diff --git "a/data/part_4/05b2259b57feaeb4749af84e2e6a4e6e.json" "b/data/part_4/05b2259b57feaeb4749af84e2e6a4e6e.json" new file mode 100644--- /dev/null +++ "b/data/part_4/05b2259b57feaeb4749af84e2e6a4e6e.json" @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +{"metadata":{"id":"05b2259b57feaeb4749af84e2e6a4e6e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/02145b6f-7f44-4a09-86d0-039152a9ff4d/retrieve"},"pageCount":74,"title":"Board of Trustees","keywords":["NARS","IlRI","WARDA","ICRAF","ClFOR","ClRAD","AROs","and NGOs Various consortia","IARCs","network5","NARS","AROs Various consortia","IARCs","networks","NARS","AROs MSC","networks","NARS","AROs MSC","HSC","IARCs","netwark5","NARS","regional orgonizatians","AROs IARCs","nelwork5","NARS","AROs IARCs","networks","African NARS","regional orgonizations","AROs"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Abbreviations used in the text "}]},{"head":"Building a holistic approach to research","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"The CGJAR's 25th anniversary year, 1996, was an occasion for all the international centers in the system\" along with donors, to take stock of our pmgress and impact. It was also a year to acknowledge constraints and to pmpose ways to deal with the many stili unresolved pmblems of agticulture and poverty."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"Our task at IITA is to improve the nutritional status and well-being of low-income people in the humid tropicS and subtropics of sub-Saharan Africa. We do this through agricultural innovation and research for sustainable natural resource management. Juxtaposing our past achievements in these areas with hlture challenges in Africa leads to an inescapable conclusion: This is no time for scientists to rest on their laurels, nor for donors to reduce investment in research."},{"index":3,"size":79,"text":"We have indeed had considerable success in increasing crop productivity and developing sustainable farming systems, which have both benefitted small-scale farmers and helped conserve the environment. Improved varieties, many with built-in resistance to major pests and diseases, are available for all of IITA's mandated crops-maize cassava, banana and plantain, yam, cowpea, and soybean. Adoption by farmers has been strong, and the production and processing of several crops, especially maize, cassava, and plantain, have become more efficient and market oriented."},{"index":4,"size":75,"text":"Innovative short fallow systems using trees and cover crops are helping farmers to increase their incomes while maintaining soil fertility, particularly in areas with high population density and poor soils. Highly effective biological control methods, often used as key components of integrated pest management, are protecting cassava crops throughout Africa, without recourse to heavy pesticide use. The economic returns to investment for these safe methods of pest control have been shown to be extremely high."},{"index":5,"size":6,"text":"Dr Lukas Brader, IITA Director General."},{"index":6,"size":46,"text":"Yet, sub-Saharan Africa is the only region in the world where population growth outpaces agricultural production. Although there have been notable increases in food production in some countries of the region, food accessibility during the past decade has declined overall. Land degradation is also getting worse."},{"index":7,"size":60,"text":"In 1990. the region' hare of the world's poor was 19 percent. This is projected to grow to 28 percent by 2000. And the number of malnourished children ~ ill have gro~'n by almost half. to 43 million. The situation i aggravated by , ar chronic drought, and declining investment in re earch both by African countries and external donors."},{"index":8,"size":93,"text":"The dilemma of having achieved some major succes es in re earch. ) et not enough to reverse negative trends, is alarming. It places a heavy responsibility on IlIA and its cientists, not to mention donors and African government •. One consolation is that the impact of earlier research i now beginning to multiply in Africa. With the recent stimu lus of more rea Ii 'tic economic policies in many countries, the climate may now be right for farmer ' to further exploit ne~' fanning technologie . alt rnativ crop, and emerging markets."},{"index":9,"size":91,"text":"It i in thi unsettled context that IlTA prepared its medium-term plan during 1996. Covering the period 1998-2000, the plan i organized around 1 research projects, each taking a holistic approach to defining and solving problems. Given the enormity of the agricultural challenge ahead for Africa , and the paucity of resources currently devoted to it, holism in science is essential. To look piecemeal at sub-Saharan Africa's requirements in food production and resource conservation-that is, in isolation from tl1eir wider biophysical, social, economic, and policy context-will lead only to piecemeal solutions."},{"index":10,"size":188,"text":"To some people, \"holistic\" is a loose term best reserved for am1Chair philosophers. But at IlIA, in the context of serving African 2 agriculture, it 1. acquiring an increasingly preCise definition , centering on four concepts. Fir •t it means that research on individual crops or production factors also makes a special point of addressing their contribution to production systems as a whole. Second, it implies 1l1ultidisciplinarity organizing research into projects that maximize collaboration and commun ication among scientists from different backgrollnds so tl1at their results are relevanr ro each other's work and mutually reinforcino. Third . it means investigating and understanding the interactions bet\\7\\'een human beings and natural resource: \\'\\'ithin \\\\'ell-defined agroeculogical zones. Thi is becau e soils, watersheds. genetic diversity. livestock, vegetation. and even people do not respect the altificia l boundaries represented hv farm fences and country borders. To have any real multiplier effect, research must be fully informed of the ecologi al and human conte 1: in ~'hich its results might apply. Lasr. a holistic approach is one that relie on partner'hips among all who have a take in agricu ltural innovation and resource"},{"index":11,"size":8,"text":"Women are the prime movers of African agriculture."},{"index":12,"size":57,"text":"managemenr, not just cienti t . The e interaction -consultation and collaboration before, during, and after research-should happen mo tly beyond the confine of the research tation. Women, the prime movers of Africa n agricu lture, must be heavily repre ented in these partner hips• otherwi e, re 'earch ri ks being irrelevant and its result ignored."},{"index":13,"size":42,"text":"The shift of IlTA's structure from one ba ed on re ea rch division to a new project mode over the pa t two years, is making it easier to fully adopt the holi tic approach envi ioned in our medium-term plan."},{"index":14,"size":84,"text":"One of the four a pect of holi tic re earch, partnership deserves pecial mention here. At the fnternational Centers' Week in Washington at the end of October IITA and Sierra Leone's Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR) were jointly presented the Outstanding cientific Partner hip Award. Thi i one of three categories in the new Excellence in cience awa rd given by the Chair of tile CGlAR. The distinction recognizes achievement in collaborative reearch to improve root and tuber crops in We t Africa."}]},{"head":"ECTO","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"We would like to believe that our work Witll lAR in ierra Leone is ju t one among many strong collaborative links with national systems acro s tile continent. Another exa mple is our diagno tic ervice in the ar a of plant virology. These service described later in thi repol1, are the basis of a permanent partner hip for the exchange of virus-free germplasm among many African research programs and international institutes."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"Two otller IITA partnership are also wOlthy of special note. For many years, the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) has had a few scienrists based at IlTA' Ibadan campu ."},{"index":3,"size":57,"text":"ince 1992, ILRI's staff strength has increa ed and our daily interactions with them have matured into a paltner hip of jOint research on crop-livestock integration. This was reinforced in 1996 with tile appointment, jointly by ILRI and IITA of a fu ll-time scienti t to work on tlle production of animal feed from food crop '."},{"index":4,"size":125,"text":"IlTA also formed a special alliance with World Vision International to respond to tile continuing food emergency in Angola. Togetller, we arranged two ai rlift , in May and December of valuable cassava germpla m for multiplication and di tril ution to farmers and for evaluation by researchers. It was a key step in replanting Angola's cassava fie lds, which have been devastated by decade of fighting. A brief report on thi work is incl. uded. Such alliances, both short term and longer term, have the effect of blurring the distinction between IlTA's achievements and those of our partners. The difficulty we increasingly have in taking full credit for successes is, I believe, a good indication that our alliance-building efforts are on the right track."},{"index":5,"size":81,"text":"Other pages in this report illustrate the remaining three elements of the holistic approach defined above. An article on nitrogen fixation in soybeans, for example, underlines the potential of multidisciplinary cooperation in improving a production system involving soybean-maize rotation. It focuses on the contribution of IlTA's microbiological research to agronomy and plant breeding. Similarly, the description of an international project to develop a safe fungus-based pesticide for controlling grasshoppers and locusts illustrates multidisciplinarity within a broad research partnership with other organizations."},{"index":6,"size":59,"text":"Finally, a profile of IITA's Humid Forest Station in Cameroon describes the use of \"benchmark\" areas that are now becoming the norm in ecoregional research. The station's contribution to the lIT A-convened Ecoregional Program for the Humid and Subhumid Tropics of Sub-Saharan Africa (EPHTA) exemplifies the agroecological and systems approaches in action, and again, the role of strategic alliances."}]},{"head":"4","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"IITA has had success in increasing crop productivity."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"The concept of holistic research is still taking shape within IITA and the CGIAR. But it has clearly emerged as the best way to achieve efficiency of resource use, relevance of results, and impact on the well-being of farmers and other consumers in sub-Saharan Africa. The approach does, however, demand substantial resources, especially because of its strongly decentralized nature. Of that, the donors are undoubtedly aware."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"On behalf of the Board of Trustees and the staff of the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, I am pleased to present our annual report for 1996."}]},{"head":"Lukas Brader Director General","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"ITA' s work is organized around 16 multidisciplinary research proiects and one proied for the dissemination of results to national research systems. Some projeds focus on produdion systems for specific crops or crap combinations, in some cases for a specific agroecological.zone. Others are thematically• oriented, cutting across commodities and agroecological zones."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"IITA also serves as the convening organization for two international programs of the CGIAR: the fcoregional Program for the Humid and Subhumid Tropics of Sub-Saharan Africa and the Systemwide Program for Integrated Pest Management. These are described on pages 19 and 36."},{"index":3,"size":57,"text":"The following sedion presents the goal and research highlights of each IITA proied for 1996. The summaries are not exhaustive of the work begun or completed during the year; rather, they describe some key scientific results and are intended to give readers an idea of the breadth of research themes and problems being investigated by IITA scientists."}]},{"head":"Project 1. Short Follow Stabilization","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"Goal. To increase farm productivity and arrest resource degradation in areas where population growth and intensified land use have forced farmers to reduce fallow periods. The spe-ci~c purpose is to develop well- ing standard procedure , a technician doing a typical ELISA test for, ay, ACMV, has about 17 steps to follow in the protocol over two day ."},{"index":6,"size":33,"text":"ow for cenain types of plant viruses and specific level of required sensitivity, ilTA virologists have been able to SinlPlify the indexing protocol so that it can take as little as one hour."},{"index":7,"size":37,"text":"ince new viruses are regularly being identified and characterized me diagnostic workload to ensure virus-free germpla m continues to expand. The shonening of testing time is tlllIS a significant contribution to ilTA's efficiency in germplasm exchange operations."},{"index":8,"size":58,"text":"For molecular testing, ilTA u es tile polymerase chain reaction (PCR) teclillique. The D A or RNA of tile virus is chemically amplified to the point where tllere is enough genetic material to detect the virus directly. PCR is far more en itive than ELlSA and has proven especially useful in detecting banana streak virus (BSV) and AClvlV."},{"index":9,"size":67,"text":"Recent additions to IITA's antiserum bank now allow for a much larger number of viruses to be detected-aboul 90 in all. Polyclonal antisera and monoclonal antibodies were donated to IITA, bought or produced by the institute itself to build up tile antiserum bank. With tllis increa ed capacity, ilTA is now able to offer national research programs tlu'oughout subaha ran Africa a diagnostics service for plam viruses."},{"index":10,"size":56,"text":"IITA's links witl1 national research programs, including university-based research: are strong. Virology staff collaborate with scienti •t in Cameroon Ghana, Kenya Madagascar, Malawi, Nigeria , Sierra Leone, udan, Togo and Uganda. At the international level, it ha links wim laboratories in Australia, Canada, the UK, and the US, as well as with six otller CGlAR cemers."