysis showed that decisive factors for the size of the premium include farm location, market channel, profit margin, contact with agricultural extension services, and technical support from buyers."}

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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0a9d7001e35fe58076154e69c32b4a90","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/87f76e2d-e7cb-4776-a0dc-c44ac32e5fc4/retrieve"},"pageCount":8,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"The Climate Data Tool (CDT) is an open-source, R-based software package with an easy-to-use a graphical user interface (GUI), which can be run under multiple operating systems, including Windows and Linux. The only system requirement is the installation of the latest version of R."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"After five years of evolution and thanks to the iterative feedback from national meteorological services (NMS) around Africa, CDT has become a powerful, dynamic, intuitive, and user-friendly tool. The main functionalities of CDT include:"},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"• Organization of station and proxy data;"},{"index":4,"size":5,"text":"• Assessment of data availability;"},{"index":5,"size":7,"text":"• Assessment and correction of data quality;"},{"index":6,"size":7,"text":"• Combination of station observation with proxies"},{"index":7,"size":27,"text":"• Extraction of data from gridded products, including satellite, reanalysis and combined data products, at any point, for a selected box, and for any administrative boundary; and"},{"index":8,"size":9,"text":"• Analysis and visualization of station and gridded datasets."},{"index":9,"size":23,"text":"Though it has a graphical user interface (GUI), CDT can also be run at script level for advanced users who need more flexibility."},{"index":10,"size":34,"text":"The CDT has so far been installed in 24 countries and two Regional Climate Centers (RCCs), including the IGAD Climate Prediction and Applications Centre (ICPAC) in East Africa which partook in the regional training."},{"index":11,"size":81,"text":"An introductory training on Climate Data Tool (CDT) with 23 staff from both the regional meteorological service centers (RMSC) and the NMA head office's Data and Climatology team. While CDT trainings have been conducted in the past, this is the first time such a training has been conducted with the NMA's regional staff. Staff from all regions (except Tigray, where conflict is ongoing) were included in the training, which leveraged resources and was conducted jointly with the ACToday and AICCRA projects. "}]},{"head":"Program Outline","index":2,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"6baf67dc-4d29-47b4-bfe7-5d0c512e3a92","abstract":""}

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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0acd3eb6d56a3aff2e50a3869fbff305","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7c63ee5e-b05c-47e2-969a-45dacb08f7c0/retrieve"},"pageCount":3,"title":"Mapping reservoirs in the Volta basin","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Target audience","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Water resources planners, hydrologists, and technical cooperation/ development assistance agencies. This tool is intended for use by technically schooled persons with an introductory knowledge of remote sensing. Access to remote sensing software, reasonably fast computers, and ample digital storage space are also prerequisites"}]},{"head":"Requirements Description","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":140,"text":"Google Earth was used in conjunction with WaterWorld to identify reservoirs across the Volta basin by manually locating each reservoir and recording the coordinates of the centre of the retaining wall. A map of the basin was imported into Google Earth from WaterWorld to show the exact boundaries of the basin and then a grid was laid across the basin in order to divide it up into manageable chunks. After zooming into a level where individual buildings were discernible each grid was methodically scrolled over and each a pin dropped on each reservoir and its location recorded. Once the entire basin was scanned and 1181 reservoirs identified their coordinates were made available for use in WaterWorld. These were then snapped to the flow network used in WaterWorld to ensure that the reservoirs were appropriately located for hydrological analysis and modelling."}]},{"head":"Recommendations","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"Reservoir inventories are best done from imagery at the end of the rainy season, when the reservoirs are filled to their maximum extent, and cloud coverage decreases. Having a detailed database of dams allows the analysis of many ecosystem--service relevant properties such as those described here."}]},{"head":"Limitations","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"• Manually identifying dams is labour intensive • Cloud cover or shadows can affect the ability to visualise dams • Only dams with reservoirs greater than 1 hectare in extent can be reliably identified from the high resolution imagery available in Google Earth • Reservoir dams are much easier to identify than run of the river dams We would like to thank all donors who supported this research through their contributions to the"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" "}],"sieverID":"b999fab1-c82e-403e-b915-7030a84e7e28","abstract":"To identify and map agricultural and small reservoir systems in two study landscapesIn most semi--arid areas of the developing world, the number, size, and location of small reservoirs is unknown. To coordinate further planning, knowledge of the existing dam inventory is imperative. Programs for reservoir rehabilitation and management depend on a knowledge of reservoir locations. This tool outlines the steps to obtain a regional reservoir inventory through remote sensing."}

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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0b3b6203c3d63686c7c772e14c217d61","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f7e446d4-4fbc-47d8-a179-77dfc6bb8548/retrieve"},"pageCount":13,"title":"International Journal of Pest Management","keywords":["multi-disciplinary","trans-disciplinary","agricultural innovation systems (AIS)","farmer participation","multi-stakeholder","crop protection"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"It is essential that you check the license status of any given Open and Open Select article to confirm conditions of access and use."}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":236,"text":"Systems approaches to pest management innovation have been advocated to complement purely curative À and often technology-oriented À interventions since the late 1990s (Lewis et al. 1997). A systems approach considers a specific crop protection problem not just as the outcome of a cropÀpest interaction but also takes into account the context within which it is embedded. This implies considering multiple stakeholders, including farmers, extension and crop protection officers, agrochemical dealers and policy-makers. It also implies considering biophysical and socio-economic processes (e.g. pest life cycles, hydrology, communication, technology and knowledge transfer, marketing) and the formal and informal institutions or \"rules of the game\" that can include policies, regulations, patents and certifications (Hounkonnou et al. 2012). Such an approach would cover multiple integration levels, including plant, crop and farm level, and also community, region and country level. The hypothesis supporting the need for a systems approach is that a pest problem at the plant or crop level cannot be solved in a fundamental way if no enabling environment for addressing that pest outbreak at a higher integration level is created. In a systems approach, innovations are considered as outcomes of the combined advances of technological, social or institutional elements in the system that runs from the field and farm to the community, region and even higher levels (Leeuwis 2004), and of the interactions between different stakeholders in the agricultural sector (Hounkonnou et al. 2006;Klerkx et al. 2012)."},{"index":2,"size":265,"text":"Systems approaches are particularly useful as methodology for diagnosing and addressing complex problems with a capricious context that cross-cut different disciplines and integration levels and engage a variety of stakeholders (Pautasso & Pautasso 2010;Schut, Klerkx, et al. 2015;Schut, Rodenburg, Klerkx, Kayeke, et al. 2015;Schut, van Paassen, et al. 2014). The usefulness of systems approaches has become increasingly recognized not only by social scientists but also by natural scientists in fields such as crop science and applied ecology as a way to enhance the relevance and impact of science (Nederlof et al. 2007;Jordan et al. 2012;Hulme 2014;Runck et al. 2014;Smith et al. 2014). The systems approach is also appropriate for managing research efforts with an applied objective such as crop protection. However, a recent systematic review of the crop protection literature showed that, despite the clear potential advantages outlined above, truly systems-oriented approaches to crop protection problems, as well as robust assessments of them, are scarce (Schut, Rodenburg, et al. 2014). Crop protection problems and possible solutions to them have been studied using farmer-participatory approaches (e.g. Abang et al. 2007;De Groote, Rutto, et al. 2010), but have rarely been approached as multi-level and multi-stakeholder systems and are seldom studied in an integrated way and used to inform integrated pest management approaches. The only noteworthy exception we found is a study from Australia reporting on multi-stakeholder workshops focusing on integrated pest management (Norton et al. 1999). Published studies showing the value of integrated systems approaches to crop protection problems in developing countries, with generally weaker institutions and resource-poorer stakeholders, are not available (Schut, Rodenburg, et al. 2014)."},{"index":3,"size":323,"text":"In the PARASITE program, 1 a research collaboration between Wageningen University, Africa Rice Center and National Agricultural Research and Extension Systems from Benin, Cote d'Ivoire and Tanzania À starting December 2010 À an innovation systems approach was used to study parasitic weed problems in rainfed rice production systems. Parasitic weeds in rice can be considered a complex crop protection problem (Rodenburg et al. 2015;Schut, Klerkx, et al. 2015;Schut, Rodenburg, Klerkx, Kayeke, et al. 2015). The problem is embedded in a capricious context as it involves a multitude of stakeholders and organizations, is affected by a multitude of interactions across different integration levels (e.g. climate, soil, crop, farm, markets, policy) and is encountered in subsistence farming systems with rainfed and therefore risk-prone and uncertain crop production environments. Rice production in Africa is hampered by several technological, institutional, socio-cultural, political, economic and biophysical constraints (Seck et al. 2012). Weeds are one of the most important biological production constraints causing production losses conservatively estimated at US$1.45 billion, equating approximately half the current imports of rice into Africa (Rodenburg & Johnson 2009). With a minimum estimated annual production loss of US$391 million, parasitic weeds are estimated to be the cause of at least a quarter of these weed-inflicted economic losses (Rodenburg et al. 2014(Rodenburg et al. , 2015)). The economically most important parasitic weeds in rice production systems are the obligate hemi-parasitic Witchweeds Striga hermonthica (Del.) Benth. (in West Africa) and S. asiatica (L.) Kuntze (in East Africa) and the facultative hemi-parasitic Rice vampireweed, Rhamphicarpa fistulosa (Hochst.) Benth (Rodenburg et al. 2010). Parasitic weeds primarily occur in rainfed agro-ecosystems in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). These rainfed systems comprise roughly 74% of the total rice area and account for an estimated 66% of total rice production in the region (Diagne et al. 2013). Subsistence farmers with limited financial means and poor access to (quality) information and education are the most affected by parasitic weeds (e.g. Stringer et al. 2007)."},{"index":4,"size":481,"text":"In the case of parasitic weeds, informal interviews with rice farmers and nearby agricultural extension agents in Benin and Tanzania (AugustÀSeptember 2009), revealed that there were large time gaps between the first appearance of the problem, the identification of the parasitic weed in the field, and finally the development and dissemination of appropriate weed containment and prevention strategies on a crop, community and country level. This pattern is symptomatic for a sub-optimally functioning crop protection system. In response to these problems, the PARASITE program was designed to address challenges at several levels, and contribute to the development of a crop protection system that is better prepared for future outbreaks. The parasitic weed problem was investigated at the plant and crop level, the farm level, the farm household level and at the institutional level. The ultimate aim of this approach was to close the knowledge gaps in the fields of biology, ecology, economics and management of parasitic weeds in rice-based cropping systems in SSA, and to identify and facilitate the institutional innovations required to address similar emerging biotic production constraints in a timely manner. To the best of the authors' knowledge the PARASITE program represents the first study whereby the problem of parasitic weeds is approached in an integrated way, across different integration and administrative levels and involving multiple stakeholders. With the end of the project approaching, after 4 years of research, the central question of this retrospective paper is whether the participants perceived the merits ensuing from the application of a systems approach. For this reason, the paper synthesizes the lessons learned by project staff and participating stakeholders, and generates recommendations that result from this initiative. Specific questions that are targeted in this paper are: (1) Where and how does an integrated research approach contribute to broaden the problem analysis and to refine the solution? (2) Have we identified bottlenecks of the problem of parasitic weeds in rice, which would have remained undisclosed when using a less integrated approach? and (3) What can be done to further improve the efficacy of an integrated research project? With \"integrated research\" we refer to research at different integration levels (from the plant level to the country level) whereby scientists from different disciplines and stakeholders from different categories work together. Following definitions of Pohl andHirsch Hadorn (2008), Tress et al. (2009) and Smith et al. (2014), integrated research is (1) inter-disciplinary when scientists from different disciplines within one science category collaborate (e.g. ecology, biology), (2) multi-disciplinary when scientists from different disciplines and multiple science categories work together (e.g. natural sciences, social sciences, humanities), and (3) trans-disciplinary when scientists from different disciplines and multiple science categories work together with stakeholders from different levels. The paper starts with an overview of the PARASITE program, including a synopsis of its underlying projects. Next, it systematically answers the above-outlined questions, mostly illustrated by concrete examples derived from the program."}]},{"head":"PARASITE: an integrated research program","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":171,"text":"Because of interactions and interdependencies between factors, stakeholders and processes at the plant, crop, household, village and country level we hypothesized that only with an integrated approach one can explore effective and durable solutions to parasitic weed problems. The PARASITE program that emerged from this notion was designed as a composition of four interlinked projects that operate at different integration levels, cover different disciplines and involve a variety of stakeholders: Project 1: Understanding how hostÀparasite interactions for economically important parasitic weed species in rainfed rice in SSA are differentially affected by present and expected future environmental conditions. Project 2: Developing and disseminating locally adaptable and socially and economically acceptable strategies for prevention and damage control of parasitic weeds in rainfed systems in SSA. Project 3: Assessing socio-economic impacts and determinants of parasitic weed infestation in rainfed rice systems in SSA. Project 4: Evaluating and addressing the institutional organization and preparedness of extension and crop protection systems in SSA for emerging biotic constraints under future changing environments, using an innovation systems perspective."},{"index":2,"size":120,"text":"The first three projects specifically focused on finding solutions for parasitic weed problems in rice production systems. Project 2 occupied a central position as it involved the development and evaluation of management strategies for dealing with parasitic weeds at the farm and field level. This required a sound understanding of the biology and ecology of the parasitic weed and the interaction of the parasite with the host (rice) plant, the focus of project 1. At the same time, the control measures needed to fit in the socio-economic environment the farmers operate in. The participatory development of management strategies thus also required knowledge on causes of adoption and rejection of previous (technological) innovations, the kind of insights gathered in project 3."},{"index":3,"size":94,"text":"Rather than merely finding solutions for the parasitic weed problem in rice, the overall program had a wider scope. As the problem with parasitic weeds in rice had been picked up much too late by extension and crop protection services, an important objective was to render future crop protection services more proactive and effective such that newly emerging crop protection constraints could be identified in an early stage. Project 4 therefore complemented the program as it assessed the constraints and opportunities for institutional innovations required to effectively address current and future crop protection problems."},{"index":4,"size":106,"text":"The first three projects were conducted by PhD students, whereas project 4 was conducted by a postdoctoral researcher. All projects were supported and supervised by a multi-disciplinary team. An additional activity included a desktop study on the importance of parasitic weeds in rice in Africa, including a global herbarium and literature review combined with spatial and economic modeling, carried out by senior scientists. Moreover, several surveys and experiments were conducted by MSc-level students. Several program workshops, at the start, mid-term and near the end, and frequent smaller (online and face-toface) meetings were organized to achieve program coherence and stimulate integration and communications between the different projects."}]},{"head":"Synopsis of the projects","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Understanding hostÀparasite interactions and environmental effects","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":232,"text":"Insights in weed biology and ecology enable the design of effective control measures (Mortensen et al. 2000). While the biology of the most important Striga species was fairly well understood, basic information on R. fistulosa was still lacking at the onset of this project. During two seasons, 2012 and 2013, we conducted field observations on the ecological niches of S. asiatica and R. fistulosa in Kyela, a site in southern Tanzania where both species are present in the same agro-ecological and socio-economic environment, and confirmed these with controlled experiments in the greenhouse and vice versa. These observations included an assessment of the associated weed species' communities, soil fertility and texture of each habitat and the parasitic weed-free transition zone we identified between each habitat, as well as the range of favorable soil-water contents for each parasitic weed. We further conducted controlled experiments with S. asiatica and R. fistulosa, in greenhouses in Tanzania and the Netherlands, with the aim to compare the seed conditioning and germination requirements of obligate and facultative parasites of rice, to assess the effects of the parasites on host plant performance and to assess the effects of the host on the fitness of the parasites. Information so acquired added to our understanding of the ecology and environmental versatility of the species, in particular of the lesser known R. fistulosa, which forms the basis for better informed and prepared stakeholders."}]},{"head":"Developing and disseminating locally acceptable management strategies","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":126,"text":"Farmer participatory approaches have been advocated for problem definition and technology development for pest problems in subsistence farming systems in Africa (Van Huis & Meerman 1997), and used previously, for instance, in the context of S. hermonthica management in maize in Kenya (De Groote, Rutto, et al. 2010). In the current project we interviewed local extension officers and rice farmers in one of the identified hot-spots for parasitic weeds in rice, in Kyela District (southern Tanzania). The interviews provided insights in the current level of understanding regarding the parasitic weed problem and were intended to identify possible locally originating or adopted management strategies already in use. Based on this, a selection of potentially suitable practices was tested in the field in researcher-managed on-farm trials (in a"},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"International Journal of Pest Management 331"},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"Downloaded by [41.184.122.50] at 08:24 31 August 2015"},{"index":4,"size":94,"text":"S. asiatica-infested upland and a R. fistulosa-infested lowland field) during three cropping seasons, and evaluated by participating farmers. The trials not only contained promising control options, but were also used to verify drawbacks of alternative measures that were mentioned by farmers as obstacles to implementation. For the fourth and last season (December 2014 to July 2015), 50 volunteer farmers were grouped in 10 groups of five farmers each to test three component technologies of their own choice and one combination of these technologies against their own practice in one of the group members' field."},{"index":5,"size":131,"text":"Five such farmer-managed on-farm test plots were established this way in a R. fistulosa-infested zone and five in a S. asiatica-infested zone. During the season, two farmer exchange days were organized to assess the effectiveness of technologies and combinations and to get feedback from individual farmers through interviews on their experiences with them. Alongside these trials, farmer-participatory workshops were held, with 89 farmers in Kyela District (28 with S. asiatica problems, 28 with R. fistulosa problems and 33 with both S. asiatica and R. fistulosa problems), 30 S. asiatica-affected rice farmers in Morogoro Rural District and 30 R. fistulosa-affected rice farmers in Songea District, to assess farmers' knowledge and preferences concerning management strategies. Baseline surveys were carried out in hot-spots in Benin, Cote d'Ivoire and Tanzania in collaboration with project 3."}]},{"head":"Assessing socio-economic impacts and determinants of parasitic weeds in rice","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"Insights in the effects of parasitic weeds on social and economic functioning of the farmer communities, and vice versa, i.e. the effects of the economic and social conditions on likelihood and severity of parasitic weed infestations, were unknown prior to this project. Production data, farmer perceptions of direct impacts and future levels of parasitic weed incidence and their preferences for management practices were gathered and field data on infestation levels and damage were collected "}]},{"head":"Evaluating the institutional dimension of parasitic weeds and crop protection systems","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"In order to investigate why large time gaps may exist between the first appearance of a pest problem and the initiation of research and extension initiatives to address this constraint we analyzed the system's capacity to identify and address problems. We drew thereby on insights from agricultural innovation systems (AIS) thinking, an approach with increasing application in the context of better understanding complex agricultural problems in developing countries (Hall et al. 2001;Sumberg 2005;Ekboir et al. 2008;Amankwah et al. 2012;Klerkx et al. 2012)."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"The AIS approach highlights the importance of adequate linkages and cooperation between heterogeneous stakeholder groups, from identifying, describing and explaining the problem to exploring, designing and implementing solutions. The lack of an operational methodology to conduct ex-ante AIS diagnostics led us to develop a toolbox for the Rapid Appraisal of Agricultural Innovation Systems (RAAIS; Schut, Klerkx, et al. 2015). RAAIS was developed and applied in Tanzania and Benin across the same six parasitic weeds hot-spots that were earlier selected for our research activities. "}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"4.1. Where and how does an integrated research approach contribute to broaden the problem analysis and to refine the solution?"},{"index":2,"size":290,"text":"An integrated research approach implies that actors from different scientific disciplines, as well as non-academic actors, work together, combining different integration levels, perspectives and factors. The assumption is that this will lead to more holistic insights and consequently to more relevant and realistic solutions to the problem at hand. To answer the above question, we provide examples derived from the PARASITE program. By combining global public herbarium and (weed science) literature data with geographic information systems, ecological knowledge and economic data and modeling, we are now able to provide best-bet estimates of the economic importance of parasitic weeds in rice in Africa. The herbarium and literature data provided information on the geographical distribution of different parasitic weed species (e.g. Mohamed et al. 2001;Rodenburg et al. 2014Rodenburg et al. , 2015)). We found out that Striga species are spread over 33 African countries that produce rice in the rainfed uplands where these species can be encountered. R. fistulosa was found in at least 32 countries that produce rice in rainfed lowlands where the species thrive. The next step was to overlap these distribution maps with national or regional maps of rainfed rice areas. Combined with knowledge on the environmental preferences of each weed, obtained from project 1 (e.g. Kabiri et al. 2015), and figures obtained on their appearance, frequency, infestation rates, yield losses and the socio-economic factors affecting these variables obtained from project 3 (e.g. N'cho 2014), we can estimate a stochastic impact of parasitic weeds on rice production, using a diverse set of modeling techniques. Based on a first raw model, the maximum annual regional economic losses caused by R. fistulosa in rice were estimated at US$569 million, while for Striga spp in rice these were estimated at US$169 million."},{"index":3,"size":338,"text":"Findings from farmer surveys (project 3) corroborate findings from our ecological studies (project 1) and agronomic work (project 2). The likelihood of infestation by R. fistulosa is higher on poorly fertile soils and fields located in the valley bottom and it is reduced through management practices such as late sowing and the application of medium-rate fertilizer (N'cho, Mourits, Rodenburg, et al. 2014). Based on pot experiments combined with field measurements and observations, Kabiri et al. (2015) concluded that the valley bottoms are the preferred habitat for R. fistulosa and that the soils in these valley bottoms can be characterized as poor in terms of fertility. An earlier study based on pot experiments, by Rodenburg et al. (2011), showed that R. fistulosa can indeed be reduced by the application of inorganic fertilizers leading to increased (chemical) soil fertility. However, only by broadening our perspective and zooming out from the plant level to the farm household level, we were able to understand the social repercussions of these findings. N'cho, Mourits, Rodenburg, et al. (2014), for example, recorded higher infestation rates on rice plots managed by female-headed households than on plots managed by male-headed households. A more in-depth analysis revealed that 61% of these female-managed plots were located in the valley bottom. From previous work it was indeed established that population pressure often drives farmers to marginal land or fields in less favorable positions on the uplandÀlowland continuum, such as the valley bottom, and often women are the recipients of the more marginal fields characterized by low soil fertility and weed problems (Demont et al. 2007). The combined insights in economic impacts, ecological and social relations, can be used to communicate the problem more clearly and more convincingly to extension services, policy-makers À at regional and national levels À and donors of future research for development endeavors. The finding about the relation between parasitic weeds and poor soil fertility (projects 1 and 3) formed the basis for farmer-participatory development of soil fertility-based management strategies to combat these weeds (in project 2)."},{"index":4,"size":238,"text":"In the process of reviewing scientific literature on systems approaches to innovations in crop protection (Schut, Rodenburg, et al. 2014), it proved challenging for the PARASITE researchers from different disciplinary backgrounds to align perceptions and conceptualization of \"what are systems approaches to innovation?\" It turned out that the natural science researchers and the social science researchers had very different perceptions and interpretations about this. Natural science researchers considered systems as functional units with clear boundaries (e.g. the photosynthesis system within a plant, or a plant production system as a population of plants within an agricultural field) and bio-physical modeling or factorial experiments as approaches to understand mechanisms and (bio-physical) processes and identify elements that can be improved (e.g. through engineering) to innovate those systems. Social science researchers had much more attention for the contextual embedding of a certain study topic (e.g. a pest problem) and no or less attention for technical details and biophysical mechanisms. They considered systems as a network of social and institutional relations and functions of actors or stakeholders associated to a specific context (e.g. a pest problem), with no clear boundaries. Systems approaches to innovation are seen by social scientists as multi-stakeholder/actor processes and research activities are hence geared towards understanding these social relations and functions with the aim to improve the communication and collaboration between the stakeholders/actors relevant to achieving innovation to solve the (pest) problem (Schut, Rodenburg, Klerkx, Hinnou, et al. 2015)."