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+{"metadata":{"id":"0002ed9681a848be9f43583905c0d3de","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/117766ce-5fc8-464a-aa09-2728acacdfdf/retrieve"},"pageCount":16,"title":"Drying banana seeds for ex situ conservation","keywords":["Crop wild relatives","desiccation tolerance","genetic resources","genebank Research article Conservation Physiology • Volume 10 2022"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":160,"text":"The aim of seed conservation is to store the maximum amount of plant genetic diversity for prolonged periods of time and make it accessible for future uses. Banked seeds may then be employed for restoration, assisted migration, research or, for crops and crop wild relatives (CWRs), breeding (UN General Assembly, 2015;Peres, 2016). Conserving banana and plantain (referred to as 'banana') genetic resources is crucial because banana crops are one of the world's most important (FAO, 2020a;FAO, 2020b); however, production is threatened by a host of diseases (Boloy et al., 2014;Ploetz and Evans, 2015;Jones, 2018;Fones et al., 2020), as well as climate change (Ramirez et al., 2011;Varma and Bebber, 2019). Furthermore, of 59 banana CWR species recently assessed for conservation, 9 were endangered, 11 were threatened with extinction and 56 were insufficiently conserved ex situ, including in seed genebanks (Mertens et al., 2021). Banana seed conservation is therefore a global priority for food security (Kallow et al., 2021b;Castañeda-Álvarez et al., 2016)."},{"index":2,"size":180,"text":"The two key components of seed genebanking of orthodox seeds are drying and cooling (FAO, 2014). Drying orthodox seeds in combination with reducing storage temperature increases longevity in storage (Harrington, 1972;Ellis and Roberts, 1980;Vertucci and Roos, 1990). Orthodox seeds are, by definition, desiccation tolerant: they can be dried to ≤3-7% fresh weight moisture content (MC) and can be stored at sub-zero temperatures without loss of viability (Roberts, 1973). Whereas most plant species produce orthodox seeds (Wyse and Dickie, 2017), many produce recalcitrant seeds (Berjak and Pammenter, 2008). Drying recalcitrant seeds to below ∼10% MC kills them. Longevity of recalcitrant seeds cannot be extended by drying; the application of advanced cryogenic protocols may be required for their storage (Walters et al., 2013). Alternatively, other species produce seeds that are somewhat in-between orthodox and recalcitrant storage class and are referred to as intermediate. They show partial sensitivity to drying and storage at sub-zero temperatures, so conventional storage is also not an option for these species (Ellis et al., 1990). Characterizing seed responses to drying is therefore essential to applications of seed conservation."},{"index":3,"size":209,"text":"While seeds of different species broadly fit into these categories, there is inevitably a degree of variation in desiccation response between and within seed batches of the same taxa. For instance, post-storage viability is usually represented as a percentage, meaning it is expected that within a batch some seeds survive storage and remain viable and some seeds do not (Leprince, 2004). Seed maturity is a primary factor influencing desiccation tolerance and seed longevity, and this may vary in a seed batch (Hay and Smith, 2004). As seeds mature, their morphology and biochemistry changes, influencing desiccation responses and longevity in storage (Leprince et al., 2017;Ellis, 2019). After fertilization, seed filling occurs until maximum dry weight is achieved. Seeds are then at mass maturity, sometimes known as physiological maturity. At this point abscission from the mother plant occurs and no further nutrients are therefore received. Following mass maturity, for dry-dispersed seeds, and to lesser extent seeds of fleshy fruits (like bananas) (Demir and Ellis, 1992a;Demir and Ellis, 1992b), a period of late maturation occurs, during which further moisture is lost and seeds equilibrate close to ambient relative humidity (RH). This stage is important to protect cell structure and avoid lethal shrinkage during desiccation (Walters, 2015;Leprince et al., 2017;Ballesteros et al., 2020)."},{"index":4,"size":115,"text":"In addition to maturity level, maternal provenance and environment impact seed desiccation tolerance levels and longevity (Ellis et al., 1991;Daws et al., 2006;Berjak and Pammenter, 2008). Seed anatomy such as the thickness and permeability of the testa and the chemical content of cells also influence how water potential gradients are regulated in seeds, and thus how seeds respond to desiccation (Leprince, 2004;Ballesteros et al., 2020). External factors such as the rate of drying according to water potential gradients and temperatures applied to seeds (Leprince, 2004), as well as post-harvest handling (Probert et al., 2007), also affect desiccation responses. Controlling all these factors is key to seed conservation, including for wild species (Hay and Probert, 2013)."},{"index":5,"size":122,"text":"Wild banana species produce fruit that contains hard dark seeds (Fig. 1). These seeds have two chambers: the larger chamber contains the capitate embryo and powdery endosperm and the other chamber contains a chalazal mass at the point of the former ovule where the integuments were united to the nucellus. A micropyle, filled by a micropyle cap, is located above the embryo. Banana seeds are variously considered orthodox (Chin, 1996;Singh et al., 2021) or intermediate in class (Chin and Krishnapillay, 1989;Darjo and Bakry, 1990;Abdelnouresquivel et al., 1992;Bohra et al., 2020). Either way, viability of several Musa seed genebank collections is low (Kallow et al., 2020;Kallow et al., 2021a;Kallow et al., 2021b) and seed conservation is therefore constrained (Laliberté, 2016;Panis et al., 2020)."},{"index":6,"size":114,"text":"While seed conservation of wild species, including CWRs, holds many challenges compared to crops (Hay and Probert, 2013), a key one, especially for banana, is access to seeds. This is because it is challenging to find mature seeds in wild populations and difficult to arrange transfer of genetic material between countries (Panis et al., 2020). The objective of this work was to assess if drying can be used in ex situ seed conservation of banana CWRs. Here we describe four experiments performed in three countries (Belgium, Viet Nam and the Philippines). With these we examined responses to drying in seeds of the two primary CWRs of banana. We aim to address the following questions:  "}]},{"head":"Materials and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Plant material","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"We used open pollinated seeds of eight bunches (infructescences) in four experiments (Table 1; Fig. S1). Seeds were of two species of Musa acuminata Colla (including three subspecies) and Musa balbisiana Colla. These species most closely relate to banana crops (De Langhe et al., 2009)."},{"index":2,"size":475,"text":"Bunches from Guadeloupe (bunches 1-3 and 7-8) were collected from living accessions of the field collection at the Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le dévelopment (CIRAD), Roujol, Guadeloupe. Bunches were air shipped to Leuven, Belgium, where certain experiments were performed. Transportation took <7 days and temperatures were >0 • C and <25 • C during shipment; humidity was not controlled during shipment. Bunches 1-3 were collected as mature green fruit, and after arrival in Leuven (Belgium) fruit had ripened and were yellow to brown and black and were soft in texture; seeds were hard, with powdery white endosperms and capitate endosperms. Bunches 7-8 were deliberately collected at two levels of maturity from the same accession in the field genebank. Bunch 7 was very mature and ripe with brown-black soft fruit on arrival. Seeds were hard with powdery endosperms and capitate embryos. Bunch 8 was less mature and ripe on arrival with soft yellow fruit. Again, seeds were hard, but with less hard seed coats on biting and endosperms were white and powdery with capitate embryos. An additional third bunch was also collected from the same accession at an even less mature stage of development, fruit were light green and hard, embryos were not capitate and endosperms were milky, so seeds of this bunch were excluded from the experiments. Seeds were extracted by opening fruit by hand and washing the seed and surrounding pulp in tap water to remove pulp and any empty seeds. Resulting seeds were then spread out Bunches from the Philippines (bunches 4 and 5) were collected from the field collection of the Institute of Plant Breeding, University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB), where experiments were also carried out. These bunches were of the same accession growing from neighbouring mats at two levels of maturity. Both bunches contained firm dark seeds, such as would be harvested during field collection missions. The more mature bunch had fruit that were orange to brown, it also had some hard green fruit that contained no seeds. Approximately half of the fruit containing seeds were already open when the bunch was collected. Pulp of fruit containing seeds was soft and silky in closed fruit or brown and grainy in open fruit. Seeds were black and hard, perceptibly harder than seeds from the less mature fruits when bitten. Embryos were capitate in shape and endosperms were dry and powdery, even after washing. Fruit from the less mature bunch were green and these contained many seeds. Fruit texture was hard. Seeds were hard and black and could not be crushed by fingernails but could more easily be crushed when bitten. Seeds also had capitate shaped embryos. Endosperms were dry and white, but not powdery and easily absorbed moisture during washing so that the endosperm became flooded with water. Seeds were extracted and cleaned as described above."},{"index":3,"size":204,"text":"Bunch 6 was collected from a home garden in Êa Trul commune (Buôn Ðôn district, Ða ´k La ´k province, Viet Nam) during a collecting mission. Seeds were extracted and cleaned as described; the drying part of the experiment was carried out during the field mission in Ða ´k La ´k province and seeds were sown at Plant Resources Center, Ha Noi, Viet Nam. The bunch was discovered after having been previously removed from the plant for flower harvesting for food, so we do not know how long had passed after removal from the plant. Fruit on the bunch were at two levels of ripeness: the lateral part of the bunch in contact with the compost it was lying on was ripe and the lateral part of the bunch exposed directly to the air was still unripe. Ripe fruit differed from unripe in that they were yellow-brown in colour compared to light green and soft compared to hard. Seeds from all fruit were hard when pinched, and endosperms were powdery. Seeds had capitate embryos in all seeds examined. Fruit from both ripe and unripe fruit contained many seeds per berry. Extraction and processing were carried out in the field, and therefore under inherent constraints."}]},{"head":"Experiments Experiment 1: the effect of relative humidity on moisture content and viability","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":299,"text":"Seed survival, MC and equilibrium relative humidity (eRH) of three M. acuminata subspecies (bunches 1-3; Table 1) were assessed before and after equilibrating seeds to seven levels of RH. MC and eRH were also assessed directly after extraction from fruit pulp, without any washing or surface drying. eRH was measured using a hygrometer (HygroPalm AW1, Rotronic, Bassersdorf, Switzerland). A sample cup (height, 40 mm) was filled with seeds from each bunch/treatment combination, and the RH was measured after equilibrating for 20 minutes. MC was measured by weighing seeds before and after dehydration at 70 • C for 3 days in an oven (non-standard temperatures and extended drying time was used because of oven availability following experimental verification that dry weight was achieved for Musa seeds) and then calculating MC percentage (i.e. on fresh weight basis). Three batches of 10 seeds were used for each bunch/treatment combination, and mean MC was calculated. Five of the seven levels of RH were achieved by equilibrating seeds in sealed humidity controlled chambers, regulated with non-saturated lithium chloride (LiCl) solutions (11,15,20,40, 65% RH; Table S1) (Hay et al., 2008;Gold and Hay, 2014). The final RH (100%) was achieved by only adding deionized water to the chamber. Chambers were 325 ml in capacity, using 65 ml of solution, sealed with cling film and equilibrated at 20 • C for 3 days prior to use. RH in chambers was tested using a hygrometer before suspending seeds above the solution on wire shelves avoiding contact with the solution. The seventh RH level was achieved using silica gel in a desiccator. The RH of the desiccator chamber was measured with a hygrometer in the chamber with seeds. Seeds were equilibrated in chambers for 14 days, at 20 • C and subsequently removed for assessment of MC and viability."},{"index":2,"size":135,"text":"Seed viability of each bunch/treatment combination was measured using three methods. One, the tetrazolium chloride (TTC) test, using a 0.5% 2,3,5-triphenyl-2H-tetrazolium chloride solution, and 24 seeds from each bunch/treatment. After removal from humidity-controlled chambers, seeds were imbibed for 48 hours on 1% agar in a Petri dish at 20 • C. Embryos were then removed from seeds using forceps and scalpel and submerged in TTC solution divided between two 1.5 ml Eppendorf tubes per bunch/treatment. These were incubated for 48 hours in the dark at 27 • C. Embryo staining was assessed under a binocular microscope. Tetrazolium chloride is a colourless compound that stains living tissues red when it is enzymatically reduced to triphenyl formazan. Embryo colouration was categorized into four groups: full red, red coloration at the tip (embryonic axis), pink or no coloration."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"The second viability method was based on ER. All ER procedures were completed in sterile conditions, in a laminar flow hood using the method described by Kallow et al. (2020). Embryo reactions were categorized 28 days after initiation, as follows: germinated (showing shoot growth), callused, blackened, contaminated with fungi or bacteria or showing no growth."},{"index":4,"size":98,"text":"The third viability test method was whole seed germination test. For this we placed 24 seeds per bunch/treatment combination in a Petri dish with 50 g of sterilized sand moistened with 7 ml of deionized water. Petri dishes were then placed in an incubator at alternating temperatures of 20 • C for 18 hours in the dark and 35 • C for 6 hours in the light continuously cycled for 6 weeks (based on Stotzky et al., 1961 andKallow et al., 2021a). Germination was scored every 7 days; any germinated seeds showing radicle emergence were recorded and removed."},{"index":5,"size":95,"text":"A seed moisture desorption isotherm was plotted for seed MC and eRH using non-parametric local polynomial regression for curve fitting (Loess). Multinomial logistic regression (MLR) with counts according to ER and TTC outcomes were modelled separately with treatment RH and subspecies/accession as factors, tested in a minimum adequate model (MAM) using ANOVA and X 2 test. Post hoc estimated marginal means were calculated for each bunch/treatment combination and contrast analysis carried out using the Dunnett test against the control treatment (superficial surface-dried seeds). All statistical analyses were carried out in R (R Core Team, 2020)."}]},{"head":"Experiment 2: the effect of maturity on viability and drying","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":145,"text":"Initial seed viability of bunches 4 and 5 at two levels of maturity was tested by ER after surface drying for 24 hours in ambient laboratory conditions and for a further four consecutive days of desiccation. Seeds were desiccated by placing them in a desiccator (inner diameter, 250 mm) with dried silica gel (∼1500 cm 3 ). A sample from each bunch remained in ambient conditions in the laboratory and was tested alongside desiccated seeds on the final day. Forty seeds per bunch were tested at each time point. At each time point and immediately on extraction (without washing), MC of seeds was assessed as described above, except in these instances dry weight was achieved at 103 • C for 17 hours. Additionally, the MC of fruit pulp of the two bunches was tested in three replicates of ∼1 cm 3 of pulp without washing."},{"index":2,"size":115,"text":"To assess the capacity of fresh whole seeds to germinate, surface-dried seeds, maintained at ambient conditions for 5 days, were sown in two plastic trays (100 × 40 × 10 cm). Trays were divided in half, with seeds from different bunches sown at either side of the tray. Seeds were sown in soil (clay loam) and were placed in a light screen house at UPLB. Seeds were covered with 5 mm of substrate; trays were placed on a concrete path and watered each day. Two replicates of two hundred seeds were sown from each bunch. Trays were checked each day and germinated seedlings were recorded and removed. The germination test was concluded after 55 days."},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"Mean MC of freshly extracted mature and less mature seeds (without washing) was compared using a t test, as were mature and less mature seeds after 4 days in the desiccator. ER and final seed germination was converted to final percentage germination for descriptive purposes. ER responses to drying were assessed using a binomial generalized linear model (GLM) with MC as explanatory variable."}]},{"head":"Experiment 3: the effect of fruit ripeness and drying rate on seed germination","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":285,"text":"Seeds from ripe and unripe fruit of the same bunch were kept separately. Seeds were dried in paper sachets in three conditions: 'air dry' (paper bag no silica gel), 'slow dry' (sealed in zip-loc bags containing one sachet of silica gel; total volume, 20 cm 3 ; GeeJayChemicals, UK, self-indicating orange to colourless, 1-3 mm), 'fast dry' (sealed in zip-loc bags containing six sachets filled with silica gel; total volume, 6 × 20 cm 3 ). Seed eRH was monitored with a hygrometer (HygroPalm AW1, Rotronic, Bassersdorf, Switzerland). Seeds with silica gel were dried to 35-40% eRH, as measured by the hygrometer, then the silica gel was removed (∼39 hours for fast drying, 112 hours for slow drying; Fig. S2). Seeds were maintained in paper bags in ambient conditions until sown 2 weeks later, therefore only the drying rate to 35-40% eRH was controlled for slow and fast-dried seeds. Seeds dried without silica gel reached a minimum of 65% eRH (from ripe fruit) or 68% eRH (for unripe fruit). Germination testing was then carried out in the soil, at the Plant Resources Center, Ha Noi, Viet Nam. Four replicates of 40 seeds per ripeness/treatment combination were directly sown in the soil and covered by 1 cm of soil. Seeds were sown in four replicate 50 cm 2 grids per sample in the same sowing area. A control set of seeds, from mid-way between the green and yellowbrown fruit of the same bunch, were extracted. These had been transported back to the centre while still attached to the bunch pedicle inside a large plastic bag and were also sown. The sowing area was monitored every 2 days and germinated seedlings were recorded per replicate and removed."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"Seed germination response was tested using a binomial GLM, with ripeness and drying as factors. The MAM was found by removing interactions and factors and comparing models using ANOVA and the X 2 test. Post hoc contrast analysis was performed on the MAM by calculating estimated marginal means and standard errors and using the Dunnet test with treatments against control."}]},{"head":"Experiment 4: the effect of drying and imbibition on seed morphology","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":225,"text":"Eight seeds from each of two bunches (bunches 7-8), of the same M. balbisiana accession, were randomly selected. Seeds were then scanned for visualization and measurement of the embryo volume after surface drying (detailed X-ray computer tomography (CT) scanning and image analysis methods are in the Supplementary Methods), and were then divided between two RH chambers, at 15% RH and 100% RH was controlled as described above. Seeds were equilibrated in chambers for at least 14 days. Then, two seeds per bunch/chamber were rescanned, and two seeds per bunch/chamber were re-imbibed for 7 days at 20 • C on agar and re-scanned. Additionally, ER was conducted, as described above, on 24 seeds in each of these same conditions (surface dried only, 15% eRH, 100% eRH, 15% eRH and re-imbibed, 100% eRH and re-imbibed).  Desorption isotherm for seeds of three M. acuminata subspecies (bunches 1-3). Seeds were equilibrated in RH-controlled chambers using non-saturated lithium chloride, apart from 4% RH in a desiccator with silica gel and 100% RH with water. The black dashed line is fitted with non-parametric local polynomial regression; the grey shaded area is 0.95 confidence interval; the red dotted horizontal line is mean seed MC directly at extraction without washing. MC calculated on fresh weight basis. No statistically significant differences were found between bunches/subspecies so they are combined in the trend line here."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"Repeated measures linear mixed effects models were used to compare changes in volume during RH equilibration and re-imbibition. Again, post hoc estimated marginal means and contrast analysis using the Dunnett test was used against the control. Finally, all five ER responses were assessed using MLR, followed by post hoc estimated marginal mean calculation and Dunnet test against the fresh seeds."}]},{"head":"Results","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"Experiment 1 MC of seeds of three subspecies of M. acuminata ranged from a maximum of 28% at 100% eRH, to a minimum of 2.5% at 4% eRH in the desiccator. Freshly extracted seeds, without washing, were close to the maximum, 26 ± 3% MC (mean, standard deviation, used hereon). There was very little difference between subspecies (thus excluded from the MAM). A desorption isotherm was fitted to the MC and eRH values (Fig. 2). Three phases of water desorption (Vertucci & Roos, 1990;McDonald, 2007) were apparent: a convex region at RHs below 20%, a linear region at RHs between 20 to 65% and a concave region at RHs above 65%."},{"index":2,"size":167,"text":"ER outcomes showed no significant contrasts against the control (superficially surface-dried seeds) according to MLR and Dunnett tests for all apart from an increase in embryos showing no reaction (white) at 4% eRH (t = 3.007, df = 32, P = 0.029) and a lack of contamination in 40 and 20% eRH (t = −2.785, df = 32, P = 0.0496; Fig. 3a). The TTC tests also showed significant effects when seeds were at 4% eRH (Fig. 3b): red-stained embryos reduced (t = −5.749, df = 24, P < 0.001) and pink-stained embryos increased (t = 4.834, df = 24, P = 0.0049). Across all treatments, apart from 20% and 11% eRH, there were more embryos showing no staining compared to the control that had none showing no staining. For both ER and TTC models subspecies/accession were excluded from the MAM. None of the whole seeds in either the control groups or any of those equilibrated to different eRHs germinated in the incubator at 35/20 • C."}]},{"head":"Experiment 2","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":290,"text":"There were no significant differences in MC of freshly extracted mature and less mature seeds without washing or superficial drying (mature seeds: 57 ± 4% MC, less mature seeds: 65 ± 5% MC, t = −2.029, df = 3.562, P = 0.121; Fig. 4a). However, mature seeds dried faster, especially during surface drying and the first 24 hours desiccation (mature seeds: 16.3 ± 2.4% MC, less mature seeds: 42.0 ± 2.2% MC, t = −13.863, df = 3.974, P < 0.001). After 4 days desiccation mature seeds had a small but significant higher MC compared to less mature seeds (8.1 ± 0.1% and 7.3 ± 0.4%, respectively; t = −13.863, df = 3.974, P < 0.001). Overall seeds from the less mature bunch therefore lost a small but significantly greater amount of moisture during desiccation. The pulp of the mature bunch was 74 ± 0.5% MC and the less mature pulp was 83 ± 1.1% MC.  Mature seeds were desiccation tolerant to the minimum level of desiccation achieved in the timeframe (8% MC; Fig. 4a, b). Initial germination of mature seed that had been only surface dried was 63%, after 5 days desiccation germination was 70%. Control seeds maintained in ambient conditions lost viability to 35% after 5 days. There were no significant germination differences according to MC for mature seeds (z = 1.766, P = 0.077). Seeds of the less mature bunch showed 0% germination after surface drying, the maximum germination achieved was 8% after 1 day in the desiccator, but no germination beyond 2 days in the desiccator. In the soil germination tests, mature seeds had a high final germination (72 ± 4%), compared to the very low germination of less mature seeds (0.25 ± 0.35%, Fig. 4c)."}]},{"head":"Experiment 3","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":136,"text":"Ripeness and drying rate (amount of silica gel during drying to 35-40% RH) had a significant effect on final germination in the GLM (Fig. 5). Contrast analysis showed that seeds from unripe fruit in all drying conditions, and ripe fruit fast dried only, had significantly lower germination than control seeds that had not been dried (air dry: z = −2.898, P = 0.020; slow dry: z = −4.177, P < 0.001; fast dry: z = −5.344, P < 0.001). Air-dried and slow-dried seeds from ripe fruits were not significantly different than fresh control seeds (air dry: z = −2.285, P = 0.101; slow dry: z = −2.354, P = 0.09). Within ripeness category, drying rate always had an effect in the order: air, slow, fast. Quasibinomial error structure was used because of overdispersion of binomial models."}]},{"head":"Experiment 4","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":183,"text":"The volumes of the embryo and the rest of the seed (excluding air space and embryo) were visualized by CT scanning seeds. We then calculated volumes before and after equilibrating at 15% RH and 100% RH, and then again after re-imbibing seeds. We did this for seeds of mature and less mature bunches collected from the same M. balbisiana accession. We found that embryos from less mature seeds significantly reduce  volume when dried (t = −4.000, P = 0.005; Figs 6a and 7) and increased volume when equilibrated at 100% RH (t = 4.741, P = 0.006). By contrast embryos of mature seeds do not significantly change in volume when dried (t = −2.806, P = 0.071). Embryos of mature seeds also significantly increase in volume after equilibrating at 100% RH and then on agar for 7 days (t = 4.203, P = 0.01), but less mature embryos do not (t = −0.470, P = 0.941). Notably, when the embryo volume is decreased on desiccation, the airspace around the embryonic axis in the micropyle is evident, noticeably for less mature seeds (Fig. 7)."},{"index":2,"size":91,"text":"Drying caused the seed (not counting the embryo) to reduce in volume for both mature and less mature seeds (less mature: t = −6.296, P < 0.001; mature: t = −5.915, P < 0.001; Fig. 6b). In particular, the endosperm and chalaza mass lost volume that was replaced by air space (Fig. 7). Notably, this effect was evident in the chalaza mass for surface-dried seeds compared to re-imbibed seeds, meaning the chalaza mass is the first part of the seed to lose moisture, and also to take up moisture on re-imbibition."},{"index":3,"size":118,"text":"There was no difference in ER results according to the maturity of the bunches used in the CT scan; the minimum adequate MLR model contained only treatment and not maturity. Post hoc Dunett tests showed germination decreased when seeds were equilibrated at 100% eRH (for 14 days) and also if they were re-imbibed for 7 days after equilibrating to 15% RH (Fig. 8). The probability that an embryo would germinate is replaced by contamination in these treatments. There was no significant change in embryo outcome between fresh seeds and those at 15% eRH (without re-imbibition),  meaning viability is lost due to contamination and not desiccation sensitivity in the embryo for mature and less mature seeds in this experiment."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Seed responses to desiccation are essential to seed genebanking. In the present study we examined Musa seed responses to drying, ultimately to inform best practice for conservation practitioners."}]},{"head":"Moisture content","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":227,"text":"The desorption isotherm of banana presented here (Fig. 2) is comparable to other starchy seeds (McDonald, 2007). Seed physical and physiological changes correlate with seed oil content during drying and re-imbibition because water binding depends on seed chemical properties. All seeds typically show three water-binding regions and these are remarkably similar according eRH, but the MC of these depends on seed oil content (Vertucci and Roos, 1990). Region 1 is found below 15-20% eRH, where only strong binding water remains in the seed and the seed is in quiescence; region 2 is situated between 20% and 90% eRH where there is also weak binding water and seed ageing increases with RH and temperature; and region 3 is >90% eRH where respiration and repair can take place (Sun, 2002;McDonald, 2007). The FAO Genebank Standard guidance is for seeds to be dried to 10-25% eRH, depending on species (FAO, 2014), i.e. around the cusp of regions 1 and 2. Our isotherm for M. acuminata (Fig. 2) shows transition from region 1 to 2 at 15-20% eRH (at 20 • C) or 5-6% MC. We anticipate that isotherms are similar across the Musaceae as they all exhibit powdery starchy endosperms and gelatinous chalazal masses (Fig. 1) (Benedict et al., 2016). Further moisture profile assessments of the embryo would also be beneficial, as the isotherm presented refers to the whole seed."},{"index":2,"size":109,"text":"The chalaza was the first part of a seed to dry in ambient conditions (Fig. 7). The chalaza therefore acts as a buffer, regulating moisture in the rest of the seed including the embryo, thereby limiting the effect of sudden drying or slowing initial drying after dispersal from the high moisture of the fruit (Kiew, 1987). Drying of the chalazal mass has also been proposed to facilitate secondary dormancy in banana seeds (Chin, 1996); however, our results show seeds readily re-imbibe moisture. Additionally, the chalazal quickly absorbs moisture during imbibition, this increases pressure and contact between the endosperm and embryo, and therefore allows uptake of sugars by the embryo.    "}]},{"head":"Desiccation tolerance","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":172,"text":"Our data show that both M. acuminata and M. balbisiana seeds can be dried to 15% eRH (5% MC) and even down to 4% eRH (2.5% MC) without any loss of ER viability (Figs 2  and 8). This finding is broadly in keeping with recent results for M. balbisiana (Singh et al., 2021), where seeds were desiccation tolerant to ∼10% MC, dried in a laminar flow or room temperature, but not with silica gel (to 7% MC). Another study found M. acuminata embryos were desiccation tolerant to 15% MC, but lost around half of their viability when dried to 6% MC (Abdelnouresquivel et al., 1992). Loss of viability in storage at 15% eRH or when dried in a desiccator with silica gel to 2.4% MC has also been reported for six Musa species, although M. balbisiana was found to have greater desiccation tolerance than others in that instance (Kallow et al., 2020;Kallow et al., 2021a). Desiccation tolerance in Musa is therefore possible but not consistent and relies on other factors discussed below. "}]},{"head":"Maturity","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"Maturity had a profound effect on viability (Fig. 4), less mature seeds showed negligible viability, as evident in both ER and germination tests. These seeds were seemingly well developed, with capitate embryos, white and powdery endosperms and hard dark seed coats. This is particularly notable as germination capacity develops after embryogenesis and seed filling, and prior to late maturation, important for desiccation tolerance (Leprince et al., 2017). Visually observed welldeveloped seeds (in experiment 2) had not even reached the stage where germination was possible, let alone survive desiccation. These results contrast with those of experiment 4, where less mature seeds (ripened during shipment) had high germination and maintained viability even after desiccation to 15% eRH."},{"index":2,"size":279,"text":"In comparable studies, less mature wild collected M. acuminata subsp. banksii seeds had minimal ER germination that reduced further on drying (Kallow et al., 2020). Seeds of M. balbisiana were required to be fully mature at 125 days after flowering (DAF) for any whole seed germination and optimal ER, although some ER germination was achieved at 100 DAF (Singh et al., 2021). Seeds of M. acuminata needed 115 DAF for maximum germination (Darjo and Bakry, 1990) and 99 DAF meant embryos produced shoots rather than callus (Uma et al., 2011). Additionally, Simmonds (1952) found that M. balbisiana seeds germinated to >80% from 4 weeks before and 2 weeks after 'maturity' (maturity was undefined, fruit were also ripened). Simmonds also found an interaction between maturity and desiccation tolerance, being more apparent for M. acuminata than for M. balbisiana, the latter again seems to be less sensitive to drying. Desiccation sensitivity, related to incomplete structural maturation, is certainly indicated in our results, as embryos of less mature seeds shrank significantly during drying, in comparison to mature embryos that did not (Figs 6 and 7). During the latter stages of maturation of orthodox seeds, seeds dry after abscission. During this stage embryo cell vacuoles decrease in size and insoluble reserves deposit in the cytoplasm, such as longer-chain non-reducing sugars, late embryogenesis heat shock proteins and antioxidants are accumulated (Berjak and Pammenter, 2008). These structural changes in orthodox seeds prevent massive cell shrinkage and mechanical strain during desiccation and therefore may play a crucial role in protecting cells during desiccation (Perez et al., 2012;Walters, 2015;Ballesteros et al., 2020). This was observed in the difference of volume change in mature and less mature embryos."},{"index":3,"size":85,"text":"The maturation process has most thoroughly been described for dry-dispersed orthodox seeds (Ellis, 2019). However, seeds of fleshly fruit show similar processes of maturation drying after mass maturity (Demir and Ellis, 1992a;Demir and Ellis, 1992b). Freshly extracted seeds of mature and less mature seeds were not significantly different in MC (Fig. 4); however, after removal of surface moisture with 24 hours of ambient drying they were remarkably different. This therefore suggests that maturation drying is required, not only for germination but also for desiccation tolerance."},{"index":4,"size":104,"text":"The challenge for seed conservation of Musa is how to reliably identify desiccation-tolerant seeds in the forest, given maturation is environmentally regulated (Daws et al., 2006;Ellis, 2019) and DAF cannot be known in these settings and are season dependent. Dry mass accumulation and change in fruit colour are used by seed collectors to identify seed maturity in fleshy fruits like bananas (Hay and Smith, 2004). Additionally, a hard seed coat with fused integuments, a powdery endosperm and capitate embryo have been identified here and elsewhere as indicators (Kallow et al., 2020;Singh et al., 2021). However, more clear morphological guidance is needed for seed collectors."}]},{"head":"Ripeness","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":178,"text":"Post-harvest ripening increased desiccation tolerance (Fig. 5). Seeds from ripened fruits showed higher germination frequencies and were less susceptible to harsher, faster drying rates than seeds in unripe fruits. This was also evident in bunches 1-3, whose desiccation tolerant seeds had ripened during transit. In each of these instances ripening occurred on the peduncle after harvest, whereas in another study seeds showing low desiccation tolerance were shipped as loose fruits or hands (Kallow et al., 2020). Simmonds (1952) found that seeds of M. acuminata and M. balbisiana were less susceptible to drying if fruit were ripened (presumably after harvesting) and ripening had a large effect if the bunch was less mature compared to mature. Although, in another experiment, seeds did not show desiccation sensitivity and ripening to 'black-ripe' and 'rotted' had a negative effect on germination before and after drying. Simmonds (1959) also found that drying ripe and over-ripe whole mature fruits in the oven for 4 days at 45 • C had a surprisingly positive effect on viability, but for unripe fruit this was not the case."},{"index":2,"size":151,"text":"Post-harvest maturation of seeds collected before mass maturity has been observed for several species and is typically optimal under conditions approximate to the natural environment (Hay and Probert, 1995;Lima et al., 2005;Probert et al., 2007;Whitehouse et al., 2017). Presumably, the ripeness of fruit in experiment 3 was encouraged through the microclimate and chemical exchange with the decomposing matter at the lower side of the bunch; and fruit in experiments 1 and 4 ripened during transit. Banana ripeness is primarily controlled by ethylene and ABA (Thompson et al., 2019) and involves conversion of starch to sugars in fruit in order to attract dispersers (Marriott et al., 1981). As experiment 3 was carried out during a field mission, with a bunch collected in an uncontrolled manner, the environment in which the ripe part of the bunch developed was not known. Being able to extend the small window between maturation and dispersal by post- "}]},{"head":"Rate of drying","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":186,"text":"Seeds had better viability when dried slowly compared to faster drying (to 35-40% eRH, ∼8.6% MC), particularly when fruit were unripe (Fig. 5). This is in keeping with Singh et al. (2021) who found that M. balbisiana seeds had high viability when dried either at room temperature (minimum, 9.8% MC) or in the laminar flow (minimum, 19.5% MC) or a combination of these (minimum, 10% MC), but not in a desiccator with silica gel (minimum, 4.1% MC). However, seeds maintained high viability when dried in silica gel if they were pre-dried with a combination of laminar flow and room temperature (10% MC). Then they maintained high viability after further drying with silica gel (89% ER, 5.5% MC). Slow drying seeds is beneficial for some (Greenwood and Stark, 2014;Stark et al., 2016), but not all species (Wesley-Smith et al., 2001). In our results, it was seeds of unripe fruits that were most sensitive to drying rate, and this is in keeping with other studies for immature seeds prior to post-abscission maturation (Hay and Probert, 1995;Hong and Ellis, 1997;Lima et al., 2000;Lima et al., 2005;Whitehouse et al., 2015)."}]},{"head":"Implications for conservation","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":205,"text":"Conserving CWRs is a global priority (CBD, 2012;FAO, 2021). It protects genetic resources for crop adaptation and breeding and therefore aids food security. For bananas this impacts the many millions of people who rely on this crop for food and income in the face of environment change. Ex situ seed conservation is the most efficient form of ex situ conservation for bananas and allows easy access of material for use (Panis et al., 2020). Our results show that to maximize seed viability, and therefore the value of ex situ collections, care is needed at the collection stage, ensuring seeds are collected at full maturity and fruit is allowed to ripen. We have demonstrated some of the morphological characteristics that identify mature fruit and seeds that signal seed maturity. These are in keeping with general advice for seed collectors that seed should be collected at the point of natural dispersal (Hay and Smith, 2004;Hay and Probert, 2011). For bananas this is often a challenge because of frugivory; however, it is evidently a false economy to collect and store material that does not survive in storage, so solutions need to be found in protecting seeds from frugivory to allow for collection of mature seeds from wild populations."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"Additionally, the present study investigated the effect of drying on seed storage; however, storage temperature is also an important consideration for survival and longevity. Initial results elsewhere show that Musa seeds survive for at least 5 years storage at a range of temperatures (25 • C, 5 • C, −20 • C and − 196 • C) if they are adequately dried to below 10% MC (Panis et al., 2020;Singh et al., 2021)."},{"index":3,"size":85,"text":"To extend and consolidate our findings further investigation, with a wider range of species, would be beneficial; very few Musa species have been investigated for storage behaviour. Access to suitable material was a major constrain to the present study, meaning we had to work in several locations and laboratories. This limited consistency in the experiment methods used, such as seed collection, cleaning and desiccation, and demonstrates some of the challenges with regard to conservation of plant genetic resource (Engels and Thormann, 2020;Pearce et al., 2020)."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"Conservation of plant genetic resources, including seed genebanking, is important for global food security to meet the challenges of the future. Our results show responses to drying in banana wild relatives. We conclude that (i) Musa seeds are desiccation tolerant; (ii) seeds must be fully mature to germinate, even for ER; (iii) ripening reduces desiccation sensitivity; (iv) fast drying decreases survival, this effect is reduced if seeds are ripened; (v) less mature embryos undergo greater shrinkage, indicative of desiccation sensitivity. Based on our results, we anticipate seed conservation will become an ex situ conservation method for banana CWR genetic resources."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" (i) To what extent are seeds desiccation tolerant? How does (ii) maturity, (iii) post-harvest ripening and (iv) drying rate affect desiccation tolerance? (v) How does dehydration affect embryo shrinkage of different maturities? .......................................................................................................................................................... "},{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Musa acuminata seed. mi, micropyle cap; en, endosperm; em, embryo; te, testa; ch, chalazal mass. "},{"text":" .......................................................................................................................................................... "},{"text":" .......................................................................................................................................................... "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure2: Desorption isotherm for seeds of three M. acuminata subspecies (bunches 1-3). Seeds were equilibrated in RH-controlled chambers using non-saturated lithium chloride, apart from 4% RH in a desiccator with silica gel and 100% RH with water. The black dashed line is fitted with non-parametric local polynomial regression; the grey shaded area is 0.95 confidence interval; the red dotted horizontal line is mean seed MC directly at extraction without washing. MC calculated on fresh weight basis. No statistically significant differences were found between bunches/subspecies so they are combined in the trend line here. "},{"text":" .......................................................................................................................................................... "},{"text":"Figure 3 : Figure 3: (a) ER outcomes and (b) tetrazolium chloride outcomes, modelled from MLR based on seeds (bunches 1-3) equilibrated to different RHs. "},{"text":" .......................................................................................................................................................... "},{"text":"Figure 4 : Figure 4: Results from seeds of two bunches of M. balbisiana at different levels of maturity (bunches 4-5). (a) MC (fresh weight basis) during desiccation in a desiccator with silica gel; 'fresh' is without washing, 'surface' is after 24 hours surface drying in ambient laboratory conditions after washing, otherwise days are time in a desiccator (n = 3 × 10). (b) ER results as percentage of sample forming shoots within 28 days of initiation samples removed from a desiccator each 24 hours; 'control' seeds were left in ambient conditions for 4 days (n = 40). (c) final germination results 55 days after sowing in soil. Whole seeds were sown and seedlings were recorded and removed daily; seeds were covered with 5 mm of soil and exposed to sun in a screen house; seeds were 5 days after extraction maintained at ambient conditions without desiccation (n = 200). "},{"text":" .......................................................................................................................................................... "},{"text":"Figure 5 : Figure 5: Estimated marginal means of germination based on GLM with quasibinomial error structure; estimates back-transformed to probability scale. P-values (shown above error bars) are contrasts against control seeds that had not been dried. M. balbisiana seeds used (bunch 6), fresh and after three levels of drying and two levels of ripeness. Control seeds were extracted 2 weeks later on return to the laboratory. Seeds were sown in the soil at Plant Resources Center, Ha Noi, Viet Nam, and monitored for 78 days. "},{"text":" .......................................................................................................................................................... "},{"text":"Figure 6 : Figure 6: Estimated marginal means (and standard errors) of embryo (a) and seed volume excluding embryo and air space (b), based on repeated measures linear mixed model. P-values shown from Dunnett's test against fresh seeds ('fresh'), for seeds equilibrated at 15% RH and 100% RH for at least 14 days without imbibition and with imbibition on agar for 7 days ('imb') (bunches 7-8). "},{"text":"Figure 7 : Figure 7: A 3D visualization of M. balbisiana seeds (bunches 7-8) from CT scans. Displayed seeds were either surface dried only and left in ambient conditions or equilibrated to 15% RH for 14 days and then either scanned immediately after removal from 15% RH conditions or re-imbibed for 7 days on agar at 20 • C. Embryos are coloured blue; red shows empty surfaces within the seed where moisture has been desiccated. "},{"text":"Figure 8 : Figure 8: Plot of MLR model of ER results of both mature and less mature M. balbisiana seeds (bunches 7-8) used in experiment 4. "},{"text":" .......................................................................................................................................................... "},{"text":" .......................................................................................................................................................... harvest maturation is very useful for wild seed collecting, and therefore ripe for further research. "},{"text":"Table 1 : Origin of plant material used (see Fig. S1 for images) Bunch .......................................................................................................................................................... Experiment 1 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 Experiment11122344 Fruit ripeness Ripe Ripe Ripe Ripe Unripe Mixed Ripe Unripe Fruit ripenessRipeRipeRipeRipeUnripeMixedRipeUnripe Seed maturity Mature Mature Mature Mature Less mature Mature Mature Less mature Seed maturityMatureMatureMatureMatureLess matureMatureMatureLess mature Date 07/2020 07/2020 08/2020 10/2019 10/2019 01/2020 10/2020 10/2020 Date07/202007/202008/202010/201910/201901/202010/202010/2020 Institution CIRAD CIRAD CIRAD UPLB UPLB PRC CIRAD CIRAD InstitutionCIRADCIRADCIRADUPLBUPLBPRCCIRADCIRAD Location Roujol, Guadeloupe Roujol, Guadeloupe Roujol, Guadeloupe Los Baños, Philippines Los Baños, Philippines Êa Trul, Viet Nam Roujol, Guadeloupe Roujol, Guadeloupe LocationRoujol, GuadeloupeRoujol, GuadeloupeRoujol, GuadeloupeLos Baños, PhilippinesLos Baños, PhilippinesÊa Trul, Viet NamRoujol, GuadeloupeRoujol, Guadeloupe Accession PT-BA-00262 PT-BA-00412 PT-BA-00287 GB61996 GB61996 VTN785 PT-BA-00019 PT-BA-00019 AccessionPT-BA-00262PT-BA-00412PT-BA-00287GB61996GB61996VTN785PT-BA-00019PT-BA-00019 Taxa M. acuminata subsp. siamea M. acuminata subsp. banksii M. acuminata subsp. microcarpa M. balbisiana M. balbisiana M. balbisiana M. balbisiana M. balbisiana TaxaM. acuminata subsp. siameaM. acuminata subsp. banksiiM. acuminata subsp. microcarpaM. balbisianaM. balbisianaM. balbisianaM. balbisianaM. balbisiana  1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 12345678  "}],"sieverID":"fe0ec740-8ba4-40b4-8a4d-000326bd5cfc","abstract":"The ability of seeds to withstand drying is fundamental to ex situ seed conservation but drying responses are not well known for most wild species including crop wild relatives. We look at drying responses of seeds of Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana, the two primary wild relatives of bananas and plantains, using the following four experimental approaches: (i) We equilibrated seeds to a range of relative humidity (RH) levels using non-saturated lithium chloride solutions and subsequently measured moisture content (MC) and viability. At each humidity level we tested viability using embryo rescue (ER), tetrazolium chloride staining and germination in an incubator. We found that seed viability was not reduced when seeds were dried to 4% equilibrium relative humidity (eRH; equating to 2.5% MC). (ii) We assessed viability of mature and less mature seeds using ER and germination in the soil and tested responses to drying. Findings showed that seeds must be fully mature to germinate and immature seeds had negligible viability. (iii) We dried seeds extracted from ripe/unripe fruit to 35-40% eRH at different rates and tested viability with germination tests in the soil. Seeds from unripe fruit lost viability when dried and especially when dried faster; seeds from ripe fruit only lost viability when fast dried. (iv) Finally, we dried and re-imbibed mature and less mature seeds and measured embryo shrinkage and volume change using X-ray computer tomography. Embryos of less mature seeds shrank significantly when dried to 15% eRH from 0.468 to 0.262 mm 3 , but embryos of mature seeds did not. Based on our results, mature seeds from ripe fruit are desiccation tolerant to moisture levels required for seed genebanking but embryos from immature seeds are mechanistically less able to withstand desiccation, especially when water potential gradients are high."