},{"index":11,"size":34,"text":"For banana and plantain viral screening IITA has been offiCially recognized as a Mllsa Indexing Center. Testing is routinely done for banana streak banana bunchy top cucumber mosaic, and banana bract mo aic viruses."},{"index":12,"size":9,"text":"The virology laboratories also promote seed and plant heald1"}]},{"head":"MICROBIOLOG -AND • ROLOGY","index":55,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"within nTA by growing certain crop varieties from seed in screen houses, .and then jnspecting the plants (visually Of by ELISA testing) for evidence of viral disease. In addition, plants produced tllrough tissue culture are tested for virus infection. Vector insects such as whiteflies, leaflloppers, mealybugs, and aphids are often used in vims studies. The vimsfree insects can be used to expose test plants (cowpea, for example) to specific viruses. Some viruses are hard to transmit to plants mechanically, so the insects, acting as vectors, do the job naturally for the scientists. This is an additional tool which breeders can use to determine whether the test cultivar is resistant to tlle vims or not. "}]},{"head":"Research on plant viruses","index":56,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Integrated pest managemen","index":57,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"Left: Oedaleus senegalensis, the most serious Sahelian grasshopper pest, on millet. Right: the desert locust, Schistocerra gregaria, lays eggs in the desert in Mauritania."}]},{"head":"FUNGUS VERSUS GR ASSHOPPERS AND LOCUSTS","index":58,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Safe biopesticide soon ready for its industrial debut","index":59,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"An international pmject led by nTA is developing a safe fungus-based pesticide for contmlling grassboppers and locusts. Reseanb on tbe effectiveness of tbe 'mycopesticide and on 1'elated tecbnologies for pmduction, storage, and application is lJ'igbly encouraging. 1n-dustriai1nass pmduction and application in Africa and elsewhere can begin as soon as tbe tecbnology is transferred to a suitable cOl1'l1nercial partner--probably within two to tbree years. At the time, there seemed little option but to hit the locu ts hard and fast with a barrage of chemical pesticides. Unfortunately, this had little or no effect. After eating tlleir way tl1fough crops and other vegetation the locust swarms flew out over the Atlantic Ocean where they died."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"An international debate ensued. Grave concerns were raised over the potential harm done to aninlals, ecosystems, and human health by mass application of per istent, broad-spectrum pesticides. How could future outbreaks be best handled\" given tile ineffectivene of standard pesticides?"}]},{"head":"Alliances for biocontrol","index":60,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"The need for safer pe t-control strategies complemented by early warning systems tllUS rose to tile top of tile international research agenda. IlTA, already involved in tlle searcll for biologically based metllods to control otller crop pests, took a special interest in the problem. In 1989 it teamed up with tile International Institute of Biological Control (IIBC) in me UK to investigate biocontrol options for locusts and grasshoppers. It was a natural alliance since UTA had collaborated earlier with IIBC on control of two major pests, cassava mealybug and cassava green mite."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"IIBC was already working on the use of fungi as \"mycopesticides\" against locusts. And it had pioneered a delivelY system based on the suspension of fungal spores in oil. This prevented the spores from drying out in dry field conditions, allowing them to germinate on the target insects' exoskeletons. The innovation provided a solid basis for further inve tigations of fungi as tool in biological control."},{"index":3,"size":56,"text":"An in1portant partnership was also set up with the Departement de Formation en Protection des vegetaux (DFPV), a Nigerbased affiliate of the Comite permanent Inter-Etats de Lutte contre la Secheres e dans Ie Sahel (CIL~S) . This enabled the project to link with Sahelian plant protection services to search for natural enemies of grasshoppers and locusts."},{"index":4,"size":80,"text":"From the outset, the joint re earch examined two candidate fungi : occurs naturally throughout Aflica and, though its incidence is quite low, it i highly infectious and pecific to gra shoppers and locust (see box on safety issues, page 30). Unlike most other microorganisms, Metarbiziul11 can be easily grown on a variety of organic materials as long as production conditions are st.erile enough to prevent competition from other fungi. And it can survive the harsh envirolUl1ent where locusts and "}]},{"head":"Testing for efficacy","index":61,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Metarbiziul71 spores have the advantage of persisting in the environment for several weeks, especially in humid zones. This means that newly arriving"}]},{"head":"_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ BIOCONTROL AND INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT","index":62,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"grasshoppers, or ones that escaped infection right after spraying, can still become infected. Moreover, once the insects die, the fungi growing on the cadaver porulate, re-inoculating the environment with the pathogen. Thus the next generation of grasshoppers can also become infected. Thi \" econdalY cycling\" boosts the overall effectiveness of the product."},{"index":2,"size":98,"text":"Since 1991 , various field uials have established the efficacy of Metarbizitll11 against a variety of gras hoppers and locusts. Among dle most impoltant pests targeted are me desert locust (Scb istocerca grega ria) , the variegated gra shopper (Zol7ocerus variegatus), and two SaheHan grasshoppers In field trials in Benin during 1996, researchers investigated the inlpact of Metarbizium on variegated gras hoppers. Willie these are the only grasshopper pest of dle humid forest and savanna zones, me economic damage mey cau e has been on the rise in recent years. They attack most crops, but especially cassava ."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":":rhe researcher sprayed onehectare plots in cassava fields with Metarbizium. The fungal spore were first mixed wim an oil base and then appHed using conventional handheld ulu.1:ension agencies. Also. they are working more closely now widl regional bodies which have increasing responsibility for coordinating agricultural R&D."},{"index":7,"size":63,"text":"The pa t year marks a turning poim for UTA in its work on integrated pest management. Through the Systemwide Program, dle instinne and it partner have set in motion a coordinated respon e to the chalJenge of Agenda 21. That re p~nse, if pursued with energy, has the potential to globalize the powerful but afe contribution to sustainable agriculnlre dlat IPM offers."}]},{"head":"IPM AT IITA","index":79,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"From research to evaluation","index":80,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"In the past, crop protection research by international agricultural research centers was founded on the search for disease-and pest-resistant varieties. Insecticides and fungicides were also important ingredients in the farming technology packages that marked the Green Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s."},{"index":2,"size":106,"text":"In many countries, excessive use of such inputs has led to a dangerous and unsustainable reliance on certain chemicals, a dependencesometimes referred to in the popular press as the \"pesticide treadmill.\" To some extent, Africa has been spared the worst excesses of pesticide abuse, at least on food crops, who e low cash value didn't warrant investment in these inputs. many countries, on many crops. And it has proven valuable in a range of production systems, from small-scale subsistence farms to high-tech horticultural greenhouses. Pioneered in the US, IPM was originally used to reduce the ill effects of insecticide ovemse in high-value crops, such as cotton."},{"index":3,"size":46,"text":"Depending on the crop and pest, IPM wages war on several fronts, rather than \"sledge hammering\" the enemy with chemical pesticides, which could further dismpt the natural regulation of the system and harm the environment. Two or more tedlnologies are normally combined in an IPM campaign:"},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"Plant protection specialists in IlTA's Plant Health Biological controH or example, using a tiny parasitic wasp to control the cassava mealybug."},{"index":5,"size":63,"text":"• biological control-for example, using a tiny parasitic wasp to control the cassava mealybug; Management Division (PHMD) have for many years made a virtue of this economic necessity faced by the farmers with whom they work. They have developed a range of solutions to the problems of pest and disease control, based on combinations of biological control, host plant resistance, and habitat management."},{"index":6,"size":53,"text":"IlTA's insect and mite experts (entomologists and acarologists) have been highly successful, for example in combatting destructive outbreaks of three introduced pests: cassava mealybug and, more recently, mango mealybug and cassava green mite (see page 31). This work goes hand in hand with research on host plant resistance by plant breeders and biotechnologists."}]},{"head":"The IPM arsenal","index":81,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"Sud1 solutions are weapons in the arsenal of integrated pest management (IPM) , a holistic approach to controlling crop damage by diseases, insects, mites, and weeds. IPM has been successfully applied in 38 • use of crop varieties that have been gen.etically improved for resistance against one or more pests and diseases' • modified cropping practices, such as weeding at a specified time to reduce the population of a partiClllar insect; • appropriate management of neighboring natural habitats that may serve as a reservoir for pests or their natural enemies."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"Pesticides are a last resort in IPM, applied judiciously to avoid damage to the environment and to human health."}]},{"head":"Four proieds reviewed","index":82,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"In late 1996, four ongoing IPM resea' rch projects at IlTA were scmtinized by a review panel. Three of the projects are investigating the control of pests and diseases that attack dlfee kinds of crops: cassava, legumes, and maize. A fourth is developing biological control techniques for specific pests in sub-Saharan Traditional maize storage in West Afri(a."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"Africa (but not those associated with crops that nTA-improves through selection and breedirig). Although the Plant Health Management Division is a major contributor to IPM research, the projects cut across nTA's three scientific divisions, bringing together expertise from several disciplines."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"In its written report, the panel said it was impressed with the overall quality of the research and"}]},{"head":"Recommendations for IPM","index":83,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Here are highlights of the panel's recommendations:"},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"• A list of current and potential future pests of African crops, suitable as classical biological control targets, should be updated and ranked periodically."},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"• Strategies for implementing a newly developed biopesticide for grasshopper and locust control needs to be further developed, so that farmers can benefit from the technology as soon as possible. (See page 31 ) • Surveys of farmers' attitudes toward the use of new varieties and insecticides should be continued as part of the legume IPM project. Such information is valuable in the design of suitable IPM strategies."},{"index":4,"size":61,"text":"the exciting developments taking place. \"We would like to highlight the continuing excellence in classical biological control, new developments in biopesticides, increasing involvement of NARES [national agricultural research and extension system] scientists as genuine collaborators, and the stronger links being developed with problems in the field. These developments bode well for the future and are a tribute to the nTA-PHMD team.\""},{"index":5,"size":51,"text":"(Classical biological control refers to the introduction of a new pest's natural enemy or enemies. Researchers must first identify the • The search for natural enemies of Iwo key pests of legumes, thrips and legume pod borers, should be pursued, so that the potential for classical biological control can be assessed."},{"index":6,"size":27,"text":"• Maize cultivaHon is being extended into the Northern savanna and humid areas. Knowledge about the importance of pests and diseases in these areas should be updated."},{"index":7,"size":17,"text":"• A coordillated approoch to pest and disease problems in stored grain, including aAatoxin, should be continued."},{"index":8,"size":33,"text":"• Priority should be given to the epidemiology, diversity, molecular charac-terizaHon, and race/pathotype identification of major disease pathogens of cassava, such as African cassava mosaic virus, cassava bacterial blight, and cassava anthracnose disease."},{"index":9,"size":20,"text":"geographical origin of the introduced pest and tllen find an appropriate antagonistic organism to bring back to the target area.)"},{"index":10,"size":61,"text":"TIle panel comprised four external evaluators, a member of llTA's board of trustees, and scientists from collaborating national agriculrural research systems in Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Ghana, and Nigeria. The external evaluators were from Africa Australia, Europe, and NOrdl America. Assisting the panel were several nTA scientists knowledgeable in the subject matter, bur not significantly involved in tlle projects being reviewed."},{"index":11,"size":48,"text":"The panel's evaluation was the first in what will become an ongoing series of \"center commissioned external reviews\" of nTA projects. Every year, one such review will examine several projects. This replaces the previous system of inhouse reviews of various divisions or groups of activities in successive years."