},{"index":5,"size":609,"text":"Together, a research framework was developed that guided the analyses of how different ways of thinking about systems approaches to innovation are reflected in the crop protection literature. One of the main conclusions of the review was that crop protection is often about exploring and optimizing technologies within the farming system, rather than about fostering structural transformations of the agricultural (innovation) system. This integration of different disciplinary expertise and views helped us to improve the implementation of research methods and the interpretation of the outcomes. The most obvious example is the generation of farmer questionnaires that were used across projects 2, 3 and 4. For this we worked in concerted action with project staff of different disciplines and this helped in improving the relevance of the questions and therefore the quality of the questionnaire. For the social scientists (six program partners), it proved important to better understand some of the technical dimensions of the problem at hand (parasitic weeds) as well as the solutions. This helped them to improve the logic (separate causal from non-causal relations) and the relevance (separate direct from indirect factors) of the questionnaire and the interpretation of the data deriving from the questionnaire. For the plant and crop scientists (nine program partners) it proved worthwhile to get a feel for the socio-economic and institutional context of the problem and to make sure the questions asked were understood by the farmer and interpreter. Social scientists have more experience with survey work and they follow certain methodological rules to ascertain that questions are unambiguous and to triangulate the data. This proved very useful for improving the quality of the questions designed by natural scientists. Our experience supports the conclusion by De Groote, Vanlauwe, et al. (2010) By implementing a newly developed method (RAAIS), challenges, constraints and opportunities for innovations related to parasitic weeds in rainfed rice production systems were explored, in project 4, through an integrated analysis of different problem dimensions, interactions across levels, and the needs and interests of multiple stakeholders. The uptake and impact of solutions or management strategies is often determined by the technological effectiveness or economic feasibility of a solution as well as by the way the process towards identifying or developing that solution was organized (i.e. in isolation or together with stakeholders). In the PARASITE program, a transdisciplinary approach ensured that solutions generated by the team were robust, applicable and locally adapted. For instance, the observation that parasitic weeds are associated with poor soils (project 1 and project 3) combined with the notion that affected farmers are among the poorest and most disadvantaged and cannot afford expensive inputs such as mineral fertilizers (project 3), we discussed with farmers what alternative (low-cost and available) inputs would be available to raise the soil fertility of their fields (project 2). From these researcherÀextensionÀfarmer discussions it became apparent that cattle manure and rice husks were freely available. While farmers were reluctant towards the use of manure, as they were expecting this would increase ordinary weed infestation, we agreed to test these two readily available and low-cost soil fertility amendments against mineral fertilizers and in combination with reduced doses of such fertilizers. From three seasons of farmer participatory trials the combination of rice husks and reduced doses of mineral fertilizer emerged as the most effective and preferred one. Parasitic weed levels were reduced and rice yields improved, while the costs were affordable. Farmers then picked this solution to test it against their own practice in their own fields. These onfarm try-outs were carried out in 10 farmer groups, each of which was led by the more progressive and innovative farmers that emerged during the previous three seasons."},{"index":6,"size":143,"text":"The RAAIS identified institutional and political prerequisites that could provide an enabling environment for the broader dissemination of such strategies and for raising awareness of the problem. By discussing the problem and context of the problem with different stakeholder groups, previously unknown bottlenecks were identified. For instance À at national and regional levels À the lack of education and training of extension, sub-optimal interactions between stakeholders, the lack of coherent policies and implementation of them, and the weak structural allocation of human and financial resources for extension services, emerged as constraints (Schut, Rodenburg, Klerkx, Hinnou, et al. 2015). These bottlenecks could consequently be taken into account when developing solutions. For instance, a previous project funded by DFID targeted the problem of S. asiatica in rice by involving schools in teaching about such problems and how to deal with them (Riches et al. 2005)."},{"index":7,"size":355,"text":"Figure 1 visualizes the PARASITE program's (expected) steps from the start to the finish (and beyond). The start is demarcated by the first superficial identification of the problem (\"Parasitic weeds in rice are being increasingly observed\"), followed by the identification of multiple facets of that problem (\"Farmers do not know how to address the problem\" and \"Extension and crop protection services are unaware, researchers lack conclusive insights\") and the more fundamental underlying causes (\"Suboptimal communication between stakeholders, laws and regulations not appropriate or not implemented, lack of strategies, lack of resources\"). This clarifies what is lacking to solve the problem of parasitic weeds (i.e. \"Insights in biology and ecology, and technical and institutional innovations\") and through the proposed and implemented approaches (i.e. \"Multi-stakeholder workshops, interviews and surveys\" and \"Surveys, field observations and pot experiments; farmer-participatory tests of weed management strategies\") what measures are concretely needed (i.e. \"Policy priorities; training and education on weed prevention; stakeholder communications\" and \"Locally adapted and acceptable management strategies based on ecological principles\") and how this can feed into the next steps (i.e. through \"Up-scaling and outscaling through partner networks and communications\"). A connecting arrow between \"Locally adapted and acceptable management strategies based on ecological principles\" and \"Policy priorities; training and education on weed prevention; stakeholder communications\" underlines that the insights derived from the field-based development of parasitic weed management strategies feed into the development of training curricula and awareness raising (e.g. through videos), underpinning the integrated approach of the project. The dashed arrows then indicate the contribution, either directly or indirectly, to solving the initial problem, i.e. the increase of parasitic weeds in rice. The upscaling of policy recommendations should lead to an enabling policy environment, which in turn facilitates the out-scaling of the adapted and acceptable strategies. The box \"Enabling policy environment\" is shaded differently to indicate that this cannot be targeted directly by our program. To trigger the processes in the final steps, prior to conclusion of the PARASITE program we will organize multi-stakeholder workshops, bringing together the most important stakeholders in each intervention country, to discuss the results of our work as well as the way forward."}]},{"head":"4.2.","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Have we identified bottlenecks of the problem of parasitic weeds in rice, which would have remained undisclosed when using a less integrated approach?"},{"index":2,"size":365,"text":"A limited number of previously published peer-reviewed papers from other scientific fields support the view that many contemporary issues can best be studied through integrated research (e.g. Pautasso & Pautasso 2010), and that such an approach results in insights that would not have been obtained with a more disciplinary approach (e.g. Merz et al. 2006). Insights gained through the PARASITE program clearly show the merits of an integrated approach. In the grant proposal of the program we wrote: \"Farmers generally lack the knowledge and means to effectively address parasitic weed infestations. Extension services are not always aware of the actual extent of the problem and they are often unable to backstop farmers with adequate solutions.\" The project enabled us to conclude that the \"inability\" of the extension services is part of a more structural problem. In project 4, we observed limited attention for weed prevention and control in agricultural research in Tanzania as a consequence of the national and zonal agricultural research priorities outlined in strategic plans. A Striga-control policy was developed by the Ministry of Agriculture but never implemented due to lack of operational resources. Universities and technical training curricula of extension officers paid little attention to weeds in general, or parasitic weeds in particular (Schut, Rodenburg, Klerkx, Kayeke, et al. 2015). This corroborated findings of project 3 showing that adoption of control or prevention strategies is a function of farmers' access to information and training in weed management (S. N'cho, personal communication). The RAAIS interviews however identified a number of researchers at the university and the national research institutes that were highly motivated, or triggered by our research, to pay more attention to parasitic weed problems in rice in future research and training activities. A second problem we identified in project 4 is that, although country-wide the extension staff in Tanzania had been increased recently, this increase was not associated with an increase in funds and means, such as extension materials, training and transport. The lack of funds and means seriously hampered extension staff to function well. If the problem had not been analyzed across multiple stakeholders and using an integrated approach, linkages between such bottlenecks would not have been revealed and confirmed."},{"index":3,"size":245,"text":"A barrier towards solving the problem of parasitic weeds is the apparent reluctance of farmers to use certain inputs (e.g. fertilizers). During workshops and interviews, it became apparent that this was partly resulting from contradictory advices to farmers by À for example À researchers, extension officers and development organizations. An example of the latter is the case where a government project promoted the use of inputs in rural areas while a donor project promoted organic agriculture practices in cacao cropping systems with negative advices on the use of inorganic fertilizers. As a consequence of the latter, many farmers who were reached by the donor project started to abandon the use of mineral fertilizer, also in other cropping systems than just cacao. In the PARASITE program work, we identified multiple additional reasons why farmers in Kyela (Tanzania) are reluctant to use agricultural inputs: Institutional; the lack of quality control of agricultural inputs was mentioned as a constraint. The adulteration of crop protection chemicals, fertilizers and seeds often prevent farmers from investing in such products. Economic; purchasing power of farmers is low. Socio-cultural; farmers are concerned that the use of improved varieties will contaminate the aromatic qualities of the local rice varieties. Political; frequent changes and incoherence of agricultural policies create confusion and lead to unstable market conditions and fluctuating prices. Agronomic; farmers may be afraid for undesired side effects to the crop, e.g. higher weed infestation with the use of cattle manure as soil fertility amendment."},{"index":4,"size":189,"text":"Evidently, there is a variety of reasons why farmers are hesitant to use agricultural inputs. Being aware of these perceptions is important, as it allows the research team to address these aspects in their research. The latter example for instance already became clear at the onset of our work, when we asked farmers in Kyela District in informal interviews (n D 89) what they know about the control of parasitic weeds. As previously explained, they indicated that cattle manure can be used for this objective but that they do not use it because of its stimulating effect on ordinary weed infestation. This has led to the design of one of the farmer participatory field experiments conducted in project 2, whereby we test with farmers whether their hypotheses hold or not. The idea was that if the hypothesis would be rejected, i.e. if cattle manure would decrease parasitic weeds without increasing ordinary weeds, we would be able to unleash a suitable and readily available control option (i.e. cattle manure), thereby enhancing the basket of options for farmers. Preliminary results seem however to confirm the farmer hypothesis (Kayeke et al. 2013)."}]},{"head":"What can be done to further improve the quality of an integrated research project?","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":160,"text":"Through the PARASITE program the participating natural and social scientists gained a general better understanding of the context of parasitic weed problems and crop protection problems. In line with findings from Jabbar et al. (2001), we conclude that much of the agronomic research is focused on technology generation and adoption at farm level without recognizing that addressing administrative or more structural (institutional) levels may have higher leverage (e.g. by improving training, awareness, communications). On the other hand, social scientists enhanced their methodological portfolio, either by combining their usual (more) qualitative and associative (e.g. snowball) approaches with more structured and quantitative (objectively measurable) methods or by expanding from surveys to more experimental methods. Social scientists also benefited from working on a concrete problem that needs a concrete solution. In other words, it helps to frame and focus research contributions, and operationalize concepts (such as AIS) in such a way that they can contribute to the development of effective intervention strategies ex-ante."},{"index":2,"size":244,"text":"We learned that at each integration level one should zoom in or out to consider the specific or wider context and to critically assess whether solutions proposed are relevant and even whether the problem itself is relevant. At the plant level, parasitic weeds have a dramatic impact (up to death of the host plant) whereas at the farm level, parasitic weeds are only one component of a set of constraints. At the level of extension services it might be overlooked or ignored and at the level of agro-chemicalindustry, where overarching issues like soil fertility and weeds are targeted, it may not be a specific issue at all. The solutions to the problem found at plant level (e.g. specialized varietal resistance mechanisms or herbicide formulas) may not be accessible or available at the level where they are needed. Farmers consider trade-offs between management of their parasitic weed problem and other problems, based on costÀbenefit analyses, as they often have limited resources. Second, due to market failures or a lack of interest by industries to develop and deliver certain technologies, the solutions found at crop or plant level may not even be, or become, available to farmers (e.g. Demont et al. 2009;Oude Lansink 2011). Recognizing these market failures, as well as state and community failures, we are further analyzing (under project 4) the incentives (and disincentives) of private, public and community actors to provide specific products and services for the prevention and control of parasitic weeds."},{"index":3,"size":752,"text":"One of the obvious challenges encountered during the program concerns the trade-off between integration and specialization and, related to that, the balance between an apparent time-efficient and output-oriented, mono-disciplinary approach and a slower and higher risk entailing trans-disciplinary approach. Truly integrated research, whereby non-academic stakeholders and scientists from multiple disciplines come together and make an effort to understand each other and cross their own subject boundaries with the aim to create new insights and knowledge (as formulated by Tress et al. 2009), implies a certain risk of failure and consequently a loss of time. The risk entails that the project objectives are not achieved because of misunderstanding of project partners (stakeholders and scientists), due to different jargon and different integration or abstraction levels of thinking. Overcoming such problems obviously takes additional time. Current day research funding and administration, with clear and rather strict time frames, deadlines and publication requirements, may not encourage scientists to undergo such a lengthy and risky process (Bardsley 1999;Roux et al. 2010;Botha et al. 2014;Schut, van Paasen, et al. 2014). The envisaged added value of such an approach, e.g. adaptation to changing context and stakeholder needs and interests, more space for learning À should however lead the decision to embark on it. Donor agencies can play an important role in stimulating these approaches, by putting these aims À of adaptation and learning processes À high at their agendas. In our PARASITE program the balance between disciplinary integration and output-oriented work was sometimes difficult to maintain. This was perhaps partly the outcome or the cause of the narrow interfaces between the different projects. There are obvious direct links between the plant sciences project (project 1) and the agronomy project (project 2), and between the agronomy project and the two social sciences projects (project 3 and 4), but the links between project 1 and project 3 or 4 were virtually absent. This is perfectly acceptable and shows that there are limits to the integration of disciplines. Natural sciences are an integral part of agronomic knowledge and, hence, indirectly impact broader levels of research through their overall contribution to a better understanding of the natural environment in which farmers operate. Moreover, just the identification of links is no guarantee that interaction and integration of disciplines really occur. Trans-disciplinary research projects require supervisory teams with members of relevant and representative disciplinary and stakeholder categories that are willing and able to get out of their disciplinary comfort zone and engage with each other and with other stakeholders. Individuals in such teams should try to understand members of other disciplinary backgrounds and be willing and able to share and explain their own perspective and expertise in a way that facilitates the necessary dialogue that should lead towards synergy. To avoid that individual project members continue working merely within their own, usual disciplinary boundaries, the period of planning and preparation of an integrated project should be enhanced. This preparation time should be used for multidisciplinary and multi-stakeholder discussions coming to construction of a clear framework and work plan, e.g. by using problem trees, stepwise planning of activities and (ex-ante) impact pathways, in order to go beyond multidisciplinarity and make the project truly trans-disciplinary. This may also lead to an adaptation of the research agenda, as far as this is possible, once the research evolves. In fact, trans-disciplinarity will only be truly beneficial when interaction between disciplines and between researchers and other stakeholders is guaranteed in all stages of the research project (i.e. defining objectives, implementation of methodologies and analysis and interpretation of outcomes). Finally, for a fair assessment as to whether an integrated approach should be preferred over a more mono-disciplinary approach, the additional costs should be taken into account and compared to the available budget. In the case of the PARASITE program the total research costs were approximately US$340,000 of which 27% was used for project 1, 40% for project 2, 20% for project 3 and 13% for project 4. Hence, while our experience points out that project 4 has been particularly instrumental for the actual implementation of the systems approach, this was also the least expensive of the program components. However, essential additional expenses, made to ensure integration of the different program components, involve communication costs (i.e. workshops, telecommunication and traveling). These are estimated to be around US$90,000. If the PARASITE program is exemplary, from this we can conclude that on a total project budget (in our case US$430,000, excluding salary costs) roughly one-third may be required to pursue an integrated systems approach."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":232,"text":"By using an integrated systems approach to innovation we have identified and confirmed a number of bottlenecks to the solution of the problem of parasitic weeds in rice, at different stakeholder and integration levels. We conclude that the approach is instrumental for applied subjects such as crop protection. A systems approach proved essential for the assessment of the extent and causes of the actual crop protection problem as well as for finding solutions. We found that problems almost always affect agronomic, economic and social issues and cut across different integration levels and multiple stakeholder groups. Upon identification of a problem at any level (e.g. the crop level) one should zoom in and out to consider the specific or wider context and to critically assess whether the problem should be prioritized and whether and how solutions proposed resonate with the needs and interests of different groups of stakeholders. This process can only be conducted by a team consisting of closely collaborating researchers with different disciplinary backgrounds that, in turn, closely collaborate with other stakeholders representing multiple levels. The use of different disciplinary approaches, tools and methods also provided broad-based evidence on causes of the problem or entry points for innovation to address them. This, in turn, may help to strengthen recommendations for improved management of complex crop protection problems, and to align with stakeholders that can promote or implement solutions to address these."},{"index":2,"size":125,"text":"We found that there are several challenges to operationalizing a systems-oriented and trans-disciplinary program. In order to ensure that trans-disciplinary research efforts succeed, members of research teams should be willing to understand and communicate with members of other disciplinary backgrounds, strive to share and explain their own perspectives, and collaborate closely with different groups of societal stakeholders. Participatory identification and planning of the different steps and activities, well before the actual implementation, is a precondition for a successful integrated research program. Furthermore, an important policy implication is that funding agencies should install a degree of flexibility into their funding schemes to adapt research agendas to emerging needs from stakeholders in a changing context, as well as allowing sufficient time for trans-disciplinary research to become effective."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Schematic representation of the PARASITE program's stepwise evolution, whereby solid arrows indicate PARASITE program steps and dashed arrows indicate how products and outcomes of the program can address the initial problem at hand. "},{"text":" that for research on International Journal of Pest Management 333 Downloaded by [41.184.122.50] at 08:24 31 August 2015 farm level, in order to conduct relevant research resulting in useful and feasible solutions to resource-poor farmers, agronomists need to collaborate with economists. "}],"sieverID":"44db086b-db8f-44a4-bb38-474cce1008b0","abstract":"Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the \"Content\") contained in the publications on our platform. Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Versions of published Taylor & Francis and Routledge Open articles and Taylor & Francis and Routledge Open Select articles posted to institutional or subject repositories or any other third-party website are without warranty from Taylor & Francis of any kind, either expressed or implied, including, but not limited to, warranties of merchantability, fitness for a particular purpose, or non-infringement. Any opinions and views expressed in this article are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. 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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0bac90c34adaf0d007281fd2319e9d77","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8191d724-751c-4e74-ad10-fed93dd683d6/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Global rice array antenna and reference panel genotyping data","keywords":[],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"3eea6768-1118-4f01-b397-9b3c69de4f71","abstract":"Description of the innovation: Genotyping By Sequencing (GBS) data on the reference panel curated and made available for use. Resequencing data on the antenna panel obtained, analyzed, curated and made available for use. The data made available in this platform provides open access phenotypic and genotypic information and data analysis tools to global users with the objective of increasing the conservation and use of genetic resources. New Innovation: No Innovation type: Genetic (varieties and breeds) Stage of innovation: Stage 3: available/ ready for uptake (AV) Geographic Scope: Global Number of individual improved lines/varieties: <Not Defined> Description of Stage reached: Genotyping data on the reference panel by Genotyping by sequencing (GBS) and on the antenna panel by resequencing is available for use from the project site and from Rice Galaxy and Genotype Investigator for Genome-Wide Analyses (GIGWA)."}

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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0bccdce7b972e5b45dd1f44dc2731c5b","source":"gardian_index","url":"http://ciat-library.ciat.cgiar.org/Articulos_ciat/ipm/pdfs/phytoplasmas_oil_palm_alvarez.pdf"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Nested PCR analysis. Phytoplasmas were detected by nested PCR","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"Staining methods. The presence of phytoplasmas in meristem, inflorescence, and leaf tissue was confirmed by DAPI and Dienes' stain (Figures 3 and 4). 'Marchitez letal', caused by an unidentified microorganism, is a major disease affecting oil palm and has been observed with increasing frequency in Colombia. Incidences of up to 30% have been recorded in several commercial fields in production areas of Villanueva and Casanare. Its symptoms are similar to those caused by infection with phytoplasma and include leaf discoloration, lower leaves will turn brown and hang downwards like a collapsed umbrella (Figure 1)."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"PCR is a very sensitive method for phytoplasma detection, identification and classification."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"On the basis of DNA sequences, the oil palm phytoplasma was classified as a member of the 16 SrI in the aster yellows group. This is the first report of a phytoplasma in oil palm in Colombia."},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"Insects associated with 'marchitez letal' were identified as Cicadellidae and Membrasidae."},{"index":5,"size":159,"text":"Transmission from diseased oil palm to either healthy oil palm or Catharanthus roseus was achieved by grafting.. Plant tissue. Leaf bases, inflorescences, and meristem tissue from infected and healthy oil palm plants were used in this study. Insect survey. Leafhoppers were collected from the leaves of palms affected by 'marchitez letal'. The presence of the phytoplasma was verified by nested PCR. Staining methods. Two staining methods were used as follows: DAPI, which stains the phloem (Sinclair et al., 1989), and Dienes' stain, which metabolizes and produces a blue color (Deeley et al., 1979). DNA extraction. Total DNA was extracted as described by Gilbertson and Dellaporta (1983). Nested PCR analysis. The primer pairs P1/P7 or R16mF2/R16mR1 were used for the first amplification, with an annealing temperature of 55°C. For the nested PCR, diluted PCR products were used for amplification, with the primer pair R16F2n/R16R2, at an annealing temperature of 50°C. PCR products were analyzed by electrophoresis on 1.2% agarose gel. "}]},{"head":"Healthy Infected Healthy Infected","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"The occurrence of what seems to be a phytoplasma different from that occurring in coconut and other palm species has been recorded in an oil palm plantation in the West New Britain area of Papua New Guinea (1) , where electron microscopy has played an important role in detecting phytoplasmas in infected tissue (Figure 1b), and in Kerala, India (2) ."},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"1. Jones, P. and Turner, P.D. 1979. The occurrence of mycoplasma-like organisms in oil palm (Elaeis guineensis). West New Britain (Papua New Guinea). 2. Babu and Nair. 1993. Distribution of spear rot disease of oil palm and its possible association with MLO disease of palms in Kerala, India. RFLP analyses. The amplified PCR products were digested with the restriction endonucleases MseI and AluI. The restriction products were analysed by electrophoresis on 5% polyacrylamide gel."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"Cloning and sequencing of 16S rRNA and tRNA genes. The amplified fragment was cloned and sequenced with primer T7 and Sp6."},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"Transmission. Transmission was performed by grafting."},{"index":5,"size":23,"text":"Control treatment. Oxytetracycline antibiotic was applied to oil palm by liquid injection into the trunk (5.0 g per palm) over a 4month period."}]},{"head":"Membrasidae Cicadellidae","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"Insects found associated with oil palm in Colombia, in areas where 'marchitez letal' was present.: Grafting RFLP analysis. Restriction digestion with MseI and AluI. of the amplified product showed similar restriction patterns. Sequence analysis of the 16S rRNA genes revealed that the oil palm phytoplasma was similar to the aster yellows group, with a sequence homology of 99% regarding phytoplasma from oil rape seed (GenBank accession no. U89378). "}]},{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"CONCLUSIONS","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"REFERENCES","index":8,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1a . Figure 1a. 'Marchitez letal', a disease affecting oil palm crops, Eastern Plains, Colombia. "},{"text":"Figure 2 .Figure 3 . Figure 2. A 1.3-kb fragment was amplified from diseased samples by nested PCR. Lane M = DNA marker. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 3 . DAPI staining.Figure 4. Dienes' staining. "},{"text":"Figure 1b . Figure 1b. MLO in a phloem cell (EM photo: P. Jones). "},{"text":"Characterization and Classification of Phytoplasmas Associated with Oil Palm (Elaeis guineensis) E. Alvarez and J.L Claroz International Center for Tropical Agriculture, A.A. 6713, Cali, Colombia. Centro Internaciona l de Agricultura Tropical Centro Internaciona l de Agricultura Tropical International Center for Tropical Agriculture International Center for Tropical Agriculture "}],"sieverID":"c2dc173d-e878-429e-bfc7-c013b1779c05","abstract":"The specific primers R16mF2/R16mR1 and R16F2n/R16R2 were successfully used in a nested-PCR assay (Figure 2) to detect and confirm that phytoplasmas were associated with 'marchitez letal'.Phytoplasmas were detected in 'marchitez letal' infected oil palm meristems, inflorescences and leaf bases."}

