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The Stellar Consensus Protocol - A federated model for Internet-level consensus The Stellar Consensus ProtocolA federatedmodel for Internet-level consensus David Mazières Stellar Development Foundation Wednesday, December 6, 2017 Obligatory disclaimer "Prof. Mazières's contribution to this workwas as a paid consultant, and was notpart of his Stanford University duties or responsibilities. " 2 / 44 https: / / doresearch.stanford.edu / research-scholarship / conflicts-interest / coi-policies # stanford-r
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol - A federated model for Internet-level consensus The Stellar Consensus ProtocolA federatedmodel for Internet-level consensus David Mazières Stellar Development Foundation Wednesday, December 6, 2017 Obligatory disclaimer "Prof. Mazières's contribution to this workwas as a paid consultant, and was notpart of his Stanford University duties or responsibilities. " 2 / 44 https: / / doresearch.stanford.edu / research-scholarship / conflicts-interest / coi-policies # stanford-r
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
1
equirements-for-faculty-consulting-activities-and-agreements Internet payments bank1 bank2 bank3 bank4 has account at has account at has account at O � eror Bid Askbank4 60.0 INR @ bank4 0.93 EUR @ bank3 bank2 0.93 EUR @ bank3 1.00USD @ bank1 1.00USD 0.93 EUR 0.93 EUR Say youwant to send $1 fromU.S. to a customer of bank4 in IndiaBank4may have a nostro account at a European bank3- Will disburse 60.0 INR in exchange for 0.93 EUR on deposit at bank3Some bank2may have nostro accounts at bank3 and your bank1
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
2
- O � ers 0.93 EUR at bank3 in exchange for 1.00USD at bank1Goal: implement quick, secure, atomic, irreversible payment 3 / 44 Internet payments bank1 bank2 bank3 bank4 has account at has account at has account at O � eror Bid Askbank4 60.0 INR @ bank4 0.93 EUR @ bank3 bank2 0.93 EUR @ bank3 1.00USD @ bank1 1.00USD 0.93 EUR 0.93 EUR Say youwant to send $1 fromU.S. to a customer of bank4 in IndiaBank4may have a nostro account at a European bank3- Will disburse 60.0 INR in exchange for 0.93 EUR on deposit
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
3
at bank3Some bank2may have nostro accounts at bank3 and your bank1- O � ers 0.93 EUR at bank3 in exchange for 1.00USD at bank1Goal: implement quick, secure, atomic, irreversible payment 3 / 44 Internet payments bank1 bank2 bank3 bank4 has account at has account at has account at O � eror Bid Askbank4 60.0 INR @ bank4 0.93 EUR @ bank3bank2 0.93 EUR @ bank3 1.00USD @ bank1 1.00USD 0.93 EUR 0.93 EUR Say youwant to send $1 fromU.S. to a customer of bank4 in IndiaBank4may have a nostro account at a European
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
4
bank3- Will disburse 60.0 INR in exchange for 0.93 EUR on deposit at bank3Some bank2may have nostro accounts at bank3 and your bank1- O � ers 0.93 EUR at bank3 in exchange for 1.00USD at bank1Goal: implement quick, secure, atomic, irreversible payment 3 / 44 Internet payments bank1 bank2 bank3 bank4 has account at has account at has account at O � eror Bid Askbank4 60.0 INR @ bank4 0.93 EUR @ bank3bank2 0.93 EUR @ bank3 1.00USD @ bank1 1.00USD 0.93 EUR 0.93 EUR Say youwant to send $1 fromU.S. to a cust
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
5
omer of bank4 in IndiaBank4may have a nostro account at a European bank3- Will disburse 60.0 INR in exchange for 0.93 EUR on deposit at bank3Some bank2may have nostro accounts at bank3 and your bank1- O � ers 0.93 EUR at bank3 in exchange for 1.00USD at bank1Goal: implement quick, secure, atomic, irreversible payment 3 / 44 Strawman: Two-phase commit Buy Sell 0.93 EUR @ bank2 1.00USD @ bank160.0 INR @ bank4 0.93 EUR @ bank3 atomic transaction Decompose payment into a series of trades- E � ectively excha
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
6
nging deposits at one bank for ones at another Combine them into atomic transactionUse well-known two-phase commit protocol across 4 banks- Send transaction to every institution concerned- Commit only if all participants unanimously vote to do so- E.g., bank2 can abort transaction if its o � er no longer valid 4 / 44 Strawman: Two-phase commit Buy Sell 0.93 EUR @ bank2 1.00USD @ bank160.0 INR @ bank4 0.93 EUR @ bank3 atomic transaction Decompose payment into a series of trades- E � ectively exchanging d
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
7
nging deposits at one bank for ones at another Combine them into atomic transactionUse well-known two-phase commit protocol across 4 banks- Send transaction to every institution concerned- Commit only if all participants unanimously vote to do so- E.g., bank2 can abort transaction if its o � er no longer valid 4 / 44 Strawman: Two-phase commit Buy Sell 0.93 EUR @ bank2 1.00USD @ bank160.0 INR @ bank4 0.93 EUR @ bank3 atomic transaction Decompose payment into a series of trades- E � ectively exchanging d
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
8
eposits at one bank for ones at another Combine them into atomic transactionUse well-known two-phase commit protocol across 4 banks- Send transaction to every institution concerned- Commit only if all participants unanimously vote to do so- E.g., bank2 can abort transaction if its o � er no longer valid 4 / 44 Strawman: Two-phase commit bank1 bank2 bank3 bank4 Buy Sell 0.93 EUR @ bank2 1.00USD @ bank160.0 INR @ bank4 0.93 EUR @ bank3 atomic transaction 1.00USD 0.93 EUR 0.93 EUR % commit commit commitabo
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
9
eposits at one bank for ones at another Combine them into atomic transactionUse well-known two-phase commit protocol across 4 banks- Send transaction to every institution concerned- Commit only if all participants unanimously vote to do so- E.g., bank2 can abort transaction if its o � er no longer valid 4 / 44 Strawman: Two-phase commit bank1 bank2 bank3 bank4 Buy Sell 0.93 EUR @ bank2 1.00USD @ bank160.0 INR @ bank4 0.93 EUR @ bank3 atomic transaction 1.00USD 0.93 EUR 0.93 EUR % commit commit commitabo
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
10
rt Decompose payment into a series of trades- E � ectively exchanging deposits at one bank for ones at another Combine them into atomic transactionUse well-known two-phase commit protocol across 4 banks- Send transaction to every institution concerned- Commit only if all participants unanimously vote to do so- E.g., bank2 can abort transaction if its o � er no longer valid 4 / 44 Strawman: Two-phase commit bank1 bank2 bank3 bank4 Buy Sell 0.93 EUR @ bank2 1.00USD @ bank160.0 INR @ bank4 0.93 EUR @ bank3
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
11
rt Decompose payment into a series of trades- E � ectively exchanging deposits at one bank for ones at another Combine them into atomic transactionUse well-known two-phase commit protocol across 4 banks- Send transaction to every institution concerned- Commit only if all participants unanimously vote to do so- E.g., bank2 can abort transaction if its o � er no longer valid 4 / 44 Strawman: Two-phase commit bank1 bank2 bank3 bank4 Buy Sell 0.93 EUR @ bank2 1.00USD @ bank160.0 INR @ bank4 0.93 EUR @ bank3