},{"index":12,"size":34,"text":"• Much greater priority should be given ' to developing easy-to-odopt techniques for the production of healthy cassava planting materials, since all major diseases and pests are internally or externally borne on cassava stems."},{"index":13,"size":70,"text":"• Urgent attention should be given to determining mycotoxin contamination of processed cassava products, with a view to . protecting human health. (Mycotoxins are toxic substances produced by fungi .) • The cassava IPM project should continue to import and evaluate additional species of predators that will complement the present level of cassava green mite control already achieved with the introduction and release of Typhlodromalus aripo (see page 31) ."},{"index":14,"size":16,"text":"The male flower of water yam, Diosroreo 01010. Diameters range from 0.5 mm to 1.2 mm."},{"index":15,"size":60,"text":"BTeeding to improve Ya1n was bampered until very recently by tbe unpredictable flowering behavior of this important tuber crop. But IIrA has succeeded in producing new hybrid lines, tbanks to improved control over flowering made possible by persistent experimentation witb a large pool of yam landraces. Further improvements to tbis new genetic material will benefitfanners throughout West Africa's yam zone."}]},{"head":"Flowering power for breeders and farmers","index":84,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"Many West Africans like their yam boiled and pounded befor~ eating it with a soup of vegetables and meat or fish. Texture is of the utmost importance. Otllers parboil and sun-dry chips of yam and then mm them into flour. However tlley are processed and eaten, yams occupy a privileged pOSition in the We t African diet. Benin, Cameroon, Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria, and Togo account for about 90% of total world production of yams (Dioscorea) , witll Nigeria in tl1e lead."},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"While tlle starchy tuber are regarded mainly as a source of carbohydrates, some yam species are nearly as rich in protein as rice or maize. On a dryweight basis, water yam (D. alala) may contain up to 12% protein, while the more popular white yarn (D. rOlunclala) may have up to 5%."},{"index":3,"size":53,"text":"White yam is the most widely cultivated species in Africa. Along witll yellow yam (D. cayenensis) and trifoliate yam (D. dumetorum) , it is tllought to have its origins in West Africa, the center of greatest genetic variability of yam. Water yam, originally from Southeast A ia, is also widely cultivated in Africa."},{"index":4,"size":59,"text":"Yam farmers take a keen interest in tlle size, number, taste, and te>..'ture of the underground tubers which tl1e plants produce. However, they rarely pay 40 much attention to the flowering beh'lvior of tlleir plants. In fact, many farmers, depending on what varieties tl1ey grow, are surprised when researchers tell them that many yam plants produce flowers and seeds."},{"index":5,"size":92,"text":"Since flowering may channel nutrition away from the tubers into tl1e upper parts of the plant, especially tlle seeds, it is a trait tllat farmers may have systematically if not consciously, bred out of yam over tlle centuries. But from the plant breeder's point of view, flowering is a valuable quality. In varietal improvement, researchers cross different varieties of the same or different species to transfer desirable traits into tlle offspring. This hybridization requires male and female plants that not only flower, but also complete tlle reproductive cycle by producing healtl1y seed."},{"index":6,"size":168,"text":"Unfortunately, yams are rather unpredictable when it comes to flowering and seeding. In addition, the intensity of flowering among the genotypes of conmlonly cultivated yam. species ' ranges from nil to profuse,\" as one UTA crop physiologist put it. For example, in UTA's experience with D. escu/enfa, the species has never flowered . And in D. cayenensis, only male flowering had been obselved before 1996. In D. a/ala only a few flowering male and female va neue have been ob elved and used for hybridization at IlTA, owing to the limited pool of genetic material available. By comparison. tile white yam, D. rotunda/a, i a veritable bouquet. But even some varieties of this peci don't flower as predictably a breeders would like. In general. male yam plants flower more intensely than female . One early IITA tudyof 1,000 ya m lines showed tilat 65% of plant in the collection were male, Z-female. cenain conditions, ome pecies of yam produce both male and female flower on the ame plant."}]},{"head":"Understanding flowering behavior","index":85,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"With per i tent prospecting for local landrace. over many year , IlTA ha managed to build an elite collection of yam germ pia m witil good flowering tendencies. Farmer and consumer preferences for yam have been the gUiding criteria of selection."},{"index":2,"size":106,"text":"Working from this genetic base, IlTA has been able to hed new light on the many interlinked crop-management and environmental determinants of flowering and seed-setting behavior in yams. Among tile factors are tile time of planting, tile type of planting material (seed or pieces of nlber known a setts) , the ize of the Two otiler key influence on flowering are tile timing of planting and the size of tile ett. Generally early planting of yam, say in JanualY or February, increa e the chance of a long flowering season, and a larger sett produce tile robu t plant growth and branching needed for good flowering."}]},{"head":"Success with hybridization","index":86,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"In 1995, IlTA scientists crossed a local female variety of water yam called Weredede (officially known as TDa 92-2) with a local male variety, DAN 087. This has been a major succe s for yam research."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"Weredede is high-yielding and its taste is very popular. However, it i highly usceptible to antilracnose, a fungal di ease. DAN 087, a local variety established since the 1970s, flowers velY early but only for a short period. It has the advantage of being re i tant to antimlcnose. but it is not particularly high-yielding."},{"index":3,"size":48,"text":"The major problem with female \\\\\"ater yam valieties i tilat they rarel y flower. Combining the much improved under tanding of tile conditions and timing of flowering with tile good fortune of having flowering female Weredede plants, IlTA researcher were able to ynchronize tile two varieties for pollination."},{"index":4,"size":88,"text":"As a bonu to tileir work with Weredede, IlTA re earchers discovered tilat the timing of planting of water yam, unlike in other yam pecies, has iittle effect on when it flowers . Weredede tends to flower in Augu t and eptember, regardless of when it i planted during the first half of the year. Through more adept manipulation of flowering in male water yam candidates, to coincide with Weredede's more or less ftxed flowering season, IlTA researchers now expect to produce more hybrids in the future ."},{"index":5,"size":69,"text":"During 1996, IlTA also crossed DAN 087 with other female varieties and breeding lines of D. a/ala to combine anthracnose resistance and good tuber quality. Sixty-four seeds were obtained from crosses of DAN 087 with four female hybrid progenies derived earlier from Weredede. Similarly, IITA crossed a second male (TDa 291) of good tuber shape and high quality with eight female varieties and was able to obtain 96 seeds."},{"index":6,"size":53,"text":"Overall, 1996 has produced the largest number of D. a/ata seeds produced by IITA from controlled and open pollinations in one season. The stage is now set for developing special yam populations ~nes with resistance to viruses, nematodes, and anthracnose diseases; ones with good tuber quality; and ones adapted to specillc ecological conditions."},{"index":7,"size":55,"text":"Efforts to hybridize white yam, D. rotundata, have been even more successful. The many candidate landraces that I1TA has collected for their good agronomic traits also have good flowering tendencies compared with water yam. This has made the breeding work substantially easier. planting, is susceptible to yam mosaic virus, and tends to develop storage rots."},{"index":8,"size":81,"text":"In 1995, IlTA began the process of breeding out some of these defects by successfully crossing Pona with other local varieties. Ba ed on the everal accessions of Pona it had assembled, IlTA has produced more than 300 new hybrid lines most of them in 1996. During the year, 100 seedlings were produced from various Pona crosses, providing valuable genetic material for future breeding work. As with the water yam, produc-tion of seed from white yam crosses was also very good."},{"index":9,"size":80,"text":"Given the large volume of planting material needed for such work, it is best if male and female flowering can be synchronized so that insects do the work of pollination naturally. One way to do this is to stagger the planting times for males. However, artificial pollination also remains an option when tinting of flowering is off. I1TA researchers have shown that yam pollen remains viable for over a year if stored at -5 °C, with relative humidity of 0%. "}]},{"head":"Benefits to farmers","index":87,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"The short-term aim of IlTA's research into yam flowering and seed production has been to contribute to varietal improvement through hybridization. Many national programs in Africa and a few elsewhere already have access to the improved germplasm produced at IlTA. In Nigeria, various farmer organizations and individuals are now assisting I1TA in evaluating the white and water yam hybrids in an on-farm program of participatory selection. Started in 1996, tllis work is expected to speed up, culnlinating in tile release of superior varieties for commercial cultivation."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"A more formal process for releasing new hybrid varieties also started in Nigeria in 1996, with the launch of the first set of multilocation yield trials of white yam under the Nationally Coordinated Research Project (NCRP). These are statutory two-year trials from which materials will be officially released to farmers. They are being conducted in collaboration with the National Root Crops Research Institute and the ational Seed Service. The first trials include five hybrids from IITA."},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":"In the longer term, the research on yam flowering may provide other important benefits: inlproved propagation technology . for farmers and improved exchange of yam germplasm among yam workers around tile world."},{"index":4,"size":80,"text":"Using traditional vegetative propagation, many farmers need to reserve up to one-quarter of their yam tuber harvest for tile next season's planting. This involves much labor, frequent storage losses, and forfeited income. In the same way that pioneering research by the International Potato Center (CIP) in Peru has pernlitted many farmers to use true potato seed instead of seed potatoes, mass propagation of yam seed some time in tile future may also offer some attractive lowercost planting options to farmers."},{"index":5,"size":46,"text":"In the meantime, IITA's progress in promoting consistent flowering and fertility of desirable parent varieties offers an immediate opportunity: the use of inexpensive conventional breeding methods to tap tile large genetic diversity of cultivated, senlidomesticated, and wild yams for increased and sustainable productivity on the farm."}]},{"head":"Seeds of Freedom","index":88,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"A joint project by ilTA and an international NCO bas provided war-torn Angola witb valuable cassava germplas171, for botb researcb and distribution to fanners. About 15, 000 in vitro plantlets were flown in from IlTA during 1996."}]},{"head":"Replanting Angola's cassava fields","index":89,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"In a chilly, dilapidated building in the bombed out Angolan town of ldalatando a young I igerian researcher named Paul Ilona patiently transplanted 3,460 tiny, fragile cassava plants from glass tubes into starter pots. Then, for two weeks, he and two staff from a local nongovernmental organization nurtured and monitored them."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"That mission in May 1996 was tlle first of two succe sful jOint efforts during the year by IITA and tlle nongovernmental organization, World Vision International to help Angola renew it. cas 'ava production. In each case in vitro cassava germplasm elected and prepared by IITA was airlifted to Angola, tran planted and acclimatized before delivery to rapid multiplication centers and reearchers. A econd airlift took place in December."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"delicate and can easily die eo route due to heat shock or otller stresses or become 0 weak that tlley cannot slllvive tran planting."},{"index":4,"size":72,"text":"Cassava is a staple food in Angola. Typically, the roots are fermented , dried, and ground into flour. Thi i then mixed with hot water to make a pa te called jounji, which is cooked and served witll kisaka, a sauce made from cassava leaves. The crop is impol1ant to Angola because of its role as a hedge against hunger during civil trife and drought, when food production and distribution fall apal1."},{"index":5,"size":28,"text":"The root can remain intact in tlle ground for up to two year -a highly practical way to tore food for those moments when it is deperately needed."