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H o w e v e r , t h e y a r e n o t a b l e t o i n f e c t t h e m a j o r i t y o f P h a s e o l u s v u l g a r i s c u l t i v a r s ( R a m a k r i s h n a n e t a l . , 1 9 7 3 ) ."},{"index":2,"size":239,"text":"E l e c t r o n m i c r o s c o p i c e v a l u a t i o n s o f i n f e c t e d b e a n t i s s u e r e v e a l t h a t t h e p r i n c i p a l c e l l u l a r s y m p t o m i s a d r a m a t i c c h a n g e i n c h l o r o p l a s t m o r p h o l o g y , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e l a m e l l a r s y s t e m ( K i t aj i m a a n d C o s t a , 1 9 7 4 ) . R e c e n t l y K i m e t a l . ( 1 o f P . l u n a t u s i n N i g e r i a ( G a l v e z e t a l . , 1 9 7 7 ) ."},{"index":3,"size":500,"text":"B G M V p a r t i c l e s h a v e a t h e r m a l i n a c t i v a t i o n p o i n t o f 5 0 -5 5 °C ( G a l v e z a n d C a s t a n o , 1 9 7 6 ) , a f i n a l d i l u t i o n e n d p o i n t o f 1 0 \" ' ( G a l v e z a n d C a s t a n o , 1 9 7 6 ) t o 1 0 \" 2 ( B i r d e t a l . , 1 9 7 7 a a n d 1 9 7 7 b ) , a n d a n i n v i t r o l o n g e v i t y o f 4 8 h o u r s a t r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e ( G a l v e z a n d C a s t a n o , 1 9 7 6 a n e t a l . , 1 9 8 0 ; H a b e r e t a l . , 1 9 8 1 ; H a r r i s o n , 1 9 8 5 ) . B G M V c o n t a i n s a p r e d o m i n a n t p r o t e i n s p e c i e s w i t h a m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t o f 2 7 , 4 0 0 ( G o o d m a n e t a l . , 1 9 8 0 ) . M a t t h e w s ( 1 9 7 9 ) i n c l u d e d B G M V i n a n e w v i r u s g r o u p c a l l e d t h e g e m i n i v i r u s , b a s e d u p o n i t s p a r t i c l e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n , p h y s i oc h e m i c a l p r o p e r t i e s , a n d s i n g l e -s t r a n d e d D N A ."},{"index":4,"size":469,"text":"T r a n s m i s s i o n a n d e p i d e m i o l o g y M o s t B G M V i s o l a t e s c a n b e t r a n s m i t t e d a r t i f i c i a l l y b y m e c h a n i c a l i n o c u l a t i o n ( C o s t a , 1 9 6 9 a n d 1 9 7 6 b ; M e i n e r s e t a l . , 1 9 7 5 ) , t h e e x c e p t i o n b e i n g t h e B r a z i l i a n i s o l a t e s o f B G M V ( M a t y i s e t a l . , 1 9 7 6 ) . S u c c e s s f u l i n o c u l a t i o n r e q u i r e d a h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e o f 3 0 °C . A t 2 4 -2 8 °C t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n r a t e w a s o n l y 3 0 % ; n o t r a n s m i s s A d u l t s o f B . t a b a c i a r e a b l e t o t r a n s m i t B G M V i n a c i r c u l a t i v e m a n n e r . T h e r e i s n o e v i d e n c e o f t r a n s o v a r i a l t r a n s m i s s i o n o r v i r u s m u l t i p l i c a t i o n w i t h i n t h e w h i t e f l y ( C o s t a , 1 9 6 9 a n d 1 9 7 6 b ; N e n e e t a l . , 1 9 7 2 ) ."},{"index":5,"size":237,"text":"C o s t a ( 1 9 6 9 ) s t a t e s t h a t w h i t e f l y -t r a n s m i t t e d v i r u s e s a r e n o t a c q u i r e d a s r a p i d l y a s a p h i d -t r a n s m i t t e d v i r u s e s a n d t h a t i n o c u l a t i o n e f f i c i e n c y i n c r e a s e s w i t h p r o l o n g e d v i r u s a c q u i s i t i o n p e r i o d s . C o s t a , 1 9 6 5 a n d 1 9 7 5 a ; C o s t a e t a l . , 1 9 7 5 b ; G r a n i l l o e t a l . , 1 9 7 5 ; P i e r r e , 1 9 7 5 ) ."},{"index":6,"size":737,"text":"T h e r e a r e n o e c o n o m i c a l a n d p r a c t i c a l b i o l o g i c a l c o n t r o l m e a s u r e s c u r r e n t l y a v a i l a b l e ( N e n e e t a l . , 1 9 7 2 ; S i f u e n t e s -A . , 1 9 7 8 ) . P l a n t m u l c h e s c a n r e d u c e w h i t e f l y p o p u l a t i o n s ( A v i d o v , 1 9 5 7 ) b u t a r e n o t p r a c t i c a l . 1 9 7 3 , 1 9 7 5 , 1 9 7 6 , 1 9 7 8 t o 1 9 8 1 , a n d 1 9 8 3 t o 1 9 8 5 ; C o s t a , 1 9 6 5 a n d 1 9 7 5 a ; C o s t a e t a l . , 1 9 7 5 a ; G a m e z , 1 9 6 9 , 1 9 7 0 , a n d 9 7 1 ; P i e r r e , 1 9 7 5 ; Y o s h i i e t a l . , 1 9 7 9 a ) . T h e y i n c l u d e G u a t e m a l a 1 2 7 8 , 1 2 7 9 , 1 2 8 8 , 1 2 9 1 , 1 2 9 6 , 2 9 9 , M 7 6 8 9 -A , a n d M 7 7 1 9 ( C I A T , 1 9 7 3 , 1 9 7 5 , 1 9 7 6 , 1 9 7 8 t o 9 8 1 , a n d 1 9 8 3 t o 1 9 8 5 ; I C T A , 1 9 7 6 ; Y o s h i i e t a l . , 1 9 7 9 a a n d 1 9 7 9 b ) . 1 9 7 5 a , 1 9 7 5 b , a n d 1 9 7 7 a ; C o s t a , 1 9 6 5 , 1 9 7 5 a T h e c o m m o n w h i t e f l y ( B e m i s i a t a b a c i ) c a n a c q u i r e t h e v i r u s a f t e r a 1 0 -m i n u t e f e e d i n g p e r i o d , b u t r e q u i r e s a 2 0 -m i n u t e i n c u b a t i o n p e r i o d f o r t r a n s m i s s i o n . T h e w h i t e f l y v e c t o r s c a n r e t a i n t h e i r i n f e c t i o u s n e s s f o r 2 0 d a y s ( B i r d e t a l . , 1 9 7 5 a ; C o s t a , 1 9 6 5 a n d 1 9 7 6 b ; C o s t a a n d B e n n e t t , 1 9 5 0 ) . "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" P o d s o f i n f e c t e d p l a n t s a r e c o n s i d e r a b l y m a l f o r m e d ( F i g u r e 1 2 8 ) . S e e d s m a y b e d i s c o l o r e d , m a l f o r m e d , a n d r e d u c e d i n s i z e a n d w e i g h t ( C o s t a , 1 9 7 5 a ; G a m e z , 1 9 6 9 a n d 1 9 7 0 ) . S o m e p l a n t s i n f e c t e d a t a n e a r l y s t a g e m a y b e s e v e r e l y s t u n t e d a n d o f t e n d o n o t p r o d u c e a n y p o d s . T h e s y m p t o m a t o l o g y o f B G M V i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f l i m a b e a n g o l d e n m o s a i c v i r u s i n A f r i c a ( W i l l i a m s , 1 9 7 6 ) a n d l i m a b e a n y e l l o w m o s a i c i n I n d i a . H o w e v e r , t h e I n d i a n v i r u s d i f f e r s i n i t s h o s t r a n g e ( N e n e e t a l . , 1 9 7 2 ; R a t h i a n d N e n e , 1 9 7 4 ) . M u n g b e a n y e l l o w m o s a i c , u r d b e a n y e l l o w m o s a i c , a n d y e l l o w m o s a i c o f L a b l a b p u r p u r e a s ( L . "},{"text":" 9 7 8 ) r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e s y m p t o m s a r e l i m i t e d t o t h e p h l o e m t i s s u e a n d c e l l s a d j a c e n t t o t h e p a r e n c h y m a t i s s u e . V i r u s -l i k e p a r t i c l e s a p p e a r a s p a c k e d h e x a g o n a l c r y s t a l a r r a n g e m e n t s o r a s l o o s e a g g r e g a t e s i n t h e n u c l e i c o f i n f e c t e d c e l l s . D i s t i n c t c h a n g e s i n t h e n u c l e o l i a l s o o c c u r e v i d e n t a s a s e g r e g a t i o n o f g r a n u l a r c o m p l e x e s a n d f i b r i l s w h i c h m a y f i l l a s m u c h a s 7 5 % o f t h e n u c l e a r v o l u m e ( G o o d m a n a n d B i r d , 1 9 7 8 ) . P h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s T h e v i r a l e t i o l o g y o f b e a n g o l d e n m o s a i c w a s d e m o n s t r a t e d r e c e n t l y b y G a l v e z a n d C a s t a n o ( 1 9 7 6 ) a n d G o o d m a n ( 1 9 7 7 b ) . T h e y o b s e r v e d t h a t f i x e d B G M V c o n s i s t e d o f i c o s a h e d r a l p a r t i c l e s u n i t e d i n p a i r s ( d i m e r p a r t i c l e s o r g e m i n a t e s ) . T h e b o n d e d p a r t i c l e s a r e f l a t t e n e d a t t h e i r p o i n t o f u n i o n ( F i g u r e 1 2 9 ) a n d m e a s u r e 1 9 b y 3 2 n m , w h i l e i n d i v i d u a l p a r t i c l e s h a v e a d i a m e t e r o f 1 5 -2 0 n m . M a t y i s e t a l . ( 1 9 7 6 ) r e p o r t e d i n d i v i d u a l p a r t i c l e s m e a s u r e d 1 2 -1 3 n m i n d i a m e t e r . A s i m i l a r p a r t i c l e m o r p h o l o g y w a s f o u n d f o r v i r u s e s c a u s i n g t o m a t o g o l d e n m o s a i c , e u p h o r b i a m o s a i c ( M a t y i s e t a l . , 9 7 5 a n d 1 9 7 6 ) , B G M V o f b e a n s i n B r a z i l , C o l o m b i a , E l S a l v a d o r , D o m i n i c a n R e p u b l i c , G u a t e m a l a , M e x i c o , a n d B G M V "},{"text":" ) . G o o d m a n a n d c o -w o r k e r s ( 1 9 7 7 a a n d 1 9 7 7 b ; G o o d m a n a n d B i r d , 1 9 7 8 ; G o o d m a n e t a l . , 1 9 7 7 ) d e t e r m i n e d t h a t t h e p a r t i c l e s h a v e a s e d i m e n t a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t v a l u e o f 6 9 S , a p a r t i c l e m a s s o f 2 . 6 x 1 0 6 d a l t o n s , a 2 6 0 n m a b s o r b a n c e v a l u e o f 7 . 7 , a n d a 2 6 0 / 2 8 0 a b s o r b a n c e r a t i o o f 1 . 4 . T h e g e n o m e o f B G M V c o n s i s t s o f t w o c i r c u l a r m o l e c u l e s o f s i n g l e -s t r a n d e d D N A , e a c h o f w h i c h h a s a m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t o f a b o u t 7 . 5 x 1 0 5 ( G o o d m a n , 1 9 7 7 a a n d 1 9 7 7 b ; G o o d m a n a n d B i r d , 1 9 7 8 ; G o o d m "},{"text":" i o n o c c u r r e d b e l o w 2 1 °C . N e a r l y 1 0 0 % t r a n s m i s s i o n c a n b e o b t a i n e d u n d e r g r e e n h o u s e c o n d i t i o n s a t 2 7 °C w i t h B G M V i n o c u l u m e x t r a c t e d f r o m p l a n t s i n f e c t e d 1 2 -2 0 d a y s e a r l i e r i n c o l d 0 . 1 M p h o s p h a t e b u f f e r a t p H 7 . 5 . T r a n s m i s s i o n i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e d u c e d w h e n o l d e r p l a n t s a r e u s e d a s i n o c u l u m . B i r d e t a l . ( 1 9 7 7 b ) u s e d a s i m i l a r b u f f e r a t p H 7 . 0 t o o b t a i n 1 0 0 % t r a n s m i s s i o n b y i n o c u l a t i o n w i t h a n a i r b r u s h a t 8 0 l b / s q . i n . B G M V i s n o t t r a n s m i s s i b l e i n s e e d f r o m i n f e c t e d b e a n p l a n t s , f o r e x a m p l e , P i e r r e ( 1 9 7 5 ) t e s t e d s e e d f r o m 3 0 0 i n f e c t e d b e a n p l a n t s , a n d C o s t a ( 1 9 6 5 , 1 9 7 5 a , 1 9 7 5 b , a n d 1 9 7 6 b ) t e s t e d s e e d f r o m 3 5 0 i n f e c t e d l i m a b e a n p l a n t s . N o n e o f t h e s e s e e d s w a s i n f e c t e d b y B G M V . T h e n a t u r a l m o d e o f B G M V t r a n s m i s s i o n i s t h r o u g h t h e v e c t o r , t h e c o m m o n w h i t e f l y ( B e m i s i a t a b a c t ) . N e n e ( 1 9 7 3 ) s t u d i e d t h e b i o l o g y o f w h i t e f l i e s i n r e l a t i o n t o l e g u m e s s u c h a s m u n g b e a n ( V i g n a r a d i a t a ( L . ) W i l c z e k v a r . r a d i a t a ) , u r d ( V i g n a m u n g o ( L . ) H e p p e r ) , a n d s o y b e a n ( G l y c i n e m a x ( L . ) M e r r i l l ) . T h e i n s e c t c a n p r o d u c e 1 5 g e n e r a t i o n s a y e a r d u r i n g w h i c h t i m e p o p u l a t i o n s m a y b e r e s t r i c t e d t o a s i n g l e c r o p s p e c i e s o r m a y m i g r a t e t o o t h e r p l a n t s p e c i e s . A w h i t e f l y l a y s 3 0 -1 5 0 e g g s ( F i g u r e 1 3 0 ) d u r i n g i t s l i f e c y c l e w h i c h , i n I n d i a , l a s t s 1 3 -2 0 d a y s d u r i n g M a r c h t o O c t o b e r ( m o n s o o n s e a s o n ) o r 2 4 -7 2 d a y s d u r i n g N o v e m b e r t o M a r c h ( d r y s e a s o n ) . P o p u l a t i o n s o f w h i t e f l i e s a r e r e d u c e d a s t h e u r d b e a n c r o p m a t u r e s a n d m a y m i g r a t e t o o t h e r p l a n t s s u c h a s c r u c i f e r s , l e n t i l s , a n d p e a s . T h e l i f e c y c l e o n c o t t o n i n I n d i a ( R u s s e l l , 1 9 7 5 ) v a r i e s f r o m 1 4 t o 1 0 7 d a y s . I t i s s h o r t e s t d u r i n g A p r i l t o S e p t e m b e r ( 1 4 -2 1 d a y s ) , a n d i s l o n g e r d u r i n g N o v e m b e r t o F e b r u a r y ( 6 9 -7 2 d a y s ) . M o s t o v i p o s i t i o n o c c u r r e d a t t e m p e r a t u r e s h i g h e r t h a n 2 6 . 5 °C a n d n o n e o c c u r r e d a t t e m p e r a t u r e s b e l o w 2 4 °C . "},{"text":" W h i t e f l y -t r a n s m i t t e d v i r u s e s h a v e a d e f i n e d b u t s h o r t i n c u b a t i o n p e r i o d a n d a r e s o m e t i m e s r e t a i n e d f o r l i f e i n t h e i n s e c t v e c t o r . W h i t e f l y a d u l t s c a n a c q u i r e a n d t r a n s m i t B G M V w i t h i n 5 m i n u t e s ( A r e v a l o -R . a n d D i a z -C h . , 1 9 6 6 ; B i r d e t a l . , 1 9 7 2 ; G a m e z , 1 9 7 1 ) .T h e i n o c u l a t i o n e f f i c i e n c y i n c r e a s e s a s p o p u l a t i o n s i z e i n c r e a s e s p e r i n f e c t e d p l a n t ( A r e v a l o -R . a n d D i a z -C h . , 1 9 6 6 ; B i r d a n d M a r a m or o s c h , 1 9 7 8 ; C o s t a , 1 9 6 9 a n d 1 9 7 6 b ; G a m e z , 1 9 7 1 ; V a r m a , 1 9 6 3 ) . G a m e z ( 1 9 7 1 ) f o u n d a n a v e r a g e a c q u i s i t i o n a n d i n c u b a t i o n p e r i o d o f t h r e e h o u r s f o r e a c h v e c t o r . T h e r e t e n t i o n p e r i o d v a r i e s a c c o r d i n gt o t h e a c q u i s i t i o n p e r i o d b u t m a y l a s t 2 1 d a y s o r t h e e n t i r e l i f e o f t h e w h i t e f l y ( A r e v a l o -R . a n d D i a z -C h . , 1 9 6 6 ; B i r d e t a l . , 1 9 7 5 a ; C o s t a , 1 6 9 a n d 1 9 7 6 b ; G a m e z , 1 9 7 1 ; V a r m a , 1 9 6 3 ) . T h e i n s e c t s o c c a s i o n a l l y h a v e b e e n o b s e r v e d t o l o s e t h e i r t r a n s m i s s i o n c a p a c i t y ( G a m e z , 1 7 1 ) . I m m a t u r e f o r m s ( F i g u r e 1 3 1 ) c a n a c q u i r e t h e m u n g b e a n y e l l o w m o s a i c v i r u s w h i c h t h e n p e r s i s t s t h r o u g h p u p a t i o n a n d c a n b e t r a n s m i t t e d d u r i n g t h e a d u l t s t a g e . I n o n e s t u d y a t l e a s t 5 0 % o f t r a n s m i s s i o n o c c u r r e d f r o m a d u l t s ( F i g u r e 1 3 2 ) w h i c h i n i m m a t u r e f o r m h a d f e d o n i n f e c t e d p l a n t s ( N e n e e t a l . , 1 9 7 2 ; R a t h i a n d N e n e , 1 7 4 ) . C o s t a (19 7 6 b ) r e p o r t e d t h a t f e m a l e w h i t e f l i e s w e r e m o r e e f f i c i e n t t h a n m a l e s a s v e c t o r s o f B G M V t o P h a s e o l u s v u l g a r i s , P . a c u t i f o l i u s , a n d P . p o l y s t a c h y u s . H o w e v e r , m a l e s w e r e m o r e e f f i c i e n t v e c t o r s f o r P . l u n a t u s a n d M a c r o p t i l i u m l o n g e p e d u nc u l a t u m . B G M V i s n o t s e e d -t r a n s m i t t e d a n d p r o b a b l y p e r s i s t s i n w i l d a n d c u l t i v a t e d h o s t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y l e g u m e s ( C o s t a , 1 9 7 5 b a n d 1 9 7 6 b ; D i a z -C h . , 1 9 7 2 ; G a m e z , 1 9 7 1 ; P i e r r e , 1 9 7 5 ) . P i e r r e ( 1 9 7 5 ) c o n s i d e r s t h a t , i n J a m a i c a , l i m a b e a n s , M a c r o p t i l i u m l a t h y r o i d e s a n d p o i ns e t t i a s ( E u p h o r b i a p u l c h e r r i m a W i l l d . e x K l o t z s c h ) a r e n a t u r a l h o s t s f o r B G M V . I n B r a z i l , t h e i n c r e a s e d p r o d u c t i o n o f s o y b e a n s h a s g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d w h i t e f l y p o p u l a t i o n s a n d t h e r e f o r e B G M V i n c i d e n c e i n b e a n s ( C o s t a , 1 9 7 5 a ; C o s t a e t a l . , 1 9 7 5 b ) . T o b a c c o , t o m a t o , a n d c o t t o n p l a n t i n g s i n E l S a l v a d o r a n d G u a t e m a l a a r e r e s p o n s i b l e fo r t h e h i g h w h i t e f l y p o p u l a t i o n s i n t h o s e c o u n t r i e s( A l o n z o -P a d i l l a , 1 9 7 5 a n d 1 9 7 6 ; C I A T , 1 9 7 3 , 1 9 7 5 , 1 9 7 6 , 1 9 7 8 t o 1 8 1 , a n d 1 9 8 3 t o 1 9 8 5 ; G r a n i l l o e t a l . , 1 9 7 5 ) .» I n L a t i n A m e r i c a , b e a n g o l d e n m o s a i c v i r u s i s u s u a l l y p r e v a l e n t i n e l e v a t i o n s b e l o w 1 5 0 0 m ( B i r d a n d M a r a m o r o s c h , 1 9 7 8 ; C o s t a , 1 7 5 a ) . A t t h e s e a l t i t u d e s w h i t e f l y p o p u l a t i o n s a n d t e m p e r a t u r e s a r e h i g h e r a n d i n o c u l u m s o u r c e s a r e m o r e n u m e r o u s . I n J a m a i c a , C u b a , a n d t h e D o m i n i c a n R e p u b l i c , B G M V i n c i d e n c e i s l e s s d u r i n g N o v e m b e r t o M a r c h w h e n t e m p e r a t u r e s a n d i n s e c t v e c t o r p o p u l a t i o n s a r e l o w e r . I n B r a z i l , B G M V i s m o r e c o m m o n a n d s e v e r e a t e l e v a t i o n s b e t w e e n 4 0 0 -8 0 0 m a n d t o w a r d t h e e n d o f t h e s u m m e r o r d r y p e r i o d ( J a n u a r y t o F e b r u a r y ) w h e n w h i t e f l i e s m i g r a t e f r o m o t h e r m a t u r i n g c r o p s s u c h a s s o y b e a n s , t o t h e y o u n g b e a n p l a n t i n g s . W h i t e f l y p o p u l a t i o n s d e c l i n e r a p i d l y d u r i n g c o o l e r p e r i o d s o f t h e 3 8 5 y e a r , w h e n t e m p e r a t u r e s a r e u n f a v o r a b l e t o t h e w h i t e f l y a n d w h e n f e w e r s u s c e p t i b l e c r o p s a r e g r o w i n g ( C o s t a , 1 9 6 5 a n d 1 9 7 5 a ; V e t t e n a n d A l l e n , 1 9 8 3 ) . C o n t r o l b y c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s T h e i n c i d e n c e o f b e a n g o l d e n m o s a i c v i r u s i s r e d u c e d c o n s i d e r a b l y w h e n b e a n s a r e p l a n t e d f a r f r o m c r o p s s u c h a s s o y b e a n ( M e n t e n a n d R o s t o n , 1 9 8 0 ) , c o t t o n , a n d t o b a c c o . T h e s e c r o p s , a l t h o u g h n o t s u s c e p t i b l e t o B G M V , p r o d u c e l a r g e w h i t e f l y p o p u l a t i o n s w h i c h t r a n s m i t t h e v i r u s . C h a n g i n g t h e d a t e o f p l a n t i n g w h e r e p o s s i b l e , s o t h a t y o u n g b e a n p l a n t s d e v e l o p d u r i n g p e r i o d s o f l o w e r t e m p e r a t u r e s a n d h i g h e r m o i s t u r e , w i l l r e d u c e t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e w h i t e f l y v e c t o r o f B G M V ( A l o n z o -P a d i l l a , 1 9 7 5 a n d 1 9 7 6 ; B i a n c o -S a n c h e z a n d B e n c o m o -P e r e z , 1 9 7 8 ; "},{"text":" C o n t r o l b y c h e m i c a l s B e a n g o l d e n m o s a i c v i r u s c a n b e c o n t r o l l e d b y a p p l y i n g i n s e c t i c i d e s t o r e d u c e t h e n u m b e r o f v i r u l i f e r o u s w h i t e f l i e s . S y s t e m i c i n s e c t i c i d e s s u c h a s c a r b o f u r a n a n d a l d i c a r b , e f f e c t i v e l y c o n t r o l w h i t e f l y p o p u l a t i o n s w h e n a p p l i e d a t p l a n t i n g t i m e ( A l o n z o -P a d i l l a , 1 9 7 6 ) . S u b s t a n t i a l y i e l d i n c r e a s e s w e r e o b t a i n e d i n t h e D o m i n i c a n R e p u b l i c b y a p p l y i n g c a r b o f u r a n ( 2 . 5 g / m r o w ) a t p l a n t i n g , f o l l o w e d b y 0 . 1 5 % m o n o c r o t o p h o s a p p l i e d a t 6 , 1 5 , a n d 3 0 d a y s a f t e r p l a n t e m e r g e n c e ( A b r e u -R a m i r e z a n d G a l v e z , 1 9 7 9 ; A b r e u -R a m i r e z e t a l . , 1 9 7 9 ; M e n d e z e t a l . , 1 9 7 6 ; P e n a a n d A g u d e l o -S . , 1 9 7 8 ; P e n a e t a l . , 1 9 7 6 ) . I d e a l l y , c h e m i c a l c o n t r o l i s c o m b i n e d w i t h o t h e r m e a s u r e s s u c h a s c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s , t o b e e c o n o m i c a l l y f e a s i b l e a n d t o a c h i e v e a h i g h e r l e v e l o f p r o t e c t i o n . 3 8 6 C o n t r o l b y p l a n t r e s i s t a n c e P l a n t r e s i s t a n c e c a n p r o v i d e a n e c o n o m i c a l m e t h o d o f d i s e a s e c o n t r o l . H o w e v e r , o f m o r e t h a n 1 0 , 0 0 0 a c c e s s i o n s o f P h a s e o l u s v u l g a r i s a n d s o m e a c c e s s i o n s o f P . l u n a t u s , P . a c u t i f o l i u s , a n d P . c o c c i n e u s e v a l u a t e d u n d e r f i e l d a n d l a b o r a t o r y c o n d i t i o n s , n o t o n e s i n g l e a c c e s s i o n p r o v e d i m m u n e t o B G M V ( A b r e u -R a m í r e z e t a l . , 9 7 9 ; C I A T , "},{"text":" H o w e v e r , s o m e a c c e s s i o n s e x h i b i t e d a l o w t o m o d e r a t e l e v e l o f d i s e a s e r e s i s t a n c e o r t o l e r a n c e . T h e s e w e r e , a m o n g o t h e r s , P o r r i l l o S i n t e t i c o a n d P o r r i l l o 7 0 , T u r r i a l b a 1 , I C A P i j a o , I C A T u i , V e n e z u e l a 3 6 , a n d V e n e z u e l a 4 0 . V a r i o u s P . c o c c i n e u s a c c e s s i o n s f r o m t h e I n s t i t u t o d e C i e n c i a y T e c n o l o g í a A g r i c o l a s ( I C T A ) g e r m p l a s m b a n k a r e t o l e r a n t i n G u a t e m a l a . "},{"text":"P o m p e u a n d K r a n z ( 1 9 7 7 ) o b s e r v e d f i e l d t o l e r a n c e i n A e t e 1 -3 7 , A e t e 1 -3 8 , A e t e 1 -4 0 ( B i c o d e O u r o t y p e s ) , R o s i n h a G Z -6 9 , C a r i o c a 9 , a n d P r e t o 1 4 3 -1 0 6 . T u l m a n n -N e t o e t a l . ( 1 9 7 6 , 1 9 7 7 a , a n d 9 7 7 b ) o b t a i n e d a m u t a n t , T D M 1 , b y t r e a t i n g s e e d o f C a r i o c a w i t h 0 . 4 8 % e t h y l m e t h a n o l s u l f o n a t e f o r s i x h o u r s a t 2 0 °C . T D M 1 h a s a l e v e l o f t o l e r a n c e s i m i l a r t o T u r r i a l b a 1 , b u t i t i s n o t a s a g r o n o m ic a l l y a c c e p t a b l e . T h e t o l e r a n c e o f T u r r i a l b a 1 , P o r r i l l o 1 , a n d I C A P i j a o h a s b e e n c o n f i r m e d i n G u a t e m a l a , E l S a l v a d o r , a n d i n t h e D o m i n i c a n R e p u b l i c , u n d e r m o d e r a t e t o h i g h d i s e a s e p r e s s u r e i n b e a n n u r s e r i e s i n t e r p l a n t e d b e t w e e n t o m a t o e s , t o b a c c o , c o t t o n , a n d s o y b e a n s t o f a v o r h i g h w h i t e f l y p o p u l a t i o n s ( F i g u r e 1 3 3 ) . "},{"text":" T h e s e t o l e r a n t m a t e r i a l s h a v e b e e n s u c c e s s f u l l y u s e d i n b r e e d i n g p r o g r a m s w h i c h h a v e a l r e a d y p r o d u c e d b l a c k -s e e d e d c u l t i v a r s s u c h a s I C T A Q u e t z a l i n G u a t e m a l a a n d N e g r o H u a s t e c o i n M e x i c o ( C I A T , 1 9 7 3 , 1 9 7 5 t o 1 9 7 8 , a n d 1 9 8 4 ) . T h e s e c u l t i v a r s c a n p r o d u c e a s m u c h a s 1 5 0 0 k g / h a u n d e r m o d e r a t e d i s e a s e p r e s s u r e . B e a n D w a r f M o s a i c V i r u s I n t r o d u c t i o n T h e n a m e \" b e a n d w a r f m o s a i c \" ( B D M V ) i s g i v e n h e r e t o a d i s e a s e p r e v i o u s l y k n o w n a s \" b e a n c h l o r o t i c m o t t l e . \" T h i s d i s e a s e i s w i d e s p r e a d i n t r o p i c a l b e a n -g r o w i n g a r e a s w h e r e t h e w h i t e f l y v e c t o r e x i s t s ( A g u d e l o -S . , 1 9 7 8 ; B i r d , 1 9 5 8 ; B i r d a n d L o p e z -R o s a , 1 9 7 3 ; B i r d a n d M a r a m o r o s c h , 1 9 7 8 ; B i r d a n d S a n c h e z , 1 9 7 1 ; B i r d e t a l . , 1 9 7 0 ; C o s t a , 1 9 7 6 b ; C o s t a a n d B e n n e t t , 1 9 5 3 ; C r a n d a l l , 1 9 5 4 ; G r a n i l l o e t a l . , 1 9 7 5 ; J a y a s i n g h e , 1 9 8 2 ) . H o w e v e r , i t s i n c i d e n c e h a s b e e n l o w i n m o s t r e g i o n s , w i t h n o t a b l e e x c e p t i o n s s u c h a s A r g e n t i n a w h e r e t h o u s a n d s o f h e c t a r e s h a v e b e e n a f f e c t e d . I n f e c t e d b e a n p l a n t s p r o d u c e s e v e r e l y m a l f o r m e d p o d s o r , o f t e n , n o p o d s a t a l l ( C o s t a , 9 7 5 a ) . T h e c a u s a l v i r u s ( B D M V ) i s b e l i e v e d t o b e a v a r i a n t o f a b u t i l o n m o s a i c v i r u s ( A b M V ) t h a t a d a p t e d t o b e a n s . I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t m o r e t h a n o n e v a r i a n t o r s t r a i n o f A b M V c a n a f f e c t b e a n s . T h e r e p u t e d h o s t r a n g e i n c l u d e s c o m m o n b e a n ( P h a s e o l u s v u l g a r i s ) , l i m a b e a n ( P . l u n a t u s ) , A b u t i l o n h i r t u m S w e e t , h o l l y h o c k ( A l t h a e a r o s e a ( L . ) C a v . ) , B a s t a r d i a v i s c o s a H B K . , C o r c h o r u s a e s t r u a n s L . , G o s s y p i u m b a r b a d e n s e L . , G . e s c u l e n t u m M i l l . , H i b i s c u s b r a s i l i e n s i s L . , o k r a ( H . e s c u l e n t u s L . ) , M a l v a p a r v i f l o r a L . , M a l v a s y l v e s t r i s L . , M a l v a v i s c u s A d a n s . s p . , S i d a a c u m i n a t a D C , S . a g g r e g a t a P r e s l . , S . b r a d e i U l b r i c h t , S . c a r p i n i f o l i a M a s t . , S . c o r d i f o l i a L . , S . g l a b r a M i l l . , S . g l o m e r a t a C a v . , S . h u m i l i s C a v . , S . m i c r a n t h a S t . H i l . , S . p r o c u m b e n s S w . , S . r h o m b i f o l i a L . , S . u r e n s L . , D a t u r a s t r a m o n i u m L . , N i c a n d r a p h y s a l o d e s ( L . ) G a e r t n . , N i c o t i a n a g l u t i n o s a L . , t o b a c c o ( N . t a b a c u m L . ) , p o t a t o ( S o l a n u m t u b e r o s u m L . ) , p e a n u t ( A r a c h i s h y p o g a e a L . ) , C a n a v a l i a e n s i f o r m i s ( L . ) D C , C y a m o p s i s t e t r a g o n o l o b u s ( L . ) T a u b . , s o y b e a n ( G l y c i n e m a x ( L . ) M e r r . ) , l e n t i l ( L e n s c u l i n a r i s M e d . ) , L u p i n u s a l b u s L . , a n d p e a ( P i s u m s a t i v u m L . ) ( B i r d , 1 9 5 8 ; B i r d a n d L o p e z -R o s a , 1 9 7 3 ; B i r d a n d M a r a m o r o s c h , 1 7 8 ; B i r d a n d S a n c h e z , 1 9 7 1 ; B i r d e t a l . , 1 9 7 0 a n d 1 9 7 5 a ; C o s t a , 1 5 4 , 1 9 5 5 , a n d 1 9 6 5 ; C o s t a a n d C a r v a l h o , 1 9 6 0 a a n d 1 9 6 0 b ; C r a n d a l l , 1 9 5 4 ; D e b r o t -C . a n d O r d o s g o i t t i -F . , 1 9 7 5 ; F l o r e s a n d S i l b e r s c h m i d t , 1 9 6 3 ; F l o r e s e t a l . , 1 9 6 0 ; G r a n i l l o e t a l . , 1 9 7 5 ; K i t a j i m a a n d C o s t a , 1 9 7 4 ; O w e n , 1 9 4 6 ; S i l b e r s c h m i d t a n d F l o r e s , 1 9 6 2 ; S i l b e r s c h m i d t a n d T o m a s i , 1 9 5 5 a n d 1 9 5 6 ) . B D M V c a n c a u s e a s e v e r e d w a r f i n g c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f b u d s a n d a b u n c h y o r r o s e t t e t y p e o f p l a n t d e v e l o p m e n t . I n s o m e p l a n t s a w i t c h e s ' b r o o m i s p r o d u c e d b e s i d e s t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c h l o r o t i c m o t t l i n g ( F i g u r e 1 3 4 ) . C h l o r o t i c s p o t s o r m o t t l e d a r e a s m a y b e p r o d u c e d o n l e a v e s o f t o l e r a n t c u l t i v a r s o r o l d e r s u s c e p t i b l e p l a n t s ( F i g u r e 1 3 5 ) . T h e s e s p o t s m a y b e a c c o m p a n i e d b y a r u g o s i n g o f l e a v e s ( F i g u r e 1 3 6 ) . S e v e r e l y a f f e c t e d p l a n t s p r o d u c e f e w o r n o p o d s . F i g u r e 1 3 7 i l l u s t r a t e s A b M V s y m p t o m s p r o d u c e d i n a n i n f e c t e d P a v o n i a s i d a e f o l i a p l a n t , a n d F i g u r e 1 3 8 i l l u s t r a t e s s y m p t o m s o f i n f e c t i o u s c h l o r o s i s o f M a l v a c e a e i n M a l v a s p . P h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s S i n c e B D M V h a s n o t b e e n i s o l a t e d y e t , i t s p h y s i c o c h e m i c a l p r o p e r t i e s a r e n o t c o m p l e t e l y k n o w n . K i t a j i m a a n d C o s t a ( 1 9 7 4 ) o b s e r v e d i s o m e t r i c p a r t i c l e s 2 0 -2 5 n m i n d i a m e t e r i n i n f e c t e d t i s s u e o f S i d a m i c r a n t h a . C o s t a a n d C a r v a l h o ( 1 9 6 0 a a n d 1 9 6 0 b ) d e t e r m i n e d t h a t A b M V h a s a t h e r m a l i n a c t i v a t i o n p o i n t o f 5 5 -6 0 °C , a f i n a l d i l u t i o n e n d p o i n t o f 5 -6 , a n d r e t a i n s i t s i n f e c t i o u s n e s s f o r 4 8 -7 2 h o u r s i n v i t r o . T r a n s m i s s i o n a n d e p i d e m i o l o g y M e c h a n i c a l t r a n s m i s s i o n o f A b M V i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t b u t h a s b e e n a c c o m p l i s h e d b y C o s t a a n d C a r v a l h o ( 1 9 6 0 a a n d 1 9 6 0 b ) f r o m M a l v a p a r v i f l o r a a n d S i d a m i c r a n t h a t o s o y b e a n s . T h e v i r u s c a n b e p r o p a g a t e d i n t h e s e s p e c i e s a s w e l l a s i n S i d a c a r p i n i f o l i a . B i r d e t a l . ( 1 9 7 5 a ) w e r e u n a b l e t o t r a n s m i t A b M V m e c h a n i c a l l y a n d h a d d i f f i c u l t i e s w i t h i t s n a t u r a l v e c t o r , t h e c o m m o n w h i t e f l y ( B e m i s i a l a b a c i r a c e s i d a e ) . W h i t e f l i e s h a v e b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d t o t r a n s m i t B C 1 M V a n d A b M V t o b e a n s ( B i r d , 1 9 5 8 ; B i r d e t a l . , 1 9 7 5 a ; C o s t a , 1 9 5 4 , 1 9 5 5 , 1 9 6 5 , 1 9 7 5 a , a n d 1 9 7 6 b ; C o s t a a n d B e n n e t t , 1 9 5 3 ; F l o r e s a n d S i b e r s c h m i d t , 1 9 5 8 ; O r l a n d o a n d S i l b e r s c h m i d t , 1 9 4 6 ; S i l b e rs c h m i d t a n d U l s o n , 1 9 5 4 ; S i l b e r s c h m i d t e t a l . , 1 9 5 7 ) . B i r d e t a l .