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
12
atomic transaction 1.00USD 0.93 EUR 0.93 EUR ! commit commit commitcommit Decompose payment into a series of trades- E � ectively exchanging deposits at one bank for ones at another Combine them into atomic transactionUse well-known two-phase commit protocol across 4 banks- Send transaction to every institution concerned- Commit only if all participants unanimously vote to do so- E.g., bank2 can abort transaction if its o � er no longer valid 4 / 44 Strawman: Two-phase commit bank1 bank2 bank3 bank4 Bu
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
13
y Sell 0.93 EUR @ bank2 1.00USD @ bank160.0 INR @ bank4 0.93 EUR @ bank3 atomic transaction 1.00USD 0.93 EUR 0.93 EUR % commit commit commitabort Decompose payment into a series of trades- E � ectively exchanging deposits at one bank for ones at another Combine them into atomic transactionUse well-known two-phase commit protocol across 4 banks- Send transaction to every institution concerned- Commit only if all participants unanimously vote to do so- E.g., bank2 can abort transaction if its o � er no long
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
14
y Sell 0.93 EUR @ bank2 1.00USD @ bank160.0 INR @ bank4 0.93 EUR @ bank3 atomic transaction 1.00USD 0.93 EUR 0.93 EUR % commit commit commitabort Decompose payment into a series of trades- E � ectively exchanging deposits at one bank for ones at another Combine them into atomic transactionUse well-known two-phase commit protocol across 4 banks- Send transaction to every institution concerned- Commit only if all participants unanimously vote to do so- E.g., bank2 can abort transaction if its o � er no long
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
15
er valid 4 / 44 The problem: Failure bank1 bank2 bank3 bank41.00USD 0.93 EUR 0.93 EUR commit commit commit FAILFAIL What if bank2 disappears mid transaction?- Don't knowwhether or when it will come back online...- Now your original dollar is tied up pending transaction resolutionWhat if bank2 lies and changes vote?- Bank2might convince bank1 of commit and bank3 of abort...- Now bank2 receives USD at bank1 without paying EUR at bank3!- Note bank4 can collude with bank2, or create chain of "Sybil" banks-
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
16
Anymajority-based scheme is useless with unknownmarket makersWe need secure transactions across unknown, untrusted parties 5 / 44 https: / / www.microsoft.com / en-us / research / wp-content / uploads / 2002 / 01 / IPTPS2002.pdf The problem: Failure bank1 bank2 bank3 bank41.00USD 0.93 EUR 0.93 EUR commit commit commit EVILEVIL commit abort What if bank2 disappears mid transaction?- Don't knowwhether or when it will come back online...- Now your original dollar is tied up pending transaction resolutionWha
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
17
t if bank2 lies and changes vote?- Bank2might convince bank1 of commit and bank3 of abort...- Now bank2 receives USD at bank1 without paying EUR at bank3!- Note bank4 can collude with bank2, or create chain of "Sybil" banks- Anymajority-based scheme is useless with unknownmarket makersWe need secure transactions across unknown, untrusted parties 5 / 44 https: / / www.microsoft.com / en-us / research / wp-content / uploads / 2002 / 01 / IPTPS2002.pdf The problem: Failure bank1 bank2 bank3 bank41.00USD 0.9
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
18
3 EUR 0.93 EUR commit commit commitBuy Sell0.93 EUR @ bank2 1.00USD @ bank160.0 INR @ bank4 0.93 EUR @ bank3 atomic transaction Buy Sell 0.93 EUR @ bank2 1.00USD @ bank160.0 INR @ bank4 0.93 EUR @ bank3 atomic transaction !% EVILEVIL What if bank2 disappears mid transaction?- Don't knowwhether or when it will come back online...- Now your original dollar is tied up pending transaction resolutionWhat if bank2 lies and changes vote?- Bank2might convince bank1 of commit and bank3 of abort...- Now bank2 recei
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
19
3 EUR 0.93 EUR commit commit commitBuy Sell0.93 EUR @ bank2 1.00USD @ bank160.0 INR @ bank4 0.93 EUR @ bank3 atomic transaction Buy Sell 0.93 EUR @ bank2 1.00USD @ bank160.0 INR @ bank4 0.93 EUR @ bank3 atomic transaction !% EVILEVIL What if bank2 disappears mid transaction?- Don't knowwhether or when it will come back online...- Now your original dollar is tied up pending transaction resolutionWhat if bank2 lies and changes vote?- Bank2might convince bank1 of commit and bank3 of abort...- Now bank2 recei
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
20
ves USD at bank1 without paying EUR at bank3!- Note bank4 can collude with bank2, or create chain of "Sybil" banks- Anymajority-based scheme is useless with unknownmarket makersWe need secure transactions across unknown, untrusted parties 5 / 44 https: / / www.microsoft.com / en-us / research / wp-content / uploads / 2002 / 01 / IPTPS2002.pdf The problem: Failure bank1 bank2 bank3 bank41.00USD 0.93 EUR 0.93 EUR commit commit commitBuy Sell0.93 EUR @ bank2 1.00USD @ bank160.0 INR @ bank4 0.93 EUR @ bank3
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
21
ves USD at bank1 without paying EUR at bank3!- Note bank4 can collude with bank2, or create chain of "Sybil" banks- Anymajority-based scheme is useless with unknownmarket makersWe need secure transactions across unknown, untrusted parties 5 / 44 https: / / www.microsoft.com / en-us / research / wp-content / uploads / 2002 / 01 / IPTPS2002.pdf The problem: Failure bank1 bank2 bank3 bank41.00USD 0.93 EUR 0.93 EUR commit commit commitBuy Sell0.93 EUR @ bank2 1.00USD @ bank160.0 INR @ bank4 0.93 EUR @ bank3
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
22
atomic transaction Buy Sell 0.93 EUR @ bank2 1.00USD @ bank160.0 INR @ bank4 0.93 EUR @ bank3 atomic transaction !% EVILEVIL EVILEVIL What if bank2 disappears mid transaction?- Don't knowwhether or when it will come back online...- Now your original dollar is tied up pending transaction resolutionWhat if bank2 lies and changes vote?- Bank2might convince bank1 of commit and bank3 of abort...- Now bank2 receives USD at bank1 without paying EUR at bank3!- Note bank4 can collude with bank2, or create chain of
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
23
"Sybil" banks- Anymajority-based scheme is useless with unknownmarket makersWe need secure transactions across unknown, untrusted parties 5 / 44 https: / / www.microsoft.com / en-us / research / wp-content / uploads / 2002 / 01 / IPTPS2002.pdf Is this a job for blockchain? 6 / 44 What blockchain really gives us 1. Coin distribution- Distribute new tokens or "cryptocoins" while limiting supply 2. Irreversible transactions *- Can securely exchange or transfer purely digital tokens What if bank1, bank4 i
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
24
"Sybil" banks- Anymajority-based scheme is useless with unknownmarket makersWe need secure transactions across unknown, untrusted parties 5 / 44 https: / / www.microsoft.com / en-us / research / wp-content / uploads / 2002 / 01 / IPTPS2002.pdf Is this a job for blockchain? 6 / 44 What blockchain really gives us 1. Coin distribution- Distribute new tokens or "cryptocoins" while limiting supply 2. Irreversible transactions *- Can securely exchange or transfer purely digital tokens What if bank1, bank4 i