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0051ac682dcf9ed4b0b67dd228066d5c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ebbcdce5-74b1-4870-b0cf-cc1cabdff324/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Empowering Small Farmer Seed Producer Groups","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":181,"text":"Impact: In the Mbale pilot area of Uganda, 48% of all households now grow new bean varieties and, as an outcome, have increased household bean consumption by 50% and their annual bean sales by the equivalent of US$58. Women report improvements in their livelihoods from higher yields that improve family nutrition and eliminate time-consuming foraging for wild foods in the dry season. In Masaka and Rakai Districts, 52 groups producing for local seed companies obtain a premium 25% above market price for food beans; group seed sales last season totaled 130 tonnes and will triple this season. Elsewhere in Uganda, at least 240 groups (9,000 farmers) are now producing for direct sale to other farmers. Results confirm the bean networks' strategy of multiple releases of varieties adapted to different situations --African NARS have released 70 new bean varieties in the last 5 years alone --and have influenced ASARECA and SADC seed policies harmonization. The approach has been adopted for a range of crops, in part through a Seed Systems Working Group of the Future Harvest Centers in Eastern and Southern Africa."}]},{"head":"CEDO MISSION MOVING MOUNTAINS","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Community Enterprises Development Organisation"}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"21452796-0801-49c2-a32c-74664e9f4ee6","abstract":"Problem: Many small farmers in Africa have poor access to seed of new varieties. Commercial seed sales are limited for self-pollinating crops, and where demand is fragmented by local preferences. Seed companies focus on few varieties and often ignore those adapted to less favourable environments and those selected by women farmers. Seed systems research shows (1) farmer-to-farmer seed sharing is slow; (2) free seed creates dependency and undermines local seed systems; and (3) loan schemes that require farmers to return seed after harvest have high transaction costs.Innovation: 1) Understand local seed systems; 2) Train farmer groups to become seed producers and entrepreneurs, beyond contract production; 3) Link groups to active research programmes for two-way interaction, preferably for several crops; and 4) Forge complementary institutional arrangements according to the nature of the demand in each situation.Evolution: Organisation of farmer research groups by NARO and CIAT started in Uganda in 1990, and several groups went on to sell seed of their selected bean varieties. MMM joined in developing groups as seed producers/entrepreneurs experimentally in 1995, with replication by other NGOs. Local seed companies are also contracting seed production through NGOs such as CEDO.Successful groups have good leadership, develop their reputations and markets, and sell seed of several crops.A new black-seeded bean adapted to semi-arid areas is an example of an important market served only by groups.Manuals encourage the approach widely across crops; local organizations copublish in local languages."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"006d9d3d0de781c9143c205dda553c83","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/31b964ea-cf81-4b67-81d5-8052684ca4a2/retrieve"},"pageCount":50,"title":"CGIAR RESEARCH PROGRAM ON WATER, LAND AND ECOSYSTEMS PARTICIPATORY GENDER TRAINING FOR COMMUNITY GROUPS A Manual for Critical Discussions on Gender Norms, Roles and Relations","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Preface","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":187,"text":"Any intervention in a village requires strong community support. This cannot be trained or tick marked, as it is not easily measurable. Underlying every community and household is constant change. Male out-migration changes women's work load, their mobility and need to speak up for their family. However, their agency might be restricted by gendered norms. Social change, the change of norms, rules, and relations, is a long-term process. \"Gender\" cannot be trained as information or knowledge, as this would be prescriptive and counterproductive. Instead, this manual's intention is meant to guide staff working in communities on starting an open dialogue with participants on their gender perceptions through pictures and group discussions. How can farmers work effectively in groups, both men and women being sensitive towards gendered restrictions? This training manual sensitizes both farmers and field staff for gender roles and relations, and helps inform, monitor and modify project interventions. Furthermore, methods can be used by researchers for a gender analysis. Most of all, farmers and staff can reflect around their capabilities, value systems and existing practices to make suitable contributions and become effective partners in intervention processes."},{"index":2,"size":136,"text":"Community engagement in the activities and discussions of this training are based on brain based principles (Spitzer, 2007). For this purpose, a participatory, visualizing, network thinking and communicative approach was chosen (Bunch, 1995). To interlink knowledge, participants are encouraged to describe, explain, discuss and arrange visual inputs in form of pictures (Vester, 2002). A role play challenges farmers to represent the other gender in a humoristic manner, and to act and speak like they perceive the other gender. Role-switching can promote a change of perspective and negotiation skills, without criticizing current gender roles and relations. This training provides a space for farmers and staff to share their perceptions, to learn from another, and to engage in a dialogue. This can lead to collective ideas evolving and a critical consciousness (Freire, 1970), which contributes to social change."},{"index":3,"size":202,"text":"While we conducted the trainings in six villages in India and Nepal, we were inspired by diverse farmers' great enthusiasm to talk about gender roles and beliefs in their community, as well as different critical views on gender relations. The workshops brought out how local gender norms (intersecting with age, caste and other social divides) strongly mitigate structural constraints such as limited access to or lack of irrigation, pesticides, crop choices, and bargaining market prices. The field staff and participants' enthusiasm while talking in depth about local gender beliefs triggered critical reflections and the realization that gender norms are already changing, and will change more in the future under the community's active engagement. Farmers were laughing heartily when asked to create spontaneously a role play with switched gender roles. In one role play, a woman started to sing out a traditional Maithili song which addresses the fact that women also re-enforce gender roles. This song demonstrates our central learning that we want to share with this manual: That it is important to creatively initiate discussions to raise awareness, as opposed to lectures. Whether and how this leads to change in the community will be in the hands of the participants, not us."},{"index":4,"size":2,"text":"-Stephanie Leder"}]},{"head":"A TRADITIONAL MAITHILI SONG","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":193,"text":"This is a very popular folk song sang by farmers for generations while working on the fields in the Mithilanchal region in Nepal, mostly by the Tharu community. It is about a group of women who go to fetch water, but one daughter-in-law breaks her pot. She flees to hide in her parents' village as she is scared of the consequences. Her sister-in-law reports to her husband about her bad manners in breaking the pot and his mother also tells him that she has bad manners. However, he does not blame his wife and instead looks for her. He asks her to return home despite the mistreatment of the in-laws. He understands her and explains that this will be solved by time, as the joint family will dissolve and they can live and make their own decisions. The song addresses gender discrimination women have historically faced, especially when at their husband's home. Here, in this song, it shows how men can play an important role in fight gender discrimination for their wife after marriage and be supportive of them, while women sometimes reinforce such discrimination upon less powerful women to gain more power."}]},{"head":"Maithili original","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"English translation My mother has become old, will die shortly, Sister will get married to her home, Remained will be my brother, I will separate him, We both will rule our regime.\" "}]},{"head":"WHAT IS GENDER?","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Caroline Moser (1993) defines gender as:"},{"index":2,"size":81,"text":"\"culturally based expectations of the roles and behaviors of men and women. The term distinguishes the socially constructed from the biologically determined aspects of being male and female. Sex identifies the biological difference between men and women, whereas gender identifies the social relations between men and women. It therefore refers not to men and women but to the relationship between them, and the way this is socially constructed. Gender relations are contextually specific and often change in response to altering circumstances.\""}]},{"head":"WHAT IS EMPOWERMENT?","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Naila Kabeer (1999) defines empowerment as:"},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"\"the process by which those who have been denied the ability to make strategic life choices acquire such an ability.\""},{"index":3,"size":113,"text":"Those who are disempowered are either denied or have limited choices. Therefore, empowerment is a process that expands people's ability to make choices that result in desired outcomes. The ability to make strategic choices depends on three interrelated dimensions: agency, resources and achievements. Resources relate to physical, social and human resources and access to such resources reflects the rules and norms, which allows certain individuals authority over others. Agency relates to decision-making wherein an individual recognizes their ability to either make a decision, bargain, negotiate, reflect, manipulate, or resist to pursue their own goals and can be exercised individually or collectively. Achievements are the outcomes of making strategic choices that lead to well-being."}]},{"head":"WHAT DOES PARTICIPATORY MEAN?","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Robert Chambers (1994) defines participatory as:"},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"\"an approach and methods to enable local people to share, enhance, and analyze their knowledge of life and conditions, to plan and to act.\""},{"index":3,"size":91,"text":"In a participatory approach, local people share and own their information and help shape outcomes. Everyone has the right to participate and outsiders must seek out marginalized voices and create a safe space to share information. Outsiders must also be self-critically aware of the different perspectives and realities within communities while respecting the local knowledge. This method involves 'handing over the stick' by allowing the unheard voices to share information while the 'expert' sits back and quietly allows others to participate in a safe space. Tools include mapping, diagramming, and ranking."}]},{"head":"GENDER IN AGRICULTURE AND WATER MANAGEMENT","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"Women play different roles in society which is determined by legislation, religious and cultural norms, economic status, ethnicity, community and household and their contribution to productive activities. Women are usually responsible for domestic work and also participate in agricultural activities that help generate income. However, their high participation contrasts with their low political and social power since their household activities and care work is economically unrecognized. Therefore, both men and women's role in society needs to be recognized and addressed separately to understand their needs and involvement in terms of decision-making."},{"index":2,"size":137,"text":"Gender interacts with socio-economic differences such as age, caste, and class in determining access to and control of resources. The transfer of water management responsibilities is given to local institutions such as water users groups, irrigation associations etc. The idea is that by decentralizing management of water resources, the community will benefit and lead to a sustainable use of the resource over time (Harris and Gantt, 2007). However, evidence suggests that the community-based approach applied in water management projects does not necessarily lead to greater participation and empowerment of all stakeholders involved (Meinzen-Dick and Zwarteveen, 1998). This is due to the fact that this approach views the community as one entity where the members share common interests and goals (Sultana, 2009) when, in reality, men and women have different needs and priorities in terms of resource use."},{"index":3,"size":177,"text":"Moreover, women still face barriers in controlling resources and participating in formal local institutions that are responsible for managing water resources. Gender relations play a major role in influencing structures of property and endowments that govern domestic divisions of property and labor which shape people's relationships to communities (Meinzen-Dick and Zwarteveen, 1998). In South Asia, land is traditionally owned by the male member of the household who also serves as the head of the household. Participation in local organizations such as water user groups is extended either to the land owner or head of the household, which in most cases tend to be male. At the same time non-participation may not always mean non-influence or non-involvement (Long, 1989). Evidence suggests that women influence decisions by relaying information to their husbands or the participating male members of the household. Their role as a backstage actor can be viewed as wielding some form of influence in formal institutions from the private domain. However, this influence occurs in the private domain and is dependent on their position within the household."},{"index":4,"size":65,"text":"In the developmental field, it is important to understand the perceptions of community, household and individuals to break it down based on local understanding. It is important to listen and consult with women of different age, caste, class and other socio-cultural divisions to understand their roles within the household and community to better understand and address their needs (Williams et al., 1994 andReeves andBaden, 2000)."}]},{"head":"Introduction WHO IS THIS MANUAL FOR?","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"Any community mobilizer, non-governmental organization (NGO) staff or researcher who wants to hold a discussion with farmers on gender norms, roles and relations in their communities can use this manual. It has been designed for communities with small-scale farming activities, but by changing the labor activities shown in Appendix II, it could also be used for more urban, non-agricultural settings."}]},{"head":"WHAT IS IN THIS MANUAL?","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"A step-by-step description of a three-hour gender training workshop for approximately 5 to 12 participants. In three activities and three discussions, participants:"},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"1) are encouraged to reflect on their own perceptions of sons and daughters"},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"2) critically review agricultural and domestic tasks, and why men and women are expected to work in different jobs"},{"index":4,"size":70,"text":"3) develop argumentation skills to resolve conflicts and evoke empathy, by switching roles and showing men and women what life is like for the other gender Guided discussions help connect the activities and provide participants space to ask questions and talk about new ideas. This manual also includes tips for facilitation and an appendix section with the paper props that you will need to run a successful and engaging workshop."}]},{"head":"HOW WAS THIS MANUAL MADE?","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"This "}]},{"head":"WHY IS THIS MANUAL IMPORTANT?","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"Due to male labor migration from rural communities, women are increasingly managing the farming process. Female-headed households face new patterns of vulnerability, with an increase in labor burden accompanied by limited access to and control over water resources. Addressing this through open dialogue is essential for climate resilience. Socio-economic, structural and institutional constraints to sustainable water use in patriarchal and caste-based societies impacted by migration pose a challenge to the long-term up-and out-scaling of more productive opportunities. This training addresses gender inequality in small-scale agriculture, women's triple work burden (domestic, productive and community tasks), and institutions marked by caste, class and gender disparities that particularly affect female-headed households, as well as marginal and tenant farmers."},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":"If women are also not allowed to contribute to particular forms of labor, use certain types of equipment or impact the decisions of farmer groups, agricultural productivity and farming livelihoods are challenged. This workshop helps communities realize the role that gender plays in their lives, and discuss how they can move toward a more equal society. This manual is not prescriptive or designed to infuse a particular \"Western\" view on gender relations. The activities and discussions provide valuable space for encouraging farmers to bring their own ideas and stimulate critical reflections and dialogue on gender perceptions and practices in their particular cultural setting."}]},{"head":"WHEN CAN THIS MANUAL BE USED?","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"While this manual can be used at any time to generate discussion and reflection on the impact of gender in a community, there are four times in particular when this workshop may be particularly necessary:"},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"1) When new projects are starting in villages and community groups are formed. In this case, the training can be used to sensitize field staff and farmers on gender relations in communities."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"2) When there are gender-related tensions in a community. This may happen often in communities where men are out-migrating and women are routinely left behind."},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"3) When conducting participatory research to understand how gender effects community relations and practices in villages."},{"index":5,"size":27,"text":"4) Lastly, with project staff who are working with communities. It can help to reveal one's own gender perceptions before addressing those directly or indirectly in villages."},{"index":6,"size":70,"text":"After the implementation of the activities and discussions, facilitators and farmers can discuss opportunities to repeat these activities to observe whether their perceptions have changed. It is important to view this workshop as an initial tool within a greater development process which can be linked to other project interventions. For this purpose, this manual can identify community-specific challenges regarding to gender relations which shape and developmental interventions in unpredicted ways."}]},{"head":"WHAT DOES THIS MANUAL ASSUME?","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"This manual assumes that facilitators understand that the concept of gender is socially constructed and changes over time and space (rather than being biologically fixed). Facilitators are expected to be able to lead critical discussions reflecting the origins of the cultural notions of \"girls\" and \"boys\", \"women\" and \"men\"."}]},{"head":"WHAT WILL PARTICIPANTS GAIN FROM THIS WORKSHOP?","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":" A space to talk about gender perceptions and roles in their households and community Myths on women's and men's roles in agriculture may be revealed, as well the imbalance in the division of labor  A chance to reflect While other training programs teach pre-determined technical skills, this workshop lets participants come to their own conclusions by guiding them through a reflection on gender and developing empathy through role play  New insights and skills What participants and facilitators learn may differ from workshop to workshop, but hopefully some participants leave with new ideas about how gender impacts their daily lives, and how they might change those impacts. Additionally, bargaining and problem solving skills will be learned from the role play activity."}]},{"head":"Preparation","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"WHAT DO I NEED? "}]},{"head":"WHO DO I NEED? Participants","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":150,"text":"It is important to keep the groups small to encourage good discussion. The recommended maximum number of participants is 12, and the workshop can be effective with as few as 5 or 6 participants. To encourage women's participation in meetings, crèches (daycare) for children or similar appropriate incentives can be arranged. It is important to allow sufficient time to select participants of different age, caste, and class, as well as to form groups in which all participants feel comfortable speaking. The groups should ideally be mixed, but keep in mind that sex-segregated groups often allow for a more secure space to speak. The choice between mixed or single sex groups depends on prior interventions in communities and how much women feel comfortable speaking about these topics in front of men. If there is significant hesitancy among the women to speak up, then single sex groups may provide greater individual participation."}]},{"head":"Facilitators","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"It is recommended to have two facilitators for this workshop. While it may be that only one person is facilitating at a time, it is important to have the other facilitator act as an observer and take notes. The facilitators should speak the local dialect or language. Particularly in groups with female participants, it is necessary to have female facilitators."}]},{"head":"WHAT DOES THE FACILITATOR DO?","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"The facilitator has a variety of very important jobs to make the workshop a success (adapted from the UNDP Afghanistan Gender Awareness and Development Manual). These are:"}]},{"head":"Encouraging participation","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"This is done by creating a safe space to talk about controversial issues, involving all participants in a discussion, and having an idea of the material and how participants might respond. To flatten hierarchies in communication, the facilitators should sit with the participants in a circle on the ground."}]},{"head":"Directing the conversation","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"While participation should be encouraged, it is equally important for the facilitator to direct the conversation away from negative themes (such as reinforcing stereotypes about gender, or insulting other participants) and towards a positive, productive discussion that encourages collective participation. This is a difficult balance and one of the reasons why the facilitator is so important."}]},{"head":"Sticking to the agenda","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"The facilitator must respect the participants' time in attending the workshop, and sticking to the time limits set in the agenda is a good way to do that. When participants know that time limits are being obeyed, they may also be more attentive during the sessions."}]},{"head":"Participating in activities and discussion","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"While the participants should be talking more than the facilitator, it can be helpful for the facilitator to share observations of his or her own during the activities and discussions. Although this participation is infrequent, it helps show that the facilitator does not have all the answers and is also here to learn from the discussion."}]},{"head":"Sharing responsibilities","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Just as the facilitator does not need to pretend to know everything about gender equality, he or she also does not need to do everything. Feel free to have a participant volunteer take notes if no other facilitators are available, or have participants hold up props while you talk. This can also help keep quieter participants involved, and louder participants busy."}]},{"head":"KEY FACILITATION SKILLS","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"To "}]},{"head":"Gender Workshop Modules INTRODUCING THE WORKSHOP (10 MIN)","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"This part of the manual will talk about how to introduce the workshop before activities begin. There are three topics to cover:"},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"1) The agenda 2) Creating a safe space for discussion 3) Introductions and ice breakers"}]},{"head":"THE AGENDA","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":126,"text":"It is recommended to start by presenting the agenda, as it helps participants understand where the conversations might lead. Discuss the agenda generally, by explaining that the workshop consists of 3 activities and 3 discussion sections that focus on gender. Then go through the agenda point by point. The time periods mentioned throughout this manual are from the tentative agenda which is printed below. Emphasize that all of these activities and discussions require the voices and stories of the participants, which leads to the next topic. A long introduction to the workshop is not recommended, as participants are already familiar with the agenda. Simply laying out the reason for the workshop, that gender plays a large role in rural life and is worth examining, may suffice. "}]},{"head":"Phase","index":27,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"CREATING A SAFE SPACE FOR DISCUSSION","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"Discussing gender may be a very new concept for the participants, especially in this unfamiliar setting. For this reason, it is important to talk about how the workshop will bring up sensitive and controversial issues. Let participants know that they may not agree with everything that is said, and that that is okay."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"At this point, the facilitator should briefly discuss his or her role in the group. Emphasize that you will try to let as much discussion as possible take place. This discussion will be constructive and aim at supporting each other in the village."}]},{"head":"PEER INTRODUCTION AS AN ICE BREAKER","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Beyond introducing the workshop, it is important to have introductions of each participant and facilitator. This can be done in a creative way: participants discuss in pairs for one to two minutes, sharing their name, number of family members, which crops they grow, and other relevant information. Participants then introduce not themselves, but the neighbor that they talked to:"},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"\"My friend's name is Srijana. She has five family members and grows paddy, wheat, and eggplant.\""},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"Having some sort of ice breaker activity on hand (such as this) is important in developing a friendly and understanding atmosphere for the following activities and discussions."},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"ACTIVITY 1: BOY OR GIRL? (30 MIN)"}]},{"head":"WHAT IS THIS ACTIVITY?","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Participants describe why they would rather have a son or a daughter."}]},{"head":"WHY IS IT IMPORTANT?","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Participants discuss their own values that are attached to having sons and daughters. These will be critically reflected upon and explained as socially constructed gender perceptions in the discussion following this activity."}]},{"head":"WHAT DO I NEED?","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Pictures of man and woman (Appendix II), cardboard/index cards and markers for note-taking."}]},{"head":"STEPS:","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Step 1: Hold the picture of the woman at one end of the circle, while the other facilitator holds the picture of the man at the other end. The two pictures are shown here, and larger versions can be cut out in Appendix II."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"Step 2: Explain: \"Imagine that you spoke to a doctor and due to a medical condition, you can only have one child in your life. Would you prefer a boy or a girl?\" (represented by the pictures of the man and the woman)."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"Step 3: Participants move and stand by the picture of the child that they want: a son or a daughter."},{"index":4,"size":54,"text":"Step 4: The girl group and the boy group separately sit down in small circles. The facilitator asks them: \"Why did you choose a girl/boy?\" This discussion can be led by a facilitator, but make sure that you also pick someone to take notes of the discussion, ideally on a big piece of cardboard."},{"index":5,"size":19,"text":"Step 5: Each group presents the reasons they picked a girl or boy to the rest of the participants. "}]},{"head":"ACTIVITY TIMELINE:","index":34,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"FACILITATOR TIPS:","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Let the participants develop their own reasons; you should not interfere with this process. During our workshops, the following topics came up: "}]},{"head":"WHY IS IT IMPORTANT?","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"It helps show how society and culture play a large role in what it means to be a woman or a man, and that there is a difference between what we are born as and what society tells us to be."}]},{"head":"STEPS:","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Step 1: The facilitator describes the difference between sex and gender. Refer to the chart showing examples of sex and gender as well as the sample introductory speech for ideas on how to best introduce participants to this difficult concept. Starting out with the following questions and definitions may be helpful:"}]},{"head":"Do you know what the difference is between sex and gender?","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"SEX is the biological characteristics of men and women. GENDER is the socially defined characteristics and roles of men and women."},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"Step 2: Prepare a table on a poster with two columns, one labeled \"Sex\" and the other \"Gender\". Ask the participants about their experiences in what defines being a man, or being a woman. If their examples are related to character traits or tasks, write them in the \"Gender\" column. If they relate to biological traits, write them in the \"Sex\" column (see example below). Explain to them the difference again. "}]},{"head":"SEX GENDER","index":39,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"A SAMPLE OF A 5-MINUTE INTRODUCTION TO THE CONCEPTS OF \"GENDER\" AND \"SEX\":","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"GENDER IS RELATIVE Males and females have a different list of activities that they have to perform. Those activities are understood as \"normal\" because they are performed by the majority of males and females of all ages around us. These activities are categorized by gender-related rules that are formed by the people of that society and its history."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"Can we think of some examples of what a majority of the men and women do in this village?  As one example, men are considered to be the breadwinner of the family, while women are thought to care for the family."}]},{"head":"GENDER IS LEARNED","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Gender can be understood as learned rather than taught. We learn how a specific gender should perform, even if it is not explicitly taught to us."},{"index":2,"size":115,"text":"For example: when babies are born, they learn from their parents that they are a girl or a boy, and by the age of 2.5 or 3 they are able to classify who is male or female around them. They first learn this by the way elders address them, as it is different for a baby boy than a baby girl, both in terms of the specific word used and in tone. When a baby understands that she is a girl, she learns what a girl does. What should she wear? What should she play with? What should she avoid? She learns the answers to these questions by observing her parents, elders and her friends."}]},{"head":"GENDER ROLES ARE UNQUESTIONED","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"The majority of assigned gender roles are accepted and remain unquestioned."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"For example: In certain regions, women do not plow. A part of the culture states that only men may plow the land and so in following these well-established roles, women do not plow. Instead, women are caretakers. They perform household chores and take care of children and the sick.  At this point, ask participants to think of more examples of roles that we do without questioning? Examples may include: cooking, dealing with money, cremation, drinking chai in public, etc."}]},{"head":"GENDER ROLES VARY IN DIFFERENT PLACES","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"Gender roles vary across caste and region. For example: In some communities, only men go to the market to sell agricultural products, while in others it is only women who go. Or: In Western cultures it is normal that men can cook food for family but in India and Nepal, for example, usually women are in charge of the kitchenthey are called homemakers too (grihini). Even in the same place or communities and at the same time, gender roles can vary within and across different cultures, religions, and castes."}]},{"head":"HOWEVER, GENDER ROLES ARE CHANGEABLE OVER TIME","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Gender roles and responsibilities can change over time."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":" Ask participants to think about what has CHANGED over time in their community, in terms of the responsibilities of male and female farmers. Give some examples, like maybe riding cycles and motorbikes, speaking up in a group, being responsible for the money  One example might be that in some communities, girls were not allowed to go to school, but nowadays daughters are sent to school along with sons."}]},{"head":"IDENTIFYING GENDER ROLES","index":45,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"To understand the expectations for different genders in our community, we must discover the different roles and responsibilities performed by women and men. Work can be divided into three main categories: productive, reproductive and community. Women's role, as has been noted, includes work in all three of these categories, which is referred to as women's triple work burden."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"Descriptions of these types of work follow:"},{"index":3,"size":98,"text":"1) Productive Work Any work related to production, whether for income or family consumption, is considered productive work. For example, farming or weaving baskets. Usually when people are asked about their job, their response is related to productive work, especially work which is paid or generates income. Both women and men can be involved in productive activities, but for the most part their function and responsibilities will differ according to the gender division of labor. Women's productive work is often less visible and less valued than men's. Women are generally paid less than men for performing same work."}]},{"head":"2) Reproductive Work","index":46,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"Involves the care and maintenance of the household and its members, including bearing and caring for children, food preparation, washing, cleaning, water and fuel collection, shopping and family health care. Reproductive work is crucial to human survival, yet it is seldom considered 'real work'. In developing communities, reproductive work is for the most part manual labor intensive and very time consuming. It is almost always the responsibility of women and girls."}]},{"head":"3) Community Work","index":47,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"Includes any collective organization of social events and services, ceremonies and celebrations, community improvement activities, participation in groups and organizations, local political activities and so on. Volunteer time is important for the spiritual and cultural development of communities and as a means of community organization. Both women and men engage in community activities, although a gendered division of labor also exists here. For example, men are present and influential in natural resource groups such as water user or forestry committees, despite an obligatory minimum attendance of 30% of women in such groups."}]},{"head":"THE GENDERED DIVISION OF LABOR","index":48,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":122,"text":"Hence, women, men, boys and girls are likely to be involved in all three areas of work. In many societies, however, women do almost all of the reproductive and much of the productive and community work. Development projects must remember that women's workload can prevent them from participating in ways that men may be able to. Additionally, any disruption in one area of work will affect the other areas. Extra time spent on farming, producing, trainings or meetings means less time for other tasks, such as child care or food preparation and finally rest. For these reasons, especially in agricultural production, it is important to understand the gendered needs of the partners and members and cooperate with them for a sustainable livelihood."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"Step 3: The facilitator lists the following behaviors and activities in a random order. Participants guess if they are determined by someone's gender or someone's sex. This can lead into a group discussion on gender and sex. WHAT IS THE ACTIVITY?"}]},{"head":"SEX","index":49,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Participants reflect on the types of labor done by women and men, and their reasoning behind that."}]},{"head":"WHY IS THIS IMPORTANT?","index":50,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"It helps participants see that the division of labor leads to a higher work burden for women, and how we can change that."}]},{"head":"WHAT DO I NEED?","index":51,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Pictures of different labor activities (15 are included in Appendix II, and others can be created), pictures of man and woman standing in different positions next to each other."}]},{"head":"STEPS:","index":52,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Step 1: Place the pictures of the man and woman in a row, arranged like this:"},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"Step 2: Describe the row of pictures, saying how it represents male labor, mostly male labor, labor shared by both genders, mostly female labor, or female labor."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"Step 3: The pictures of labor activities are distributed in the middle of the circle of participants."},{"index":4,"size":10,"text":"The participants each pick one picture of a labor activity."},{"index":5,"size":64,"text":"Step 4: Ask every participant to show their picture to the group and describe which activity is shown on their photo. After that, ask the participants to place the picture beneath the picture of the man and woman that they think it applies to: male labor, mostly male labor, labor shared by both genders, mostly female labor, or female labor (pictures in Appendix II)."},{"index":6,"size":16,"text":"Step 5: Explain WHY he or she thinks that that labor activity fits in that category."},{"index":7,"size":13,"text":"Repeat steps 3-5 until all labor activities have been placed in a category."},{"index":8,"size":83,"text":"Step 6: Ask participants: \"Does this look like an equal workload for men and women?\" Follow-up questions, such as, \"what problems might this create?\" could be useful. You can also ask participants if they think that farming might be more difficult for women because they are not allowed to apply fertilize, plow, etc. This is the topic of Discussion 2 and will be discussed in more detail later in the workshop, but it could be a good idea to ask this question now."},{"index":9,"size":20,"text":"Step 7: Ask: \"How would you like to change who does what job in the future, maybe in ten years?"},{"index":10,"size":32,"text":"Please re-arrange, if you would like to balance the labor differently.\" Help participants realize how changing which gender is responsible for a certain job can help make work more equal for everyone. "}]},{"head":"ACTIVITY TIMELINE:","index":53,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"TIPS:","index":54,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"1. Challenge participants to think beyond \"it has always been like this\" when they describe why a certain labor activity is for that gender. In our workshops, we heard participants describe tasks as \"dangerous\", \"heavy\", \"takes time\", \"safe and at home\", among other things."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"2. It may also be helpful to the participants if they think that the division of labor has changed over time, which may help participants realize that it can change in the future."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"3. Don't put away the pictures after this activity! It will be helpful to be able to look at the pictures during Discussion 2."},{"index":4,"size":10,"text":"DISCUSSION 2: VISIONING SUCCESSFUL MALE AND FEMALE FARMERS (20 MIN)"},{"index":5,"size":4,"text":"WHAT IS THIS DISCUSSION?"},{"index":6,"size":16,"text":"Participants imagine opportunities and challenges in becoming a successful farmer if they were the opposite gender."}]},{"head":"WHY IS IT IMPORTANT?","index":55,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Participants can reflect on challenges in ongoing project interventions, or envision their opportunities in farming. It also prepares participants for the gender-swapping role play in Activity 3, as well as gives space to dismantle roadblocks for female farmers."}]},{"head":"STEPS:","index":56,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Step 1: Divide the participants into two mixed gender groups. Choose a participant to take notes on the chart paper."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"Step 2: Ask participants to imagine themselves as a farmer of the opposite gender. Give participants time to let them imagine this new identity and life."},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"Step 3: For one group, ask: \"What are the opportunities to becoming a successful female farmer?"},{"index":4,"size":23,"text":"What are the challenges to becoming a successful female farmer?\". For the other group, ask the same two questions, but regarding male farmers."},{"index":5,"size":22,"text":"Step 4: Ask the males, who are imagining that they are female farmers: \"As female farmers, what will help you become successful?\""},{"index":6,"size":32,"text":"Step 5: Ask one group member to present the opportunities and challenges for the gender they discussed. As a larger group, discuss the differences between what the male and female groups described. "}]},{"head":"CHALLENGES FOR FEMALE FARMER","index":57,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"OPPORTUNITIES FOR FEMALE FARMERS","index":58,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"WHAT MATERIALS DO I NEED?","index":59,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Scarves, shirts, and other male and female clothes. Also farming and household props, such as a water pot, a spade, vegetables, plates, cups, etc. Cut out the situation and role cards from Appendix III."}]},{"head":"STEPS:","index":60,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Step 1: As facilitator, explain that a role play will happen. Encourage participants to will dress up and act like the opposite gender in this role play. Explain that gender role-switching will be a fun activity, as they can experience how to bargain as the other gender."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"Step 2: Pass out situation and role cards (Appendix III) and read them to the participants if necessary. Depending on the size of the group, pass out between 2 and 4 situation cards, ideally with a maximum of 5 participants in each group. Not all roles in each situation need to be used, and if groups are larger than five, you can add \"community member\" roles."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"Step 3: Tell the groups that they have 15 minutes to prepare a 3-4 minute role play based on the situation card they received. They should first give out role cards to everyone in the group. The funnier and more spontaneous the play, the better!"},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":"Step 4: The groups perform their role plays. After each group performs, ask participants how they felt playing the other gender. Ask those in the audience what they thought of the stereotypical gender roles."}]},{"head":"TIPS:","index":61,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"With a little help from the facilitators, this may be the participants' favorite activity. Having random props (such as farm tools, kitchenware, etc) may help generate ideas. In our workshops, women were excited to get a chance to tell men to bring them food and tea constantly, while men enjoyed covering their heads with a scarf and playing an obedient housewife. We found that participants have lots of ideas once they realize that this is supposed to be a fun and lighthearted exercise.  A wrap-up of the workshop that helps spread the insights from the workshop into the wider community."}]},{"head":"ACTIVITY TIMELINE:","index":62,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"WHY IS IT IMPORTANT?","index":63,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Participants can reflect on what they have learned and the insights they have developed. They can discuss whether they would like to change anything in their gender behavior. They can plan as a group how to continue discussing gender after the workshop."}]},{"head":"STEPS:","index":64,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"Step 1: Explain to participants that unlike some trainings, this workshop is not supposed to fix the problems in one day. Also unlike some trainings, the facilitators do not have all the answers. Emphasize that the workshop was only the first step, and now it is time for the participants to share what they learned with their friends and families and continue the conversation."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"Step 2: Ask for a volunteer to take notes while participants share ideas."},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"Step 3: In a circle, ask the participants to each share one way that they will use something they learned in the workshop."}]},{"head":"TIPS:","index":65,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":" Give at least two examples of answers before the participants share. One example can be a simple discussion with your family, while the other example should be an action, such as \"I will help my wife prepare and cook food.\""},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":" Encourage participants to try not to repeat anyone else's answer. You can also remind participants that this is a team exercise, which is why one participant should be taking notes. If a participant gets stuck and cannot think of an answer, encourage other participants to help him or her come up with something."}]},{"head":"Follow-up Evaluation","index":66,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"After each workshop, we recommend the following two actions to help improve the workshop in the future:"},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"1) Discuss and evaluate the workshop with all facilitators."