},{"index":6,"size":113,"text":"Thirty-five years of intermittent war have crippled agriculture in much of Angola. Farm fields are still full of land mines, families have been torn apart by the fighting lives have been shattered. Many farmer still have little to eat and no planting materials to secure their future' . genotypes. to be evaluated by Angolan cassava researchers. The cassava airlifts to Angola, pan of a larger project called Seeds of Freedom, were a gamble. Any IITA germplasm leaving igeria for another countly mu t be guaranteed disease free. For ca sava , tlle only practical way to ensure tllis is to end it in tlle form of cleaned, in vitro plantlets. But plantlets are"}]},{"head":"Careful selection, plus tender loving care","index":90,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"44","index":91,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"IITA elected the 16 cassava genotypes, according to a long list of criteria. These included drought tolerance, disease and pest resistance, high yield, leaf quality, tlle agroecological zone where tlley would eventually be grown and cooking and taste In the two weeks in May following Ilona's initial transplanting operation, the nTA research associate brooded over his cas ava plantlets like a mother hen. He had to get tllem ilirough their initial acclimatization period, an operation normally done under controlled laboratory conditions."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"It was winter in Angola. The temperature was dropping to as low as 15°C at night and the air was vel)' dry. Conditions were anything but ideal. To grow properly, the plantlets needed nearly 100% humidity and a temperature of 28--30 0c."},{"index":3,"size":84,"text":"Ilona used plastic sheets to insulate the room and to cover a makeshift frame , which served as a humidity chamber for the plantlets. To keep tlle heat and humidity high, he fetched water from a nearby stream and boiled it on an old gas stove. A big offIce mirror helped to distribute sunlight during the day. For a few hours in the evening, electricity from a generator powered a few florescent lamps over the plantlets. After thar says [lona, \"I prayed for moonlight.\""}]},{"head":"Follow-up","index":92,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"LA'!)' percent of the transplants urvived. Before leaving Angola, Ilona trained World Vision staff to care for the plants and prepare tllem for tlle next stage, transplanting into bigger pots in a nursery."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"Several months later, once the surviving plants had grown to about half a meter, cuttings were taken for rapid multiplication. Further propagation in 1997 will provide sufficient planting stems (called between the two organizations."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"In the second airlift in December, Ilona and an nTA colleague accompanied 11,000 more plantlets to Angola. About 20% of the plantlets either died in tran it or were too weak for transplanting. However, tile weatller had warmed up and the survival rate of the transplants turned out even better than the fIrst tinle round."},{"index":4,"size":110,"text":"Soon after, some of the established plants were transferred to an IIA research farm for ftlrther transplanting and multiplication. These will be further evaluated and adapted by IIA researchers, giving Angola a more solid genetic base from which to rebuild cassava production. As with the earlier batch, the remaining plants will be multiplied by World Vision staff and distributed to needy farmers. The fellows come from a total of 50 universities around the world, 23 of them in Africa, representing 24 countries (14 anglophone, 9 francophone, and 1 lusophone). Forty fellows completed their research during tlle year, 14 successfully defended their theses, and 59 (13 of them women) were newcomers."}]},{"head":"Training program","index":93,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"For the second year running, fellows also received complementary professional development training, to prepare them for research leadership roles when they return to their home countries. Three. workshops were held~ statistics and statistical computing; training and communications) and developing proposals for research gran~. Expert resource persons were drawn from IlTA, universities, and private consulting organizations. The statistics workshop, to be held "}]},{"head":"Training materials","index":94,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"The Networks for maize and cowpea research in West and Central Africa have developed many new varieties that farmers are now growing. A USAID review concludes that \"investment in the networks is providing a high rate of return\" and that funding should be extended."}]},{"head":"THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF AFRICAN RESEARCH NETWORKS","index":95,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Breaking the walls of scientific solitude","index":96,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Neighboring countries in Africa often face similar obstacles to agricultural progress: insect pests, persistent drought, low crop yields, lack of information about what farmers want, to name a few. Yet, many national researchers across dle continent have to work in isolation from dleir counterparts in oilier countries because of large distances, tight travel budgets, weak telecommunications, or language differences."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"One tool for breaking wough this scientific solitude-and, in ilie process, improving dle quality and efficiency of technology generation-is the regional research network. For more ilian a decade, several donor agencies have supported such linkage efforts across Africa."},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":"Since Each network focuses on a crop covered by lITA's mandate: maize, cowpea, or cassava. The institute assists wiili germ plasm development and exchange, coordinates research, administers funds, and gives training and teclmical backstopping."},{"index":4,"size":70,"text":"Via ilie networks, national and international researchers in African countries conduct research jointly, exchange germplasm, and share information wough meetings, moniroring tours, consultations, and training workshops. Some achievements of.ilie maize and cowpea networks, as well as constraints, are presented below. Three accompanying boxes give a brief profile of each network. A fourth highlights a success story of ilie root crops network for East Africa, which is devoted to cassava research."}]},{"head":"Maize","index":97,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"Production of maize in West and Central Africa has shot up over dle past decade, particularly in Burkina Faso, Ghana, Guinea, and Mali. !ITA was an important player in breeding and perfecting ilie new disease-resistant, shorter-duration varieties dlat helped to push this trend. Working in concert wiili IlTA, ilie member countries of ilie WECAMAN maize network have since gone on to test and further develop this genetic material for local use."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"Breeding by individual member countries and by network research projects is progressing well. In all, 16 extra-early and 24 early maize varieties for ilie savanna zone of West and Central Africa have been made available and more are being worked on. These faster-maturing varieties can be harvested earlier than other crops, thus filling the temporary hunger gap. Regional trials of such elite materials, organized by the network, are allowing national scientists to benefit from germplasm exchanges."}]},{"head":"The Maize Network","index":98,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"The evaluation team noted that advances had also been made in breeding for resistance to maize streak virus (a disease unique to Africa), drought, and the parasitic plant Striga."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"Besides its breeding work, the network has developed three crop management practices that will soon be ready for release. Two are for controlling Striga and one promotes higher grain yield and in1proved soil fertility. Member countries are also training farmers in seed production and postharvest work."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"Training is a major task of the network. From 1994 to 1996, 84 researchers and technicians participated in short-term courses on a variety of subjects, ranging from weed control and seed production to extension material preparation and statistical computing. IITA made a Significant contribution here."},{"index":4,"size":47,"text":"Another important network activity is monitoring tours. Every second year, scientists from national programs and international centers, plus members of the network steering committee, travel to selected countries to see work in progress, such as varietal trials. The tours are also an opportunity for scientists' professional development."},{"index":5,"size":47,"text":"At the national level, member countries have begun to devote more effort to transferring technologies and assessing their 50 During a monitoring tour in Burkina Faso, maize network soentists visit a (ommunity seed production projed funded by WECAMAN. Member (ountries are putting increased emphasis on te(hnology transfer."},{"index":6,"size":42,"text":"impact. In Benin and Cote d'Ivoire, for example, networksponsored economis'ts are a esing the in1pact of research on maize production, productivity, and incomes. However, progress is slow because these activities are beyond the scope of work normally undertaken by agricultural re earch."},{"index":7,"size":39,"text":"While the maize network has clearly stimulated national scientists to solve production problems, with significant returns to in'/estment, some weaknesses are evident. In particular, research did not fully address socioeconomic constraints and this is undermining teclmology adoption by farmers."},{"index":8,"size":39,"text":"The evaluation team also believes the maize network needs to be more market driven. To this end, researchers should build on their breeding achievements by fostering commercial production of certain improved maize varieties and forging links with processing industries."}]},{"head":"Cowpea","index":99,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Besides being an important food crop, cowpea can improve soil fertility, prevent soil erosion by improving ground cover, and help control some species of Striga on other crops in rotation with it. It also provides nutritious anin1a1 feed ."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"Since 1994, the regional cowpea network, RENACO, has focu ed mainly on adaptive research and teclmology transfer. In particular, everal member countries have tested improved varieties on farmers' fields and multiplied seed. In Burkina Faso, for example, four new cowpea varieties were evaluated in 56 farmers' fields in four agroecologicaJ zones. Besides outyielding the farmers' variety by"},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"40%, the new varieties were resistant to aphids and thrips. And while they had some tolerance to pod-sucking bugs, more research effort is needed to confer resistance to such pests."},{"index":4,"size":67,"text":"The evaluation report noted that, despite difficulties caused by not having a full-time coordinator, the cowpea network has carried out useful work. Besides its multicountry varietal testing, the network has teamed up with the national systems to develop better cowpea storage techniques. It has also done useful research on mixed cropping and the use of cowpea as a \"trap crop\" for the Striga species that infests cereals."},{"index":5,"size":78,"text":"In 1996, the cowpea network sponsored two scientists, from Ghana and Burkina Faso, to participate in IITA's legume breeding course. Two other scientists, from Benin and Nigeria, attended a workshop in Mali on St,.iga control. Network scientists, working with IITA cowpea speCialists, have also undertaken \"think tank\" assignments. For example, a task force designed a network-based project to enhance the role of cow peas in natural resource management of farmlands in the West and Central Africa semiarid zone."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":100,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"The evaluators were clear in their overall assessment of the West and Central African networks, including WECAMAN and RENACO: \"Increased farmer access to sustainable technologies has been achieved. Numerous improved varieties oLcowpeas and maize have been released and are in use by farmers in the region. The networks lack the mOnitoring capacity to quantify adoption and economic impact, but the anecdotal evidence available has convinced the team that the relatively modest investment in the networks is providing a high rate of return.\""},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"The parasitic plant Slr;go (with pink flowers) is a major enemy of maize. Above, its debilitating eHect on maize is seen in this saeenhouse experiment. In the presence of a Utrap aopn like cowpea, right, Slrigo seeds germinate. But because that species of S/rigo doesn't parasitize cawpea, it dies. This ., suiodal germination n helps redace the S/rigo seedbank, benefiting t~e cereal aop in the subsequent season. This has been an area af successful caaperatiaa among RENACO soentists."},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"Networks are cost effective in promoting change in African agricultural research, according to the evaluators. They also help ensure that bilateral funds spent earlier on research will continue to bear fruit. \"The networks cannot supplant investment in national programs, but they are an effective mechanism for obtaining increased value added from the investment made at the national level and in the international centers.\""},{"index":4,"size":49,"text":"The evaluators said, however, that the networks could have greater economic impact if they shifted from research on subsistence farming to research aimed at boosting value added via processing and regional trade. To this end, they recommended more rigorous research planning, with socioeconomic criteria better integrated in project selection."},{"index":5,"size":15,"text":"The team concluded that USAID support to the networks should continue for at least five "}]},{"head":"NETWORKING FOR CASSAVA","index":101,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Preventing disaster in East Africa","index":102,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Future prospects","index":103,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"What are the prospects for regional networks like WECAMAN and RENACO becoming fully autonomous? The evaluators noted that many of the participating national systems possess the right management skills and experience to assume network leadership. But they lack the necessary institutional stability at present and their own national budgets are too meager to replace outside funding support. \"The return on investment in the Networks is very likely quite high,\" the review report estimated. \"Like most public service schemes, the Networks are confronted with the difficult problem of capturing a portion of the revenues that they generate,\""},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"While fma ncial self-sufficiency may be elusive for some time to come, the evaluators saw a key role for national agricultural research systems (NARS) in fostering better exchange of information and germplasm exchange in the future. These are activities which "}]},{"head":"Funding:","index":104,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"USAID provided US$437,OOO for the 1995-96 fiscal year."