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
25
ssue digital tokens representing USD, INR?- Would blockchain give us irreversible fiat money transactions? * under certain assumptions7 / 44 What blockchain really gives us 1. Coin distribution- Distribute new tokens or "cryptocoins" while limiting supply 2. Irreversible transactions *- Can securely exchange or transfer purely digital tokens What if bank1, bank4 issue digital tokens representing USD, INR?- Would blockchain give us irreversible fiat money transactions? * under certain assumptions7 / 44
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
26
ssue digital tokens representing USD, INR?- Would blockchain give us irreversible fiat money transactions? * under certain assumptions7 / 44 What blockchain really gives us 1. Coin distribution- Distribute new tokens or "cryptocoins" while limiting supply 2. Irreversible transactions *- Can securely exchange or transfer purely digital tokens What if bank1, bank4 issue digital tokens representing USD, INR?- Would blockchain give us irreversible fiat money transactions? * under certain assumptions7 / 44
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
27
What blockchain really gives us 1. Coin distribution- Distribute new tokens or "cryptocoins" while limiting supply 2. Irreversible transactions *- Can securely exchange or transfer purely digital tokens What if bank1, bank4 issue digital tokens representing USD, INR?- Would blockchain give us irreversible fiat money transactions? * under certain assumptions7 / 44 Bitcoin's key insight: Mining Definition (Mining)Obtaining cryptocoins as a reward for making digital transactionsharder to reverse. Mutually
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
28
-reinforcing solution to coin distribution + irreversibilityProof-of-work-basedmining (popularized by Bitcoin)- Solve hard to compute but easy to verify function on transaction set- To reverse transaction, attacker's work is as hard as miners'- Currently Bitcoin miners making ~ $30M / day in aggregate Proof-of-storage or -memory (burn non-computation resource) Proof-of-stake-basedmining (many variants) 8 / 44 Blockchain forks In July 2016, Ethereum executed an irregular state change- 85% of miners opted
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
29
-reinforcing solution to coin distribution + irreversibilityProof-of-work-basedmining (popularized by Bitcoin)- Solve hard to compute but easy to verify function on transaction set- To reverse transaction, attacker's work is as hard as miners'- Currently Bitcoin miners making ~ $30M / day in aggregate Proof-of-storage or -memory (burn non-computation resource) Proof-of-stake-basedmining (many variants) 8 / 44 Blockchain forks In July 2016, Ethereum executed an irregular state change- 85% of miners opted
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
30
to bail out DAO contract (lost $50M to bug)- Remaining miners kept original rules, became Ethereum ClassicMore recently Bitcoin split (Bitcoin, Bitcoin cash, Bitcoin gold...)What would this mean for token counterparties?- Could bank1 be liable for twice as many digital dollars as it issued?- Spoils of defrauding bank1might exceedmining rewards! 9 / 44 https: / / blog.ethereum.org / 2016 / 07 / 20 / hard-fork-completed / Blockchain forks In July 2016, Ethereum executed an irregular state change- 85% of m
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
31
to bail out DAO contract (lost $50M to bug)- Remaining miners kept original rules, became Ethereum ClassicMore recently Bitcoin split (Bitcoin, Bitcoin cash, Bitcoin gold...)What would this mean for token counterparties?- Could bank1 be liable for twice as many digital dollars as it issued?- Spoils of defrauding bank1might exceedmining rewards! 9 / 44 https: / / blog.ethereum.org / 2016 / 07 / 20 / hard-fork-completed / Blockchain forks In July 2016, Ethereum executed an irregular state change- 85% of m
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
32
iners opted to bail out DAO contract (lost $50M to bug)- Remaining miners kept original rules, became Ethereum ClassicMore recently Bitcoin split (Bitcoin, Bitcoin cash, Bitcoin gold...)What would this mean for token counterparties?- Could bank1 be liable for twice as many digital dollars as it issued?- Spoils of defrauding bank1might exceedmining rewards! 9 / 44 https: / / blog.ethereum.org / 2016 / 07 / 20 / hard-fork-completed / Blockchain forks bank1USD bank1USD In July 2016, Ethereum executed an irr
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
33
iners opted to bail out DAO contract (lost $50M to bug)- Remaining miners kept original rules, became Ethereum ClassicMore recently Bitcoin split (Bitcoin, Bitcoin cash, Bitcoin gold...)What would this mean for token counterparties?- Could bank1 be liable for twice as many digital dollars as it issued?- Spoils of defrauding bank1might exceedmining rewards! 9 / 44 https: / / blog.ethereum.org / 2016 / 07 / 20 / hard-fork-completed / Blockchain forks bank1USD bank1USD In July 2016, Ethereum executed an irr
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
34
egular state change- 85% of miners opted to bail out DAO contract (lost $50M to bug)- Remaining miners kept original rules, became Ethereum ClassicMore recently Bitcoin split (Bitcoin, Bitcoin cash, Bitcoin gold...)What would this mean for token counterparties?- Could bank1 be liable for twice as many digital dollars as it issued?- Spoils of defrauding bank1might exceedmining rewards! 9 / 44 https: / / blog.ethereum.org / 2016 / 07 / 20 / hard-fork-completed / Today's talk: Internet-level consensus bank1
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
35
egular state change- 85% of miners opted to bail out DAO contract (lost $50M to bug)- Remaining miners kept original rules, became Ethereum ClassicMore recently Bitcoin split (Bitcoin, Bitcoin cash, Bitcoin gold...)What would this mean for token counterparties?- Could bank1 be liable for twice as many digital dollars as it issued?- Spoils of defrauding bank1might exceedmining rewards! 9 / 44 https: / / blog.ethereum.org / 2016 / 07 / 20 / hard-fork-completed / Today's talk: Internet-level consensus bank1
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
36
bank4 commitcommit commit commit commitcommit commitcommit commit commit commit commit commit commit commitcommit commit commit commit commit Don't needmining for digital money tokens backed by banksInstead, wait for token counterparties to commit transactions- They commit only when their counterparties do, and so forthGuarantees you agree with everyone you depend on- E.g., never diverge from bank1, bank4 where you redeem USD and INR- Through transitivity anyone you'd ever care about will agree 10 / 44
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
37
bank4 commitcommit commit commit commitcommit commitcommit commit commit commit commit commit commit commitcommit commit commit commit commit Don't needmining for digital money tokens backed by banksInstead, wait for token counterparties to commit transactions- They commit only when their counterparties do, and so forthGuarantees you agree with everyone you depend on- E.g., never diverge from bank1, bank4 where you redeem USD and INR- Through transitivity anyone you'd ever care about will agree 10 / 44