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"2) Interview a few participants (ideally both a man and a woman) about the workshop."},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"How to evaluate the workshop among facilitators?"},{"index":5,"size":32,"text":"1) Look at the notes written, photographs taken, and audio recorded from the workshop. Discuss if information was collected well during the workshop, and how to collect this information better next time."},{"index":6,"size":10,"text":"2) Share both praise and critique for peers' facilitation techniques."},{"index":7,"size":22,"text":"3) Share what personally seemed to be the most and least successful parts of the workshop, and discuss why that might be. "}]},{"head":"How to interview a participant?","index":67,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"Interviews should be conducted individually and privately, in order to get the best understanding of the participant's experiences. If two facilitators are available, one can take notes while the other conducts the interview. Here are some questions to start the conversation, and feel free to follow-up on any points made by the participant:"},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"1) Which activity or discussion made you think the most? Why?"},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"2) Is there anything that you would like to add or remove from the workshop?"},{"index":4,"size":8,"text":"3) Why did you come to the workshop? "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" workshop is based on participatory research conducted by the International Water Management Institute (IWMI), as part of the CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE). The training was codeveloped by researchers, field staff and farmers within the ACIAR-funded project \"Improving Dry Season Irrigation for Marginal and Tenant Farmers (DSI4MTF)\". It borrowed activity one from a gender training by iDE, and builds on didactic teaching methods developed for a doctoral dissertation on Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) for India's formal educational system by Stephanie Leder. The training activities were piloted and modified in six villages in the Eastern Terai, Nepal and Bihar and West Bengal, India. The trainings were conducted twice per village, twelve times in total. The villages are Koiladi and Khoksar Parbaha in Saptari district (Eastern Terai), Bagwatipur and Mauahi in Madhubani (Bihar), and Dholaguri and Uttar Chakowakheti close to Cooch Behar in West Bengal. During and after every training, modifications and variations were incorporated in the training structure, e.g. timings per activity were adjusted and instructions changed or specified. "},{"text":" to think of an answer. Don't bombard them with more questions To encourage people to contribute To understand, rephrase, and lead a discussion To promote more responses (\"That is an excellent point\") To clarify understanding and show appreciation To get others involved To get out more information and views To check on who is not participating To listen with the eyes as well as the ears and check out body language cues To help participants understand and reach an agreement Source: iDE Zambia (2015: 3) "},{"text":"1) Financial Security: Dowry/wedding gifts, education, remittances, religious beliefs 2) Lineage: family name and honor 3) Gendered tasks: household work, role of daughter-in-law, plowing, cremation 4) Gendered traits: discipline, obedience, looks, security, caring DISCUSSION 1: GENDER VERSUS SEX (20 MIN) WHAT IS THIS DISCUSSION? It talks about the difference between gender and sex. "},{"text":"4 ) Evaluate timeliness and adherence to agenda. Do some items need more or less time? 5) Complete the Evaluation in Appendix I that should have been partially filled out during the workshop.Discuss the document with all facilitators. "},{"text":"4 ) What do you think other people thought of the workshop? What do you think your friends and family will think of what was talked about at the workshop? 5) Do you think that gender relations will change at some point in your community? What do you think will cause that change? "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" Chart paper, colorful cards, and permanent markers  Men and women's clothing (i.e. headscarves, shawls, men's hats, etc.) for role playing activity  Print the following:  Print the following: a. Pictures of man and woman and labor activities (Appendix II) for activities 1 and 2 a. Pictures of man and woman and labor activities (Appendix II) for activities 1 and 2 b. Workshop Evaluation (Appendix I), to be completed by observer during workshop b. Workshop Evaluation (Appendix I), to be completed by observer during workshop  Audio recording device to evaluate training afterwards (optional)  Audio recording device to evaluate training afterwards (optional)  "},{"text":"BARGAINING ROLE PLAY (35 MIN) WHAT IS THIS ACTIVITY? Participants take the role of the other gender and have conversations with other participants in a farming or household situation Female and male participants get a chance to see what it is like to be the other gender, and understand what challenges that gender faces. ACTIVITY 3: WHY IS THIS IMPORTANT?  ACTIVITY 3: WHY IS THIS IMPORTANT?  Not being allowed  Collective labor  Not being allowed Collective labor to plow support through to plowsupport through  Household work- other farmers  Household work-other farmers load and coming  Confidence to load and coming Confidence to late to meetings speak up in groups late to meetingsspeak up in groups  Not allowed to  Increasing  Not allowed to Increasing start water pumps cropping areas start water pumpscropping areas  …  …  … …  …  …  … …  …  …  … …  "}],"sieverID":"bcae0a58-7ab1-4513-b18e-82e96bb0d7f5","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"011115a1de7ed0fcd95db256d8839356","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/498f0e43-39b1-4d7b-ab0d-8f70dff8e392/retrieve"},"pageCount":42,"title":"Comercialización del Seguro Paramétrico con La Equidad Informe Progreso Resumen Este documento resume las discusiones que se llevaron a cabo entre IRI, apoyado por la CCAFS, y La Equidad sobre el análisis inicial para la implementación comercial del producto de seguro paramétrico en contra de la sequía en maíz y frijol","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"3. Hay dos posibles estrategias para homogeneizar los disparadores entre diferentes zonas: trabajar con establecer un precio especifico (dejando la frecuencia variar) o generar modelos más regionales (en vez de a nivel pixel/comunidad.) 1. frecuencia v. precio Al dejar la frecuencia variar surgen diferentes precios en diferentes zonas, ya que hay algunas áreas donde las sequias de cierto nivel ocurren con más frecuencia que en otras."},{"index":2,"size":85,"text":"Al establecer un precio fijo (y permitir que la frecuencia varíe) es importante encontrar un punto medio donde no se reduzcan los pagos del seguro de manera significante para aquellas zonas donde ocurre la sequía más frecuente y aquellos donde no, ya que al establecer una precio estática (por ejemplo basada en el promedio del disparador/umbral de todas las zonas) se esperaría reducir la cantidad de pagos históricos en las zonas de mayor frecuencia y aumentar los pagos históricos en las zonas de menor frecuencia."}]},{"head":"pixeles","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"Es posible generar modelos para regiones más amplias (no por pixel) donde una región tendría el mismo disparador/umbral para toda la zona (tomando el promedio de precipitación entre todos los pixeles,) así evitando que los umbrales y disparadores varíen con un margen extenso en una misma región. Por ejemplo, generar un disparador/umbral para Morocelí y otro para Danlí/Valle de Jamastrán."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"El contra de esta estrategia es que en algunas zonas donde regularmente tienen menor precipitación, el promedio puede llevar a pagos menos significativos para esa región, sin embargo simplifica el proceso de implementación."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"Para más detalles sobre esta consideración referirse a la página 6 sección \"Primas de Riesgo Total (PRT)\" en el documento Consideraciones de Implementación v4."},{"index":4,"size":74,"text":"4. CHIRPS Promedio mensual en Honduras 5. Escalamiento: otras regiones y cultivos. ¿El mismo modelo se puede aplicar para otros cultivos? El modelo actual es completamente replicable a otras regiones donde se produce maíz y frijol, y se reconoce la sequia como uno de los principales riesgos. Para poder replicar el modelo en otras zonas es necesario llevar a cabo un proceso de validación localmente, por ejemplo en Yoro y Olancho (zonas productoras importantes.)"},{"index":5,"size":26,"text":"Además, el modelo puede ser replicable a otros cultivos, si: 1. tienen ciclos productivos similares (las ventanas de cobertura aplicarían) 2. enfrentan el riesgo de sequía"},{"index":6,"size":33,"text":"Por lo tanto, se puede investigar el potencial de replicar el modelo para otros tipos de granos básicos que además del maíz y el frijol, tengan impactos por sequía en los periodos identificados."}]},{"head":"Proximos pasos","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"1. IRI desarrollar parametros (disparador/umbral) para regiones que no están incluidas en hoja de calculo actual. "}]},{"head":"Seguro de índice para el sector agrícola en Honduras","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"So#a Mar(nez Sáenz Manejo de proyectos en La5noamérica"},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"Equipo de Instrumentos Financieros [email protected]"}]},{"head":"Seguros de índice y adaptación al cambio climá8co","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Cambio Climá8co: cambio de las variables climá5cas en el largo plazo que afectan las dinámicas usuales del clima en el corto plazo (variabilidad climá5ca), generando cada vez más años problemá5cos para las ac5vidades agropecuarias."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"Adaptación: Procesos mediante los cuales se puede aumentar la produc5vidad en años normales para cubrir los años de perdida y daño"},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"Sin embargo, las estrategias que aumentan la produc5vidad en la mayoría de los años, enfrentan mayores riesgos en años problemá5cos."},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":"La amenaza de 1 año de sequía de cada 5 evita que los otros 4 años sean mucho mas produc5vos."},{"index":5,"size":16,"text":"La clave esta en transferir el riesgo de los años problemá6cos para desbloquear las oportunidades produc6vas."},{"index":6,"size":14,"text":"Seguros: ayudan a reducir el riesgo para permi5r la adopción de nuevas estrategias produc5vas"},{"index":7,"size":5,"text":"¿Qué es un seguro indexado?"},{"index":8,"size":5,"text":"Comparación con un seguro tradicional"},{"index":9,"size":22,"text":"• Al igual que cualquier seguro, un seguro indexado, es una herramienta financiera que 5ene por obje5vo dar protección ante un riesgo."},{"index":10,"size":37,"text":"• La diferencia de un seguro tradicional y un seguro indexado, es que éste paga en base a una variable climá8ca en vez de basado en las consecuencia del clima, como son las diferencias en la producción."},{"index":11,"size":6,"text":"¿Cómo se estructura un seguro indexado?"},{"index":12,"size":17,"text":"• Un seguro indexado define dos límites en la variable climá8ca para el cálculo de los pagos."},{"index":13,"size":5,"text":"Basados en la información histórica."},{"index":14,"size":19,"text":"• El primer límite llamado Disparador corresponde al valor de la variable climá5ca donde comienzan a haber pagos parciales."},{"index":15,"size":19,"text":"• El segundo límite llamado Umbral corresponde al valor de la variable climá5ca donde comienzan a haber pagos totales."},{"index":16,"size":5,"text":"¿Porqué implementar el seguro indexado?"},{"index":17,"size":5,"text":"• Reducción en costos administra5vos"},{"index":18,"size":3,"text":"-Información satelital gratuita."},{"index":19,"size":8,"text":"-No requiere de corroboración de perdidas en campo."},{"index":20,"size":6,"text":"-Facilidad en la iden5ficación de indemnizaciones."},{"index":21,"size":21,"text":"• Producto desarrollado y validado en el campo -Producto listo para ser implementado en piloto comercial, basado en un proceso cien(fico."},{"index":22,"size":19,"text":"• Simplicidad y transparencia del producto -Confianza en el producto por parte de los productores par5cipantes en el proyecto."},{"index":23,"size":23,"text":"• Potencial de escalamiento -Posibilidad de escalar a otras zonas del país, otros cul5vos y otros riesgos. Agregador (e.g. cajas rurales, asociaciones, microfinancieras) "}]},{"head":"Gracias","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"So#a Mar(nez Sáenz Manejo de proyectos en La5noamérica"},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"Equipo de Instrumentos Financieros [email protected]"}]},{"head":"Detalles del producto y proceso de diseño","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Una segunda generación"},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"• Basado en información Climá8ca Satelital -Al contrario del producto anterior propuesto que u5lizaba información de las estaciones meteorológicas."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"-Menor riesgo base: 1. la información corresponde al lugar exacto asegurado y no a la estación más cercana (muchas veces ubicada en una zona con dis5ntos patrones climá5cos)"},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"2. Verificación en campo/otras bases de datos"},{"index":5,"size":31,"text":"• Basado en periodos fijos asegurados -Al contrario del producto anterior estaba basado en un modelo de múl5ples fases móviles las que dependían de un umbral de precipitaciones para su definición."},{"index":6,"size":16,"text":"-Menor complejidad lo que resulta en un producto claro y transparente. Fácilmente comprensible por los productores."},{"index":7,"size":39,"text":"• Relación Pagos / Precio -Al disminuir la incer5dumbre, desde el punto de vista de la precisión de la información climá5ca, la relación entre el precio y el pago recibido por los productores mejora con respecto al producto anterior."},{"index":8,"size":30,"text":"• Ampliación del mercado agropecuario: diseño dirigido a pequeños productores -Posibilidad de implementar un producto que alcance a mayor can5dad de productores rurales. La mayoría son pequeños y remotos--muy costoso."}]},{"head":"Limite Superior y Precipitación Total Ajustada","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"• Precipitación Total Ajustada -Se refiere al indicador climá5co, corresponde a la suma de precipitaciones de la ventana, considerando el límite superior de precipitación. Una vez definida el limite superior de precipitaciones, se procede a sumar, para cada año de la serie de datos, las precipitaciones de cada decadal de la ventana."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"• Límite Superior de Precipitaciones -Corresponde a un nivel de precipitación máximo para cada decadal (periodo de 10 días) a ser considerado al ser sumado en la Precipitación Total Ajustada."},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"-Se incorpora para evitar que un evento masivo puntual afecte la percepción de la ventana completa"},{"index":4,"size":35,"text":"Al no considerar el límite Superior de Precipitaciones estas dos situaciones tendrían exactamente el mismo resultado para del seguro Importancia de la distribución de las precipitaciones en el periodo Frecuencia de Pagos, Disparador y Umbral"},{"index":5,"size":20,"text":"• Frecuencia de pagos -Se define la frecuencia de pagos, tanto parciales como totales, según las necesidades de los productores."},{"index":6,"size":23,"text":"• Disparador -Valor definido en que comienza a haber pagos parciales cuando el valor de las Precipitaciones Totales Ajustadas es menor a este."},{"index":7,"size":22,"text":"-Su valor corresponderá al valor del percen5l correspondiente a frecuencia de pagos parciales de la serie de datos de Precipitaciones Totales Ajustadas."},{"index":8,"size":23,"text":"• Umbral -Valor definido en que comienza a haber pagos totales cuando el valor de las Precipitaciones Totales Ajustadas es menor a este."},{"index":9,"size":25,"text":"-Su valor corresponderá al valor del percen5l correspondiente a frecuencia de pagos totales de la serie de datos de Precipitaciones Totales Ajustadas para cada año."},{"index":10,"size":12,"text":"• Resultados de la(s) temporadas de acuerdo a la bases de datos"},{"index":11,"size":3,"text":"-¿Qué se iden5fico?"},{"index":12,"size":14,"text":"* Junio lluvioso * Necesidad de ventana adicional -Modificaciones resultantes y opciones para discusión "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"del Seguro: Se necesita iniciar transacciones comerciales para movilizar escalamiento masivo Definición mercado potencial  Definición próximos pasos Definición del mercado MICRO Atado al crédito concretos hacia comercialización 1. Definir esquema de implementación viable: estrategia e ins5tución reaseguradora, compañía aseguradora, canal(es) de distribución, agente de cálculo 2. De acuerdo a la definición del primer punto, definir: -Frecuencia v. % de prima universal Granos Básicos (maíz y frijol) -Si el pago máximo es el total del crédito los Diseño y validación por IRI en otras zonas además de El Paraíso en el 2017 Si el productor siembra 5mz total en un año y el paquete de insumo por mz es 11,000, la suma asegurada es 55,000Lps. Con una prima de ~12%, las primas costos 5enden a ser muy altos. -Cubrir partes claves de los créditos de los Escalamiento Otros rubros claves para futuro escalamiento Ganadería (Estudio de Zamorano) productores (e.g. = a paquetes de insumos) recopiladas por la aseguradora llegan a ~39,000,000Lps (solo con UNOPROL y -Opciones de SA sequia = % del crédito, paquete de insumos, otros? FENAGH.) o -Cobertura del contrato: anual, por temporada o duración de crédito -Ponderación por ventana (PRIMERA + POSTRERA = 1, o PRIMERA = 1 y POSTRERA = 1 Cierto nivel de ganancias esperadas de la Arroz Definición próximos pasos Definición del mercado MICRO Atado al crédito concretos hacia comercialización 1. Definir esquema de implementación viable: estrategia e ins5tución reaseguradora, compañía aseguradora, canal(es) de distribución, agente de cálculo 2. De acuerdo a la definición del primer punto, definir: -Frecuencia v. % de prima universal Granos Básicos (maíz y frijol) -Si el pago máximo es el total del crédito los Diseño y validación por IRI en otras zonas además de El Paraíso en el 2017 Si el productor siembra 5mz total en un año y el paquete de insumo por mz es 11,000, la suma asegurada es 55,000Lps. Con una prima de ~12%, las primas costos 5enden a ser muy altos. -Cubrir partes claves de los créditos de los Escalamiento Otros rubros claves para futuro escalamiento Ganadería (Estudio de Zamorano) productores (e.g. = a paquetes de insumos) recopiladas por la aseguradora llegan a ~39,000,000Lps (solo con UNOPROL y -Opciones de SA sequia = % del crédito, paquete de insumos, otros? FENAGH.) o -Cobertura del contrato: anual, por temporada o duración de crédito -Ponderación por ventana (PRIMERA + POSTRERA = 1, o PRIMERA = 1 y POSTRERA = 1 Cierto nivel de ganancias esperadas de la Arroz Toma Credito Seguro 3. Con5nuar el proceso de escalamiento para viabilidad comercial -Granos básicos en otras zonas # productores Mercado potencial actual: ARSAGRO ~2,000 cosecha para permi5r reinversión 13,200,000Lps Provee credito Cubre deuda ~ primas (por cartera: ~14,000,000Lps Café (IHCAFE) Toma Credito Seguro 3. Con5nuar el proceso de escalamiento para viabilidad comercial -Granos básicos en otras zonas # productores Mercado potencial actual: ARSAGRO ~2,000 cosecha para permi5r reinversión 13,200,000Lps Provee credito Cubre deuda ~ primas (por cartera: ~14,000,000Lps Café (IHCAFE) -Otros Rubros: arroz, el café y la ganadería. UNOPROL ~2,000 escalado: FENAGH ~2,000 Atado a paquetes de insumos 19,800,000Lps** -Otros Rubros: arroz, el café y la ganadería. UNOPROL ~2,000 escalado: FENAGH ~2,000 Atado a paquetes de insumos19,800,000Lps** ¿FACACH? 4. Someter el producto a aprobación por CNBS: ¿Cajas Rurales? -Revisión y recomendaciones por CNBS de un Borrador de Nota Técnica Inicial ejecutado + 33,000,000Lps Contratos Individuales ¿FACACH? 4. Someter el producto a aprobación por CNBS: ¿Cajas Rurales? -Revisión y recomendaciones por CNBS de un Borrador de Nota Técnica Inicial ejecutado + 33,000,000Lps Contratos Individuales  "},{"text":"Resultados Simulacro Experimental Producto final Detalles seguro indexado desarrollado Ventanas, Disparadores y Umbrales del Seguro Indexado  Localidad Region Ventana Disparador Umbral Principio Fin Localidad Region Ventana Disparador Umbral Principio Fin Localidad Region Ventana Disparador Umbral PrincipioFinLocalidad Region Ventana Disparador Umbral PrincipioFin El Coyolar Danli Primera Canicula 148 76 124 11-May (14) 20-Jun (17) 50 11-Jul (20) 10-Aug (22) Agua Morada Moroceli Primera Canicula 136 55 75 11-May (14) 20-Jun (17) 31 11-Jul (20) 10-Aug (22) El Coyolar DanliPrimera Canicula148 76124 11-May (14) 20-Jun (17) 50 11-Jul (20) 10-Aug (22)Agua MoradaMoroceliPrimera Canicula136 5575 11-May (14) 20-Jun (17) 31 11-Jul (20) 10-Aug (22)  Postrera 164 78 1-Sep (25) 10-Oct (28)   Postrera Primera 137 125 45 21-Aug (24) 30-Sep (27) 42 11-May (14) 20-Jun (17) Postrera16478 1-Sep (25) 10-Oct (28)Postrera Primera137 12545 21-Aug (24) 30-Sep (27) 42 11-May (14) 20-Jun (17) El Habillal Danli Primera Canicula 202 79 165 21-Apr (12) 20-Jun (17) 35 11-Jul (20) 10-Aug (22) El Barro Moroceli Canicula Postrera 54 114 18 11-Jul (20) 10-Aug (22) 52 1-Sep (25) 10-Oct (28) El Habillal DanliPrimera Canicula202 79165 21-Apr (12) 20-Jun (17) 35 11-Jul (20) 10-Aug (22)El Barro MoroceliCanicula Postrera54 11418 11-Jul (20) 10-Aug (22) 52 1-Sep (25) 10-Oct (28)  Postrera Primera 157 157 82 1-Sep (25) 10-Oct (28) 115 11-May (14) 20-Jun (17) El Campo Moroceli Moroceli Primera Canicula 134 65 73 11-May (14) 20-Jun (17) 27 11-Jul (20) 10-Aug (22) Postrera Primera157 15782 1-Sep (25) 10-Oct (28) 115 11-May (14) 20-Jun (17)El Campo MoroceliMoroceliPrimera Canicula134 6573 11-May (14) 20-Jun (17) 27 11-Jul (20) 10-Aug (22) El Zapo5llo Danli Canicula 89 40 11-Jul (20) 10-Aug (22)   Postrera 132 50 21-Aug (24) 30-Sep (27) El Zapo5llo DanliCanicula8940 11-Jul (20) 10-Aug (22)Postrera13250 21-Aug (24) 30-Sep (27)  Postrera 154 75 1-Sep (25) 10-Oct (28)   Primera 123 63 1-May (13) 10-Jun (16) Postrera15475 1-Sep (25) 10-Oct (28)Primera12363 1-May (13) 10-Jun (16)  Primera 156 111 11-May (14) 20-Jun (17) El Llano Moroceli Canicula 52 18 11-Jul (20) 10-Aug (22) Primera156111 11-May (14) 20-Jun (17)El Llano MoroceliCanicula5218 11-Jul (20) 10-Aug (22) Gualiqueme Danli Canicula 76 29 11-Jul (20) 10-Aug (22)   Postrera 76 38 1-Sep (25) 30-Sep (27) Gualiqueme DanliCanicula7629 11-Jul (20) 10-Aug (22)Postrera7638 1-Sep (25) 30-Sep (27)  Postrera 162 76 1-Sep (25) 10-Oct (28) E lPlan Moroceli Primera Canicula 84 54 36 11-May (14) 10-Jun (16) 18 11-Jul (20) 10-Aug (22) Postrera16276 1-Sep (25) 10-Oct (28)E lPlan MoroceliPrimera Canicula84 5436 11-May (14) 10-Jun (16) 18 11-Jul (20) 10-Aug (22) Primera • Discusiones 157 Matazano Danli Canicula 89 Postrera 154 -En el campo Primera 202 115 11-May (14) 20-Jun (17) 40 11-Jul (20) 10-Aug (22) 75 1-Sep (25) 10-Oct (28) 165 21-Apr (12) 20-Jun (17) Hoya Grande Moroceli Postrera Primera Canicula Postrera 114 162 53 118 52 1-Sep (25) 10-Oct (28) 77 1-May (13) 20-Jun (17) 21 11-Jul (20) 10-Aug (22) 44 11-Sep (26) 20-Oct (29) Primera • Discusiones 157 Matazano Danli Canicula 89 Postrera 154 -En el campo Primera 202115 11-May (14) 20-Jun (17) 40 11-Jul (20) 10-Aug (22) 75 1-Sep (25) 10-Oct (28) 165 21-Apr (12) 20-Jun (17)Hoya GrandeMoroceliPostrera Primera Canicula Postrera114 162 53 11852 1-Sep (25) 10-Oct (28) 77 1-May (13) 20-Jun (17) 21 11-Jul (20) 10-Aug (22) 44 11-Sep (26) 20-Oct (29) -Con los expertos del campo de seguros Regantes Danli Canicula 79 35 11-Jul (20) 10-Aug (22) Postrera 157 82 1-Sep (25) 10-Oct (28) Los Limones Moroceli Primera Canicula 124 52 39 11-May (14) 20-Jun (17) 18 11-Jul (20) 10-Aug (22) -Con los expertos del campo de seguros Regantes Danli Canicula 79 35 11-Jul (20) 10-Aug (22) Postrera 157 82 1-Sep (25) 10-Oct (28) Los Limones MoroceliPrimera Canicula124 5239 11-May (14) 20-Jun (17) 18 11-Jul (20) 10-Aug (22) • Definición final de índice Primera 202 165 21-Apr (12) 20-Jun (17) Francisco San Danli Canicula 79 35 11-Jul (20) 10-Aug (22) Mesias Moroceli Postrera Primera Canicula 115 124 52 45 21-Aug (24) 30-Sep (27) 39 11-May (14) 20-Jun (17) 18 11-Jul (20) 10-Aug (22) • Definición final de índice Primera 202 165 21-Apr (12) 20-Jun (17) Francisco San Danli Canicula 79 35 11-Jul (20) 10-Aug (22)Mesias MoroceliPostrera Primera Canicula115 124 5245 21-Aug (24) 30-Sep (27) 39 11-May (14) 20-Jun (17) 18 11-Jul (20) 10-Aug (22) Postrera • Nota Técnica para aprobación 157 82 1-Sep (25) 10-Oct (28) Primera 211 172 21-Apr (12) 20-Jun (17)  Postrera Primera 117 140 52 1-Sep (25) 10-Oct (28) 44 11-May (14) 20-Jun (17) Postrera • Nota Técnica para aprobación 157 82 1-Sep (25) 10-Oct (28) Primera 211 172 21-Apr (12) 20-Jun (17)Postrera Primera117 14052 1-Sep (25) 10-Oct (28) 44 11-May (14) 20-Jun (17) Santa Maria Danli Canicula 122 49 11-Jul (20) 10-Aug (22) Suyate Moroceli Canicula 62 24 11-Jul (20) 10-Aug (22) Santa Maria DanliCanicula12249 11-Jul (20) 10-Aug (22)Suyate MoroceliCanicula6224 11-Jul (20) 10-Aug (22)  Postrera 99 40 21-Sep (27) 20-Oct (29)   Postrera 126 50 21 Postrera9940 21-Sep (27) 20-Oct (29)Postrera12650 21  "}],"sieverID":"882d6069-25b3-43d4-af29-746b3133b395","abstract":"Equidad y del IRI participó Sofía Martínez (coordinadora del proyecto.)"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"016c59bebf0814949dd79d4a587ddc30","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2c81e294-e665-400e-bb48-3862dbd7c0a7/retrieve"},"pageCount":24,"title":"COMPENDIUM OF IMPACT PATHWAYS FOR ADAPTATION OF AFRICAN AGRICULTURE","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":184,"text":"In monitoring and evaluation of climate change adaptation, impact pathways serve as critical tools to untangle the complexities and interactions between evolving climate risks, impacts and a myriad of possible adaptation responses. Impact pathways provide structured roadmaps to translate actions into specific outcomes and impacts. They delineate the sequence of events from hazards to responses and effects, offering a methodical visualization for achieving the adaptation vision-i.e., increased resilience, enhanced adaptive capacity, and reduced vulnerability. This structured approach is pivotal for adaptation tracking, enabling stakeholders to systematically map elements that help to assess progress and effectiveness of adaptation actions. This document synthesizes key impact pathways for adaptations in agriculture sectors. Recognizing the evolving nature of climate-related risks, it serves a crucial role in assisting practitioners, researchers, and users in navigating the extensive array of possibilities within agricultural adaptation. Given the overwhelming number of potential pathways, this guide aims to lower the entry barrier by providing generic frameworks. These preliminary models serve as starting points, offering users a foundation upon which they can refine and customize their specific pathways to align with unique contexts and goals."},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":"The impact pathways presented in this document are not intended to be definitive; instead, they are designed to be modified and iterated upon. By commencing with a basic structure, users can save valuable time and resources, swiftly advancing towards the development of a tailored pathway that captures the intricacies of their adaptation challenges. The customization process involves several iterations required for ensuring that the pathways are fit-to-context. This involves stakeholder validations for grounding pathways in the reality, aligning indicators to accurately measure what is relevant and needed, developing data protocols and systems for tracking, and rigorously testing pathways through data collection and analysis."},{"index":3,"size":76,"text":"As organizations engage in the process of creating impact pathways, a notable observation emerges from this work: many pathways share common elements. This finding underscores the interconnected nature of adaptation strategies and suggests that despite the uniqueness of individual contexts, there exist common threads that bind diverse pathways. This realization has profound implications, emphasizing the importance of shared learning, collaboration, and the potential for the development of overarching frameworks that can be adapted to various contexts."},{"index":4,"size":205,"text":"The document is organized as follows. First, we briefly introduce the methods that informed the creation of the generic pathways. Subsequently, we present 12 impact pathways, conceived as initial frameworks that users can further customize and refine based on their unique contexts and goals. The pathways are organized in two broad categories, based on the scope of the investment. These include: off-farm investment pathways, covering weather and climate information services (WCIS), agricultural advisory, agricultural finance products, agricultural risk management instruments (insurance), and input supply chains (seeds and seedlings, feeds, and fertilizer); and on-farm investments, referring to: conservation agriculture, adjustments of on-farm strategies based on agro-climatic advisory, agroforestry, integrated soil fertility management, use of improved crop varieties, use of improved livestock breeds, as well as use of improved feeds and feeding strategies. On-farm strategies such as water management, irrigation systems, and postharvest management of farm products are currently under development and will be added to a second version of this compendium. We conclude with essential considerations for impact pathway design, highlighting critical next steps and reflections drawn from the iterative process of pathway development. This guide is intended as a dynamic tool, emphasizing adaptability and ongoing refinement in response to the evolving landscape of agricultural adaptation."}]},{"head":"METHODS","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"SELECTION OF AGRICULTURAL ADAPTATION INVESTMENTS","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"In the initial phase of our study, we reviewed climate-smart agricultural investment plans (CSAIPs) from nine African countries, available online, including: Burkina Faso, Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana, Lesotho, Mali, Morocco, Republic of Congo, Zambia, Zimbabwe. This involved the identification and extraction of information pertaining to adaptation projects outlined in these plans. The extracted data included project locations, beneficiaries, targets, activities, expected outcomes, impacts, and indicators wherever available. Our review identified a total of 69 investment projects spanning a spectrum from on-farm investments, such as livestock and crop diversification, to ecosystem-level interventions, large-scale infrastructures, and enabling services and governance mechanisms. These investments were strategically designed to address various climate risks, including droughts, floods, increased temperatures, and rainfall variability."}]},{"head":"CLASSIFICATION OF INVESTMENTS","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":311,"text":"To enhance understanding and facilitate aggregation, we categorized these investments based on two main criteria. The first classification links to the nature of the climate response, such as ecosystem-based, technology and infrastructure, behavioral-cultural, and institutional. In the context of agriculture, ecosystem-based responses aim to utilize and enhance natural ecosystems and processes that support agriculture systems, enabling them to respond to climate risks and impacts. Examples include, among others, sustainable land management, ecosystem restoration, intercropping, mulching, etc. Technology and infrastructure responses refer to physical structures aimed at minimizing/ reducing exposure or sensitivity to climate risks and impacts and building adaptive capacity. Examples include, among others: irrigation systems, dams, farm equipment and machinery, etc. Behavioral-cultural refer to changes in behavior to address climate risks and impacts, such as adoption of improved crop varieties, shifting farming to new suitable areas, farm or household income diversification. Institutional responses refer to policies, programs, regulations, and services to support smallholder farmers, such as finance and risk management instruments, extension services, climate information. This categorization was also used in analyses for the Sixth Assessment Report of the International Panel for Climate Change (AR6 IPCC) (IPCC, 2022) and a recent systematic review of the scientific literature on adaptation (Berrang-Ford et al., 2021). The second categorization refers to the scope of the investment: on-farm versus off-farm. On-farm refers to changes in practices or technology use made directly within the farming operation, such as acquiring new equipment, improving irrigation systems, or investing in soil fertility. Off-farm investments refer to services, products, technologies and policies that aim to support farm operations, such as financial services, risk management products or market regulations. This process yielded 15 investment types, comprising five off-farm and ten on-farm investment and referring to different types of responses (see Table 1). This document presents 12 of these 15 investments -the remaining three ones will be added in future versions."}]},{"head":"Table 1. Overview of investment types","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"INVESTMENT","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"ECOSYSTEM-BASED TECHNOLOGY/ INFRASTRUCTURE","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"BEHAVIORAL/","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"CULTURAL INSTITUTIONAL","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"ON-FARM OFF-FARM","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Farm adjustments based on advisory X X"},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"Improved livestock breeds X X"},{"index":3,"size":5,"text":"Improved feeds and feeding strategies"},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"Weather and Climate Information Services X X *investments not included in this version of the compendium."}]},{"head":"DEVELOPMENT OF IMPACT PATHWAYS","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"For each of the identified investment type, we constructed simple graphical diagrams using open-source software (i.e., diagram.io). The graphics represent systems thinking tools used to elucidate complex interactions between variables and underlying relationships between them. We used thematic analysis, employing inductive coding, to establish coding schemes which informed the models. We iteratively updated these schemes to capture emerging themes and categories. The resultant graphic models inform the selection of adequate indicators and metrics to enable tracking, which, in turn, will help to determine progress and effectiveness of investments over time."},{"index":2,"size":193,"text":"Each pathway delineates critical linkages between its elements, i.e., the adaptation rationale, programmatic actions, and desired outcomes and impacts. The adaptation rationale assesses climate-related hazards, determining necessary actions and desired impacts. Programmatic actions encompass the steps and considerations required to facilitate the adoption and sustained use of a product, service, or practice. Outcomes typically revolve around changes in behavior, attitude, skill, knowledge, or practice of smallholder farmers. In most cases, these refer to adoption/use of products/ services/ practices/ technologies. Impacts represent effects on agricultural, environmental, and social systems. Initial impacts mostly refer to changes in agricultural system functionality (e.g., soil conditions, water use efficiency, agricultural biomass) and agricultural operations (e.g., labor involved), which have follow-on effects on agricultural system performance (production, yield, yield stability) and farm economy (e.g., production costs). These have cumulative effects on the society (e.g., food sovereignty), local economy, and on producers' wellbeing (e.g., income, quality of life, migration). It is important to note that the figure does not make any assumption on the direction of the change, i.e., whether there is a positive or a negative increase in the impact variable. This will have to be determined with data."}]},{"head":"DATA SOURCES FOR PATHWAY DEVELOPMENT","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"The development of the graphical diagrams drew upon multiple data sources. Primary among these were the CSAIPs, providing essential secondary data. Additionally, we drew on systematic reviews relevant to specific adaptation investments, prioritizing studies focused on Africa or multiple countries, and peer-reviewed publications that utilized long-term (panel) data, were utilized. Expert judgment contributed to enriching the pathway development process. For select cases, such as conservation agriculture, stakeholder validation was conducted in Morocco, ensuring real-world applicability."}]},{"head":"STAKEHOLDER VALIDATION","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"In the case of conservation agriculture, stakeholder validation was conducted in Morocco to enhance the real-world applicability of the pathway. This involved soliciting feedback and insights from relevant stakeholders engaged in promoting conservation agriculture in the country, such as government, non-government, private sector and farmer organization representatives. This helped ensure that the pathways align with policy priorities, practical considerations and the on-the-ground context. The pathways presented in this document are a result of this stakeholder validation process, emphasizing their relevance and applicability."}]},{"head":"DATA DOCUMENTATION AND METHODOLOGICAL ITERATIONS","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"All information compiled during this process is housed in a living data catalogue, detailing connections between causal and effect variables. This open-source database will be publicly available upon completion of all pathways."},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"It is essential to underscore that this document is an evolving work in progress. As we continue refining and iterating upon the pathways, additional insights and refinements to the methodology may be incorporated. The document's dynamic nature aligns with the evolving landscape of agricultural adaptation, ensuring its relevance and applicability over time."}]},{"head":"IMPACT PATHWAYS FOR OFF-FARM ADAPTATION INVESTMENTS","index":15,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"WEATHER AND CLIMATE INFORMATION SERVICES (WCIS)","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"Weather and Climate Information Services play an important role in African smallholder agriculture. They inform adjustment of farm strategies in response to climate risks such as choice of fields, crops, and/or crop varieties, timing of agricultural tasks, application of inputs, and the negotiation of annual loans, among others. These farm strategies largely depend on the type of WCIS -seasonal forecasts or daily weather information (Vaughan et al., 2019)."},{"index":2,"size":290,"text":"The central theme in the impact pathway (Figure 1) revolves around the production, availability, access to and use of WCIS by smallholder African farmers. The starting point is the adaptation rationale, which outlines why adaptation is needed and informs required actions and desired impacts. Actions (white boxes) delineate the steps to co-produce accurate, relevant, and usable forecasts, as well as to make them accessible to farmers. Here, multi-stakeholder groups, integration of local and indigenous knowledge -, trainings and partnerships for bulletin dissemination are critical elements for co-production, access and use of WCIS. The impact pathway also depicts other factors that might affect uptake of WCIS (white dotted boxes), such as context (demographic characteristics, region, agroecological zone, culture), access to agricultural advice, and access to inputs. Outcomes (grey boxes) refer to the actual use of WCIS in adjusting farm decisions and strategies, as well as the empowerment of local community members through improved data and leadership skills. Impacts (yellow boxes) refer to changes in agronomic performance (crop production, yields), socioeconomic variables (incomes, returns), as well as human and animal safety. Depending on the farm strategy adopted in combination with WCIS, additional impacts might be achieved, such as changes in ecosystem function or other agri-and socio-economic gains. Lastly, climate risk assessments will help to determine whether performance on these impact variables has contributed to reduced impact of climate risks on smallholder agriculture. Elements of the impact pathway are differentiated by colors as follows: adaptation rationale (blue); actions (white); outcomes (grey) and impacts (yellow). Dotted boxes represent factors that may also affect access and uptake of WCIS, independent from the quality and type of the WCIS. Arrows denote linkages between pathway elements. They do not suggest the type of linkage (positive or negative)."}]},{"head":"AGRI-ADVISORY","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Agricultural advisory services are critical for supporting adaptation of African smallholder farmers, who need to optimize agricultural practices for improved yields and resilience to climate shocks and changes. While gaps in access to timely and relevant information persist, many efforts are underway to enhance digital and traditional advisory methods."},{"index":2,"size":312,"text":"The central theme in the impact pathway (Figure 2) revolves around the production, availability, access to and use of agricultural advice by smallholder African farmers. The starting point is the adaptation rationale, which outlines key climate vulnerabilities and risks that would be mitigated with improved access and use agri-advisory. Actions (white boxes) delineate the steps required for the co-production, development and dissemination of relevant and timely agriadvisory services. One key activity is the development of Decision Support Tools (DST) that draw on multiple sources of knowledge to ensure context-fit and usable advice for smallholder farmers. Training programs that equip farmers and extension service providers and farmer group leaders to effectively use these DSTs and further disseminate the advice. Agricultural advice is generated based on these insights, considering factors like telecom asset availability and demographics. Delivery of agro-advisory can occur directly through extension agents or service providers to farmers (through farm visits) or to groups of farmers (farm field schools, demo plots); but also through farmer-tofarmer trainings. Outcomes refer to farmers using this advice, which might be further influenced by farmers' access to land and inputs. Impacts span increased farm production (crops and livestock), elevated income from diversified revenue streams, and improved profitability due to reduced production costs practices. Depending on the farm strategy adopted in combination with the agricultural advice, additional impacts might be achieved. Lastly, climate risk assessments will help to determine whether performance on these impact variables has contributed to reduced impact of climate risks on smallholder agriculture. Elements of the impact pathway are differentiated by colors as follows: adaptation rationale (blue); actions (white); outcomes (grey) and impacts (yellow). Dotted boxes represent factors that may also affect access and uptake of agri-advisory services, independent from the quality and type of the agricultural advice. Arrows denote linkages between pathway elements. They do not suggest the type of linkage (positive or negative)."}]},{"head":"AGRICULTURE FINANCE PRODUCTS: CREDIT, LOAN","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"Access to agriculture finance is critical for enabling farmers' ability to invest in improved inputs, technology, and sustainable practices. Access to credit and loans facilitate farmers' capacity to expand operations and respond effectively to climate risks and market dynamics. Gaps in financial inclusion persist, underscoring the need for tailored and innovative finance solutions to bolster the resilience and productivity of smallholder agriculture."},{"index":2,"size":267,"text":"The impact pathway illustrated below (Figure 3) shows how the development, dissemination, and use of financial products (credit, loan) for smallholder farmers in Africa can lead to improved farm production, income, and other positive impacts. The starting point is the adaptation rationale, which outlines the climate vulnerabilities and risks that the financial products should respond to. Actions (white boxes) delineate the steps necessary for the development and dissemination of the finance products. These include identification of farmers' needs and risks; development of products that meet these needs; awareness raising to ensure smallholder farmers' familiarity with the financial products available. Partnerships are essential for the successful development, dissemination, and use of financial products for smallholder farmers in Africa. Outcomes (grey boxes) refer to farmers' use of these products, which allows them to make additional investments on the farm, such as purchase of inputs, of new technologies, and improvement of land management practices. The use of financial products allows farmers to be more resilient to climate shocks and market volatility and increase their ability to plan. These impacts (yellow boxes) translate in improved production and/or production expansion despite climate risks, which can contribute to increased incomes, farm profitability (depending also on production costs) and food security. Lastly, climate risk assessments will help to determine whether performance on these impact variables has contributed to reduced impact of climate risks on smallholder agriculture. Elements of the impact pathway are differentiated by colors as follows: adaptation rationale (blue); actions (white); outcomes (grey) and impacts (yellow). Arrows denote linkages between pathway elements. They do not suggest the type of linkage (positive or negative)."}]},{"head":"AGRICULTURE RISK MANAGEMENT INSTRUMENTS: WEATHER-BASED INDEX INSURANCE","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"The central theme in the impact pathway (Figure 4) revolves around the production, availability, access to and use of weather-based index insurances (WBII) by smallholder African farmers. The starting point is the adaptation rationale, which outlines the key vulnerabilities and risks experiences by smallholder farmers, which informs required actions and desired impacts."},{"index":2,"size":296,"text":"Actions (white boxes) delineate the steps required to design and disseminate the insurance product. Information from the risk assessment is used to design the index insurance product. This must be based on a reliable measure of farmers' risks and be affordable to farmers. The thresholds should be set at levels that are relevant to farmers' needs and that minimize the risk of fraud. The payout structure should be designed to provide farmers with adequate financial protection without being so high that it makes the product unaffordable. Partnerships are essential for the successful implementation of index insurance. Meteorological agencies provide the data that is used to calculate the weather index and assess claims. Remote sensing providers can provide data on vegetation and other crop conditions. Other stakeholders, such as government agencies, NGOs, and financial institutions, can play a critical role in disseminating the product to farmers. Product dissemination to farmers needs to prioritize comprehension and ease of making claims. Index insurance payouts to farmers, triggered by weather events, represent the primary outcome (yellow box). Upon receipt of the payout, farmers can minimize the impact of weather events on their farm and livelihoods and thus increase their resilience. These impacts (yellow boxes) can be reflected through reduced income volatility, as index insurance can help farmers to smooth out their income over time and reduce farmers' reliance on debt to maintain their livelihoods; improved production and incomes, as index insurance can give farmers the confidence to invest in their farms, knowing that they have a financial safety net in place. These positive impacts can help to keep farmers on their farms and thus reduce rural-urban migration, even in the face of adverse weather events. Other impacts of index insurance may depend on how farmers use the payouts they receive. "}]},{"head":"AGRICULTURE INPUT SUPPLY CHAINS: SEEDS, FEEDS, FERTILIZER","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"The central theme in the impact pathways in Figures 5a-c revolves around the production, availability, access to and use of agricultural inputs by smallholder African farmers. The pathways illustrate how agricultural inputs like seeds, feeds, and fertilizers can create positive impacts on the lives of smallholder farmers in Africa. While each pathway has unique elements, key themes emerge when examined holistically."