},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":"\"should become a natural facet of NARS operations, with little outside assistance. These are not expensive functions, so institutionally the Networks could become more sustainable by making these ... inherent functions of the NARS.\" participants, the network has given cassava research greater recognifion and helped unite and expand the initial small core of resources devoted to the crop. subSaharan Africa. In the late 1980s, there was a particu-lar~ severe outbreak in northern Uganda and the disease began spreading south at about 20 km per year. In some parts of Uganda, as much as half the cassava crop is annually lost to the virus."},{"index":3,"size":129,"text":"It was the combined efforts of liT A, national programs, and EARRNET that allowed for the rapid identification and multiplication of cassava varieties tolerant to ACMV. A 1996 USAID evaluation of regional networks in East Africa, which included EARRNET, noted that this work has helped to prevent massive losses in Kenya, Rwanda, Uganda, and Zaire. Between the farmer's field and the dinner rabie, such food crops as maize or cassava often pass through many hands and processes. They may be stored, processed, weighed, transported, inspected, packaged, sold, and combined with other foods before cooking. The specific combination of these tasks varies widely among communities, crops, and locations. But, in each case, there are costs and benefits, depending on the resources invested in postharvest work and on the technology used."},{"index":4,"size":77,"text":"Missing links in the postharvest chain can incur major costs and pose serious threats to farmers and other consumers. Among the biggest problems is grain eaten or damaged by pests. In some African countries, insect-relateCl losses of maize during storage can be as high as 30% by weight after only a few months. And for cassava producers in Nigeria, posmarvest losses were shown in one IITA study to be a debilitating 45%, half of it during processing."},{"index":5,"size":168,"text":"Other postharvest problems are spoiling of food on the way to market, reduced family income, the presence of pamogenic organisms or chemicals in food, poor nutrition, inferior taste, reduced food security, and hours of dpJdgery, usually women's, in processing commodities to make them edible. The omer side of me coin is me opportunities and benefits of investing in posmarvest work: a better supply of safe and nutritious food, job opportUnities, income security, greater variety in food, good taste, and more free time if you don't have to peel, pound, or grind. liTA has a long history of postharvest research aimed at helping farmers to avoid such costs and threats and to exploit new opportunities. In earlier years, work focused on cassava and, later, on soybean too. Over the past five years, however, research and related work have expanded to cover lIT A's other mandate crops. Since 1995, postharvest activities have been coordinated under the umbrella of the project on Improving Postharvest Systems, one of 17 multidisciplinary IITA projects."},{"index":6,"size":53,"text":"During 1996, IITA commissioned a three-person external panel of experts to review the project, with emphasis on the relevance of research and on project organization and management. The panelists were from an African regional research-coordinating association, a nongovernmental organization involved in food and agricultural development in Ghana, and a university in the UK."},{"index":7,"size":14,"text":"The ten major recommendations of the review panel are paraphrased in the accompanying box."},{"index":8,"size":73,"text":"The goal of the postharvest project is to increase the income-generating capacity of farmers and processors and to improve the nutritional status of consumers in both me rural and urban communities of Africa. The panel, which conducted its review during the last two weeks of November, concludes in its report that \"me postharvest research undertaken by the Institute is quite relevant and goes some way towards addressing the key problems of its clients.\""},{"index":9,"size":42,"text":"The report also states that \"IITA can point to a number of achievements in the postharvest area and the Review Panel is of me opinion that the increased momentum in postharvest research is to be applauded and should be further supported. n"}]},{"head":"Recommendations 9n IITA's postharvest work","index":105,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"• IITA should develop a more robust strategy for its postharvest research . This could be done through a workshop to produce a work plan for the next 5 to 10 years. The exercise should help to build consensus among IITA and scientists from collaborating institutions on the focus of research, research strategy, and coordinating mechanisms."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"• The issue of project management, particularly the management of resources, needs to be settled as soon as possible. Clear directives should be issued regarding the division of powers between the project coordinator and divisional director."},{"index":3,"size":36,"text":"• A core group of researchers should be designated as postharvest scientists with 30-50010 of their time allocated to the project. The core should consist of at least one engineer, one food scientist, and one socioeconomist."},{"index":4,"size":27,"text":"• Impact assessment studies should be undertaken to determine whether the postharvest project contributes to the achievement of IITA's broader objectives and to identify areas for improvement."},{"index":5,"size":45,"text":"• The project coordinator should be a respected senior scientist able to build consensus and team spirit. Criteria for appointment to the post, as well as position responsibilities, assigned resources, and the extent of the coordinator's control over those resources should all be clearly stipulated."},{"index":6,"size":59,"text":"• Postharvest research is being undertaken' by a diaspora of units throughout IITA. The current restructuring exercise (a shift from the organization of work into div~ sions and programs to research project mode) should be used as an opportunity to cluster units that conduct research in related areas so that innovation, productivity, and coordination among postharvest scientists are enhonced."},{"index":7,"size":21,"text":"• The institute should rationalize the contributions of its social scientists so that socioeconomic issues are effectively integrated into postharvest research."},{"index":8,"size":56,"text":"• Given the importance of postharvest research to IITA's mission and the need for mediurn-to large-scale processing technologies in Africa, especial~ for high~ perishable commodities, IITA should strive to maintain funding of postharvest activities at least at the 1996 level. • A method has been developed to screen plantain and banana germ plasm for quality traits."},{"index":9,"size":23,"text":"• nTA has developed a range of products from cooking bananas and plantains, some of which have been adopted by farmers and processors."},{"index":10,"size":29,"text":"• Integrated pest management options have been designed for rural storage systems. The exotic natural enemy of dle larger grain borer was used in control of mis posdlarvest pest."},{"index":11,"size":28,"text":"• More dun 50,000 people have been formally trained in soybean utilization and dle number of companies in Nigeria which process soybeans has risen from 2 to 50."},{"index":12,"size":26,"text":"• Training materials on postharvest technologies have been produced and a newsletter has been launched to promote good linkages among all those working in posdlarvest R&D."},{"index":13,"size":197,"text":"On the issue of resource use in posdlarvest research, the review pa nel report observes dlat equipment and other facilities are \"scattered in all the 14 programs/ units/ centers\" and that there is some duplication of equipment and laboratories. It noted that \"some savings could be realized dlroUgh the rationalization of the use of these facilities and redeployment of technica l staff.\" nTA has recognized that dlere _ is some dup~ication and is taking corrective styps. It believes, however, dlat some duplication of equipment and activities is unavoidable. A management concern broached by the panel was the problem of authority over resources earmarked for postharvest research. At IlTA, resource are allocated to specifiC divisions and programs, not direcdy to multidis~iplinary projects, such as dle postharvest project, which cut across diviional and program boundaries. This mean dlat the project coordinator and \"link director\" responsible for a given project do not have direct control over the staff and fund allocated to it. This can make for awkward project management and coordination. UTA will address dlis issue in 1997 widl dle design of a modified project management structure to be reviewed by both IlTA's Board of Trustees and staff members."},{"index":14,"size":52,"text":"Several recommendations, especially those regarding project structure, management and funding (issues germane to all UTA projects to varying degrees), were anticipated in nTA's 1998-2000 Medium-Term Plan, drafted in late 1996. For example, dle plan calls for postharvest research funding to be maintained and nTA continues to aggressively seek funding for dlese activities. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" , IAR, and Dr L Brader, IITA Directar General, receiving the award from the (G (hair, Dr I. Serageldin. "},{"text":" Project 2: Agroecosytem Development Strategies Goal. To guide ecoregional research for poverty alleviation and sustainable development of agroecosystems in the subhumid and humid zones. Activities feed directly into the multi partner Ecoregional Program for the Humid and Subhumid Tropics of Sub-Saharan Africa (EPHTA) . "},{"text":" host plant resistance and biological control of stem ,borers were seen in 1996. Three synthetic borer-resistant populations were screened under artificial infestation of Sesamia calamistis, and TZBR Eld 1 underwent the 7th cycle of improvement under increased Eldana infestation, An East African parasitoid of Sesamia calamistis, Cotesiasesamiae, released in Benin in late 1995, is field established, and is spreading. • The Nigerian Downy Mildew Eradication Campaign had moderate success during 1996. The disease spread into lagos State, Nigeria, but still has not moved into Benin Republic. In Ibadan, spore trap catches in 1996 were 40% of their 1995 level and 24% of their 1994 level, indicating a strong decline in the epidemic. • It was determined that resistance to Stenocarpella macorspora ear rot is controlled by dominant effects with some epistasis. Insignificant correlation between the ear rot and the leaf blight caused by the same fungus indicates separate genetic mechanisms. • Teretriosoma nigrescens, the predator of the larger grainborer, Prostephanus truncatus, ha~ continued to spread from its 1995' localion. P. truncatus populations continued to decline wherever the predator had become established. • Field inoculation techniques for Fusarium moniliforme and Aspergillus flavus were effective; the procedure can be easily adapted by national programs, "},{"text":"I A pan-African postharvest newsletter, Postharvest Systems, was initiated in collaboration with GTZ, at the request of national agricultural research systems (NARS). I A total of 57 prototypes developed by IITA's postharvest engineering unit were documented and tested; fabrication diagrams are available. I An engineering fabrication network was established in Nigeria and Ghana, in collaboration with Global 2000. I Processes for obtaining high-quality cassava Hour have been developed, tested, and adopted by farmers and processors in Nigeria in four states. Four food processing companies are being supplied by these flour producers. I Cyanide testing equipment have been delivered to several NARS in East, West, and Southern Africa for testing the safety of cassava roots and products. Personnel have been trained to use them. I Improved cassava varieties with low cyanide content have been released to national research programs in West Africa. I A series of reg ional training courses was conducted to train researchers, extension workers, entrepreneurs, and farmer groups in postharvest research and value-added activities for local staple crops. Project 10. fcrnq Systems Diversifimtion Goal. To increase smallholder productivity and cash income in West and Central Africa by developing, with farmers, new and complementary income-generating enterprises. "},{"text":"I Another forest margins trial addressed high-value crop production. Researcher-managed tomato plots were established on 10 farms to evaluate nematode problems. Preliminary observations indicate that fungal and bacterial diseases, along with viral infections and insect damage, are at least as important as nematode problems. I In the northern Guinea savanna benchmark, four trials of early maize adaptability to inland valleys were conducted jointly by researchers and farmers over two seasons. Important management problems were encountered, e.g ., density, date of planting, and waterlogging. Nevertheless, there appears to be good potential for profits. Project 11. Cowpea-Cereol Systems Improvement in the Dry Savonna Goal. To develop adoptable crop varieties and agronomic practices for the Sudan savanna and Sahel that will increase the total productivity of the dominant farming systems. The project integrates research by scientists from IITA, IlRl, and ICRISAT who are working on grain legumes, cereals, and livestock in the dry savannas of West Africa. Research institutes in Nigeria (IAR/ ABU) and Niger (INRAN) are also active members. Highlights I Evaluation, selection, and genetic improvement of African cowpea landraces continued in 1996. From evaluation of 150 local cowpea varieties from several African