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
38
Today's talk: Internet-level consensus commitcommit commit commit commitcommit commitcommit commit commit commit commit commit commit commitcommit commit commit commit commit Don't needmining for digital money tokens backed by banksInstead, wait for token counterparties to commit transactions- They commit only when their counterparties do, and so forthGuarantees you agree with everyone you depend on- E.g., never diverge from bank1, bank4 where you redeem USD and INR- Through transitivity anyone you'd eve
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
39
r care about will agree 10 / 44 Insight: the Internet hypothesis The Internet is a globally connected network- Structure results from individual peering & transit relationships- Decentralized decisions could have yielded many internets, but didn't- Transitively, everyone wants to talk to everyoneHypothesis: counterparty relationships transitively converge- Clearing houses are e � ectively the tier one ISPs of banking 11 / 44 Outline Consensus background Voting and neutralization Federated Byzantine ag
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
40
reement (FBA) The Stellar consensus protocol (SCP) 12 / 44 The consensus problem v1in: 3out: 9 v2in: 9out: 9 v3in: 7out: 9 messages Goal: For multiple agents to agree on an output valueEach agent starts with an input value- In payments, value is an ordered batch of transactions to execute Agents communicate following some consensus protocol- Use protocol to agree on one of the agent's input values Once decided, agents output the chosen value- Output is write-once (an agent cannot change its value) 13 /
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
41
reement (FBA) The Stellar consensus protocol (SCP) 12 / 44 The consensus problem v1in: 3out: 9 v2in: 9out: 9 v3in: 7out: 9 messages Goal: For multiple agents to agree on an output valueEach agent starts with an input value- In payments, value is an ordered batch of transactions to execute Agents communicate following some consensus protocol- Use protocol to agree on one of the agent's input values Once decided, agents output the chosen value- Output is write-once (an agent cannot change its value) 13 /
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
42
44 Bivalent states v1in: 3out: 7 v2in: 9out: v3in: 7out: 7 messages FAILFAIL FAILFAIL v2 failed? Recall agents chose value 9 in last example But a network outagemight be indistinguishable from v2 failing If protocol fault tolerant, v1 and v3might decide to output 7 Once network back, v2must also output 7 Definition (Bivalent)An execution of a consensus protocol is in a bivalent state when thenetwork can a � ect which value agents choose. 14 / 44 Univalent and stuck states Definition (Univalent, Valent
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
43
44 Bivalent states v1in: 3out: 7 v2in: 9out: v3in: 7out: 7 messages FAILFAIL FAILFAIL v2 failed? Recall agents chose value 9 in last example But a network outagemight be indistinguishable from v2 failing If protocol fault tolerant, v1 and v3might decide to output 7 Once network back, v2must also output 7 Definition (Bivalent)An execution of a consensus protocol is in a bivalent state when thenetwork can a � ect which value agents choose. 14 / 44 Univalent and stuck states Definition (Univalent, Valent
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
44
)An execution of a consensus protocol is in a univalent state whenonly one output value is possible. If that value is i, call the statei-valent. Definition (Stuck)An execution of a [broken] consensus protocol is in a stuck statewhen one or more non-faulty nodes can never output a value. Recall output is write once and all outputs must agree- Hence, no output is possible in bivalent state If an execution starts in a bivalent state and terminates, it mustat some point reach a univalent state 15 / 44 FLP i
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
45
)An execution of a consensus protocol is in a univalent state whenonly one output value is possible. If that value is i, call the statei-valent. Definition (Stuck)An execution of a [broken] consensus protocol is in a stuck statewhen one or more non-faulty nodes can never output a value. Recall output is write once and all outputs must agree- Hence, no output is possible in bivalent state If an execution starts in a bivalent state and terminates, it mustat some point reach a univalent state 15 / 44 FLP i
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
46
ntuition Consider a terminating execution of a bivalent system Letm be the last message received in a bivalent state- Sincem caused transition to univalent state, call it decidingmessage Suppose the network had delayedm- Other messages could cause transitions to other bivalent states- Then, receivingmmight no longer lead to a univalent state- In this case, we saym has been neutralized Overview of FLP proof.1. There are bivalent starting configurations.2. Fault tolerance = ⇒ network can neutralize any deci
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
47
ntuition Consider a terminating execution of a bivalent system Letm be the last message received in a bivalent state- Sincem caused transition to univalent state, call it decidingmessage Suppose the network had delayedm- Other messages could cause transitions to other bivalent states- Then, receivingmmight no longer lead to a univalent state- In this case, we saym has been neutralized Overview of FLP proof.1. There are bivalent starting configurations.2. Fault tolerance = ⇒ network can neutralize any deci
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
48
dingmsg3. Hence, the system can remain bivalent in perpetuity. 16 / 44 Outline Consensus background Voting and neutralization Federated Byzantine agreement (FBA) The Stellar consensus protocol (SCP) 17 / 44 Strawman consensus: Vote on valueQuorum A Quorum B v0vote: 9 ...vN − Tvote: 9 ...vT − 1vote: 9 ...vN − 1vote: 7FAI LFAIL Suppose you have N nodes with fail-stop behaviorPick a quorum size T > N / 2If any T nodes (a quorum) all vote for a value, o
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
49
dingmsg3. Hence, the system can remain bivalent in perpetuity. 16 / 44 Outline Consensus background Voting and neutralization Federated Byzantine agreement (FBA) The Stellar consensus protocol (SCP) 17 / 44 Strawman consensus: Vote on valueQuorum A Quorum B v0vote: 9 ...vN − Tvote: 9 ...vT − 1vote: 9 ...vN − 1vote: 7FAI LFAIL Suppose you have N nodes with fail-stop behaviorPick a quorum size T > N / 2If any T nodes (a quorum) all vote for a value, o
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus
50
Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment Faraz Masood Department of Computer Science Aligarh Muslim University Aligarh, India [email protected] Arman Rasool Faridi Department of Computer Science Aligarh Muslim University Aligarh, India [email protected] Abstract—Distributed Ledger Technology is getting famous day by day. Not only investors, financial organizations and t
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Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment
51
Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment Faraz Masood Department of Computer Science Aligarh Muslim University Aligarh, India [email protected] Arman Rasool Faridi Department of Computer Science Aligarh Muslim University Aligarh, India [email protected] Abstract—Distributed Ledger Technology is getting famous day by day. Not only investors, financial organizations and t
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Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment
52
echnical personnel are interested in this technology, but also government and nearly every other organization are showing interest in this evolving technology. This technology deals with the settlement of transactions without the need of any third party. But it also requires that different nodes distributed all over the world should have the same state of the data to prevent faulty transactions for which there is a need of consensus algorithms. Many algorithms have already been developed and imple
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Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment
53
echnical personnel are interested in this technology, but also government and nearly every other organization are showing interest in this evolving technology. This technology deals with the settlement of transactions without the need of any third party. But it also requires that different nodes distributed all over the world should have the same state of the data to prevent faulty transactions for which there is a need of consensus algorithms. Many algorithms have already been developed and imple
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Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment
54
mented. This paper discusses some of the algorithms that are widely accepted or talked about and also compares them in terms of centralization, energy consumption, transaction rate etc. Keywords— Proof of Work, IOTA, Bitcoin NG, Byzcoin, Nano I. INTRODUCTION As the human race grew the system of exchange of goods was transferred from bartering to coins, then to paper notes, to cheques or bank drafts and in modern time it is digital transfer of money over the network. The major issue here is how
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Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment
55
mented. This paper discusses some of the algorithms that are widely accepted or talked about and also compares them in terms of centralization, energy consumption, transaction rate etc. Keywords— Proof of Work, IOTA, Bitcoin NG, Byzcoin, Nano I. INTRODUCTION As the human race grew the system of exchange of goods was transferred from bartering to coins, then to paper notes, to cheques or bank drafts and in modern time it is digital transfer of money over the network. The major issue here is how
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Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment
56
to trust different parties over the network so that they may not deny of the fund transfer (repudiation), or they may not manipulate the transaction data, or one person may not spend more than the actual amount in his account etc. So for that, a trusted third party is needed, which is usually government operated bank. This trusted third party resolves the conflicts between users and prevents illegal transactions [1]. This third-party leads to an inefficient system. To send money from one country to
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Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment
57
to trust different parties over the network so that they may not deny of the fund transfer (repudiation), or they may not manipulate the transaction data, or one person may not spend more than the actual amount in his account etc. So for that, a trusted third party is needed, which is usually government operated bank. This trusted third party resolves the conflicts between users and prevents illegal transactions [1]. This third-party leads to an inefficient system. To send money from one country to
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Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment
58
another, they charge a significant amount of money. Also for some transactions, it takes time to settle e.g. credit card transactions take 3 to 7 days. Generally, these transactions are fully controlled by one organization and they can monitor all the transactions between the parties leading to the invasion of privacy of the users. If this central party is compromised or hacked then the whole system will collapse. This type of transfer of money is centralized and to overcome this Satoshi Nakamoto
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Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment
59
another, they charge a significant amount of money. Also for some transactions, it takes time to settle e.g. credit card transactions take 3 to 7 days. Generally, these transactions are fully controlled by one organization and they can monitor all the transactions between the parties leading to the invasion of privacy of the users. If this central party is compromised or hacked then the whole system will collapse. This type of transfer of money is centralized and to overcome this Satoshi Nakamoto
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Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment
60
[2] proposed the decentralized peer to peer transfer of money which resulted in the development of first cryptocurrency Bitcoin and after that, a large number of cryptocurrencies followed. Now to resolve conflict and to remove invalid transactions, we don't need the third party, but we need consensus algorithms which are designed in such a way that only valid transactions will be added to an immutable ledger. In this paper Section II discusses what is consensus, why do we need consensus algorithm
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Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment
61
[2] proposed the decentralized peer to peer transfer of money which resulted in the development of first cryptocurrency Bitcoin and after that, a large number of cryptocurrencies followed. Now to resolve conflict and to remove invalid transactions, we don't need the third party, but we need consensus algorithms which are designed in such a way that only valid transactions will be added to an immutable ledger. In this paper Section II discusses what is consensus, why do we need consensus algorithm
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Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment
62
s and the difficulties involved. Section III introduces most famous and practically implemented consensus algorithms. Section IV analyses different consensus algorithms and section V concludes the paper. II. CONSENSUS: WHAT AND WHY? Consensus is a procedure to reach a common agreement in a distributed platform. It is necessary that nodes or persons involved in a distributed system must reach a consensus to ensure reliability and fault tolerance. Reliability and fault tolerance means that in a dece
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Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment
63