( 1 9 7 5 a ) s h o w e d t h a t w h i t e f l i e s c a n a c q u i r e t h e v i r u s d u r i n g a 1 5 -t o 2 0 -m i n u t e f e e d i n g p e r i o d a n d r e t a i n t h e i r a b i l i t y t o t r a n s m i t A b M V f o r s e v e n d a y s . C o s t a ( 1 9 7 5 a ) s h o w e d t h a t , v i a t h e w h i t e f l y , A b M V i s e a s i l y t r a n s m i t t e d f r o m S i d a s p . t o b e a n s b u t w i t h d i f f i c u l t y f r o m b e a n s t o b e a n s .T h e s e v i r u s e s a p p e a r t o h a v e a w i d e h o s t r a n g e , i n c l u d i n g m a n y t r o p i c a l w e e d s p e c i e s , w h i c h s e r v e a s i n o c u l u m s o u r c e s f r o m w h i c h w h i t e f l y p o p u l a t i o n s a c q u i r e t h e v i r u s a n d t r a n s m i t i t t o b e a n s .E p i d e m i c s o f A b M V a n d B C 1 M V a ls o m a y o c c u r i n b e a n s w h e n l a r g e p l a n t i n g s o f o t h e r s u s c e p t i b l e c r o p s s u c h a s s o y b e a n s a n d c o t t o n , a r e p l a n t e d n e a r b y ( C I A T , 1 9 7 3 , 1 9 7 5 , 1 9 7 6 , 1 9 7 8 t o 1 9 8 1 , a n d 1 9 8 3 t o 1 9 8 5 ; C o s t a , 1 9 6 5 ; Y o s h i i , 1 9 7 5 ) . C o n t r o l T h e e p i d e m i o l o g y o f B C 1 M V i s s i m i l a r i n a l l r e s p e c t s t o t h a t o f B G M V . T h e s a m e i n t e g r a t e d c o n t r o l a p p r o a c h i s t h e r e f o r e r e c o m m e n d e d , i n c l u d i n g c h e m i c a l c o n t r o l o f t h e c o m m o n w h i t e f l y ( B . t a b a c i ) . A l t h o u g h C o s t a ( 1 9 6 5 a n d 1 9 7 6 b ) c o u l d n o t i d e n t i f y a n y r e s i s t a n c e w i t h i n P h a s e o l u s v u l g a r i s i n B r a z i l , s e v e r a l b e a n g e n o t y p e s h a v e s h o w n f i e l d r e s i s t a n c e i n A r g e n t i n a a n d a t t h e C e n t r o I n t e r n a c i o n a l d e A g r i c u l t u r a T r o p i c a l ( C I A T ) i n C o l o m b i a . R e s i s t a n c e w a s a l s o f o u n d i n o t h e r s p e c i e s s u c h a s V i g n a a n g u l a r i s ( W i l l d . ) O h w i e t O h a s i , m u n g b e a n ( V . r a d i a t a ( L . ) W i l c z e k v a r . r a d i a t a , V . u m b e l l a t a ( T h u n b . ) O h w i e t O h a s h i , V . r a d i a t a v a r . s u b l o b a t a ( R o x b . ) V e r d e . ( C o s t a , 1 9 6 5 ) . M u c h a d d i t i o n a l r e s e a r c h i s r e q u i r e d t o v e r i f y t h e r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e s e m a t e r i a l s a n d c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e v i r u s . E u p h o r b i a M o s a i c V i r u s I n t r o d u c t i o n E u p h o r b i a m o s a i c v i r u s ( E M V ) w a s i s o l a t e d i n 1 9 5 0 f r o m E u p h o r b i a p r u n i f o l i a J a c q . ( C o s t a a n d B e n n e t t , 1 9 5 0 ) a n d h a s s i n c e b e e n o b s e r v e d i n m a n y s p e c i e s o f E u p h o r b i a . T h e v i r u s h a s b e e n d e t e c t e d i n b e a n s i n B r a z i l b u t i s n o t e c o n o m i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t . C o m m o n n a m e s f r e q u e n t l y u s e d f o r E M V i n L a t i n A m e r i c a i n c l u d e \" m o s a i c o d e l a s e u f o r b i a c e a s \" a n d \" e n c a r q u i l h a m e n t o d a f o l h a . \" T h e h o s t r a n g e o f E M V i n c l u d e s E u p h o r b i a p r u n i f o l i a , D a t u r a s t r a m o n i u m , t o m a t o ( L y c o p e r s i c o n e s c u l e n t u m M i l l . ) , N i c a n d r a p h y s a l o d e s , N i c o t i a n a g l u t i n o s a , C a n a v a l i a e n s i f o r m i s , s o y b e a n ( G l y c i n e m a x ) , l e n t i l ( L e n s c u l i n a r i s ) , a n d c o m m o n b e a n ( P h a s e o l u s v u l g a r i s ) ( B i r d e t a l . , "},{"text":" , a n d 1 9 7 6 b ; C o s t a a n d C a r v a l h o , 1 9 6 0 a ; M e i n e r s e t a l . , 1 9 7 5 ) .S y m p t o m a t o l o g y T h e e u p h o r b i a m o s a i c v i r u s u s u a l l y p r o d u c e s o n l y l o c a l n e c r o t i c l e a f l e s i o n s a t t h e f e e d i n g s i t e s o f v i r u l i f e r o u s w h i t e f l i e s . O c c a s i o n a l l y , E M V m a y i n d u c e a s y s t e m i c i n f e c t i o n c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y t w i s t i n g o r c r u m p l i n g o f l e a v e s a s g r e e n t i s s u e g r o w s a s y m m e t r i c a l l y a r o u n d t h e i n i t i a l n e c r o t i c l e s i o n s ( F i g u r e 1 3 9 ) . A b n o r m a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f a u x i l i a r y b u d s a l s o m a y o c c u r a n d p l a n t s a r e c o m m o n l y s t u n t e d . P h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s M a t y i s e t a l . ( 1 9 7 5 a n d 1 9 7 6 ) p a r t i a l l y p u r i f i e d E M V a n d r e p o r t e d t h a t i t c o n s i s t s o f i d e n t i c a l l y p a i r e d p a r t i c l e s t h a t a r e 2 5 n m i n d i a m e t e r a n d i n d i v i d u a l i s o m e t r i c p a r t i c l e s t h a t a r e a b o u t 1 2 -1 3 n m i n d i a m e t e r . T h e y s u g g e s t e d t h a t E M V b e l o n g s t o t h e g e m i n iv i r u s g r o u p .C o s t a a n d C a r v a l h o ( 1 9 6 0 a a n d 1 9 6 0 b ) r e p o r t e d t h a t E M V i n s a p h a s a t h e r m a l i n a c t i v a t i o n p o i n t o f 5 5 -6 0 °C a n d r e t a i n s i t s i n f e c t i o u s n e s s i n v i t r o f o r m o r e t h a n 4 8 h o u r s . B i r d e t a l . ( 1 9 7 7 a ) a l s o r e p o r t e d t h a t E M V h a s a t h e r m a l i n a c t i v a t i o n p o i n t o f 5 5 -6 0 °C b u t r e t a i n s i t s i n f e c t i o u s n e s s i n v i t r o f o r l e s s t h a n 2 4 h o u r s a n d h a s a d i l u t i o n e n d p o i n t o f 1 0 \" 3 .I n f e c t i o u s n e s s c a n b e m a i n t a i n e d i n t i s s u e d r i e d i n c a l c i u m c h l o r i d e a t 4 °C f o r 1 2 w e e k s . T r a n s m i s s i o n a n d e p i d e m i o l o g y E u p h o r b i a m o s a i c v i r u s c a n b e t r a n s m i t t e d m e c h a n i c a l l y f r o m E u p h o r b i a s p . t o D a t u r a s p . a t a r a t e o f 3 1 % a n d e a s i l y b e t w e e n D a t u r a s p . ( B i r d e t a l . , 1 9 7 5 b a n d 1 9 7 7 a ; C o s t a a n d C a r v a l h o , 1 9 6 0 a a n d 1 9 6 0 b ) . T h e v i r u s w a s a l s o t r a n s m i t t e d b e t w e e n t w o b e a n v a r i e t i e s ( M e i n e r s e t a l . , 1 9 7 5 ) . E M V i s n o t s e e d t r a n s m i t t e d ( B i r d e t a l . , 1 9 7 5 a ; C o s t a , 1 9 7 5 a ) . "},{"text":" E u p h o r b i a m o s a i c v i r u s i s s e l d o m o b s e r v e d i n b e a n f i e l d s u n l e s s t h e r e i s a h i g h i n c i d e n c e o f w h i t e f l i e s a n d i n f e c t e d E u p h o r b i a s p p . n e a r o r w i t h i n t h e f i e l d .C o n t r o l V e r y l i t t l e r e s e a r c h h a s b e e n c o n d u c t e d o n c o n t r o l m e a s u r e s f o r E M V w h i c h i s e v e n l e s s i n f e c t i o u s t o b e a n s t h a n B C 1 M V o r A b M V ( C o s t a , 1 9 6 5 , 1 9 7 5 a , a n d 1 9 7 6 b ) . H o w e v e r , p l a n t r e s i s t a n c e h a s b e e n i d e n t i f i e d i n a c c e s s i o n s o f V i g n a a n g u l a r i s , V . r a d i a t a v a r . r a d i a t a , V . u m b e l l a t a , a n d V .r a d i a t a v a r . s u b l o b a t a . R h y n c h o s i a M o s a i c V i r u s I n t r o d u c t i o n R h y n c h o s i a m o s a i c v i r u s ( R M V ) w a s i s o l a t e d i n P u e r t o R i c o . I t p r o d u c e s s y m p t o m s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e r e p o r t e d f o r i n f e c t e d R h y n c h o s i a m i n i m a ( L . ) D C . i n o t h e r t r o p i c a l c o u n t r i e s ( B i r d , 1 9 6 2 ; B i r d a n d L o p e z -R o s a , 1 9 7 3 ; B i r d a n d M a r a m o r o s c h , 1 9 7 8 ; B i r d a n d S a n c h e z , 1 9 7 1 ; B i r d e t a l . , 1 9 7 5 a ; M a r a m o r o s c h , 1 9 7 5 ) . S y m p t o m s o f R M V a r e s i m i l a r t o t h o s e c a u s e d b y B D M V a n d A b M V . R e s e a r c h i s r e q u i r e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e s e v i r u s e s . R h y n c h o s i a m o s a i c v i r u s i s t r a n s m i t t e d b y w h i t e f l i e s b u t i s n o t r e p o r t e d t o c a u s e e c o n o m i c p r o b l e m s . T h e c o m m o n n a m e f r e q u e n t l y u s e d f o r r h y n c h o s i a m o s a i c v i r u s i n L a t i n A m e r i c a i s \" m o s a i c o d e l a r h y n c h o s i a . \" T h e v i r u s h a s a h o s t r a n g e w h i c h i n c l u d e s S a l v i a s p l e n d e n s F . S e l l o w e x R o e m . e t S c h u l t . , p i g e o n p e a ( C o / a n u s c a j a n ( L . ) M i l l s p . ) , C a n a v a l i a e n s i f o r m i s , C . m a r / / / m a ( A u b l . ) T h o u . , C r o t a l a r i a j u n c e a L . , s o y b e a n ( G l y c i n e m a x ) , M a c r o p t i l i u m l a t h y r o i d e s , P a c h y r r h i z u s e r o s u s ( L . ) U r b a n , a n c e s t r a l f o r m o f c o m m o n b e a n ( P h a s e o l u sv u l g a r i s v a r . a b o r i g e n e u s ) , t e p a r y b e a n ( P . a c u t i f o l i u s ) c v . P . I . W r i g h t a n d v a r i e t y a c u t i f o l i u s , s c a r l e t r u n n e r b e a n ( P . c o c c i n e u s ) , l i m a b e a n ( P . l u n a t u s ) , V i g n a l o n g i f o l i a ( B e n t h . ) V e r d c o u r t , c o m m o n b e a n ( P . v u l g a r i s ) , R h y n c h o s i a m i n i m a , R . r e t i c u l a t a ( S w . ) D C , V i g n a a c o n i t i f o l i a ( J a c q . ) M a r e c h a l , V . a n g u l a r i s ( W i l l d . ) O h w i e t O h a s h i , o k r a ( H i b i s c u s e s c u l e n t u s L . ) , c o t t o n ( G o s s y p i u m h i r s u t u m L . ) , M a l a c h r a c a p i t a t a L . , O x a l i s b e r r e l i e r i L . , N i c o t i a n a a c u m i n a t a ( R . C . G r a h .) H o o k , N . a l a t a L i n k a n d O t t o , N . b o n a r i e n s i s L e h m a n n , N . g l u t i n o s a , N . n i g h t i a n a G o o ds p e e d , N . m a r i t i m a H . M . W h e e l e r , N . p a n i c u l a t a L . , a n d t o b a c c o ( N . t a b a c u m ) ( B i r d , 1 9 6 2 ; B i r d e t a l . , 1 9 7 5 a ) . S y m p t o m a t o l o g y R h y n c h o s i a m o s a i c v i r u s i n f e c t i o n o f b e a n s c a u s e s s y m p t o m s s u c h a s l e a f m a l f o r m a t i o n , y e l l o w i n g ( F i g u r e 1 4 0 ) , w i t c h e s ' b r o o m , a n d p l a n t s t u n t i n g . W h e n i n f e c t i o n o c c u r s i n y o u n g p l a n t s , s y m p t o m s a r e p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f f l o w e r s a n d b r a n c h e s a n d l i t t l e , i f a n y , s e e d p r o d u c t i o n ( B i r d a n d S a n c h e z , 1 9 7 1 ) . T h e v i r u s h a s n o t y e t b e e n i s o l a t e d t o s t u d y i t s p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s . T r a n s m i s s i o n a n d e p i d e m i o l o g y M e c h a n i c a l t r a n s m i s s i o n ( 1 8 % ) h a s b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d b y u s i n g t h e t o b a c c o c u l t i v a r , V i r g i n i a 1 2 , a s s o u r c e o f i n o c u l u m ( B i r d a n d L o p e z -R o s a , 1 9 7 3 ; B i r d e t a l . , 1 9 7 5 a ) . R h y n c h o s i a m o s a i c v i r u s h a s n o t b e e n f o u n d t o b e s e e d t r a n s m i t t e d ( B i r d e t a l . , 1 9 7 5 a ) . T h e v i r u s i s e a s i l y t r a n s m i t t e d b y t h e c o m m o n w h i t e f l y ( B e m i s i a t a b a c i ) ( B i r d , 1 9 6 2 ; B i r d e t a l . , 1 9 7 5 a ) . T r a n s m i s s i o n c a n b e a c h i e v e d i n l e s s t h a n 2 4 h o u r s a n d t h e i n s e c t r e t a i n s i t s i n f e c t i o u s n e s s f o r s e v e n d a y s . A p p a r e n t l y , t h e v i r u s s u r v i v e s i n i n f e c t e d w e e d s s u c h a s R h y n c h o s i a m i n i m a w h i c h i s w i d e s p r e a d t h r o u g h o u t t h e t r o p i c s . C o n t r o l V e r y l i t t l e r e s e a r c h h a s b e e n c o n d u c t e d i n t o c o n t r o l m e a s u r e s f o r R M V . G r e e n h o u s e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n P u e r t o R i c o ( B i r d e t a l . , 1 9 7 5 a ) , r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e b e a n c u l t i v a r s L a V e g a ( R 1 9 ) a n d S a n t a A n a ( s e l e c t i o n f r o m M a s a y a , N i c a r a g u a ) w e r e t o l e r a n t t o t h e v i r u s a n d h a d a g o o d l e v e l o f r e s i s t a n c e i n t h e f i e l d . O t h e r P o t e n t i a l l y P a t h o g e n i c W h i t e f l y -T r a n s m i t t e d V i r u s e s o f B e a n s B i r d ( 1 9 5 7 ) a n d c o -w o r k e r s ( 1 9 7 5 a ) r e p o r t t h a t i n P u e r t o R i c o t h e r e a r e t h r e e o t h e r v i r u s e s c a p a b l e o f i n f e c t i n g b e a n s u n d e r c o n t r o l l e d c o n d i t i o n s . T h e y a r e J a t r o p h a m o s a i c v i r u s , i s o l a t e d f r o m J a t r o p h a g o s s y p i f o l i a L . a n d t r a n s m i t t e d b y t h e c o m m o n w h i t e f l y , B e m i s i a t a b a c i r a c e ( b i o t y p e ) j a t r o p h a e ; M e r r e m i a m o s a i c v i r u s , i s o l a t e d f r o m M e r r e m i a q u i n q u e f o l i o H a l l a n d t r a n s m i t t e d b y B e m i s i a t a b a c i r a c e s i d a e ; a n d J a c q u e m o n t i a m o s a i c v i r u s , i s o l a t e d f r o m J a c q u e m o n t i a t a m n i f o l i a G r i s e b a n d t r a n s m i t t e d b y B e m i s i a t a b a c i r a c e s i d a e . R e f e r e n c e s A b r e u -R a m i r e z , A . 1 9 7 8 . I d e n t i f i c a c i ó n d e l m o s a i c o d o r a d o d e l a h a b i c h u e l a ( P h a s e o l u s v u l g a r i s L . ) e n R e p ú b l i c a D o m i n i c a n a . I n v e s t i g a c i ó n ( D o m i n i c a n R e p u b l i c ) 6 : 2 1 -2 4 . a n d G á l v e z , G . E . 1 9 7 9 . I d e n t i f i c a c i ó n d e l m o s a i c o d o r a d o d e l f r i j o l { P h a s e o l u s v u l g a r i s L . ) e n R e p ú b l i c a D o m i n i c a n a . I n : P C C M C A ( P r o g r a m a C o o p e r a t i v o C e n t r o a m e r i c a n o p a r a e l M e j o r a m i e n t o d e C u l t i v o s A l i m e n t i c i o s ) . X X V r e u n i ó n a n u a l , m a r z o 1 9 -2 3 , 1 9 7 9 : m e m o r i a , 4 v o l s . T e g u c i g a l p a , H o n d u r a s . V o l . 3 , p . L I 5 / 1 -L 1 5 / 2 . ; P e ñ a , C . E . ; a n d G á l v e z , G . E . 1 9 7 9 . C o n t r o l d e l v i r u s d e m o s a i c o d o r a d o d e l f r i j o l ( P h a s e o l u s v u l g a r i s L . ) p o r r e s i s t e n c i a v a r i e t a l y p o r c o n t r o l q u í m i c o d e l i n s e c t o v e c t o r B e m i s i a t a b a c i G e n n . I n : P C C M C A ( P r o g r a m a C o o p e r a t i v o C e n t r o a m e r i c a n o p a r a e l M e j o r a m i e n t o d e C u l t i v o s A l i m e n t i c i o s ) . X X V r e u n i ó n a n u a l , m a r z o 1 9 -2 3 , 1 9 7 9 : m e m o r i a , 4 v o l s . T e g u c i g a l p a , H o n d u r a s . V o l . 3 , p . L 1 4 / 1 -L 1 4 / 3 . 3 9 4 A g u d e l o -S . , F . 1 9 7 8 . R e v i s i ó n d e t r a b a j o s h e c h o s e n L a t i n o a m é r i c a s o b r e v i r u s d e l a h a b i c h u e l a ( P h a s e o l u s v u l g a r i s L . ) y s u r e l a c i ó n c o n e l m o s a i c o d o r a d o d e e s t e c u l t i v o e n l a R e p ú b l i c a D o m i n i c a n a . I n v e s t i g a c i ó n ( D o m i n i c a n R e p u b l i c ) 6 : 4 3 -4 6 . A l o n z o -P a d i l l a , F . 1 9 7 5 . E s t u d i o s e n P h a s e o l u s v u l g a r i s L . s o b r e e l c o n t r o l d e l a m o s c a b l a n c a B e m i s i a t a b a c i ( G e n n . ) e n l a z o n a s u ro r i e n t e d e G u a t e m a l a . P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t t h e W o r k s h o p o n B e a n P r o d u c t i o n , C I A T , C a l i , C o l o m b i a , 1 -3 D e c e m b e r 1 9 7 5 . C e n t r o I n t e r n a c i o n a l d e A g r i c u l t u r a T r o p i c a l ( C I A T ) , C a l i , C o l o m b i a . 1 8 p . ( T y p e s c r i p t . ) . 1 9 7 6 . U s o d e i n s e c t i c i d a s g r a n u l a d o s e n f r i j o l p a r a e l c o m b a t e d e E m p o a s c a s p . y B e m i s i a t a b a c i ( G e n n . ) e n e l s u r -o r i e n t e d e G u a t e m a l a . I n : P C C M C A ( P r o g r a m a C o o p e r a t i v o C e n t r o a m e r i c a n o p a r a e l M e j o r a m i e n t o d e C u l t i v o s A l i m e n t i c i o s ) . M e m o r i a , X X I I r e u n i ó n a n u a l , j u l i o 2 6 a l 2 9 , 1 9 7 6 , 3 v o l s . S a n J o s é , C o s t a R i c a . V o l . 1 , p . L -3 4 -1 t o L -3 4 -1 0 . A r é v a l o -R . , C . E . a n d D í a z -C h . , A . J . 1 9 6 6 . D e t e r m i n a c i ó n d e l o s p e r í o d o s m í n i m o s r e q u e r i d o s p o r -B e m i s i a t a b a c i G e n n . e n l a a d q u i s i c i ó n y t r a n s m i s i ó n d e l v i r u s d e l m o s a i c o d o r a d o d e l f r i j o l . I n : P C C M C A ( P r o g r a m a C o o p e r a t i v o C e n t r o a m e r i c a n o p a r a e l M e j o r a m i e n t o d e C u l t i v o s A l i m e n t i c i o s ) . X I I r e u n i ó n a n u a l : m e m o r i a s . S a n J o s é , C o s t a R i c a . A v i d o v , Z . 1 9 5 7 . B i o n o m i c s o f t h e t o b a c c o w h i t e f l y ( B e m i s i a t a b a c i G e n n . ) i n I s r a e l . K t a v i m R e c . A g r i c . R e s . S t n . 7 : 2 5 -4 1 . B i r d , J . 1 9 5 7 . A w h i t e f l y -t r a n s m i t t e d m o s a i c o f J a t r o p h a g o s s y p i f o l i a . U n i v . P . R . A g r i c . E x p . S t n . T e c h . P a p . 2 2 : 1 -3 5 . . 1 9 5 8 . I n f e c t i o u s c h l o r o s i s o f S i d a c a r p i n i f o l i a i n P u e r t o R i c o . U n i v . P . R . A g r i c . E x p . S t n . T e c h . P a p . 2 6 : 1 -2 3 . . 1 9 6 2 . A w h i t e f l y -t r a n s m i t t e d m o s a i c o f R h y n c h o s i a m i n i m a a n d i t s r e l a t i o n t o t o b a c c o l e a f c u r l a n d o t h e r v i r u s d i s e a s e s o f p l a n t s i n P u e r t o R i c o . P h y t o p a t h o l o g y 5 2 ( 3 ) : 2 8 6 . ( A b s t r . ) a n d L ó p e z -R o s a , J . H . [ 1 9 7 3 ] . W h i t e f l y a n d a p h i d -b o r n e v i r u s e s o f b e a n s i n P u e r t o R i c o . I n : I I T A ( I n t e r n a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f T r o p i c a l A g r i c u l t u r e ) . P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e f i r s t I I T A G r a i n L e g u m e I m p r o v e m e n t W o r k s h o p , 2 9 O c t o b e r -2 N o v e m b e r , 1 9 7 3 . I b a d a n , N i g e r i a . p . 2 7 6 -2 7 8 . a n d M a r a m o r o s c h , K . 1 9 7 8 . V i r u s e s a n d v i r u s d i s e a s e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h w h i t e f l i e s . A d v . V i r u s R e s . 2 2 : 5 5 -1 1 0 . 3 9 5 -a n d S á n c h e z , J . 1 9 7 1 . W h i t e f l y -t r a n s m i t t e d v i r u s e s i n P u e r t o R i c o . J . A g r . U n i v . P . R . 5 5 ( 4 ) : 4 6 1 -4 6 7 . ; ; a n d L ó p e z -R o s a , J . H . 1 9 7 0 . W h i t e f l y -t r a n s m i t t e d v i r u s e s i n P u e r t o R i c o . P h y t o p a t h o l o g y 6 0 ( 1 1 ) : 1 5 3 9 . ( A b s t r . ) ; ; a n d V a k i l i , N . G . 1 9 7 3 . G o l d e n y e l l o w m o s a i c o f b e a n s ( P h a s e o l u s v u l g a r i s ) i n P u e r t o R i c o . P h y t o p a t h o l o gy 6 3 ( 1 2 ) : 1 4 3 5. 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F i t o p a t o l o g í a 1 2 ( 1 ) : 2 8 -3 0 . ; S á n c h e z , J . ; R o d r í g u e z , R . L . ; a n d J u l i á , F . J . 1 9 7 5 a . R u g a c e o u s ( w h i t e f l y -t r a n s m i t t e d ) v i r u s e s i n P u e r t o R i c o . I n : B i r d , J . a n d M a r a m o r o s c h , K . ( e d s . ) . T r o p i c a l d i s e a s e s o f l e g u m e s . A c a d e m i c P r e s s , N e w Y o r k , N Y , U S A . p . 3 -2 5 . ; K i m u r a , M . ; C o r t é s -M o n l l o r , A . ; R o d r í g u e z , R . L . ; S á n c h e z , J . ; a n d M a r a m o r o s c h , K . 1 9 7 5 b . M o s a i c o d e E u p h o r b i a p r u n i f o l i a J a c q . e n P u e r t o R i c o : t r a n s m i s i ó n , h o s p e d e r a s y e t i o l o g í a . I n : M e m o r i a : X X I r e u n i ó n a n u a l d e l P C C M C A . P r o g r a m a C o o p e r a t i v o C e n t r o a m e r i c a n o p a r a e l M e j o r a m i e n t o d e C u l t i v o s A l i m e n t i c i o s ( P C C M C A ) . V o l . 1 , p . 2 3 3 -2 3 4 . B l a n c o -S á n c h e z , N . a n d B e n c o m o -P é r e z , I . 1 9 7 8 . A f l u e n c i a d e l a m o s c a b l a n c a ( B e m i s i a t a b a c i ) , v e c t o r d e l v i r u s d e l m o s a i c o d o r a d o , e n p l a n t a c i o n e s d e f r i j o l . C i e n c . A g r i c . 2 P r e s e n c i a d e l v i r u s d e l m o s a i c o d o r a d o d e l f r i j o l ( B G M V ) e n C u b a . C i e n c . A g r i c . 9 : 1 1 8 -1 1 9 . C a n e r , J . ; K u d a m a t s u , M . ; B a r r a d a s , M . M . ; D e F a z i o , G . ; N o r o n h a , A . ; V i c e n t e , M . ; a n d I s s a , E . 1 9 8 1 . A v a l i a c á o d o s d a n o s c a u s a d o s p e l o v i r u s d o m o s a i c o d o u r a d o d o f e i j o e i r o ( V M D F ) , e m t r e s r e g i o e s d o E s t a d o d e S a o P a u l o . B i o l o g i c o ( S a o P a u l o ) 4 7 ( 2 ) : 3 9 -4 6 . C h a g a s , C . M . ; V i c e n t e , M . ; a n d B a r r a d a s , M . M . 1 9 8 1 . M a c r o p t i l i u m e r y t h r o l o x y ( M a r t . e x B e n t h . ) U r b . L e g u m i n o s a e p o s s i v e l r e s e rv a t o r i o d o v i r u s d o m o s a i c o d o u r a d o d o f e i j o e i r o ( V M D F ) . A r q . I n s t . B i o l . ( S a o P a u l o ) 4 8 ( 1 -4 ) : 1 1 3 -1 1 6 . C I A T ( C e n t r o I n t e r n a c i o n a l d e A g r i c u l t u r a T r o p i c a l ) . [ 1 9 7 3 ] . F o o d l e g u m e s p r o d u c t i o n s y s t e m s . I n : A n n u a l r e p o r t 1 9 7 3 . C a l i , C o l o m b i a . p . 1 4 5 -1 8 4 . . [ 1 9 7 5 ] . B e a n p r o d u c t i o n s y s t e m s . I n : A n n u a l r e p o r t 1 9 7 4 . C a l i , C o l o m b i a . p . 1 1 1 -1 5 1 . . [ 1 9 7 6 ] . B e a n p r o d u c t i o n s y s t e m s . I n : A n n u a l r e p o r t 1 9 7 5 . C a l i , C o l o m b i a . p . C -l t o C -5 8 . . [ 1 9 7 7 ] . B e a n P r o d u c t i o n S y s t e m s P r o g r a m . I n : A n n u a l r e p o r t 1 9 7 6 . 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I n c r e a s e i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n a l d e n s i t y o f B e m i s i a t a b a c i , a t h r e a t o f w i d e s p r e a d v i r u s i n f e c t i o n o f l e g u m e c r o p s i n B r a z i l . I n : B i r d , J . a n d M a r a m o r o s c h , K . ( e d s . ) . T r o p i c a l d i s e a s e s o f l e g u m e s . A c a d e m i c P r e s s , N e w Y o r k , N Y , U S A . p . 2 7 -4 9 . . 1 9 7 5 b . P l a n t a s -t e s t e p a r a m o s a i c o d o u r a d o d o f e i j o e i r o . I n : A n a i s d o V I I I c o n g r e s o b r a s i l e i r o d e f i t o p a t o l o g i a . M o s s o r o , R N , B r a z i l . . 1 9 7 6 a . C o m p a r a c a o d e m a c h o s e f e m e a s d e B e m i s i a t a b a c i n a t r a n s m i s s a o d o m o s a i c o d o u r a d o d o f e i j o e i r o . F i t o p a t o l . B r a s . 1 ( 2 ) : 9 9 -1 0 1 . . 1 9 7 6 b . W h i t e f l y -t r a n s m i t t e d p l a n t d i s e a s e s . A n n u . R e v . 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E f e i t o s d o a t a q u e d e v i r o s e s t r a n s m i s s í v e i s p e l a m o s c a b r a n c a n a g e r m i n a c a o e v i g o r d e s e m e n t e s d e f e i j o e i r o . R e v . B r a s . S e m e n t e s 2 ( 1 ) : 2 9 -3 4 . F l o r e s , E . a n d S i l b e r s c h m i d t , K . 1 9 5 8 . R e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n i n s e c t a n d h o s t p l a n t i n t r a n s m i s s i o n e x p e r i m e n t s w i t h i n f e c t i o u s c h l o r o s i s o f M a l v a c e a e . A n . A c a d . B r a s . C i e n c . 5 A b i l i t y o f s i n g l e w h i t e f l i e s t o t r a n s m i t c o n c o m i t a n t l y a s t r a i n o f i n f e c t i o u s c h l o r o s i s o f M a l v a c e a e a n d o f L e o n u r u s m o s a i c v i r u s . P h y t o p a t h o l o g y 5 S t u d i e s o n a n e w v i r u s d i s e a s e o f P h a s e o l u s l o n g e p e d u n c u l a t u s . A n . A c a d . B r a s . C i e n c . 3 8 : 3 2 7 -3 3 4 . ; ; a n d K r a m e r , M . 1 9 6 0 . O b s e r v a c o e s d o c l o r o s e i n f e c c i o s a d a s m a l v á c e a s e m t o m a t e i r o s d o c a m p o . B i o l o g i c o ( S a o P a u l o ) 2 6 : 6 5 -6 9 . G á l v e z , G . E . ; C á r d e n a s , M . J . ; C o s t a , C . L . ; a n d A b r e u -R a m i r e z , A . 1 9 7 7 . S e r o l o g í a , m i c r o s c o p i a e l e c t r ó n i c a y c e n t r i f u g a c i ó n a n a l í t i c a d e g r a d i e n t e s d e d e n s i d a d d e l v i r u s d e l m o s a i c o d o r a d o d e l f r i j o l ( B G M V ) d e a i s l a m i e n t o s d e A m é r i c a L a t i n a y A f r i c a . P r o c . A m . P h y t o p a t h o l . S o c . 4 : 1 7 6 -1 7 7 . ( A b s t r . ) a n d C a s t a ñ o , M . J . 1 9 7 6 . P u r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e w h i t e f l y -t r a n s m i t t e d b e a n g o l d e n m o s a i c v i r u s . T u r r i a l b a 2 6 ( 2 ) : 2 0 5 -2 0 7 . ; ; a n d B e l a l c á z a r , S . 1 9 7 5 . P r e s e n c i a d e l o s v i r u s d e l m o s a i c o d o r a d o y d e l m o t e a d o c l o r ó t i c o d e l f r i j o l e n C o l o m b i a . A S C O L F I I n f . ( C o l o m b i a ) l ( 2 ) : 3 -4 . G á m e z , R . 1 9 6 9 . E s t u d i o s p r e l i m i n a r e s s o b r e v i r u s d e l f r i j o l t r a n s m i t i d o s p o r m o s c a s b l a n c a s ( A l e y r o d i d a e ) e n E l S a l v a d o r . I n : P C C M C A ( P r o g r a m a C o o p e r a t i v o C e n t r o a m e r i c a n o p a r a e l M e j o r a m i e n t o d e C u l t i v o s A l i m e n t i c i o s ) . X V r e u n i ó n a n u a l : m e m o r i a s . S a n S a l v a d o r , E l S a l v a d o r , p . 3 2 -3 3 . . 1 9 7 0 . E l v i r u s d e l m o t e a d o a m a r i l l o d e l f r i j o l , p l a n t a s h o s p e d e r a s y e f e c t o e n p r o d u c c i ó n . I n : A r i a s , C . L . ( e d . ) . F r i j o l : X V I r e u n i ó n a n u a l , A n t i g u a , G u a t e m a l a , e n e r o 2 5 -3 0 , 1 9 7 0 . P u b l i c a c i ó n m i s c e l á n e a n o . 7 7 . P r o g r a m a C o o p e r a t i v o C e n t r o a m e r i c a n o p a r a e l M e j o r a m i e n t o d e C u l t i v o s A l i m e n t i c i o s ( P C C M C A ) , A n t i g u a , G u a t e m a l a . p . 4 4 -4 8 . . 1 9 7 1 . L o s v i r u s d e l f r i j o l e n C e n t r o a m é r i c a , I : t r a n s m i s i ó n p o r m o s c a s b l a n c a s ( B e m i s i a t a b a c i G e n n . ) y p l a n t a s h o s p e d a n t e s d e l v i r u s d e l m o s a i c o d o r a d o . T u r r i a l b a 2 1 ( 1 ) : 2 2 -2 7 . . 1 9 7 2 . R e a c c i ó n d e v a r i e d a d e s d e f r i j o l a d i v e r s o s v i r u s d e i m p o r t a n c i a e n C e n t r o a m é r i c a . I n : R u l f o -V . , F . a n d M i r a n d a , H . ( e d s . ) . L e g u m i n o s a s d e g r a n o : X V I I I r e u n i ó n a n u a l , M a n a g u a , N i c a r a g u a , m a r z o 6 -1 0 , 1 9 7 2 . P r o g r a m a C o o p e r a t i v o C e n t r o a m e r i c a n o p a r a e l M e j o r a m i e n t o d e C u l t i v o s A l i m e n t i c i o s ( P C C M C A ) , M a n a g u a , N i c a r a g u a . p . 1 0 8 -1 0 9 . G i b b s , A . a n d H a r r i s o n , B . 1 9 7 6 . P l a n t v i r o l o g y : t h e p r i n c i p l e s . E d w a r d A r n o l d , L o n d o n , E n g l a n d . 2 9 2 p . G o o d m a n , R . M . 1 9 7 7 a . I n f e c t i o u s D N A f r o m a w h i t e f l y -t r a n s m i t t e d v i r u s o f P h a s e o l u s v u l g a r i s . N a t u r e ( L o n d . ) 2 6 6 ( 5 5 9 7 ) : 5 4 -5 5 . . 1 9 7 7 b . S i n g l e -s t r a n d e d D N A g e n o m e i n a w h i t e f l y -t r a n s m i t t e d p l a n t v i r u s . V i r o l o g y 8 3 ( 1 ) : 1 7 1 -1 7 9 . a n d B i r d , J . 1 9 7 8 . B e a n g o l d e n m o s a i c v i r u s . C M 1 / A A B ( C o mm o n w . M y c o l . I n s t , [ a n d ] A s s o c . A p p l . B i o l . ) D e s c r . P l a n t V i r u s e s . S e t 1 2 , s h e e t n o . 1 9 2 , 4 p . ; ; a n d T h o n g m e e a r k o m , P . 1 9 7 7 . A n u n u s u a l v i r u s l i k e p a r t i c l e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h g o l d e n y e l l o w m o s a i c o f b e a n s . P h y t o p a t h o l o g y 6 7 ( 1 ) : 3 7 -4 2 . ; S h o c k , T . L . ; H a b e r , S . ; B r o w n i n g , K . S . ; a n d B o w e r s , G . R . , J r . 1 9 8 0 . T h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f b e a n g o l d e n m o s a i c v i r u s a n d i t s s i n g l es t r a n d e d D N A g e n o m e . V i r o l o g y 1 0 6 ( 1 ) : 1 6 8 -1 7 2 . G r a n i l l o , C . ; D í a z -C h . , A . J . ; A n a y a -G . , M . A . ; a n d B e r m u d e z d e P a z , L . A . 1 9 7 5 . D i s e a s e s t r a n s m i t t e d b y B e m i s i a t a b a c i i n E l S a l v a d o r . I n : B i r d , J . a n d M a r a m o r o s c h , K . ( e d s . ) . T r o p i c a l d i s e a s e s o f l e g u m e s . A c a d e m i c P r e s s , N e w Y o r k , N Y , U S A . p . 5 1 -5 3 . H a b e r , S . ; I k e g a m i , M . ; B a j e t , N . B . ; a n d G o o d m a n , R . M . 1 9 8 1 . E v i d e n c e f o r a d i v i d e d g e n o m e i n b e a n g o l d e n m o s a i c v i r u s , a g e m i n i v i r u s . N a t u r e ( L o n d . ) 2 r i s , K . F . 1 9 8 1 . A r t h r o p o d a n d n e m a t o d e v e c t o r s o f p l a n t v i r u s e s . A n n u . R e v . P h y t o p a t h o l . 1 9 : 3 9 1 -4 2 6 . H a r r i s o n , B . D . 1 9 8 5 . A d v a n c e s i n g e m i n i v i r u s r e s e a r c h . A n n u . R e v . P h y t o p a t h o l . 2 3 : 5 5 -8 2 . I C T A ( I n s t i t u t o d e C i e n c i a y T e c n o l o g í a A g r i c o l a s ) . 1 9 7 6 . P r o g r a m a d e p r o d u c t i o n d e f r i j o l . I n : I n f o r m e a n u a l . G u a t e m a l a C i t y , G u a t e m a l a . 7 3 p . J a y a s i n g h e , W . U . 1 9 8 2 . C h l o r o t i c m o t t l e o f b e a n ( P h a s e o l u s v u l g a r i s L . ) . C I A T s e r i e s 0 9 E B ( 2 ) 8 2 . C e n t r o I n t e r n a c i o n a l d e A g r i c u l t u r a T r o p i c a l ( C I A T ) , C a l i , C o l o m b i a . 1 5 7 p . ( O r i g i n a l l y P h . D . d i s s e r t a t i o n . L a n d b o u w h o g e s c h o o l , W a g e n i n g e n , N e t h e r l a n d s . ) K i m , K . S . ; S c h o c k , T . L . ; a n d G o o d m a n , R . M . 1 9 7 8 . I n f e c t i o n o f P h a s e o l u s v u l g a r i s b y b e a n g o l d e n m o s a i c v i r u s : u l t r a s t r u c t u r a l a s p e c t s . V i r o l o g y 8 9 ( 1 ) : 2 2 -3 3 . K i t a j i m a , E . W . a n d C o s t a , A . S . 1 9 7 4 . M i c r o s c o p i a e l e c t r o n i c a d o s t e c i d o s f o l h a d o s d a s p l a n t a s a f e t a d a s p e l o v i r u s t r a n s m i t i d o s p e l a m o s c a -b r a n c a . I n : T h e e i g h t a n n u a l c o n g r e s s o f t h e S o c i e d a d e B r a s i l e i r a d o F i t o p a t o l o g i a . B r a s i l i a , D F , B r a z i l . ( A b s t r . ) M a r a m o r o s c h , K . 1 9 7 5 . E t i o l o g y o f w h i t e f l y -b o r n e d i s e a s e s . I n : B i r d , J . a n d M a r a m o r o s c h , K . ( e d s . ) . T r o p i c a l d i s e a s e s o f l e g u m e s . A c a d e m i c P r e s s , N e w Y o r k , N Y , U S A . p . 7 1 -7 7 . 4 0 1 M a t t h e w s , R . E . F . 1 9 7 9 . C l a s s i f i c a t i o n a n d n o m e n c l a t u r e o f v i r u s e s . I n t e r v i r o l o g y 1 2 : 1 2 9 -2 9 6 . M a t y i s , J . C ; S i l v a , D . M . ; O l i v e i r a , A . R . ; a n d C o s t a , A . S . 1 9 7 5 . P u r i f i c a c ã o e m o r f o l o g í a d o v i r u s d o m o s a i c o d o u r a d o d o t o m a t e i r o . S u m m a P h y t o p a t h o l . ( B r a z i l ) 1 M o r f o l o g í a d e t r ê s v í r u s t r a n s m i t i d o s p o r B e m i s i a t a b a c i . I n : P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e t e n t h a n n u a l c o n g r e s s o f t h e S o c i e d a d e B r a s i l e i r a d o F i t o p a t o l o g i a , f e v e r e i r o 2 -6 , C a m p i n a s , S ã o P a u l o , B r a z i l . ( A b s t r . ) M e i n e r s , J . P . ; L a w s o n , R . H . ; S m i t h , F . F . ; a n d D í a z -C h . , A . J . 1 9 7 5 . M e c h a n i c a l t r a n s m i s s i o n o f w h i t e f l y ( B e m i s i a ( a b a c i ) -b o r n e d i s e a s e a g e n t s o f b e a n s i n E l S a l v a d o r . I n : B i r d , J . a n d M a r a m o r o s c h , K . ( e d s . ) . T r o p i c a l d i s e a s e s o f l e g u m e s . A c a d e m i c P r e s s , N e w Y o r k , N Y , U S A . p . 6 1 -6 9 . M é n d e z , M . ; A m a r o , A . J . ; C o n c e p c i o n , M . ; a n d M a r t i n , H . 1 9 7 6 . 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E v a l u a c i ó n d e i n s e c t i c i d a s e n h a b i c h u e l a ( P h a s e o l u s v u l g a r i s L . ) e n S a n J u a n d e l a M a g u a n a y s u e f e c t o e n l a i n c i d e n c i a d e l m o s a i c o d o r a d o . I n v e s t i g a c i ó n ( D o m i n i c a n R e p u b l i c ) 6 : -1 4 . ; C o n c e p c i ó n , M . E . ; D o m í n g u e z , H . L . ; A m a r o , A . J . ; a n d M a r t í n , H . 1 9 7 6 . E n s a y o d e i n s e c t i c i d a s c o n t r a p l a g a s v e c t o r e s d e v i r u s e n e l c u l t i v o d e l a h a b i c h u e l a ( P h a s e o l u s v u l g a r i s L . ) e n l a z o n a d e S a n J u a n d e l a M a g u a n a . I n v e s t i g a c i ó n ( D o m i n i c a n R e p u b l i c ) 3 : 8 -1 5 . P i e r r e , R . E . 1 9 2 . I d e n t i f i c a t i o n a n d c o n t r o l o f d i s e a s e s a n d p e s t s o f ' R e d P e a ' ( P h a s e o l u s v u l g a r i s ) i n J a m a i c a . E x t e n s i o n b u l l e t i n n o . 6 . D e p a r t m e n t o f A g r i c u l t u r a l E x t e n s i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f t h e W e s t I n d i e s , S t . A u g u s t i n e , T r i n i d a d . 3 1 p . . 1 9 7 5 . O b s e r v a t i o n s o n t h e g o l d e n m o s a i c o f b e a n ( P h a s e o l u s v u l g a r i s L . ) i n J a m a i c a . I n : B i r d , J . a n d M a r a m o r o s c h , K . ( e d s . ) . T r o p i c a l d i s e a s e s o f l e g u m e s . A c a d e m i c P r e s s , N e w Y o r k , N Y , U S A . p . 5 5 -5 9 . P o m p e u , A . S . a n d K r a n z , W . M . 1 9 7 7 . L i n h a g e n s d e f e i j o e i r o ( P h a s e o l u s v u l g a r i s L . ) r e s i s t e n t e s a o v i r u s d o m o s a i c o d o u r a d o . S u m m a P h y t o p a t h o l . 3 ( 2 ) : 1 6 2 -1 6 3 . R a m a k r i s h n a n , K . ; K a n d a s w a m y , T . K . ; S u b r a m a n i a n , K . S . ; J a n a rt h a n a n , R . ; M a n a p p a n , V . ; S a t h y a b a l a n -S a m u e l , G . ; a n d N a v a n ee t h a n , G . 1 9 7 3 . I n v e s t i g a t i o n s o n v i r u s d i s e a s e s o f p u l s e c r o p s i n T a m i l N a d u : t e c h n i c a l r e p o r t . T a m i l N a d u A g r i c u l t u r a l U n i v e r s i t y , C o i m b a t o r e , I n d i a . 