countries, the best nine varieties were selected for improvement through back crossing . "},{"text":" To strengthen the effectiveness of NARS in the generation and utilization of appropriate research results. Major activities are training, training materials development, research collaboration (both network-and projectbased), the Ecoreg ional Program for the Humid and Subhumid Tropics of Sub-Saharan Africa (EPHTA), bibliographic services, and public awareness building . _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ RE.SEARCH HIGHLIGHTS "},{"text":" Over the past 30 years, IlTA has developed facilities in Nigeria at sites that provide some but not all of the agroecological conditions (rainfall, temperanlre, soil composition, etc.) for doing research for its mandate ecoregions: the lowland and mid-altitude moist savanna and lowland humid forest. During the mid-1980s, the institute took an inlportant decision to selectively decentralize in order to widen partnership and representativeness for adaptive on-farm research and strategic research (such as investigations of soil nutrient dynamics). After reviewing several options, southern Cameroon Cameroon:Forest Margins Benchmark was identified as a promising site for a humid forest station.IlTAscientists have been collaborating in Cameroon since the 1970s. Throughout the 1980s, IlTA provided technical input, at one time reaching 15 field scientists, for a national project supporting cereals improvement and farming systems researcll. Lasting until 1994, the project built a solid partnership between IlTA and Canleroon's lnstitut de recherche agricole pour Ie developpement (lRAD). In 1990, after reaching agreement with the Government of Cameroon, IlTA opened new research laboratories and offices a stone's throw from IRAD, just 'outside the capital, Yaounde. Since then, the Humid Forest Station has SHARING THE FOREST'S WEALTH _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ are being developed in the very context where they will be used. "},{"text":" To come up with useful technologies and advice for farmers, researchers require information about climate, soils, T~e Mbalmayo farm, an integra~ part af IITA's Humid Forest Station, is managed in a way that mini-mIZes damage to the forest environment. Tree cutting is kept to a minimum, with large buffers left around resear~ plots and buildings. To prevent compaction and other damage to fragile topsai~ no he~ equipment is used to dear land used for experiments. Natural water courses are left undisturbed. BUildings are made of local materials that blend in with the forest and were designed to minimize consumptian of fossn fuels. and natural vegetation. They need to know which cropping systems are in place, what role trees play in those systems, and how natural resources are managed. They need to underprovided UTA with a means of supporting multidisciplinary work on resource and crop management. The proximity of the IITA station to lRAD has reinforced relations between the two institutions on a range of activities related to humid forest development. Research at the Humid Forest Station aims to develop productive, sustainable agricultural systems for small-scale farmers. By promoting technologies that allow for more intensive u e of land already cleared UTA is indirectly helping to conserve other forested areas that are either unsettled or minimally used. By promoting sustainable use of nontimber forest products, such a medicinal plants and fruit from trees the institute is directly helping to maintain forest equilibrium in areas already moderately or heavily populated. An important component of tl1e Humid Forest Station is UTA's research farm at Mbalmayo 50 km outh of Yaounde. The location is ideal for researcll on farming systems tllat combine forestry and food crops. Located inside a national forest reserve, tlle farm was designed and is managed to simulate conditions typically found on farms of the ecoregion. Thus, alternative systems-for example, to replace slash-and-burn farming-An example of agroforestry in small-scale farming. 16 stand farmers' livelihood strategies and aspirations. And they need to be aware of specific problems faced by farmers such as low soil fertility, weed infestation, and lack of market access. Since 1991, cientists at the Humid Forest Station have been working in collaboration with IRAD scientists to generate the needed information and understanding of resource patterns and dynamics. Based on e>..1ensive primary and secondary data, an ecoregional benclunark area was formally established in 1993. The benchmark area-a 15,400 sq km \"living laboratory\"-is a microcosm of what is known as \"the forest margin.\" Forest margins are areas of Africa's humid forest extending out from urban centers and towns where there is intensive land use, to thinly populated areas with relatively intact forest. The Cameroon benchmark has a typically diverse mosaic of land-use and vegetation patterns, determined largely by popuLation density and market access. Six villages inside the benchmark serve as focal points for onfarm R&D. Their differing intensities of resource use present a useful gradient around which researchers can develop and evaluate specific farming systems and resource management practices. The gradient ranges from dense forest and low population in the southern part of the benchmark to degraded forest and high popuLation density in the north. institutes working alone. During 1996, IlTA and IRAD co-convened a series of meetings in Cameroon to forge a broader partnership for benchmark area activities. Among the participants were Cameroon's National Programme for Agricultural Extension, the MiniStry of Environment and Forests, the Ministry of Science and Technology, a national federation of farmer IlTA and IRAD scientists in Cameroon know that the challenge of forest margins development cannot be addressed by research "},{"text":" In this work, researchers are looking for efficient combinations of fruit trees and food crops to be grown among existing plantations of timber, oil palm, cocoo, . Project staff are now investigating different ways to integrate the upper-story perennial species efficienrly with the under-story food cropsnew opportunities for diversification were investigated. IITA and IRAD researchers co~ laborated on a survey of horticultural practices in the outskirts of Yaounde, Cameroon. "},{"text":" TIle benchmark work by IlTA and IRAD feeds directly into a larger initiative known as the Ecoregional Program for the Humid and Subhumid Tropics of Sub-Saharan The Cameroon benchmark is the first of three such areas to be developed for humid forest research under EPHTA. Planning and design work have begun on two others, in southern Ghana (forest pockets benchmark) and southeast Nigeria (degraded forest benchmark). Surveys of the two IlTA's Humid Forest Station also contributes to a second CGIAR effort, the Global Initiative on Alternatives to Slash-and-Burn (ASB), which is led globally by ICRAF. In addition, the station The ecoregional program for the humid and subhumid tropics The Ecoregional Program for the Humid and Sub-humid Tropics of Sub-Soharan Africa IEPHTA) is on ambiHous attempt to tackle some of the region's agricultural and resource management problems in a holistic way. The notional agricultural research systems of 13 countries porticipote in the program: Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Cote d'ivoire, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Nigeria, Sierra leone, Togo, and Zaire. The EPHTA portnership was consolidated in 1996 with the signing of memoranda of agre&ment by the original 11 portner countries IBenin and Burkina Faso were added in 1997]. 18 CGIAR center members of EPHTA include IITA, the West Africa' Rice Development ~ sociation, the International livestock Research Institute, and the International Center for Research in Agroforestry. The Center for Intemafional Forestry Research is expected to join soon. Other internaHonal organizaHons include the UN Food and Agriculture OrganizaHon, France's Centre de cooperation internationale en recherche agronomique pour Ie developpement IClRAD), the International Fertilizer Development Center-Togo, Wageningen Agricultural Un~ versity, the DloWinand Storing Centre, and the Institute for Natural Resources in Africa of the United Notions University. The ecoregional program, on initiative of the CGIAR, aims to increase productivity and food security through the use of sustainable production and postharvest systems, while minimizing natural resource degradation. The ultimate aim is to improve the well-being of smallholder and medium-scale formers, and alleviate their poverty. EPHTA integrates research on specific commodities and agricultural components with research on natural resources, policies, and socioeconomic and institutional issues. The program relies on extensive consulta-Hon, drawing on the opinions and expertise of numerous groups with a stoke in the ecoregion's development. IITA serves as the lead ins~ tute for the program, which is executed by three consortia. Two consortia, officially launched in April 1996, are each responsible for a spe-ciAc zone of the ecoregion: the humid forest and the moist savanna. A third consortium, formed in 1994, handles a special agroecological niche-inland volleys. Through the two main ecoregional consortia, a limited number of benchmark areas are being developed for the humid forest and moist savanna, such as the one a~ ready'. set out in southern Cameroon for the forest margins. ' At on historic meeting in April 1996, EPHTA partners agreed on six benchmark areas and host institutes for the ecoregion, as follows: • NortIIera Gumea saY.... Location: northwest Nigeria. Host: the Institute of Agricultural Research, Ahmadu Bello University. • Soutllera GuiIea savaaa. Location: northwest of Bouake, Cote d'ivoire. Host: Institut des savanes IIDESSA). • Derived/coastal savaua: Location: north of Cotonou, Benin. Host: Institut notional des recherches agricoles du Benin IINRAB) . • forest .argils. Location: southern Cameroon. Host: Iristitut de recherche agricole pour Ie developpement IIRAD). • forest pockets. Location: southern Ghana. Host: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research ICSIR). • Degraded 'orest. Location: southeastern Nigeria. Host: National Root Crops Research Institute INRCRI). _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ SHARING THE FOREST'S WEALTH Farmers from four villages were involved in evaluating burning and mulching techniques, while in several other villages on-farm trials were established to assess, with farmers, adoptability and potential of tree-based shortterm fallow systems. Nursery shed at IITA's Humid Forest Station in Mbalmayo, Cameroon for raising multipurpose trees. In conjunc~on with scientists in other IlTA projects, Humid Forest Station scientists worked in 1996 on perennial plantain systems and cassava cropping systems. hosts forestry research conducted by a scientist from the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR). "},{"text":" Progress was made in 1996 on identifying and developing alternative production strategies for farmers to help boost incomes. (See box on diversification, page 17). Under UTA's Agroecosystems Development Strategies project, researchers conducted several diagnostic surveys covering house-hold resource use and livelihood support strategies, activities of nongovernmental organizations and their involvement in natural resources management, inland fisheries and fish farming, and weed population dynamics under natural and managed fallow (see Project 2 in the Research Highlights section). Under llTA's Short Fallow Stabilization project, researchers at the Mbalmayo research farm evaluated over 40 species of plants (such as herbaceous legumes) for their suitability in short fallows. "},{"text":" Different types of rhizobia affed the formation of nodules on soybean roots differently. On the left, R-2SB, an African soybean rhizobiuin strain isolated by IITA, was used for inoculation; in the middle, IRC, a local cowpea rhizobium; on the right, IRJ2180A, an imported commerdal soybean rhizobium. The IITA isolate and the commerdal rhizobium resulted in robust root nodulation. The cowpea rhizobium strain had no effed. "},{"text":" lIT A's recent work in soil microbiology has opened up another new promising line of research. If successfully pursued, it could benefit hundreds of thousands of fanners in the moist savanna of Africa. "},{"text":"A yam leaf exhibiting typical symptams af virus infectian. Over the past two years, lITA has built up its facilities and expertise in virology. The staff of the virology laboratories have four main tasks. First, they provide diagnostic services for I1TA research activit.ies, for national partner institutions, and [or international research centers. Second, within the IITA project framework , they conduct research _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ MIC OBIOLOGY AND VIROLOGY A Muso leaf showing symptoms of banana streak virus. "},{"text":" their various strains, and their distribution. IlTA virology research in 1996 focused on four topics: • ACMV, which is endemic in Africa but has recently caused a severe epidemic in East Africa. Researchers are studying the significance of vims strains, their interactions with cassava varieties, and the whiteflies tllat transmit tlle virus. The various recent inlprovements in viral diagnostics are now helping IlTA to Ele(tron micrograph of banana streak virus. do a better job of monitoring disease outbreaks. They are also allowing the institute to boost its output of virus-tested enhanced germplasm for use by national and international research programs. "},{"text":" Information on plant viruses and related diseases in tropical Africa is still rather sketchy. Yet, crop breeding for resistance to viruses demands a sound knowledge of these highly infectious pathogens, 26• BSV in Nigeria, Uganda, and Cameroon. Work on this recently identified virus is intended to help nTA produce virus-tested germplasm of banana cultivars already resistant to black sigatoka, a fungal disease. • Yam vimses in West Africa. This research aims to identify yam viruses and tlleir importance, particularly in Ghana and Nigeria. Their impact on yield is being.studied, along witll tlleir epidemiology and options for control. • Virus characterization. Researchers continue to identify and characterize new viruses and develop diagnostic metllods. In 1996, a new virus, dubbed banana die-back vi..lUs, was isolated. Advice and training lIT A's virology staff were active in training students and scientists from national research programs during tlle year. Five students were doing degreerelated studies at IITA, two at the master's level and three at the doctoral level. L1boratory training was also given to provide industrial experience for young Nigerian students. Virologists also contributed to two courses in Uganda on banana and plantain research management and to a course in Nigeria on virus epidemiology and control. A total of 18 national program staff from six countries received individual training in plant vims diagnostics at IlTA. Virus indexing protocols for use by national program researchers, as well as by IlTA staff, were written up. Kits for virus testing in the field were also under development in 1996 and should be ready for distribution in 1997. "},{"text":" ince the dawn of agricultu re, grasshoppers and locusts have rained disaster on farmers under certain clinlatic and ecological conditions, especially in the tropiCS and subtropics. From 1986 to 1988, a major outbreak of desert locusts swept the Sahel, from Eritrea in the east all the way to Maurita nia in the west. The emergency brought the problem of safe pest control into sharp relief. "},{"text":" Meforhizium flovoviride fungus grows on rice substrate in plastic tubs in the IITA-(otonou spore production plant. The pilot line can anually produce enough spores to treat 4,000 ha against grasshopper and locust pests. Middle: (olor-enhanced electron micrograph of germinating Meforhizium flovoviride spores on locust cuticle. Bottom: Ailopus grasshopper killed by Meforhizium. Spores can be seen growing on the surface of the grasshopper. 