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aviors [22]β[26]. In addition, Sharples and
Domingue proposed a blockchain-based permanent distributed
record of intellectual effort which instantiates and democra-
tises educational reputation beyond the academic communi-
ty [27]. In [28], authors proposed a new blockchain-based fair
payment to study the cyber physical system (CPS), in which
reputation system is applied such that a subscriber evaluate
the published event and mark the publisher based on the
reputation.
In this paper, we propose a new rep | [
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"-",
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",",
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",",
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":",
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"of",
"the",
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",",
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"Automatic",
"##a",
"Sin",
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",",
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"-",
"49",
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",",
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",",
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".",
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",",
"Y",
".",
"Je",
"##ong",
",",
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"J",
".",
"Park",
",",
"\"",
"Di",
"##st",
"##B",
"##lock",
"##Net",
":",
"a",
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"block",
"##cha",
"##ins",
"-",
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"SD",
"##N",
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"I",
"##o",
"##T",
"networks",
",",
"\"",
"IEEE",
"Co",
"##mm",
"##un",
".",
"Ma",
"##g",
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",",
"vol",
"55",
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".",
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",",
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".",
"78",
"-",
"85",
",",
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".",
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"Y",
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",",
"R",
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",",
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".",
"Shu",
",",
"K",
".",
"Yang",
",",
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",",
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"T",
"##KS",
"##E",
":",
"trust",
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"key",
"##word",
"search"
] | Incentivizing Honest Mining in Blockchain Networks A Reputation Approach | 100 |
utation-based mecha-
nism to incentivize miners to conduct honest mining, thereby
promote the efficient of bitcoin system. Specifically, we first
describe the system model in term of PoW-based blockchain
network, where miners present some malicious behaviors
during the mining process. We then design a reputation mech-
1549-7747 (c) 2018 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission. See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.htm | [
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] | Incentivizing Honest Mining in Blockchain Networks A Reputation Approach | 101 |
l for more information.
This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TCSII.2019.2901746, IEEE
Transactions on Circuits and Systems II: Express Briefs
2
anism based on the interval estimation and the fluctuation of
reputation to incentive the honest mining for miners, in which
the reputation depends on the historical evaluation. We find
that the pool manage | [
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] | Incentivizing Honest Mining in Blockchain Networks A Reputation Approach | 102 |
r strictly selects high-quality miners based
on the reputation mechanism we proposed, which contributes
understanding for PoW consensus algorithm and provides a
new method to explore the bitcoin system.
II. SYSTEM MODEL AND REPUTATION MECHANISM
A. System Model
Consider a PoW-based blockchain network with J individ-
ual miners, which organize themselves into I mining pools
in solving a crypto-puzzle competition to win the reward.
According to the Nakamoto Consensus protocol [1], only the
pool which acco | [
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mplishes the PoW firstly will be rewarded.
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] | Incentivizing Honest Mining in Blockchain Networks A Reputation Approach | 104 |
State of the Art and Challenges Facing Consensus
Protocols on Blockchain
Nutthakorn Chalaemwongwan
Information Science and Technology
Mahanakorn University of Technology
Bangkok, Thailand
[email protected]
Werasak Kurutach
Information Science and Technology
Mahanakorn University of Technology
Bangkok, Thailand
[email protected]
AbstractβNowadays, the blockchain is a favorite platform,
for instance, for use with cryptocurrency, smart contracts, IoT,
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"##ta",
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"Ma",
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",",
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",",
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",",
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".",
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",",
"for",
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",",
"Byzantine",
"general",
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",",
"Pro",
"##of",
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"work",
",",
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"Pro",
"##of",
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",",
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"appropriate",
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",",
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",",
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"the"
] | State of the art and challenges facing consensus p | 105 |
State of the Art and Challenges Facing Consensus
Protocols on Blockchain
Nutthakorn Chalaemwongwan
Information Science and Technology
Mahanakorn University of Technology
Bangkok, Thailand
[email protected]
Werasak Kurutach
Information Science and Technology
Mahanakorn University of Technology
Bangkok, Thailand
[email protected]
AbstractβNowadays, the blockchain is a favorite platform,
for instance, for use with cryptocurrency, smart contracts, IoT,
and | [
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] | State of the art and challenges facing consensus p | 106 |
so forth. Blockchains are distributed ledgers that enable
parties who do not trust each other to maintain states. The
parties agree on the existence, values, and histories of the states.
The blockchain applies the consensus protocol to verify the block
which is distributing the network node. Consensus has many
practices such as, for example, Byzantine general problem, Proof
of work, and Proof of stake. However, there have not been
numerous papers that have undertaken analysis with regard to | [
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] | State of the art and challenges facing consensus p | 107 |
so forth. Blockchains are distributed ledgers that enable
parties who do not trust each other to maintain states. The
parties agree on the existence, values, and histories of the states.
The blockchain applies the consensus protocol to verify the block
which is distributing the network node. Consensus has many
practices such as, for example, Byzantine general problem, Proof
of work, and Proof of stake. However, there have not been
numerous papers that have undertaken analysis with regard to | [
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"information",
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"The",
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",",
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",",
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"Up",
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"Specifically",
",",
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"O",
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"may",
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",",
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"The",
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".",
"The",
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",",
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"[",
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"]",
".",
"These",
"could",
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"categorized",
"in",
"terms",
"of",
"their",
"combined",
"range",
".",
"Over",
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"com",
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"-",
"based",
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"the",
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"utilize",
"proof",
"of",
"com",
"##putation",
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"find",
"a",
"node",
"that",
"a",
"##rb",
"##it",
"##rar",
"##ily",
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"the",
"next",
"operation",
".",
"Bit",
"##co",
"##in",
"'",
"s",
"Pro",
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"(",
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"solely",
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"-",
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"In",
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",",
"all",
"opposite",
"##s",
"we",
"find",
"mixed"
] | State of the art and challenges facing consensus p | 108 |
various aspects, and which have incorporated the adoption
summary as appropriate to the application. In this paper, we
have provided a technical verification review with regard to the
consensus algorithm taken from previous research. The audience
will receive a consensus protocol, and the algorithm typically
analyzes the application to match which platform is appropriate
by viewing the node identity, energy saving and the tolerated
power of the adversary, the data model, language, executio | [
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] | State of the art and challenges facing consensus p | 109 |
various aspects, and which have incorporated the adoption
summary as appropriate to the application. In this paper, we
have provided a technical verification review with regard to the
consensus algorithm taken from previous research. The audience
will receive a consensus protocol, and the algorithm typically
analyzes the application to match which platform is appropriate
by viewing the node identity, energy saving and the tolerated
power of the adversary, the data model, language, executio | [
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] | State of the art and challenges facing consensus p | 110 |
n,
application, and examples. Finally, we finish by presenting
several research directions with regard to the consensus protocol.
Keywords: blockchain; consensus; distributed ledger;
distributed consensus; consensus algorithms
I. INTRODUCTION
A ledger is a documentary framework which includes an
ordered record of transactions. For instance, a ledger will
record transactions between several commercial banks, or
goods exchanged with known parties. An aspect of
blockchains is that the le | [
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"to"
] | State of the art and challenges facing consensus p | 111 |
n,
application, and examples. Finally, we finish by presenting
several research directions with regard to the consensus protocol.
Keywords: blockchain; consensus; distributed ledger;
distributed consensus; consensus algorithms
I. INTRODUCTION
A ledger is a documentary framework which includes an
ordered record of transactions. For instance, a ledger will
record transactions between several commercial banks, or
goods exchanged with known parties. An aspect of
blockchains is that the le | [
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] | State of the art and challenges facing consensus p | 112 |
dger is replicated entirely on almost
all the nodes. Moreover, transactions are assembled into
blocks, then chained to one another. Therefore, the distributed
ledger is a replicated attach only data framework. A
blockchain begins with the initial states, while the ledger
records all the history of the revision procedure.
A technique encouraging distributed ledgers could classify
them in terms of three aspects. (Account, Asset, and Coin).
Initially, the application created on the top of the | [
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"whenever",
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"does",
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"The",
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"sufficient",
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"nodes",
"appear",
"online",
"sometimes",
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"delay",
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"their",
"incentive",
",",
"exclusively",
"to",
"go",
"off",
"##line",
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".",
"The",
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"in",
"bursts",
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"14",
"]",
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".",
"An",
"insufficient",
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"of",
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"nodes",
",",
"however",
",",
"facilitate",
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".",
"G",
".",
"Pro",
"##of",
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"Public",
"##ation",
"(",
"Po",
"##P",
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"A",
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"-",
"stamp",
"##ing",
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"##tam",
"##ps",
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"time",
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".",
"There",
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"##ing",
"techniques",
",",
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"##K",
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".",
"These",
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"##ps",
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"Nonetheless",
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"-",
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".",
"Every",
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"This",
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".",
"Moreover",
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"##active",
"##ly",
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".",
"H",
".",
"Pro",
"##of",
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"Burn",
"(",
"Po",
"##B",
")",
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"##B",
"[",
"16",
"]",
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"Natural",
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"##ating",
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"may",
"incorporate",
"a",
"soft",
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"Former",
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"agree",
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"accept",
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"that",
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"regarded",
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"being",
"incorrect",
"via",
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".",
"To",
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",",
"most",
"of",
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"miners",
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"upgrade",
".",
"Mine",
"##rs",
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"use",
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"power",
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"blocks",
"which",
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"Alternatively",
",",
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"handle",
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"providing",
"the",
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"##s",
".",
"I",
".",
"Pro",
"##of",
"of",
"Re",
"##tri",
"##eva",
"##bility",
"(",
"Po",
"##R",
")",
"P",
"##OR",
"[",
"17",
"]",
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"creating",
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] | State of the art and challenges facing consensus p | 113 |
dger is replicated entirely on almost
all the nodes. Moreover, transactions are assembled into
blocks, then chained to one another. Therefore, the distributed
ledger is a replicated attach only data framework. A
blockchain begins with the initial states, while the ledger
records all the history of the revision procedure.