5 3 p . 4 0 3 R a t h i , Y . P . S . a n d N e n e , Y . L . 1 9 7 4 . S o m e a s p e c t s o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n m u n g b e a n y e l l o w m o s a i c v i r u s a n d i t s v e c t o r B e m i s i a t a b a c i . I n d i a n P h y t o p a t h o l . 2 7 ( 4 ) : 4 5 9 -4 6 2 . R u s s e l l , L . M . 1 9 5 7 . S y n o n y m s o f B e m i s i a t a b a c i ( G e n n a d i u s ) ( H o m o pt e r a , A l e y r o d i d a e ) . B i o l . B u l l . B r o o k l y n E n t o m o l . S o c . 5 W h i t e f l i e s o n b e a n s i n t h e w e s t e r n h e m i s p h e r e . P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t t h e W o r k s h o p o n B e a n P r o d u c t i o n , C I A T , C a l i , C o l o m b i a , 1 -3 D e c e m b e r 1 9 7 5 . C e n t r o I n t e r n a c i o n a l d e A g r i c u l t u r a T r o p i c a l ( C I A T ) , C a l i , C o l o m b i a . 2 2 p . ( T y p e s c r i p t . ) S c h i e b e r , E . 1 9 7 0 . E n f e r m e d a d e s d e l f r i j o l ( P h a s e o l u s v u l g a r i s ) e n l a R e p u b l i c a D o m i n i c a n a . T u r r i a l b a 2 0 ( 1 ) : 2 0 -2 3 . S i f u e n t e s -A . , J . A . 1 9 7 8 . P l a g a s d e l f r i j o l e n M e x i c o . R e v . e d . F o l l e t o d e d i v u l g a t i o n n o . 6 9 ; f o l l e t o t e c n i c o n o . 7 8 . I n s t i t u t o N a c i o n a l d e I n v e s t i g a c i o n e s A g r i c o l a s , S e c r e t a r í a d e A g r i c u l t u r a y R e c u r s o s H i d r a u l i c o s , M e x i c o C i t y , M e x i c o . 2 8 p . S i l b e r s c h m i d t , K . . a n d F l o r e s , E . 1 9 6 2 . A i n t e r a c a o d o v i r u s c a u s a d o r d a c l o r o s e i n f e c c i o s a d a s M a l v a c e a s c o m o o v i r u s X d a b a t a t i n h a , o v i r u s d o m o s a i c o d o f u m o a o u o v i r u s d o m o s a i c o d o p e p i n o , e m t o m a t e i r o s . A n . A c a d . B r a s . C i e n c . 3 d T o m a s i , L . R . 1 9 5 7 . F u r t h e r s t u d i e s o n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l t r a n s m i s s i o n o f i n f e c t i o u s c h l o r o s i s o f M a l v a c e a e . P h y t o p a t h o l . Z . 3 0 : 3 7 8 -4 1 4 . a n d T o m a s i , L . R . 1 9 5 5 . O b s e r v a c o e s e e s t u d o s s o b r e e s p e c i e s d e p l a n t a s s u s c e t i v e i s a c l o r o s e i n f e c c i o s a d a s M a l v a c e a s . A n . A c a d . B r a s . C i e n c . 2 A s o l a n a c e o u s h o s t o f t h e v i r u s o f i n f e c t i o u s c h l o r o s i s o f M a l v a c e a e . A n n . A p p l . B i o l . 4 4 : 1 6 1 -1 6 5 . a n d U l s o n , C . M . 1 9 5 4 . T h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f \" i n f e c t i o u s c h l o r o s i s \" o f M a l v a c e a e b y g r a f t i n g a n i n s e c t v e c t o r . I n : P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e e i g h t h i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n g r e s s o f B o t a n i q u e , P a r i s , F r a n c e , p . 2 3 3 . T u l m a n n -N e t o , A . ; A n d o , A . ; a n d C o s t a , A . S . 1 9 7 6 . B e a n b r e e d i n g p r o g r a m a t C E N A , I I : i n d u c e d m u t a t i o n i n b e a n s ( P h a s e o l u s v u l g a r i s ) t o o b t a i n v a r i e t i e s r e s i s t a n t t o g o l d e n m o s a i c v i r u s . B e a n I m p r o v . C o o p . ( U S A ) A n n u . R e p . 1 9 : 8 6 . . A t t e m p t s t o i n d u c e m u t a n t s r e s i s t a n t o r t o l e r a n t t o g o l d e n m o s a i c v i r u s i n d r y b e a n s ( P h a s e o l u s v u l g a r i s L . ) . I n : I n t e r n a t i o n a l s y m p o s i u m o n t h e u s e o f i n d u c e d m u t a t i o n s f o r i m p r o v e d d i s e a s e r e s i s t a n c e i n c r o p p l a n t s . V i e n n a , A u s t r i a . 1 . B e a n b r e e d i n g p r o g r a m a t C E N A , I I I : n e w r e s u l t s i n a t t e m p t s t o i n d u c e m u t a n t s r e s i s t a n t o r t o l e r a n t t o g o l d e n m o s a i c v i r u s i n d r y b e a n s ( P h a s e o l u s v u l g a r i s L . ) . B e a n I m p r o v . C o o p . ( U S A ) A n n u . R e p . 2 0 : 8 6 . V a r m a , P . M . 1 9 6 3 . T r a n s m i s s i o n o f p l a n t v i r u s e s b y w h i t e f l i e s . N a t l . I n s t . S c i . B u l l . ( I n d i a ) 2 4 : 1 1 -3 3 . V e t t e n , H . J . a n d A l l e n , D . J . 1 9 8 3 . E f f e c t s o f e n v i r o n m e n t a n d h o s t o n v e c t o r b i o l o g y a n d i n c i d e n c e o f t w o w h i t e f l y -s p r e a d d i s e a s e s o f l e g u m e s i n N i g e r i a . A n n . A p p l . B i o l . 1 0 2 ( 2 ) : 2 1 9 -2 2 7 . W i l l i a m s , R . J . 1 9 7 6 . A w h i t e f l y -t r a n s m i t t e d g o l d e n m o s a i c o f l i m a b e a n s i n N i g e r i a . P l a n t D i s . R e p . 6 0 ( 1 0 ) : 8 5 3 -8 5 7 . Y o s h i i , K . 1 9 7 5 . U n a n u e v a e n f e r m e d a d d e l a s o y a ( G l y c i n e m a x ) e n e l V a l l e d e l C a u c a . N o t . F i t o p a t o l . ( C o l o m b i a ) 1 : 3 3 -4 1 . . 1 9 8 1 . E l m o s a i c o d o r a d o d e f r i j o l e n e l G o l f o C e n t r o d e M é x i c o . P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t t h e X X V I I r e u n i ó n a n u a l d e P C C M C A , S a n t o D o m i n g o , R e p ú b l i c a D o m i n i c a n a , 2 3 -2 7 d e m a r z o d e 1 9 8 1 . 7 p . ( T y p e s c r i p t . ) ; G a l v e z , G . E . ; a n d L y o n , H . 1 9 7 9 a . E v a l u a c i ó n d e g e r m o p l a s m a s d e P h a s e o l u s p o r t o l e r a n c i a a l m o s a i c o d o r a d o d e l f r i j o l ( B G M V ) . I n : P C C M C A ( P r o g r a m a C o o p e r a t i v o C e n t r o a m e r i c a n o p a r a e l M e j o r a m i e n t o d e C u l t i v o s A l i m e n t i c i o s ) . X X V r e u n i ó n a n u a l , m a r z o 1 9 -2 3 , 1 9 7 9 : m e m o r i a , 4 v o l s . T e g u c i g a l p a , H o n d u r a s . V o l . 3 m p l e , S . R . ; M a s a y a , P . ; O r o z c o , S . H . ; a n d L e i v a , O . R . 1 9 7 9 b . A v a n c e s e n l a s s e l e c c i o n e s d e l í n e a s d e f r i j o l t o l e r a n t e s a l m o s a i c o d o r a d o ( B G M V ) e n G u a t e m a l a . I n : P C C M C A ( P r o g r a m a C o o p e r a t i v o C e n t r o a m e r i c a n o p a r a e l M e j o r a m i e n t o d e C u l t i v o s A l i m e n t i c i o s ) . X X V r e u n i ó n a n u a l , m a r z o 1 9 -2 3 , 1 9 7 9 : m e m o r i a , 4 v o l s . T e g u c i g a l p a , H o n d u r a s . V o l . 3 , p . L 2 4 / 1 -L 2 4 / 6 . Z a u m e y e r , W . J . a n d S m i t h , F . F . 1 9 6 4 . R e p o r t o f b e a n d i s e a s e a n d i n s e c t s u r v e y i n E l S a l v a d o r . A g e n c y f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t ( A I D ) T e c h n i c a l A s s i s t a n c e A g r e e m e n t . A g r i c u l t u r a l R e s e a r c h S e r v i c e , U n i t e d S t a t e s D e p a r t m e n t o f A g r i c u l t u r e ( A R S / U S D A ) , B e l t s v i l l e . M D , U S A . 4 0 5 "}],"sieverID":"6be33971-756b-48ee-bbe0-811c4c1c30fa","abstract":"B e m i s i a t a b a c i , t h e c o m m o n w h i t e f l y , i s t h e m o s t p r e v a l e n t w h i t e f l y v e c t o r o f p l a n t v i r u s e s . I t e x h i b i t s c o n s i d e r a b l e v a r i a b i l i t y i n i t s f e e d i n g a n d r e p r o d u c t i v e h a b i t s o n d i f f e r e n t p l a n t s p e c i e s . F l o r e s a n d S i l b e r s c h m i d t ( 1 9 5 8 ) a n d R u s s e l l ( 1 9 7 5 ) a t t r i b u t e t h i s v a r i a t i o n t o t h e e x i s t e n c e o f b i o t y p e s , w h i l e B i r d ( 1 9 5 7 , 1 9 5 8 , a n d 1 9 6 2 ) a n d B i r d a n d S a n c h e z ( 1 9 7 1 ) r e f e r t o t h e m a s r a c e s : B . t a b a c i r a c e j a t r o p h a e a n d r a c e s i d a e . H o w e v e r , t h e s t r o n g h o s t p r e f e r e n c e b e h a v i o r o f B . t a b a c i m u s t b e t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t ( M o u n d , 1 9 7 3 ) . V e r y f e w w h i t e f l y -t r a n s m i t t e d a g e n t s h a v e b e e n i s o l a t e d a n d p r o v e d t o b e v i r u s e s . B i r d e t a l . ( 1 9 7 5 a ) s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e d i s e a s e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h w h i t e f l y -t r a n s m i t t e d a g e n t s s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d a s r u g a c e o u s d i s e a s e s . * P l a n t p a t h o l o g i s t , C I A T / 1 C A P r o j e c t , L i m a , P e r u ; a n d v i r o l o g i s t , C e n t r o I n t e r n a c i o n a l d e A g r i c u lt u r a T r o p i c a l ( C I A T ) , C a l i , C o l o m b i a , r e s p e c t i v e l y . I n b e a n s , t w o i m p o r t a n t , a p p a r e n t l y r e l a t e d b u t d i f f e r e n t , d i s e a s e s h a v e b e e n c o n s i s t e n t l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e c o m m o n w h i t e f l y v e c t o r B . t a b a c i : b e a n g o l d e n m o s a i c a n d b e a n d w a r f m o s a i c ."}

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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0c50f95601c72e2ee991dbf697b7f679","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6c1a8b51-1d09-41bc-88db-98ff524394de/retrieve"},"pageCount":23,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"La cebada es una gramínea de clima frío que se cosecha en promedio en ocho meses (de acuerdo a la variedad) y que requiere de precipitaciones durante el periodo de germinación. El INIAP ha lanzado al mercado variedades mejoradas de las cuales la Shyri y Atahualpa se siembran en la provincia del Chimborazo."},{"index":2,"size":171,"text":"Las superficie cultivada de cebada a nivel nacional es de 48.874 ha (INEC) de las cuales Chimborazo representa el 40% del total cultivado. La superficie sembrada en Chimborazo en el año 2000 fue de 19420 ha (III Censo Nacional Agropecuario) que representaba el 4 % de la superficie agrícola de la provincia, pero para el año 2004 la superficie sembrada se redujo a 16000 ha (MAG). Esto implica que la siembra de cebada se está reduciendo drásticamente (23% en cuatro años) debido a varios factores que afectan a los productores, tales como: bajos niveles de productividad debido a suelos erosionados y a la falta de conocimiento en el uso de insumos adecuados, precios bajos que no cubren los costos de producción, débil poder de negociación de los pequeños productores y al ingreso de cebada proveniente de Perú. A estos problemas se añaden otros como el deterioro de la calidad del grano debido a un mal manejo postcosecha (falta de silos) y a una cadena de comercialización injusta para el pequeño productor."},{"index":3,"size":83,"text":"Los productores destinan buena parte de su cosecha para el autoconsumo. El grano se comercializa además como alimento de animales (especialmente caballos), como semilla en la época de siembra o para ser transformado en harina (máchica) y arroz de cebada. Años atrás, un buen mercado para la cebada era la industria cervecera, pero actualmente la materia prima para la cerveza es importada en su totalidad, esto por características particulares de la materia prima y por intereses de las empresas que elaboran dichos productos."},{"index":4,"size":61,"text":"Como residuos de la cosecha se obtiene paja y tamo con lo que se realizan pacas para animales o para la industria de colchones, y los residuos de la molinería (afrecho) se destinan también para alimento animal. Productores de las zonas de Alausí y Guamote participan de una iniciativa para entregar producto al Camari, el cual es luego exportado a Europa."},{"index":5,"size":56,"text":"Los centros de acopio actúan como bodegas de almacenamiento de los granos, aquí, una buena parte del producto es transformado, mientras que otra es nuevamente vendida a los pequeños productores como semilla (debido a que estos no le dan al grano un tratamiento postcosecha adecuado, la semilla generalmente no alcanza la mejor calidad que podría tener)."},{"index":6,"size":86,"text":"A lo largo de toda la cadena se evidencia una falta de confianza entre los actores de los distintos eslabones. Los transformadores y acopiadores argumentan que el grano nacional es delgado y lleno de impurezas, mientras que los comercializadores de los productos transformados argumentan que la harina no es de buena calidad ya que se la mezcla con otros productos. Por su parte, los productores son los que reciben los menores ingresos en la cadena, lo cual limita mucho sus posibilidades de mejoras y volúmenes adecuados."},{"index":7,"size":101,"text":"Con el fin de introducir mejoras al proceso y buscar soluciones a los problemas mencionados se han organizado ciertas comunidades de productores que reciben el apoyo de organizaciones no gubernamentales (como el FEPP, Diócesis de Riobamba, Fundación MARCO) que les brindan asistencia técnica, innovación tecnológica, créditos con bajos intereses y acceso a nuevos mercados. Existen pocas asociaciones establecidas de productores de cebada por lo que el poder de negociación de los pequeños y medianos productores individuales (que comercializan pocas cantidades) es casi nulo, pero en ciertas comunidades se observa cierto nivel de organización, que usualmente ha sido fomentado por alguna ONG."},{"index":8,"size":172,"text":"Los grandes productores se caracterizan por cultivar bajo características semitecnificadas, en donde los costos de producción son mucho más elevados debido al uso de fertilizantes, semilla certificada, maquinaria para la preparación de suelos, cosecha, segada y trilla. Como resultado se obtienen mejores rendimientos (42 qq/ha) y grano de mejor calidad. Para financiar el cultivo se realizan préstamos a entidades bancarias y por lo general el dueño de la hacienda siembra al partir con alguna persona de la localidad (se llega a un acuerdo acerca de los gastos y el trabajo y se comparten las ganancias). Los grandes productores tienen mucho mayor poder de negociación debido a los volúmenes de producto que manejan, y obtienen mejores precios que el pequeño productor por la calidad del grano que ofrecen ($9/qq). Generalmente venden toda la cosecha al mejor comprador quien en ocasiones retira el producto del sitio de producción. Pero los ingresos obtenidos, si bien alcanzan para cubrir los costos de producción, no son representativos para el área sembrada y la utilidad es muy baja."}]},{"head":"Comercialización y procesamiento de la cebada","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"La cadena de la cebada se caracteriza por la presencia de bodegas ubicadas en las principales poblaciones de los cantones dedicados a este cultivo (Riobamba, Tixán, Gua mote, Alausí) que se dedican al acopio del grano principalmente en la época de cosecha (Agosto -Octubre)."},{"index":2,"size":126,"text":"Del total del producto cultivado por los pequeños y medianos productores, sólo un 25% es destinado a la venta en el mercado local o en los centros de acopio, llegando en épocas de cosecha a comercializarse a $6/qq y elevándose el precio a medida que se acerca la época de siembra (Diciembre a Febrero). El resto de la producción está dirigida al autoabastecimiento para la alimentación humana o animal durante el año y el grano solo se saca a la venta cuando existe una necesidad económica en las familias productoras. Los grandes productores venden el total de su producción a los centros de acopio. Es práctica común rentar un transporte a un costo de $0,30/qq para llevar el producto a las bodegas o al mercado local."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"Es importante resaltar el ingreso de cebada desde el Perú, caracterizándose este por su calidad y precios bajos de acuerdo a información proporcionada por los intermediarios."},{"index":4,"size":69,"text":"Las principales bodegas particulares transforman la cebada en harina (máchica) o arroz de cebada y el residuo, llamado afrecho, se vende como alimento para cerdos. Para su transformación los acopiadores poseen molinos propios (con una capacidad promedio de 3qq/hora) o los rentan pagando $3/qq procesado. Este producto transformado es comercializado por los mismos centros de acopio de grano y lo distribuyen a minoristas o lo venden directo al consumidor."},{"index":5,"size":61,"text":"En la feria de San Alfonso, los días sábados en la ciudad de Riobamba, es común encontrar pequeños molinos (capacidad de 1 qq/h) operados por minoristas quienes muelen el grano previamente tostado para obtener máchica y venderla por pequeñas cantidades. La base para el cálculo es un quintal de cebada ($6,5) con el cual se obtienen 80 lb de máchica ($0,25/lb)."}]},{"head":"DISTRIBUCION DE INGRESOS POR QUINTAL DE CEBADA PROCESADA","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Costos del productor","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Transporte Ganancia productor","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Costo molino","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Costo transfor mador","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Ganancia","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":184,"text":"En el cuadro anterior podemos observar como se da la distribución de los ingresos dentro de la cadena para un quintal de cebada utilizado para hacer máchica (1 qq de grano = 80 lb de máchica). Del precio del producto final, solo un 4% representa la ganancia que percibe el productor. Los costos de producción del pequeño productor (quien tienen que contratar mano de obra para ciertas tareas como siembra y cosecha, adquiere parte de su semilla en las bodegas, tiene que alquilar tractor para las labores de preparación de suelo, y tiene que pagar por transporte) representan el 27% de precio final. La ganancia neta del acopiador que transforma el grano en máchica será del 30,5% (este actor es el que tiene el mayor poder de negociación dentro de la cadena, considerando que alquila un molino para la transformación (un 12% del pricio final está destinado a pagar por el servicio de molinaje). Pero en la mayoría de las ocasiones el acopiador posee un molino propio. Finalmente, la ganancia del minorista representará el 20% del precio pagado por el consumidor por el producto."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"1.2. MAPA DE LA CADENA PRODUCTIVA DE LA CEBADA APOYADA POR ONG'S"}]},{"head":"Producción y transformación","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"En 1997 inicia el trabajo del FEPP en comunidades de la zona sur (Comunidad La Pacífica -38 socios-, Yacupungo -16 socios-, y otras) de la Provincia del Chimborazo dedicadas al cultivo de cebada a través del apoyo a la producción (entrega de semilla certificada y creación de bancos de semilla) y brindando asistencia técnica en aspectos agrícolas. A partir del año 2000 se inicia el apoyo a centros de acopio familiares y a la transformación mediante el financiamiento de molinos comunitarios y silos para guardar el grano (Comunidad La Pacífica)."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"Por otro lado, el Proyecto Punín, ejecutado por la Diócesis de Riobamba desde el año 2001, brinda también asistencia técnica a comunidades del cantón Riobamba (apoyo técnico a la producción, crédito, etc), con lo cual se logró incrementar los rendimientos, llegando a obtener 9 quintales por cada quintal de semilla sembrada. En el 2002 se incorporaron molinos a estas comunidades para darle valor agregado a la producción y mejorar los ingresos a través de la creación de microempresas rurales."},{"index":3,"size":148,"text":"Desde entonces se ha implementado una pequeña industria artesanal que tuesta y muele la cebada en estos molinos comunitarios (capacidad: 1qq/h) y cuyo producto, es decir máchica ($18/qq) y arroz de ceba da ($22/qq) es entregado a minoristas de la ciudad y a CAMARI para ser comercializado en sus tiendas. Estas micro empresas comunitarias apoyadas por el Proyecto Punín sew pueden observar en las organizaciones de Bacum, Shungubuj y Nautec, quienes se proveen de materia prima a un precio por quintal igual al del mercado a través de sus socios o de productores de la zona, pues ya no tienen que llevar su producto a las ciudades donde se encuentran los centros de acopio. Pero en ocasiones cuando no existe suficiente materia prima en la zona (generalmente en época de siembra) deben adquirir cebada en las bodegas de Riobamba, Guamote y Cajabamba, pagando precios más elevados ($8 -9/qq)."},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":"Al ser los productores socios de los molinos comunitarios las utilidades obte nidas por la transformación del producto regresan a los productores ya sea en dinero o en obras que benefician a la comunidad."},{"index":5,"size":78,"text":"Actualmente los molinos trabajan solo bajo pedido y no funcionan a toda su capacidad, (solo procesan 50 -70 quintales por mes) puesto que no existe una demanda elevada por el producto y debido a la competencia existente con los molinos de los acopiadores o con producto que se trae de otras provincias como Cotopaxi o Tungurahua a precios iguales o menores. Otro problema que afrontan es que los minoristas les piden facturas, y por su falta pierden clientes."},{"index":6,"size":26,"text":"Un aspecto positivo que debe ser mencionado es que los molinos apoyados por el Proyecto Punin llevan registros contables y mantienen un aceptable grado de organización."},{"index":7,"size":29,"text":"Los productos de los molinos comunitarios, especialmente la máchica, son reconocidos por su calidad superior al de la competencia y además por estar elaborados con materia prima cultivada orgánicamente."},{"index":8,"size":119,"text":"Otra iniciativa impulsada por el proyecto Punin desde el año 2002, para la elaboración de pacas de tamo de cebada, es la Agroempresa Nuevos Horizontes, ubicada en la comunidad de Chulcunac Alto, parroquia Punín. Esta empresa rural ha sido también apoyada por la Fundación MARCO (organización de sus socios, asistencia técnica, préstamos para maquinaria y comercialización) y el proyecto Emprender. Sus socios utilizan la paja de sus cultivos de cebada o la adquieren a otros productores o asociaciones y elaboran pacas que son utilizadas para la elaboración de colc hones o como alimento animal. Esta Agroempresa cuenta con un banco de semillas para que sus socios tengan la seguridad de contar con materia prima el momento de la siembra."},{"index":9,"size":23,"text":"Además son prestatarios de servicios pues cuentan con una trilladora que arriendan a las personas del sector que se dedican a este cultivo."}]},{"head":"Exportaciones","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"De la provincia del Chimborazo, el CAMARI está acopiando para exportar anualmente 200qq de cebada perlada y con cáscara hacia Italia para la elaboración de suplementos alimenticios o combinaciones con café. El problema que impide incrementar estas exportaciones es el bajo volumen acopiado. Además la calidad del producto no es uniforme; se tiene problemas fitosanitarios o de falta de precipitaciones que hace que el grano sea muy delgado o no apto para el mercado exterior."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"Este producto se ha acopiado de los productores asociados que trabajan con el FEPP de los cantones de Alausí y Guamote y por el cual se paga $12/qq. Estos granos fueron seleccionados y, al igual que los productos comercializados por las asociaciones, es demandado en el exterior por ser orgánico."}]},{"head":"MECANISMOS DE ARTICULACIÓN HORIZONTAL Y VERTICAL DE LOS PRODUCTORES DE PEQUEÑA ESCALA A CADENAS PRODUCTIVAS","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Mecanismos de articulación vertical","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"Existen diversas ONGs que han apoyado a comunidades productoras de cebada de la zona para que se organicen y de esta forma se puedan articular de una mejor manera con los otros eslabones de la cadena productiva. A través de estas organizaciones se ha logrado que l os socios actúen como productores y transformadores de modo que mejoren sus ingresos, dándole un valor agregado elevado a la cebada. A la vez, se les ha ayudado a enlazarse con centros de comercialización ya que estos molinos entregan su producto a comerci alizadores finales o, como ya se mencionó, en algunos casos al centro de acopio CAMARI que los comercializa en sus tiendas."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"Una experiencia nueva es la exportación de cebada en grano de las comunidades apoyadas por el FEPP a través de la organización CAMARI hacia Italia, obteniendo mejores precios por la cebada por ser esta cultivada sin el uso de agentes químicos."},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"A través de las relaciones establecidas, también se ha logrado dar un valor agregado a los desechos de la cosecha. La agroempresa Nuevos Horizontes de la zona de Chulcunac Alto, impulsada inicialmente por el Proyecto Punín y ahora también por la Fundación MARCO y Proyecto Emprender, tiene como fin la fabricación de pacas para ser comercializadas a industrias fabricantes de muebles y también para alimentación animal."},{"index":4,"size":31,"text":"Se ha observado una cooperación importante entre las distintas ONGs (FEPP, Proyecto Punín, Fundación MARCO) que buscan el desarrollo de las zonas rurales a través de proyectos relacionados con la cebada."}]},{"head":"Mecanismos de articulación horizontal","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Las asociaciones de productores formadas constan de pocos socios quienes generalmente están unidos por lazos familiares y viven en la misma comunidad."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"En la parroquia Tixán, cantón Alausí, se ubica la organización de segundo grado Inca Atahualpa que, entre otras actividades, trabaja con varias comunidades productoras de la zona y acopia parte de su producción para comercializarla luego con CAMARI."},{"index":3,"size":86,"text":"En cuanto a mecanismos de articulación horizontal existen grandes oportunidades para asociar a los productores entre sí. En las encuestas y talleres realizados, los pequeños, medianos y grandes productores y los transformadores han expresado su deseo de formar parte de organizaciones que les ayuden a recibir asistencia técnica, créditos y a obtener mejores precios en el mercado. Se pueden también formar lazos entre las distintas asociaciones de productores ya existentes en las zonas de Alausí y Punín para compartir experiencias y mejorar el poder de negociación."},{"index":4,"size":65,"text":"Resultaría de mucha importancia el crear una plataforma apoyada por ONGs y organismos gubernamentales en donde participen todos los actores directos asociados, con la finalidad de fomentar el cultivo de cebada y sus rendimientos económicos. Es necesario el difundir la importancia del uso de semilla certificada y de mejorar las técnicas agrícolas utilizadas, de lo cual se podría encargar el INIAP junto con el MAG."},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"3. Construcción de la experiencia de la zona de Punín. -Bajó la producción."}]},{"head":"Línea de tiempo","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"-\"Forzados\" a usar químicos."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"-Produjo migración para buscar nuevas fuentes de ingreso. Con la llegada del sistema de riego a la región con la intervención del gobierno a través del INERHI en la década de los cincuentas disminuyó la superficie cultivada de cebada, y en su lugar los productores empezaron a cultivar productos más rentables como legumbres."}]},{"head":"2000","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"En los noventa, durante el gobierno de Rodrigo Borja, y como consecuencia de los conflictos entre indígenas y terratenientes surgió el proyecto de acceso a la tierra mediante el cual el FEPP otorgó préstamos con bajos interés a los trabajadores para que pudiesen adquirir las tierras que antes trabajaban y así evitar confrontaciones violentas."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"Los cambios climáticos subsecuentes que p rovocaron la disminución de lluvias obligaron a los productores a cultivar productos como la cebada que requiere de menos cantidad de agua."},{"index":3,"size":141,"text":"En el año 2000 ingresa el Proyecto Punín, ejecutado por la Diócesis de Riobamba, con la finalidad de apoyar a los pequeños productores de cebada para incrementar sus ingresos y mejorar su nivel de vida. Las áreas de intervención fueron: acceso a créditos mediante la creación de cajas comunales, asistencia técnica a la producción (mejoramiento de forma de cultivo, entrega de semilla) con lo cual se logró incrementar la productividad y organización de grupos productores o para trabajar en molinos comunitarios. En el año 2002 se otorgan créditos a las asociaciones ya formadas para la adquisición de los molinos mediante lo cual se da un valor agregado a la cebada obteniendo máchica, arroz de cebada y residuos para la alimentación animal. De esta forma se articulan los productores al proceso de transformación a través de lo cual obtiene una mayor utilidad."},{"index":4,"size":38,"text":"En los últimos meses se llegó a un acuerdo con CAMARI, que se espera se convierta en un cliente fijo, a quien se entrega, en un inicio, en promedio 10 quintales por mes a un precio de $18/qq."},{"index":5,"size":61,"text":"Con el ingreso de Fundación Marco, que cuenta con el apoyo del Proyecto Emprender de Intercooperation-Cosude, se ha introducido una nueva dinámica en el sector. La orientación ahora es de fortalecerse como pequeñas empresas relacionadas con diferentes eslabones de la cadena. Por su parte, el Proyecto Punín ha iniciado un proceso de fortalecer la relación entre los molinos y los clientes."}]},{"head":"Análisis de las Redes Sociales.","index":16,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Relación fuerte Relación normal Relación débil","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Relación de una sola dirección Relación de ida y vuelta"}]},{"head":"Los productores no asociados de la zona","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"La intervención a la cadena de la cebada inició con asistencia técnica por parte del Proyecto Punín y el INIAP a los productores. La relación resultante con el INIAP fue débil ya que la función de esta institución fue temporal y consistió principalmente en proporcionar semilla certificada. Otro organismo que ha tenido una relación débil con los productores fue el PRODEPINE quien prestó maquinaria para roturar suelos por una ocasión en el 2001. Entre los productores individuales y el Proyecto Punín se ha creado una relación fuerte, puesto que este organismo actúa como fuente de crédito y asistencia técnica, y ha apoyado en la creación de asociaciones de productores que tienen molinos comunitarios."},{"index":2,"size":106,"text":"Las Universidades de la zona (ESPOCH y UNACH) colaboraron constantemente, en un inicio, con el productor a través de investigaciones lo que ha dado como resultado una relación de fuerza media y de ida y vuelta puesto que los resultados obtenidos se comparten con las comunidades. Además, la UNACH, debido a los estudios de mercado que realiza mantiene una relación media con los minoristas de quienes obtiene la información necesaria para dicho trabajo. El apoyo de los centros de educación superior fue fuerte principalmente en las fases iniciales, ahora se está procurando reactivar esta participación, la cual se ha centrado en la participación de estudiantes pasantes."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"Cuando los productores no asociados no entregan su producto a los molinos comunitarios, lo llevan a vender en el mercado de San Alfonso de la ciudad de Riobamba en donde no tienen ningún poder de negociación por lo que la relación con los compradores es débil y no duradera."},{"index":4,"size":32,"text":"Actualmente, se procura involucrar a los productores no asociados a través del nuevo servicio de trillado así como también del banco de semillas y los servicios de molino implementados y por implementarse."