},{"index":2,"size":269,"text":"The starting point for each pathway is a climate risk assessment or the adaptation rationale (blue box), acknowledging the specific challenges facing farmers and communities and informing the development of appropriate solutions. This assessment also considers context-specific factors such as demographics, cultural practices, and existing infrastructure, which can influence access and uptake of agricultural inputs. The core of each pathway involves several actions (white boxes) related to the development and release of improved agricultural inputs, tailored to address the identified climate risks and adapt to local context. This involves various interventions like breeding climate-resilient seeds, formulating specialized fertilizers, and designing high-nutrient feeds. Once released, the improved inputs must be readily available on the market through efficient distribution networks. Farmers then require access to the knowledge and resources necessary to utilize these inputs effectively. This includes training programs on best practices for planting, fertilization, and animal management. Farmers' use of these inputs represents the key outcome (grey boxes) from these efforts. The goal is to generate positive impacts (yellow boxes) across various dimensions of smallholder farmers' lives. These include improved soil health, enhanced crop production and incomes, boosted livestock health and productivity. These benefits ultimately contribute to increased food security and nutrition and improved livelihoods and resilience for smallholder farming communities across Africa. Elements of the impact pathway are differentiated by colors as follows: adaptation rationale (blue); actions (white); outcomes (grey) and impacts (yellow). Dotted boxes represent factors that may also affect access and uptake of seeds, independent of their quality and type. Arrows denote linkages between pathway elements. They do not suggest the type of linkage (positive or negative)."}]},{"head":"Figure 5b. Impact pathway for improved feeds in Africa","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"Elements of the impact pathway are differentiated by colors as follows: adaptation rationale (blue); actions (white); outcomes (grey) and impacts (yellow). Dotted boxes represent factors that may also affect access and uptake of feeds, independent of their quality and type. Arrows denote linkages between pathway elements. They do not suggest the type of linkage (positive or negative)."}]},{"head":"Figure 5c. Impact pathway for improved fertilizer in Africa.","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"Elements of the impact pathway are differentiated by colors as follows: adaptation rationale (blue); actions (white); outcomes (grey) and impacts (yellow). Dotted boxes represent factors that may also affect access and uptake of fertilizer, independent of their quality and type. Arrows denote linkages between pathway elements. They do not suggest the type of linkage (positive or negative)."}]},{"head":"IMPACT PATHWAYS FOR ON-FARM ADAPTATION INVESTMENTS","index":23,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"CONSERVATION AGRICULTURE","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"The central theme in the impact pathway (Figure 6) revolves around adoption of conservation agriculture (CA) strategies by smallholder African farmers, with a specific emphasis on Moroccan agriculture. The starting point is the adaptation rationale, which outlines key vulnerabilities and risks that will be mitigated/ reduced through the widespread adoption of conservation agriculture. This involves implementing a range of actions (white boxes) that will improve access to necessary inputs like seeds, fertilizers, and machinery, as well as enhance extension services and information sharing about CA techniques. Other actions include enhancing access to financing options and markets for non-cereal crops, encouraging farm diversification. Supportive policies will further incentivize farmers to intensify and diversify their farms and integrate crop-livestock systems."},{"index":2,"size":82,"text":"The key outcome (grey boxes) of these actions is widespread and sustained adoption of CA. This means farmers will transition from traditional practices to a set of strategies that ensure farm resilience and sustainability. These strategies include minimal soil disturbance, maintaining organic soil cover, and diversifying crops. While the ideal outcome is full adoption of the entire CA package, evidence suggests that many farmers adopt strategies piecemeal, gradually, or incrementally. Therefore, the pathway acknowledges both full package adoption and individual strategy adoption."},{"index":3,"size":104,"text":"The impacts of CA adoption are expected to ripple across agricultural, environmental, and social systems. Initial impacts will manifest in changes within the agricultural system itself, such as improved soil conditions, water use efficiency, and agricultural biomass. These changes will then have positive consequences for agricultural operations, leading to increased production, yield stability, and farm profitability. The cumulative effect of these improvements will contribute to enhanced food sovereignty, a stronger local economy, and improved well-being for farmers, including increased income and quality of life. Importantly, the pathway acknowledges the need for further data analysis to determine the exact direction and extent of these impacts."}]},{"head":"FARM ADJUSTMENTS BASED ON ADVISORY: PLANTING DATES, CULTIVARS, FERTILIZER","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":166,"text":"The central theme in the impact pathway in Figure 7 revolves around adjustments of farm management strategies, based on access to climate and agriculture advice and inputs. The starting point is the adaptation rationale, which outlines why adaptation is needed and informs required actions and desired impacts. Actions (white boxes) delineate the steps required for facilitating adoption of enhanced farm strategy by smallholder farmers. By accessing accurate and timely information about weather forecasts (See also Figure 1) or pest & disease alerts, farmers can adjust their strategies. This might involve planting dates shifted to avoid droughts, choosing drought-resistant crop varieties, or implementing improved water management practices. Agri-advisory services (See also Figure 2) also play a crucial role in this process. They offer tailored advice on climate-smart practices, input use efficiency, and market trends, further enhancing farmers' knowledge and decision-making capacity. A key outcome is represented by farmers' shift towards improved practices (grey box), based on informed, relevant, and timely advice and on access to adequate inputs."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"Impacts (yellow boxes) include improved input use efficiency translates to optimized resource utilization, reduced costs, and minimized environmental impact. Additionally, enhanced climate resilience leads to reduced crop losses and maintained productivity, even in the face of climate challenges. As crop and livestock production increase, farmers experience a boost in food security. Their households benefit from improved nutrition and reduced vulnerability."},{"index":3,"size":79,"text":"Increased production also opens up market access opportunities, potentially leading to higher incomes and farm profitability. However, some farm adjustments may also impact labor requirements and human and animal safety in complex ways. For example, adopting new technologies or practices might increase labor needs, potentially leading to higher costs or changing labor dynamics within households. Certain adaptation strategies, like introducing new crop varieties or pesticides, could raise concerns about human and animal health if not implemented safely and responsibly. "}]},{"head":"AGROFORESTRY","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"The central theme in the impact pathway (Figure 8) revolves around the use and management of companion trees and crops by smallholder African farmers. The adaptation rationale identifies the climate vulnerabilities and risks to be mitigated through implementation and management of agroforestry systems."},{"index":2,"size":93,"text":"Actions (white boxes) delineate the steps required for scaling use of agroforestry systems. Farmer groups, established through collaborations, become hubs for knowledge sharing and collective action, empowering communities to implement these practices effectively. Training workshops equip farmers with the skills needed to manage their agroforestry systems, from tree selection and planting to pruning and harvesting. Access to climate-and locally-adapted seeds and seedlings (See Figures 5a-b on improved inputs impact pathway) is critical for ensuring farmers' uptake and successful management of agroforestry systems (outcome in grey box), and for achieving desired impacts (yellow boxes)."},{"index":3,"size":172,"text":"Trees on farms are notorious for their potential to bolster farm system resilience and improve ecosystem function that support enhanced farm production. When implemented correctly, agroforestry systems can enhance soil health, facilitating water retention and preventing erosion. The integration of trees alongside crops facilitates increased biodiversity (i.e., pollinators, natural predators), fostering a balance that can enhance overall crop health and productivity. The presence of trees also influences microclimates, offering shade and windbreaks that can protect crops from extreme weather conditions. Crop-tree diversification also provides farmers with additional sources of income, contributing to overall household income and acting as a risk mitigation strategy in the face of crop failures or market fluctuations. Agroforestry systems can also increase labor demand (and hence employment), which have implications on production costs and farm profitability in the short term. Elements of the impact pathway are differentiated by colors as follows: adaptation rationale (blue); actions (white); outcomes (grey) and impacts (yellow). Arrows denote linkages between pathway elements. They do not suggest the type of linkage (positive or negative)."}]},{"head":"INTEGRATED SOIL FERTILITY MANAGEMENT","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"The central theme in the impact pathway (Figure 9) revolves around the adoption of integrated soul fertility management strategies by smallholder African farmers."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"The adaptation rationale (blue box) involves a thorough assessment of climate vulnerabilities, risks and impacts. It serves as the guiding force in tailoring soil fertility management plans, ensuring that strategies are intricately aligned with the specific climate challenges and vulnerabilities. The success of transitioning to ISFM, which represents the key outcome (grey box), hinges on various actions (white boxes), such as enhanced on-farm access to organic materials, enhances availability of inorganic fertilizers in the market (Figure 5c), and the accessibility of agricultural advisory services (Figure 2)."},{"index":3,"size":263,"text":"This shift initiates a cascade of interconnected impacts (yellow boxes). For example, ISFM can optimize the synergistic interaction between organic materials and inorganic fertilizers, ensuring more effective absorption and utilization of nutrients by crops and improving water quality linked to nutrient leakage. ISFM can increase soil health, which in turn enhances water use efficiency by promoting better water infiltration, reducing runoff, and enhancing water retention capacity in the soil; this ultimately ensures more effective water utilization by crops. Increased farm production from healthier soils and water use efficiency, coupled with reduced costs, elevates profitability. ISFM can also encourage diversified farm production, reducing reliance on monoculture and enhancing resilience to climate variability. The ripple effect is felt in improved food security, as the diverse crop portfolio contributes to a more robust and sustainable food supply, ensuring long-term agricultural viability for smallholder farmers. Organic inputs and improved germplasm, combined with the knowledge on how to adapt these practices to local conditions, aimed at maximizing agronomic use efficiency of the applied nutrients and improving crop productivity. All inputs need to be managed in accordance with sound agronomic principles. The integration of ISFM practices into farming systems is illustrated with the dual-purpose grain legume-maize rotations in the savannas and fertilizer micro-dosing in the Sahel. Finally, the dissemination of ISFM practices is discussed.\",\"container-title\":\"Better Crops with Plant Food\",\"language\":\"en\",\"note\":\"Accepted: 2014-09-24T08:42:22Z\",\"source\":\"cgspace.cgiar.org\",\"title\":\"Integrated soil fertility management: an operational definition and consequences for implementation and dissemination\",\"title-short\":\"Integrated soil fertility management\",\"URL\":\"https://cgspace. cgiar.org/handle/10568/43596\",\"author\":[{\"family\":\"Vanlauwe\",\"given\":\"Bernard\"},{\"family\":\"Zingore\",\"given\":\"Shamie\"}],\"acc essed\":{\"date-parts\": [[\"2023\",12,8]]},\"issued\":{\"date-parts\":[[\"2011\"]]},\"citation-key\":\"Vanlauwe2011\"}},{\"id\":4693,\"uris\":[\"ht tp://zotero.org/users/8082260/items/DNBIAKEZ\"],\"itemData\":{\"id\":4693,\"type\":\"article-journal\",\"abstract\":\"Intensification of smallholder agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa is necessary to address rural poverty and natural resource degradation. Integrated soil fertility management (ISFM."},{"index":4,"size":38,"text":"Elements of the impact pathway are differentiated by colors as follows: adaptation rationale (blue); actions (white); outcomes (grey) and impacts (yellow). Arrows denote linkages between pathway elements. They do not suggest the type of linkage (positive or negative)."}]},{"head":"IMPROVED CROP VARIETIES (CLIMATE-AND LOCALLY ADAPTED)","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"The impact pathway on improved crop varieties (Figure 10) revolves around the development, availability, access to and use of climate-and locally adapted crop varieties by smallholder African farmers."},{"index":2,"size":130,"text":"The adaptation rationale (blue box) informs the development of climate-adapted crop varieties. A comprehensive understanding of climate risks guides scientists and breeders in establishing selection criteria, prioritizing traits such as heat tolerance or drought resistance to address specific challenges. By incorporating these traits through various breeding techniques, the adaptation rationale ensures the creation of resilient crop varieties tailored to thrive under harsh climate conditions or after climate shocks. Several actions and factors (white boxes) determine farmers' ability and willingness to switch to improved crop varieties (outcome). These factors are also explained in detail in previous impact pathways and refer to: farmers' access to weather and climate information (Figure 1), to agronomic advice on crop management (Figure 2), to finance (Figure 3) and risk management products such as insurance (Figure 4)."},{"index":3,"size":170,"text":"Impacts are highlighted in yellow boxes. For instance, drought-resistant crops reduce water demand for agriculture. This not only conserves water resources, thus increasing water use efficiency, but also enhances the sustainability of farming practices in water-scarce regions. Improved crop varieties contribute to increased crop production through traits such as disease resistance, higher yields, and shorter maturity periods, thereby bolstering overall food production. Moreover, these varieties might result in lower production costs by reducing the need for expensive inputs like pesticides and fertilizers. The enhanced productivity, coupled with cost savings, contributes to increased income for farmers, improving profitability and fostering economically sustainable livelihoods. As farmers experience improved financial returns and greater food production, the adoption of improved crop varieties plays a crucial role in enhancing food security at both individual and community levels. Elements of the impact pathway are differentiated by colors as follows: adaptation rationale (blue); actions (white); outcomes (grey) and impacts (yellow). Arrows denote linkages between pathway elements. They do not suggest the type of linkage (positive or negative)."}]},{"head":"IMPROVED LIVESTOCK BREEDS (CLIMATE-AND LOCALLY ADAPTED)","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"The impact pathway on improved livestock breeds (Figure 11) illustrates how the use of livestock breeds tailored to local climatic conditions can bolsters farmers' capacity to adapt to climate change and variability, fostering a more resilient agricultural system. This proactive approach not only addresses the immediate need for adaptation but also contributes to broader socio-economic improvements, creating a pathway towards sustainable and climate-resilient livelihoods for smallholder farmers."},{"index":2,"size":302,"text":"The adaptation rationale (blue box) serves as a crucial foundation for the impact pathway, informing the development of climate-adapted breeds. It provides a comprehensive understanding of the specific challenges posed by climate change in a particular region or ecosystem. By identifying the key stressors, such as temperature fluctuations, water scarcity, or emerging diseases, the adaptation rationale guides the selection criteria for breeding programs. Several actions and factors (white boxes) determine farmers' ability and willingness to switch to improved livestock breeds (outcome). These factors are also explained in detail in previous impact pathways and refer to: availability of improved breeds on the market and farmers' ability to purchase them (Figure 11), farmers' access to agronomic advice on livestock management (Figure 2), adequate access to feed (Figure 5c), finance (Figure 3); or other contextual factors, such as demographics, socio-economic characteristics, geography. In terms of impacts (yellow boxes), locally adapted livestock breeds play a pivotal role in enhancing farm production in the face of climate change. These breeds are better suited to withstand regional environmental conditions, exhibiting resilience to temperature fluctuations, water scarcity, and emerging diseases. As a result, farm production becomes more reliable, contributing to increased yields and improved food security. Moreover, the use of locally adapted livestock breeds influences farm costs. Whie they may require higher up-front investment for farmers, these breeds are often more disease-resistant and require less intensive management, reducing the need for expensive veterinary interventions and feed supplements. Consequently, smallholders can experience a decline in production costs, allowing for a more sustainable and economically viable farming model, ultimately leading to improved livelihoods. Elements of the impact pathway are differentiated by colors as follows: adaptation rationale (blue); actions (white); outcomes (grey) and impacts (yellow). Arrows denote linkages between pathway elements. They do not suggest the type of linkage (positive or negative)."}]},{"head":"IMPROVED FEEDS AND FEEDING STRATEGIES","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":143,"text":"The impact pathway on improved feed and feeding strategies (Figure 12) delineates how farmers transitioning to enhanced feed practices can significantly improve livestock productivity and resilience. The adaptation rationale (blue box) often derived from a climate risk assessment, serves as a critical compass for extension agents and service providers to tailor feeding practices to specific needs. For instance, in areas prone to drought, the adaptation rationale may emphasize drought-resistant forage crops or alternative feeding methods to ensure sustained livestock productivity despite water scarcity. The adoption of improved feeding strategies represents the key outcome (grey box). This hinges significantly on multiple actions (white boxes), such as enhancing availability and access to on-farm feeds, as smallholder farmers rely heavily on locally sourced resources. Access to agricultural advisory services plays a pivotal role, providing farmers with the knowledge and guidance required to implement effective feeding practices."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"Additionally, the availability and accessibility of improved feeds in the market are crucial factors, as farmers need a reliable supply chain to procure the necessary inputs for optimizing their livestock nutrition."},{"index":3,"size":150,"text":"Adoption of improved feeding strategies has multiple impacts (yellow boxes). Targeted nutrition and optimized feeding regimes enhance feeding efficiency and livestock productivity, leading to faster growth rates and increased yields. This addresses food security concerns by bolstering the availability of animal-sourced protein for local consumption and sale. Livestock health is also tied to the quality and nutritional content of their diet. The implementation of advanced feeding strategies also has a cascading effect on farm costs. While initial investments may be required for the adoption of these practices, the long-term benefits are evident in reduced feed wastage and enhanced resource utilization, resulting in overall cost savings for smallholder farmers. The economic impact extends to income and livelihoods as well. Improved livestock productivity translates into higher marketable surpluses, leading to increased income for smallholder farmers. This positive economic shift empowers farming communities, creating a ripple effect on various aspects of rural livelihoods. "}]},{"head":"FINAL CONSIDERATIONS","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"This document synthesizes key impact pathways for adaptation in the agricultural sector, aiming to guide practitioners in designing and implementing effective interventions. These pathways are not intended to be definitive solutions, but rather serve as starting points for adaptation strategies customized to specific contexts and stakeholder needs."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"To advance this work, three key considerations are paramount: integrating diverse knowledge sources, testing and validating proposed pathways, and transforming this compendium into a living knowledge base."}]},{"head":"INTEGRATING MULTIPLE SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE.","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"Developing a robust impact pathway requires incorporating diverse knowledge sources. Tools like the Climate Risk Planning & Managing Tool for Development Programmes in Agri-food Systems (CRISP) (Gosling et al., 2022)\"number\":\"CIAT Publication No. 531\",\"page\":\"44\",\"publisher\":\"International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT1 or the Agriculture Adaptation Atlas2, which draw on the latest science, can provide valuable insights into the development of the adaptation rationale/risk assessment. However, it is crucial to include the perspectives of local stakeholders, including farmers and local communities, to validate the pathway and ensure it is grounded in lived realities. A participatory approach involving all relevant actors will enhance the pathway's legitimacy and effectiveness."}]},{"head":"TESTING TO COLLECT THE EVIDENCE.","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"Merely co-designing impact pathways with stakeholders is insufficient to ensure the achievement of desired outcomes and impacts. Rigorous testing is crucial to determine the validity and effectiveness of proposed interventions, including understanding the direction (increase or decrease) of any anticipated changes. This requires establishing clear indicators, data collection protocols, and robust data systems that capture not only the magnitude of change but also its direction. Integrating historical data, climate projections, and real-time field data provides a comprehensive picture of progress and enables adjustments as needed. Without such testing mechanisms, the potential for achieving intended impacts remains uncertain, and negative unintended consequences may arise undetected."}]},{"head":"DEVELOPING A LIVING KNOWLEDGE BASE FOR IMPROVED LEARNING.","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"The current compendium represents a valuable resource, but its effectiveness can be amplified by transforming it into a dynamic and constantly evolving knowledge platform. This necessitates fostering a community of practitioners and researchers who actively contribute to its update and refinement. This could facilitate a collaborative knowledgesharing process, ensuring the compendium remains relevant and responsive to evolving needs and insights. By harnessing the collective intelligence of the community, the compendium can evolve into a powerful tool for advancing impactful climate-resilient agricultural practices."}]},{"head":"ACKNOWLEDGMENTS","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":172,"text":"This report builds upon collaborations between scientists at the Alliance of Bioversity and CIAT and various partners. The initial concept of using impact pathways for measuring and tracking adaptation in African agriculture was developed under the Accelerating CGIAR Climate Research in Africa (AICCRA) Program. Development and documentation of these pathways were further supported by the CGIAR initiatives Excellence in Agronomy (EiA) for crop-focused components and Livestock and Climate (LCSR) for livestock-focused components. The impact pathway on conservation agriculture in Morocco was validated with stakeholders through a collaboration with the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) and the National Agriculture Research Institute (INRA). All pathways informed the development of the African Agriculture Adaptation Tracking Platform, a collaborative effort between the Alliance of Bioversity and CIAT, the AAA Initiative Foundation for Adaptation in African Agriculture (AAA), with funding from the German Agency for Internal Cooperation (GiZ) through the Global Center on Adaptation (GCA). This platform promotes and scales the use of pathways for improved adaptation decision-making across the African continent."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"This report was edited for clarity with Chat GPT and Bard Experiment."}]},{"head":"FUNDING","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Funding for developing this report was provided through the CGIAR Initiatives on Excellence in Agronomy (EiA) and Livestock and Climate (L&C)."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Impact pathway for weather and climate information services in Africa.Elements of the impact pathway are differentiated by colors as follows: adaptation rationale (blue); actions (white); outcomes (grey) and impacts (yellow). Dotted boxes represent factors that may also affect access and uptake of WCIS, independent from the quality and type of the WCIS. Arrows denote linkages between pathway elements. They do not suggest the type of linkage (positive or negative). "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Impact pathway for agri-advisory services in Africa.Elements of the impact pathway are differentiated by colors as follows: adaptation rationale (blue); actions (white); outcomes (grey) and impacts (yellow). Dotted boxes represent factors that may also affect access and uptake of agri-advisory services, independent from the quality and type of the agricultural advice. Arrows denote linkages between pathway elements. They do not suggest the type of linkage (positive or negative). "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Impact pathway for agricultural finance products in Africa.Elements of the impact pathway are differentiated by colors as follows: adaptation rationale (blue); actions (white); outcomes (grey) and impacts (yellow). Arrows denote linkages between pathway elements. They do not suggest the type of linkage (positive or negative). "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Impact pathway for weather-based index insurances in Africa.Elements of the impact pathway are differentiated by colors as follows: adaptation rationale (blue); actions (white); outcomes (grey) and impacts (yellow). Arrows denote linkages between pathway elements. They do not suggest the type of linkage (positive or negative). "},{"text":"Figure 5a . Figure 5a. Impact pathway for improved seed systems in Africa.Elements of the impact pathway are differentiated by colors as follows: adaptation rationale (blue); actions (white); outcomes (grey) and impacts (yellow). Dotted boxes represent factors that may also affect access and uptake of seeds, independent of their quality and type. Arrows denote linkages between pathway elements. They do not suggest the type of linkage (positive or negative). "},{"text":"Figure 6 . Figure 6. Impact pathway for conservation agriculture in Africa (Morocco) Elements of the impact pathway are differentiated by colors as follows: adaptation rationale (blue); actions (white); outcomes (grey) and impacts (yellow). Arrows denote linkages between pathway elements. They do not suggest the type of linkage (positive or negative). "},{"text":"Figure 7 . Figure 7. Impact pathway for farm adjustments based on agro-climate advice and inputs.Elements of the impact pathway are differentiated by colors as follows: adaptation rationale (blue); actions (white); outcomes (grey) and impacts (yellow). Arrows denote linkages between pathway elements. They do not suggest the type of linkage (positive or negative). "},{"text":"Figure 8 . Figure 8. Impact pathway for agroforestry in Africa. "},{"text":"Figure 9 . Figure 9. Impact pathway for integrated soil fertility management in AfricaOrganic inputs and improved germplasm, combined with the knowledge on how to adapt these practices to local conditions, aimed at maximizing agronomic use efficiency of the applied nutrients and improving crop productivity. All inputs need to be managed in accordance with sound agronomic principles. The integration of ISFM practices into farming systems is illustrated with the dual-purpose grain legume-maize rotations in the savannas and fertilizer micro-dosing in the Sahel. Finally, the dissemination of ISFM practices is discussed.\",\"container-title\":\"Better Crops with Plant Food\",\"language\":\"en\",\"note\":\"Accepted: 2014-09-24T08:42:22Z\",\"source\":\"cgspace.cgiar.org\",\"title\":\"Integrated soil fertility management: an operational definition and consequences for implementation and dissemination\",\"title-short\":\"Integrated soil fertility management\",\"URL\":\"https://cgspace. cgiar.org/handle/10568/43596\",\"author\":[{\"family\":\"Vanlauwe\",\"given\":\"Bernard\"},{\"family\":\"Zingore\",\"given\":\"Shamie\"}],\"acc essed\":{\"date-parts\":[[\"2023\",12,8]]},\"issued\":{\"date-parts\":[[\"2011\"]]},\"citation-key\":\"Vanlauwe2011\"}},{\"id\":4693,\"uris\":[\"ht tp://zotero.org/users/8082260/items/DNBIAKEZ\"],\"itemData\":{\"id\":4693,\"type\":\"article-journal\",\"abstract\":\"Intensification of smallholder agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa is necessary to address rural poverty and natural resource degradation. Integrated soil fertility management (ISFM. "},{"text":"Figure 10 . Figure 10. Impact pathway for use of improved crop varieties in Africa. "},{"text":"Figure 11 . Figure 11. Impact pathway for use of improved livestock breeds in Africa.Elements of the impact pathway are differentiated by colors as follows: adaptation rationale (blue); actions (white); outcomes (grey) and impacts (yellow). Arrows denote linkages between pathway elements. They do not suggest the type of linkage (positive or negative). "},{"text":"Figure 12 . Figure12. Impact pathway for use of improved feeds and feeding strategies in Africa. Elements of the impact pathway are differentiated by colors as follows: adaptation rationale (blue); actions (white); outcomes (grey) and impacts (yellow). Arrows denote linkages between pathway elements. They do not suggest the type of linkage (positive or negative). "}],"sieverID":"86835666-a2f9-49d6-8ffc-bdb0eab41df0","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0229507b53dfc9edd557baa81612cf8e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/afc35405-e8ae-4ebc-9bee-ae2c0853908b/retrieve"},"pageCount":27,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Foreword","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"This Working Paper presents the impacts and lessons learnt from the Data4Ag project conducted by the Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA) and the Pan African Farmers Organisation (PAFO)."},{"index":2,"size":133,"text":"The Data4Ag project had four components: 1) Field studies, working directly with farmers' organisations in the digitisation of their membership records and farmer profiles; 2) Research examining the existing literature and findings from similar work, in particular farmers' data rights; 3) Capacity building, in particular training those working with farmers' organisations on data driven solutions; and 4) Policy formulation, for example working with the Global Open Data for Agriculture and Nutrition initiative (GODAN) on policy to support the local data ecosystem. This Working Paper is produced to share findings and encourage discussion on the issues around data-driven services being implemented by farmer organisations and farmer-owned and farmer-led agribusinesses. The paper is intended for those involved in working in or with these organisations in implementing capacity development and data-driven projects for these groups. vii"}]},{"head":"Summary","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"This Working Paper considers the role of smallholder farmers in addressing the target of zero hunger in Sustainable Development Goal 2, in particular in addressing their productivity, sustainable livelihoods and resilience through digitalisation. It draws on examples that focus on the role of aggregators in bringing groups of smallholders together. Farmer profiles also provide targeted information for improving production; source location information can improve access to new markets; farm profiles are used to access credit; and accurate knowledge of members improves value chain organisation. This Working Paper covers a range of impacts and lessons learnt in implementing data-driven services shown in the table below."}]},{"head":"Impacts Lessons","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Farmer profiles","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Overall benefits of digital registration systems were demonstrated in all of the projects across Sub-Saharan Africa"},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"The depth and scale of associated farmer profiling would vary depending on the value of the services using the data captured"}]},{"head":"Production","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Increased yields have been demonstrated amongst those registered","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Mapping of farms has led to better provision of inputs: fertiliser, weather advice, crop calendars and tailored extension advice"}]},{"head":"Trade and market access","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Benefits demonstrated for registered origin of crop and for collective sales to new customers Geolocation adds value to crop, e.g., altitude of coffee and use of geographical indicators viii"}]},{"head":"Financial services","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"Mapping with registration allows setup of SACCOs (savings and credit cooperative organisations), use of evidence from data improves credit access Financial arrangements take time; transaction records, farm mapping and joint action can facilitate new credit"}]},{"head":"Value chain organisation","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Mapping allows review of collection centres and support to farmers in remoter locations Data allows improvements to logistics, value chain planning and improvements in trust 1 Introduction"},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"Agriculture, the science and art of cultivating plants and livestock, has been impacted by the development of four phases 1 :"},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":" Adoption of modern agriculture -18 th century plant and animal breeding and scientific testing of cropping approaches and soil management."},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":" Mechanisation -The invention of the internal combustion engine meant reduced horse and labour use and new processed foods introduced."},{"index":5,"size":61,"text":" The Green Revolution -The mid-20 th century saw developments in the application of science in agriculture, both in chemistry and genetics. This precipitated the \"Green\" Revolution whereby the use of nitrogen and phosphate fertilisers became widespread and global grain output tripled. Towards the end of the century more environmental awareness grew with the negative effects of land clearing and deforestation."},{"index":6,"size":125,"text":" Digital agriculture can allow to move from an often inefficient and ineffective utilisation of inputs (water, seeds, fertilisers, pesticides) to an intensive utilisation of knowledge based on up-to-date data and information. Agriculture can now be more precise due to the combination of connectivity, apps development and new data collection. It is now possible to weigh up the use of inputs with yield forecasting and improve long-term management of farms. This use of technologies and data science has improved production and supply chains that are responsive to real-time consumer demand and can reduce social and environmental negative impacts. One of the key differences in this fourth phase of agricultural development is the potential to shorten the link between producer and consumer in a transparent way."},{"index":7,"size":65,"text":"We will focus on the role of data in digital agriculture from the perspective of those organisations most closely working with the smallholder farmerstheir associations, development practitioners and agribusinesses. We will examine the many opportunities digitalisation can bring to the value chain actors and to the farmers in particular, but also the challenges and further divide it can create and how we can minimise them."},{"index":8,"size":78,"text":"Whilst digitalisation started with a focus on the commodity and product, it has now moved to also cover the farmer, farm and geographical information. Without a \"digital ID\" the farmer cannot fully be part of this digital world and reap the benefits. But special care must be given to avoid bias in the type of data collected, to avoid digital gaps and exclusion and make sure that smallholder farmers (men and women) are the first beneficiaries of digitalisation."},{"index":9,"size":32,"text":"The livelihoods, productivity and resilience of the smallholder farmer is essential in delivering progress on sustainable development goal 2 \"End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture\". 2"},{"index":10,"size":24,"text":"This Working Paper discusses the various issues, draws conclusions and offers recommendations for farmer organisations and development practitioners, based on CTA's and partners' experiences."}]},{"head":"Role of aggregators and the registration of smallholder farmers","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"A farmers' organisation or association can act as an aggregator of smallholder farmers' production, improving collective bargaining power, access to inputs, credits and markets. In many countries, as many as 60% of farmers are member of an association (FAO smallholders dataportrait 3 ). By working with these aggregators and improving their efficiency, the productivity, resilience and income of the smallholders can be improved, allowing economies of scale along the value chain."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"The main advantage of aggregators is for collective access to services and markets."},{"index":3,"size":103,"text":"The dispersed nature of the smallholder farmers producing small volumes makes working with them as individuals difficult for many value chain actors. For example, the agriculture sector in East Africa is dominated by smallholder farming (averaging 0.2-3 ha), with 60% of farmers making less than €1.5/day. Fertiliser use among these farmers is low; about 1.7 kg/acre against 60 kg/acre globally. The sector is mainly rain-fed and dependent on bimodal rainfall, making it vulnerable to droughtrelated crop failure. Smallholder farmers who do not aggregate around input and output markets or other agricultural services may fall short of their potential for agricultural production and sales."},{"index":4,"size":49,"text":"Aggregation allows cost saving on logistics and access to machinery/technology, marketing and distribution, training and access to certification. Aggregation can also support efficient agricultural service delivery, allow input procurement at favourable prices and provide competitiveness in output markets. This aggregated action can be informed by access to aggregated data."}]},{"head":"Use of data-driven services by aggregators","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Agriculture is back at the top of Africa's development agenda, enjoying the support of governments and attracting significant investments from the private sector."},{"index":2,"size":84,"text":"Smallholder farmers that are central to the agricultural transformation in Africa struggle to benefit from these developments due to their dispersed and small-scale nature. Aggregation of smallholder farmers' needs may provide the solution, according to Norbert Tuyishime of the e-Granary system run by the Eastern Africa Farmers Federation (EAFF). The EAFF has found that bundling services such as insurance with input loans bring faster uptake and that e-extension provides farmers with timely information so that they are able to anticipate risks and avoid losses."}]},{"head":"e-Granary","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"Farmers across the region are eager to participate in the e-Granary service due to their concerns for climate change vulnerability and access to markets and certified inputs. In 2019 the platform intended to register 340,000 farmers, of which 150,000 would receive e-extension services. The objective is to turn 10% of e-Granary member farmers into active users of loans worth €879,000 with the volume and value of sales reaching 1,000 metric tonnes (MT) and over €1,300,000 respectively. e-Granary was launched in Uganda and Rwanda."},{"index":2,"size":173,"text":"The Data4Ag project identified that a lot of capacity building is needed with farmers' organisations and supporting actors on the use of business services linked with datadriven solutions in agriculture to enable smallholder farmers to benefit from digitalisation. The CAPAD project described below is another example of the benefits of collective access. Bundling a variety of services onto one platform is a common theme emerging in digitalisation and there is much discussion on who should take the lead on these developments, be it government or private sector actors. In particular another kind of aggregator is entering the scene: the aggregator of data, offering services in various development sectors such as agriculture, water, health, education, etc. There are concerns that if the emphasis is on super platforms that provide all services these will only be possible to deliver and support at a multinational level, with a concentration of power and control. It seems more interesting to encourage a local ecosystem of services to support these platforms, as long as these platforms are respecting farmers."}]},{"head":"Confédération des associations des producteurs agricoles pour le développement (CAPAD","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Data serving farmers","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"Whilst the new technologies offer great opportunities for improving efficiencies in value chains, improving profitability for smallholder farmers and reducing environmental impacts is not without significant challenges, particularly around who controls the flow of data. The main challenges facing smallholders are to gain access to relevant data and services, while at the same time ensuring that data they shared is used for the benefit of their own activities and the sustainable development of their communities."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"The data ecosystem around farming has been described as falling into four domains as shown in the figure below. \"Localised data\" is data generated and collated on the farm for use on the farm only. This might relate to water, soil data, seed and fertilisers/pesticides' use and management practice."},{"index":3,"size":36,"text":"\"Imported data\" is data generated and collated off the farm, for example meteorological data and market prices. This data is normally made available to a farmer through another party who often sells it to the farmer."},{"index":4,"size":33,"text":"\"Exported data\" is data generated and collated on the farm for use off the farm and will often be aggregated externally. Governments, NGOs and/or private sector value chain actors may use this data."},{"index":5,"size":34,"text":"Finally, \"Ancillary data\" is data generated on and off farm which is used off farm. This may be used for government statistics, research by knowledge institutions, capacity building by NGOs, client survey and marketing."}]},{"head":"Farmer profiling","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"The data collected on the farm and exchanged to provide services to the smallholder revolves around the data collected about the farm and the farmer. The benefits of farmer profiling were clear in all the cases that were supported in the farmers' organisations. The services that you want to provide determine which information you can and may want to collect. If farmers do not understand why you want to collect certain information from them, they will not provide it. Data and profiles need to be maintained and updated; else they are of no use. The benefits come from the link between the data collected and the service provided as shown in the graphic below."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"The successful projects had a demand from farmers for registration. This demand depended on a critical mass of profiled farmers and delivery of services that financially benefited the farmers."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"Sustainability also relied on low operational costs. Software as a service cost proved too high for many of the projects and functions were replaced by local software."},{"index":4,"size":61,"text":"Changes in personal data protection legislation during the projects have affected registration and this varies from country to country. Burundi for example had to acquire a data collection visa to undertake the registration of members. In Uganda, legislation is being developed for coffee farmer registration which could affect how the National Union of Coffee Agribusiness and Farm Enterprises (NUCAFE) collects data."}]},{"head":"Lessons from farmer profiling and registration","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"For all organisations, the profiling project was beneficial and was instrumental to unlock new opportunities in the form of new projects funded by other stakeholders/donors."},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"There were two main findings:"},{"index":3,"size":128,"text":"1. The development of a profiling project demonstrates the capacities of the farmers' organisation, usually acquired as part of the project, to organise a large-scale data collection and use ICT tools to collect field data. One of the major outputs of such projects is the ability for the farmers' organisation to conduct such a process in a short period of time, and to interact in a trustful way with usually hard-to-reach populations (rural farmers). The technical and managerial capacities demonstrated by such projects are not very common in developing countries and are therefore in demand. This situation creates opportunities for farmers' organisations, and many of them were involved in similar tasks after the profiling project and were able to establish new partnerships with governmental agencies/ministries and/or international organisations."},{"index":4,"size":44,"text":"2. The profiling data is valuable and can be used for other purposes. Profile content is essential for a number of digital services. Some of the farmers' organisations were then involved in subsequent initiatives thanks to the data they gathered in the profiling project."},{"index":5,"size":10,"text":"The distinction between digital profiles and farmer registration is that:"},{"index":6,"size":27,"text":" Digital profiling consists of gathering and analysing data provided by a farmer on his/her farm to improve his/her own \"business\" (from production to harvest and commercialisation)."},{"index":7,"size":42,"text":" Digital farmer registration is the process of collecting the various types of data related to the farmers and their business activities; registering this data in a digital system (database, platform) for further analysis and potential use by external groups of stakeholders."},{"index":8,"size":26,"text":"Farmers may be reluctant to take a profile/register for services if it requires a subscription with a telecoms company that has bad coverage in their area."}]},{"head":"Identity","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":165,"text":"Research has shown that who should be registered is a social issue in which gender plays an important role. The head of the household is not necessarily the primary farmer. In farmer profiles a pragmatic choice should be made. The person who is registered should be the person to whom the messages about a service should be directed. Care should be taken to understand that different family members are working on a farm with different crops and roles, in particular being clear on the role of women farmers. In the farmer profiling undertaken by the Igara Growers Tea Factory (IGTF) and NUCAFE, the ratios were the same in registered and unregistered plots. Whilst this suggested that the digital registration was not discriminatory compared to the previous registration, it was difficult to assess any other bias. The Southern Africa Confederation of Agricultural Unions (SACAU) identified that in future registration there could pay more attention to training the enumerators to avoid gender bias in the registration process."