A technique encouraging distributed ledgers could classify
them in terms of three aspects. (Account, Asset, and Coin).
Initially, the application created on the top of the | [
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] | State of the art and challenges facing consensus p | 114 |
ledger
establishes the information entirely in such a way as to keep
within the ledger A cryptocurrency application will use to
create a user account similar to that found in conventional
banking. The intention is that it is simple to build and apply a
lower level model such as an example table or a critical value
as mentioned. Second, the functional system might have one
or higher ledgers which can link to one another. A large
enterprise, for instance, may have multiple ledgers, one for | [
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] | State of the art and challenges facing consensus p | 115 |
ledger
establishes the information entirely in such a way as to keep
within the ledger A cryptocurrency application will use to
create a user account similar to that found in conventional
banking. The intention is that it is simple to build and apply a
lower level model such as an example table or a critical value
as mentioned. Second, the functional system might have one
or higher ledgers which can link to one another. A large
enterprise, for instance, may have multiple ledgers, one for | [
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] | State of the art and challenges facing consensus p | 116 |
every department such as engineering, sales, supply chain,
payroll, and so forth. Finally, ledger possession can fluctuate
significantly from being exposed entirely to the public to
being totally managed by one participant. Bitcoin, for
instance, was presented and, as a result, makes people think
that it is costly to determine who will update the public ledger.
Parity [1] predefines some owners who adjust the public
ledger simply by adding their signature to the blocks.
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"the",
"spread",
"of",
"open",
"source",
"Internet",
"protocols",
".",
"R",
"##ip",
"##ple",
"enables",
"security",
",",
"is",
"fast",
",",
"and",
"offers",
"free",
"worldwide",
"monetary",
"transactions",
"with",
"no",
"charge",
"##backs",
".",
"This",
"aids",
"token",
"##s",
"that",
"represent",
"ad",
"##ju",
"##dication",
",",
"cry",
"##pt",
"##oc",
"##ur",
"##ren",
"##cy",
",",
"commodities",
"or",
"a",
"range",
"of",
"different",
"benefits",
".",
"Most",
"importantly",
",",
"R",
"##ip",
"##ple",
"was",
"structured",
"distributed",
"public",
"ledge",
"##r",
"of",
"the",
"kind",
"that",
"utilizes",
"consensus",
"procedures",
"which",
"permit",
"payments",
",",
"exchanges",
",",
"and",
"re",
"##mit",
"##tan",
"##ces",
".",
"Q",
".",
"Ten",
"##der",
"##min",
"##t",
"Ten",
"##der",
"##min",
"##t",
"[",
"25",
"]",
"consists",
"of",
"applications",
"involving",
"the",
"secure",
"and",
"regular",
"replication",
"of",
"an",
"application",
"on",
"multiple",
"nodes",
".",
"We",
"secure",
"which",
"Ten",
"##der",
"##min",
"##t",
"operates",
"33",
".",
"34",
"%",
"of",
"nodes",
"fail",
"which",
"all",
"available",
"nodes",
"status",
"the",
"same",
"transaction",
"record",
"and",
"com",
"##pute",
"##s",
"the",
"same",
"state",
".",
"Se",
"##cure",
"and",
"constant",
"replication",
"was",
"an",
"underlying",
"issue",
"on",
"distributed",
"networks",
".",
"This",
"tech",
"##nic",
"performs",
"an",
"essential",
"function",
"in",
"terms",
"of",
"fault",
"tolerance",
".",
"III",
".",
"CO",
"##MP",
"##AR",
"##IS",
"##ON",
"In",
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"section",
",",
"we",
"have",
"compared",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
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"protocols",
"concerning",
"a",
"collection",
"of",
"fundamental",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
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".",
"These",
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"node",
"identity",
",",
"energy",
"saving",
",",
"tolerate",
"##d",
"power",
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"##vers",
"##ary",
",",
"data",
"model",
",",
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",",
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",",
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",",
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"##vers",
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",",
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"##ync",
"##hr",
"##ony",
"assumptions",
",",
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",",
"last",
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"not",
"least",
",",
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"existence",
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"correct",
"##ness",
"proof",
"##s",
"of",
"protocols",
"underlying",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
".",
"This",
"set",
"of",
"properties",
"is",
"probably",
"not",
"exhaust",
"##ive",
",",
"but",
"we",
"believe",
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"is",
"representative",
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"comparing",
"all",
"consensus",
"protocols",
".",
"In",
"the",
"rest",
"of",
"this",
"section",
",",
"we",
"propose",
"Table",
"I",
".",
"in",
"more",
"detail",
".",
"IV",
".",
"AN",
"##AL",
"##Y",
"##SI",
"##S",
"A",
".",
"Con",
"##sen",
"##sus",
"algorithms",
"comparison",
"Various",
"consensus",
"algorithms",
"have",
"different",
"strengths",
"and",
"draw",
"##backs",
".",
"Table",
"I",
".",
"brings",
"an",
"assessment",
"around",
"various",
"consensus",
"algorithms",
",",
"and",
"we",
"use",
"the",
"properties",
"considering",
"following",
".",
"Al",
"##gor",
"##ith",
"##m",
"No",
"##de",
"Identity",
"Energy",
"Sa",
"##ving",
"To",
"##ler",
"##ated",
"power",
"of",
"ad",
"##vers",
"##ary",
"Data",
"model",
"Language",
"Ex",
"##ec",
"##uti",
"##o",
"n",
"Application",
"Ex",
"##ample",
"CA",
"##P",
"[",
"7",
"]",
"Private",
"No",
"50",
"%",
"Rate",
"should",
"be",
"Key",
"-",
"Value",
"S",
"##QL",
",",
"Python",
",",
"Java",
",",
"Go",
"S",
"##QL",
",",
"No",
"S",
"##QL",
"Database",
",",
"Big",
"Data",
",",
"St",
"##orage",
"Mon",
"##go",
"##D",
"##B",
",",
"Cassandra",
",",
"MS",
"A",
"##zure",
"St",
"##orage",
"B",
"##GP",
"[",
"8",
",",
"9",
"]",
"Private",
"Yes",
"33",
".",
"3",
"%",
"F",
"##ail",
"Key",
"-",
"Value",
"Any",
"N",
"/",
"A",
"General",
"Applications",
"General",
"P",
"##BF",
"##T",
"[",
"10",
"]",
"Private",
"Yes",
"33",
".",
"3",
"%",
"F",
"##ault",
"##y",
"Rep",
"##lica",
"##s",
"Key",
"-",
"Value",
"Go",
"##lang",
",",
"Java",
"Dock",
"##ers",
"General",
"Applications",
"H",
"##yper",
"##ledge",
"##r",
"Po",
"##W",
"[",
"11",
"]",
"Public",
"No",
"25",
"%",
"Computing",
"Power",
"Trans",
"##action",
"-",
"Based",
",",
"A",
"##cco",
"##unt",
"-",
"Based",
"Go",
"##lang",
",",
"C",
"+",
"+"
] | State of the art and challenges facing consensus p | 117 |
every department such as engineering, sales, supply chain,
payroll, and so forth. Finally, ledger possession can fluctuate
significantly from being exposed entirely to the public to
being totally managed by one participant. Bitcoin, for
instance, was presented and, as a result, makes people think
that it is costly to determine who will update the public ledger.
Parity [1] predefines some owners who adjust the public
ledger simply by adding their signature to the blocks.
The information c | [
1103,
2819,
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2674,
4639,
19755,
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155,
9717,
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13618,
1647,
1105,
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".",
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"Ten",
"##der",
"##min",
"##t",
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"33",
".",
"34",
"%",
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"fail",
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"In",
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",",
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"in",
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"##AL",
"##Y",
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"have",
"different",
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"draw",
"##backs",
".",
"Table",
"I",
".",
"brings",
"an",
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"consensus",
"algorithms",
",",
"and",
"we",
"use",
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"considering",
"following",
".",
"Al",
"##gor",
"##ith",
"##m",
"No",
"##de",
"Identity",
"Energy",
"Sa",
"##ving",
"To",
"##ler",
"##ated",
"power",
"of",
"ad",
"##vers",
"##ary",
"Data",
"model",
"Language",
"Ex",
"##ec",
"##uti",
"##o",
"n",
"Application",
"Ex",
"##ample",
"CA",
"##P",
"[",
"7",
"]",
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"No",
"50",
"%",
"Rate",
"should",
"be",
"Key",
"-",
"Value",
"S",
"##QL",
",",
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",",
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",",
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"S",
"##QL",
",",
"No",
"S",
"##QL",
"Database",
",",
"Big",
"Data",
",",
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"##go",
"##D",
"##B",
",",
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"3",
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"P",
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"3",
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"##y",
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"##lica",
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"-",
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",",
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"Dock",
"##ers",
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"##yper",
"##ledge",
"##r",
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"##W",
"[",
"11",
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"No",
"25",
"%",
"Computing",
"Power",
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"##action",
"-",
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",",
"A",
"##cco",
"##unt",
"-",
"Based",
"Go",
"##lang",
",",
"C",
"+",
"+"
] | State of the art and challenges facing consensus p | 118 |
ontained in the ledger demonstrates the
history of transactions up to the current time through the
blockchain. Updates to the ledger should be consented to by
every participant. Specifically, several participants need to
agree with a consensus. Observing which it is may not be the
situation found in countless real-world applications such as a
fiat digital currency, by which a single entity (e.g., a bank or a
government) decides on the updates.