s and the difficulties involved. Section III introduces most famous and practically implemented consensus algorithms. Section IV analyses different consensus algorithms and section V concludes the paper. II. CONSENSUS: WHAT AND WHY? Consensus is a procedure to reach a common agreement in a distributed platform. It is necessary that nodes or persons involved in a distributed system must reach a consensus to ensure reliability and fault tolerance. Reliability and fault tolerance means that in a dece
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Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment
64
ntralized environment there are multiple individual parties who can take their own decision, of these parties some may behave maliciously and it is necessary that in spite of having them, the system must have a common viewpoint. It is difficult but necessary to bring all the individuals in consensus and that's why various consensus algorithms are developed as presented in section III. Consensus is not only needed in Distributed ledger technology (DLT) but these algorithms are also needed in distri
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Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment
65
ntralized environment there are multiple individual parties who can take their own decision, of these parties some may behave maliciously and it is necessary that in spite of having them, the system must have a common viewpoint. It is difficult but necessary to bring all the individuals in consensus and that's why various consensus algorithms are developed as presented in section III. Consensus is not only needed in Distributed ledger technology (DLT) but these algorithms are also needed in distri
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Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment
66
buted databases e.g. in bank transactions it is necessary to have consistent distributed database, in case of state machine replication it is necessary to replicate states and outputs to other nodes in the network, in case of distributed clock synchronization consensus is also necessary etc. If there are no faulty nodes then consensus can be achieved by message passing system in which individuals broadcast their choice or value and after receiving all the values nodes can apply some function to co
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Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment
67
buted databases e.g. in bank transactions it is necessary to have consistent distributed database, in case of state machine replication it is necessary to replicate states and outputs to other nodes in the network, in case of distributed clock synchronization consensus is also necessary etc. If there are no faulty nodes then consensus can be achieved by message passing system in which individuals broadcast their choice or value and after receiving all the values nodes can apply some function to co
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Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment
68
me to a consensus. But if malicious nodes are present then it will be difficult to achieve consensus because malicious nodes broadcast different choice or values to different nodes which leads to an inconsistent state. Consensus algorithms should lead to termination i.e. one of the non-faulty node must terminate the algorithm, and decide one value, and that value should be the correct one. Now after termination validity is done i.e. if all the individual proposes the same value, then all correct in
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Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment
69
me to a consensus. But if malicious nodes are present then it will be difficult to achieve consensus because malicious nodes broadcast different choice or values to different nodes which leads to an inconsistent state. Consensus algorithms should lead to termination i.e. one of the non-faulty node must terminate the algorithm, and decide one value, and that value should be the correct one. Now after termination validity is done i.e. if all the individual proposes the same value, then all correct in
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Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment
70
dividual accept that value. Also, integrity should be maintained such that every individual accepts only one value which is proposed by a non-faulty node. 2018 4th International Conference on Computing Communication and Automation (ICCCA) 978-1-5386-6947-1/18/$31.00 ©2018 IEEE 1 When every nonfaulty node come to an agreement then the consensus is reached. In a distributed system it may happen that the node becomes unavailable or get crashed during the transmission, such type of faults are call
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Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment
71
dividual accept that value. Also, integrity should be maintained such that every individual accepts only one value which is proposed by a non-faulty node. 2018 4th International Conference on Computing Communication and Automation (ICCCA) 978-1-5386-6947-1/18/$31.00 ©2018 IEEE 1 When every nonfaulty node come to an agreement then the consensus is reached. In a distributed system it may happen that the node becomes unavailable or get crashed during the transmission, such type of faults are call
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Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment
72
ed a crash fault. It may also happen that crashing of any node leads to the partitioning of the network and the partitioned networks have their own consensus but not overall general consensus, such faults are called network or partitioned faults. If any node starts behaving wickedly then it is called Byzantine faults [3]. Another problem arises when an attacker tries to fill the network with the nodes under his control. Such type of attack is called Sybil Attack [4]. Achieving consensus becomes mor
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Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment
73
ed a crash fault. It may also happen that crashing of any node leads to the partitioning of the network and the partitioned networks have their own consensus but not overall general consensus, such faults are called network or partitioned faults. If any node starts behaving wickedly then it is called Byzantine faults [3]. Another problem arises when an attacker tries to fill the network with the nodes under his control. Such type of attack is called Sybil Attack [4]. Achieving consensus becomes mor
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Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment
74
e difficult in case of asynchronous systems. Synchronous systems are those in which we expect a reply from all the nodes within a predefined time. Fischer et al. [5] suggested that it is impossible to achieve a consensus with a deterministic solution in a purely asynchronous distributed system. So the consensus mechanism should handle all these problems. III. CONSENSUS ALGORITHMS In this section, we have illustrated the working of some of most the practical and promising consensus algorithms that