}]},{"head":"Data collection","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"Some fields that have been indicated as necessary for market participation are field position (which may attract specific buyers interested in specific local products), field size (essential for yield forecast), type and variety of crops, and certification. Prices at which farmers sell products is a relevant piece of information to collect in profiles, but it was observed that it is very hard to collect this type of informationboth for taxation issues and for reluctance to reveal actual pricesand at the same time there is generally little to no incentive to provide this information as this will mainly benefit others. The source of reliable information about prices is not farmers but markets. Nevertheless, the trust in the person/organisation collecting the data on the markets is essential."}]},{"head":"Practical issues","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"These may arise depending on local conditions (legal land tenure documents may be missing; in electronic systems the SIM cannot be used to identify people if they share telephones). There may be an additional step to decide whether a farmer will be admitted to the organisation."}]},{"head":"Production","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Production can be increased through a number of data-related services: better targeting of advisory services, cheaper acquisition of inputs and more accurate application, better targeted forecasts and information on soils. The supported projects have seen benefits in four areas: provision of inputs; more precise forecasting; understanding of agro-conditions; and more targeted extension."}]},{"head":"Advisory services","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"Advisory and information services cover digitally delivered information on topics such as agronomic best practices, pests and diseases, weather and market prices, as well as more sophisticated digital advisory services and farm management software tailored to the specific farmer, farm or field that enable smallholder farmers to make decisions that maximise output from their land, improve the quality of agricultural production and maximise farm revenues and profits."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"CTA and AgriCord co-financed a 2018 PAFO project to provide access to marketoriented agricultural extension and advisory services via mobile phones to smallholder farmers in Kenya."},{"index":3,"size":35,"text":"The EAFF is running the e-Granary mobile platform to increase access to market information and e-extension services for farmers by using the e-Granary mobile platform to mitigate the lack of access to conventional extension services."},{"index":4,"size":62,"text":"The project meets the needs of the farmers by using mobile phones to increase their access to real-time market information and enables the farmers to decide when, where and at what price to sell their products at. Currently, 43,400 farmers are registered with the e-Granary platform in Kenya, which sends targeted voice messages to the registered farmers based on location and crop."},{"index":5,"size":41,"text":"Farmers need very localised and tailored market information, and this is considered a very powerful case for collecting profile data. Farmer profile data like location or crops to be marketed is essential for instance for efficient interactive voice response (IVR) systems."}]},{"head":"Better management of inputs","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"Provision of fertiliser by the IGTF suffered from not having accurate measurements of field size and location. By improving the inputs provided, the IGTF saw a return from profiled farmers of 30% more leaf through the first two seasons after registration. The geospatial data required to provide these services is the mapping done by the enumerators when profiling farmers. There needs however to be a key economic gain as the mapping is estimated to cost €4 per farmer."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"Providing better advice on forecasts, land conditions and extension has been taken up by the EAFF in Kenya with 4,674 farmers currently in the programme and a target of 20,000 being reached through mobile text and other channels. It should be noted that even if short term economic benefits are important for the farmers, attention should be given to the (longer-term) return on social and environmental investments (sustainability)."}]},{"head":"Electronic record keeping","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"These systems can provide new opportunities for farmers but also to their service providers in a production chain. The real challenge is to keep the records up-to-date and the success of remote systems depends on network coverage in an area and/or the opportunity of offline storage of data before transfer to a central system. A number of approaches have been trialled in particular using SMS updates, but it would seem important to work with the farmer organisations as the details are updated when produce is brought for sale."}]},{"head":"Information requirements","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"These may differ for various groups of farmers. For example, in a dairy production chain, herd information is not relevant for farmers with a small number of animals. Nevertheless, it is important to keep in mind that smallholder farmers, often family farmers, may have multiple requirements: some crops may be good for markets, others are just for own consumption and in the family, some are relevant for the wife, others for the husband. Combining information requirements may increase the use of the system and help to close the digital gap between women and men."}]},{"head":"Trade and market linkages","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"Market linkages are digitally enabled solutions that link smallholder farmers to highquality farm inputs, production and post-harvest machinery and mechanisation services (e.g. irrigation, tractors, cold storage), or off-take markets, including agrodealers, wholesalers, retailers, or even end-consumers."}]},{"head":"Premium prices from geolocation","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":292,"text":"Smallholder farmers in Uganda are seeing better incomes and a premium price for their coffee as a result of using a digital farmer profile system to improve their market access. 4 The design of the NUCAFE geospatial database is helping Ugandan coffee farmers to provide traceable products, ensuring access to new markets and higher prices. With support from CTA, NUCAFE has generated farmer profiles and maps of coffee farms. NUCAFE represents 210 coffee farmers' and farmers' organisations -205,120 farming familiesand focuses on advocating on their behalf, facilitating their access to services and resources and promoting farmers' access to local and international markets. Better position of collection points NUCAFE started with an Excel database with basic member information, based on manually uploaded questionnaires. Realising the limited capacity of this database, NUCAFE then worked with CTA support to develop a spatial data management system. Between June 2017 and April 2018, farmers were profiled using a tabletbased questionnaire that captures the coffee farm family details, production information and GPS location of the household and farm. With data privacy consent, the data was transferred to the NUCAFE servers, using the ONA survey software, and processed using QGIS and ArcGIS geographical information systems. This generated individual coffee farms field maps. To obtain higher resolution images of the individual farms, the GPS coordinates were used to produce flight plans for drones. In the second phase of the project, the improved database is used to generate added value by effectively providing each batch of coffee with a QR-code, proving its authenticity and origin. This QR passport includes information about the farmer who grew the beans, the farmer group, farm location, the product, date of delivery to the warehouse, and details of the coffee's subsequent journey along the supply chain."}]},{"head":"National Union of","index":27,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Certification helps increasing farmers' incomes","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Certification helps farmers produce better crops, adapt to climate change, increase their productivity, and reduce costs. These benefits provide companies with a steady and secured supply of certified products. Certified products also help businesses meet consumer expectations and safeguard their brand's credibility."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"International buyers from Italy and South Korea offered higher prices for coffee produced by the profiled farmers, paying €3.51 per kg instead of the less than €2.16 generally paid for untraceable coffee of similar quality. For a typical Arabica coffee farm of 0.4 hectares producing an average 600 kg each year, that translates into an additional annual income of €850."},{"index":3,"size":104,"text":"Bufumbo Organic Coffee Farmers Association used data about its farmers and their coffee farms from the NUCAFE spatial database, for a critical external audit for organic and UTZ (an international standard for fair, sustainable and transparent production) certification. The association obtained both certificates, and subsequently sold 19.8 MT of organic/UTZ-certified coffee to an Italian buyer for roasting, and a further 160 MT to other buyers. Other farmers are now motivated to change their practices to obtain certificates and coffee farmers' associations are expressing interest to use the database for certification. This requires an ongoing data collection process as the certificates need to be renewed."},{"index":4,"size":70,"text":"A regular workflow needs to be set up to maintain the data for certification. \"The first challenge relates to smallholders' understanding of concepts and terms used by sustainability standards and certifications. (…) Many smallholders are even unaware that they participate in a certification scheme.\" 5 \"Controls of farmer registration are frequent, and it has become increasingly commonplace for OPACS to have to reregister organic producers associated with participatory systems.\" 6"},{"index":5,"size":47,"text":"It should be noted that the management of data for certification should be kept at the farmer organisation (and not at the certification body) as there are different kinds of certification (for different purposes) and any farmer organisation should be allowed to keep the independence to choose."}]},{"head":"Upscaling digital profiling for market access","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"Buoyed by its early success with the digital database, NUCAFE has received more than €1.2 million from the European Union to help establish geographical indications for coffee in six member cooperatives in the Rwenzori region during the next four years (2018 to 2022). Targeting 20,000 coffee farmer households, many located in the remote area of the Rwenzori Mountains, the initiative seeks to obtain organic, fair trade and geographical indicator certification, using GIS-based tools. The ultimate goal is to secure improved livelihoods, job creation and poverty alleviation for coffee farming families."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"Growing awareness of the potential benefits of being profiled is starting to attract new members to NUCAFE. Furthermore, the state-run Uganda Coffee Development Authority (UCDA) wants to use the same profiling methodology for all Ugandan coffee farmers to facilitate service provision and distribution of inputs, and to upgrade speciality branding of Ugandan coffee on the international market."}]},{"head":"Attracting new customers","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"Lesotho National Farmers Union (LENAFU) has used the database to improve its standing with new customers, most recently with the WFP who now source maize and beans from the Union. The database has improved the Union's standing with other potential customers and partners as it now has more data about its members and can prove to be representative. "}]},{"head":"Lesotho National Farmers","index":31,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Collective market participation","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"Participants highlighted the importance of this aspect which is also found in the literature. In an example from Cameroon, farmers overcome difficulties due to lack of money, debt and other constraints by coming together, identifying buyers and a market, commercialising their collective produce and retaining some profit for the members. This gives them more negotiation power. According to another participant, farmer organisations have a key role in collective market participation and using farmer profiles helps to manage these tasks easily. "}]},{"head":"Supply chain management","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"Digital supply chain management solutions are business-to-business services that help agrobusinesses, cooperatives, nucleus farms, input agro-dealers and other smallholder farmer value chain intermediaries to manage their smallholder relationships in ways that lower costs through greater efficiency, improve value chain quality through better traceability and accountability and ultimately increase smallholder farmer yields and incomes."}]},{"head":"Improved logistics","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"At a practical level, the geo-referenced data has enabled extension workers, businesses and hub managers working with the coffee farmers' associations to improve logistics planning. Having a detailed overview of the territory and location of farmers makes it easier for them to schedule coffee bean collection, effective agricultural advisory support and supplementary services. Awareness raising on the value of drought insurance, training in climate-smart agriculture, and positioning of strategically located wet processing machines in the Mabira Coffee Farmers Association are among the services delivered by NUCAFE."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"In the case of the IGTF example, better supply management was possible through digitalisation of the delivery and collection points. "}]},{"head":"Igara Growers Tea","index":35,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Financial services","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"Many digital financial services are relevant for smallholder farmers, such as digital payments, savings, credit and agricultural insurance. They increase financial access and equip smallholder farmers to improve yields and incomes and invest in the longterm sustainability of their farm. Financial access also includes business-to-business digitalisation and data analytics services for financial institutions to serve smallholder farmers at substantially lower cost and risk. Getting access to financial services by the smallholder farmers can be done only with digital farm profiling."}]},{"head":"Access to credit","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Specific data is required to support credit-based decisions with other financial services reliant on different data. For credit for example this can cover field information, crop data, farm management details, production information, postharvest information, selling opportunities, financial data and insurance information."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"Greater access to, and management of, farmer information is also enabling farmer organisations to improve financial services for their members. The e-Granary described earlier uses farm-level data to build automated risk profiles for farmers. Credit providers use these profiles to determine various micro-finance parameters."},{"index":3,"size":120,"text":"The technology, which is rolled out to farmers by the EAFF and represents about 20 million farmers in the region, is accessed using USSD technology; similar to SMS, the technology serves as a platform between mobile phones and the computer software of a service provider to send and receive text messages. Farmers log the metrics of their production into the platform, including the size of their farm, the crops grown and how much they pay their workers. Based on this information, and using advanced analytics, the app works out what inputs they need to maximise their yield, such as quality seed and fertiliser, and these are made available to them in the form of credits disbursed by the credit provider."},{"index":4,"size":56,"text":"Examples already exist where farmer profiles improve access to credit. This is achieved by using profiles based on yield potential of farmers' fields calculated from satellite images. An example of local dossiers was tested with the IGTF and NUCAFE providing more interest from prospective banks for loans but as yet not resulting in new credit arrangements."}]},{"head":"E-wallets","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"Farmers may trust electronic money (e-wallets) to manage cash flow during the cropping cycle, but experiences are mixed. There should be affordable options to convert electronic money into cash that can be spent. From field work and the literature, it appears that network coverage is a crucial factor for success. However, there are other factors. Even if farmers are able to receive crop revenues and other payments electronically, they need to convert it into cash if they want to spend it. So, it may depend on the options and the cost to do so whether an e-wallet is an attractive option."},{"index":2,"size":88,"text":"\"Network coverage has posed a challenge in some rural areas. As a result, some farmers appear to be reluctant to activate SIMs in areas where [the preferred provider's] coverage is limited.\" 8 Apart from network coverage, issues may arise from a change in SIM between registration; a delay between registration and validation of eligibility. There is more need to validate identity if registration brings financial benefits: \"Increased numbers of 'split' and 'ghost' farm families.\" 9 \"Sharp practices\" may occur like multiple registrations, sale of e-wallet (with credentials). 10"}]},{"head":"Subsidies","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Issues may arise around 'identity' if the profile is used for a subsidised input scheme (split farms, multiple registrations). Several e-voucher systems exist: electronic cards enable eligible beneficiaries of subsidised input schemes to purchase farm implements from registered suppliers. In that case there is no problem to convert electronic money to cash."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"As highlighted in the literature and field experience, duplication of registrations and reliability of data are especially problematic if registration is linked to subsidies. Data quality control during the process of collection, storage and treatment is fundamental."}]},{"head":"De-risking agricultural value chains","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":130,"text":"Scaling these successes is much more challenging. Perceived and actual risks in the agricultural sector are key reasons for financial service providers' reluctance to invest in scaling ICT-supported innovations for agriculture. Often, these providers lack information about the sector, resulting in limited financial products being made available to agricultural value chain actors. Some agricultural companies, traders and larger businesses with greater access to financial services have created formal and informal mechanisms to provide financing for smallholder farmers and pastoralists. Examples include agricultural value addition companies providing linkage services by making produce payments to farmers through financial institutionsbanks and cooperatives. By using digital payment channels, value chain actors create a trail of transactions for farmers, which can help financial institutions to better understand their businesses and develop more suitable financial services."},{"index":2,"size":140,"text":"Other innovative de-risking mechanisms include guarantee arrangements between value chain actors, such as the issuing by financial institutions of electronic vouchers, reducing the risk of credit diversion. Farmers taking out loans receive in-kind products, such as inputs from farmer organisations or traders partnering with the financial institutions utilising electronic voucher systems (see the SNAU example below). This increases the appetite of lenders to provide more credit, due to the higher prospects of payback, while simultaneously increasing farmer productivity through access to higher quality inputs. It should be noted that this approach may limit the ability of smallholder farmers to choose the inputs they prefer. Digital profiling of farmers and pastoralists, together with the use of other digital information on weather and other external factors, has strong potential to further derisk value chain investments in ICT-supported solutions to upgrade value chains."}]},{"head":"Eswatini","index":41,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"De-risking to promote investment","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"Successful scaling of ICT-supported solutions requires an approach to de-risk investments for business models to attract major investments. The examples highlighted here show that this is mostly achieved through specific arrangements in the value chain, together with high and short-term returns. Nevertheless, attention should be given to long term views related to social and environmental benefits for farmers that may not be the priority of lenders trying to maximise their short-term profit."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"Market segmentation and value chain coordination are key to increase return on investment, since farmers, input dealers, traders, processors, transporters and other agricultural value chain actors all have unique financial requirements."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"Last but not least, an enabling environment, with the right infrastructure and policies, is critical to unlocking systemic change. In practical terms, mobile digital innovations rely on an effective telecommunications infrastructure, and coordinated policies will help to increase the appetite for investments in digitalisation, and consequently, to transform agribusiness."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Source: CC BY 4.0 from Maru et al. (2018). Digital and data-driven agriculture: Harnessing the power of data for smallholders, Rome: Global Forum on Agricultural Research and Innovation (https://doi.org/10.7490/f1000research.1115402.1) "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"-Eastern Africa Farmers Federation (EAFF)  o Design of a future business intelligence service for the EAFF oDesign of a future business intelligence service for the EAFF o Challenge: credit interest rates oChallenge: credit interest rates The EAFF is supporting this aggregation of members by shifting its focus from The EAFF is supporting this aggregation of members by shifting its focus from lobbying and advocacy to strengthening the role of farmers in value chains enabled lobbying and advocacy to strengthening the role of farmers in value chains enabled by strong entrepreneurship. The EAFF focuses on knowledge, institutional by strong entrepreneurship. The EAFF focuses on knowledge, institutional development, policy, partnerships and youth, and has embraced the use of development, policy, partnerships and youth, and has embraced the use of technology to help achieve the objectives of this new strategy. It launched the e- technology to help achieve the objectives of this new strategy. It launched the e- Granary project in Kenya in 2016 to develop a digital platform for its members and Granary project in Kenya in 2016 to develop a digital platform for its members and has used this to improve agricultural extension delivery in partnership with PAFO, has used this to improve agricultural extension delivery in partnership with PAFO, Agriterra, AgriCord and CTA. Agriterra, AgriCord and CTA. Where finance is unavailable, farmers do not use new seed stock even if this is Where finance is unavailable, farmers do not use new seed stock even if this is appropriate, use less inputs and rarely use chemical fertilisers and pesticides to appropriate, use less inputs and rarely use chemical fertilisers and pesticides to protect their crops. The most effective smallholder farming financing is non-cash protect their crops. The most effective smallholder farming financing is non-cash input loans, such as seeds, fertilisers and insurance. It should be noted that organic input loans, such as seeds, fertilisers and insurance. It should be noted that organic agriculture could be seen as a chance for agriculture as advocated by FAO and agriculture could be seen as a chance for agriculture as advocated by FAO and others.  others. o Profiles: approximately 190,000 in Kenya and 14,000 in Uganda oProfiles: approximately 190,000 in Kenya and 14,000 in Uganda o Profile use: oProfile use: o Access to credit oAccess to credit o Access to cheaper input (group buying) oAccess to cheaper input (group buying) o Market linkages (group selling) oMarket linkages (group selling) o e-Extension oe-Extension o e-Granary platform oe-Granary platform o Output oOutput o Greater revenue for farmers oGreater revenue for farmers o Access to larger credit for farmers oAccess to larger credit for farmers o Greater advocacy power for the EAFF oGreater advocacy power for the EAFF  "},{"text":"Coffee Agribusiness and Farm Enterprises (NUCAFE)  o Almost 19,000 farmers oAlmost 19,000 farmers o Main objective: digitisation of membership oMain objective: digitisation of membership o New services: value chain support and access to credit oNew services: value chain support and access to credit o Profile use: oProfile use: o Work at individual farmer level (training needs…) oWork at individual farmer level (training needs…) o Geographical indication and certification (fair trade, organic) oGeographical indication and certification (fair trade, organic) o Traceability oTraceability o Advocacy and global impact measurement oAdvocacy and global impact measurement o Main output oMain output o Increased farmer production oIncreased farmer production o Increased coffee revenue for farmers (geographical indication, traceability) oIncreased coffee revenue for farmers (geographical indication, traceability) o  o  "},{"text":" Registration can make collective market participation possible. There are several positive examples where knowing the yield prediction for a group can help reach new markets. \"The odds of participating in collective marketing by smallholder farm households in Balaka was significantly influenced by gender, education level, access to social capital through membership in farmer groups that form the innovation platform, farming experience, adoption/practice of conservation agriculture and possession of assets e.g. cell phone and bicycle.\" 7 7 Mango, N., Makate, C., Lundy, M., Siziba, S., Kefasi, N. and Fatunbi, O. (2017). 'Collective market participation for improved income among smallholder farming households: a case of Balaka Innovation Platform in Malawi', African Crop Science Journal, Vol. 25, pp. 97-108.  "}],"sieverID":"2219b034-d8ab-4b77-aaad-2f98ea29c0d1","abstract":"This work has been made possible with the financial assistance of the European Union. However, the contents remain the sole responsibility of its author(s) and can under no circumstances be regarded as reflecting the position of CTA, its co-publisher or the European Union, nor of any country or member State. The user should make his/her own evaluation as to the appropriateness of any statement, argument, experimental technique or method described in the work. This work is the sole intellectual property of CTA and its co-publishers, and cannot be commercially exploited. CTA encourages its dissemination for private study, research, teaching and non-commercial purposes, provided that appropriate acknowledgement is made:of CTA's copyright and EU financing, by including the name of the author, the title of the work and the following notice \"© CTA 2020 EU financing\", -and that CTA's or its co-publishers', and European Union's endorsement of users' views, products or services is not implied in any way, by including the standard CTA disclaimer."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"02553966b78bc856b6aeb8bb5266aeeb","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/articles/ABoissierre2001.pdf"},"pageCount":17,"title":"Developing small-scale bamboo enterprises for livelihoods and environmental restoration in Benishangul-Gumuz Regional State, Ethiopia","keywords":["dry forest","forest restoration","green economy","Horn of Africa","low emission development","private sector","sustainable forest management 1a","1b","2a","2b","2c","3a","3b"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":261,"text":"cependant peu ou pas d'informations publiées sur les perceptions et les pratiques locales concernant la gestion des forêts naturelles de bambou, ni sur les options pour exploiter le potentiel du bambou au niveau local, en Afrique et plus particulièrement en Éthiopie. En 2018, nous avons effectué une revue de littérature, une analyse spatiale, une cartographie participative et interviewé des experts travaillant dans des organisations gouvernementales et non gouvernementales et d'autres acteurs locaux de ERBG. Nos résultats montrent qu'il existe un certain consensus sur l'importance environnementale du bambou. En revanche, un débat au niveau infranational sur l'importance économique du bambou conduit à des décisions favorisant d'autres types d'utilisation des terres. Les forêts de bambou de cet État sont négligées, car elles sont perçues comme \"n'appartenant à personne et utilisées par tout le monde\" et, selon les acteurs locaux, elles continueront d'être là, même si elles ne sont pas gérées. Le manque d'opportunités en relation avec le marché, de formations pour les forestiers spécifiques sur le bambou, de données sur la contribution économique de la ressource et de réglementations ou directives pour soutenir les lois existantes, ont empêché une gestion efficace des ressources en bambou. Il existe cependant de multiples approches de gestion du bambou qui ouvrent des opportunités économiques aux petites entreprises de la région. Il faut plus de clarté sur la manière de renforcer les droits fonciers sur les forêts de bambou, un financement plus accessible, des liens renforcés avec le marché, la formation au commerce et aux technologies à faible coût pour encourager le développement de petites entreprises de bambou."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"Desarrollo de pequeñas empresas de bambú para los medios de vida y la restauración medioambiental en la región de Benishangul-Gumuz (Etiopía)"}]},{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":172,"text":"African countries face unique challenges in sustainably managing bamboo resources and developing bamboo value chains. International forest policy focuses on treed lands, marginalising bamboo forestry development and making it difficult to integrate bamboo within existing forestry institutions and practices (Buckingham et al. 2014, Buckingham et al. 2011). At the national level, many African countries find it difficult to develop their bamboo resources, due to the following challenges: (1) Unclear governance: Bamboo is not a core business of either agricultural or forestry departments, and is therefore caught between the two sectors; (2) Where bamboo is clearly in the forestry sector, foresters are not trained to manage it. Western silvicultural science powerfully influences the training of young foresters in African countries through a history of international development cooperation. Bamboo is not a predominant part of western forest management and is traditionally excluded from forestry training. Forests are equated with trees, but silvicultural management logic and statistics are fundamentally incompatible with bamboo life cycles and ecology, leading to poor bamboo management (Buckingham et al. 2011)."},{"index":2,"size":105,"text":"While bamboo management is well-documented in the Asian context, there is comparatively little information about the issues facing African countries (Lobovikov et al. 2007). Bamboo has a strong potential to combat serious environmental problems and contributes to the local and national economies of many African countries, who are also struggling to realize bamboo's potential (Musau 2016). There is little or scattered published information on local perceptions and practices surrounding natural bamboo forest management in Africa, and options for realizing bamboo's potential from a subnational/local perspective. This knowledge is essential for identifying effective and locally relevant approaches to realize bamboo's potential as a valuable natural resource."},{"index":3,"size":114,"text":"Our study addresses this gap by analyzing existing literature and empirical evidence of the challenges of developing bamboo resources at the subnational level in Africa, using a case study of lowland bamboo [Oxytenanthera abyssinica] in Benishangul-Gumuz Regional State (BGRS), Ethiopia. This work complements existing analysis on the economic value and value chains of bamboo in Ethiopia at the national level (e.g. Kelbessa et al. 2000, Tsinghua University and INBAR 2018, Durai et al. 2018). Lowland bamboo resists drought and thrives on poor soils, indicating its economic and land restoration potential. BGRS has a vast endowment of naturallyoccurring lowland bamboo forests that is poorly managed, leading to rapid loss and degradation (Bessie et al. 2016)."},{"index":4,"size":128,"text":"Small-scale enterprises (SSEs) are essential actors in developing Ethiopia's bamboo sector. Ethiopia recently published a 2019-2030 national bamboo development strategy (EFCCC and INBAR 2020), marking an important milestone in acknowledging bamboo's strategic role in Ethiopia's environment and economic development. The Ethiopian government targeted 0.7 million ha of degraded land to be afforested/ reforested with bamboo by 2020 and aim to develop bamboobased furniture, pulp and paper, construction material, energy, crafts and timber substitutes. The general objective of the strategy is \"To transform and sustainably manage bamboo resources by focussing on the development of green industries and livelihood promotion to produce value-added products catering for domestic, regional and global markets.\" Achieving these objectives imply empowering SSEs, who are currently still \"small, informal and survivalist\" (EFCCC and INBAR 2020, 11)."},{"index":5,"size":116,"text":"Our research questions seek to understand local perceptions (What is the perceived role of bamboo for environment and livelihoods?), practices (How is lowland bamboo being managed?) and policy options to economically develop bamboo resources (What options can be proposed for enabling SSEs to sustainably utilize the bamboo resource in BGRS?) in the context of BGRS. We focus on SSEs, due to their crucial role in linking environmental with economic objectives at multiple levels. In this study, SSEs include what Ethiopia's Central Statistics Authority defines as small-scale enterprises (that employ less than 50 employees of which less than 10 are using motorized equipment), and micro-scale enterprises (with less than 10 employees, none of which uses motorized equipment)."},{"index":6,"size":72,"text":"In this article, we summarize the context of bamboo at the national level in Ethiopia and answer the above research questions at the subnational level using methods described in a subsequent section. We conclude our findings by arguing that to better develop bamboo SSEs in BGRS, there needs to be more clarity in land use rights, accessible financing, market linkages, business training, and low-tech/low-cost technologies to encourage the development of bamboo SSEs."}]},{"head":"BAMBOO AS A FOREST RESOURCE IN ETHIOPIA","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Ethiopia's bamboo resource","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"Figures on national bamboo forests (i.e. forests dominated by bamboo species) in Ethiopia vary between 0.9 m ha (LUSO Consultant Gmbh 1997), 1.1. m ha (Kelbessa et al. 2000) and 1.4 m ha by Tsinghua University and the International Network for Bamboo and Rattan (INBAR) (2018). Lowland bamboo comprises the majority (>80%) of bamboos found in Ethiopia (Kelbessa et al. 2000). These variations could reflect the population's natural variability due bamboo's fast growth rate and sudden large-scale die-out due to mass flowering (Sertse et al. 2011). It also reflects the difficulties in differentiating bamboo forests from other land covers (Tsinghua University and INBAR 2018)."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"There are 2 main bamboo species in Ethiopia, highland bamboo (Oldeania alpina) and lowland bamboo (Oxytenanthera abyssinica). Most of the bamboo in Ethiopia are lowland bamboo. The majority (64%) of bamboo forests are found in BGRS (Table 1 and Figure 1). They mostly grow between 500 and 2200 m above sea level (Personal observation, Hunde)."}]},{"head":"Managing bamboo resources in Ethiopia","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":149,"text":"The majority of bamboo forests are naturally occurring rather than planted bamboo located on state-owned lands that are de-facto managed by local communities (Tsinghua University and INBAR 2018). There are unclear rights over bamboo forests that prevent local people from sustainably managing natural bamboo forests (Moreda 2017). Some highland bamboos are planted by farmers in farmlands, which are under the purview of the agricultural sector. Legally, bamboo was included in the definition of forest in 1994, 2007 and then in 2018 forest proclamations. Bamboo was firmly included as part of the forest definition in FAO's 2015 Forest Resource Assessment (FAO 2012). The 2018 forest proclamation, Article 2 Sub-article 3 confirmed bamboo in the definition of a tree, which is \"any woody plant regardless of its age or size and includes bamboo, reed and palms as well as other plants to be designated per se by the Ministry\" (FDRE 2018)."},{"index":2,"size":171,"text":"Since bamboo is part of the forest definition, the governance and management of bamboo resources depends on  (EFCCC). No longer a ministry, the forestry sector in BGRS lost some regional presence as the regional forestry bureau was absorbed into the agricultural bureau. Forestry education in Ethiopia was founded on technical support from European foresters (Ayana et al. 2013), whose approach to forest management was on forest conservation and managing timber species. Training did not emphasize on specific and strategic forest species in Ethiopia such as bamboo. Generations of foresters are therefore ill-equipped to manage bamboo forests because the forestry training in the country has not adequately integrated bamboo management into its curricula. There are efforts by the Ethiopian government led by the EFCCC, civil society and development partners to improve the capacity of local actors in managing and utilizing bamboo resources. Institutions that have been supporting such efforts are the Ethiopian Environment and Forest Research Institute (EEFRI), INBAR, Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA), and United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO)."}]},{"head":"Economic context of bamboo resources","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":189,"text":"Currently, the economic contributions of bamboo in Ethiopia are minimally or poorly documented, giving rise to the public perception that bamboo is an inferior product (Lin et al. 2019). From the economic perspective, bamboo pales in value compared to agricultural crops such as sesame, sorghum, corn, or cotton (Boissière et al. 2019). Developing SSEs could be a way to increase the economic benefits from bamboo resources, kick-start rural economies, while creating incentives for improving the management of the bamboo stands. develop guidelines on sustainable forest management in dry lands of Ethiopia, with a focus on bamboo forest management in BGRS (Boissière et al. 2019). Field visits for data collection took place between March and May 2018 in Assosa zone, especially in Homosha, Kurmuk, Assosa, and Bambassi districts; and (2) research for a Masters thesis, conducted in parallel with the aforementioned technical assistance, on village and household-level perceptions of bamboo forests and its management in Abramo and Abende Mengeda villages, Assosa District (Benmakhlouf 2018). Data collection took place between March and July 2018. Table 2 summarizes the various data collection approaches and how they contributed to answering our research questions."}]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Q1: Bamboo's perceived role for the environment and the economy","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Using bamboo products can reduce pressure on dry forests","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":178,"text":"Experts at the national level and NGOs that were engaged in PFM at the regional level believed that one of the main environmental contributions of better lowland bamboo management is its potential to replace wood products and reduce pressure on dry forests. One of the categories of forests in Ethiopia is dry forest, existing in dry or arid environments and forming unique vegetation types (Atmadja et al. 2019). Forests and woodlands in the dry lowlands of Ethiopia are experiencing much higher rates of deforestation compared to moist forests found in the highlands due to expansion of commercial agricultural investment. Some of the economically valuable trees such as Boswellia and Commiphora species found in these dry forests have very slow regeneration rates and need decades to reach maturity. They are subjected to high rates of collection for their non-timber forest products (e.g. excessive tapping of gums and resins), and tree cutting for construction and fuelwood, and conversion to large-scale agricultural development. Also, dry forest and woodlands are widely used for grazing that seriously undermines regeneration and survival of seedlings."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"1 See the 2019 Ease of Doing Business index, http://www.doingbusiness.org/en/data/exploreeconomies/ethiopia Similar effects were found in Nepal and elsewhere (Lamsal et al. 2017). Nevertheless, SSEs in Ethiopia are prone to fail due to inadequate finance, low business and technical skills, lack of training, and inability to re-invest profits (Bekele and Worku 2008). The national business climate is difficult; Ethiopia ranks 167 of 190 economies in terms of starting a new business 1 . These reasons may explain the low number of operational bamboo-based SSEs."}]},{"head":"Potential role of SSEs in adding value to an undervalued resource and benefit surrounding communities","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"The Ethiopian government has recognized the role of SSEs as a vehicle to create employment, promote entrepreneurship, and enhance the role of the private sector in the economy (EFCCC and INBAR 2020). In national strategy documents, employment creation is seen as a way to alleviate poverty and enhance food security (e.g., the Poverty Reduction Strategy, the Industrial Development Strategy, the Micro and Small Enterprises Development Strategy) (Gebrehiwot and Wolday 2006)."},{"index":2,"size":96,"text":"National data from Ethiopia's Central Statistics Authority (CSA) indicate that small-scale manufacturing industries can bring significant value-added income (i.e., gross income minus cost) and employment to the national economy. In a 2013 survey, furniture manufacturing -of which bamboo is an important input -has generated 17.4% of national added value. This is only surpassed by agribusiness-related industries such as food production and mill services, which generated 42% of value-added income from small-scale manufacturing nationally (Central Statistics Authority 2014). This trend is partially reflected in BGRS, where 68% of small-scale manufacturing are flour mills (Central Statistics Authority 2014)."}]},{"head":"METHODS","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Our research questions (See Box 1) focuses on perceptions, practices and policy options relevant to lowland bamboo in BGRS, Ethiopia. Data were collected under two research activities: (1) technical assistance funded by UN-REDD through the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) to"}]},{"head":"Box 1 List of research questions","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Q1: Perception: What is the perceived role of bamboo for the environment and the economy? Q1a: Environment: How is bamboo perceived to help address environmental issues? Q1b: Economics: How is bamboo perceived to help address economic and livelihood issues? Q2: Practice: How is lowland bamboo being managed in BGRS?"},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"Q2a: Understanding: How do local actors understand bamboo management? Q2b: Tenure: How do land tenure and land use rights influence bamboo management? Q2c: Technical: How do technical and business considerations influence bamboo management? Q3: Policy: What options can be proposed for enabling SSEs to sustainably utilize the bamboo resource in BGRS?"},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"Q3a: Actors: Who are the existing actors in the bamboo value chain? Q3b: Support: What support do they need to develop bamboo-based SSEs?"},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"Group discussions (Village level): Groups of by gender (women, men) and membership in collective action (PFM/cooperative) (members and non-members)"},{"index":5,"size":24,"text":"Field observations: bamboo harvesting, processing, trading, bamboo forest resources, decision making processes in collective action * Refers to research question numbers in Box 1"},{"index":6,"size":74,"text":"Lowland bamboos coexist with other dryland species in these semi-arid areas. But unlike trees, lowland bamboos reach maturity in about 3 years, and culms (i.e., individual bamboo stems) can be harvested annually afterwards without negative consequences for the sustainability of the bamboo forest stands. This incredibly fast growth rate makes lowland bamboos ideal substitutes for (slower-growing) trees as a source of fuelwood, construction material and fodder, which in turn contributes to reduce deforestation indirectly."}]},{"head":"Bamboo can protect national economic interests","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"Based on interviews with experts from INBAR and our review of literature, bamboo can play an important role in protecting national interests, since BGRS is home of the largest hydroelectric dam in Ethiopia (i.e. the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam/GERD) and a main destination for largescale agricultural investment in Ethiopia. The GERD is a significant national investment and its lifespan is affected by siltation. There is a strong national interest to ensure catchments feeding to the GERD can effectively reduce siltation and extend the life span of the dam. Large-scale agricultural investments in BGRS are threatened by desertification. BGRS receives dust storms every year from the Sahara desert (Goudie and Middleton 2001) 2 ."},{"index":2,"size":105,"text":"Due to its fast-growing nature and extensive root and rhizome system, experts we interviewed argued that bamboo should be an important component in forest conservation and land restoration efforts. Bamboo thrives even in difficult conditions, such as poor and shallow soils, and low rainfall (between 700 and 1000 mm/year) as it develops shallow large root and rhizome structures. This means bamboo can quickly stabilize soil in highly degraded areas and can be an effective tool to reduce dam siltation. As it grows in drier areas, lowland bamboo can help to fight desertification and minimize the effects of dust storms on the soil and on farmlands."}]},{"head":"Bamboo's perceived economic importance varies across different actors","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":188,"text":"From our interviews with community members, NGOs, forestry experts at the regional and national levels, and discussions during our workshop in Assosa, we identified a wide array of domestic uses from bamboo by the people of BGRS. Bamboo forests are used as source of food (shoots) and medicine. Shoots and leaves can be fed to livestock, while bamboo culms were used for fuel wood, building houses and livestock shelters, and making crafts such as mats and utensils. Bamboo provides cheap or free materials for local people that they would otherwise have to harvest from dry forests, buy at high cost from far away or replace with slow-growing trees. If monetized, the true economic value of bamboo for households could be significant. The economic value of bamboo for local people that were identified by our respondents, however, have not been estimated nor recorded in official statistics, and are therefore not well-integrated in decision-making at higher levels. Existing studies (Durai et al. 2018) focus on the value of marketed products. The value of non-market products and services from bamboo forests (e.g., collected for own consumption, or environmental services) remains undocumented."