The importance of a blockchain strategy is | [
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actually being
able to deal with those nodes that do not trust working
together, indicating which variables might respond in
Byzantine formality. The consensus protocol consequently
needs to endure Byzantine problems. The research involving a
survey on consensus was comprehensive, and there are
numerous versions of previously recommended protocols that
have been manufactured for blockchains [2]. These could be
categorized in terms of their combined range. Overwhelming
consists of solely | [
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actually being
able to deal with those nodes that do not trust working
together, indicating which variables might respond in
Byzantine formality. The consensus protocol consequently
needs to endure Byzantine problems. The research involving a
survey on consensus was comprehensive, and there are
numerous versions of previously recommended protocols that
have been manufactured for blockchains [2]. These could be
categorized in terms of their combined range. Overwhelming
consists of solely | [
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] | State of the art and challenges facing consensus p | 121 |
computation-based protocols in which the
users utilize proof of computation to find a node that
arbitrarily determines the next operation. Bitcoin's Proof of
work (PoW) is a simple example of the consensus. The other
severe are solely communication-based protocols for which
nodes have matching votes and run through several rounds of
communication to achieve consensus. All protocols, Practical
Byzantine Fault Tolerance (PBFT) [3] being the best
illustration, are applied in particular config | [
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] | State of the art and challenges facing consensus p | 122 |
computation-based protocols in which the
users utilize proof of computation to find a node that
arbitrarily determines the next operation. Bitcoin's Proof of
work (PoW) is a simple example of the consensus. The other
severe are solely communication-based protocols for which
nodes have matching votes and run through several rounds of
communication to achieve consensus. All protocols, Practical
Byzantine Fault Tolerance (PBFT) [3] being the best
illustration, are applied in particular config | [
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] | State of the art and challenges facing consensus p | 123 |
urations because
they take authenticated nodes. In the middle, all opposites we
find mixed consensus protocols that intend to increase the
efficiency of PBFT and PoW. As an example, Proof of
Elapsed Time removes the need for costly mining at PoW with
the use of profiting reliable devices. The other illustration is
957978-1-5386-2290-2/18/$31.00 Β©2018 IEEE ICOIN 2018
Proof of Authority [4] which helps PBFT by pre-finding
trusted nodes in which users vote on their own in order to
achieve | [
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"confirmation",
",",
"to",
"guarantee",
"which",
"consensus",
"efficiency",
"can",
"be",
"dramatically",
"increased",
".",
"I",
"##rre",
"##spective",
"of",
"this",
",",
"the",
"author",
"has",
"suggested",
"a",
"new",
"consensus",
"approach",
"to",
"ensure",
"that",
"a",
"block",
"produces",
"a",
"relatively",
"consistent",
"speed",
".",
"Note",
"that",
"high",
"block",
"generation",
"levels",
"compromise",
"Bit",
"##co",
"##in",
"'",
"s",
"security",
".",
"Hence",
"the",
"G",
"##reed",
"##y",
"He",
"##avi",
"##est",
"O",
"##bs",
"##erve",
"##d",
"Sub",
"##T",
"##ree",
"(",
"G",
"##H",
"##OS",
"##T",
")",
"chain",
"selection",
"principle",
"has",
"been",
"proposed",
"to",
"solve",
"this",
"issue",
".",
"In",
"contrast",
"to",
"the",
"most",
"prolonged",
"branch",
"scheme",
",",
"G",
"##H",
"##OS",
"##T",
"weights",
"the",
"branches",
",",
"and",
"miners",
"may",
"choose",
"to",
"follow",
"the",
"best",
"one",
".",
"G",
"##H",
"##OS",
"##T",
"introduced",
"a",
"new",
"consensus",
"algorithm",
"for",
"peer",
"-",
"to",
"-",
"peer",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"systems",
"in",
"which",
"anybody",
"who",
"offers",
"non",
"-",
"interactive",
"proof",
"##s",
"of",
"re",
"##tri",
"##eva",
"##bility",
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"the",
"past",
"state",
"snaps",
"##hot",
"##s",
"is",
"given",
"consent",
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"generate",
"the",
"block",
".",
"During",
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"a",
"protocol",
",",
"miners",
"have",
"to",
"gather",
"old",
"block",
"header",
"##s",
"instead",
"of",
"full",
"blocks",
"exclusively",
".",
"V",
".",
"CO",
"##NC",
"##L",
"##US",
"##ION",
"Block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"has",
"shown",
"its",
"potential",
"for",
"transforming",
"the",
"traditional",
"industry",
"with",
"its",
"essential",
"properties",
"in",
"the",
"form",
"of",
"96",
"##1",
"decent",
"##ral",
"##ization",
",",
"per",
"##sist",
"##ency",
",",
"an",
"##ony",
"##mity",
",",
"and",
"audit",
"##ability",
".",
"In",
"this",
"research",
",",
"we",
"offer",
"a",
"complete",
"overview",
"of",
"the",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
".",
"We",
"first",
"give",
"an",
"overview",
"of",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"technologies",
"including",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"architecture",
",",
"and",
"the",
"critical",
"characteristics",
"of",
"the",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
".",
"We",
"then",
"discuss",
"the",
"standard",
"consensus",
"algorithms",
"used",
"in",
"the",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
".",
"We",
"analyze",
"and",
"compare",
"these",
"protocols",
"in",
"different",
"respects",
".",
"Furthermore",
",",
"we",
"list",
"some",
"challenges",
"and",
"problems",
"that",
"would",
"hind",
"##er",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"development",
",",
"and",
"sum",
"##mar",
"##ize",
"some",
"of",
"the",
"existing",
"approaches",
"for",
"solving",
"these",
"issues",
".",
"Some",
"possible",
"future",
"directions",
"are",
"also",
"proposed",
".",
"Nowadays",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"-",
"based",
"applications",
"are",
"spring",
"##ing",
"up",
",",
"and",
"we",
"plan",
"to",
"conduct",
"an",
"in",
"-",
"depth",
"investigation",
"of",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"-",
"based",
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"in",
"the",
"future",
".",
"VI",
".",
"R",
"##ES",
"##EA",
"##RC",
"##H",
"D",
"##IR",
"##EC",
"##TI",
"##ON",
"##S",
"Future",
"work",
"will",
"undoubtedly",
"be",
"compelling",
"and",
"worth",
"##while",
".",
"Specifically",
",",
"putting",
"many",
"protocols",
"in",
"the",
"appropriate",
"spot",
"using",
"the",
"value",
"to",
"their",
"efficiency",
"against",
"their",
"particular",
"to",
"-",
"node",
"s",
"##cal",
"##ability",
",",
"node",
"security",
",",
"and",
"node",
"privacy",
",",
"involves",
"a",
"reasonable",
"level",
"of",
"research",
".",
"Nevertheless",
",",
"this",
"represents",
"an",
"immediate",
"open",
"challenge",
"which",
"requires",
"researchers",
"to",
"improve",
"their",
"com",
"##p",
"##rehension",
"to",
"facilitate",
"future",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"s",
"##cal",
"##ability",
"and",
"security",
"enhance",
"##ments",
".",
"Additionally",
",",
"there",
"are",
"plenty",
"of",
"prospective",
"opportunities",
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"s",
"##yne",
"##rg",
"##ies",
"between",
"consensus",
",",
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"incorporating",
"protocol",
"strategies",
"whenever",
"it",
"comes",
"to",
"improving",
"the",
"ad",
"##vers",
"##aria",
"##l",
"and",
"network",
"models",
".",
"R",
"##EF",
"##ER",
"##EN",
"##CE",
"##S",
"[",
"1",
"]",
"\"",
"Pa",
"##rity",
"-",
"fast",
",",
"light",
",",
"and",
"robust",
"E",
"##ther",
"##eum",
"client"
] | State of the art and challenges facing consensus p | 124 |
consensus. Likewise, Stellar [5] and Ripple [6]
augment PBFT by achieving consensus in smaller networks.
In the next section, we provide related work associated
with consensus protocol. Part III explains consensus protocol
comparisons which are used in Section IV for analysis
purposes. Section V offers a conclusion with regard to the
survey of consensus protocols, and section VI deals with
future research directions.
II. RELATED WORK
A. CAP Theorem
CAP Theorem [7] is a system that di | [
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] | State of the art and challenges facing consensus p | 125 |
consensus. Likewise, Stellar [5] and Ripple [6]
augment PBFT by achieving consensus in smaller networks.
In the next section, we provide related work associated
with consensus protocol. Part III explains consensus protocol
comparisons which are used in Section IV for analysis
purposes. Section V offers a conclusion with regard to the
survey of consensus protocols, and section VI deals with
future research directions.
II. RELATED WORK
A. CAP Theorem
CAP Theorem [7] is a system that di | [
117,
107,
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] | State of the art and challenges facing consensus p | 126 |
stributes multiple
nodes that handle common data, and shows which distributed
systems can completely satisfy the following three properties:
Consistency (C) is a status by which each node has the latest
data at the same time. Availability (A) is the status where any
failure of a specific node does not affect other nodes. Partition
tolerance (P) is the status by which nodes can continue
operations, even with a failure in the network.ο
The blockchain is one of the distributed systems which can
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] | State of the art and challenges facing consensus p | 129 |
Attack Incentive and Security of Exchanging Tokens on Proof-of-Work Blockchain
AUTHORS
ABSTRACT
In a consensus algorithm based on Proof-of-Work, miners are motivated by crypto rewards. Furthermore, security is guaranteed because a cost of a 50% attack chance is higher than the potential rewards. However, because of the sudden price jump of cryptocurrencies and cheap prices of mining machines like ASICs, the cost and profit were on equilibrium for Bitcoin in 2017.
In this situation, attackers are motiv | [
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"##s",
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"##co",
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"In",
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"In",
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"##in",
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"##W",
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",",
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"proportional",
"to",
"the",
"cost"
] | Attack Incentive and Security of Exchanging Tokens on Proof of Work Blockchain | 130 |
ated by the balance between hash power and profits. In this paper, we describe that there is relevance between mining power on the network and price oftokens that can be taken securely on a blockchain. Users who exchange tokens on the PoW blockchain should monitor mining power and exchange tokens cheaper than the attack cost so that profit and cost of the attacker are not in equilibrium.