28 grasshoppers are found , particularly low humidity and high ultraviolet radiation. A big research agenda UTA and IIBC knew that the R&D needed to turn Melarbizium into a practical, safe, and inexpensive technology for use in Africa and other palts of the developing world would be an enormous job. The list of research problems and tasks was long and would involve many di ciplines. The UTA-IlBC collaboration later expanded to include two new paltners: the Gesellschaft fiir Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) of Germany, which has a permanent locust research station in Mauritania and the lnstitut du Sahel, the Mali-based re earch structure of CILSS. The resulting project, funded by Canada, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and the UK is called LUBILOSA, a French acronym for 'biological control of locusts and grasshoppers. \" UTA leads the most recent phase of the project. The operations of the 30-odd scientists, technicians, and support staff on the team are heavily concentrated at UTA's facilities in Cotonou Benin. "},{"text":"( Oedaleus senegalensis andKraussaria angulifera) . "},{"text":"( assava green mite, Mononychellus tanajoo. "},{"text":" 25 years, tile pest has dealt a severe blow to millions of subsistence farmers who depend heavily on the root crop for food and income, especially in times of drought when otller crops fail. The mite attacks cassava leaves, sucking out the fluid content of individual cells. Leaves become mottled and defomled , and sometimes are only one-quarter the size of a healtllY leaf. Eventually they dry out and die, tllough tile overall plant usually survives. With less surface area for photosynthesis, plant growth is retarded and energy from the stems and edible storage roots is consumed, resulting in drastically reduced harvests.While ilTA's recent success witll T aripo has been dramatic, the battle is not over yet. Lmplementation of the predator technology has only just begun in East and Southern Africa, and is yet to start in much of Central Africa. And in West Africa, "},{"text":" ...\" .. '\\ I . ., ... ~ .. , "},{"text":" Stem tunnelling by S. calamis/is. Analysis of sur•• vey data allowed researcher to formulate hypotheses about the ways in pest management (IPM) strategies for fighting borer . Research on stemborers was therefore, decentralized to national programs and farmers' fields at an early stage. The extent of crop damage inflicted by borers varies enormously according to ecological zone, country, and crop. This makes research complex and site-specifiC. To tap the best scientific expertise, UTA decided to work with advanced laboratories and other international research centers, in~luding CIMMYT, the international Center of insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE), the International Crops Research 34 which physical components of the cropping system such as soil type and clin1ate, inte:Clct with biological factors, such as stemborer lifecycles, alternative host plants, the presence of the pests' natural enemies and plant health. "},{"text":" (c. jlaVlpes has already been successfully uS' ed to control sugarcane borers in dle Anlericas including the Caribbean island .) Before releasing the two parasitoids in Benin in late 1995, UTA evaluated their suitability for use against stemborers found in West Africa. Researchers estinlated the number of eggs laid by the paras itoids inside the borers and _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ BIOCONTROL AND INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT investigated the immune response of the borers to being parasitized. "},{"text":" Integrated pest management, or IPM, was singled ou[ a one of the pillars of sustainable agricultural development by Agenda 21, the global action plan that emerged from the Earth Summit organized by the United Nations in Rio in 1992. The Sy temwide Program on Integrated Pest Management was officially launched in 1995 by tile Consultative Group on Intemational Agriculrural Research (CGIAR) largely in re pon e to Agenda 21. Because' of IlTA's experience and know-how in lPM, tile in titute was offered a leader hip role in ti1is initiative. \"Systemwide\" refers to ti1e network of 16 research centers funded by tile CGIAR, and to wl1ich IlTA belongs. The partnership also includes tile International Center of In ect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE), ti1e Whitefly, vector of cossava mosaic virus. 36 Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center (AVRDC), and numerous otiler R&D organization . ICIPE and AVRDC are non-CGIAR centers witil a special interest in IPM. "},{"text":" Future projects will likely include research for the integrated control of cereal stem borers, grain legume pe t , and para itic plants such a Striga. Task forces met during 1996 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ BIOCO TROL AND INTEGRATED PEST MA AGEMENT to assess the ituation and plan respon e to these and other problems. "},{"text":" One well-known local variety of white yam in West Africa has an excellent taste and texture, and it fetdles a high price. Variously known as Pona or Puna in Ghana, Kponan in Cote d'Ivoire, and Kpouna in Togo and Benin, .t\\:lis. male variety flowefs e~rly and' for only a short time. Unfortunately, Pona does not sprout well at 42 Hybrid seedlings of white yam are grawn on the IITA (ampus for further breeding and selection. "},{"text":" a market in Nigeria. West Afri(a accounts for 90% af world yam production. "},{"text":" Three-quarters .of tlle cassava plantlet shipped by IITA in May were from 16 different genotypes, intended for rapid multiplication and distribution to farmer. The rest were sample of some 200 Cassava germ plasm: Providing a solid genetic base from which to rebuild cassava production in Angola. "},{"text":"_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ SEEDS OF FREEDOM stakes) for mass distributio.n to farmers in the areas of nOlthern Angola hardest hit by the war. HElPING HANDS IN ANGOlA: IITA's Paul Ilona (left) repots (ass avo plants with staff of World Vision International and the Instituto de Investiga~ao Agronomia. "},{"text":"\" Strengthening ihe capability of national agricultural research systems to conduct research' and training is essential to the agricultural development of their countries. \" Learning in the lab and beyond For 25 years, IITA has given training opportunities to African researchers, technicians, and extension workers,• as a way to reinforce research capability in sub-Saharan Africa. In recent years, the institute has put greater emphasis on building research linkages with and among national agricultural research systems (NARS) and with international agricultural research centers (IARCs), often through networks. This is helping to harness the currently underused training capability of NARS. IITA's Training Program has been in the forefront of CGIAR efforts to form such training partnerships. With networks and some NARS beginning to conduct more group courses, IITA has shifted resources into individualized training, both degree related and nondegree technical attachmen~. The Training Program comprises three mutually reinforcing uni~: Individual Training, Group Training, and Training Materials. The role and work of each are presented below. Individual training The hub of IITA's individual training is the Graduate Research Fellowship Program (GRFP), set up in 1989 and managed by the Individual Training Unit. In this degree-related training, university graduate studen~ come to Ibadan or another IITA research site to conduct their thesis research under the supervision of scientis~. Most I1TA fellows are from sub-Saharan Africa and have completed their academic requiremen~ for either an MSc or a PhD. In 1996, the Training Program managed the activities of 35 MSc and 117 PhD candidates. A total of 126 fellows carried out research at IITA sites, with the rest completing research or academic requiremen~ at universities. "},{"text":" Increasingly, the Training Program also awards and administers scholarships that cover both university-based academic course work and IITA-supervised research by fellows. annually, will be mandatory for all new fellows. The Second Annual Symposium of the International Association of Research Fellows (IARSAF) took place at UTA headquarters in October. The theme was \"The role of training in agricultural development in sub-Saharan Africa.\" The symposium drew 109 participanrs from universities, nongovernmental organizations, national research institutions, and IITA. Over two dozen fellows used the forum to share their research resulrs with participants. Symposium discussion underlined the need [Q identify funds for which fellows can compete. Participanrs believed this would help them integrate d1eir research more fully into d1e activities of meir national research instin.ltions after returning home. UTA remained committed to two special collaborative training programs during the year. One of d1em, supported by the Ford Foundation and Winrock International since 1990 benefirs women professionals. To date, 6 of dle 10 women participating in the IITA/FF/Winrock collaborative fellowship program have completed their degree s£\\.ldies. Two are awaiting mesis examinations and two continued meir re earch in 1996. MSc or PhD studies and research during 1996, bringing d1e total to six. Five are in Souili African universities and one is in a university in dle UK. Besides irs degree-related training, IITA also provides individualized nondegree training [Q national researchers, technicians, and extension worker in response to requests from NARS. Progranls are customized to 'meet dle specific needs of iliese \"research training associates\" and vary in duration from two weeks to dvee mondl . Under ilie program 25 individuals (nine women) from 10 African countries received training at UTA in 1996• 18 were sponsored from IITA core funds. Group training Working widl partner organizations, IITA conducted or contributed significandy to 19 specialized courses during 1996. Of dle 291 participanrs, 108 were Frenchpeaking and 61 were women. Nine of the courses were center-based training courses-seven in Ibadan and one each in Coronou (Benin) and Bouake (Cote d'Tvoire). IITA also collaborated on six NARS-based and four network-based courses. The accompanying graphs (see page 48) show dle numbers of participants by sex and language. Wid1 the growing emphasis on training through partnership , lITA collaborated for dle first time with national and regional institution in Cameroon and Ghana. In Cameroon, dIe course focu ed on crop management research for plantain and banana. The partner organizations were dIe Institut de la Recherd1e Agronomique (IRA-Cameroon) and d1e Centre des RedIerches Regionales sur Bananier et Plantains (CRBP). In Ghana, IITA worked wid1 the Food Research Institute (FRI) , dle University of Ghana (Legon), and dle ational Agricultural Research Project in conducting a workshop on the development of root crop products. "},{"text":" second program is linked to ilie Soudlern Africa Root Crop Research Network (SARRNEn. IITA collaborates widl SARRNET and dle International Pota[Q Center in managing dle fellowship program. IITA placed four scholars and fellows for An IRA instructor (left foreground) discusses sweet potato propagation from cuttings. The backbone of IITA's training matelials is the Research Guide series. The guides are simply produced, smaU-foffi1at booklers of 20-50 pages iliat provide RAINING PROGRAM _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ technical information, bibliographies, and advice to researchers, technicians, extension specialists, educators, and students involved in agricultural research. They are updated periodically to reflect advances in scientific knowledge. Apart from distribution to IITA trainees and instructors, new guides are mailed to 270 addresses in 45 African countries. These are mainly research institutions, universities, and agricultural libraries. During 1996, four new guides were published in English and four in French, along with 21 English reprints of earlier guides and one French reprint. By year end, a total of 58 guides were available in English and 52 in French. The First Ghana International Book Fair in November, organized by the Ghana Trade Fair Authority and MiniStry of Education, provided IITA with useful, positive feedback on its Research Guides from a wider public. The IITA-CGIAA stand was visited by NARS scientists, university professors, agriculture snldents, extension specialists, NGOs, private publishing companies, and farmers. More than 500 Research Guides were sold on site. I1TA made preliminary contact with potential copub-Iishers and with book distributors in the expectation of having its training materials and other publications reach a wider audience in the future. In 1996, the Training Materials Unit benefitted from the scientific advice and collaboration of a maize specialist, on sabbatical at I1TA from the Obafemi Awolowo University, IIe-Ife, Nigeria. He 48 Partidpation in lilA training courses and workshops by sex and language. initiate a series of 40 Research Guides on maize. IlTA hopes to explore similar arrangements widl odler organizations for producing materials on other IlTA mandate crops and research topics. The color slide is a common and effective visual aid in training. At the end of 1995, dle Training Materials Unit restarted production of color slides to accompany the Research Guides. Audiovisual specialists convert lie guides into \"story boards\" and tben generate slide series using computer technology. Production of five slide collections began during 1996. The unit started work on interactive computer-based learning modules liat combine text and visuals. These will be distributed . Three videos are in production as well. The Training Materials Unit provides advice and assistance. It organized a workshop on extension materials production for the Ecologically Sustainable Cassava Plant Protection (ESCaPP) project, and provided 10 days of training to a staff member of Ghana's Crops Research Institute (CRI). Three national institutions-CRI in Ghana, dle InstiM des Savanes (IDESSA) in Cote d'Ivoire, and lie In-Sef\\!