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Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment
75
e difficult in case of asynchronous systems. Synchronous systems are those in which we expect a reply from all the nodes within a predefined time. Fischer et al. [5] suggested that it is impossible to achieve a consensus with a deterministic solution in a purely asynchronous distributed system. So the consensus mechanism should handle all these problems. III. CONSENSUS ALGORITHMS In this section, we have illustrated the working of some of most the practical and promising consensus algorithms that
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Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment
76
work in an open environment. A. Proof of work (PoW) This is one of the famous consensus algorithm and is used in Bitcoin blockchain and many other cryptocurrencies. It was initially presented by Dwork and Naor in 1992 to fight against junk emails in which if someone wants to send an email then he has to do some work which discourages attackers [6]. The work should be moderately hard but feasible to do and it should be easy to verify that the work has been done. So if work is not done or imprope
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Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment
77
work in an open environment. A. Proof of work (PoW) This is one of the famous consensus algorithm and is used in Bitcoin blockchain and many other cryptocurrencies. It was initially presented by Dwork and Naor in 1992 to fight against junk emails in which if someone wants to send an email then he has to do some work which discourages attackers [6]. The work should be moderately hard but feasible to do and it should be easy to verify that the work has been done. So if work is not done or imprope
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Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment
78
rly done then it will be easily checked and then that email will be considered as junk email. There are two classes of proof of work protocol. First one is called Challenge-Response protocol in which a requester requests a service from a service provider. Then service provider sends a challenge/puzzle to the requester, requester solves the challenge and sends it to a service provider which after verification provides the services. The second one is Solution Verification protocol in which the puzzle
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Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment
79
rly done then it will be easily checked and then that email will be considered as junk email. There are two classes of proof of work protocol. First one is called Challenge-Response protocol in which a requester requests a service from a service provider. Then service provider sends a challenge/puzzle to the requester, requester solves the challenge and sends it to a service provider which after verification provides the services. The second one is Solution Verification protocol in which the puzzle
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Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment
80
is already known but based on the request, solution is different. Requester directly provides the solution to the service provider who provides service after verification of the puzzle. The cryptographic hash function can be used as a proof of work which was first introduced in Hashcash [7] and also used in Bitcoin protocol. Bitcoin protocol uses the Double SHA256 hash function. In most of the DLTs it is not feasible to achieve consensus for every transaction so in case of Bitcoin Blockchain a b
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Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment
81
is already known but based on the request, solution is different. Requester directly provides the solution to the service provider who provides service after verification of the puzzle. The cryptographic hash function can be used as a proof of work which was first introduced in Hashcash [7] and also used in Bitcoin protocol. Bitcoin protocol uses the Double SHA256 hash function. In most of the DLTs it is not feasible to achieve consensus for every transaction so in case of Bitcoin Blockchain a b
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Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment
82
lock is created which is a type of data structure made up of timestamp, hash of the previous block, some number of transactions, summary of transactions in a form of Merkle tree [8] and nonce. There are some special nodes known as Miners. These miners wait for a certain duration during which they collect transactions
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Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment
83
lock is created which is a type of data structure made up of timestamp, hash of the previous block, some number of transactions, summary of transactions in a form of Merkle tree [8] and nonce. There are some special nodes known as Miners. These miners wait for a certain duration during which they collect transactions
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Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment
84
Incentivizing Honest Mining in Blockchain Networks: A Reputation Approach 1549-7747 (c) 2018 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission. See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information. This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TCSII.2019.2901746, IEEE Tra
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Incentivizing Honest Mining in Blockchain Networks A Reputation Approach
85
Incentivizing Honest Mining in Blockchain Networks: A Reputation Approach 1549-7747 (c) 2018 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission. See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information. This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TCSII.2019.2901746, IEEE Tra
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Incentivizing Honest Mining in Blockchain Networks A Reputation Approach
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nsactions on Circuits and Systems II: Express Briefs 1 Incentivizing Honest Mining in Blockchain Networks: A Reputation Approach Changbing Tang, Member, IEEE, Luya Wu, Guanghui Wen, Senior Member, IEEE and Zhonglong Zheng Abstract—The core security of proof-of-work (PoW) based blockchain networks, relies on PoW consensus algorithm and requires miners solving a crypto-puzzles of hash computation. However, the mining process in the blockchain is resource- intensive where only the first miner who complet
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Incentivizing Honest Mining in Blockchain Networks A Reputation Approach
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es full PoW will be rewarded. Therefore, miners exhibit malicious behaviors which cause a waste of distributed computation resource, even posing a threat on the efficiency of blockchain networks. In this paper, we propose a new reputation-based mechanism for the PoW computation in the blockchain, in which miners are incentivized to conduct honest mining. Based on the game theory, we design a reputation-based algorithm to encourage honest mining of miners, and thereby increase the overall revenue of the po