CCS CONCEPTS
Security and privacy, Distributed systems security, Computing methodologies, Modeling and simulation
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",",
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".",
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"one",
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"as",
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"β",
"fork",
"β",
".",
"When",
"a"
] | Attack Incentive and Security of Exchanging Tokens on Proof of Work Blockchain | 131 |
ated by the balance between hash power and profits. In this paper, we describe that there is relevance between mining power on the network and price oftokens that can be taken securely on a blockchain. Users who exchange tokens on the PoW blockchain should monitor mining power and exchange tokens cheaper than the attack cost so that profit and cost of the attacker are not in equilibrium.
CCS CONCEPTS
Security and privacy, Distributed systems security, Computing methodologies, Modeling and simulation
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] | Attack Incentive and Security of Exchanging Tokens on Proof of Work Blockchain | 132 |
YWORDS
Blockchain, Proof-of-Work, Token exchange ACM
SECTION: INTRODUCTION
Bitcoin is a peer-to-peer electronic payment system [20]. Each node record transaction data (TXs) on a ledger stored in them and verify TXs are not conflicting by referencing the ledger. The ledger is called βBlockchainβ and nodes make consensus so that the ledger each node holds keeps consistency.
To make a consensus, Bitcoin uses Proof-of-Work (PoW) in the form of a mathematical puzzle that a user can solve by spending comput | [
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] | Attack Incentive and Security of Exchanging Tokens on Proof of Work Blockchain | 133 |
YWORDS
Blockchain, Proof-of-Work, Token exchange ACM
SECTION: INTRODUCTION
Bitcoin is a peer-to-peer electronic payment system [20]. Each node record transaction data (TXs) on a ledger stored in them and verify TXs are not conflicting by referencing the ledger. The ledger is called βBlockchainβ and nodes make consensus so that the ledger each node holds keeps consistency.
To make a consensus, Bitcoin uses Proof-of-Work (PoW) in the form of a mathematical puzzle that a user can solve by spending comput | [
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] | Attack Incentive and Security of Exchanging Tokens on Proof of Work Blockchain | 134 |
ational power. Because a node that finds the answer can get cryptocurrencies as rewards, using the metaphor of gold mining, the process of solving PoW is called βmining.β The consensus mechanism based on PoWis secure unless an attacker obtains over 50% ofcomputational power in the network. Additionally, security guaranteed by the cost of 50% attack is not in equilibrium with profits.
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ational power. Because a node that finds the answer can get cryptocurrencies as rewards, using the metaphor of gold mining, the process of solving PoW is called βmining.β The consensus mechanism based on PoWis secure unless an attacker obtains over 50% ofcomputational power in the network. Additionally, security guaranteed by the cost of 50% attack is not in equilibrium with profits.
However, by the sudden price jump of cryptocurrencies and cheaply of mining machines like ASICs, the cost was in equilibri | [
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] | Attack Incentive and Security of Exchanging Tokens on Proof of Work Blockchain | 137 |
um for Bitcoin in 2017. In this situation, the mining cost is not a disincentive for attackers because that they can get rewards proportional to the cost of the attack.
In a 50% attack, the attacker can get cryptocurrency as the reward and profit of attack and can estimate the cost from the networkβs hash power. In Bitcoin, if a 50% attack is detected, the price ofBitcoins will fall so it serves as a disincentive for attackers. In Ethereum [27], the price of tokens (e.g., lands described by ERC-20 [12]) | [
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] | Attack Incentive and Security of Exchanging Tokens on Proof of Work Blockchain | 138 |
is sometimes not affected by network security. Therefore, attackers are motivated by the balance between hash power and profits.
We described that there is relevant between mining power
on the network and price of tokens that a user can take on a blockchain. Users who exchange tokens on the PoW blockchain should monitor mining power and exchange tokens cheaper than attack cost so that profits and costs of the attacker is not equilibrium.
SECTION: BLOCKCHAIN
Blockchain is a system in which each node kee | [
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"on"
] | Attack Incentive and Security of Exchanging Tokens on Proof of Work Blockchain | 139 |
is sometimes not affected by network security. Therefore, attackers are motivated by the balance between hash power and profits.
We described that there is relevant between mining power
on the network and price of tokens that a user can take on a blockchain. Users who exchange tokens on the PoW blockchain should monitor mining power and exchange tokens cheaper than attack cost so that profits and costs of the attacker is not equilibrium.
SECTION: BLOCKCHAIN
Blockchain is a system in which each node kee | [
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] | Attack Incentive and Security of Exchanging Tokens on Proof of Work Blockchain | 140 |
ps an append-only ledger, and by the appending rule the ledger keeps consistency even though each node operates independently.
FOOTNOTE: In this paper, Blockchain means the system, a blockchain means the ledger that each node keeps.
In Bitcoin, each node can verify transactions of cryptocurrencies by referring to a blockchain that is stored locally. Hence, nodes can detect βdouble-spendingβ in which an attacker pays the same cryptocurrency to different users.
Each node stores a set of verified transact | [
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ps an append-only ledger, and by the appending rule the ledger keeps consistency even though each node operates independently.
FOOTNOTE: In this paper, Blockchain means the system, a blockchain means the ledger that each node keeps.
In Bitcoin, each node can verify transactions of cryptocurrencies by referring to a blockchain that is stored locally. Hence, nodes can detect βdouble-spendingβ in which an attacker pays the same cryptocurrency to different users.
Each node stores a set of verified transact | [
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] | Attack Incentive and Security of Exchanging Tokens on Proof of Work Blockchain | 142 |
ions as βBlockβ in a blockchain. A block includes the cryptographic hash number of the last one in the blockchain. By this structure, if an attacker rewrites a previous transaction, the hash number of a block that includes it is changed, and the hash of the next one is changed too. Hence, an attacker needs to update all blocks starting from the rewritten one to the last one.
To keep consistency and difficulty of rewriting, block maker needs to solve a mathematical puzzle called βProof-of-Work(PoW)β and i | [
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ions as βBlockβ in a blockchain. A block includes the cryptographic hash number of the last one in the blockchain. By this structure, if an attacker rewrites a previous transaction, the hash number of a block that includes it is changed, and the hash of the next one is changed too. Hence, an attacker needs to update all blocks starting from the rewritten one to the last one.
To keep consistency and difficulty of rewriting, block maker needs to solve a mathematical puzzle called βProof-of-Work(PoW)β and i | [
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nclude the answer in the new block. PoW has the characteristics that solving needs much computational power but verifying the answer is simple. If some block maker makes blocks that include conflicting transactions by rewriting the past, nodes detect the conflict as a βforkβ. When a fork happens, each node regards the chain having the highest sum of the PoW answers difficulty as correct. Hence, each node keeps the blockchain that spent the largest computational power in the network.
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attacker rewrites a previous transaction and tries to remake blocks until the last one, at the same time honest nodes are making new blocks that connect the last one. Hence, honest nodes typically choose blocks that were made by honest miners. To succeed in an attack, attackers need to make blocks the fastest in the network by spending computational power larger than honest ones. In other words, the attacker needs over 50% of computational power in the network for sure to succeed. The attack of getting m | [
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attacker rewrites a previous transaction and tries to remake blocks until the last one, at the same time honest nodes are making new blocks that connect the last one. Hence, honest nodes typically choose blocks that were made by honest miners. To succeed in an attack, attackers need to make blocks the fastest in the network by spending computational power larger than honest ones. In other words, the attacker needs over 50% of computational power in the network for sure to succeed. The attack of getting m | [
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ore than 50% computational power is called the β50% attack.β The assumption that a blockchain is secure because double-spending by rewriting does not happen is guaranteed by the difficulty of getting 50% computational power and the difference between the attack cost and the profit.
To motivate nodes to make blocks, the system rewards some cryptocurrencies to the maker who succeeds in making a block. In Bitcoin, the system allows block maker to insert a βcoinbase transactionβ that pays maker some bitcoins | [
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in the block. This mechanism looks like mining gold by spending costs, so making a block by solving PoW is called βminingβ, and block maker is called βminer.β
SUB-SECTION: TOKEN EXCHANGE ON BLOCKCHAIN
Instead of cryptocurrencies, There are several proposals that manage the rights of tokens control(e.g., a physical asset like lands, digital on | [
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in the block. This mechanism looks like mining gold by spending costs, so making a block by solving PoW is called βminingβ, and block maker is called βminer.β
SUB-SECTION: TOKEN EXCHANGE ON BLOCKCHAIN
Instead of cryptocurrencies, There are several proposals that manage the rights of tokens control(e.g., a physical asset like lands, digital on | [
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] | Attack Incentive and Security of Exchanging Tokens on Proof of Work Blockchain | 150 |
Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol
Brad Chase Ethan MacBrough
Ripple Research
{bchase,emacbrough}@ripple.com
February 21, 2018
Abstract
The XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol is a previously developed con-
sensus protocol powering the XRP Ledger. It is a low-latency Byzantine
agreement protocol, capable of reaching consensus without full agreement
on which nodes are members of the network. We present a detailed expla-
nation of the algorithm and derive conditions for its safety and livenes | [
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] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 151 |
Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol
Brad Chase Ethan MacBrough
Ripple Research
{bchase,emacbrough}@ripple.com
February 21, 2018
Abstract
The XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol is a previously developed con-
sensus protocol powering the XRP Ledger. It is a low-latency Byzantine
agreement protocol, capable of reaching consensus without full agreement
on which nodes are members of the network. We present a detailed expla-
nation of the algorithm and derive conditions for its safety and livenes | [
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] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 152 |
s.