\"ice Training Center (ISTC) of Zambia's Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Fibre-have adapted the structure of utA's Research Guides for some of-lieir own training materials. "},{"text":" 1987, lITA has been a key partner in wee networks iliat were reviewed in 1996 by dleir supporting donor, ilie United States Agency for International Development (USAID). The networks are the West and Central Africa Collaborative Maize Research Network (WECAMAN), the West and Central Africa Cowpea Research Network (RENACO), and ilie East Africa Root Crops Research Network (EARRNET). "},{"text":" West and Central Africa Collaborative Maize Research Network (WECAMAN): Formerly pari of the Semi-Arid Food Grains Research and Development (SAFGRAD) project of the Organization of African Unity. Areas of R&D concentration: Promoting technology transfer through on-farm research; working with farmers on seed production; improving cropping practices, especially for controlling the parasitic plant Striga and mainta!ning soil fertility; breeding improved maize varieties, with aHention to the needs of end users. "},{"text":"Geographical focus : Guinea savanna zone, where maize production has great potential, and drier savannas where extra-€arly varieties can enhance food supply. Member countries: Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Cote d'lvoire, Ghana, Mali, Nigeria, Togo. . Funding: USAID provided US$400,OOO for the 1995-96 fiscal year. "},{"text":" Formerly part of the Semi-Arid Food Grains Resea rch and Development (SAF-GRAD) pro ject of the Organization of African Unity. Areas of R&D concentration: Testi ng and evaluation of improved cowpea varieties (for both intercropping and monocropping) with farmer participation; cowpea seed multiplication; promotion of improved storage methods. Geagraphical fGals: Guinea savanna, Sudan savanna, and Sahel zones. "},{"text":" Member countries: Benin, BurkinaFaso, Cameroon, Ghana, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal.Funding: USAID provided $100,000 for the fiscal year September 1995 to September 1996 (75% for research collaboration) . "},{"text":" more years. Increased funding would allow the networks to beef up, among other things, impact evaluation and technology transfer, it said. "},{"text":" development and screening of suitable variefies.Until the mi~ 1980s, cassava research in East and Central Africa had a low profile. The starchy root was considered poor people's food, a lowvalue crop ~nworthy of a major scientific effort. "},{"text":" An external review panel concludes that fffA is conducting relevant research on postharoest problems. It recommends funding be maintained for this area of research, which has enormous potential for boosting incomes of both rural and urban people. It also recommends that IITAformulate a new 5-to 1 O-year plan for this research project. "},{"text":"• IITA should incorporate its facilities and equipment for product development Glnd utilization research in one central laboratory. In addition, it should improve access to engineering workshop equipment by encouraging the sharing of facilities between the Postharvest Engineering Unit and other units within and outside the institute. • IITA should develop and strengthen links between its postharvest research efforts and other institutions such as national research programs, other international centers, and advanced research institutes, especially those that can provide data for articulating research strategies. The institute should explore the feasibility of postharvest research networking.This view echoes recommendations of the Teclmical Advisory Commiuee (TAC) of the CGIAR, in 1987 and 1996, that increased effort be put into postharvest research. TAC believes that international centers like liTA should take a selective approach, with close collaboration being maintained with public and private organizations.Here are several of the 20 selected achievements in postharvest research mentioned in the review report:supplied by these flour producers.• Cyanide testing equipment for assessing varietal and food product cyanide potential has been delivered to several national research programs in East, West, and Southern Africa. (The presence of cyanide in cassava poses a health risk under certain conditions.)Postharvest topics and activities at IlTA can be grouped into five broad categories: product quality; processing and storage; product development and utilization; socioeconomic research; and training and institutional strengthening. Work is carried out in West, Central, East, and Southern Africa. "},{"text":"54• Fifty-seven prototypes of processing equipment have been developed by the Postharvest Engineering Unit, documented, and tested. Fabrication instructions and diagrams are available in draft form. • An engineering fabrication network has been established in Nigeria and Ghana. • A process for obtaining highquality cassava flour has been developed, tested, and adopted by farmers and processors in four states of Nigeria. Four food processing companies are being • Issues of cassava safety have been clarified .. The biosynthetic pathway of cyanogenic compounds in cassava and the mechanism by which these compounds are eliminated from cassava during processing have been elucidated. • Improved cassava varieties with low cyanide content have beeri released to national research programs in West Africa. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ RESEARCH UNDER REVIEW One of the processing equipment developed by the IITA Postharvest Unit. "},{"text":" --4.6% Cowpea & Soybean ~----3.9% Plantain & Banana ~--6.1% Research Support International 3core budget is used to fund those research-related activities essentiol in meeting the CGlAR objectives for developing countries_ "},{"text":" time 10 time Qslf1eir stock allows, "},{"text":" "},{"text":"The Root Crops Network East African Root Crops Resetl'ch Network (EARRNET): Partial extension of the earlier USAID-supported East and Southern Africa Root Crops Research Network (ESARRN), 1984-1993. Areas of R&D concentration: Promotion Areas of R&D concentration: Promotion of postharvest technology, especia~ of postharvest technology, especia~ Iy small-scale cassava processing Iy small-scale cassava processing equipment; genetic improvement of equipment; genetic improvement of cassava; plant health; agronomy; cassava; plant health; agronomy; multiplication and distribution of multiplication and distribution of clean cassava planting material. clean cassava planting material. Geagraphical focus: Cassava'9rowing Geagraphical focus: Cassava'9rowing regions of East Africa . regions of East Africa . Member countries: Uganda, Mada- Member countries: Uganda, Mada- gascar, Kenya, Burundi, Rwanda, gascar, Kenya, Burundi, Rwanda, Zaire. Zaire. "},{"text":" Expressed in US$ thousandsProvided by operating activities: 1996 1995 Statement of Cash 19961995Statement of Cash Cash naws from operating activities Excess of expense~ over revenue Adjustments 10 reconcile net cosh (1 ,769) (392) Flows 31 December Cash naws from operating activities Excess of expense~ over revenue Adjustments 10 reconcile net cosh(1 ,769)(392)Flows 31 December Depreciation 3,714 3,54 1 Depreciation3,7143,54 1 Gain on disposal of assets 474 85 Gain on disposal of assets47485 Decrease (Increase) in assets: J , 3~ Decrease (Increase) in assets:J , 3~ Accounts receivoble----1:lonors Accounts receivable-others Inventories Prepaid expenses (555) Other assets 331 (116) (581) 255 (193) 685 178 243 131 Accounts receivoble----1:lonors Accounts receivable-others InventoriesPrepaid expenses (555) Other assets 331 (116)(581) 255 (193)685 178243 131 Prepaid expenses Other assets Totol curren: assets (442) (47) 698 9 25,891 26,510 Prepaid expenses Other assetsTotol curren: assets (442) (47)698 925,89126,510 Increase (Decrease) in liabilities: Increase (Decrease) in liabilities: Accounts payable and other liabilities Fixed assets (236) 202 Accounts payable and other liabilitiesFixed assets(236)202 Accrued salaries and benefits Property, plant and equipment 498 (179) 71,489 70,693 Accrued salaries and benefitsProperty, plant and equipment 498(179)71,48970,693 Payments in advance----1:lonors less: accumulated depreciation (386) 11 ,247) ~9, 926 38,330 Payments in advance----1:lonorsless: accumulated depreciation (386) 11 ,247)~9, 92638,330 Total adjustments 3,235 2,590 Total adjustments3,2352,590 Net cash proVided by operating activities Total Hxed assets-net 1,460 2, 198 31 ,563 • 32,363 Net cash proVided by operating activitiesTotal Hxed assets-net 1,4602, 19831 ,563• 32,363 Cash flow used in investment activities: Cash flow used in investment activities: Acquisition of fixed assets Total assets (2,9 14) (5,974) 57,454 58,873 Acquisition of fixed assetsTotal assets(2,9 14)(5,974)57,45458,873 Net decrease in cash and cosh equivalents (1,448) 13,776) Net decrease in cash and cosh equivalents(1,448)13,776) UABILmES AND FUND BAlANCES UABILmES AND FUND BAlANCES Cosh and cash eqUivalents: End of year Current liabilities 19,292 20,740 Cosh and cash eqUivalents: End of yearCurrent liabilities 19,29220,740 Beginning of year Accounts payable and other liabilities 20,740 24,516 4,089 4,325 Beginning of yearAccounts payable and other liabilities 20,740 24,5164,0894,325 Decrease in the year Accrued salaries and benefits 11,448) 13.776) 5,338 4,840 Decrease in the yearAccrued salaries and benefits 11,448)13.776)5,3384,840 Payments in advance--donors 1996 1995 IITA 7,304 7,690 Payments in advance--donors 1996 1995IITA7,3047,690 DONORS Total current liobilities Core Comp!ementory Funding Proiect Funding Core Complemen!cry Functmg Proiect Funding 16,731 Donors Expressed in US$ thousands 16,855 DONORSTotal current liobilities Core Comp!ementory Funding Proiect FundingCore Complemen!cry Functmg Proiect Funding16,731 Donors Expressed in US$ thousands16,855 Austria Net assets 150 1,501 150 427 AustriaNet assets 1501,501150427 Belgium 1,253 Capital invested in ~xed assets 297 1,317 673 31 ,563 32 ,363 Belgium1,253Capital invested in ~xed assets 297 1,31767331 ,56332 ,363 BNlZ, Germany 1,77,6 Capital fund 93 1.534 541 3,722 2,448 BNlZ, Germany1,77,6Capital fund 93 1.5345413,7222,448 Canada Commission 01 the European Communiijes 911 202 Operating fund 130 966 237 88 203 5,438 7,207 Canada Commission 01 the European Communiijes911 202Operating fund 130966 23788 2035,4387,207 Denmark Food and AgriClllture Organizotioo To:al net assets 1,668 37 1,120 2 52 40,723 42,018 Denmark Food and AgriClllture OrganizotiooTo:al net assets 1,66837 1,120 25240,72342,018 ford foundaijon france Total liabilities and net assets 83 310 334 333 32 281 57,454 58,873 ford foundaijon franceTotal liabilities and net assets 83 310 334 33332 28157,45458,873 Ga1sby Charifoble foundation 106 86 Ga1sby Charifoble foundation10686 Intemc1ionol Council for Research in Agroforestry Inlemaijonol Development Research (entre Statement of Activity REVENUE for the year ended December 31 Grants Intemooono! Fund for AgriClllturol De-.oelopment 136 Expressed in US$ thousands Investment income 97 251 110 Inlemationol lnstilUle 01 Biologicol Control 505 lla~ 300 300 48 607 129 553 1996 31 ,180 1,004 1995 31 ,837 987 Intemc1ionol Council for Research in Agroforestry Inlemaijonol Development Research (entre Statement of Activity REVENUE for the year ended December 31 Grants Intemooono! Fund for AgriClllturol De-.oelopment 136 Expressed in US$ thousands Investment income 97 251 110 Inlemationol lnstilUle 01 Biologicol Control 505 lla~ 30030048 607 129 5531996 31 ,180 1,0041995 31 ,837 987 Japan Korea, Republic of Total revenue 4,281 50 3,590 50 32,184 32,824 Japan Korea, Republic ofTotal revenue 4,281 503,590 5032,18432,824 Neiherlands 1,17l 1,261 23 Neiherlands1,17l1,26123 Nigeria EXPENSES 6 6 3 NigeriaEXPENSES 663 NorM:Jy 665 664 NorM:Jy665664 Overseas Development Administration (UK) Research programs 65 15 20,801 20,896 Overseas Development Administration (UK)Research programs 651520,80120,896 RockelEller foundation Conferences and training 349 94 391 2,639 2,465 RockelEller foundationConferences and training 349 943912,6392,465 Sasakowo .A1rico Association Sweden Switzerland Information services 128 General administratian 313 558 577 273 540 96 374 793 2,529 776 2, 185 Sasakowo .A1rico Association Sweden SwitzerlandInformation services 128 General administratian 313 558 577273 54096 374793 2,529776 2, 185 United Kingdom General operations 723 634 3,477 3,353 United KingdomGeneral operations 7236343,4773,353 DepreCiation 3,714 3,541 DepreCiation3,7143,541 3,326 3,025 4,017 2,734 3,3263,025 4,0172,734 TOlal expenses 33,953 33,216 TOlal expenses33,95333,216 WorIdBonl 3,800 90 5,655 63 WorIdBonl3,80090 5,65563 MJlijple/OIher DonaIS Closed Project; Excess of expenses over revenue 302 161 107 N01E: (1,769) (392) MJlijple/OIher DonaIS Closed Project;Excess of expenses over revenue 302 161107N01E:(1,769)(392) "}],"sieverID":"1b38c7f4-3ffa-4ef0-9d64-1d078808bc97","abstract":"Strengthen the effectiveness of NARS in the generation NARS and regional AROs in sub-Saharan Africa, other and utilization of appropriate reseorch resultsCenters, donor agencies, journalists, and the media"} \ No newline at end of file