}]},{"head":"Los molinos comunitarios con los diferentes actores","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"A través de las diferentes interacciones fruto de la creación y funcionamiento de los molinos comunitarios se ha formado una relación de confianza fuerte entre estos con el Proyecto Punín, quien le ha dado asistencia técnica y créditos para la adquisición de la maquinaria y desarrollo empresarial."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"En cuanto a los canales de comercialización que mantienen los molinos, se tiene una relación de confianza fuerte y bidireccional con los minoristas con quienes han venido tratando desde hace tres años. En cambio con el CAMARI, a quienes entregan máchica desde hace solo tres meses, se t iene todavía una relación débil, pero con mucho potencial de desarrollarse."}]},{"head":"El Proyecto Punín","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"El Proyecto Punin al ser la organización que ha apoyado el proceso de integración de productores y transformadores a través de créditos y asistencia técnica u organizacional mantiene relaciones fuertes con los productores y con los molinos comunitarios. Además, tiene una relación de fuerza media con el CAMARI con quien entró en contacto para comercializar los productos de las asociaciones a las que apoya."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"Por otro lado, mantiene relaciones fuertes con la Fundación MARCO con quien han trabajado en el desarrollo y apoyo conjunto de la Agroempresa Nuevos Horizontes que se dedica al procesamiento de los residuos de la cosecha para la transformación en pacas que son vendidas a la industria de colchones o como alimento animal. Las comunidades de la parte alta y Fundación Marco se encuentran preparando actividades para generar valor agregado al producto y aspiran a iniciar las actividades para finales del presente año e inicios del próximo."}]},{"head":"RESULTADOS","index":21,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Impacto","index":22,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Producción y distribución de ganancias","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"El impacto mas significativo que se ha alcanzado mediante el apoyo de las distintas ONGs ha sido una distribución de las ganancias mas justa para los pr oductores asociados, no solo por la transformación del grano sino también por la venta de los desechos del cultivo (tamo). El proyecto Punin reporta en el 2003, un incremento del ingreso familiar de US 204 por familia, por este concepto."},{"index":2,"size":121,"text":"Con la implementación de los molinos comunitarios los productores reciben una ganancia del 5% del precio del producto final, y además adquieren un mayor poder de negociación puesto que ya no tienen que entregar el grano en los centros de acopio sino que lo procesan en sus propios molinos, y si no son socios lo entregan en sus propias comunidades. Los ingresos para los socios por la transformación es del 37% del precio del producto final. Los socios ponen la mano de obra utilizada en la transformación y por esta razón todos los ingresos percibidos se reparten equitativamente entre todos. La base para los cálculos es un quintal de cebada ($6,5) con el cual se obtienen 80 lb de máchica ($0,27/lb)."}]},{"head":"DISTRIBUCION DE INGRESOS","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Otro aspecto positivo alcanzado a través de la asistencia técnica brindada por las diferentes organizaciones es la implementación de bancos de semilla y la mejora en las prácticas post -cosecha que permite almacenar el grano para ser utilizado como material de siembra en un futuro y evitar la variabilidad de los precios (que se elevan en época de siembra)."}]},{"head":"4.1.1.Organización","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"La formación de organizaciones ha resultado en múltiples beneficios para los pequeños productores. Los socios nombran como beneficios primeramente estar organizados y luego el apoyo recibido de ONGs quienes les han dado as istencia técnica en el área agrícola (facilitándoles el acceso a semilla mejorada del INIAP y a otros insumos) y en el área de post-cosecha les han ayudado en el proceso de creación de microempresas relacionadas con la cebada (molinos comunitarios, elaboración de pacas y bloques nutricionales). Además se les ha facilitado el acceso a créditos para la transformación y adquisición de maquinaria y equipos."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"Al estar organizados se les ha facilitado también el acceso a otros mercados (Italia) con la ayuda de CAMARI en donde han obtenido mejores precios por su grano, aunque este accionar recién estaría en una fase inicial."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"Otro logro alcanzado es el mayor poder de negociación adquirido como transformadores. Se han firmado convenios de venta con otras organizaciones o personas con quienes se han comprometido en la entrega de una determinada cantidad de producto mensual y así aseguran parte de su mercado, a un mejor precio."}]},{"head":"Posibilidades de replicación y factores de éxito","index":26,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Posibilidad de replicar o ampliar procesos.","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"Las diferentes asociaciones existentes se han creado y siguen funcionando gracias al apoyo de diferentes ONG. Al existir varias comunidades apoyadas se deduce que es factible la replicación en otras zonas de la provincia y en diferentes partes de l a cadena (producción, transformación, uso de desechos, comercialización) siempre y cuando exista un ente externo que fomente la asociación entre los actores. Es factible también el fomentar alianzas con los comercializadores Se debería en primer lugar fortalecer las organizaciones existentes o creadas e inculcarles una visión empresarial. Posteriormente se debe trabajar con las entidades gubernamentales para dar asistencia técnica en el aspecto agrícola y de post cosecha para mejorar los rendimientos y asegurar una buena calidad del grano."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"Las estrategias deberán incluir períodos y ámbitos de apoyo y el correspondiente empoderamiento y estrategias de salida o permanencia parcial del apoyo externo para asegurar la continuidad en el tiempo."}]},{"head":"Factores claves de éxito.","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Los factores que han contribuido al éxito en las diferentes experiencias han sido la formación de asociaciones de productores y organizaciones de primer y segundo grado, quienes han recibido capacitación, acceso a equipamiento necesar io y acceso a créditos para la mejora en el sistema de producción y para la formación de microempresas transformadoras de materia prima (molinos comunitarios)."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"El principal factor de éxito ha sido la creación de microempresas que se dedican a darle valor agregado a la cebada. Los molinos comunitarios, la elaboración de pacas y bloques alimenticios y la prestación de servicios (alquiler de trilladora) mejoran la distribución de los ingresos a través de la cadena beneficiando a los pequeños productores. También se han conseguido alianzas estratégicas con organizaciones dedicadas a la comercialización (CAMARI) quienes venden el grano en el exterior o en sus propias tiendas."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"La asistencia para introducir mejores procesos de producción y post cosecha resulta determinante al momento de procurar mayores ingresos a través de mejores productos y mayor productividad."},{"index":4,"size":33,"text":"Todo esto se ha logrado gracias al apoyo de diversas organizaciones no gubernamentales que han impulsado la creación de estas asociaciones y microempresas y que han facilitado las negociaciones entre los diferentes actores."}]},{"head":"Oportunidades y limitaciones de la cadena de la cebada apoyada","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Como consecuencia del apoyo a la cadena de la cebada se han abierto nuevas oportunidades para los diferentes actores que la conforman, pero también se han hecho evidentes las limitaciones que se tienen, especialmente por parte de los productores"}]},{"head":"Limitaciones y amenazas:","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Productores -Bajos rendimientos comparados con los obtenidos en cultivos semi-tecnificados."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"-El mercado nacional no diferencia entre productos cultivados de forma orgánica o con el uso de fertilizantes. (baja rentabilidad) -Falta de crédito para la adquisición de equipos (silos) que ayudarían a un mayor y mejor almacenamiento de los granos. -Fuerte compe tencia con cebada peruana o colombiana que ingresa a un precio mucho menor. -Dificultad para llevar el grano u otra materia prima a los sitios de comercialización puesto que el transporte constituye un rubro muy elevado."}]},{"head":"Transformadores","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"-Falta de clientes para los productos elaborados. En el momento se procesa solo de acuerdo a los pedidos recibidos y los molinos están subutilizados. -Los minoristas exigen facturas a los molinos comunitarios quienes no poseen RUC y esto constituye una gran limitante que impide incrementar la producción. -Existe la presencia de muchos transformadores que ofrecen productos a más bajo precio."}]},{"head":"Comercializadores","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"-Para exportar de forma regular se requiere de volúmenes grandes y se necesita una mayor interacción con el pequeño productor para lograr acopiar los volúmenes requeridos de producto con la calidad solicitada. -La máchica y el arroz de cebada constituyen productos de bajo consumo a nivel nacional."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"-No se ha podido desarrollar alternativas de producción con valor agregado. Actualmente se produce principalmente lo tradicional."}]},{"head":"Organización y servicios","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"-Poca asistencia técnica y soporte a la cadena por parte del Estado."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"-Problemas en algunas organizaciones debido a la falta de participación constante por parte de los soc ios y a la falta de confianza existente. -Costo de la energía eléctrica muy elevado. Algunos molinos tienen que pagar una tarifa fija elevada, denominada demanda facturable, impuesta por la Empresa Eléctrica local."}]},{"head":"Oportunidades:","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"-Ingreso a nuevos mercados para obtener precios más elevados: posibilidad de incrementar las exportaciones debido a las características del producto ofertado (orgánico)."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"-Una alta cantidad de cebada de los pequeños productores todavía se vende a los centros de acopio o intermediarios. Estas personas podrían asociarse y formar nuevas microempresas o alearse a las existentes."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"-Venta de residuos de la cosecha para ser utilizado como materia prima en otras industrias."},{"index":4,"size":42,"text":"-Penetración y desarrollo de mercados: posibilidad de incrementar el consumo de máchica y arroz de cebada a nivel nacional debido a sus características nutricionales -Desarrollo de productos: Elaboración de nuevos productos transformados a base de cebada para incrementar la demanda del grano."},{"index":5,"size":8,"text":"-Apoyo de organizaciones no gubernamentales con orientación empresarial."},{"index":6,"size":18,"text":"-Se podría pensar en la especialización de los diferentes grupos existentes para lograr reducir costos por volúmenes procesados."}]},{"head":"La Agroempresa Nuevos Horizontes","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"La Agroempresa Nuevos Horizontes tiene su sede en Chulcunag Alto, Parroquia Punín, Cantón Riobamba en la Provincia del Chimborazo. Es un grupo organizado que ha trabajado en varias iniciativas productivas e innovadoras con la participación de actores como la Diócesis de Riobamba y CRS, a través del Proyecto Punín, Fondo Ecuatoriano Canadiense, Junta Parroquial, Fundación MARCO, entre otros quienes han cumplido una importante labor organizativa y de apoyo a la producción."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"Al momento se encuentran produciendo pacas de cebada y avena para ser utilizadas en la industria de colchones y muebles o bien como alimento animal. Los clientes de la zona que confecciona colchones y muebles han resultado buenos aliados de la cadena, no así los ganaderos de la zona que adquieren el producto como alimento de ganado. Estos últimos, en su mayoría, se han demostrado como no tan buenos pagadores a la hora de cerrar los negocios."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"Los objetivos a largo plazo incluyen la posibilidad de diversificar aún más los productos de la agroempresa y también incorporar a los sectores aledaños."},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"Logros/avances con la colaboración de F. -No tener mercado seguro -Pudrición por falta de bodega adecuada para el almacenamiento."},{"index":5,"size":43,"text":"Se tiene más pedidos, mercado fijo, precio $1,6/paca, más volumen de compra, menor costo de transporte debido a que se entrega la materia prima en la comunidad. Con la maquinaria anterior se procesaban entre 10 -40 pacas/día trabajando 13 personas durante 8 horas."},{"index":6,"size":15,"text":"Se puede procesar hasta 200 pacas/día trabajando 7-8 personas durante 5 horas. (30 -35 pacas/hora)."},{"index":7,"size":18,"text":"-Utilidades distribuidas para socios a Dic 03: $20/socio -Capital de trabajo de la empresa a Dic 03: $509."},{"index":8,"size":31,"text":"-Utilidades distribuidas para socios a Jul -Nov 04: $50/socio -Capital de trabajo de la empresa a Nov 04: $1200. Comunidades proveedoras de materia prima: Colta, Chacán, Palmira, Charicando, Cocán, La Pacífica."}]},{"head":"No de proveedores:","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"-50 proveedores individuales."},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"-1 asociación proveedora (La Pacífica "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" de la cadenade la cebada...................................... 2 1. MAPA DE LA CADENA PRODUCTIVA DE LA CEBADA................................4 1.1. Mapa de la cadena convencional.......................................................................4 1.1.1. Productores......................................................................................................4 1.1.1. Comercialización y procesamiento de la cebada ...........................................5 1.2. Mapa de la cadena productiva de la cebada apoyada por ONG.........................7 1.2.1. Producción y transformación...........................................................................7 1.2.2. Exportaciones................................................................................................8 2. MECANISMOS DE ARTICULACIÓN HORIZONTAL Y VERTICAL DE LOS PRODUCTORES DE PEQUEÑA ESCALA A CADENAS PRODUCTIVAS......................................................................................................8 2.1. Mecanismos de articulación vertical.................................................................8 2.2. Mecanismos de articulación horizontal............................................................9 3. CONSTRUCCIÓN DE LA EXPERIENCIA DEL PROYECTO PUNIN..........10 3.1. Línea de tiempo.............................................................................................10 3.2. Análisis de las Redes Sociales.......................................................................13 3.2.1. Los productores no asociados de la zona....................................................13 3.2.2. Los molinos comunitarios con los diferentes actores.................................14 3.2.3. El Proyecto Punín.......................................................................................14 4. RESULTADOS...................................................................................................15 4.1. Impacto............................................................................................................15 4.1.1. Producción y distribución de ganancias......................................................15 4.1.2. Organización...............................................................................................15 4.2. Posibilidades de replicación y factores de éxito.............................................16 4.2.1. Posibilidad de replicar o ampliar procesos...................................................16 4.2.2. Factores claves de éxito................................................................................16 4.2.2.1. Oportunidades y limitaciones de la cadena de la cebada apoyada.............17 4.3. LA AGROEMPRESA NUEVOS HORIZONTES.........................................18 BIBLIOGRAFIA..........................................................................................................20 MAPA DE LA CADENA CONVENCIONAL DE LA CEBADA EN CHIMBORAZO...........................................................................................................21 MAPA DE LA CADENA DE LA CEBADA APOYADA.........................................22 ESTUDIO DE LA CADENA DE LA CEBADA EN LA PROVINCIA DEL CHIMBORAZO INTRODUCCION: Problemática de la cadena de la cebada. "},{"text":"MAPA DE LA CADENA PRODUCTIVA DE LA CEBADA 1.1. Mapa de la cadena convencional 1.1.1. Productores duplican los rendimientos obtenidos por los pequeños y medianos productores (16 -20 duplican los rendimientos obtenidos por los pequeños y medianos productores (16 -20 qq/ha). qq/ha). PRODUCCION DE CEBADA EN CHIMBORAZO PRODUCCION DE CEBADA EN CHIMBORAZO Tamaño de UPAs Tamaño de UPAs < 5 ha 5 -10 ha > 10 ha Total < 5 ha5 -10 ha> 10 haTotal UPAs 21513 2863 1758 26134 UPAs215132863175826134 Ha sembradas 11581 3788 4051 19420 Ha sembradas115813788405119420 Los principales cantones que se dedican a la producción de cebada en la Provincia del Fuente: III Censo Nacional Agropecuario. 2000 Los principales cantones que se dedican a la producción de cebada en la Provincia del Fuente: III Censo Nacional Agropecuario. 2000 Chimborazo son: Colta (28%), Alausí (25%), Guamote (20%) y Riobamba (19%). Chimborazo son: Colta (28%), Alausí (25%), Guamote (20%) y Riobamba (19%). PRODUCCION DE CEBADA PRODUCCION DE CEBADA Superfice cosechada y rendimientos por cantón Tamaño de UPAs Superfice cosechada y rendimientos por cantón Tamaño de UPAs ha qq/ha haqq/ha 4.500 5.000 11% 7% 14 16 4.500 5.00011%7%14 16 2.000 3.000 3.500 4.000 2.500 8 12 10 6 < 5 ha Sup. Cosechada 5 -10 ha > 10 ha 2.000 3.000 3.500 4.000 2.5008 12 10 6< 5 ha Sup. Cosechada 5 -10 ha > 10 ha 1.000 1.500 82% 4 1.000 1.50082%4 500 2 5002 0 Fuente: III Censo Nacional Agropecuario. 2000 ALAUSI CHAMBO CHUNCHI COLTA GUAMOTE GUANO PALLATANGA RIOBAMBA 0 0 Fuente: III Censo Nacional Agropecuario. 2000 ALAUSI CHAMBO CHUNCHI COLTA GUAMOTE GUANO PALLATANGARIOBAMBA0 utilizan insumos agrícolas como utilizan insumos agrícolas como fertilizantes o fungicidas y por último no poseen maquinaria propia: rentan tractores fertilizantes o fungicidas y por último no poseen maquinaria propia: rentan tractores para las labores de preparación de suelo, cosechan manualmente y trillan el grano con para las labores de preparación de suelo, cosechan manualmente y trillan el grano con sus propios animales o rentando una trilladora en el sector y como resultado obtienen sus propios animales o rentando una trilladora en el sector y como resultado obtienen bajísimos rendimientos. Al vender el producto a los acopiadores obtienen, en el mejor bajísimos rendimientos. Al vender el producto a los acopiadores obtienen, en el mejor de los casos, una mínima ganancia, pero no pueden cultivar otros productos en esos de los casos, una mínima ganancia, pero no pueden cultivar otros productos en esos terrenos debido a la falta de riego y a las características climáticas y de los suelos del terrenos debido a la falta de riego y a las características climáticas y de los suelos del sector. sector. Por otro lado, los grandes productores (>10 ha), que representan tan solo el 7% del total Por otro lado, los grandes productores (>10 ha), que representan tan solo el 7% del total tienen cultivos más tecnificados, en donde se utiliza semilla certificada de variedades tienen cultivos más tecnificados, en donde se utiliza semilla certificada de variedades lanzadas por el INIAP (principalmente la variedad Shyri), cosechan mecánicamente lanzadas por el INIAP (principalmente la variedad Shyri), cosechan mecánicamente alquilando o utilizando propias segadoras e incorporan insumos agrícolas. Debido a alquilando o utilizando propias segadoras e incorporan insumos agrícolas. Debido a estas marcadas diferencias en el manejo del cultivo, los grandes productores a pesar de estas marcadas diferencias en el manejo del cultivo, los grandes productores a pesar de tener costos operativos más elevados, obtienen rendimientos promedio de 40 qq/ha, que tener costos operativos más elevados, obtienen rendimientos promedio de 40 qq/ha, que "},{"text":"Transfor mador Ganancia Minorista Precio final (80 lb de máchica) Pequeño 5,4 0,3 0,8 2,4 1 6,1 4 20 Pequeño5,40,30,82,416,1420 productor ($) productor ($) Porcentaje 27,00% 1,50% 4,00% 12,00% 5,00% 30,50% 20,00% 100,00% Porcentaje27,00%1,50%4,00%12,00%5,00%30,50%20,00%100,00% "},{"text":" Se ha logrado generar capacidad propia para el manejo adecuado del negocio. MARCO/EMPRENDER MARCO/EMPRENDER -Incorporación de Innovación Tecnológica -Incorporación de Innovación Tecnológica -Apoyo para inversión en maquinaria. -Apoyo para inversión en maquinaria. -Capacitación en: -Capacitación en: o Organización. o Organización. o Gestión. o Gestión. o Operación de máquina. o Operación de máquina. o Contabilidad. Registros de actividades. o Contabilidad. Registros de actividades. -Construcción de nuevo galpón. -Construcción de nuevo galpón. -ANTES AHORA -ANTESAHORA Se tenían pérdidas por: Se tenían pérdidas por: "},{"text":"MAPA DE LA CADENA CONVENCIONAL DE LA CEBADA EN CHIMBORAZO III Censo Nacional Agropecuario. 2000. INEC. -Información proporcionada por MAG, FEPP, Proyecto Punín, Fundación MARCO.-GOTTRET, María Verónica. CORDOBA, Diana. Gobernabilidad y Articulación de Productores de Pequeña Escala a Cadenas Productivas. Marco Analítico y Metodología para la Realización de Estudios de Caso. 12 de Mayo del 2005. F. producto F. producto 4. BIBLIOGRAFIA F. financiamiento 4. BIBLIOGRAFIAF. financiamiento PROVEED. DE INSU-MOS Y SERVICIOS PROVEED. DE INSU- PRODUCTORES DE M. PRIMA PRODUCTORES INTERMED INTERMED TRANSFORM TRANSFORM DISTRIBUCI DISTRIBUCI COMERCIALIZAC COMERCIALIZAC CONSUMIDOR PROVEED. DE INSU-MOS Y SERVICIOS PROVEED. DE INSU-PRODUCTORES DE M. PRIMA PRODUCTORESINTERMED INTERMEDTRANSFORM TRANSFORMDISTRIBUCI DISTRIBUCICOMERCIALIZAC COMERCIALIZACCONSUMIDOR MOS Y SERVICIOS DE M . PRIMA MOS Y SERVICIOSDE M . PRIMA Autoconsumo Autoconsumo Importacio (Humano o Importacio(Humano o nes (Perú) animal) 75%de nes (Perú)animal) 75%de ASISTENCIA Grupos asociativos producción ASISTENCIAGrupos asociativosproducción TECNICA ASISTENCIA TECNICA FEPP Proyecto Punín Fundacion MARCO Pequeños productores < 5 ha M. Obra familiar Cultivo tradicional familiares (pequenos y medianos productores) M. Obra familiar Tractor y trilladora comunitaria Molinos pequeños TECNICA ASISTENCIA TECNICA FEPP Proyecto Punín Fundacion MARCOPequeños productores < 5 ha M. Obra familiar Cultivo tradicional familiares (pequenos y medianos productores) M. Obra familiar Tractor y trilladora comunitariaMolinos pequeños INSUMOS alquilada Tractor y trilladora P.V: $6,5/qq Mercados Arroz de Cebada Máchica INSUMOSalquilada Tractor y trilladora P.V: $6,5/qqMercadosArroz de Cebada Máchica Semilla Bodegas de granos (semilla tradicional) INIAP (semilla certificada) FINANCIAMIEN TO Coop Riobamba INSUMOS Semilla Silos comunitarios (Banco de semillas) Proyecto Punín FEPP O FINANCIAMIENT P.V: $6,5/qq Medianos productores 5 -10 ha M. Obra familiar y contratada Cultivo tradicional Tractor y trilladora alquilada P.V: $6,5/qq Centros de acopio (bodega) PV: $9-10/qq convencional) (Cadena PV: $9 -10/qq Centros de acopio (bodega) Molinos medianos Máchica Arroz de Cebada Costo alquiler: $3/qq Afrecho Centros acopio (bodega) Máchica: $20/qq Arroz cebada: $22/qq Polvillo: $12/qq de de Minoristas Máchica: $0,35/lb Arroz Minoristas de cebada: $0,25/lb Máchica: $0,25/lb Arroz de cebada: $0,35/lb Criadores de cerdos Semilla Bodegas de granos (semilla tradicional) INIAP (semilla certificada) FINANCIAMIEN TO Coop Riobamba INSUMOS Semilla Silos comunitarios (Banco de semillas) Proyecto Punín FEPP O FINANCIAMIENTP.V: $6,5/qq Medianos productores 5 -10 ha M. Obra familiar y contratada Cultivo tradicional Tractor y trilladora alquilada P.V: $6,5/qqCentros de acopio (bodega) PV: $9-10/qq convencional) (Cadena PV: $9 -10/qq Centros de acopio (bodega)Molinos medianos Máchica Arroz de Cebada Costo alquiler: $3/qq AfrechoCentros acopio (bodega) Máchica: $20/qq Arroz cebada: $22/qq Polvillo: $12/qqde deMinoristas Máchica: $0,35/lb Arroz Minoristas de cebada: $0,25/lb Máchica: $0,25/lb Arroz de cebada: $0,35/lbCriadores de cerdos Banco Solidario, BNF B de Guayaquil, F. MARCO M. Obra contratada > 10 ha. Grandes productores Paja Caballos-Gquil Criadores de Banco Solidario, BNF B de Guayaquil, F. MARCOM. Obra contratada > 10 ha. Grandes productoresPajaCaballos-Gquil Criadores de No existían registros contables P.V: $9/qq Cultivo semi-TRANSPORTE tecnificado Tractor, trilladora y segadora (alquilada) Flete: $0,3/qq Ahora se registra: ). Importación (Colombia) Cervecería No existían registros contables P.V: $9/qq Cultivo semi-TRANSPORTE tecnificado Tractor, trilladora y segadora (alquilada) Flete: $0,3/qqAhora se registra:).Importación (Colombia)Cervecería -Cuánto procesan. -Cuánto venden. -Producto almacenado. -La materia prima que se compra, P.V = Precio de venta -Cuánto procesan. -Cuánto venden. -Producto almacenado. -La materia prima que se compra,P.V = Precio de venta proveedores. proveedores. -Costo de transporte. -Costo de transporte. -Gastos comisiones, refrigerios, -Gastos comisiones, refrigerios, pasajes, insumos. pasajes, insumos. -Asistencia de socios a trabajo (en -Asistencia de socios a trabajo (en función de lo cual se paga jornales y función de lo cual se paga jornales y utilidades). utilidades). -Se cuenta con reportes mensuales -Se cuenta con reportes mensuales sobre utilidades a socios/as. sobre utilidades a socios/as. -Esta información es registrada por la -Esta información es registrada por la misma agroempresa con el apoyo de misma agroempresa con el apoyo de Fundación Marco Fundación Marco No. Socios = 10 No. Socios = 10 "},{"text":"MAPA DE LA CADENA DE LA CEBADA APOYADA F. producto F. producto F. financiamiento F. financiamiento F. información F. información CONSUMIDOR CONSUMIDOR grano Exportacion (Italia) granoExportacion (Italia) Molinos Tiendas MolinosTiendas Centros de comunitarios Centros de CAMARI Centros decomunitariosCentros deCAMARI acopio Máchica: $18/qq acopio Máchica acopioMáchica: $18/qqacopioMáchica Grupo pequenos productores. Zona Chulcunac alto. familiares apoyados por el FEPP Arroz de cebada: $22/qq Afrecho: $10/qq CAMARI $0,27/lb Grupo pequenos productores. Zona Chulcunac alto.familiares apoyados por el FEPPArroz de cebada: $22/qq Afrecho: $10/qqCAMARI$0,27/lb 16 socios 16 socios M. Obra familiar M. Obra familiar Trilladora Trilladora comunitaria comunitaria P.V: $6,5/qq P.V: $6,5/qq Uso de paja Criadores de Uso de pajaCriadores de cerdos cerdos Pequenos y Pequenos y medianos productores no asociados. Elaboracion de pacas (A. Nuevos Horizontes) Industria de colchones medianos productores no asociados.Elaboracion de pacas (A. Nuevos Horizontes)Industria de colchones TRANSPORT Paja bloques Elaboración de Criadores de TRANSPORTPajabloques Elaboración deCriadores de Flete: $0,30/qq nutricionales cuyes Flete: $0,30/qqnutricionalescuyes P.V = P.V:0,45/bloque P.V =P.V:0,45/bloque Precio de Precio de venta venta "}],"sieverID":"0b541f72-8308-4ff7-9c9f-c01bfa9ff122","abstract":""}