1 Introduction
The XRP Ledger is a distributed payment system enabling users to transfer
value seamlessly around the world. Operating within a distributed peer-to-peer
network, the XRP Ledger faces the same challenges as other digital currencies
in preventing double-spending of funds and ensuring network-wide consensus on
the state of user accounts and balances. First proposed and then implemented
by Schwartz et al. [10], the algorithm underlying XRP solves these problems
using a Byzantine fault tole | [
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".",
"Compared",
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"other",
"decent",
"##ral",
"##ized",
"consensus",
"algorithms",
"like",
"proof",
"-",
"of",
"-",
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"[",
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"]",
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"-",
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"-",
"stake",
"[",
"2",
"]",
",",
"X",
"##RP",
"L",
"##CP",
"has",
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"its",
"inception",
"provided",
"lower",
"transaction",
"late",
"##ncy",
"and",
"higher",
"through",
"##put",
"for",
"its",
"users",
".",
"However",
",",
"without",
"uniform",
"agree",
"-",
"men",
"##t",
"on",
"the",
"network",
"participants",
",",
"users",
"still",
"need",
"a",
"way",
"to",
"determine",
"whether",
"their",
"choice",
"of",
"network",
"peers",
"will",
"lead",
"to",
"a",
"consistent",
"network",
"state",
".",
"In",
"this",
"setting",
",",
"each",
"user",
"individually",
"defines",
"a",
"unique",
"node",
"list",
"or",
"UN",
"##L",
",",
"which",
"is",
"the",
"set",
"of",
"nodes",
"whose",
"messages",
"it",
"will",
"listen",
"to",
"when",
"making",
"decisions",
"about",
"the",
"network",
"state",
".",
"It",
"is",
"the",
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"any",
"pair",
"of",
"correct",
"nodes",
"'",
"UN",
"##L",
"##s",
"that",
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"safety",
".",
"As",
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"the",
"original",
"white",
"##paper",
"[",
"10",
"]",
",",
"the",
"minimum",
"overlap",
"requirement",
"was",
"originally",
"believed",
"to",
"be",
"roughly",
"20",
"%",
"of",
"the",
"UN",
"##L",
".",
"An",
"independent",
"analysis",
"later",
"suggested",
"the",
"correct",
"bound",
"was",
"instead",
"roughly",
">",
"40",
"%",
"[",
"1",
"]",
".",
"Given",
"this",
"confusion",
",",
"our",
"goal",
"in",
"this",
"work",
"is",
"to",
"give",
"a",
"clear",
"and",
"detailed",
"explanation",
"of",
"X",
"##RP",
"L",
"##CP",
"and",
"derive",
"the",
"necessary",
"conditions",
"on",
"UN",
"##L",
"overlap",
"for",
"consistency",
"and",
"live",
"##ness",
".",
"We",
"will",
"not",
"discuss",
"the",
"transaction",
"##al",
"semantic",
"##s",
"of",
"X",
"##RP",
"'",
"s",
"ledge",
"##r",
"or",
"X",
"##RP",
"'",
"s",
"benefits",
"as",
"a",
"digital",
"currency",
",",
"but",
"instead",
"view",
"the",
"algorithm",
"as",
"a",
"general",
"consensus",
"protocol",
".",
"We",
"re",
"-",
"evaluate",
"the",
"two",
"prior",
"overlap",
"results",
"and",
"provide",
"a",
"single",
"corrected",
"bound",
"which",
"is",
"part",
"##way",
"between",
"the",
"bounds",
"of",
"[",
"10",
"]",
"and",
"[",
"1",
"]",
".",
"We",
"also",
"show",
"that",
"under",
"a",
"more",
"general",
"fault",
"model",
"which",
"was",
"not",
"considered",
"in",
"the",
"original",
"white",
"##paper",
"but",
"is",
"canonical",
"##ly",
"used",
"in",
"the",
"research",
"literature",
",",
"the",
"minimum",
"overlap",
"is",
"actually",
"roughly",
">",
"90",
"%",
"of",
"the",
"UN",
"##L",
".",
"Finally",
",",
"we",
"show",
"that",
"during",
"the",
"present",
"stages",
"of",
"divers",
"##ifying",
"trusted",
"network",
"operators",
"[",
"12",
"]",
",",
"the",
"X",
"##RP",
"network",
"is",
"both",
"safe",
"and",
"cannot",
"become",
"\"",
"stuck",
"\"",
"making",
"no",
"forward",
"progress",
".",
"This",
"research",
"provides",
"a",
"definitive",
"result",
"about",
"the",
"safety",
"of",
"X",
"##RP",
"Led",
"##ger",
"in",
"its",
"current",
"state",
".",
"However",
",",
"to",
"encourage",
"greater",
"flexibility",
"in",
"choosing",
"UN",
"##L",
"##s",
"in",
"the",
"future",
",",
"we",
"would",
"prefer",
"an",
"algorithm",
"that",
"gets",
"closer",
"to",
"the",
"original",
"expected",
"overlap",
"bounds",
".",
"In",
"a",
"sibling",
"paper",
"[",
"6",
"]",
",",
"we",
"present",
"a",
"novel",
"alternative",
"consensus",
"algorithm",
"called",
"Co",
"##balt",
"that",
"lower",
"##s",
"the",
"overlap",
"bound",
"to",
"only",
">",
"60",
"%",
"in",
"the",
"general",
"fault",
"model",
",",
"cannot",
"get",
"stuck",
"in",
"any",
"network",
"that",
"sat",
"##is",
"##fies",
"the",
"overlap",
"bound",
",",
"and",
"has",
"several",
"other",
"properties",
"that",
"make",
"it",
"suitable",
"for",
"eventually",
"replacing",
"X",
"##RP",
"L",
"##CP",
".",
"This",
"paper",
"thus",
"serves",
"primarily",
"to",
"show",
"that",
"the",
"X",
"##RP",
"Led",
"##ger",
"is",
"safe",
"in",
"the",
"interim",
"while",
"transition",
"##ing",
"to",
"Co",
"##balt",
","
] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 153 |
s.
1 Introduction
The XRP Ledger is a distributed payment system enabling users to transfer
value seamlessly around the world. Operating within a distributed peer-to-peer
network, the XRP Ledger faces the same challenges as other digital currencies
in preventing double-spending of funds and ensuring network-wide consensus on
the state of user accounts and balances. First proposed and then implemented
by Schwartz et al. [10], the algorithm underlying XRP solves these problems
using a Byzantine fault tole | [
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".",
"Compared",
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"late",
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".",
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",",
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"-",
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",",
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"[",
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"]",
",",
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">",
"40",
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"[",
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"]",
".",
"Given",
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",",
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"##RP",
"L",
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"on",
"UN",
"##L",
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"##ness",
".",
"We",
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"not",
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"##RP",
"'",
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"'",
"s",
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",",
"but",
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"a",
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".",
"We",
"re",
"-",
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"provide",
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"[",
"10",
"]",
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"[",
"1",
"]",
".",
"We",
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"show",
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"a",
"more",
"general",
"fault",
"model",
"which",
"was",
"not",
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"white",
"##paper",
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"##ly",
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"literature",
",",
"the",
"minimum",
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"roughly",
">",
"90",
"%",
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"the",
"UN",
"##L",
".",
"Finally",
",",
"we",
"show",
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"during",
"the",
"present",
"stages",
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"divers",
"##ifying",
"trusted",
"network",
"operators",
"[",
"12",
"]",
",",
"the",
"X",
"##RP",
"network",
"is",
"both",
"safe",
"and",
"cannot",
"become",
"\"",
"stuck",
"\"",
"making",
"no",
"forward",
"progress",
".",
"This",
"research",
"provides",
"a",
"definitive",
"result",
"about",
"the",
"safety",
"of",
"X",
"##RP",
"Led",
"##ger",
"in",
"its",
"current",
"state",
".",
"However",
",",
"to",
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"greater",
"flexibility",
"in",
"choosing",
"UN",
"##L",
"##s",
"in",
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",",
"we",
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"prefer",
"an",
"algorithm",
"that",
"gets",
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"to",
"the",
"original",
"expected",
"overlap",
"bounds",
".",
"In",
"a",
"sibling",
"paper",
"[",
"6",
"]",
",",
"we",
"present",
"a",
"novel",
"alternative",
"consensus",
"algorithm",
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"Co",
"##balt",
"that",
"lower",
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"the",
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"bound",
"to",
"only",
">",
"60",
"%",
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",",
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"get",
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"##fies",
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"bound",
",",
"and",
"has",
"several",
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"make",
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"suitable",
"for",
"eventually",
"replacing",
"X",
"##RP",
"L",
"##CP",
".",
"This",
"paper",
"thus",
"serves",
"primarily",
"to",
"show",
"that",
"the",
"X",
"##RP",
"Led",
"##ger",
"is",
"safe",
"in",
"the",
"interim",
"while",
"transition",
"##ing",
"to",
"Co",
"##balt",
","
] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 154 |
rant agreement protocol over collectively trusted
subnetworks, hereby referred to as the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol, or
XRP LCP for short.
Abstractly, the XRP Ledger network is a replicated state machine [9]. The
replicated state is the ledger maintained by each node in the network and state
transitions correspond to transactions submitted by clients of the network. Once
nodes agree on sets of transactions to apply to the state, a transaction processing
protocol specifies deterministic rules for order | [
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",",
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",",
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".",
"In",
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",",
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",",
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"[",
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",",
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"-",
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"-",
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",",
"due",
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"as",
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"##hr",
"##ony",
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"honest",
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"being",
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"##ed",
",",
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"is",
"in",
"practice",
"ten",
"##uous",
"at",
"best",
".",
"Thus",
"the",
"bulk",
"of",
"our",
"results",
"do",
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"on",
"this",
"assumption",
"and",
"we",
"will",
"clearly",
"state"
] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 155 |
rant agreement protocol over collectively trusted
subnetworks, hereby referred to as the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol, or
XRP LCP for short.