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Incentivizing Honest Mining in Blockchain Networks A Reputation Approach
88
es full PoW will be rewarded. Therefore, miners exhibit malicious behaviors which cause a waste of distributed computation resource, even posing a threat on the efficiency of blockchain networks. In this paper, we propose a new reputation-based mechanism for the PoW computation in the blockchain, in which miners are incentivized to conduct honest mining. Based on the game theory, we design a reputation-based algorithm to encourage honest mining of miners, and thereby increase the overall revenue of the po
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Incentivizing Honest Mining in Blockchain Networks A Reputation Approach
89
ol. In addition, numerical illustrations are also presented to support the performance of our proposed mechanism. Index Terms—Blockchain, Proof-of-Work, reputation-based mechanism, game theory. I. INTRODUCTION BLockchain was first proposed in the white paper ofBitcoin by S. Nakamoto [1], which is used to verify and store data with the blockchain data structure, to ensure the security of data transmission and access with the cryptography, and to program and manipulate data with the intelligent con- trac
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Incentivizing Honest Mining in Blockchain Networks A Reputation Approach
90
ol. In addition, numerical illustrations are also presented to support the performance of our proposed mechanism. Index Terms—Blockchain, Proof-of-Work, reputation-based mechanism, game theory. I. INTRODUCTION BLockchain was first proposed in the white paper ofBitcoin by S. Nakamoto [1], which is used to verify and store data with the blockchain data structure, to ensure the security of data transmission and access with the cryptography, and to program and manipulate data with the intelligent con- trac
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Incentivizing Honest Mining in Blockchain Networks A Reputation Approach
91
ts [2], [3]. As an integrated application of distributed data storage, point-to-point transmission, consensus mechanism, and encryption algorithm, blockchain has recently generated explosive interest from both academia and industry [4]–[7]. A survey of this topic can be referred to [8]. As one of the most successful applications of the blockchain technology, the security of bitcoin system relies on blockchain technology [9], in which the transactions are written into the open ledger in the form of blocks
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Incentivizing Honest Mining in Blockchain Networks A Reputation Approach
92
. To prevent alterations of previous transactions and maintain the integrity of the ledger, the participants (also called miners) contribute their computa- tional power to generate PoW by solving a hash computation crypto-puzzles [10]. The miner solving the problem with the fastest speed will get right to account the block and acquire the bitcoin reward from the system [11]. After the solution is solved by some miner and propagated to the Bitcoin network, This work was supported in part by the National N
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Incentivizing Honest Mining in Blockchain Networks A Reputation Approach
93
atural Science Founda- tion through Grant 61751303, Grant 61672467, Grant 61877055 and Grant 61872323, in part by the Zhejiang Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China through Grant LY16F030002 and in part by the Australian Research Council through Grant DE180101268. (Corresponding author: Guanghui Wen.) C. Tang and L. Wu are with the College of Physics and Electronics Information Engineering, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua 321004, China (e-mail: [email protected]). C. Tang is also with the Sc
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Incentivizing Honest Mining in Blockchain Networks A Reputation Approach
94
hool of Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC. 3001, Australia. G. Wen is with the School of Mathematics, Southeast University, Nanjing, 211189, China, and also with the School of Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC 3001, Australia (e-mail: [email protected]). Z. Zheng is with the College of Mathematics and Computer Science, Zhe- jiang Normal University, Jinhua 321004, China (e-mail: [email protected]). the block is generated. Later, a new round starts and all miners begin to solve
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Incentivizing Honest Mining in Blockchain Networks A Reputation Approach
95
a new cryptographic puzzle. However, the mining process of the blockchain is very resource-intensive, which results in intense competitions and malicious behaviors among miners, such as interception at- tacks, selfish mining, eclipse attacks and stubborn min- ing [12]–[15]. Take the block withholding (BWH) attack as an example, where the infiltrating miners from other pools only submit partial proof of work (PPoW) to the attacked pool [16], [17]. At last, the revenue of the attacked pool is shared among
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Incentivizing Honest Mining in Blockchain Networks A Reputation Approach
96
more miners, which results in the fact that each miner earns less compared to solo mining or honest mining. Such attack makes the pool reward system unfair for malicious miners receiving unearned rewards, which threatens the efficiency of the bitcoin system greatly. Therefore, it is necessary to design an effective and fair mechanism to make miners accountable for any malicious behaviors, and thereby promote the efficient of blockchain networks. To address the challenge, several literatures have been foc
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Incentivizing Honest Mining in Blockchain Networks A Reputation Approach
97
used on the study of the malicious behaviors for pool mining. In [18], authors investigated a solution to prevent unfair supervisors and lazy miners from cheating, in which the technique can be applied for preventing misbehaving miners in the pool of blockchain networks. Moreover, the authors in [19] provided a game theoretic analysis of bitcoin, and argued that the honest strategy constitutes an NE, implying incentive-compatibility. In [20], Eyal and Sirer introduced selfish mining, in which the miners o
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Incentivizing Honest Mining in Blockchain Networks A Reputation Approach
98
f a coalition keep their discovered blocks private and continue to verify more blocks privately until they get a sub-chain. Furthermore, Johnson et al. explored the trade-off among DDoS attacks with a series of game-theoretical models of competition between two pools of varying sizes, and found that pools have a greater incentive to attack large pools than small ones [21]. On the other hand, reputation mechanism and some related distributed mechanisms can provide an incentive to prevent the malicious beh
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Incentivizing Honest Mining in Blockchain Networks A Reputation Approach
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