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"Our interviews with regional-level policymakers regarding landuse, and data on land allocation in BGRS suggested that bamboo forests were seen as less valuable from an economic perspective compared to other landuses. Some workshop participants perceived that the bamboo forests will always be there even without management and conservation, benefit from fire, and -unlike crop production -have little economic potential."},{"index":3,"size":166,"text":"Lands where bamboo forests are found have been allocated for large-scale agriculture. Participants of our participatory mapping noted that over the past few years about 350,000 ha of land have been transferred to investors in BGRS and another 220,000 ha were planned to be taken over by the artificial lake to be created by the Great Ethiopian Renaissance Dam. All of these come at the expense of bamboo forests in the region. The 2011-2015 bamboo mass flowering also significantly reduced the area of bamboo forest, with much of the resulting seeds destroyed by fires and land conversion to agriculture. This was also confirmed during our field observations in 2018. The overall effect of shrinking bamboo forests is supported by Bessie et al. (2016). Forestry practitioners and local people participating in bamboo SSEs were frustrated by the meager support they received in managing, using and conserving forests, being helpless in preventing forests from disappearing, and watching large-scale agricultural investors get priority in acquiring and clearing forest lands."}]},{"head":"Q2: The practice of lowland bamboo management and governance in BGRS (Q2)","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"There is a lack of understanding on how to manage bamboo forests to maximize economic benefits The regional government of the BGRS recognized that almost all (96.7%) of the domestic energy needs were met by using biomass including bamboo: \"such an extensive use of bio-fuels naturally has a negative impact on forest resources and wildlife. Especially the dense bamboo forests have been greatly affected by intensive cutting down of bamboo culm to meet the ever-growing demand for household energy\" (BGRS BoFED 2017, p.34). BGRS must meet the fuelwood needs of large refugee camps hosting tens of thousands of refugees for many years."},{"index":2,"size":156,"text":"Bamboo experts we interviewed identified that the across Ethiopia, forest managers and the public assume that bamboo forests should be managed like any other (tree-dominated) forest by conserving the resource and preventing use as much as possible. From an expert's perspective, this assumption reflects a widespread misunderstanding on how to maintain and sustainably use lowland bamboo forests. If sustainable bamboo development and harvesting principles are applied, 25% of bamboo culms in a clump can and should be thinned annually following a seasonal calendar. Regular thinning, coupled with active bamboo planting around homesteads, can provide a sufficient and sustainable supply of bamboo culms for different uses, including for fuelwood. Dense bamboo stands left un-thinned for many years will degrade, provide little economic benefits and pose fire risks especially if located near human settlements. Fires regularly occur in BGRS during the dry seasons. They prevent germination of bamboo seeds and threaten the survival and growth of bamboo seedlings."},{"index":3,"size":144,"text":"Lowland bamboo from the same rhizome will simultaneously flower approximately once every 40 years when it produces viable seeds, and then dies. Mass flowering and the ensuing die-out can affect large expanses of bamboo forests sharing the same rhizome network. In 2011 one flowering event led to the death and regeneration of 85% of bamboo forests in BGRS (Sertse et al. 2011). This could be seen as an opportunity to collect valuable bamboo seeds for resale/ establishing nurseries. Nevertheless, bamboo experts at the national and district levels mentioned that many farmers cleared the area to convert the land into agricultural fields, and/or to prevent the spread of what they thought was a plant disease. Respondents at the national and district level felt this lack of knowledge is due to weak or absence of extension services in forestry in general and bamboo management in particular."},{"index":4,"size":182,"text":"The tragedy of the commons: bamboo forests are owned by the government, protected by no one, and used by everyone From our field observations and interviews with district-level informants, the poor management of lowland bamboo forests in BGRS can be associated with a lack of clarity in forest tenure and use rights. Most bamboo forests in BGRS are located in areas belonging to the state. At the time of our study, these lowland bamboo forests in BGRS have not been demarcated, certified and classified as forest lands even though they are considered by local authorities as state-owned forests. These bamboo forests are mostly managed and used by people in surrounding communities, as observed in the two study villages and as expressed by experts at the national and district levels. Legally, communities can have the right to use forest resources in their surroundings as per a forest management plan. Nevertheless, most state-owned forests in Ethiopia do not yet have forest management plans. The 2018 Forest Law recognises community forests as one of the four types of forest ownership and use rights in Ethiopia."},{"index":5,"size":102,"text":"In practice, experts at the national level noted that these legal provisions have not been implemented because detailed regulation and guidelines on how to acquire community rights over forests have not been issued. Hence, communities cannot acquire their legal rights because the proclamation cannot be implemented yet. This reduces their willingness to invest in sustainably managing them. In addition, some of the language in the 2018 forest proclamation are more advantageous for tree-based forests. For example, the length of tax breaks are expressed in terms of \"harvest cycles\", which is a mere 1-2 years for bamboo compared to 10-15 years for trees."}]},{"head":"Limited knowledge of stand management and harvesting practices","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"Bamboo experts that we interviewed observed that in BGRS and Ethiopia in general, there is limited knowledge of bamboo's life cycle, leading to poor management and harvesting practices in natural bamboo forests. Knowledge of bamboo management for maximizing economic value is poor in BGRS, both among local communities and forestry experts. Respondents expressed that better extension service regarding appropriate time and method of harvesting is urgently needed to develop lowland bamboo into a resource that can provide regional and national level environmental and economic benefits."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"Immature bamboo culms (<3yo) are harvested, which deprives the next generation of bamboo from sugars needed to grow. Conversely, old bamboo culms (>3yo) are left aside and continue to compete with new culms for space and nutrients. Culms are cut too high from the soil (i.e. above 30 cm from the ground), which increases exposure to diseases and wastes resource."},{"index":3,"size":161,"text":"Culms are harvested all year round, resulting in lowquality bamboo, increased disease and pest risk, and degradation of the bamboo resource in the long term. Harvesting is recommended at the end of the rainy season and the start of the dry season, when the starch content of the culm lowest and the likelihood of wood borer attacks on bamboo products is consequently reduced (Brias and Hunde 2009). Conversely, there are periods when harvesting is not advised. At the end of the dry season, harvesting is detrimental for the development of the new culms. It increases the risk of parasite spread and it deprives new shoots arising in the rainy season from nutrients that were accumulated and conserved throughout the dormancy period in the preceding dry season. Culm harvests should avoid the sprouting period of shoots, as the operation will damage developing shoots. Thus, better extension service regarding appropriate time and method of harvesting is urgently needed to avoid unsustainable harvesting practices."}]},{"head":"Limited local opportunities to rely on bamboo for a living","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"The livelihood opportunities from lowland bamboo in BGRS is declining with the declining resource base. The existing goods and services from bamboo forests and the resulting livelihood benefits have not been adequately captured in regional and national statistics, which are oriented towards sectoral data (e.g., forestry, agriculture, trade, manufacturing). This lack of data is related to the low capacity in the forestry sector to manage bamboo."},{"index":2,"size":107,"text":"There are limited business opportunities for bamboo outside of the trade of bamboo culms. There are very few bamboo processing plants in BGRS. Based on our field visit, the single company with industrial tools for bamboo processing ceased to function. Industrial tools provided by bamboo training projects were not being used because of high turnover of the trainees. Local livelihoods in the region depended largely on growing crops, mainly cereals, pulses, and oil crops. Unlike bamboo, demand for food crops was growing as food-processing industries (e.g., flour mills, food product processors, transporters, wholesalers) in the region produced value-added products that attracted farmers to grow more food crops."},{"index":3,"size":141,"text":"Locally-made bamboo furniture (e.g. chairs, beds, tables) existed and were underdeveloped. Experts we interviewed mentioned that furniture makers were not efficiently using their time because they could only access low-quality tools or imported tools that were un-adapted to the specific characteristics of lowland bamboo. In Assosa, the regional capital city, small businesses tried to produce bamboo products, such as for chopstick, floor, toothpicks and charcoal briquettes. Business actors we interviewed said they have not been successful because they could not compete with imported finished goods, especially from China. They also have trouble acquiring production inputs such as adhesives and replacement parts, and face heavy domestic competition from producers using highland bamboo. In contrast to lowland bamboo, highland bamboo was planted by farmers in other regions (e.g., Amhara, Oromia) and better-linked with manufacturers and end consumers, notably for construction in Addis Ababa."}]},{"head":"Q3a: Enabling SSEs: Local actors","index":18,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Existing bamboo SSEs in BGRS","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"There are two forms of bamboo SSEs we identified in BGRS during out field visits and key informant interviews: (1) Small businesses, owned either by individuals (i.e., sole proprietorship) or a group (i.e., partnerships), and (2) Cooperatives."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"Small businesses: During our fieldwork, we observed that bamboo businesses in BGRS consist mostly of:"},{"index":3,"size":286,"text":"• Bamboo culm collectors: people who harvest bamboo from the forest and transport it to their neighbours, or sell it to bamboo wholesalers who transport it to Assosa market. • Retail bamboo trader: individuals -whose houses are typically located near the bamboo forest -sell unprocessed bamboo culms to households and traders within their village. They operate in localized markets confined to their villages. They sell up to one cart worth of bamboo (about 100 culms) at a time. • Wholesale bamboo traders: business representatives mainly from Assosa town, who come to buy bamboo in large quantities in units of 100 culms directly from villagers for a particular purpose, after getting permission from the relevant district offices. They sell bamboo culms for fences, furniture, house construction, and firewood. They buy culms from villagers/ harvesters living near bamboo forests, buy from bamboo cooperatives and other harvesters and set the price of culms. They pay an ETB 50 tax (roughly USD 2) for each donkey cart brought to Assosa market and ETB 50 for their place in the market. For example, a hotel owner went to a village famous for its bamboo resource to buy thousands of culms to build a fence. Large-scale trading was initiated by the local government in the district of Homesha during the time of bamboo mass flowering. It included trucking bamboo to neighboring Sudan. • Transporters: people who charge bamboo traders or buyers for transporting large volumes of bamboo to a specific destination using trucks. • Craftspeople: people who transform raw bamboo materials into value-added crafts. • Others: we found a group of enterprising farmers that opportunistically collected bamboo seeds during a 40-yearly mass flowering for resale to nurseries, research institutions and other farmers."},{"index":4,"size":49,"text":"Many of these business actors are self-employed. Villagers may produce handicrafts from bamboo culms they collected from communal lands or sell the culms to traders. These traders may have their own means of transportation (e.g., donkey cart, own trucks). There is also demand for transportation services (e.g., rented trucks/carts)."},{"index":5,"size":122,"text":"We observed that most small businesses in BGRS are informal 3 . The environment for small businesses is tightly regulated and weakly supported by the government, leading many businesses to exist informally. According to national statistics, informal small businesses in urban areas employ on average 1.3 persons, most of whom (60%) are female. But because they are so many, they employ ten times more workers than large and medium scale enterprises (CSA 2004). Most of them have low productivity and income, and limited access to organized markets and credit. They often lack training and they either operate without fixed location or in places such as small shops, outlets, or homes. Most small businesses in Ethiopia have single owners (Gebrehiwot and Wolday 2006)."},{"index":6,"size":207,"text":"Collective action including cooperatives and forest user groups: cooperatives are \"an association of persons who have voluntarily joined together to a common end through the formation of a democratically controlled organization, making equitable contribution to the capital required and accepting a fair share of the risks and benefits of the undertaking, in which the members actively participate\" (Federal Cooperative Agency 2007p.1, in Emana 2009). There is a long history of traditional cooperatives in Ethiopia. For example, Eqqub associations, which consist of a small group of people that manage a rotating fund for business purposes, are common in rural and urban areas (Teshome 2008). There is also the 'modern' cooperative model. In 2007, an estimated 4.7 million people in Ethiopia were members of these modern cooperatives (Emana 2009). In 2010, this grew to 8 million people in 38,454 cooperatives 4 . These cooperatives cover a wide range of activities (e.g., consumers' cooperatives, producers' cooperatives) and commodities (e.g., leather, coffee, honey). There is a negative perception of cooperatives: during the Derg regime (1974)(1975)(1976)(1977)(1978)(1979)(1980)(1981)(1982)(1983)(1984)(1985)(1986)(1987)(1988)(1989)(1990)(1991), farmers were forced to join cooperatives and sell their products to the government at a low price. During the federal regime that followed, cooperatives may still be perceived by some as a communist approach to business."},{"index":7,"size":15,"text":"In BGRS, we observed the following types of collective action relevant to lowland bamboo management:"},{"index":8,"size":80,"text":"Participatory Forest Management (PFM) groups and cooperatives: PFM is a \"forest management approach executed through the agreement between the state and the local community that inhabit inside or around the forest area over the management, protection and utilization of forests owned by the state on the basis of predefined responsibilities and benefit-sharing mechanisms\" (FDRE 2018). Under this approach, forest cooperatives are established as the legal entity to manage a community's bamboo forests and generate economic benefits (Lemenih and Bekele 2008)."},{"index":9,"size":180,"text":"In the villages we studied, members of PFM groups were organised into forest user groups and subsequently into cooperatives. Cooperatives are legally recognised entities that could engage in forest management and trade of bamboo products. The forest cooperatives we observed received training and were engaged in activities on sustainable bamboo forest management. Until the time of data collection, the establishment of PFM in BGRS relied on external facilitation. We identified that facilitators supporting the establishment of PFM cooperatives are notably NGOs, including Farm Africa and the Assosa Environmental Protection Association (AEPA). The relevant government bodies such as the Cooperative Bureau and the Environment, Forest and Land Administration Bureau assisted the legalization process. PFM cooperatives focused on the sale of indigenous bamboo culms harvested from a part of the forest that is put under PFM and allocated for this purpose. Based on our observations, no processing of the raw material took place at the cooperative level. The main objective was to give autonomy to the cooperative so that it could manage its bamboo resources sustainably and connect with the local market."},{"index":10,"size":222,"text":"One PFM cooperative in Assosa district that we studied had five administrative members that worked continuously on the development of PFM: the leader, the vice, the accountant, the judge who intervened in case of disputes, and the secretary. The cooperative grew from 80 members in 2017 to 230 members in 2018, consisting of 170 female and 60 male members. According to the group leader, the high number of female members was due to encouragement from the local administration, who wanted to ensure that more women in the community are involved in and benefit from the process. This PFM managed 555 hectares of land. PFM members sell bamboo to wholesalers equipped with trucks that could transport up to 2,000 stems. Harvests were done between March and May by groups of PFM members, coordinated by the PFM leader. Each group's leader divided the group into subgroups of 3 to 5 people who went to the forest to cut as many stems as possible. Groups alternated so that all members benefited from harvesting. Part of the income was re-invested in the cooperative, while the other part went to members according to the volume they harvested. The Regional Bureau of Agriculture and Livestock imposed annual bamboo harvest quotas per village in consultation with agricultural development agents working at the village level, who would enforce the quota."},{"index":11,"size":105,"text":"Other (non-PFM) cooperatives: These cooperatives were either multi-purpose or purpose-specific cooperatives. Their establishment and legalization were done through the Cooperatives Promotion Offices at the district level. In one of our study villages, the establishment of the cooperative was facilitated by experts from the Bureau of Agriculture and Livestock and was set up by the Micro and Small Enterprise Development Agency. The establishment of this cooperative was part of the Eastern Africa Bamboo Project funded by the CFC (Common Fund for Communities). The project's objective was to support the marketing of bamboo furniture and to train users of bamboo forests outside PFM areas, sustainably and profitably."},{"index":12,"size":170,"text":"UNIDO through INBAR provided training to members of one cooperative that we studied in Assosa district on bamboo ecology, management (techniques and cutting periods), restoration, and transformation into furniture. INBAR, along with the Bureau of Agriculture and Livestock, established a nursery with native and exotic bamboo to replant in a delimited (3 hectares), protected, and monitored area. At maturity, the culms were to be cut and processed into furniture. At the time of our field visit, this 3ha space was not used because cooperative members were not familiar with how to process the exotic bamboo planted. Instead, bamboo culms for processing were harvested from the communal forest, which created some tension between members and non-members of the cooperatives. The cooperative can sell a maximum of 2,000 culms to wholesalers using trucks. The cooperative sells or processes the raw bamboo and shares the income equally among members when buyers place orders. Nonmembers are only allowed to sell bamboo to wholesalers using donkeys and carts with a maximum load of 100 culms."},{"index":13,"size":106,"text":"Nurseries: In BGRS, nurseries have been established by a wide range of actors: government agricultural offices, private individuals, and NGOs. Local communities followed suit by owning or managing some of those nurseries. Nurseries need to be near streams (for irrigation) and roads (for transportation), adding to the difficulty of finding ideal locations. Nursery workers collect bamboo seedlings or seeds from the forest or buy them from villagers living near the bamboo forest and replant them in the nurseries to produce more seedlings. The seedlings are sold to other farmers or used to establish bamboo plantations. During our field visits, the local market for seedlings appeared limited."}]},{"head":"Non-SSE actors and their link with SSEs in BGRS","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"SSEs exist in a constellation of other actors, all of who are interlinked. In Table 3, we describe non-SSE actors identified during our study and their links with the aforementioned SSE actors."}]},{"head":"SSEs can contribute in managing a large portion of bamboo resources in BGRS","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"Participants in our participatory mapping workshop identified opportunities for SSEs to contribute to sustainable bamboo management and restoration of bamboo forests in BGRS. Of the six bamboo management approaches in BGRS, five (sustainable harvest, area exclosures, PFM, plantations and nurseries) have opportunities for profit-oriented SSEs if given enough support. The remaining approach is bamboo conservation for biodiversity, which is expected from nonprofit entities such as NGOs, community organizations and government institutions."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"Based on the participatory mapping exercise, the five approaches relevant for SSEs can be located on approximately 838,000 ha of land, or 16.7% of total land area in BGRS (Figure 2). The remaining bamboo land cover is for community or government-based conservation (26.6%) or was not identified as areas to be managed (43.7%). In many areas, no management approach was suggested due to existing and potential land allocations for the GERD, large-scale agricultural investments and protected areas."}]},{"head":"Existing NGOs working in topics relevant to developing Bamboo SSEs","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":144,"text":"NGOs and other development actors can be partners in developing bamboo SSEs. Of the 39 NGOs and development actors working in BGRS in 2017, 15 were involved specifically in developing livelihood options, economic empowerment, and developing market linkages for farmers (BGRS BoFED 2017). Among them, three organizations were involved specifically in bamboo forest management and development. INBAR, an inter-governmental organization working with the EFCCC, developed training on processing handicraft from bamboo using low-tech tools for farmers in Assosa. Farm-Africa, an international NGO, in collaboration with AEPA, developed business models for non-timber forest products (e.g., frankincense from Boswellia trees that grow near or along with bamboo forests). They aimed to increase the income of rural households by 35% through sustainable forest product enterprises. They also provided training on developing and managing a cooperative in the context of PFM, accounting, and transforming bamboo into value-added products."}]},{"head":"Q3b: Enabling SSEs: Support needed","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"Through our study, we identified several challenges in enabling SSEs to use the bamboo resources in BGRS sustainably: (1) lack of essential business skills or knowledge specific to lowland bamboo, (2) lack of access to finance, (3) poor market linkages, and (4) large-scale conversion of bamboo forests to other land uses. This section identifies the support needed by SSEs to overcome the above challenges based on our interviews, literature review and field observation."}]},{"head":"Improve business skills and technical knowledge specific to lowland bamboo","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"Training for bamboo SSEs needs to balance between business management and technical knowledge of bamboo management and utilization. A focus on improving stand management is necessary to get uniformly-aged culms of good quality for processing. Bamboo SSEs lack the skills to process the raw material and produce low-tech and low-cost products in line with market demand, such as furniture, lampshades, mats, panels, and curtains."},{"index":2,"size":167,"text":"The bamboo business models we identified in BGRS heavily relied on the sale of raw materials and seedlings. The local market for poles and fences was growing, driven by significant local demand. With external support, there are market opportunities that can be further developed, as suggested in Table 2. For example, there is untapped demand in large cities like Addis Ababa, for scaffolding and construction of houses and fences. Currently, scaffolding material in Addis Ababa is dominated by Eucalyptus poles. In many countries in Southeast Asia, bamboo is the dominant scaffolding material. Fuelwood from trees is marketed widely in many urban centres, but there is no market for (more sustainable) bamboo fuelwood. If well-promoted, bamboo could be an alternative to the use of slow-growing trees for households in BGRS and outside the region. Bamboo culms can be sold in alternative forms that may be more marketable to urban or industrial consumers, such as charcoal or briquettes. Training and financing will be needed to produce these alternative forms."},{"index":3,"size":154,"text":"Current production methods can also become more productive by making small changes in the production process and introducing locally adapted technologies. The number of culms transported can be increased by selling culms cut in 2-3 m length, instead of the current practice of 5-6 m. Industries in Addis Ababa only use the 2-3 m central part of the culm for example for making panels or floors. By adjusting to the length needed, harvesters can ship more pieces in a more FIGURE 2 Potential map for bamboo forest sustainable management and restoration in BGRS Source: Workshop in Assosa, 7 May 2018 (Boissière et al. 2019) convenient format for consumers, potentially earning more. Waste bamboo can be used for charcoal or fuelwood (Figure 3). Shrinkage during transport can be minimized by sending only mature (i.e., 3-4yo) culms. Younger culms have high moister content and shrink significantly during transport. More culms transported per trip would increase profit."},{"index":4,"size":182,"text":"Access to appropriate manual and semi-mechanical tools (e.g., electric saw, hand saw, specialized knives), along with training targeted to existing businesses can lead to more profitable furniture manufacturing (e.g. tables, chairs, mats, baskets). For example, we observed that local businesses relied on homemade tools from low-quality metals such as car leaf springs (i.e., \"spring steel\"). They have a short life span of about a year and need an hour of sharpening at least once a day with the help of an oilstone (Assefa, personal communication). If using a grinding machine, it may take less time but the knife's sharpness will not last more than a day due to the poor steel used. In comparison, there is equipment purposely made for bamboo exploitation, from hardened steel, which needs sharpening only once every three to six months and has a lifespan of more than ten years. Although the cost of imported tools is higher, they are more cost-effective than local handmade tools due to the significant time savings. Access to micro-credit and facilitation to import these tools may help SSEs acquire higher-quality/low maintenance tools."},{"index":5,"size":95,"text":"Electric or mechanized tools are not recommended for SSEs due to the high cost of purchase, lack of skilled people and materials to use and maintain the tools, and unreliable electricity supply. Additionally, there are mechanized tools imported from China or India that are not being used because they are not adapted to lowland bamboo characteristics. In particular, lowland bamboo in BGRS has higher density and silica content 5 compared to bamboo species in China or India (e.g., Bambusa vulgaris) and other bamboos found in Africa (Tolessa et al. 2017), and are often not straight."},{"index":6,"size":61,"text":"SSEs and communities surrounding bamboo forests also need to know how to sustainably harvest and manage the bamboo resources to sustain economic benefits. For example, bamboo culm should be harvested 3 years after shoot sprouting, from the centre of the clump to avoid harm against history, source of equity, and a project feasibility study (including demand, supply, price and marketing analyses)."},{"index":7,"size":102,"text":"• There were at least eight microfinance institutions (MFIs) with 11,857 members in BGRS, 64% of which were women (Abara et al. 2017). Among them, only one (Benishangul-Gumuz Micro Financing S.Co./ BGMF) was registered and was a member of the Association of Ethiopian Microfinance Institutions (AEMFI), a network of registered microfinancing institutions in Ethiopia. BGMF was 40% owned by the regional government. In 2011 it had nearly 29,000 members and provided ETB 51.8 million in loans (Deribie et al. 2013). This implies the average member borrowed around ETB 1,800 or USD 107 7 . This amount was too small for most SSEs."},{"index":8,"size":50,"text":"There is a significant financing gap that needs to be filled for SSEs seeking loans between ETB 10,000 and ETB 500,000. Commercial banks will refer small borrowers (less than ETB 500,000) to microfinance institutions. On the other hand, microfinance institutions have limited capacity to provide loans larger than ETB 10,000."},{"index":9,"size":83,"text":"In BGRS, most MFI borrowers have difficulties repaying their loans, using profits and reducing stock to repay their credit. Nevertheless, microfinance is viewed by borrowers as an essential service to communities, allowing them to transition into new ways of earning income. Measures that help small-scale borrowers have better outcomes from their loans, such as borrower supervision or access to extension services, can reduce the probability of loan default and diversion of loans to non-business activities (Kemaw et al. 2017, Abara et al. 2017)."}]},{"head":"Infrastructures and market linkages","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"The presence of adequate infrastructure is essential to develop SSEs, as transportation costs of bamboo from its place of production or harvest can be high. In 2017, there were 2068 km of all weather accessible roads, of which 936 km are old (BGRS BoFED 2017). The road density is very low (40.8 km road per km 2 of total area) compared to the national average (100.1) (BGRS BoFED 2017, Ministry of Transport, Ethiopian Road Authority 2015). Nevertheless, phone services are generally adequate in Assosa zone."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"Linkages between actors in the value chain need to be established and sustained. We could not identify links between large bamboo manufacturers with SSEs based in BGRS (See Table 4). A network of bamboo trader stakeholders can put into contact producers and middle persons and industries. A bamboo marketing board or similar institutions can be created to facilitate marketing and training of bamboo producers/harvesters."}]},{"head":"FI GURE 3 Firewood market in Assosa (BGRS)","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"Photo credit: Pierre Ciavarella, 2019 younger culms growing on the periphery. The cut should be done just above the first node to prevent the accumulation of water in the internode. A detailed cultivation guideline for Ethiopian lowland bamboo is published by UNIDO (Brias and Hunde 2009)."}]},{"head":"Access to finance","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Access to financing, particularly in foreign currency, is necessary to purchase semi-mechanical equipment that requires less maintenance. Financial support will also help purchasing and planting seeds and seedlings in nurseries, and for covering costs of transportation. We could identified two types of locally available sources of finance and found that neither are adapted to meet the needs of SSEs."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"• Commercial banks have stringent rules for providing credit to small businesses, including a substantial minimum lending amount, collateral/fundraising requirements, bookkeeping history, and a robust business plan (Wole 2004 in Bekele andWorku 2008)."},{"index":3,"size":112,"text":"We approached two government banks with branches in BGRS. Respondents from both banks viewed bamboo as a valuable resource with commercial value, and were ready to provide financing for businesses such as furniture and charcoal (Boissière et al. 2019). Nevertheless, loan requirements were geared towards medium to large businesses. For example, the Development Bank of Ethiopia only accepted loan applications from investors that can raise a minimum of ETB 500,000 (USD 18,228) 6 . This amount is too large for most SSEs. The checklist of requirements to apply for a business loan includes many items not easily attainable by small businesses, such as an investment certificate, proof of business track record, credit"}]},{"head":"Accelerate the development of land use planning that takes into account the value of bamboo forests","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"Large-scale conversion of natural bamboo forests poses a significant threat to the long-term sustainability of the bamboo resource in BGRS and the possibility of developing bamboo for environmental and economic purposes. Landuse planning at the regional level was being developed but has not yet been enacted at the time of writing. Such landuse planning can significantly improve the management of bamboo forests to support SSEs if bamboo forests are considered important natural assets."},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"Regional and district planners need to involve local stakeholders to ensure that their perspective of bamboo's economic values are considered in landuse planning. Stakeholders include local communities that directly benefit from bamboo management, and other actors supporting bamboo development and conservation. So far, short assessments have been done at the district level to allocate land to investors. These assessments barely take into account the presence of bamboo forest and community needs."}]},{"head":"CONCLUSION","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"As the region with the largest bamboo forest in Ethiopia, the BGRS government is poised to be a national leader in developing bamboo resources for improving rural livelihoods and sustainable economic development. This study has elicited information using various data sources and data collection methods to identify the perceptions, practices and actors at the regional level, and the support needed by SSEs to move forward."},{"index":2,"size":111,"text":"The perception that the bamboo resource is resilient, not experiencing a decline, and of low economic value for the region needs to be transformed. There needs to be more awareness that the potential of bamboo resources needs to be built, and bamboo forests need to be managed as any other forest type. In landuse planning, bamboo needs to be viewed as a valuable natural asset rather than a land cover awaiting conversion. Landuse decisions can be supported by better information on the full monetary value of bamboo for the people of the region, including environmental services benefiting agriculture production and hydroelectric dams, and non-market products for self-consumption that benefit rural households."},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"There is a need for increased recognition of community rights over bamboo forests. The 2018 forest proclamation (FDRE 2018) facilitates this by allowing for forest ownership under communities, or associations as well as by engaging the private sector, including individuals to manage state-owned bamboo forests through concession. Nevertheless, detailed forest regulations and guidelines are needed to enable the proclamation to be implemented on the ground."},{"index":4,"size":74,"text":"Practices in bamboo management and utilization should be strengthened through capacity building at the regional, village and household levels. Essential information should be given about bamboo harvesting timing and methods, and the bamboo life cycle, including mass flowering. Rather than setting harvesting quotas, bamboo harvest should be guided by forest management plans adapted to the bamboo's life cycle, containing guidance on the minimum age for bamboo collection, proper rotation periods, and mean annual increment."},{"index":5,"size":67,"text":"Bamboo SSEs can improve local livelihoods and support forestland restoration initiatives. There are existing local actors that can be engaged for relevant activities. Nevertheless, essential support for SSEs is needed to enable them to grow. This includes access to finance, technology and inputs adapted to the needs of SSEs, better transportation infrastructure and forest management, landuse planning that recognizes bamboo's values, and tighter links between market actors."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"TABLE 1 Bamboo area in Ethiopia Regional State Bamboo area in ha Dominant bamboo species Regional StateBamboo area in haDominant bamboo species Benishangul-Gumuz 944 759 Lowland bamboo (O. abyssinica) Benishangul-Gumuz944 759Lowland bamboo (O. abyssinica) Amhara 312 229 Lowland bamboo Amhara312 229Lowland bamboo Oromia 211 724 Lowland bamboo Oromia211 724Lowland bamboo Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' 4 856 Highland bamboo (O. alpina) Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples'4 856Highland bamboo (O. alpina) Gambela 894 Lowland bamboo Gambela894Lowland bamboo Total 1 474 463  Total1 474 463  "},{"text":"the capacity to understand and responsibly manage the resource base. Until 2013, forests and bamboo were governed under the Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources (MoANR). During this time, forest governance and management (including bamboo ) received little attention and institutional support within MoANR(Ayana et al. 2013). The forestry sector gained a foothold in Ethiopia's government administration since 2013 with the establishment of the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MEFCC) and the ensuing regional forestry bureaus. In 2018, the Ministry became the Ethiopian Environment, Forest and Climate Change Commission  "},{"text":"TABLE 3 Other market actors and links with SSEs in BGRSOne of the six industrial bamboo companies in Ethiopia had a workshop in BGRS, which was not functional at the time of fieldwork. Other companies had workshops in Addis Ababa and Amhara regions, which use highland bamboo to produce flooring tiles, mat, boards, curtains and incense sticks 1 Market Actors Description Link with bamboo SSEs in BGRS Market ActorsDescriptionLink with bamboo SSEs in BGRS Large scale bamboo  No direct link Large scale bambooNo direct link enterprises   enterprises Community members adjacent People living in the same communities as communities with Potential members of bamboo Community members adjacentPeople living in the same communities as communities withPotential members of bamboo to bamboo forests, but not part bamboo-based collective action or small businesses but are not collective actions; Potentially to bamboo forests, but not partbamboo-based collective action or small businesses but are notcollective actions; Potentially of bamboo SSEs part of these enterprises (i.e., non-members). They are mostly competing landuse interests of bamboo SSEspart of these enterprises (i.e., non-members). They are mostlycompeting landuse interests  farmers.  farmers. Bureau of Agriculture and Provided limited training, funds, and equipment for SSEs. Had Levied taxes; provided training Bureau of Agriculture andProvided limited training, funds, and equipment for SSEs. HadLevied taxes; provided training Livestock, Bureau of local staff knowledgeable in developing bamboo products and and seedlings Livestock, Bureau oflocal staff knowledgeable in developing bamboo products andand seedlings Environment, Forest and Land markets, but focus on crops and prioritize land for agriculture  Environment, Forest and Landmarkets, but focus on crops and prioritize land for agriculture Administration investments  Administrationinvestments NGOs/IGO -Mainly FARM Promoted PFM for bamboo and frankincense. Mainly Facilitated the establishment of NGOs/IGO -Mainly FARMPromoted PFM for bamboo and frankincense. MainlyFacilitated the establishment of Africa, AEPA, INBAR. FarmAfrica, AEPA, INBAR. PFM projects and formation of Africa, AEPA, INBAR.FarmAfrica, AEPA, INBAR.PFM projects and formation of   cooperatives; provided training cooperatives; provided training   to cooperative members and to cooperative members and   other community members; other community members;   established bamboo nurseries established bamboo nurseries Final consumers Bought bamboo for construction or fuelwood; came to markets Link via traders Final consumersBought bamboo for construction or fuelwood; came to marketsLink via traders  and negotiated with traders.  and negotiated with traders.  "}],"sieverID":"934ffe29-8aad-4c40-b0fe-253a19b4dda7","abstract":"Benishangul-Gumuz Regional State (BGRS) has the highest proportion and area of natural bamboo forests in Ethiopia, mostly lowland bamboo (Oxytenanthera abyssinica).• In BGRS, bamboo resources were poorly managed and wasting away.• There is a lack of bamboo-focused training among foresters, and local bamboo value chains are under-developed.• We characterize the existing bamboo business models, and the state and non-state actors influencing the sustainable management of bamboo resources and bamboo value chains. • We identify the support needed by small-scale enterprises, including training in business and bamboo-specific technical skills, access to financing adapted to their capacity and needs, improved infrastructure and market linkages, and land use planning that accounts for the economic and environmental values of bamboo resources."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"025e865a26034ae04b77c76ee0217c15","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4bf8f1f8-a77b-4a50-abc5-6b2934295db9/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Walking for water: how long has this been going on?","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"A griculture is a means to an end, not an end in itself. It is simply humanity's way of meeting its nutritional needs. Yet, it has grown into an economic activity that has become so distorted that, as Gandhi would have said, it meets some people's greed but not everyone's need. Absurd as it may seem, the question being asked is: Can agriculture reduce poverty? If so, how?"},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"One in eight people cannot afford enough food to lead a productive working life. In the mid 1990s, an estimated 1.1 billion people lived in absolute poverty, that is, on less than $1 a day. Their number increases at about the same rate as world population, and in the year 2000, less than nine months from now, it will reach 1.3 billion. To some, this is a clear indication that poverty alleviation strategies have not yet worked, although they have been implemented for almost four decades now."},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"Like wealth, poverty is not shared equally around the world. In East Asia and the Pacific, economic growth actually reduced the total number of poor from 182 million in 1985 to 169 million in 1990. Over the same period, in sub-Saharan Africa, the number rose from 184 million to 216 million, which represents half the population. In some countries, declines in average in-"},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"Poverty reduction and agriculture Simply a question of access? "}]},{"head":"About this issue","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":181,"text":"Spore has changed in layout and content, to better inform you of the news, views, and resources which can make a difference to agricultural and rural development in ACP States. Our opening article highlights how agriculture can reduce poverty, whilst our second article on cocoa points to positive changes. Our dossier on dams shows that lessons can be learned. The eight page core of Spore has an expanded news section followed by a guide, this time on microfinance, and three pages on new publications, printed and electronic. The new 'Between Us' exemplifies what the changes aim at: more dialogue between you, CTA and other readers. We follow this with a reader's Viewpoint, on Fair Trade. Missing anything? Well, we removed the CTA Activities pages: they're now 'decentralised' to other sections! All in all, an improvement? Time will tell, and so shall you. Tell us. With Spore now on the Internet, your comments, if printed, will be read all over the world and by at least another 26,100 readers. We hope our changes help you all in your important, and changing, work."}]},{"head":"Information for agricultural development in ACP countries","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Number 80 APRIL 1999","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Continued come led to a disproportionate increase in poverty. In Côte d'Ivoire, average per capita income fell by 13% between 1985 and 1988, but the proportion of poor climbed from 30% to 46. But income is just one of the many other factors that aggravate poverty: access to education, housing, health, safe drinking water, sanitation, and a clean environment."},{"index":2,"size":75,"text":"Even if poverty were viewed simply as an issue of material wealth, it would be naïve to think that agriculture's contribution to reducing poverty is restricted to growing more food. Obviously, it is imperative to grow more food, and fast, because food production in most ACP countries grows at a slower rate than their populations. But, it is not just a question of what you do, but how you do it, and under which conditions."},{"index":3,"size":124,"text":"The future is expensive Elizabeth Dowdeswell, Director of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), explains the conditions: \"Humankind's traditional endeavour throughout history has been to coax more food from the earth. The logic has been that if we bring more land under the plough, intensify labour and refine techniques, the supply of food will grow commensurately. But this logic of humankind has not been that of the environment. Loss of biodiversity, salinisation, soil erosion and desertification have gradually reduced the productive capacity of agricultural land. In some cases this process may be irreversible. Every tonne of fertile topsoil washed away, every hectare claimed by desert sands, every reservoir filled with silt, further drains world productivity and spells higher costs for future increases in output.\""},{"index":4,"size":41,"text":"Moreover, this \"Grow! Grow!\" logic has improved the lives and livelihoods of a few people at the expense of others. By favouring the rich in the distribution of land, water, and inputs, some agricultural policies have even led to increased poverty."},{"index":5,"size":60,"text":"As stakeholders, our task today is to design win-win agricultural policies that are not disadvantageous to any one, provide sustainable food security, and reduce poverty. It is a challenge posed by a world whose grain reserves are estimated as being secure for less than 50 days, and whose population of poor people is growing by more than 150,000 each day."},{"index":6,"size":53,"text":"The Washington-based International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) argues for a vigorous pursuit of agriculture for four reasons, all linked to poverty reduction: first, to generate jobs and income in rural areas; second, to provide reasonablypriced food for growing (urban) needs; third, to stimulate overall economic growth; and fourth, to conserve natural resources."}]},{"head":"Combinations of strategies","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"The complexity of these issues absorbed participants at a workshop on \"Agricultural Sector Strategies for Poverty Reduction in Eastern and Southern Africa\" organised by CTA in Wageningen in November 1998. At the outset, they defined six roles for agriculture in the reduction-or alleviation-of poverty. In Africa, agriculture provides more than 85% of the food on the continent. It is the major source of livelihood, generating employment for more than two-thirds of the labour force. It creates markets for suppliers of equipment, other goods, and services sold to agricultural workers. It provides raw materials for new industry. It earns foreign exchange through exports. And, it is often the main source of savings, which banks could mobilise for investment."},{"index":2,"size":94,"text":"The most effective blend of policies for poverty alleviation will always depend on local factors. Where poverty is concentrated amongst the landless, there should be a combination of policies for absorbing labour, for helping poor households diversify their livelihoods, and, some might add, for land reform. Where poverty is among smallholders, policies should maximise smallscale strategies. Then again, where poverty is largely urban, the policies should address the need for cheap food supply. Some concerns are common to all: priority should be given to households headed by women, environmental losses should not be tolerated."