Abstractly, the XRP Ledger network is a replicated state machine [9]. The
replicated state is the ledger maintained by each node in the network and state
transitions correspond to transactions submitted by clients of the network. Once
nodes agree on sets of transactions to apply to the state, a transaction processing
protocol specifies deterministic rules for order | [
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] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 156 |
ing transactions within each set
and how to apply transactions to generate the new ledger state. Thus, the role of
XRP LCP is only to make the network reach agreement on sets of transactions,
not on the content or outcome of those transactions. As long as nodes agree
on a transaction set, the transaction processing protocol guarantees that every
node generates a consistent ledger. As a Byzantine fault tolerant protocol, XRP
LCP must operate even in the presence of faulty or malicious participants.
Byzant | [
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"is",
"i",
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"##voc"
] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 157 |
ing transactions within each set
and how to apply transactions to generate the new ledger state. Thus, the role of
XRP LCP is only to make the network reach agreement on sets of transactions,
not on the content or outcome of those transactions. As long as nodes agree
on a transaction set, the transaction processing protocol guarantees that every
node generates a consistent ledger. As a Byzantine fault tolerant protocol, XRP
LCP must operate even in the presence of faulty or malicious participants.
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] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 158 |
ine fault tolerant consensus protocols have a rich history, but most
require preexisting agreement on the protocol participants [8, 3]. The distin-
guishing characteristic of XRP LCP is that it guarantees consistency with only
1
http://arxiv.org/abs/1802.07242v1
partial agreement on who participates, allowing a decentralized open network.
Compared to other decentralized consensus algorithms like proof-of-work [7] or
proof-of-stake [2], XRP LCP has since its inception provided lower transaction
latency | [
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] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 159 |
ine fault tolerant consensus protocols have a rich history, but most
require preexisting agreement on the protocol participants [8, 3]. The distin-
guishing characteristic of XRP LCP is that it guarantees consistency with only
1
http://arxiv.org/abs/1802.07242v1
partial agreement on who participates, allowing a decentralized open network.
Compared to other decentralized consensus algorithms like proof-of-work [7] or
proof-of-stake [2], XRP LCP has since its inception provided lower transaction
latency | [
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"are",
"unknown"
] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 160 |
and higher throughput for its users. However, without uniform agree-
ment on the network participants, users still need a way to determine whether
their choice of network peers will lead to a consistent network state. In this
setting, each user individually defines a unique node list or UNL, which is
the set of nodes whose messages it will listen to when making decisions about
the network state. It is the intersection of any pair of correct nodes' UNLs that
determines network safety. As described in the | [
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] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 161 |
and higher throughput for its users. However, without uniform agree-
ment on the network participants, users still need a way to determine whether
their choice of network peers will lead to a consistent network state. In this
setting, each user individually defines a unique node list or UNL, which is
the set of nodes whose messages it will listen to when making decisions about
the network state. It is the intersection of any pair of correct nodes' UNLs that
determines network safety. As described in the | [
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] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 162 |
original whitepaper [10], the
minimum overlap requirement was originally believed to be roughly 20% of the
UNL. An independent analysis later suggested the correct bound was instead
roughly > 40% [1].
Given this confusion, our goal in this work is to give a clear and detailed
explanation of XRP LCP and derive the necessary conditions on UNL overlap
for consistency and liveness. We will not discuss the transactional semantics
of XRP's ledger or XRP's benefits as a digital currency, but instead view the
al | [
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] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 163 |
original whitepaper [10], the
minimum overlap requirement was originally believed to be roughly 20% of the
UNL. An independent analysis later suggested the correct bound was instead
roughly > 40% [1].
Given this confusion, our goal in this work is to give a clear and detailed
explanation of XRP LCP and derive the necessary conditions on UNL overlap
for consistency and liveness. We will not discuss the transactional semantics
of XRP's ledger or XRP's benefits as a digital currency, but instead view the
al | [
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] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 164 |
gorithm as a general consensus protocol. We re-evaluate the two prior overlap
results and provide a single corrected bound which is partway between the
bounds of [10] and [1]. We also show that under a more general fault model which
was not considered in the original whitepaper but is canonically used in the
research literature, the minimum overlap is actually roughly > 90% of the UNL.
Finally, we show that during the present stages of diversifying trusted network
operators [12], the XRP network is both s | [
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] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 165 |
gorithm as a general consensus protocol. We re-evaluate the two prior overlap
results and provide a single corrected bound which is partway between the
bounds of [10] and [1]. We also show that under a more general fault model which
was not considered in the original whitepaper but is canonically used in the
research literature, the minimum overlap is actually roughly > 90% of the UNL.
Finally, we show that during the present stages of diversifying trusted network
operators [12], the XRP network is both s | [
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] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 166 |
afe and cannot become "stuck" making
no forward progress.
This research provides a definitive result about the safety of XRP Ledger in
its current state. However, to encourage greater flexibility in choosing UNLs in
the future, we would prefer an algorithm that gets closer to the original expected
overlap bounds. In a sibling paper [6], we present a novel alternative consensus
algorithm called Cobalt that lowers the overlap bound to only > 60% in the
general fault model, cannot get stuck in any network t | [
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] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 167 |
afe and cannot become "stuck" making
no forward progress.
This research provides a definitive result about the safety of XRP Ledger in
its current state. However, to encourage greater flexibility in choosing UNLs in
the future, we would prefer an algorithm that gets closer to the original expected
overlap bounds. In a sibling paper [6], we present a novel alternative consensus
algorithm called Cobalt that lowers the overlap bound to only > 60% in the
general fault model, cannot get stuck in any network t | [
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"."
] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 168 |
hat satisfies the overlap
bound, and has several other properties that make it suitable for eventually
replacing XRP LCP. This paper thus serves primarily to show that the XRP
Ledger is safe in the interim while transitioning to Cobalt, and the relatively
strict requirements on UNL configurations under XRP LCP should be viewed
in light of this planned transition.
Section 2 defines the network model and defines the consensus problem. Sec-
tion 3 is a detailed description of the Ripple consensus algorithm. | [
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] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 169 |
hat satisfies the overlap
bound, and has several other properties that make it suitable for eventually
replacing XRP LCP. This paper thus serves primarily to show that the XRP
Ledger is safe in the interim while transitioning to Cobalt, and the relatively
strict requirements on UNL configurations under XRP LCP should be viewed
in light of this planned transition.
Section 2 defines the network model and defines the consensus problem. Sec-
tion 3 is a detailed description of the Ripple consensus algorithm. | [
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"ledge",
"##r",
"L"
] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 170 |
In section 4,
we prove the network conditions needed to guarantee correctness of the algo-
rithm. Finally, section 5 concludes with a discussion of the results and directions
for improvement.
2
2 Network Model and Problem Definition
Let Pi be a node in the network with unique identifier i, such as a cryptographic
public key. Each node Pi is free to choose a unique node list UNLi, which is
the set of nodes (possibly including itself) whose messages Pi will listen to as
part of the XRP LCP. The UNL re | [
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] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 171 |
In section 4,
we prove the network conditions needed to guarantee correctness of the algo-
rithm. Finally, section 5 concludes with a discussion of the results and directions
for improvement.
2
2 Network Model and Problem Definition
Let Pi be a node in the network with unique identifier i, such as a cryptographic
public key. Each node Pi is free to choose a unique node list UNLi, which is
the set of nodes (possibly including itself) whose messages Pi will listen to as
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] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 172 |
presents a subset of the network which, when
taken collectively, is trusted by Pi to not collude in an attempt to defraud the
network (see [10] for the motivation of this name). The UNLs give structure to
the network, with a node that is present in more UNLs implicitly having more
influence. An individual node has complete discretion in the choice of their
UNL, although we show in section 4 that minimum overlap with other UNLs
is necessary for consistency and liveness with other honest nodes. We do not
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"##s",
"of"
] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 173 |
presents a subset of the network which, when
taken collectively, is trusted by Pi to not collude in an attempt to defraud the
network (see [10] for the motivation of this name). The UNLs give structure to
the network, with a node that is present in more UNLs implicitly having more
influence. An individual node has complete discretion in the choice of their
UNL, although we show in section 4 that minimum overlap with other UNLs
is necessary for consistency and liveness with other honest nodes. We do not
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"is",
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",",
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"yet",
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"Note",
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"##hr",
"##ony",
",",
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".",
"That",
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"##s",
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"L",
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",",
"we",
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".",
"10",
"4",
".",
"1",
"Safety",
"In",
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"prove",
"conditions",
"on",
"the",
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"configuration",
"that",
"g",
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"##r",
"-",
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"##ee",
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"L",
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".",
"In",
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",",
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"##ating",
"a",
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"prove",
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"For",
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",",
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"##lify",
"##ing",
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"Later",
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"re",
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".",
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"it",
"valid",
"##ated",
"different",
"ledge",
"##rs",
".",
"This",
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"##paper",
"[",
"10",
"]",
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"is",
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"##ized",
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"all",
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"-",
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"-",
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",",
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"the",
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"\"",
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"##tra",
"##dict",
"##ory",
"messages",
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"the",
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"to",
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"ignored",
",",
"since",
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"are",
"signed",
".",
"Unfortunately",
"this",
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"does",
"not",
"hold",
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"a",
"fully",
"as",
"##ync",
"##hr",
"##ono",
"##us",
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",",
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"se",
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"##gate",
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"##tra",
"##dict",
"##ory",
"messages",
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"damage",
"to",
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".",
"We",
"call",
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",",
"and",
"will",
"always",
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"an",
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".",
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"account",
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",",
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"now",
"analyze",
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"##ate",
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"Mo",
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"]",
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",",
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"##ate",
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"|",
"UN",
"##L",
"##i",
"β©",
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"|",
">",
"ma",
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"ni",
"β",
"q",
"##i",
",",
"n",
"##j",
"β",
"q",
"##j",
"}",
".",
"With",
"q",
"##uo",
"##rum",
"##s",
"of"
] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 174 |
sume that trust is symmetric, so for instance there may be a node Pj β UNLi
such that Pi /β UNLj . Figure 1 shows an example trust network.