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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0c5490f02e57cd0f521ce2a018ef23d6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/1635/WF_37456.pdf"},"pageCount":9,"title":"Fisheries Co-Management: the Zambian Experience","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"For more than fifteen years now Zambia has instituted policies that seek to decentralise the management of natural resources from the centre to the users in various Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) initiatives. In the face of increased poverty especially in the rural areas, these policies seek to place priority on the utilisation of resources to previously marginalised communities so as to achieve sustainability and improve livelihoods."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"In Zambia, the National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP) of 1994 sets the broad framework for CBNRM in the country. The NEAP was founded on the principle that local communities and the private sector should participate in natural resources management (Government of the Republic of Zambia, 1994). This was intended to consolidate the gains made in the management of resources especially wildlife in a context of declining government expenditure."},{"index":3,"size":99,"text":"The Administrative Management Design for Game Management Areas (ADMADE) in the wildlife sector is premised on the transferring of responsibilities and benefits of managing wildlife to rural communities. In 1999 the Wildlife Act was amended making local communities have legal rights over wildlife resources (Mwenya et al. 1990). The purpose of this paper is to explore how the decentralisation of management roles to users has fared within the fisheries sector. The paper will use examples from three fisheries namely Lake Mweru/Luapula, Lake Bangweulu and Lake Kariba to show how co-management was instituted and the current status of these efforts."}]},{"head":"FISHERIES SECTOR IN ZAMBIA","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":126,"text":"About 7% or 53,700 km 2 of Zambia's surface area is covered by water setting the stage for a thriving fishing industry in the country. These water bodies produce between 65,000 to 70,000 tonnes of fish annually. These figures do not, however, include production for subsistence purposes which is quite substantial. The fisheries sector in the country accounts for about 3% of the Gross Domestic Product and the industry is the third largest employer. Despite these production figures the per capita supply of fish has declined from 12 kg/year in 1985 to 7kg/year in 2000 (MACO, 2002). The decrease in consumption rates has been attributed to the increasing population which has put pressure on fish stocks leading to unsustainable fishing habits and subsequent declines in catches."},{"index":2,"size":177,"text":"The fish production figures account for about 3% of the country's Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Given that fish products are among the lowestpriced source of animal proteins consumption has tended to increase with declining incomes. According to a 1998 survey the proportion of fish to household food expenditure increased from a low of 5.5% in 1993 to a high of 7% in 1998. The highest level was however reached in 1996 when fish accounted for 12% of household purchases of food (MACO, 2002). The survey further shows that fish consumption increased considerably in rural areas where there are significant water-bodies such as Luapula, Northern, and Western Provinces. This can be attributed to the increase in the number of people taking up fishing as the formal economy contracted during the period (Jul-Larsen et al, 2003). The 12% figure of animal protein obtained from fish in Zambia is low when compared to other land-locked Sub-Saharan countries such as Malawi and Uganda where fish contributes about 38% and 30% respectively towards the protein needs of households (Bẻnẻ and Heck, 2005)."},{"index":3,"size":131,"text":"The low fish production figures in Zambia belie the existing potential that exists in the fisheries and aquaculture sector. The potential of making this sector one of the main weapons in poverty-alleviation and improved nutrition is immense. The country has three major basins where most of the country's fisheries are located. These are the Zambezi, Luapula and Tanganyika Basins. They support fisheries in Lakes Mweru, Bangweulu, and Luapula. The Zambezi catchment supports the Luangwa, Lukanga, Kafue and Zambezi River fisheries. These fisheries are exploited by mostly small-scale fishermen rather than commercial and highly organised units. Most of the craft used are canoes propelled by hand with a few having mechanised vessels. There are also seasonal streams and rivers which provide fish for subsistence for many people especially in the rural areas."},{"index":4,"size":167,"text":"While total demand for fish is estimated to be in the range of 100,000 metric tonnes per annum, production from capture fisheries has fluctuated between 65,000 and 70,000 tonnes for a variety of reasons. The difference could easily be accounted for through improved aquaculture. However, aquaculture is still a long way off in meeting the balance from capture fisheries. It is estimated that there are currently about 5, 000 aquaculture farmers in the country. Less than ten of these farmers can be classified as being commercial (MACO, 2002). Production in the aquaculture sector rose from 88.5 metric tonnes in 1967 to about 700 metric tonnes by 1982. 2002 estimates put the figure at 10,000 tonnes (MACO, 2002). Most of the fish farmers are concentrated in the Eastern, Northern and North Western Provinces. Production is constrained by a number of factors such as the non-availability of a legal framework in which to operate; poor institutional arrangements; lack of quality fingerlings and feeds and shortage of experienced extension staff."}]},{"head":"MANAGEMENT OF THE FISHERIES SECTOR","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"By law the Department of Fisheries (DoF) in the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives is responsible for the management of the country's fisheries. This mandate is contained in the Fisheries Act of 1974. Owing to inadequate resources and lack of attention at policy level, the DoF offers only a token presence in most of the fisheries. However, one of its most visible presences is the enforcement of the annual closed season which takes place December and March. During this period DoF staffs undertake joint operations with other law-enforcement agencies to confiscate gear and apprehend fishers who are found to be found fishing during the closed season."},{"index":2,"size":104,"text":"Another layer of management over the country's fisheries is that of traditional authorities. During colonial rule local administrative structures known as Native Authorities (NA) were funded through natural resources. Through the NA's the chiefs were allowed to impose levies and licences for the harvesting of natural resources such as fish. These levies became an important source of revenue for running these local areas. Although Native Authorities were abolished after the country's independence in 1964 Traditional Authorities have maintained some leverage over the management of fisheries resources. In the process this has led to conflicts with other users of the resources (Wilson et al, 2004)."},{"index":3,"size":72,"text":"Most of the management roles that were given to Traditional Authorities during the colonial era were transferred to Local Authorities in the postindependence period. Consequently, today the Local Authorities obtain part of their revenue from fish. This is normally calculated on the amount of fish that a trader is carrying out of a given fishery. Apart from collecting the levy the Local Authorities do not play any other part in fisheries management."}]},{"head":"EMERGENCE OF CO-MANAGEMENT ON LAKE MWERU/LUAPULA","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":199,"text":"The Mweru-Luapula fishery is in the northern part of Zambia in Luapula Province on the border between Zambia and the Democratic Republic of Congo. It is divided into two Systems. Lake Mweru proper starting from the Luapula River mouth to Luvua River in the north and is approximately 110 km long and 40-50km wide. Its depth varies from 2 m. in the south to 27m in the north. Its total area is about 4580 km 2 of which 58% belongs to Zambia. The Luapula River system stretches from Mambilima Falls to the mouth of Luapula River. Below Mambilima Falls, the River forms an extensive swampy flood plain of about 160 km and 5-18 km wide. This swamp system with its numerous oxbows and lagoons is interlinked with the open waters of lake Mweru. Both systems make up Mweru-Luapula Fishery. Some form of co-management in the fishery was initiated in 1985 and was a reaction to gear thefts. Fishing Associations (FA's) were formed with the main objective of stopping gear thefts but later on they started incorporating fish conservation issues in their agenda. Another objective of FA's was to offer assistance to members in times of hardship such as bereavements."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"Membership was only open to fishers although other community members were free to join if they so wished. Interestingly, the FA's were created by fishers who felt a need for them and the DoF did not initially take an active part in their operations."},{"index":3,"size":137,"text":"By 1990 FA's began to experience a number of problems. First, they were poorly funded and could thus not operate effectively. Their main sources of funds were subscriptions from members and sometime this was given on a voluntary basis. Secondly, they did not receive the required support from the government in general and the DoF in particular. The police for instance, considered them to be a vigilante outfit which was operating outside the country's laws. Thirdly, they were also resisted by the Traditional Authorities who felt threatened by their presence. Fourthly, most of the members of the FA's were also farmers such that at certain times of the year they would abandon their fishing activities to go into farming. During such periods they FA's would remain inactive leading to frustrations for those who remained in the fisheries."},{"index":4,"size":131,"text":"In 1992 the DoF instituted what they called the Conservation and Management Action Programme (CAMAP) with funding from a donor agency. The objective of CAMAP was to promote 'conservation dialogue' in the fishery. By 1994 CAMAP had managed to convince most of the fishers to protect the breeding areas of fish. However, realising the potential of CAMAP in solving their grievances the fishers began to question the role of local authorities in the fishery. In particular, they questioned the collection of fishlevies which were not ploughed back into the activities of CAMAP but were instead used for other purposes such as paying wages for local authority staff. The local authorities resisted these attempts on the grounds that they were mandated by law to enact by-laws which empowered them to collect fishlevies."},{"index":5,"size":152,"text":"By 2000 the CAMAP concept began to face problems. As the lake is shared by the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) conservation measures that were being instituted on the Zambian side were not being observed on the other shore line. This began to breed resentment by Zambian fishers who did not see the point of embarking on conservation measures which their DRC counterparts did not respect. Secondly, the Traditional Authorities still felt threatened by these institutions that were not under their control. To this end, they frustrated their operations. In a social survey conducted in 2004 it was revealed that these co-management institutions were still in place in the fishery. The survey further revealed that there was disagreement among fishers on the appropriate role of Traditional Authorities in the management of the fishery but most were agreed that DoF was the appropriate vehicle through which to institute co-management (Wilson et al 2004)."}]},{"head":"CO-MANAGEMENT ON LAKE BANGWEULU","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Lake Bangweulu is actually a swampy area with few lakes. The fishery contributes about 20% towards the country's total fish production (Til and Banda, nd). Although most of the actual fishing is done by men, there is large number of women involved in fishing for subsistence, processing and fishtrade."},{"index":2,"size":111,"text":"The DoF introduced the concept of co-management in the fishery in 1996 through a donor-funded project. This was initially done by conducting a Participatory Rapid Appraisal to generate dialogue among the diverse actors and create a platform through which to manage the fishery. Later Fish Conservation Committees (FCC's) were formed. However, some of the major actors in the fishery refused to join in the initiative. In particular, the Local Authorities refused to allow the FCC's to collect the levy which was supposed to be used to support co-management at the local level. The co-management process in Lake Bangweulu made a deliberate decision not to involve the Traditional Authorities in their operations."},{"index":3,"size":125,"text":"One major problem, however, was that there was very little capacity within the DoF to carry out co-management activities. The concept was very new in a department whose major role had, hitherto, been that of enforcing fishing regulations. In the end, co-management did not succeed in Lake Bangweulu. Apart from the above the other reasons were that the FCC's were perceived to be male-dominated organs as they did not involve fish processors and traders the majority of whom were women. Secondly, the scattered nature of fishing settlements coupled with rapid migration of people to and from the fishery was a hindrance to the smooth operations of the FCC. Today, the FCC's are no longer in place in Bangweulu and there is no co-management taking place."}]},{"head":"CO-MANAGEMENT ON LAKE KARIBA","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":161,"text":"The introduction of co-management on Lake Kariba came about due to a combination of several factors and dynamics in the fishery. Like in Lakes Mweru/Luapula and Bangweulu the concept was introduced by DoF through a donor-funded project. While the role of Traditional Authorities in the two other fisheries was rather ambiguous, on Lake Kariba co-management was initiated partly to make these institutions more active. It was noted that there were post-colonial changes that had reduced the role of traditional authorities in management. In turn, this had engendered the unrestricted entry of immigrants from other regions of the country into the fishery. Concomitantly, this had led to an increase in the use of illegal fishing methods and the setting-up of settlements anywhere along the lake shore and on islands (Chipungu and Moinnudin, 1994). Furthermore, scattered fishing camps in the fishery made it difficult for DoF not only to collect accurate statistics on yields but also to monitor the violations of fishing regulations."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"The new co-management arrangements led to the setting-up of designated fishing settlements on the lake shore and to delegate to the artisanal fishers responsibilities and authority to control and manage particular fishing grounds. In this manner the artisanal fishermen would then control access and enforce fishing regulations in those fishing grounds. Another secondary benefit of this co-management arrangement was that other actors in the fishery such as the local authority would find it easier to provide the necessary social services to fishermen's households such as schools and health facilities."},{"index":3,"size":229,"text":"For management purposes the shore line was divided into 4 zones. These zones were to be an area of the lake and the mainland falling under the jurisdiction of a local Traditional Authority. These zones are administered by Zonal Management Committee's (ZMC's) which comprise of a Traditional Authority in that particular zone, a local authority representative, a DoF official, four fishers a representative of NGO's operating in that zone and two businessmen 'with well established businesses' (Chipungu and Moinnudin, 1994: 5). The roles of the ZMC's are to co-ordinate the activities of fishing camps under their zones. They are also responsible for monitoring fishing regulations. In each fishing camp and below the ZMC's there are Integrated Village Management Committees (IVMC's). The IVMC's comprise of an elected chairman from among the artisanal fishers in that camp, three elected ordinary members, a village headman, a Fisheries Assistant and a Village Scout appointed by the DoF. The IVMC's have the task of controlling access to the fishery by vetting new entrants. Fishermen from other fisheries or from other fishing camps within Lake Kariba have to be vetted by an IVMC before they can start fishing. In addition, the committees are also going to be responsible for enforcing and monitoring fishing regulations. The Fisheries Assistants and the Village Scouts in the committees were to be primarily responsible for the enforcement of fishing regulations."},{"index":4,"size":153,"text":"Initially, these new arrangements led to a number of conflicts among the various actors involved. There were conflicts between the largely immigrants fishers and local people. Due to fluctuations in catches it is imperative that fisher have access to land for agricultural purposes. The local people resisted the idea of sharing their agricultural land with immigrants whom they considered to be 'foreigners.' Secondly, the local authority refused to surrender the revenue from fish levies to the ZMC's on the grounds that these institutions did not have a legal backing. Indeed, the Fisheries Act does not recognise the institutions that have been created to promote co-management. Efforts have been made since 1994 to have the act amended but these have stalled. As a compromise the ZMC's were registered as associations and are still operational. The ZMC's have become so self-reliant that they even able to fund DoF officials to their annual meetings (Malasha, 2003)."}]},{"head":"ISSUES FOR CO-MANAGEMENT IN ZAMBIA","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"As the above examples have shown, co-management in Zambia has to contend with a lot of factors. First, there are overlapping layers of management in the country's fisheries, and each layer has its own source of legitimacy and relevance. While the DoF is legally in charge of management, the traditional and local Authorities all have a claim in one way or another on these fisheries. In the Lake Mweru/Luapula fisheries the local chiefs have their personal lagoons which are not subject to the Fisheries Act such as the closed season."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"Secondly, there is currently a legal vacuum in the country in terms of comanagement. While CBNRM arrangements in other natural resources such as forests, water and wildlife are backed by legal provisions, this is not the case within the fisheries sector. Efforts to revise the Fisheries Act of 1974 to recognise co-management arrangements have not succeeded to date. Thirdly, there is institutional weakness at the DoF level. The department is located in a ministry whose main focus is crop production."},{"index":3,"size":92,"text":"Consequently, policy matters related to the industry are not given the priority that they require not withstanding the fact that the sector is the fourth largest employer in the country. Fourthly, the migration of people from the fishery into agriculture and vice versa has an effect on the management of the fishery. Data has shown that most people will be engaged in fishing and other livelihood activities at the same or at different times (Jul-Larsen et al, 2003). This fact of life among fishers needs to receive recognition when implementing co-management activities."}]},{"head":"ROLE OF THE WORLDFISH CENTER IN ZAMBIA","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":212,"text":"The Zambian WorldFish Center office was opened in June 2006 has now become fully operational. It will be one of the offices mandate to address the issues that have been highlighted in this paper. Already, the office has been invited to provide advice on the strengthening of co-management in Lake Mweru/Luapula fishery. It is anticipated that the use of a model developed by some of the Center staff will greatly assist in designing a management plan that takes into account the various factors that are peculiar to this fishery. Secondly, the Center has also engaged DoF with a view of revising the Fisheries Policy to make it relevant to the current times. In its current form the Fisheries Act still reflects the times when the DoF was seen as the sole manager of the country's fisheries. It is also the Center's objective to increase aquaculture production in the light of stagnating production from most of the country's capture fisheries. Aquaculture would not only increase fish production making it readily available but would also solve some of the current contentious management tools such as the 'closed season.' Already the Center has carried out studies which indicate that aquaculture can be a profitable venture for most of the small scale farmers in the country."}]},{"head":"CONCLUSION","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"Fisheries co-management in Zambia has had mixed results. While it has not been so successful in some of the fisheries there is some hope that it will succeed in others such as Lake Kariba. A major hindrance has been lack of a legal framework through which co-management can occur. Currently, the institutions for co-management operate in a legal vacuum and are recognised as such at the discretion of other actors and institutions and not because the law requires them to do so. Secondly, fisheries co-management in Zambia has to operate within a context of competing and sometimes conflicting layers of management."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"095d3981-1e59-41b0-a187-931a8be1125c","abstract":"Since the late 1980's various forms of fisheries co-management initiatives have been implemented in some of the major fisheries in Zambia. The reasons for instituting co-management arrangements have been varied and have ranged from the need to control the influx of immigrant fishermen to the desire to encourage the use of legal fishing gear. This paper looks at the manner that co-management has evolved in three fisheries namely Lake Kariba, Lake Bangweulu and the Mweru-Luapula fisheries. It shows that after more than 10 years of co-management the results are still mixed. On one lake there is some form of co-management while on the other two these initiatives have not been very successful."}

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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0c754c88d91449ed24c4fd1143c38e94","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6ac155b6-c79d-4788-9bd8-e3d6e3a703d4/retrieve"},"pageCount":57,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCCION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Desde hace varios años el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical, en Palmira y la Universidad del Valle, en Cali, mediante un trabajo en conjunto, están desarrollando técnicas para el procesamiento de la Yuca, adecuadas a las condiciones de producción y comercialización existentes en la mayoria de los países Suramericanos y del Caribe."},{"index":2,"size":81,"text":"La Yuca tiene una gran demanda como fuente de energ ía en la alimentació n para animales. Recientemente se está impulsando su consumo en la alimentación humana en forma de Harina de Yuca. El lavado de las raíces de Yuca, es una operación básica en su procesamiento, que se realiza con el fin de mejorar la calidad y la limpieza de los tubérculos de Yuca. Se han venido mejorando las máquinas, tratando de hacerlas cada vez más tecnificadas, funcionales y eficientes."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"Una de las máquinas utilizadas en la limpieza de las raíces de Yuca se denomina Lavadora de Yuca."},{"index":4,"size":76,"text":"El objetivo de éste manual es presentar una guía de instruccíones para la fabricación de una máquina Lavadora de Yuca. Para la elaboració n de éste manual se ha tenido en cuenta una diversidad de máquinas de éste tipo. Toda la información se basa en una máquina construida gracias a las continuas investigaciones realizadas por el personal del CIATy a la asesoría técnica del Ingeniero Adolfo León Gómez, docente de la Universidad del Valle, Cali, Colombia."},{"index":5,"size":90,"text":"El estudio técnico y la evaluación de la máquina fueron presentados por Daniel O. Martínez y Osear Buitrago, egresados de Ingeniería Mecánica de la Universidad del Valle; además se tuvieron muy en cuenta las sugerencias del Ingeniero Lisimaco Alonso, los trabajos preliminares de Norvey Arredondo y Carlos Chiriboga (quienes elaboraron el primer borrador de este manual y de los planos), y las sugerencias por Medardo Galeano Experto Agrícola del CIAT, Julio Gutierrez y de las persona encargada de la fabricación de la máquina (Humberto Muñoz, Alfonso Cuartas y Jairo Jimenez)."},{"index":6,"size":96,"text":"Las reformas realizadas en el diseño de la máquina tuvieron como fin de mejorar el rendimiento de operación y la seguridad, también disminuyeron los Maquinaria/Harina de yuca manual 1 , • • , 6 costos de fabricación. Cómo resultado final se presenta un conjunto de instrucciones para su construcción, recomendaciones para su operación, listado de materiales y planos, y algunos datos técnicos sobre la máquina. Este manual es una guía y como tal, las personas que lo quieran utilizar tienen autonomía suficiente para decidir en determinado caso si se introduce variantes acordes a su criterio ."},{"index":7,"size":21,"text":"Se agradece a todo el personal del C.IAT. que prestó su colaboración y ayuda en la realizació n de éste manual."},{"index":8,"size":39,"text":"Nosotros Jorge Ivan Araujo y Diego Vidarte, Ingenieros Mecánicos egresados de la Universidad del Valle, nos hemos encargado de realizar este nuevo manual con sus respectivas reformas, además de los planos corregidos en computador utilizando el programa AutoCAD ."},{"index":9,"size":5,"text":"Maquinaria/Harina de yuca manual 1"},{"index":10,"size":58,"text":"La máquina está construida con materiales de fácil adquisició n en el mercado. Consta primordialmente de una estructura general de soporte, dos tolvas de descargue, un tanque de lavado movido por una transmisión de poleas, un eje, una relación de piñones y cadena, y finalmente la transmisión de potencia por una unión cardánica al tanque de lavado ."}]},{"head":"ESTRUCTURA GENERAL DE MARCOS","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"Consta de: Cuatro marcos construidos con perfil de canal y de ángulo de diferentes dimensiones unidos mediante soldadura. También posee conectores transversales que unen los marcos y dan rigidez a la estructura, construidos con perfil de canal unidos por soldadura."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"La fabricació n de cada una de las partes antes mencionadas se describen a continuación y se ilustran en los planos para una mejor comprensión."},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"(Planos L-02, L-02-01, L-02-02, L-02-03, L-02-04)."},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":"En los planos L-02, L-02-01, L-02-02, L-02-03, los marcos, se encuentran su isometría y su despiece con sus respectivas dimensiones."},{"index":5,"size":4,"text":"1.1.1. MARCO No. 1"},{"index":6,"size":67,"text":"Este marco está formado por tres perfiles de canal de 4\" x 1 1/2\" x 3/16\", denominados con los números 01, 02, respectivamente y un perfil de ángulo de 2\" x 3/16\", denominado con el número 02. . 1.1.1.1. Canal No. 01. Cortar perfil de canal de 4\" x 1 1/2\", x 3/16\", con una longitud de 1120 mm y cortar uno de los extremos a 45°."},{"index":7,"size":27,"text":"1.1.1.2 Canal No 02. Cortar perfil de canal de 4\" x 1 1/2\" x 3/16\", con longitud de 1010 mm y cortar ambos extremos a 45° ."},{"index":8,"size":18,"text":"1.1.1.3 Angulos No 03. Cortar perfil de ángulo de 2\" x 3/16\" con una longitud de 980 mm."},{"index":9,"size":6,"text":"Maquinaria/Harina de yuca manual 1 ."},{"index":10,"size":2,"text":"• 8"},{"index":11,"size":81,"text":"Los perfiles de canal y de ángulo se unen mediante soldadura E6013; para el canal No. 02, se debe hacer dos agujeros de r/J 9/16\" en cada uno de los extremos, con una distancia de 180 mm desde uno de los extremos del canal como se muestra en el plano No. L-02-04. Esta construido de perfil de ángulo de 1/2\" x 1/8\", que permite sostener algunos protectores, para una mejor rigidez de éstos y una mejor presentación estética de la máquina. "}]},{"head":"CONECTORES TRANSVERSALES Y DE RIGIDEZ","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Son los perfiles que unen los marcos unos con otro y sirven para dar forma y rigidez a la estructura general de la máquina. Ver plano L-02•05."},{"index":2,"size":90,"text":"Son 11 piezas en total, distribuidas así: Dos perfiles de canal de 4\" x 11/2\" x 3/16\", designados con los números 02; plano L-02-05 Cuatro perfiles de ángulo de 2\" x 3/16\", designados con los números 01 plano L-02-05. Cortar una lámina de acero inoxidable AISI 420 de calibre 16, con dimensiones de 490 mm x 800 mm y hacer redondeos en sus extremos o esquinas, como se muestra en el plano L-08-01; realizar un arqueado de la lámina a lo largo hasta formar un ángulo de 137 0 aproximadamente."}]},{"head":"PLATINAS Y TUBO DE LA TOLVA","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"Cortar dos platina CR 1/4\", con dimensiones de 1\" x 340 mm, cortar un tubo galvanizado de 1/2\" con longitud de 560 mm, cortar una platina CR 1/4\", con dimensiones de 1\" x 100 mm, cortar un tubo galvanizado de 1/2\" con longitud de 125 mm; unirlos mediante soldadura E6013 con la lámina de la tolva, a una distancia de uno de los extremos de 520 mm. Ver plano L-08-01. Cortar platina de 1/4\" x 2\" con longitud de 100 mm. Para el ensamble de la tolva de vaciado, ver plano L-08-02."}]},{"head":"POSICIONADOR DE TOLVA","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"Cortar tubo de 1/2\" con longitud de 160 mm, cortar una platina CR 3/16\" de 1\" x 210 mm, con un agujero en uno de sus extremos de 1/) 1/8\" con distancia al extremo de 10 mm, cortar platina CR 3/16\" de 20 mm x 20 mm con agujero centrado de t/I 1/8\", cortar varilla de 1/2\" con longitud de 550 mm, resorte de 1/2\" con longitud de 180 mm."}]},{"head":"SUJETADOR DEL POSICIONADOR","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"Cortar platina CR 1/4\" de 1\" x 180 mm, con doblez de 30 mm x 120 mm x 30 mm a lo largo, cortar platina CR 1/4\" de 1\" x 120 mm, cortar platina CR 1/4\" de 1\" x 75 mm, con doblez de 15 mm x 45 mm x 15 mm, con un agujero centrado en el doblez del medio de 1/)1/4\", cortar varilla de 1/2\" con longitud de 610 mm, realizar un doblez."}]},{"head":"SUJETADOR DEL TUBO DE AGUA","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"Cortar platina CR 1/4\" de 1 1/2\" x 255 mm, realizar doblez de 60 mm x 37.5 mm x 60 mm, cortar platina CR 1/8\" de 1\" x 115 mm y realizar doblez en forma de arco de acuerdo al tubo que se utilice. Consiste en un conjunto de láminas galvanizadas de calibre 20, un marco de ángulo de 7f8\" x 1f8\", una reja de apoyo hecha de platinas CR 1f8\", y un marco de lámina CR calibre 20 que contiene una malla trenzada de 1f2\". Ver planos L-04"},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"(1) cortar cuatro láminas galvanizadas de calibre 20, con dimensiones de 1110 mm x 675 mm, realizar corte como se muestra en el Plano L-04-01, y taladrar agujeros de 3f8\" en la parte más ancha de la lámina; tómese en cuenta que sólo se realiza en dos láminas;"},{"index":3,"size":128,"text":"(2) Cortar lámina galvanizada de calibre 20, con dimensiones de 1110 mm x 2BO mm, realizar corte como se ilustra en el Plano L-04-01; cortar dos láminas galvanizadas de calibre 20, con dimensiones de 1110 mm x 180 m, realizar un doblez en la parte más ancha de 20 mm, para su fijación y cortar como se muestra en el plano L-04-01; cortar dos las galvanizadas de calibra 20, con dimensiones de 924 mm x 100 mm, redondear una de las esquinas de cada lámina con radio de 50 mm; cortar dos láminas galvanizadas de calibre 20, con dimensiones de 500 mm x 1110 mm, realizar los doblez a 90°, como se muestra en el plano L-04-01 cortar lámina galvanizada de calibre 20, con dimensiones de 100 mm"},{"index":4,"size":33,"text":"x 314 mm, y unir los extremos formando una circunferencia, con soldadura; cortar lámina galvanizada de calibre 20, con dimensiones de 105 mm x 105 mm, hacer un agujero centrado de 1/1100 mm."}]},{"head":"MARCO DE RIGIDEZ DE LA TOLVA","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Cortar dos ángulos de 7 f8\" x 1 fB\" con longitud de 1110 mm, realizar agujeros de 3f8\" con una distancia de cada uno de los extremos de 1 00 mm. Ensamblar los ángulos en forma de guía en la estructura total."}]},{"head":"REJA DE APOYO","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Consta de ángulos de 1\"x1/4\", por platinas CR 1/4\". Ver plano L-04-02 ."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"1.3.2.3.1 Angulos de Marco. Cortar cuatro ángulos de 1\" x 1/4\", con longitud de 110B mm, unir los ángulos a 90°, formando un marco."},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"Maquinaria/Harina de yuca manual 1 , r 13 1.3.2.3.2 Platinas de rigidez. Cortar 6 platinas CR 1/4\" con dimensiones de 1\" x 1107 mm, las platinas van igualmente distanciada y unidas dentro del marco anterior con soldadura E6013."}]},{"head":"REJA DE RECOLECCION DE BASURAS","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"Consiste en un marco de láminas CR calibre 16, con dimensiones de 1108 mm x 1108 mm, y un ancho de cada lámina de 80 mm. Dentro de ese marco se ubica y suelda con una malla trenzada de 1/2\" con magnitudes de 1105 mm x 1105 mm, como se muestra en el Plano L-04-02."}]},{"head":"TANQUE LAVADOR","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Se puede decir que es la parte más importante de toda la máquina, pues allí es donde se realiza toda la función de lavado de las raíces de yuca."},{"index":2,"size":93,"text":"Está formado por dos aros o anillos de lámina CR 1/4\", dos cubiertas laterales de lámina CR 1/4\", una cubierta del tanque hecha en lámina CR calibre 16, una puerta lateral, con su respectiva bisagra y chapa o pasador de seguridad que se mantendrá fijo por la acción de un resorte. En el exterior del tanque cuatro paletas que direccionan las raíces de yuca hacia el interior del tanque, para un mejor lavado; Además se agregan en su interior 7 tubos de 3/4\" con el objeto de dar mayor rigidez a la estructura."}]},{"head":"AROS O ANILLOS","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Cortar platinas CR 1/4\" con dimensiones de 2\" x 2570 mm y unir ambos extremos con soldadura E6013 en forma de anillo con un ti' 818 mm."}]},{"head":"CUBIERTA DE TANQUE","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Cortar lámina calibre 16, con dimensiones de 1005 mm x 2000 mm; realizar 19 y 18 agujeros a lo largo y ancho de la lámina intercalados e igualmente espaciados de 1/16\" x 7.2 mm y unidos, por medio de una caladora, taladrar agujeros de 5/16\" a lo largo y ancho de la lámina hacia sus extremos, igualmente espaciados. Ver Plano L-03-01."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"'"},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"También se presenta la alternativa de utilizar soldadura con el objeto de reemplazar los tornillos, lo que hará más fácil y económico la construcció n del tanque, pero dará más inconvenientes en el momento de cambiar la cubierta, pero los tornillos presentan el inconveniente adicional de aflojarse con las vibraciones."