A node that is not crashed and behaves exactly according to the XRP LCP
specification is said to be honest or correct; we use the two terms inter-
changeably. Any node that does not behave according to protocol is said to
be Byzantine. Byzantine behavior can include not responding to messages,
sending incorrect messages, and even sending different messages to differe | [
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] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 175 |
sume that trust is symmetric, so for instance there may be a node Pj β UNLi
such that Pi /β UNLj . Figure 1 shows an example trust network.
A node that is not crashed and behaves exactly according to the XRP LCP
specification is said to be honest or correct; we use the two terms inter-
changeably. Any node that does not behave according to protocol is said to
be Byzantine. Byzantine behavior can include not responding to messages,
sending incorrect messages, and even sending different messages to differe | [
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] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 176 |
nt
parties. In section 4, we initially consider a restriction on the adversary called
Byzantine accountability, which states that all nodes β even Byzantine ones
β cannot send different messages to different nodes. This was part of the original
whitepaper [10], which assumed such behavior in a peer-to-peer network could
be identified and corrected by honest nodes. However, due to asynchrony and
the possibility of honest nodes being temporarily partitioned, this assumption
is in practice tenuous at best. T | [
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] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 177 |
nt
parties. In section 4, we initially consider a restriction on the adversary called
Byzantine accountability, which states that all nodes β even Byzantine ones
β cannot send different messages to different nodes. This was part of the original
whitepaper [10], which assumed such behavior in a peer-to-peer network could
be identified and corrected by honest nodes. However, due to asynchrony and
the possibility of honest nodes being temporarily partitioned, this assumption
is in practice tenuous at best. T | [
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] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 178 |
hus the bulk of our results do not depend on
this assumption and we will clearly state when it is assumed.
For any node Pi, we denote ni = |UNLi| and define the quorum, denoted
qi, a parameter which roughly specifies the minimum number of agreeing nodes
in UNLi that Pi needs to hear from to commit to a decision. Each node sets qi
to be 80% of its UNL size, or, more exactly, qi = β0.8niβ. We assume at most
ti 6 ni β qi nodes in UNLi may be Byzantine faulty.
Let L represent a ledger, which is the shared s | [
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] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 179 |
hus the bulk of our results do not depend on
this assumption and we will clearly state when it is assumed.
For any node Pi, we denote ni = |UNLi| and define the quorum, denoted
qi, a parameter which roughly specifies the minimum number of agreeing nodes
in UNLi that Pi needs to hear from to commit to a decision. Each node sets qi
to be 80% of its UNL size, or, more exactly, qi = β0.8niβ. We assume at most
ti 6 ni β qi nodes in UNLi may be Byzantine faulty.
Let L represent a ledger, which is the shared s | [
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] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 180 |
tate of the system and includes
account settings, balances, order books, etc. Two ledgers L,Lβ² are the same if
they represent the same ordered history of transactions starting from the unique
genesis ledger. Each ledger also has sequence number seq(L) that is one greater
than its parent ledger's sequence number. The genesis ledger has seq(L) = 1.
A ledger L is created by applying a sequence of transactions T = [x0, x1, . . .]
to its parent parent(L) according to the protocol rules. Two ledgers may have
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"+"
] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 181 |
tate of the system and includes
account settings, balances, order books, etc. Two ledgers L,Lβ² are the same if
they represent the same ordered history of transactions starting from the unique
genesis ledger. Each ledger also has sequence number seq(L) that is one greater
than its parent ledger's sequence number. The genesis ledger has seq(L) = 1.
A ledger L is created by applying a sequence of transactions T = [x0, x1, . . .]
to its parent parent(L) according to the protocol rules. Two ledgers may have
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] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 182 |
e same parent ledger and sequence number, but differ because they applied
different transactions. Note though that the protocol specifies that every set of
transactions has a deterministic ordering, so it is not possible for two correct
nodes to apply the same transactions but in a different order.
The nodes communicate over a peer-to-peer network which has no prescribed
relation with the UNL structure. We simply assume that for every node Pi and
every node Pj β UNLi, there is a reliable authenticated ch | [
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] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 183 |
e same parent ledger and sequence number, but differ because they applied
different transactions. Note though that the protocol specifies that every set of
transactions has a deterministic ordering, so it is not possible for two correct
nodes to apply the same transactions but in a different order.
The nodes communicate over a peer-to-peer network which has no prescribed
relation with the UNL structure. We simply assume that for every node Pi and
every node Pj β UNLi, there is a reliable authenticated ch | [
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] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 184 |
annel for Pi to receive
3
a
c
b
e
d
g
f
i
h
j
Figure 1: Example trust graph. The highlighted edges represent the UNL of
node Pi.
messages from Pj . To implement such an authenticated channel, all messages
are cryptographically signed and verified by receivers. Each node uses a single
communication primitive broadcast, which when called from node Pj sends
the same message to all nodes Pi for which Pj β UNLi. In the algorithms
presented in appendix A, we use a corresponding receive primitive | [
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] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 185 |
annel for Pi to receive
3
a
c
b
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d
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f
i
h
j
Figure 1: Example trust graph. The highlighted edges represent the UNL of
node Pi.
messages from Pj . To implement such an authenticated channel, all messages
are cryptographically signed and verified by receivers. Each node uses a single
communication primitive broadcast, which when called from node Pj sends
the same message to all nodes Pi for which Pj β UNLi. In the algorithms
presented in appendix A, we use a corresponding receive primitive | [
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] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 186 |
which is
called asynchronously upon the receipt of a broadcast message.
The outcome of XRP LCP is for a node to fully validate ledgers. A fully
validated ledger is irrevocable and authoritative, and reflects transactions sub-
mitted by network clients and accepted by the consensus algorithm. Fully vali-
dating a ledger also fully validates all of its ancestors. In this context, a fork is
a situation in which two honest nodes fully validate contradictory ledgers, i.e.,
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] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 187 |
which is
called asynchronously upon the receipt of a broadcast message.
The outcome of XRP LCP is for a node to fully validate ledgers. A fully
validated ledger is irrevocable and authoritative, and reflects transactions sub-
mitted by network clients and accepted by the consensus algorithm. Fully vali-
dating a ledger also fully validates all of its ancestors. In this context, a fork is
a situation in which two honest nodes fully validate contradictory ledgers, i.e.,
different ledgers with the same sequ | [
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] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 188 |
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fork-safe if it can never fork with a tolerated configuration of Byzantine nodes.
Although XRP LCP is typically defined in terms of the fully validated chain
of ledgers, since each ledger in the chain represents a deterministically-ordered
sequence of transactions it also can be considered as an atomic broadcast pro-
tocol with batching of transactions for efficiency. Formally, an atomic broadcast
protocol is an algorithm in which a set of clients, arbitrarily many | [
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] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 189 |
ence number. The network is said to be
fork-safe if it can never fork with a tolerated configuration of Byzantine nodes.
Although XRP LCP is typically defined in terms of the fully validated chain
of ledgers, since each ledger in the chain represents a deterministically-ordered
sequence of transactions it also can be considered as an atomic broadcast pro-
tocol with batching of transactions for efficiency. Formally, an atomic broadcast
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] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 190 |
of which may
be Byzantine faulty, can broadcast transactions, and each node can accept
some of those transactions according to the following properties:
1. ABC-Agreement: If a correct node accepts a transaction into a ledger,
then eventually all correct nodes accept the transaction into a ledger.
4
2. ABC-Linearizability: If a correct node accepts transaction x before trans-
action xβ², then all correct nodes accept transaction x before xβ².
3. ABC-Censorship-Resilience: If a correct client broadcast | [
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] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 191 |
of which may
be Byzantine faulty, can broadcast transactions, and each node can accept
some of those transactions according to the following properties:
1. ABC-Agreement: If a correct node accepts a transaction into a ledger,
then eventually all correct nodes accept the transaction into a ledger.
4
2. ABC-Linearizability: If a correct node accepts transaction x before trans-
action xβ², then all correct nodes accept transaction x before xβ².
3. ABC-Censorship-Resilience: If a correct client broadcast | [
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"and"
] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 192 |
s a valid transac-
tion x to all correct nodes, x will eventually be accepted by all nodes.
An atomic broadcast algorithm is in particular a variant of consensus [4].
Note that Censorship Resilience is the formalized definition of forward progress.
In practice, the peer-to-peer network weakens the requirement that clients sub-
mit their transaction to all correct nodes, since correct nodes will echo a sub-
mitted transaction to each other, flooding the network until every node receives
it.
In order to e | [
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] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 193 |
s a valid transac-
tion x to all correct nodes, x will eventually be accepted by all nodes.
An atomic broadcast algorithm is in particular a variant of consensus [4].
Note that Censorship Resilience is the formalized definition of forward progress.
In practice, the peer-to-peer network weakens the requirement that clients sub-
mit their transaction to all correct nodes, since correct nodes will echo a sub-
mitted transaction to each other, flooding the network until every node receives
it.
In order to e | [
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] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 194 |
valuate the correctness of XRP LCP, we model the peer-to-
peer network as if it were controlled by a network adversary that can behave
arbitrarily. The adversary is controls the delivery order of all messages, as well
as at most ti nodes in UNLi for any correct node Pi. We assume though that
the adversary is computationally bounded; in particular, it is unable to break
generally accepted cryptographic protocols. The identities of Byzantine nodes
are unknown in advance by honest nodes in the network.
Sinc | [
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20336,
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1719,
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1423,
7414,
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7414,
2162,
4721,
1104,
1343,
126,
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4882,
1141,
3908,
14372,
113,
3417,
1103,
3908,
14372,
1110,
1141,
118,
2191,
132,
15029,
1115,
5113,
1106,
1292,
2925,
7414,
2162,
1116,
1132,
2456,
1270,
107,
2972,
107,
117,
1290,
1152,
3392,
1228,
2776,
1121,
1103,
4160,
2443,
114,
119,
1109,
1603,
118,
1858,
2197,
1111,
1260,
118,
2129,
2734,
6808,
9147,
1106,
170,
2610,
117,
1133,
1253,
2675,
118,
1852,
117,
1423,
7414,
2162,
1105,
22767,
8985,
1103,
14372,
9298,
119,
2238,
1158,
1977,
5070,
1229,
21763,
1106,
170,
1207,
14372,
2190,
1110,
1136,
170,
3321,
2463,
113,
1290,
1112,
1770,
1112,
2490,
10052,
1113,
1103,
14372,
2190,
1254,
1977,
5070,
1209,
14926,
117,
1105,
1103,
2166,
2237,
176,
6718,
1197,
118,
22904,
8870,
1111,
107,
1353,
107,
2607,
1122,
1209,
1136,
13097,
1219,
1103,
10572,
114,
132,
2456,
1195,
1180,
1120,
1655,
1243,
170,
3112,
1871,
1118,
15975,
1115,
1103,
2443,
2834,
1243,
5342,
1107,
170,
2335,
10873,
1114,
2972,
119,
1109,
1378,
5837,
12917,
27466,
8223,
2646,
16847,
1103,
2463,
1106,
1178,
12038,
1106,
23073,
1115,
2335,
6379,
2834,
1243,
5342,
119,
3180,
12917,
1275,
119,
15463,
8661,
6787,
151,
1110,
170,
1804,
18005,
1104,
1103,
2443,
113,
178,
119,
174,
119,
117,
1103,
7414,
2162,
1104,
1451,
14372,
1107,
151,
1110,
4049,
1107,
151,
117,
1177,
1115,
1121,
1103,
7281,
1104,
1103,
15029,
1656,
1104,
151,
117,
151,
1110,
1103,
2072,
2443,
114,
1134,
2834,
1243,
5342,
1105,
2834,
13097,
119,
15463,
8661,
6787,
21902,
1110,
170,
14372,
1136,
1107,
151,
1216,
1115,
7414,
2162,
1182,
134,
196,
21902,
198,
859,
2249,
797,
117,
1187,
151,
797,
866,
151,
1105,
197,
151,
797,
197,
135,
186,
1182,
119,
1599,
151,
859,
196,
21902,
198,
2834,
1243,
5342,
1719,
119,
5096,
10008,
119,
1967,
151,
2834,
1243,
5342,
117,
1122,
1110,
1579,
2276,
1115,
1155,
1103,
15029,
1107,
151,
1209,
2028,
3106,
9221,
2193,
170,
1207,
21340,
1197,
119,
1967,
151,
2834,
13097,
117,
1155,
1103,
15029,
1107,
151,
1627,
1169,
1178,
3106,
9221,
2193,
1103,
1269,
21340,
1197,
117,
1177,
2028,
1175,
1110,
1199,
21340,
1197,
149,
1115,
3370,
3106,
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2913,
1118,
1451,
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1107,
151,
119,
4516,
1451,
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1107,
151,
1209,
9221,
2193,
149,
117,
1105,
1290,
197,
7414,
2162,
1182,
858,
151,
197,
134,
197,
151
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",",
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"##L",
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"}",
"βͺ",
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",",
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"β²",
"β",
"N",
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"N",
"β²",
"|",
">",
"q",
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".",
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"{",
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"}",
"cannot",
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"Pro",
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".",
"Since",
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"get",
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",",
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"is",
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"L",
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"|",
"UN",
"##L",
"##i",
"β©",
"N",
"|",
"=",
"|",
"N"
] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 195 |
valuate the correctness of XRP LCP, we model the peer-to-
peer network as if it were controlled by a network adversary that can behave
arbitrarily. The adversary is controls the delivery order of all messages, as well
as at most ti nodes in UNLi for any correct node Pi. We assume though that
the adversary is computationally bounded; in particular, it is unable to break
generally accepted cryptographic protocols. The identities of Byzantine nodes
are unknown in advance by honest nodes in the network.
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e atomic broadcast is a variant of consensus, by the FLP result [5] we
cannot guarantee forward progress in the presence of arbitrary asynchrony and
faulty nodes. Instead, we assume a form of "weak asynchrony": safety should
hold under arbitrary asynchrony, but censorship resilience is only guaranteed to
hold under the assumption that the network is eventually civil, meaning that
messages are delivered within some protocol-specified maximum delay bound
and no nodes are faulty.
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] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 197 |
e atomic broadcast is a variant of consensus, by the FLP result [5] we
cannot guarantee forward progress in the presence of arbitrary asynchrony and
faulty nodes. Instead, we assume a form of "weak asynchrony": safety should
hold under arbitrary asynchrony, but censorship resilience is only guaranteed to
hold under the assumption that the network is eventually civil, meaning that
messages are delivered within some protocol-specified maximum delay bound
and no nodes are faulty.
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] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 198 |
e bounded delay in the XRP ledger implemen-
tation, several heuristics are used to identify lagging nodes, prevent excessive
flooding of messages and route traffic through the network. Protocol parameters
also define maximum delays on different trusted messages in an attempt to aid
liveness. Although we ignore these details to simplify the presentation below, we
stress that they are important practical considerations in the actual implemen-
tation and control the real world performance of the algorithm. T | [
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"delay",
".",
"In",
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",",
"we",
"cannot",
"guarantee",
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"forward",
"progress",
".",
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"an",
"open",
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"in",
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"be",
"improved",
"by",
"a",
"more",
"detailed",
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"of",
"the",
"trust",
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"the",
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".",
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"in",
"which",
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"##ing",
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".",
"Likewise",
",",
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",",
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"might",
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"understanding",
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".",
"Although",
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"X",
"##RP",
"L",
"##CP",
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"pro",
"##va",
"##bly",
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"-",
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",",
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"its",
"short",
"-",
"coming",
"##s",
",",
"in",
"the",
"sibling",
"paper",
"[",
"6",
"]",
"we",
"present",
"an",
"alternative",
"consensus",
"protocol",
"called",
"Co",
"##balt",
".",
"Similar",
"to",
"X",
"##RP",
"L",
"##CP",
",",
"Co",
"##balt",
"can",
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"be",
"used",
"in",
"networks",
"that",
"lack",
"uniform",
"agreement",
"on",
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"or",
"trust",
",",
"but",
"makes",
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"progress",
"at",
"a",
"steady",
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"in",
"the",
"presence",
"of",
"maximum",
"tolerate",
"##d",
"Byzantine",
"faults",
"and",
"a",
"##rb",
"##i",
"-",
"t",
"##rary",
"as",
"##ync",
"##hr",
"##ony",
".",
"It",
"only",
"needs",
">",
"60",
"%",
"overlap",
"to",
"match",
"the",
"X",
"##RP",
"L",
"##CP",
"safety",
"tolerance",
"##s",
".",
"Co",
"##balt",
"also",
"has",
"several",
"other",
"properties",
"that",
"make",
"it",
"simpler",
"to",
"analyze",
"the",
"health",
"of",
"networks",
"in",
"practice",
".",
"For",
"these",
"reasons",
"we",
"believe",
"Co",
"##balt",
"represents",
"an",
"encouraging",
"direction",
"for",
"even",
"greater",
"future",
"decent",
"##ral",
"##ization",
"of",
"the",
"X",
"##RP",
"network",
".",
"A",
"##ck",
"##no",
"##wl",
"##ed",
"##gment",
"##s",
".",
"Thank",
"you",
"to",
"Ha",
"##ox",
"##ing",
"Du",
"and",
"Joseph",
"McGee",
"for",
"co",
"##l",
"-",
"labor",
"##ating",
"on",
"the",
"early",
"stages",
"of",
"this",
"research",
".",
"We",
"also",
"thank",
"David",
"Schwartz",
"and",
"Stefan",
"Thomas",
"for",
"providing",
"useful",
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"and",
"guidance",
",",
"and",
"Rome",
"Reg",
"##ine",
"##lli",
"for",
"careful",
"editing",
".",
"We",
"last",
"##ly",
"thank",
"all",
"our",
"colleagues",
"at",
"R",
"##ip",
"##ple",
"for",
"their",
"support",
".",
"This",
"work",
"was",
"funded",
"by",
"R",
"##ip",
"##ple",
".",
"Reference",
"##s",
"[",
"1",
"]",
"Fred",
"##eri",
"##k",
"Arm",
"##k",
"##ne",
"##cht",
",",
"G",
"##has",
"##san",
"O",
".",
"Kara",
"##me",
",",
"A",
"##vik",
"##ars",
"##ha",
"Man",
"##dal",
",",
"Fr",
"##an",
"##ck",
"You",
"##sse",
"##f",
",",
"and",
"Erik",
"Zen",
"##ner",
".",
"R",
"##ip",
"##ple",
":",
"Over",
"##view",
"and",
"outlook",
".",
"In",
"Trust",
"and",
"Trust",
"##worthy",
"Computing",
":",
"8th",
"International",
"Conference",
",",
"T",
"##R",
"##US",
"##T",
"2015",
",",
"Pro",
"-",
"c",
"##eed",
"##ings",
",",
"pages",
"163",
"β",
"180",
".",
"Springer",
"International",
"Publishing",
",",
"2015",
".",
"ISBN",
"978",
"-",
"3",
"-",
"31",
"##9",
"-",
"228",
"##46",
"-",
"4",
".",
"doi",
":",
"10",
".",
"100",
"##7",
"/",
"978",
"-",
"3",
"-",
"31",
"##9",
"-",
"228",
"##46",
"-",
"4",
"10",
".",
"[",
"2",
"]",
"V",
".",
"But",
"##eri",
"##n",
"and",
"V",
".",
"Griffith",
".",
"Casper",
"the"
] | Analysis of the XRP Ledger Consensus Protocol | 199 |