},{"index":4,"size":39,"text":"1 Cortar lámina CR calibre 20, con dimensiones de 960 mm x 570 mm, hacer los mismos agujeros que en la cubierta del tanque y hacer agujeros en los extremos a lo largo y ancho igualmente espaciados de 5/16\"."},{"index":5,"size":5,"text":"Maquinaria/Harina de yuca manual 1"},{"index":6,"size":67,"text":"Son colocados en el tanque de lavado, sobre las cubiertas laterales, al lado opuesto de la tapa de tanque, esto permite un correcto balanceo en el tanque durante su movimiento rotatorio. Está construido por una platina CR 1\" x 4\" en forma de arco con R 380 mm y formando un ángulo de 140°, Taladrar 3 agujeros igualmente espaciados de 5/8\" para su sujeción, Ver plano L-03-04,"}]},{"head":"SISTEMA DE TRANSMISION DE POTENCIA","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"El sistema de transmisión de potencia de la lavadora, consta de 1 motor, 3 correas en \"V', 4 poleas, un mecanismo de embrague, 2 piñones, una cadena y una unión cardánica. Este montaje así dispuesto tiene el objeto de facilitar el acople de la Lavadora con la máquina Picadora, de forma que utilicen el mismo motor; en el caso de que se fueran a utilizar de modo independiente, se debe instalar un motor y un sistema de poleas que mantenga la misma velocidad de el eje."}]},{"head":"MOTOR","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"Se emplea un motor eléctrico con una potencia de 3 a 5 HP Y una velocidad de rotación aproximada de 1750 RPM, ensamblado en la trazadora de yuca. El motor puede ser monofásico o trifásico."}]},{"head":"EJE PRINCIPAL","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"El eje transmite el torque y la velocidad de trabajo, Consta de un barra de acero SAE 1045 calibrado de \",1 1/4\" Y una longitud de 1840 mm. Se debe refrentar y chaflanear en ambos extremos."},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"En ambos extremos se debe realizar un chavetero de 5/16\" x 3/4\" con longitud de 85 mm; en un extremo se monta una polea yen el otro un piñón, El eje se encuentra montado entre tres apoyos o soportes de rodamiento, comúnmente llamados chumaceras, las cuales a su vez se fijan a la estructura de la máquina; las chumaceras NKS P207 con diámetro interno de 1 1/4\" son de fácil adquisición en el mercado."},{"index":3,"size":95,"text":"las chumaceras, debido a su posición vertical, necesitan una base; ésta consiste en una platina CR 3/4\", en la cual se perforan y se roscan dos agujeros para tornillos de 1/2\" NC x 1 1/4\" grado 5 con los cuales se fijan las chumaceras. la platina base se suelda a la estructura en los marcos No. 1, en los perfiles de canal. Es importante tener en cuenta que la platina base corresponde a la base de la chumacera NKS P207; si se emplea otro tipo de chumacera, habría que cambiar la posición de los agujeros."},{"index":4,"size":32,"text":"1.5.3 EJES SECUNDARIOS 1.5.3.1 Ejes de soporte Consiste en dos ejes de acero SAE 1045 debidamente calibrado, de f/J 11/4\" Y una longitud de 1300 mm, los cuales han sido refrentados oportunamente."},{"index":5,"size":45,"text":"Cada eje se encuentra montado en dos chumaceras NKS P207, los cuales a su vez se encuentran sujetos horizontalmente en los marcos No. 1, en los canales, hacia los extremos sujetos por tornillos de 1/2\" NC x 1 1/4\", con su respectiva arandela y tuerca."},{"index":6,"size":59,"text":"En estos ejes, se encuentran montadas masas de acero, las cuales soportan el peso del tanque lavador; son cuatro masas de acero SAE 1045 calibrado de f/J 4\", con una longitud de 105 mm, posee un agujero pasante a lo largo de la masa de f/J 1 1/4\" Y un prisionero de 1/4\" NC, en uno de los extremos."},{"index":7,"size":42,"text":"Alrededor de cada masa, en uno de los extremos, a una distancia de 54 mm, se encuentra soldada una varilla cuadrada de 3/8\" SAE 1045; tómese en cuenta la posición de las masas en cada uno de los ejes, ver Plano l-06-01."}]},{"head":"Eje de transmísió n","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"Este eje lleva la velocidad de trabajo y consiste en una barra de acero SAE 1045 calibrado, con una longitud de 450 mm; en uno de los extremos se hace un chavetero de 3/8\" x 3/16\" y se suelda al espigo de una unión cardánica, con referencia SPICER 588, con una longitud desde el punto de soldadura hasta el final de la punta estriada de 130 mm. Fabricación Americana de 1 1/8\" normalmente."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"Tallar chaveteros según el motor y utilizar 2 prisioneras de 1/4\" NC a 120• 1.5.4.2 POLEA CONDUCIDA (1)"},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"Está construida en fundición gris y está acoplada en el eje principal de la trazadora de yuca. Tiene las siguientes dimensiones: De : 12\" Dej: 1 1/4\" con ajuste deslizante."},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":"Tallar chavetero de 5/16\" para una chaveta de 100 mm de longitud, utilizando 2 prisioneros de 5/16\" NC a 120•."}]},{"head":"POLEA CONDUCTORA (2)","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Está fabricada de hierro y se encuentra acoplada en el eje principal de la trozadora de yuca, en eje opuesto al del disco trozador. Tiene las siguientes dimensiones:"},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"De : 4\" Dej : 1 1/4\" con ajuste deslizante ."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"Tallar chaveta de 3/8\" x 3/16\" con longitud de 100 mm y utilizar 2 prisionero allen de 3/8\" NC a 120°."}]},{"head":"POLEA CONDUCIDA (2)","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Está fabricada de aluminio fundido; ésta se acopla en el eje principal de la lavadora de yuca. Tiene las siguientes dimensiones: De : 14\" Dej : 1 1/4\" con ajuste deslizante."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"Tallar chavetero de 3/8\" x 3/16\" con longitud de 80 mm y utilizar 2 prisionero allen de 3/8\" NC a 120°."}]},{"head":"CORREAS","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"Se utilizan dos correas en \"V' de 58\" de tipo B, las cuales son colocadas entre el motor y el eje principal de la trozadora, son tensionadas mediante un espárrago tensor en la base del motor."},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"También se utiliza una correa en 'V\" de 56 pulgadas tipo B, la cual es colocada entre el eje principal de la trozadora y el eje principal de la lavadora de yuca, es tensionada mediante un mecanismo tensor que a la vez sirve de embrague para dar movimiento a la lavadora."}]},{"head":"PIÑONES Y CADENA","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"El piñón transmite la velocidad de trabajo desde el eje principal al eje de transmisión por medio de una cadena."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"Maquinaria/Harina de yuca manual 1 i Consta de una base, un brazo tensor, el cual se encuentra sujeto a la barra tensora; este mecanismo en conjunto, tensiona la correa que transmite la potencia desde la trozad ora hasta la lavadora de yuca ."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"1.5.6.1 SISTEMA DE BASE Esta construida de perfil de ángulo de 2\" x 3/16\", que se encuentran ensamblados en la parte trasera de la trozad ora."},{"index":4,"size":27,"text":"1.5.6.1.1 Angulos No. 01. Cortar perfil de ángulo de 2\" x 3/16\", con longitud de 1075 mm. Se encuentra sujeto en la parte trasera de la trozadora."},{"index":5,"size":59,"text":"1.5.6.1.2 Angulo No. 02. Cortar perfil de ángulo de 2\" x 3/16\" con longitud de 500 mm, hacer 4 agujeros de f/¡ 1/2\", igualmente distanciados a 25 mm y con distancia de uno de los extremos de 470 mm. Se encuentra unido al ángulo 01, formando una perpendicular a una distancia de uno de los extremos de 570 mm."}]},{"head":"BRAZO TENSOR","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"Cortar platina CR 1/4\" con dimensiones de 1/2\" x 342 mm, hacer un redondeo en uno de los extremos, con R 1/2\", taladrar un agujero de 9/16\", en el extremo del redondeo a una distancia de este de 15 mm. Tornear eje de acero SAE 1045, con longitud de 167 mm (escalonado), con f/¡max 1S.5 mm, con una longitud de 107 mm y el resto con un f/¡min 15 mm. Rectificar un tubo de. 2 7/S\" con una longitud de 47 mm . Tambi én se utiliza un rodamiento con diámetro interno de 15 mm y con diámetro en su superficie superior de 65.025 mm."}]},{"head":"BARRA TENSORA","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"Cortar varilla de 1/2\" con longitud de 1330 mm, realizar un doblez de mm en uno de sus extremos a 90°, soldarle una platina CR 1/S\". Cortar tubo galvanizado de 1/2\" con longitud de 290 mm, realizar un agujero con fresadora a lo largo del tubo de 1/S\" x 211 mm desde uno de los extremos formando una \"L\" de 11/S\" x 10 mm. Cortar ángulo de 1 112\" x 3/16\" con Maquinaria/Harina de yuca manual .'"},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"• I 21 longitud de 64 mm, taladrar un agujero centrado con tfJ 3/8\" en una de las aletas, la otra aleta rebajarla de 1 1/2\" a 9/16\"."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"1.6.PROTECCIONES Los protectores son partes construidas de lámina calibre 20, con el fin de dar presentación y proteger a los operarios ."},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"Estos protectores se obtienen por procesos de corte, doblado y soldadura de láminas trazadas de acuerdo al plano mostrado."}]},{"head":"PROTECTOR LATERAL IZQUIERDO","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"Está construido en lámina galvanizada calibre 20; éste presenta un doblez de 25 mm y otro más externo de 15 mm, en los extremos de la lámina, para reforzar el perfil, aumentar así su rigidez, mejorar la estética y evitar posibles accidentes por parte de operarios. También presenta tres rigidizadores verticales, que dan mayor rigidez al protector, debido a que por ese lado se alimenta el tanque de lavado con raíces de yuca. Ver plano L-05-01."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"Se debe tener en cuenta que los doblez que se realizan a 90•, son soldados en las esquinas para evitar vibraciones en el doblado total de protector. Este se fija a la estructura de la máquina en los marcos No. 1, 2 Y 3 Y un conector transversal de rigidez, mediante tornillos de 3/8\" NC con su respectiva tuerca y arandela."},{"index":3,"size":60,"text":"1.6.1.1 RIGIDIZADOR Está construido de lámina galvanizada calibre 20, con dimensiones totales de 350 mm x 508 mm, presenta doblez en los extremos más largos de 25 mm y otro de 50 mm más externo ambos a 90•, con el fin de dar mayor rigidez al protector izquierdo el rigidizador se une mediante soldadura a dicho protector. Ver plano L-05-03."}]},{"head":"PROTECTOR LATERAL DERECHO","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Está construido de lámina galvanizada calibre 20, presenta igual construcción que el protector lateral izquierdo."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"• 22 Se encuentra ubicado en la estructura general de la máquina entre los marcos No. 1, 2 Y 3 Y un conector transversal de rigidez, unido por tornillos de 3/8\" NC con su respectiva tuerca y arandela. Ver plano L-05-01."}]},{"head":"PROTECTOR SUPERIOR","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"Hecha en lámina galvanizada calibre 20, presenta doblez en sus extremos para mejorar su rigidez y para su sujeción en el montaje, se encuentra unida al protector lateral izquierdo, al protector lateral derecho y al marco auxiliar por medio de tornillos de 3/8\" NC con su respectiva tuerca y arandela. Ver plano No. L-05-02."}]},{"head":"PROTECTOR SEPARADOR","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Este permite cubrir o proteger el lugar donde se instalan los controles eléctricos."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"Construido de lámina galvanizada calibre 20, presenta un doblez de rigidez en uno de los lados de mayor longitud de 15 mm x 25 mm en ángulos de 90°, también presenta un agujero centrado desde el lado que presenta el doblez de 365 mm x 45 mm, incluyendo el doblez."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"Se encuentra ubicado en el marco auxiliar 3 y unido por tornillos de 3/8\" NC con su respectiva tuerca y arandela. Ver plano No. L-05-02."}]},{"head":"PROTECTOR TRASERO","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"Consiste en un marco hecho de lámina CR calibre 20, tal como se muestra en el plano No. L-05-04; dentro de ese marco se ubica y se suelda una malla trenzada de 1/2\", con magnitudes de 920 mm y 500 mm, las cuales se ajustan a las comerciales."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"En su parte inferior se coloca un par de bisagras, para que el protector actúe como una compuerta; en la parte superior se coloca un par de platinas CR 1/8\" de 30 mm x 20 mm, con agujero centrado de 11 mm, que permite asegurar el protector con el protector superior por medio de tornillos de 3/8\" NC con su respectiva tuerca y arandela."},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"Maquinaria/Harina de yuca manual 1 • • 23"}]},{"head":"ACABADO Y ANCLAJE","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Para preservar las partes de la máquina es necesario aplicar varias capas de pintura anticorrosiva y un acabado final con esmalte sintético (pintura amartillada) ."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"Para evitar vibraciones y desplazamientos de la lavadora en el lugar donde se instale debe construirse una pequeña fundición de concreto bien nivelada sobre la cual irá anclada por medio de pernos de 1/2\" NC con suficiente longitud, embebidos, y soldarles una pequeña varilla en la cabeza, o roscar una varilla de 1/2\" de acero SAE 1045 y doblarlo en forma de \"L\"."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"La máquina se asegura en su base, formado por ángulos No. 01 plano L-02-05, con cuatro tuercas e igual número de arandelas."},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"Es recomendable que la máquina se encuentre levantada de la superficie unos 10 cm con el objeto de facilitar la limpieza de su parte inferior."}]},{"head":"RECOMENDACIONES Y OPERACION","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"Se deben eliminar las posibles fuentes de ruido, de las cuales se toma como ejemplo: deficiente anclaje o ausencia de él y falta de nivelaci ón de la lavadora en el sitio de operación. Aunque el tanque es una de las principales fuentes de vibración."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"Uno de los procesos de manufactura en la máquina es la soldadura sobre la cual ya se han dado algunas recomendaciones; no se dan más especificaciones porque se supone que el operario soldador es una persona que sabe y conoce su oficio."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"Se recomienda atender la lubricación de los rodamientos y similares. Es necesario que las redes eléctricas se hallen lo más cerca y seguro posible a la máquina para ubicar allí los controles de arranque y parada para tener fácil y rápido acceso a los mismos en caso de emergencia."},{"index":4,"size":27,"text":"Se debe tener el correcto tensionado, alineación ajuste y posiciones de las correas pues ellas con el trabajo y el transcurrir del tiempo van cediendo y alargándose."},{"index":5,"size":28,"text":"Para fines sanitarios la tolva y los protectores han sido construidos en lámina galvanizada y el tanque de lavado ha sido recubierto por un proceso de metalizado galvanico."},{"index":6,"size":30,"text":"La cadena y los piñones debe ser lavados en petróleo y aceitados posteriormente; este proceso debe hacerse con cierta regularidad con el objeto de preservar la vida de estos elementos."},{"index":7,"size":31,"text":"La estructura debe llevar varias capas de pintura anticorrosiva y un acabado final con esmalte sintético, con el objeto de prolongar su vida útil, su aspecto exterior y sus calidades higiénicas."},{"index":8,"size":36,"text":"Los tornillos del tanque (en caso de que no se construya soldado) deben ajustarse periódicamente puesto que el movimiento y vibración de la máquina los desajustara, y pueden caer a la maquina picadora dañando las cuchillas."},{"index":9,"size":28,"text":"La maquina debe contar con una bomba de alimentación de agua de por lo menos 32 lit/m in; o en su defecto por una manguera de suficiente capacidad."},{"index":10,"size":36,"text":"También se debe tener en cuanta las recomendaciones que presenta el manual de la trozad ora de yuca debido a que ambas máquinas trabajan con un mismo motor que proporciona la velocidad de trabajo para ambas."},{"index":11,"size":18,"text":"La econom(a en su construcción va asociada a la mayor producción que la lavadora ofrece en el mercado."},{"index":12,"size":16,"text":"Se recomienda además mantener repuestos de las siguientes partes, las cuales pueden sufrir un desgaste rápido:"},{"index":13,"size":36,"text":"-3 Poleas tipo B de 2.5\" en hierro -3 Correas tipo B de 82\" -3 poleas de aluminio de 24\" -Chumaceras Foto No.1 Vista del equipo completo para el proceso de lavado y trozado de yuca."},{"index":14,"size":5,"text":"Maquinaria/Harina de yuca manual 1"},{"index":15,"size":2,"text":"Foto No.2"},{"index":16,"size":7,"text":"Vista de la máquina lavadora de yuca."}]},{"head":"27","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Maquinaria/Harina de yuca manual 1 i r ANEXO 1"}]},{"head":"LISTA DE MATERIALES","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"DENOMINACION Canal de 4\" x 1 1/2\" x 3/16\" Angula de 2\" x 3/16\" Barra de acero SAE 1045 t/J 1 1/4\" Barra de acero SAE 1045 t/J 1\" Barra de acero SAE 1045 t/J 4\" Platina HR 1/4\" Platina HR 1/8\" Platina HR 3/16\" Chumaceras t/J 1 1/4\" NKS P207 Unión cardánica SPICER 588 Motor eléctrico de 3.6 a 5 HP Polea fundición t/J 4\" doble canal \"Y' Polea fundición t/J 12\" doble canal \"V' Polea fundición t/J 4\" un canal \"V' Polea fundición t/J 14\" un canal \"V' Correas en \"V' de 58\" tipo B Correas en \"V' de 56\" tipo B Tornillos de 1/2\"x2\" NC para anclaje "}]},{"head":"31","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"Las siguientes herramientas, son necesarias para asegurar el correcto funcionamiento de la máquina y proveer los medios para el mantenimiento preventivo y la corrección de las fallas que se puedan presentar durante la operación de los equipos."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"-Palas de Aluminio -Hombre solo ó alicate de presión -Llave Pestón -Llaves allen Ouego completo) -Llaves de 3/4 mixta (2 de cada una) -Llave 9/16 Mixta (2 de cada una) -Lave 9/16 Plana (2 llaves) -Llave 5/8 Mixta (2 de cada una) -Llave 7/16 Mixta (2 de cada una) -Llaves de 1/2 -Graceras -Destornilladores de estria y de pala grandes y pequeños -Extractores de poleas -Martillo ANEXO 4"}]},{"head":"CORTE DE LAMINAS","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"Con el fin de minimizar desperdicio de lamina y por consiguiente bajar costos de producción se anexa el siguiente gráfico que indica la forma más adecuada de hacer los cortes en láminas de 1200 mm x 2400 mm; cada corte esta referido a un plano en el cual se encuentra la pieza a fabricar. -------,------------' ----, --\",'J r(].• -, \".\""},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"(,' -, 'oc ,-\",_-\"\",:"},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"\" 0\"_,_,, C,-\"~\",,-,, l ,¿~, ',',0 ,,,,."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":", \"\", ,,,,-,_,,, .. :., _c\" ~~,-,,:. \"-'-\"'''' __ -<_\", ,,-'_]_ ~,_, \"\",, "},{"index":5,"size":7,"text":"---- --OBSERV Jorge l AraujO I 7. "},{"index":6,"size":12,"text":"\\\" --~>1 @ '\" / / _ _ \\ \\ í'\" ---==:------------------ "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"FedtaI Aoosto de 1993. CENTlIIJ JNTtH.NKION~/.. DI At;RlCULroRA TROPJt:AL Reviso I A. L. Comez 1.. eh,,-, C.LA.T. CENTRQ ~,\\C1ON.&1. DE .GRlCU~TUR.I. Platinas de refuerzo I 02 I Lamina CH I Esp 1/4\" 06 IPlaca de Soporte de la Bombal 01 I Lamina CH IEsp 1Dibujo I mego Vidarte 11' ...... ~ .ti. Agosto de 1993_, _____ ---.-J ceNTRO 1/lT~iI}\"'CfON~ /JI; ~/UClIUtJJU rRf)PlC# Reviso A L Gomez==r-~~h~ _ ______ _ Fecha Nota_-Todos los perfiles U de 4\"xl1/2\"x3/16\" t EscQl a C07Ue7l1do MAQUINA LAVADORA =r;arw Na ¡~ ... .c:.l-=~-'-\"--_~ _ __ . i Dibu.jo Diego Vidurte 'J)~ ~ ~. -;;;;g;JA;;;;;; l\"\"'r J,\"~ crA.T Fecha f r~05to de ]'J'jj ¡ Rev\"ÍSo A. L~otnez ¡ ,14 ~~---<--'--'---J Plano No :J)~ Vid..at~ .M.. --'Araujo J<»«r J. ~~ erAT. R;'=-:~ ____ j Agosto de 1993. CENTRO INTERNACIONJ.L DE .tJ;RICULTUlU rRfJPICAL Revtso A. Jorge l. Arauja JI'!>', r-----+-~--~~~--~-CJ.A.T. hcha A os to de 1993. CENTRO INTERNACIONAL DE AGRICULTURA TROP/C¡l.L Reviso A. L Comez [\"'~ L -----;;:;::;; ~F ~/4 _~_ l_ f~_ 3°l r L OBSERV ~ 0~ VidaTte :iJÍ4?\"\" 1J;.J\"...4 ..4l Jorge J, AT\\'lt<}o ' -; -~ ..t.~ CI.A. T roo,\", P.8~~C>_c!~ 1993 cuno ¡NT ..... M:~ ~ \"\"u:tOUII .. . . -.. PJatjna c\"rdon al e -----'\" de lod\" /ededor E 601; pJlfitina ~ Lámina ~aljbTe xl/4~ ¡---101S-5-;.~-~ L~_. __ -~+ _t--- "},{"text":" Um.CR e.ld OBSERV lhbu}Q Diego V~~> v.J-4 _,.(l.. Jf)Tgf l. A7tlu]D! J.....,.. :l. J4......¡. ~ Ago.sto de 1993 b;;j C. J. A. T. Rv\"...... A_ L Ce .... \",,• I..u..q... L ... c_.\" .... ~ ................. _ .. "},{"text":"Jorge 1 . el. A. T. F#cha. I Aaos to de 1993, CENrR;) JNTrRN,fC/ONAL De AGRlCfJLfVJ/A rRDPJc.4L Reviso I A. L, Go~z M j . . ....cb,,•'-'.\"\"C.lI _____ _ Araujo 11, y .4\"\"'r erA.r. Ji'{¡CM Agosto de 19')3 ____ _ I ReViSO! A. L. _ Gomez _ ! A~~ Contenido MAQUiNA LA VADORA ~'¿'NrRO INT&RNACIOJol),[ DZ ).(;.IIICULroJU TRlJl'1CAL fii<k.,~ j{ Jorge I. Araujo 7\"\"'r J . .A\"\"\"f\" 1 c. 1. A. T. F .. 01 Acero Calv. AcescoN.22 CENT/Ii) /JIURNJC¡ON~L DE J¡;RfCVUV/U TRiJP/CJL &l'~--r rn.~n\"\" :::::t::::--:-------=..:-.::..:::L.L Ese' ~un\"f'-'H'.n ........ .... ....,....,~ • .N TOLVA DE RECOLECCTON DE BASURA L-04 . __ L-~'-l-~~~~ ______________________ -L~v~'CJ~~n~c~'~'~V~U~Q~\".c-~ln~c~C~O~C~V~'~'~'~~~~I _____ C~L-__________________ _ "},{"text":" AngulQ::I de l\"Xl/B\" TodAS las laminas esta !..as lineas punteadas Doblar BEI¡:Ull al planQ r---cu\" ~uP ~~go Vida~ ~.Al ~~~ J()Tge.' Ara~' .4.~ e/. A. T. I n ,en desarrollo ~-~t de 1993 -------..!...ldlca donde va el doblez os o ~-----\"\"~ --, -. . . I L-04. ~~ ~_ L. Conwz_~ 1... "},{"text":" -------------..-S 2. "},{"text":"Fecha :--.. -.. -.. -... -.. -... ___ 1 .!i!!'perior 01 lAcero Galvan. I eR Cal.ZO 01 Separador 01 AcerrJ Calvan CR Ca/.ZO PIEZ& DENOJl¡~~CL~!!.-----CANT MATERIAL OBSERV Dibujo i D-Wf}4 Vidurle 1)...,. ~ .Al.. Jorge J. A~--;:-~ 17-,... ~_ .J......¡. C.J. A. T. \",\"\" I Agoslo_ de_ !~~. _____ ~ c&,.,. .. '''''~ _ ... \"\"\"\"\" .... T-'\" 'IJ~ Vidw,../\"., j{ 01 PIEZA Jorge 1. A;aujo jG7 J . .4.~ ------Agosto de 199_3 _ _ _ _ A L Comez [Ad.Jfo: . .l bo=v¡ CENTRO INTt;RNAC10NAL DE At;R/ "},{"text":"Fec Diego Vidarte I Jorge 1. Araujo 17_ J. A\"\"'J<' l CI.A.T. "},{"text":"2.3 Platina No 03 plano L-02-05. Cortar Dos platinas CR 1/4\", designadas con los números 03. plano L-02-03. Dos platinas CR 1/4\", designadas con los números 03. plano L-02-03. platina CR 1/4\" con dimensiones platina CR 1/4\" con dimensiones de 1\" x 1120 mm. de 1\" x 1120 mm. Después de armar correctamente cada uno de los marcos como se ilustra en Después de armar correctamente cada uno de los marcos como se ilustra en los planos No. L-02-(01, 02, 03 Y 04) se procede a ensamblar la estructura los planos No. L-02-(01, 02, 03 Y 04) se procede a ensamblar la estructura general de la máquina; todas las uniones se realizan mediante soldadura general de la máquina; todas las uniones se realizan mediante soldadura E6013, como se ilustra en el plano No. L-02 E6013, como se ilustra en el plano No. L-02 "},{"text":"1.3. TOLVAS 1.3.1. TOLVA DE SALIDA DE YUCA Consiste en una lámina de acero inoxidable AISI 420 de calibre 16,2 platinas Consiste en una lámina de acero inoxidable AISI 420 de calibre 16,2 platinas CR 1/4\", 1 tubo de 1/2\" galvanizado y un conjunto de piezas o sistema de CR 1/4\", 1 tubo de 1/2\" galvanizado y un conjunto de piezas o sistema de fijación de la tolva en el marco No. 4. Ver plano No. L-08-01 fijación de la tolva en el marco No. 4. Ver plano No. L-08-01 "},{"text":"MaquinarialHarina de yuca manual 1 1.3.1.1. LAMINA DE TOLVA "},{"text":" Ver plano L-06-01. Este eje se encuentra acoplado entre un par de chumaceras NKS P207, Este eje se encuentra acoplado entre un par de chumaceras NKS P207, colocadas verticalmente en el marco No. 2, en los canales. No. 04 (plano colocadas verticalmente en el marco No. 2, en los canales. No. 04 (plano L-02-02) que conforman el templete del soporte; y una unión cardánica L-02-02) que conforman el templete del soporte; y una unión cardánica SPICER 588 que está sujeta al tanque de lavado . SPICER 588 que está sujeta al tanque de lavado . 1.5.4. POLEAS Y CORREAS 1.5.4. POLEAS Y CORREAS Las poleas transmiten la potencia del motor al eje principal de la lavadora Las poleas transmiten la potencia del motor al eje principal de la lavadora mediante 3 correas en \"V' y 4 poleas. Se utilizaran las siguientes mediante 3 correas en \"V' y 4 poleas. Se utilizaran las siguientes nomenclaturas: nomenclaturas: Diámetro exterior: De. Diámetro exterior:De. Diámetro eje: Dej. Diámetro eje:Dej. "},{"text":" Esta construida de acero SAE 1045 calibrado, que se acopla en el eje principal de la lavadora y tiene las siguientes dimensiones: 19 19 Se debe tener en cuenta la siguiente nomenclatura: Se debe tener en cuenta la siguiente nomenclatura: Diámetro exterior De Diámetro exteriorDe Diámetro interior Di Diámetro interiorDi Diámetro primitivo Dp Diámetro primitivoDp Diámetro eje Dej Diámetro ejeDej Número de dientes: Z Número de dientes: Z 1.5.5.1. PIÑON CONDUCTOR 1.5.5.1. PIÑON CONDUCTOR De : 3\" (76.2 mm) Dp : 67.2 mm Di : 60.2 mm De : 3\" (76.2 mm)Dp : 67.2 mmDi : 60.2 mm Dej: 1 1/4\" con ajuste deslizante. Z : 11 dientes Dej: 1 1/4\" con ajuste deslizante.Z : 11 dientes Tallar chavetero de 3/8\" x 3/16\" con longitud de 80 mm y utilizar 2 prisionero Tallar chavetero de 3/8\" x 3/16\" con longitud de 80 mm y utilizar 2 prisionero allen de 3/8\" NC a 120°. allen de 3/8\" NC a 120°. 1,5.5.2. PIÑON CONDUCIDO 1,5.5.2. PIÑON CONDUCIDO Está fabricada de acero SAE 1045 calibrado, se acopla en el eje de Está fabricada de acero SAE 1045 calibrado, se acopla en el eje de transmisión. Tiene las siguientes dimensiones: transmisión. Tiene las siguientes dimensiones: De: 12\" (304.8 mm) Dp: 295.8 mm Di: 288.8 mm De: 12\" (304.8 mm) Dp: 295.8 mm Di: 288.8 mm Dej: 1 1/4\" con ajuste deslizante Z : 48 dientes Dej: 1 1/4\" con ajuste deslizanteZ : 48 dientes Tallar chavetero de 43/8\" x 3/16\" con longitud de 80 mm, utilizar 2 prisionero Tallar chavetero de 43/8\" x 3/16\" con longitud de 80 mm, utilizar 2 prisionero aJlen de 3/8\" NC a 120°. aJlen de 3/8\" NC a 120°. 1.5.5.3 CADENA 1.5.5.3 CADENA Cadena ANSI 60, se encuentra acoplada transmitiendo la potencia de trabajo Cadena ANSI 60, se encuentra acoplada transmitiendo la potencia de trabajo • desde el eje principal de la lavadora, hasta el eje de transmisión. Tiene la •desde el eje principal de la lavadora, hasta el eje de transmisión. Tiene la siguientes dimensiones: siguientes dimensiones: Paso : 19.05 mm Paso: 19.05 mm ! • Longitud : 1800 mm (131 pasos) ! •Longitud : 1800 mm (131 pasos) Tipo : Una hilera. Tipo: Una hilera. "},{"text":"06 • 01 Unir con soldadura electrica 6013 Ioj\\ ~~/V Ioj\\ ~~/V 02 02 04 04 \\ /~ \\/~ Ensamble de la Montaje de la pala Ensamble de laMontaje de la pala pala en el tanque palaen el tanque 02 D 3/4\" tr 40 @ 02D 3/4\"tr 40@ 06 Tubo Rigidizador 02 Acero Galv. 06Tubo Rigidizador02 AceroGalv. 05 Tubo de Anclaje de la Pala 02 Acero Galv. 05Tubo de Anclaje de la Pala02 AceroGalv. 04 Platina 02 A-36 1 1/4xl/4' 04Platina02 A-361 1/4xl/4' 03 Grapa Roscadade 1/4\" 04 Acero 40x80mm 03Grapa Roscadade 1/4\"04 Acero40x80mm 02 Tornillo Fijador de la Pala 02 Acero 3/4x2\"UNC 02Tornillo Fijador de la Pala02 Acero3/4x2\"UNC I 01 Pala Mezcladora 02 Acero CR. I 01Pala Mezcladora02 AceroCR. IPIEZA DENOMINAClON , CANT. MATERIAL IPIEZADENOMINAClON ,CANT.MATERIAL /Jlbu)O /Jlbu)O "}],"sieverID":"5f6fdb8f-f10c-47c2-9af0-3401fb95a798","abstract":""}

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+ {"metadata":{"id":"0ccd333a0f8bf94b989c8b3b93a6106b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/96fb57d6-3c9e-47e7-87ae-03a0d0ed72e9/retrieve"},"pageCount":12,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction:","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Although most small-scale farmers in sub-Saharan Africa play a crucial role in conserving traditional crop varieties, some farmers, known as \"custodian farmers,\" stand out by their commitment to preserving a wide diversity of crop varieties, including rare and endangered species/varieties. They also act as custodians of intergenerational traditional knowledge related to planting, conservation, preparation, and use of these crops"}]},{"head":"Objectives:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"1.Identify and characterize custodian farmers dedicated to Bambara groundnut and Sorrel cultivation."}]},{"head":"2.Document and analyze landraces","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"conserved by these custodian farmers."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"3.Investigate conservation methods utilized by these farmers for landrace seeds. "}]},{"head":"Custodian Farmers and Plant Genetic Resources Conservation","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Material and methods","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Before data collection, we engaged with local authorities and held village assemblies to introduce the project. Data collection Two distinct focus group discussions (FGDs) in every villageone for men and another for women. Individual semi-structured interviews was conducted with each identified custodian farmer. "}]},{"head":"Financé par l'Union européenne","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Number of custodian farmers by village and by species","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Bambara groundnut","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Financé par l'Union européenne","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Traditional Varieties Held and Preserved by Custodian Farmers","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"❑ Six traditional landraces identified ❑ Criteria for identification: calyx size and plant color ❑ Short calyx landrace: \"Bii\"/ Long calyx landrace: \"Wegda\" "}]},{"head":"Sorrel","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Financé par l'Union européenne","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"In some villages, custodian farmers have a special focus on preserving specific plant species or varieties due to their deep cultural and/or medicinal importance, which has been passed down through generations. An example is the cultivation of Bambara groundnut, which is predominantly carried out by the elderly population as it holds significant traditional and ritualistic value in certain communities. "}]},{"head":"Religious composition of custodian farmers","index":13,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" to Africa, exhibiting notable drought tolerance, assume important roles across multiple domains in the Sahelian West Africa, encompassing agriculture, nutrition, culture, and traditional medicinal practices. "},{"text":" carried out across four provinces in Burkina Faso, encompassing 11 villages Financé par l'Union européenne "},{"text":" ❑ Morphological characteristics (e.g., color, size, shape, seed origin) used for naming landraces. ❑ Seed coat color is the most common descriptor.Each landrace receives a name, which may vary across villages. Different landraces may share the same name in different villages. "},{"text":" Financé par l'Union européenneFarmers engaged in seed exchange to promote social networks and the conservation of local seed landraces. "},{"text":" "}],"sieverID":"2f8f6c1a-0b0c-40de-a485-140524da86ff","abstract":""}