},{"index":3,"size":155,"text":"Three main strategies are being developed. The Food First strategy (not to be confused with Frances Lappé's book Food First, which examines the inequitable distribution of food) concentrates on maximising food output in the short-term, at the expense of cash crops or long-term research options. The Growth First strategy focuses on high-return crops, whether food or other crops. The Poverty First approach enables poor people to acquire food through production, price regulation, and income generation. Food First would probably have the least impact on poverty and be short-lived. Poverty First could protect the poor and empower themin that order. A combination of Growth First with Poverty First strategies could be most beneficial, but only if the wealth created by growth is channelled appropriately. Such combinations convey encouraging trends. The obsession with the market as the overall solution is fading, and the need for a better understanding of poverty, and its various forms, is being recognised."},{"index":4,"size":96,"text":"Isn't material poverty simply about people not having adequate access to assets (calories, credit, education, opportunities, markets)? In theory, the world's food supply can adequately meet every person's calorific needs, to mention just one asset. The challenge now is to design acceptable policies that re-distribute existing assets and create new ones. If this can be done with the same seductive simplicity as the World Bank's new slogan For a World Free of Poverty, then the intention of many African governments to halve the numbers of their poor by 2015 will be much more than a dream."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"Poverty is an insult. Poverty stinks. It demeans, dehumanises, destroys the body and the mind … if not the soul. It is the deadliest form of violence, Mahatma Gandhi asserted earlier this century. Worst of all, poverty persists and outlives even the most imaginative strategies to alleviate it. Poverty reduction and agriculture Simply a question of access? 1 Cocoa: some premiums in store 3 Large dams The good, the bad and the muddy? 4 The world and the dam: she loves me, she loves me not? 4 The right levels 5 IN BRIEF 6 A rough guide for microbankers 10 PUBLICATIONS 11 BETWEEN US 14 VIEWPOINT After fair trade: fair products 16 Website   "}],"sieverID":"7800f0b3-e66e-4d7b-b8c7-d7de1101ce74","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"02ad566902e3cfe905c550dab89be1bf","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9cdcaaac-eea9-4e1f-af39-efa95d1143f8/retrieve"},"pageCount":30,"title":"Understanding the importance of the social and economic impact of PPR","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"SOCIAL and ECONOMIC impact","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Multifunctionality of small holder systems Multifunctionality Of the animal Of the herd composition Of farming determines extent of impact and approach to building back better through incentives and targeting"},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"The OWNER  • Women can own small ruminants easily -unlike land, which needs a title deed • Goats are an \"ATM\" -providing constant income: for household nutrition and education; for start up investments. • Small ruminants self-propagate so can multiply easily, no new investments required. • Women can take their small ruminants with them in case of divorce or conflict."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"• Small ruminants provides opportunities and approaches to move women up on either the livestock or livelihoods ladder."},{"index":4,"size":8,"text":"• IDRC: ($6.3 million investment -300K for ILRI)"},{"index":5,"size":17,"text":"• Based on a 5% negative shock to the volume of sheep and goats due to PPR:"},{"index":6,"size":26,"text":"A reduction in GDP at factor cost (before taxes) of 0.34% and a reduction in agricultural GDP of 0.47% Output losses (% change in value terms)"},{"index":7,"size":3,"text":"• Goats: -3.8%"},{"index":8,"size":3,"text":"• Sheep: -3.3%"},{"index":9,"size":3,"text":"• Feed: -1.3%"},{"index":10,"size":3,"text":"• Sorghum: -0.44%"},{"index":11,"size":3,"text":"• Maize: -0.40%"},{"index":12,"size":20,"text":"• Wheat: -0.40% Downstream effects on non-agricultural sectors (services, transport, etc.) range from -0.01% (public administration) to -0.32% (other services)"},{"index":13,"size":4,"text":"SAM results -Ethiopia (2)"},{"index":14,"size":16,"text":"Based on a 5% negative shock to the volume of sheep and goats due to PPR:"},{"index":15,"size":32,"text":"A reduction in jobs of nearly 220,000 (-0.5%), concentrated in the sheep (38,575 jobs lost, -4.7%) and goats (36,435 jobs lost, -4.8%) sectors, plus losses in the cereals, feeds, and livestock sectors:"},{"index":16,"size":5,"text":"• Enset (-12,084 jobs, -1%);"},{"index":17,"size":5,"text":"• Maize (-14,657 jobs, -0.6%);"},{"index":18,"size":5,"text":"• Sorghum (-19,735 jobs, -0.6%);"},{"index":19,"size":5,"text":"• Milk (-2,547 jobs, -0.82%);"},{"index":20,"size":5,"text":"• Feed (-1,042 jobs, -0.9%)"},{"index":21,"size":9,"text":"Extent of impact and ability to build back better"},{"index":22,"size":6,"text":"• Impact and smallholder NOT homogenous"},{"index":23,"size":12,"text":"• Need a mosaic approach and closer approach with epidemiologists and vets "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Adapted from Rushton, 2017Understanding the importance of people in PPRTHE PEOPLE their decisions and trade offs how do we align the decision for PPR control • PEOPLE in PPR -not stakeholders or actors but people who make DECISIONS in any PPR disease control strategy PPR ECOSYSTEM • International community: PPR GEP and GREN, FAO DG, research organizations • Governments: notifiable or not, who can vaccine, or make it compulsory • Livestock owners: pay for vaccine or comply to take their animals to be vaccinated • Producers and suppliers of vaccines • Others: development agencies/aggregate companies Understanding the importance of the people in PPR Approaches to IMPACT Assessments Nested approach (part of the PPR ecosystem) "},{"text":" GENDER: MAKING THE INVISIBLE/VISIBLE• Of the >750 million poor livestock keepers in the world, about twothirds are rural women. • Women provide labor (20-60%) in livestock production. Men sell the livestock and are in control of the returns. Women often do not get a fair return for the labor they have provided. • Women also do not have same access to information, credit, land, water, animal health care to ensure productive animals. • Women already manage the animals, give them the tools to do it better ALLIES IN animal health management? Small ruminant for (economic) empowerment of women "},{"text":" Transforming the vaccine delivery system for chickens and goats in Ghana: what approaches and what benefits for women? Women as consumers and entrepreneurs in vaccine value chains • PRAPS: gender audit (gender projects in 6 countries) • ECO-PPR: gender post doc -EU IFAD A typical goat and sheep marketing value chain in Use of a social accounting matrix (SAM) to quantify economywide effects of PPR-induced supply shocks (case studies of Ethiopia and Burkina Faso) Basic structure of a SAM Source: Breisinger et al., 2010, Social accounting matrices and multiplier analysis, An Introduction with Exercises. www.ifpri.org Framework on IMPACT OF DISEASE at NATIONAL LEVEL Recent SAMs allow for greater disaggregation of livestock (sheep and goats as separate economic sectors) Jones et al. (2016) -application in quantifying benefits to PPR eradication Types of impacts (based on a shock to animals killed by PPR): • Sectoral impacts (change in economic output) • Employment impacts (change in # of jobs) • GDP impacts • Livelihoods impacts (change in income by quartile/rural vs. urban) Framework on IMPACT OF DISEASE at NATIONAL LEVEL SAM Results -Ethiopia (1) "},{"text":"• Need to understand impact -as a tool to do the job better • Better impact of disease studies • Comparable studies • Different levels • Linking with advocacy • Link with better approaches • Owner and a whole package to improve their system • Link with policy makers: what data do they need • Social factors leading to emergence/endemic of the disease • Surveillance and transboundary "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"8c825eb0-fe32-405d-805a-508eaae252d0","abstract":""}

data/part_4/03437289f1864a060e6aaefd3fd4f878.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03437289f1864a060e6aaefd3fd4f878","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/cc69d508-1d29-411e-bae7-8d363ac5ecec/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Efficient Genotyping Workflow for Accelerating Maize Improvement in Developing Countries","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Description of Stage reached  New Innovation: Yes  New Innovation: Yes Stage of innovation: Stage 3: available/ ready Innovation type: Research and Communication Stage of innovation: Stage 3: available/ readyInnovation type: Research and Communication for uptake (AV) Methodologies and Tools for uptake (AV)Methodologies and Tools Geographic Scope: Regional Number of individual improved lines/varieties: <Not Applicable> Geographic Scope: RegionalNumber of individual improved lines/varieties: <Not Applicable> Region:  Region: • Sub-Saharan Africa  • Sub-Saharan Africa  "},{"text":"Name of lead organization/entity to take innovation to this stage: IITA -International Institute of Tropical Agriculture Names of top five contributing organizations/entities to this stage:  • GOBII -Genomic Open-source Breeding Informatics Initiative. • GOBII -Genomic Open-source Breeding Informatics Initiative. • BecA -Biosciences eastern and central Africa • BecA -Biosciences eastern and central Africa Milestones: No milestones associated Milestones: No milestones associated Sub-IDOs: Sub-IDOs: • 11 -Adoption of CGIAR materials with enhanced genetic gains • 11 -Adoption of CGIAR materials with enhanced genetic gains  "}],"sieverID":"199bfb73-9862-4f08-aed8-0878d6afde1a","abstract":"P2193 -Develop early and extra-early maturing bi-parental mapping populations for QTL analysis.Description of the innovation: Efficient and cost-effective workflow optimized for the most common laboratory techniques (from sample collection to genotyping and data analysis) required accelerate DNA-based quality control and genomic-assisted selection process, which can readily be adopted by National agricultural research system (NARS) partners in developing countries to fast-track molecular marker-based selection for cultivar development."}

data/part_4/03566520e3f458c0938bca3564b1adf1.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03566520e3f458c0938bca3564b1adf1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/30da0309-3e8d-4b48-b456-347cc98f4f68/retrieve"},"pageCount":10,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"The Key areas agreed for immediate action within the next 6 months:"}]},{"head":"Inputs","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"On-farm and on-station Testing of tropically adapted breeds such as Fayoumi, Koe koek, Kuroiler, Sasso and Horro ecotypes/breeds together with other candidate breeds with the involvement of the private sectors. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Availing credit service for poultry producersIdentifying women and youth groups to be involved in brooding chicks by the Subnational coordinators in selected districts with strong engagement of Livestock Extension strengthening veterinary services, development of affordable vaccine doses; and preparation of a working manual for the control and prevention of poultry diseases of economic importantMarket establish cold storage and poultry processing units in appropriate sites by private farms and cooperative Strengthening poultry Association of Ethiopia to hold regular meetings and to promote increased consumption of poultry products Policy Policy around land, tax and quality control for pre-mix and vitamins will be analyzed and stakeholders will propose specific changes for consideration Health Related with vaccine issues, NVI will take the lead to produce appropriate vaccine doses in small packs which are suitable for smallholder producers NVI will work with other stakeholders to create awareness and offer training for value-chain actors on bio-security measures Training EIAR will take the lead to facilitate training manual development on poultry management practices for smallholder farmers at the community level and for other actors in the poultry value-chain (hatcheries, brooders & aggregators). "}],"sieverID":"246a33ab-0637-477e-b073-f8c44336c95b","abstract":"Day 1 centered on familiarizing the stakeholders with the ACGG project and analyzing their roles and responsibilities in transforming the smallholder chicken value chain.In Day 2 Three scene setting and key presentations were made that include 1. The role of poultry in the Ethiopian Economy and opportunities for Development 2. African Chicken Genetic Gain: A Platform for Testing, Delivering, and Continuously Improving Tropically-Adapted Chickens for Productivity Growth in Sub-Saharan Africa: 1. Context, Objectives and Implementation Strategy 2. Implementation Plan key issues in order to make the desired impact on smallholder poultry value chain: Input supplies Inappropriate and inadequate breeds how to minimize high cost of feed and improve quality of feed Lack of credit facilities to smallholder farmers How to overcome shortage of brooding facilities How to minimize mortality of chicks Marketing Challenges how to preserve poultry products during fasting periods Insufficient and unaffordable poultry specific selling points/units/stores in urban areas How to solve shortage of cash/Finance How to minimize the dominance of brokers in the VC of poultry production and benefit producers Policy challenges How to avail adequate land and capital for poultry farm establishment in line with LMP, GTP2, CRGE of the country How to minimize high taxation cost on vitamin and mineral premix importation Lack of standards, quality control and assurance, for all inputs Disease Challenges How to avail veterinary service delivery for smallholder chicken producers How to assure Drug and vaccine quality and availability How to assure Biosecurity and strengthen Quarantine Training challenges how to provide tailor based training How to avail updated training manuals for poultry producers"}

data/part_4/035881c299622e6ec87d94589d50c2b9.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"035881c299622e6ec87d94589d50c2b9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/db8098f5-a762-413b-934a-0911092b46ec/retrieve"},"pageCount":25,"title":"IMPROVED CASSAVA FOR THE DEVELOPING WORLD PROJECT IP3 -CIAT PROJECT IP-3: IMPROVED CASSAVA FOR THE DEVELOPING WORLD","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Narrative Summary","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Output 2 Genetic stocks improved gene pools developed and transferred to national prograrns."}]},{"head":"Output 3 New methods for cassava breeding developed","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Output 4","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Research on the industrial uses of cassava and elite germplasm produced"}]},{"head":"Measurable Indicators","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Means of Verification lmportant Assumptions (2004)(2005)(2006)(2007). Conflilllation of stability of carotene, Fe and Zn contents in roots from selected clones determined (2004) and published (2005)."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"Knowledge on the possibility of further increasing levels of carotenes through self-pollinations or specific crosses (2006). New generation of clones with higher carotenes or better agronomic performance (2007)."},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"Protein content in selected clones from Central Project home page. America conflillled (2005)."}]},{"head":"High and low amylose content in roots from","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Annual reports and working Natural disasters or civil selected clones confirmed (2005)."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"documents. strife do not impede progress Planting of 3000 genotypes induced for mutation Scientific publications. toward achieving the (2004) production of self-pollinated seed project's goal. (2005). Evaluation for starch quality {2006) Shipment of germplasm to Adequate funding for and implementation ofTILLING."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"collaborators in different research activities. countries. Number of S., S 2 and S 3 seed produced and Case studies published. planted in the field (2004)(2005)(2006)(2007)."},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"Natural disasters or civil Six articles on inheritance of quantitative traits Annual reports and working strife do not impede progress submitted for publication (2004)(2005)."},{"index":5,"size":49,"text":"documents. toward achieving the Two scientific articles on cassava breeding Submission of joint research project's goal. submitted for publication (2004)(2005). Analysis of the impact of the new evaluation/ proposals. Willingness of liT A to selection scheme conducted (2004) and Support from prívate sector continue the collaboration we publíshed (2005)."},{"index":6,"size":19,"text":"have had. Search of useful recessive traits in partially inbred germplasm incorporated as routine in the breeding project (2004)(2005)(2006)(2007)."}]},{"head":"Number of germplasm produced and evaluated","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Project proposals and reports. (2004)(2005)(2006)(2007)   -"}]},{"head":"REsEARCH HIGHLIGHTS FROM YEAR 2005","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"High-protein in the roots traits confirmed."},{"index":2,"size":156,"text":"During 2005 a breakthrough discovery confmning cassava clones with 2-3 times more crude protein in their roots (6-8%, dry weight basis compared with the typical2-3%) was accepted for publication. High-protein cassava will increase income to farmers that will produce a value-added cassava for improved livestock nutrition and will also improve the diet of million of people for whom cassava is a daily staple food . Because of the low protein content of \"normal\" cassava, the feed industry can only pay for cassava roots 60-70% of the price of altemative sources of energy (typically maize) in the diets. High-protein cassava roots offer the advantage to the feed industry that their utilization may not require changes in the formulation of diets nor additional source of proteins compared with maize. In many tropical countries, maize is currently imported from temperate regions. Therefore, it has become strategic for these countries to find local source(s) of energy for the feed industry."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"The high protein trait adds nutritional value to the root, increasing their value to the system, and making it more competitive. This, in turn, may increase the possibilities to compete with (imported) maize. This trait also offers an interesting possibility of collaboration between the feed industry with the animal nutrition and crop breeding research community."}]},{"head":"Discovery of a mutant with waxy starch","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":142,"text":"For many years the cassava-breeding project at CIAT has gradually but consistently shifted its attention towards the production and/ or identification of cassava clones with high-value for industrial uses. For the feed industry clones with increased nutritional value was a k ey target. The starch industry has requeste d persistently clones with alte red starch properties in their roots. Acyanogenesis is an important trait for the processed food industry, and clones with molecules simpler than starch are now requested by the different initiatives tha t have been created to produce carburant ethanol and the bioplastics industry. The introduction of inbreeding in cassava was partially justified by the fact tha t it would fa cilita te the identification of clones with useful recessive traits. During the past few years hundreds of partially inbred plants were grown and evaluated in search of useful traits."},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":"During 2005 an SI plant, grown at CIAT and harvested in early 2006, was found to h ave a modification of its starch with markedly reduced amylose content and a very distinctive amylogram (indicating differential pasting properties) . The starch behaves as a typical waxy starch, one of the most common requests by the industry. This discovery, is ve ry important not only because of its value-added characteristic (a waxy maize starch is about 30% more expensive than normal maize starch) but also because it proves the concept that inbreeding cassava will eventually allow for the identification of useful rece s sive traits."}]},{"head":"Development of a quantitative-genetics-approach to quantify epistasis.","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":149,"text":"Very little research has been done to understand the inhe ritance of quantitative traits in cassava. As a matter of fact very little has been learned about the genetics of cassava, compared with other crops like maize, rice or soybean. Cassava , however, offers the advantage of vegetative reproduction. In this regard, cassava shares many characteristics with annual and perennial crops and could eventually serve as a bridge between the two types of crops. Because of the vegetative reproduction of cassava we can measure withinfamily genetic variation, something impossible in many other important annual crops. This, in tum, allows for special approaches to measure epistasis using quantitative genetic models. During 2005 an approach to quantify epistasis, that had been mentioned in books, as a theoretical model, was applied using experimental data from cassava. As a result three different research articles were published (Euphytica, Journal of Heredity and Crop Science)."}]},{"head":"Validation of molecular markers for resistance to Cassava Mosaic Disease.","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":321,"text":"Perhaps the single most limiting factor for cassava in Africa is the devastating Cassava Mosaic Disease (CMD) . The disease is not present in the Americas anda related pathogen affects cassava grown in India. The absence of CMD in the Americas prevents CIAT's ability to breed for resistance to the disease. The biotypes of the vector that occur in the Americas Bemisia tabaci (a white fly) do not readily feed on cassava. However, recent discoveries suggest that this may change prompting the cassava breeding projects to develop a preemptive measure should the disease be accidentally introduced into the americas. The only feasible approach to do that is through the use of marker assisted selection using molecular markers developed at CIAT. During the past 3 years CIAT has been selecting for resistance to CMD using markers linked toa CMD resistance gene. Evaluations at 6 and 9 months after planting (in Tanzania and Nigeria) of 503 genotypes bred at CIAT for CMD resistance revealed 224 genotypes with no visible foliar symptoms for CMD and 176 genotypes that did not show any visible foliar symptoms for CMD and cassava green mite. The large number of susceptible clones that had been selected with markers for resistance to CMD conferred by the CMD2 gene was, however, unexpected. Further analysis of the results by family revealed that families with over 90% of genotypes susceptible, had as a source of resistance, the parent C127. These results suggest that the C127 parent (one ofthe 17 F1 progenies of TME3, the source of CMD2}, is a susceptible genotype. When families having this parent were removed from the analysis, the percentage of resistant genotypes was 70%, which is the expected percentage, given that CMD2 controls 70% of CMD resistance. These results provide an excellent example of the usefulness of marker assisted selection and provide an ideal strategy to build up resistance to the disease in cassava germplasm adapted to the Americas."}]},{"head":"Further progress in understanding frog skin disease.","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":207,"text":"Cassava frog skin disease (CFSD) remains a frustrating problem for cassava research in Colombia. The diseases causal organism has not been definitively identified, nor its vector agent. The only protocol for the certification that a plant is disease free is through grafting into the indicator genotype Secondina. This is, however, a cumbersome procedure that needs about four months to provide results. Therefore the only practical procedure is to rely on the symptoms, which express (frequently) only in the roots. In spite of the measures taken at CIAT based on the elimination of any plant showing symptoms in the roots and the imposition that no vegetative cuttings will be taken if the roots of the plant have not been first analyzed to make sure they are symptoms-free, the incidence of the disease cannot be adequately reduced. During the past year increasing evidence of the association between CFSD and a phytoplasm was províded. It has not been determinate that the phytoplasm induces CFSD but results are very promising for such an elusive disease. Significant progress was also achieved in reducing the list of candidate vectors that may be involved in the disease. lt has been decided, that Scaphytopius marginelineatus and Peregrinus maidis are prime candidates as vectors of CFSD"}]},{"head":"Growing evidence of increased cassava productivity in Vietnam","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":190,"text":"Highlights in cassava research are (sometimes) difficult to be allocated to one particular year because of the large inertia frequently involved in activities related to this crop. This is the case of cassava in Vietnam. During the last few years there has been a gradual and consistent trend in Vietnam that will now be highlighted. Three major trends can be claimed for cassava in that country. The frrst one is a remarkable increase in the productivity of the crop that almost doubled in the last ten years (from 8.44 tjha to more than 14 t j ha) . A parallel trend to the higher productivity, which can be perceived as a consequence ora cause, is a sharp increase in the number of starch factories created in the country. Our current estimates are that there are more than 60 such facilities and this is evidence of the importance of this crop as a vehicle for rural development: these factories are typically located in rural areas. The increase in productivity and the interest shown by the processing sector, has led the government to declare cassava among the priority commodities for the country."}]},{"head":"Demonstration of evolution of B. tabaci to adapt feeding in cassava","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":"During the year a scientific article demonstrating the adaptation of Bemisia tabaci, Biotype B. (Grennadius ) to cassava, was published. This is a very interesting study where CIAT scientists could gradually adapt insect populations to feed first on an intermediate plant species and then to cassava. Perhaps it is the frrst s cientific evidence of such a daptation directed by mankind that could be liked to the evolutive potential of a pest from one host (beans) to another unrelated plant host (cassava). The importance of this research relies on the possibility of the insect (vector and perhaps the \"builder\" of viruses such as cassava mosaic disease) to quickly adapt to cassava as has already been reported to occasionally occur and in, more general terms, the power of nature or artificial selection to promote this change."}]},{"head":"Large number of scientific articles published or accepted during 2005.","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"A "}]},{"head":"PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED AND THEIR SOLUTION.","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":149,"text":"4 .1 One of the problems that need to be properly solved is the technical tuning of the artificial drying plants. This is a key issue for the success of the Trapiches Yuqueros. THe cassava-breeding project is content because the original productivity required for the Trapiches to be competitive (20-25 t j ha of fresh roots) has been widely confirmed in commercial plantings. However, the drying process in severa! of the initiatives developed Executive Summary-11 in the past few years was inefficient. There is little that CIAT or CLAYUCA can do in this regard because this was the result of prívate engineering companies. One Trapiche, however, is successfully drying cassava roots in the Middle Magdalena River region. We are monitoring the performance of this management system and using it as an example for others to follow. CLAYUCA is ready to move in once the legal situation of the other"},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"Trapiches is settled, to start developing the modifications that they need to be operative."}]},{"head":"4.2","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Frog skin disease has provento be a very elusive and frustrating problem for the project."},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":"We have failed to defmitely identify the causal organism{s) and its vector(s). The disease is endemic in the region and affects particularly the breeding and evaluation activities at CIAT's Experimental Station in Palmira. During 2005 research to identify the pathogen(s) responsible for the disease continued. Important progress has been achieved regarding the potential role played by a virus and/or a phytoplasm. In a blind trial, however, the diagnosis based on the assumption of a viral origin of the disease failed to identify diseased plants. The phytoplasm alternative was much more successful. The list of insects suspected to be the vector has been reduced."}]},{"head":"4.3","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"As a result of the changes that had occurred during the last decade public investment in agriculture research in general has drastically been reduced. Project IP3 frequently has trouble identifying an adequate partner in different countries with whom to collaborate. Other crops such as maize offer the alternative of interacting with the private sector (frequently multinational seed companies). But cassava has no such promoting interests either. The discovery of a waxy mutant opens a large possibility for the private sector (starch industry) to get more involved in cassava research in the process of adaptíng the trait to clones with better agronomic performance."}]},{"head":"4.4","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"The presence of CIAT in Africa in the area of cassava research has frequently been complex. JITA expects that CIAT's technologies and products are introduced into Africa through liTA. There are sorne justifications for CIAT and liTA to proceed this way but also sorne problems. NARs have expressed their interest in a direct contact with CIAT."},{"index":2,"size":188,"text":"Another problem has been the issue of recognition, because once the technologies moved to liTA they became IITA's assets. CIAT has had difficulty, therefore, documenting its significant contributions to Africa. This also implied difficulty for CIAT to get proper feedback on the performance of technologies, breeding materials, etc. introduced into Africa. Also there have been objections that CIAT searches for resources for cassava research in Africa. The approach that CIAT has taken is to search for a productive and open dialog with liTA. The new emphasis in high-value cassava given by cassava research at CIAT offers a new alternative. The traits are much easier to trace and, therefore, the contribution that CIAT makes for cassava in Africa are easier to be demonstrated. Therefore, there is a possibility of a better defmed research agenda between the two Centers: CIAT would screen the large genetic variability available to the Center in search of useful traits and liTA would receive these traits and adapt them to the African conditions. This is, for example, the case of the high-protein trait and the research proposal currently under join development by the two Centers."},{"index":3,"size":60,"text":"4.5 Limitations in the availability of core resources imply that the project cannot plan longterm activities research which are considered fundamental for the genetic improvement of crops, particularly such as cassava, because of its long breeding cycle. The project is trying to fmd resources through special projects, but these are typically short in time and limited in scope of action."}]},{"head":"INDICATORS: LIST TECHNOLOGIES, METHODS & TOOLS","index":19,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Germplasm distributed","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"A considerable fraction of the seed produced by the project h as been transferred to National Programs in different regions of the world. As shown in Table 4, more than 115,000 recombinant seeds were produced between June 2004 and October 2005 and about 50% of that seed (57 ,468) has been shipped to our collabor ators. In addition a large number of plants in vitro were shipped to different collaborating institutions. "}]},{"head":".2 Other methods & tools","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"The introduction of inbreeding in cassava genetic improvement has been already adopted in different collaborating NARs (Brazil, Vietnam, Cuba, Thailand, Uganda, and Ghana) . The discovery of a waxy mutant is certainly going to encourage these countries to increase the efforts in that direction and may encou rage othe r countries to follow suit."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"Methodologies for the identification of amylose-free cassava mutants are now used by NARs, the utilization of selection indexes and molecular markers are increasingly adopted with strong collaboration from ClAT scientists."}]},{"head":"INDICATORS: TRAINING","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"7.1 Courses and workshops organized or supported with scientific capacity from the project."},{"index":2,"size":271,"text":"Table 5. Events where personnel from cassava breeding project participated for the development or execution of research proposals. Additional events were attended by personnel working in the areas of enthomology, plant pathology, and biotechnology and are not listed here to avoid duplications.  participants up to date information on field-based and molecular marker-assisted selection (MAS) methods in cassava breeding. Subjects covered include basic quantitative genetics, selection methods, crossing designs, field evaluations, molecular markers, QTL/ gene mapping, association mapping, and linkage analysis. Others tapies were genetic transformation, haploid technology, molecular breeding, tissue culture (in vitro prop agation and post flask management), germplasm development, host plant resistance , integrated pest management, cassava production, and genetic diversity. Most of the subjects were covered in formal class room lecture but practica! sessions were also included in the program from field tours, lab demonstrations of DNA isolation, gel electrophoresis, polymerase chain reactions, embryo rescue , in vitro propaga tion, two-node cutting multiplication, screen house screening of pests and disease, to computer sessions in gene mapping and diversity assessment analysis using Q-gene, Mapmaker/QTL, NTSYS , and GENESURVEY software packages. The course ended with one-week field work to harvest different types of trials in our Acid-soil environment at CORPOICA-Villavicen cio. The project has been successful in procuring resources that can no longer be provided by core. However, the research capacity of its personnel has reached (and perhaps exceeded) a maximum. The project continues searching for s pecial projects, but the list is not provided here since the ongoing activities and special projects already funded provides evidence of our efforts and guidance regarding the kind of activities that we conduct."}]},{"head":"NEW DIRECTIONS FOR 2006.","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":185,"text":"The emphasis in the search of high-value cassava germplasm will continue encouraged by the developments con.firming the high-protein roots trait and the waxy starch mutant recently discovered. We wil1 now focus in identifying \"sugary\" types for the ethanol industry and highamylose starches because they are \"resistant\" starches that offer a healthy altemative for people with problems such as diabetes. As is frequently the case these high-value traits imply a clase interaction with the processing sector. For instance, research wil1 now be conducted to identify new diet composition s for feed made with high-protein cassava roots. This in tum wil1 allow the estimation of the added economic value of such a trait for the entire system . In addition to quantity; we wi11 also do research related to the quality of proteins. In general all these activities wil1 require better protocols for the identification of high-value traits that wi11 allow•massive screening of the segregating progenies. The use of N1R is very appealing because it allows the simultaneous quantification of different traits, because it is not expensive (once the calibration curves have been developed) and very fast."}]},{"head":"RESEARCH ACTIVITIES FOR THE PERIOD 2006-2008.","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":300,"text":"In October 2006 the cassava-breeding project will organize a meeting at the Bellagio facilities of the Rockefeller Foundation. The meeting has their financia! support as well and wil1 gather a small group of (retired) maize breeders and few cassava breeders as well. The purpose of this meeting is to discuss altematives for exploiting heterosis in cassava . To do that we will benefit from the experience of key scientists that so s u ccessfully developed the maize hy brid industry (i.e. D .Duvick, A.Hallau er, V.Gracen, F.Troyer. etc.) from the private sector and/ or the Universities. We hope that this meeting will help us to define the way ahead. The introduction of inbreeding in cassava genetic improvement implies a fundamental change in the way we operate. We are going to \"design\" parents to produce better-performing progenies and this s hould lead to more consistent and larger genetic gains. We hope that in the few years to come the strategies to do this will be defined and initiated. Two technologies remain to be fully developed: the development of a protocol for the production of homozygous lines (doubled-haploids) through the use of anther culture and j or the induction of flowering through exogenous application of phyto-hormones. As it should be expected these changes are b ut an adaptation to the new directions mentioned for 2006. The discovery of high-value traits, su eh as the high-protein or waxy starch of the roots are indeed breakthrough discoveries but their usefulness is somewhat diminished by the limitations imposed by the current breeding system. Today we have to \"build\" again a n ew variety in the process of introdu cing a high -value trait. In the future we hope to introduce the trait into a good parental line by means of a conventional back-cr oss scheme."},{"index":2,"size":81,"text":"The discovery of high-value traits un avo idably implies a much closer interaction with the privare sector. Intellectual prope rty :-ights are likely to becom e an important issue L!-).ar needs to be add.ressed, but in a way that the advantages that these traits offer are n ot prevented to reach the resource-limited farmers that our project has to help. The interaction with the prívate sector is not only technological, but also a promising source of fmancial support for our project."},{"index":3,"size":224,"text":"The globalization of the econornies and the signing of free trade agreements are likely to create a new econ omic environment for agriculture in tropical countries. Regardless of the wisdom or justifications for these changes they are a reality that we have to address. Based on the trends and experiences that we have seen during the 1990s we expect to see even more opportunities and needs of tropical countries to rely on cassava as a source of raw material for the feed and starch industries. In addition, the crop is increasingly seen as an economic alternative for the production of ethanol for vehicles. The changes that we are gradually introducing in methods for the genetic improvement of cassava and the shift towards the identification of traits that will better satisfy the n eeds of different industries are represent an appropriate response of our project to the expected changes of the near future . As an integral appr oach we are also increasing our capacity to screen wild relatives of cassava in search of new traits (i.e. reduced post-harvest physiological deterioration of the roots) and sources of resistance to abiotic stresses, pests and diseases. We have two ongoing projects with the Generation Challenge program in this regard which has been yet another way for CIAT's cassava br eedin• g pr oject to partner with EMBRAPA-Brazil."},{"index":4,"size":125,"text":"Finally we also see new opportunities in relation to the development of new technologies. Molecular markers, marker-assisted selection and gen etic transformation are becoming standard technologies in the genetic improvement of different crops important in the developed world (i.e. maize, soybean, wheat, rice, etc) . Cassava benefits from these technologies but the massive amount of investments by the prívate and official sectors of that region of the world imply a dr astic contrast and a real threat to the competitiveness of cassava in the long term. We need to be aggressive in incorporating these new tools in an efficient way and with a very strategic prioritization of objectives in such a way that the small investments of resources can be , to sorne extent, overcome."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Breeding for insect and other arthropods and disease resistance and development of alternative methods for their control.ÜUTPUT6Development and use of biotechnology tools for cassava improvement ----------- "},{"text":"7. 3 Special events: breeding course in cassava for scientists from NARs. With funding from the Rockefeller F'oundation and the Generation Ch allenge Program (GCP), an advanced breeding co urse was held at CIAT from April 10-May 8, 2005 . The course b rou ght togeth er cassava breeders fro m Mozambique, Kenya, Tanzan1a, Ethiopia. Nigeria, Uganda, Ghana, and Brazil. The immediate objective of the course was to provide Executive Summary-21 :no:; . -\\nnual Report • . ::-T~~~::•z=:..: .... --~~--• .. .,r '\"!.--:'-' "},{"text":"8 . INDICATORS: RESOURCE MOBILIZATION LIST 8 .1 List of proposals funded in 2005; dollar value of contract & donor 8.2 List,oCpropoaals submitted.. "},{"text":"Table 1 Internationally and nationally recruited staff associated with the cassava-breeding project. Underlined are the women associated with the project. total of 33 scientific articles were publish ed in 2005 or accepted for publica tion during the total of 33 scientific articles were publish ed in 2005 or accepted for publica tion during the past year andina great diversity of joumals: Journal of Crop Improvement; Crop Science past year andina great diversity of joumals: Journal of Crop Improvement; Crop Science (two articles); Euphytica (six articles); Fitotecnia Colombiana; Joumal of Heredity; Plant (two articles); Euphytica (six articles); Fitotecnia Colombiana; Joumal of Heredity; Plant Breeding; Florida Entomologist (three articles); Photosynthetica; Field Crops Research; Breeding; Florida Entomologist (three articles); Photosynthetica; Field Crops Research;  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Institutions with which personnel of the cassava breeding project maintains collaborative activities Partner Country Partner Country PartnerCountryPartnerCountry University of Adelaide Australia Centrallnstitute for Food Crops, Bogor Indonesia University of AdelaideAustraliaCentrallnstitute for Food Crops, BogorIndonesia EMBRAPA -CNPMF Brazil Res. lnst. for Legum es & Tuber Crops, Malang Indonesia EMBRAPA -CNPMFBrazilRes. lnst. for Legum es & Tuber Crops, MalangIndonesia EMBRAPA -CENARGEN Brazil Soil Research Institute, Bogor Indonesia EMBRAPA -CENARGENBrazilSoil Research Institute, BogorIndonesia EMBRAPA -CTA Brazil KARI Kenya EMBRAPA -CTABrazilKARIKenya JAC -Sao Paulo Brazil NAFRI La os JAC -Sao PauloBrazilNAFRILa os Universidade de Campinas -Sao Paulo Brazil Bvumbwe Agricultura) Research Station Malawi Universidade de Campinas -Sao PauloBrazilBvumbwe Agricultura) Research StationMalawi Chinese Acad. Trop. Agric. Sciences, Hainan China Crop and Food Research lnstitute, New Zealand Chinese Acad. Trop. Agric. Sciences, HainanChinaCrop and Food Research lnstitute,New Zealand Animal Husbandry Station, Mengzhe, Yunnan China liTA Nigeria Animal Husbandry Station, Mengzhe, YunnanChinaliTANigeria Guangxi Subtrop. Crops Res. Inst., Nanning China National Root Crops Research lnstitute Nigeria Guangxi Subtrop. Crops Res. Inst., NanningChinaNational Root Crops Research lnstituteNigeria CARDI Cambodia FJAFOR Panamá CARDICambodiaFJAFORPanamá Corp. Des. Sostenible del N y O Amazónico Colombia CIP Peru Corp. Des. Sostenible del N y O AmazónicoColombiaCIPPeru  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Core and special project budgets from the cassava breeding project activities for Africa America and Asia ' SO URCE AMOUNTUS$ PROPORTION (%) ' SO URCEAMOUNTUS$PROPORTION (%) Unrestricted Core 11397 0 % Unrestricted Core113970 % Restricted Core: Colombia 17,794 1% Restricted Core: Colombia17,7941% European Commission 392,200 15% European Commission392,20015% Sub-total 421,391 16% Sub-total421,39116% Special Projects 1,923,457 73% Special Projects1,923,45773% Generation Challenge Program 303,466 11% Generation Challenge Program303,46611% Total Project 2,648,314 100% Total Project2,648,314100%  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Shipments of germplasm (recombinant seed and in vitro clones) produced within the project from September 2003 through September 2004.  Genotypes Croases Planta Seeds in the GenotypesCroasesPlantaSeeds in the Continents in-vitro (families) (in-vitro) shipment Continentsin-vitro(families)(in-vitro)shipment Latin America     Latin America In-vitro 34  2587  In-vitro342587 Hybrid seed  277  1888 1 Hybrid seed2771888 1 Asia     Asia In-vitro 248  610  In-vitro248610 Hybrid seed  263  24775 Hybrid seed26324775 Africa     Africa In-vitro 1189  2510  In-vitro11892510 Hybrid seed  102  1381 2 Hybrid seed1021381 2 Europe and USA     Europe and USA In-vitro 123  277  In-vitro123277 Total In-vitro 1594  3397  Total In-vitro15943397 Total hybrid seed  642  57468 Total hybrid seed64257468  "},{"text":"Table 6 . List of undergraduate and graduate students, trainees and visiting scientists enrolled during 2005 with the cassava project. Type of even t Number of events Number of people Type of even tNumber of eventsNumber of people Seminaries 5 342 Seminaries5342 Technical training 10 216 Technical training10216 Technical visits 13 174 Technical visits13174 Meetings with farmers 71 993 Meetings with farmers71993 Conferences 8 261 Conferences8261 Field days 2 489 Field days2489 Harvest days S 26 Harvest daysS26 Practica! events in the field 8 . . 171 Practica! events in the field8 . .171 Workshops 18 612 Workshops18612 Courses 4 98 Courses498 TOTAL 145 3432 TOTAL1453432 7 .2 Training through research thesis of undergraduate and graduate students. 7 .2 Training through research thesis of undergraduate and graduate students.   Fe m ale Mal e Fe m aleMal e Undergraduate  8 11 Undergraduate811 M. Se. Program  3 3 M. Se. Program33 Ph.D. Program  4 1 Ph.D. Program41 CLA YUCA Course in production and processing 6 32 CLA YUCA Course in production and processing632 Breeding course  5 8 Breeding course58 Visiting scientists*  4 5 Visiting scientists*45 * Visiting scientist: a person who stays involved in activities Wlthin the proyect for more * Visiting scientist: a person who stays involved in activities Wlthin the proyect for more than one week   than one week  "}],"sieverID":"dbace267-e55d-46fc-9aa9-781f2c787fa1","abstract":"To develop germplasm, methods and tools for increased productivity and value of the cassava crop that will result in increased income and development of rural communities involved in growth and processing."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0389c78c88c38feb0430a2487d748ad5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://dataverse.harvard.edu/api/access/datafile/:persistentId/?persistentId=doi:10.7910/DVN/Q6BO6Q/6JDCYY"},"pageCount":15,"title":"Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA) questionnaire for the key persons interview","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"4. How often do the listed challenges occur in a year? Please list the frequency in Column 2 of Table 2."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"For example: Once a month; every 2 months; once a year; once in 3 years 5. Which of the climate challenges are the most costly-in other words, which climate challenges have the worst effect on farmers' incomes? In Column 3 of Table 2, please rank the top 5 challenges from 1 to 5 based on their impact to the farmer's income."},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":"For example: Write \"1\" for the climate challenge that is the most costly for farmers; write \"2\" next to the challenge that poses the second greatest financial risk for farmers, and so on. .   "}]},{"head":"Frequency of Occurrence","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Sub-section 3.2: Characterizing Alternative Practices","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"In this section, we hope to better understand the most common alternative practice that is used when Crop Rotation is not used. (For example, mechanical plowing, manual cutting, or burning with fire to clear the land.)"},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"3. What are the known consequences of this practice on the farming system and environment?"},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"(For example, does monocropping decrease biodiversity of soil or plants and animals?) 4. How do farmers deal with these consequences?"},{"index":4,"size":29,"text":"(For example, does soil erosion force farmers use more fertilizer in order to maintain crop productivity?) 5. How do farmers' ways of dealing with these consequences effect the environment?"},{"index":5,"size":65,"text":"(For example, does the extra fertilizer used contaminate the rivers with excess nutrients?) Subsection 3.3: Estimating the of impact of Crop Rotation Please estimate the impact that Crop Rotation has on productivity and income, Please estimate the impact using a percentage. For example, if the practice will double yields, then please write \"200%\". If the practice will decrease income by half, then please write \"-50%\".   "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Section 1 : General information about the study site Section 2:  Section 2: Country Ghana CountryGhana Province  Province District  District Village  Village  "},{"text":"General information on farming in the Coastal Savanna 1 . What types of farming are commonly practiced in this area? In Table1, Column 2, please list the types of crops or animals involved in each practice.For example, if maize is commonly grown as a staple crop, please list it in Column 2. If maize and cowpea are commonly intercropped, then please write them together as \"maize and cowpea\" in Column 2.2. In Table1, Column 3, please explain how many farmers raise the crop or animal that you listed in Column 2. For example, if the great majority of farmers cultivate maize, please write \"Almost all\" in Column 3, next to For example, if the great majority of farmers cultivate maize, please write \"Almost all\" in Column 3, next to where you wrote \"maize.\" . where you wrote \"maize.\" .  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Farming Types Farming types Column 1 What crops or animals are involved? What are the main climate challenges faced by farmers in this area? Please tick the boxes in Column 1 of Table 2. Please add any additional climate challenges that are not included.  How many farmers? How many farmers?  (Almost all, More than (Almost all, More than  half, Less than half, half, Less than half, Column 2 Very few) Column 2Very few)  Column 3 Column 3  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Climate Change Challenges Challenges related to Climate Change   "},{"text":"Table 3 : Characterizing Crop Rotation  1. Please describe Crop Rotation and 1. Please describe Crop Rotation and how it is different from the practices how it is different from the practices used on a farm where Crop Rotation is used on a farm where Crop Rotation is not used? not used? 2. Does Crop Rotation replace another 2. Does Crop Rotation replace another practice? If so, what practice is it practice? If so, what practice is it replacing? 1 replacing? 1 3. Does Crop Rotation improve upon 3. Does Crop Rotation improve upon another practice? If so, what practices another practice? If so, what practices does it improve upon? does it improve upon? 4. What is the main reason that Crop 4. What is the main reason that Crop Rotation is used as opposed to another Rotation is used as opposed to another practice? In other words, why do you practice? In other words, why do you prefer to use Crop Rotation over other prefer to use Crop Rotation over other practices? practices? 5. What benefits do you get from using 5. What benefits do you get from using Crop Rotation? Crop Rotation?  "},{"text":"Table 4 : Alternative Practice Please confirm the answer from Table3.2, 3.32. What are the common soil/land preparation practices used with this alternative practice. 1. What is the most common alternative 1. What is the most common alternative practice to Crop Rotation as mentioned in practice to Crop Rotation as mentioned in Table 3? Table 3?  "},{"text":"Table 5 : Impact of Crop Rotation  Category Percentage Change % CategoryPercentage Change % Productivity (yield)  Productivity (yield) Household income  Household income Section 4: Changes in productivity  Section 4: Changes in productivity  "},{"text":"Table 6 : Yield with Crop Rotation Expected yield without use of Crop Rotation After introducing Crop Rotation ….    After introducing Crop Rotation …. Crop or Animal … how many months pass before the farmer begins to see a change in yield? (months) … how many months pass before the maximum yield is reached? (months) …what is the expected minimum yield at the end of year 1? (XX Units?) …what is the expected average yield at the end of year 1? (XX Units?) …what is the expected maximum yield at the end of year 1? (XX Units?) Crop or Animal… how many months pass before the farmer begins to see a change in yield? (months)… how many months pass before the maximum yield is reached? (months)…what is the expected minimum yield at the end of year 1? (XX Units?)…what is the expected average yield at the end of year 1? (XX Units?)…what is the expected maximum yield at the end of year 1? (XX Units?) Maize      Maize Rice      Rice Sorghum      Sorghum Cowpea      Cowpea Ground nut      Ground nut  "},{"text":"Table 7 : Yield without Crop Rotation Causes of differences in yieldWhat are the main causes of the difference between the minimum, average, and maximum yields indicated above. For example: rainfall, access to fertilizer, etc. If Crop Rotation is not used, what is the estimated…   If Crop Rotation is not used, what is the estimated… Crop or … expected …expected average ...expected … price per unit of Crop or… expected…expected average...expected… price per unit of Animal minimum yield at yield at the end of maximum yield at output? (GHC) Animalminimum yield atyield at the end ofmaximum yield atoutput? (GHC)  the end of year 1? year 1? (XX Units?) the end of year 1?  the end of year 1?year 1? (XX Units?)the end of year 1?  (XX Units?)  (XX Units?)  (XX Units?)(XX Units?) Maize     Maize Rice     Rice Sorghum     Sorghum Cowpea     Cowpea Groundnut     Groundnut Sheep     Sheep Goat     Goat Subsection 4.3 ______________________________________________________________________________ Subsection 4.3 ______________________________________________________________________________  "},{"text":"______________________________________________________________________________ Section 5: Prices at the farmer level Table 8 : Pricing and price variability  Section 6:     Section 6:  Units    Units Crop (GHC$/kg, Low price Average price High Price Crop(GHC$/kg,Low priceAverage priceHigh Price  GHC$/bunch, etc.)    GHC$/bunch, etc.) Maize     Maize Rice     Rice Sorghum     Sorghum Cowpea     Cowpea Ground nut     Ground nut  "},{"text":"Cost Structure: Installation and On-going Costs Please fill in Table9with information about the costs associated with the implementation, inputs, and labor required when Crop Rotation is used and when Crop Rotation is not used.  "},{"text":"Table 9 : Installation Costs Please fill in Table10with information about the maintenance activities needed when Crop Rotation is used and when Crop Rotation is not used. Maintenance activities are carried out periodically and are necessary to keep a farming practice working properly over the entire lifetime. For example: repairing roofs for livestock housing, replacing damaged irrigation hoses, weeding stone walls  With Crop Rotation Without Crop Rotation With Crop RotationWithout Crop Rotation Category (list) Units (#) Price per Unit (GHC$/unit) Units (#) Price per Unit (GHC$/unit) Category (list)Units (#)Price per Unit (GHC$/unit)Units (#)Price per Unit (GHC$/unit) Machines/Equipment (For example; tractor, power tiller)   Machines/Equipment (For example; tractor, power tiller) Inputs (For example; seeds, mulch)     Inputs (For example; seeds, mulch) Services (For example: tractor, plowing)     Services (For example: tractor, plowing) Labor (For example; fertilizer application, land preparation, herbicide application, planting) Labor (For example; fertilizer application, land preparation, herbicide application, planting)  "},{"text":"Table 10 : Maintenance Costs   With Crop Rotation Without Crop Rotation With Crop RotationWithout Crop Rotation Category (list) Units (#) Price per Unit (GHC$/unit) Units (#) Price per Unit (GHC$/unit) Category (list)Units (#)Price per Unit (GHC$/unit)Units (#)Price per Unit (GHC$/unit)  "}],"sieverID":"dbe39444-158e-47f5-86f8-367d4a65a675","abstract":"The Ghana Science and Policy Platform in affiliation with the West African Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) Program along with the International Center for Tropical Agriculture CIAT) are preparing a study to help identify farming practices that are considered \"Climate Smart,\" meaning that they improve productivity while also helping farmers adapt to changing climate conditions. Now that we have identified some important Climate Smart practices, we are collecting information to understand the costs and the benefits associated with each practice. The costs and benefits may be financial-for example, the high expense of installation or the profits from higher yields. The costs and benefits may also relate to the environment or farmer's quality of life-for example, a practice may be beneficial because it reduces the farmer's labor or reduces air pollution.The aim of this survey is to help us understand which costs and benefits are most important to farmers. With that information, we can help farmers or policy makers choose the practices that are most beneficial to them in the short and long run."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0403b1267915442a9053528f88618223","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e31f7781-ca12-4c6d-9572-cc63ad03c713/retrieve"},"pageCount":5,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Coffee Break with Staff and Board Photo   BOARD MEETING  BOARD MEETING MONDAY 7 th NOVEMBER 2011  MONDAY 7 th NOVEMBER 2011 Venue: Board Room  Venue: Board Room Time Agenda Presenter TimeAgendaPresenter 0815-0830 1. The Board will have a closed Board meeting to confirm the new Board Knut Hove 0815-08301. The Board will have a closed Board meeting to confirm the new BoardKnut Hove  member and approve the 2 nd term of an existing Board Member  member and approve the 2 nd term of an existing Board Member  2. The Chair will open the 36 th Board Meeting  2. The Chair will open the 36 th Board Meeting 0830-0930 -The Chair will provide the opening remarks to the 36 th Board Knut Hove 0830-0930-The Chair will provide the opening remarks to the 36 th BoardKnut Hove  Meeting  Meeting  3. The meeting will be invited to consider and adopt the agenda of the  3. The meeting will be invited to consider and adopt the agenda of the  36 th Board meeting Knut Hove 36 th Board meetingKnut Hove  4. Review and Approval of Minutes of the 35 th Board meeting  4. Review and Approval of Minutes of the 35 th Board meeting  5. Summary of Disposition of Matters Arising from the Minutes of the Knut Hove 5. Summary of Disposition of Matters Arising from the Minutes of theKnut Hove  35 th Board Meeting Bruce Scott 35 th Board MeetingBruce Scott 0930-1000   0930-1000 1000-1300 Program Committee -Board Room  1000-1300Program Committee -Board Room  Chair: Jim Dargie/Lorne Babiuk  Chair: Jim Dargie/Lorne Babiuk  Secretary :Steve Staal  Secretary :Steve Staal 1300-1400   1300-1400 1400-1530   1400-1530 1600-1630   1600-1630 1630-1800   1630-1800 1900   1900  "},{"text":"Key items that will be discussed at the Programme Committee will include:-  • A report to the Board updating them on HR issues • A report to the Board updating them on HR issues • An update on HR policies: Casual/Temporary Employment; • An update on HR policies: Casual/Temporary Employment; Disciplinary Procedures and Appeals; Overtime and Compensatory Disciplinary Procedures and Appeals; Overtime and Compensatory Time Off; Retirement, Time Off; Retirement, • An update on Staff Data • An update on Staff Data Steve Staal Steve Staal Segenet Kelemu Segenet Kelemu Steve Staal Steve Staal Vish Nene, Mario Vish Nene, Mario Herrero, Jemimah Njuki Herrero, Jemimah Njuki  "},{"text":"Lunch with Staff Council -Executive Dinning Rom Audit Committee -Info Centre  Chair: Samir Barua/Dieter Schillinger Chair: Samir Barua/Dieter Schillinger Secretary: Bruce Scott Secretary: Bruce Scott  "},{"text":"Key items that will be discussed at the Audit Committee will include:- • Approval of Minutes of the 6 th Audit committee • Matters arising • Status of 2011 audit plan • Status of previous Internal Audit recommendations Wednesday 9 th November 2011  Wednesday 9 th November 2011 Venue -Board Room  Venue -Board Room Time Agenda Presenter TimeAgendaPresenter 0830-1030 10. Committee Reports  0830-103010. Committee Reports  a) Report and Recommendations of the Programme Committee  a) Report and Recommendations of the Programme Committee  b) Report and Recommendations of the Human Resources Committee  b) Report and Recommendations of the Human Resources Committee  c) Report and Recommendations of the Finance Committee  c) Report and Recommendations of the Finance Committee   Emmy Simmons Emmy Simmons  d) Report and Recommendations of the Audit Committee Samir Barua d) Report and Recommendations of the Audit CommitteeSamir Barua   Martin van Martin van   Weerdenburg Weerdenburg  e) An update of Risk Management will be presented  e) An update of Risk Management will be presented  Coffee Break  Coffee Break 1030-1130   1030-1130  Board meeting with ILRI Staff -Auditorium  Board meeting with ILRI Staff -Auditorium   Lindiwe Sibanda Lindiwe Sibanda 1130-1300  Margaret Macdonald- 1130-1300Margaret Macdonald-   Levy Levy   Samir Barua Samir Barua   Dieter Schillinger Dieter Schillinger   Bruce Scott Bruce Scott  Board Dinner with Staff -ILRI Cafeteria  Board Dinner with Staff -ILRI Cafeteria  "},{"text":"Closed Board Meeting Key items that will be discussed at the Closed Board Meeting will include:- The dates of future Board meetings have been provided below for approval -37 th ILRI Board Meeting 25-28 March 2012 in Nairobi -38 th ILRI Board Meeting 4-7 November 2012 in Addis Ababa -39 th ILRI Board Meeting 7-10 April 2013 -40 th ILRI Board Meeting 10-13 November 2013 e)  e)  Jim Dargie/Lorne Jim Dargie/Lorne 1300-1400 Babiuk 1300-1400Babiuk  Lindiwe Sibanda Lindiwe Sibanda 1400-1700  1400-1700  Emmy Simmons Samir Emmy Simmons Samir 1830 Barua 1830Barua  Samir Barua Samir Barua  Dieter Schillinger Dieter Schillinger  Martin van Martin van  Weerdenburg Weerdenburg  Knut Hove Knut Hove a) Governance Review Knut Hove a) Governance ReviewKnut Hove  Knut Hove Knut Hove b) Board Member Succession Planning  b) Board Member Succession Planning -Board members need to identify a short list of potential Bruce Scott -Board members need to identify a short list of potentialBruce Scott candidates for appointment in 2012  candidates for appointment in 2012 c) Board Chair Evaluation  c) Board Chair Evaluation -Board members are requested to complete the evaluation form  -Board members are requested to complete the evaluation form for the Board Chair Bruce Scott for the Board ChairBruce Scott d) Board self-evaluation  d) Board self-evaluation -The self-evaluation form needs to be completed including a  -The self-evaluation form needs to be completed including a new section on evaluation of committee chairs  new section on evaluation of committee chairs  Knut Hove Knut Hove  "},{"text":"Lunch -Executive Dining Room liveSTOCK Exchange 2011: The Seré Legacy Cocktail   "}],"sieverID":"8d79fa56-f4c0-4154-ac34-bd28b2d21c6d","abstract":"1900 a. The Board Chair will welcome Board members to the Board Retreat b. Introduction of New Board Member -Dr Cheikh Ly c. Director General's Report d. Discussion on CGIAR reform and Consortium-Centre relations Lunch -ILRI Cafeteria Continued discussion on CGIAR Consortium and Centre relations Dinner for Board members at Executive Dining Room"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0431fa34e2fb45911e230d6de50dcad3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.foreststreesagroforestry.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/FTA-From-Tree-to-Fork_Palmyra-fruit_V2.pdf"},"pageCount":1,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Native species from South and Southeast Asia","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"OTHER USES","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"The plant has antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. In East Java, Indonesia, the flower bud is used as a diuretic in traditional medicine."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"It is primarily produced by in coastal areas smallholders Known as the tree with 801 uses,"},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"The palmyra tree is a cultural symbol in parts of India, Cambodia and Indonesia; it is mentioned in the Hindu epic, \"Mahabharata.\" ."}]},{"head":"Maturity before yields","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"12-20 years","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Leaves span"}]},{"head":"3-6m in diameter","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Productivity lifetime"}]},{"head":"100+ years","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"L."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" similar in taste to lychees and is often used in curries, desserts and sweet coconut drinks. The sap, palm heart and tubers of the species are also edible, offering important minerals such as calcium and phosphorus. "}],"sieverID":"069acfe0-9237-4370-b996-c6847bf13f05","abstract":"tala palm, doub palm, wine palm or ice apple 20-30 m"}

data/part_4/04d449b108d048ecf5952236f44e5f08.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"04d449b108d048ecf5952236f44e5f08","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4b54fba7-bd52-429f-abe9-dc525bd18930/retrieve"},"pageCount":8,"title":"Application of in-vitro micropropagation technique for sustainable production of four local taro cultivars [Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott] in Cameroon","keywords":["Taro cultivars","in-vitro micro-propagation","benzylaminopurine","naphthalene acetic-acid","Murashige and Skoog"],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":"Taro [Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott] is a major staple food and remains an important crop to many cultural and agricultural traditions worldwide (Ooka and Brennan, 2000). It is consumed as a staple crop in West Africa, particularly in Ghana, Nigeria and Cameroon (Joshua, 2010). All parts of the plant including corm, cormels, rhizome, stalk, leaves and flowers are edible and contain abundant starch (Bose et al., 2003). Its leaves contain higher levels of protein and are also excellent source of carotene, potassium, calcium, phosphorous, iron, riboflavin, thiamine, niacin, vitamin A, vitamin C and dietary fibres (Bradbury and Holloway, 1998). It is the fourteenth most consumed vegetable worldwide (Rao et al., 2010). Besides its nutritional value, taro is used as a medicinal plant and provides bioactive compounds used as an anti-cancer drugs (Kundu et al., 2012)."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"Worldwide, the top producers of taro are Nigeria, China, Ghana and Cameroon (FAOSTAT, 2013). The world production of taro corms was estimated at 12 million tons, with Africa producing 7.1 million tons. Out of this total production in Africa, Cameroon produces 1.5 million tons as compared to Nigeria whose total production was estimated at 3.2 million tons (FAO, 2012)."},{"index":3,"size":343,"text":"In Cameroon, taro is mostly propagated using vegetative material, grower's planting material, consisting of; (1) side corm, produced as a result of lateral proliferation of the main plant in the previous crop; (2) small corms resulting from the main plant in the previous crop; (3) Huli, the apical part 1 to 2 cm of the corm with the basal 15 to 20 cm of the petioles attached; and (4) corm pieces; resulting when large corms are cut into smaller pieces (Onwueme, 1999). These methods of propagation are not always suitable due to large quantities of seeds, high percentage of seed rotting and susceptibility to pathological agent. Taro is affected by viral diseases which decrease the yield (Ooka, 1994). Zettler et al. (1989) summaries several pathogen of quarantine importance including the viruses alomae (meaning the death of taro) bobone (meaning curled or folded leaf) and a disease caused by a small bacilliform virus, the insect taro beetle (Papuana ssp.), taro hopper (Tarophagus prosperina) and nematode (Hirschimaniella miticausa) and the fungi taro leaf blight caused by Phytophthora colocasiae. In Cameroon, Mbong et al. (2013) reported that the constraints to taro production are diseases and pests. The crop is susceptible to fungal, bacterial, viral and nematode infections (Gadre and Joshi, 2003). Among these various diseases, taro leaf blight disease is one of the major important economic diseases of taro because it reduces corm yield of up to 50% (Singh et al., 2006) and leaf yield of up to 95% in susceptible genotypes and favourable environmental factors (Nelson et al., 2011). P. colocasiae causes corms to rot both in the field and in storage, and this has led to heavy storage lost (Brunt et al., 2001). In 2010, taro leaf blight disease was reported in Cameroon and it caused between 50 and 100% yields lost of taro in most of the crop growing regions. This has led to a reduction in planting materials, food, house hold income, increase poverty and some farmers have abandoned their farms and are now growing other crops (Guarion, 2010;Fontem and Mbong, 2011)."},{"index":4,"size":139,"text":"Despite reduction in planting materials and also disease planting material, in-vitro multiplication techniques of taro have given modest multiplication rates (Malamug et al., 1992). Meristem culture technique is used to produce plants free of viruses and fungi especially in vegetative propagated plants (Abo El-nil and Zettler, 1976). Plant tissue culture techniques have become a powerful tool for propagation of taro to overcome many problems facing traditional methods of propagation. Different explants were used to produce disease free planting materials (Hartman, 1973;Chung and Goh, 1994;Behera and Sahoo, 2008). The method for the production of four Cameroonian local taro cultivars micro-plants, described in this research is the first report to increase productivity of crop through the acquisition of pathogen-free cultivars in Cameroon, therefore the main aim of this study was to produce taro cultivars through invitro micro-propagation using shoot tip culture."}]},{"head":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"The study was conducted in the field and Laboratory of Tissue Culture at Institute of Agricultural research (IRAD), Bambui, North West Region, Cameroon. The position of the experimental site was recorded using GPS mark Garmin etrex 20. IRAD; Bambui is situated at 32, 0627ʹ N latitude, 0659ʹ E longitude and altitude 1262 m above sea level."}]},{"head":"Media preparation","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Preparation of stock solution","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Stock solutions were prepared by dissolving the amount of ingredients in various volume of sterilized distilled water (Table 1) using a magnetic stirrer. The stocks were kept in the refrigerator at 4°C."}]},{"head":"Preparation of Murashige and Skoog medium","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":178,"text":"The medium was prepared by putting 600 ml of sterilized distil water in a beaker and 30 g of sugar was to it while stirring on a magnetic stirrer until all the sugar was dissolved. Fifty millilitre of macro and 5 ml of micro elements were added to the solution, stir until dissolved. Five millilitre vitamins stock, 5 ml Fe-EDTA complex and 5 ml of ascorbic acid were measured, added to the solution and stirred. 1.1 ml of 6-benzylaminopurine was also added and stirred. The volume of the solution was made up to 1000 ml of distilled water. The pH of the medium was adjusted to 5.7 and 7 g of agar was added to the mixture and heated until the solution was clear. The clear medium was distributed (2 ml per tube) by means of sterile pipette into cylindrical test tubes of 13 mm in diameter and 100 mm in height. The tubes were sealed with aluminium foil or corks and medium was sterilized in an autoclave for 121° C, 103.4 *Corresponding author: E-mail: [email protected]. Tel: +237670902446."},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"Author(s) agree that this article remains permanently open access under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 International License  (Murashige and Skoog, 1962). Ascorbic acid BAP 0.1 mg/ml 10 1 ml BAP 1 mg/ml stock NAA 0.1 mg/ml 50 5 mg NAA KPa for 15 min. The forceps, blades, cotton and paper napkins were wrapped in aluminium foil and sterilized alongside the medium. The medium was allowed to cool and solidify overnight."}]},{"head":"Types of stock","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Only one type of medium was used for all the incubation stages of in-vitro culture (Murashige and Skoog, 1962)."}]},{"head":"Collection and surface sterilization of taro corms","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":292,"text":"Four local taro cultivars of interest for preliminary yield trials screening (dark green petiole with small leaves, red petiole with small leaves, green petiole with large leaves and green petiole with small leaves) with young healthy off shoots of taro plants bearing rhizomes of 10 cm long were collected from IRAD Bambui experimental farms in the month of September 2015. These cultivars were 5 months old and carried to the tissue culture laboratory for surface sterilization. Cultivars were washed in running tap water. Roots and leaves were removed. Plants were trimmed into smaller pieces of plant material (explants). Explants were trimmed into 10 mm height; 3 mm at the base, with some corms measuring 3 mm in thickness attached using a knife. Corms were sterilized in 20% sodium hypochloride under an alcohol-swapped laminar air-flow chamber; the plants were immersed in 10% sodium hypochloride containing 2 drops of tween 80 per 100 ml in a closed vessel and were shaken for 45 min. The bleach was decanted and rinsed in sterile distilled water to remove all bleach. Explants were immersed in 70% Etoh alcohol for 2 to 3 min. Etoh alcohol was decant from explants and rinsed with sterile distilled water. Explants were immersed in 5% sodium hypochloride for 5 min, decant and rinse in sterile distilled water 3 times. Third and second leaf sheath were trimmed and explants were placed directly on a solidified cool Murashige and Skoog medium in sterile test tubes. Tubes were labelled with cultivars' names and placed in a growth room under light intensity (white fluorescent lamps) at 18°C. This was the establishment stage. The surfaced sterilized taro corms and sterilized taro corms in Murashige and Skoog medium were used for the study as indicated in Figure 1."}]},{"head":"Shoot proliferation stage","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Adventitious shoots or buds were produced 4 weeks after "}]},{"head":"Root initiation stage","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":"Explants were removed from the test tube and subculture on a rooting media to stimulate rhizogenesis. This media consist of the same media as above with 2.2 ml of 6-benzylaminopurine being replaced by 10 ml of 0.1 mg/ml naphthalene acetic-acid (NAA) in Murashige and Skoog medium. The numbers of shoot, roots, in each test were counted and petiole lengths, root length, diameter of corms were measured using a ruler. Weight of explants was taken by weighing each cultivar from the test tube with an electronic balance. Data on number of shoot, petiole length, number of leaf, senescence leaf, diameter of corms, number of roots, root length and weight of explants were recorded after 60 days of shoot tip culture (Hartmann and Davies, 1990)."}]},{"head":"Statistical analysis","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"All data collected from number of shoot, number of leaves, senescence leaf, diameter of corms, number of roots, root length and weight of explants were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using statistical software (J M P 8). Mean variability amongst the cultivars were determined. Their treatment means were separated using Student's t test (STT) and the Least Significant Difference (LSD) at statistical significance of 95% confidence interval."}]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Effect of benzylaminopurine on four local cultivars of taro shoots proliferation.","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":198,"text":"The response of taro shoots cultured on MS medium with 2.2 ml of 6-benzylaminopurine on the number of shoots, petiole length, open leaf, senescence leaf and corm diameter after 60 days of shoot tip culture is shown in Table 2. Corms, shoots and leaves were produced on all the four cultivars in shoot tip culture with the longest number of petiole length and maximum number of open leaves, and corm diameter recorded on green petiole large leaves with mean values of 4.9 ± 1.21, 3.75 ± 0.20 and 0.59 ± 0.16, respectively. Cultivar red petiole small leaf recorded maximum number of shoot of 5.75 ± 0.59. The minimum mean number of shoots, petiole length, open leaf and corm diameter were also recorded with cultivars, dark green petiole small leaf, green petiole small leaf and red petiole small leaf with mean values of 1.7 ± 0.28, 1.8 ± 0.5, 2.35 ± 0.25 and 2.35 ± 0.25 respectively. There was no significant variation in mean number of senescence leaves with respect to all the cultivars at 60 days of shoot tip culture. The different taro cultivars corm shoots in proliferation under M and S media is indicated in Figure 2.    "}]},{"head":"Cultivars","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Effect of NAA on rooting of four local cultivars of taro shoot","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":305,"text":"Roots were produced on all the cultivars with maximum number of roots and the longest length of roots produced by cultivar dark green petiole small leaf with mean value of 14.7 ± 0.69 and green petiole small leaf with mean value of 3.67 ± 0.17, respectively. The minimum number of roots and the shortest length of roots were recorded in cultivars red petiole small leaf with mean values of 7.65 ± 0.69 and 1.93 ± 0.1 (Table 3). The highest mean value weight of explants of 1.87 ± 0.15 was recorded in cultivar dark green petiole small leaf and the least weight of 1.03 ± 0.11 in cultivar red petiole small leaf. Cultivar red petiole small leaf recorded low performance in Murashige and Skoog medium supplemented with 10 ml of 0.1 mg/ml NAA. There was a significant variation amongst the cultivars on number of roots, length of roots and weight of explants. There were differences in petiole length and senescence leaf amongst the cultivars. There were no significant variations in number of shoots, open leaf and corm diameter. Cultivar dark green petiole small leaf performed best in this medium (Table 4). Cultivar dark green petiole recorded the highest mean number of shoots of 0.45± 0.13 and least mean shoot number of 0.3 ± 0.15 was recorded in cultivar green petiole small leaf. A mean maximum petiole length score of 10.62 ± 0.58 was recorded in cultivar dark green petiole small leaf and a minimum petiole length of 2.80± 0.37 in cultivar red petiole small leaf. The highest mean number of open leaves of 3.5 ± 0.22 were observed in cultivar dark green petiole small leaf and the least lowest number of open leaves of 2.75 ± 0.27 in cultivar red petiole small leaf.    After rooting the taro shoots were presented as shown in Figure 3."}]},{"head":"DISCUSSION","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":196,"text":"Results obtained from shoot proliferation media indicated that there was a significant difference (p = 0.5) observed in number of shoots, petiole length, open leaf and corm diameter among the cultivars. This could be due to the genotypes of the cultivars. Reports from Toledo et al. (1998) states that different potatoes varieties respond differently to shooting due to genetic variability. The phenotypes of some the cultivars revealed that some have large leaves, long petiole and fast growing rates while others have small leaves, small petiole and slower growing rates. Shoots, leaves and corms were produced on all the cultivars when cultured on MS medium with 2.2 ml of 6-benzylaminopurine. This can be supported by report of Chung and Goh (1994) who reported that the addition of BAP into a culture medium enhanced growth and development of shoot auxiliary buds of Colocasia esculenta var esculenta. Seetohul et al. (2008) also reported that the highest multiplication rates of in vitro shoot tip of taro was recorded in MS medium supplemented with either BAP at 2 mg/l or thidiazuron (TDZ) at 0.9 mg/l. Reports from El-sayed et al. ( 2016) stated that higher concentration of BAP (kinetin, 6 mg/l)"}]},{"head":"(a) (b) (c) (d)","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":131,"text":"Dark green petiole small leaves Red petiole small leaves Green petiole large leaves Green petiole small leaves produced low number of shoots in comparison with lower concentration of BAP at 2 mg/l. This may be due to the toxicity of the high concentration of cytokines which caused a delay in shoot formation. 6-benzylaminopurine is a cytokines which plays an important role in plant at growth and development. It also regulates flowering and fruits formation by stimulating cell division (Kianamiri and Hassani, 2008). It is known that the multiplication stage requires cytokines during micro propagation of various plants. This requirement appears to differ depends on the type of crop plants, explants type, phase of development, the concentration of growth regulators, the interaction between growth regulators and environmental conditions (Yokoya and Handro, 1996)."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"Roots were observed on all the cultivars when placed in MS media supplemented with 10 ml of 0.1 mg/ml NAA. Roots play a role in the mineral and water uptake of the plant."},{"index":3,"size":137,"text":"This can be supported by reports from Schiefelbein et al. (1997) which state that roots have an essential role in the functions of plants and development, supplying water and nutrients to the plants. Reports from Behera and Sahoo (2008) stated that the rooting of taro shoots was better in 0.5 MS medium + 1.5 or 2.0 mg NAA/1 than 0.5 MS medium + 1.5 or 2.0 mg IBA/1 after 15 days of culture. NAA is a synthetic auxin which when added to a culture stimulates root development from stem cuttings and cell elongation (Chambers, 2003). The significant variation amongst the cultivars on weight of explants could be as a result in growth rates in plants, where those with faster growth rate recorded higher weight and those with slower growth rates this could be due to genetic variability."},{"index":4,"size":65,"text":"No significant variation was detected among cultivars on number of shoots, open leaf and corm diameter when cultured in rooting media. This result may be attributed to the role of auxin for enhancement of rooting and not shoot, where the development of lateral buds is inhibited by auxin produced at the apical meristem and transported down the stem (Yokoya and Handro, 1996;Bhuiyan et al., 2011)."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"All the four local Cameroonian cultivars multiplied when culture in MS medium supplemented with BAP and NAA during this experiment. Cultivar green petiole large leaves and cultivar dark green petiole small leaves performed best in both media respectively. Cultivar red petiole small leaves performed least when growth parameters such as number of shoot, leaves weight of plant and roots were taken in to consideration."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Sterilized taro cultivar in MS media. (a) Surface sterilized taro corms. (b) Sterilized taro corms in MS media. "},{"text":" the same letters in the same column are not significantly different at p = 0.05 (STT). Values are mean number of shoots, petiole length, open leaf, senescence leaf and corm diameter followed by standard error. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Taro shoots after shoot proliferation. (a) Dark green petiole small leaves. (b) Red petiole small leaves. (c) Green petiole large leaves. (d) Green petiole small leaves. (e) Taro shoots in proliferation media. "},{"text":" the same letters in the same column are not significantly different at p = 0.05 (STT). Values are means number of shoots, petiole length, open leaf, senescence leaf and corm diameter followed by standard error. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Taro shoots after rooting. (a) Dark green petiole small leaves. (b) Red petiole small leaves. (c) Green petiole large leaves. (d) Green petiole small leaves. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Composition of stock solution  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Effect of Murashige and Skoog medium containing 2.2 ml of 6-benzylaminopurine on the number of shoots, petiole length, open leaf, senescence leaf and corm diameter after 60 days of shoot tip culture.  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Effect of Murashige and Skoog medium supplemented with 10 ml of 0.1 mg/ml NAA on the number of roots, root length, and weight of explants after 60 days of shoot tip culture.Means followed by the same letters in the same column are not significantly different at p = 0.05 (STT). Values are means number of roots, length of roots and weight of explants followed by standard error. Cultivar Number of roots Length of roots (cm) Weight of explants (g) CultivarNumber of rootsLength of roots (cm)Weight of explants (g) Dark green petiole small leaf 14.7 ± 0.69 a 2.66 ± 0.11 b 1.87 ± 0.15 a Dark green petiole small leaf14.7 ± 0.69a2.66 ± 0.11 b1.87 ± 0.15 a Red petiole small leaf 7.65 ± 0.69 c 1.93 ± 0.10 c 1.03 ± 0.11 b Red petiole small leaf7.65 ± 0.69c1.93 ± 0.10c1.03 ± 0.11 b Green petiole large leaf 8.85 ± 0.79 c 2.99 ± 0.12 b 2.01 ± 0.13 a Green petiole large leaf8.85 ± 0.79c2.99 ± 0.12b2.01 ± 0.13 a Green petiole small leaf 11.9 ± 0.8 b  3.67 ± 0.17 2.18 ± 0.19 Green petiole small leaf11.9 ± 0.8b3.67 ± 0.172.18 ± 0.19  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Effect of Murashige and Skoog medium supplemented with 10 ml of 0.1 mg/ml NAA on the number of shoots, petiole length, open leaf, senescence leaf and corm diameter after 60 days of shoot tip culture. Cultivar Number of shoots Petiole length (cm) Open leaf Senescence leaf Corm diameter (cm) CultivarNumber of shootsPetiole length (cm)Open leafSenescence leafCorm diameter (cm) Dark green petiole small leaf 0.45± 0.13 a 10.62 ± 0.58 a 3.5 ± 0.22 a 0.5± 0.12 a 0.57 ± 0.03 a Dark green petiole small leaf0.45± 0.13a10.62 ± 0.58 a3.5 ± 0.22a0.5± 0.12a0.57 ± 0.03 a Red petiole small leaf 0.4 ± 0.19 a 2.80± 0.37     Red petiole small leaf0.4 ± 0.19a2.80± 0.37  "}],"sieverID":"042bd0d4-4976-4ac9-87c1-47db6eaa4b5a","abstract":"Taro leaf blight disease has recently been reported in Cameroon to cause between 50 and 100% yields loss of taro in most of the agro-ecological crop growing regions. This has led to a significant reduction in disease-free planting materials, edible crop and increased. The Meristem culture technique has been used to produce crop plants free of viruses and fungi especially in vegetative propagated colocassia plants. This aimed at applying in-vitro micro-propagation technique for sustainable production of four local taro cultivars in Cameroon. This study was conducted at the Root and Tuber Tissue Culture Laboratory, of the Institute of Agricultural Research for Development (IRAD), Bambui from April 2015 to November 2016. Micro-plants from four local taro cultivars were produced in vitro from apical meristem tips. The tip meristems were excised from corms of the four local taro cultivars. The excised explants were surface sterilized with alcohol and sodium hypochlorite in sequence steps at different concentrations. Meristems were cultured at establishment stage on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium with 30 g of sugar, 1.1 ml of 6-benzylaminopurine and 7 g of agar. Shoots proliferation was induced in MS with 2.2 ml of 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP). Result shows a significant difference at p≤0.5 in number of shoots, petiole length, open leaf and corm diameter among the cultivars and no significant variation in mean number of senescence leaf with respect to all the cultivars, at 60 days of shoot tip culture. At rooting stage, taro shoots were cultured on MS media supplemented with 10 ml of 0.1 mg/ml naphthalene acetic-acid (NAA). Roots were produced on all the cultivars with excellent mean growth rate of 14.7 ± 0.69 recorded in cultivar with dark green petiole and small leaves."}

data/part_4/04d84760d799e8c141b1cc85b47299a9.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"04d84760d799e8c141b1cc85b47299a9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/537f8d9a-e811-4f28-be37-9f2196734665/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"Egypt's Takaful Cash Transfer Program Impacts and Recommendations from the Second Round Evaluation","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"E","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"gypt's national cash transfer program, Takaful, and its sister program Karama covered 17 million poor beneficiaries as of 2022, about 16 percent of the Egyptian population. Takaful was designed in 2015 as a conditional cash transfer program providing income support targeted to the most vulnerable, namely poor families with children under age 18. As one of the largest programs -both in absolute terms and in terms of share of the population covered -in the wave of national cash transfer programs spreading across Africa, as well as an innovator among countries in the Middle East, Egypt's experience has the potential to serve as a model for these regions."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"The International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), in collaboration with the Ministry of Social Solidarity, conducted a first-round evaluation of the program in 2017 to estimate its effects on household well-being (Breisinger et al. 2018). That evaluation found large positive impacts on several outcomes, most notably, household consumption. The second-round evaluation, conducted in 2022, found a shift toward greater investment in physical and human capital among program beneficiaries. This brief summarizes the main findings from that second-round evaluation, noting differences from the first evaluation results and providing key recommendations."}]},{"head":"SECOND-ROUND EVALUATION","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":141,"text":"In 2022, when Takaful had been in effect for five additional years, IFPRI conducted the second-round evaluation. The households in the sample chosen for this second evaluation had applied and been accepted to the program several years earlier, meaning that this sample group had been in the program longer than those in the first-round evaluation. By the time of the second-round evaluation, the average beneficiary household in the sample group had received a monthly payment of 442 Egyptian pounds (approximately US$28) over an average of almost four years. Additionally, at the time of the first-round evaluation, there was no communication or monitoring of conditionalities. In 2019, the program began to spread awareness that eligibility to continue receiving benefits would be conditional on school attendance for school-age children and healthcare clinic visits for younger children and introduced a system for monitoring compliance."},{"index":2,"size":112,"text":"The aim of the second-round evaluation was to assess whether a longer duration of treatment together with awareness of these conditionalities led to positive impacts on household well-being. We expected household consumption, asset ownership, and household ability to cope with shocks to improve with the longer duration of transfer receipts and expected children's school enrollment and the nutritional status of younger children to improve due to compliance with the program conditionalities. Additionally, decision-makers expected the program's design would increase women's voice in household decision-making, as women were targeted as the direct beneficiaries of the cash transfers. Both rounds of our evaluation focused on measuring these outcomes and used the same questionnaire design."},{"index":3,"size":118,"text":"The impact evaluation was designed using a fuzzy regression discontinuity methodology (see Box 1 for more detailed discussion), which is effective for measuring the impact of programs that use a threshold level for determining eligibility. In this case, beneficiaries are selected based on a proxy means test that comprises several household characteristics and proxies for household consumption; households with proxy means test scores below the threshold of 4,500 were eligible to enroll in Takaful. The regression discontinuity approach compares outcomes for beneficiaries just below the threshold for eligibility with outcomes for nonbeneficiaries just above the threshold, on the assumption that households just above and just below the threshold are highly similar except for the receipt of Takaful transfers."}]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"Households can make use of transfers in several ways. They can increase their consumption, save, pay down debts, or invest in productive assets or durables. We find that beneficiary households paid down debts and invested in assets, both of which tend to result in higher income generation and the possibility of greater future consumption."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"Consumption. We do not detect impacts among beneficiaries on food or nonfood consumption expenditures per adult equivalent unit (AEU, similar to per capita) compared to nonbeneficiaries. This result contrasts with the first-round evaluation, which found a statistically significant increase in the value of monthly consumption per AEU of approximately 8 percent (Breisinger et al. 2018), a relatively large magnitude."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"Debt. Beneficiary households repaid or avoided taking on debt for store credit or from informal lenders. On average, beneficiary households' debt from these sources was more than 4,000 Egyptian pounds (US$250) less as a result of Takaful."},{"index":4,"size":50,"text":"Assets. Additionally, Takaful beneficiaries invested in assets, primarily agricultural machinery and livestock. Small numbers of households invested in major productive assets such as tractors, plows, and drip irrigation networks, while more invested in buffalo and cattle (average increase of 0.08 animals) and goats and sheep (average increase of 0.15 animals)."},{"index":5,"size":82,"text":"These behaviors indicate that, in terms of poverty alleviation, households may have moved beyond needing to increase consumption, since their minimum needs are being met, and may have transitioned into the next phase, where they are able to build their assets and improve their future income. Additionally, we find suggestive evidence that beneficiary households had more children than nonbeneficiary households in the past five years because of receiving the transfers. These demographic differences may explain part of the null effect on consumption."},{"index":6,"size":277,"text":"sChooling. There are very encouraging results for children's schooling. The likelihood that children are enrolled in primary (6 to 12 years old) or preparatory school (13 to 15 years old) increased substantially, by 9 and 21 percentage points, respectively (Figure 1). These results contrast with a lack of impact on school enrollment observed in the first round and point to potential success of the announced conditioning of transfers on school A statistical method called fuzzy regression discontinuity was used to measure program impacts. This approach is recognized as a rigorous causal impact evaluation strategy as it enables controlling for any factor other than program beneficiary status that could explain differences in observed outcomes (Hahn 2001). One disadvantage of this method, however, is that the impacts estimated using the regression discontinuity approach should be interpreted as the average impact of the program specifically for households in the neighborhood of the cut-off. The study surveyed a random sample of 6,475 households in 19 governorates from among households that registered for Takaful with proxymeans-test (PMT) scores nearest to the inclusion threshold. While approximately 45 percent of households below the PMT threshold at the time of registration are receiving transfers, almost 25 percent of households above the threshold are also receiving transfers. This finding is important in interpreting our results because the size of the difference in probability of receiving transfers is relatively small, at around 20 percent. The implication of this for our impact evaluation is that while larger impacts are still discernable, the confidence intervals on our estimates are large enough that there may be small but meaningful impacts that we are not able to statistically distinguish from zero."},{"index":7,"size":43,"text":"attendance and the discount on school fees for Takaful households. Increased education is also an investment in households' future -these children can be expected to earn more and may push their families further out of poverty. Enrollment in secondary school was not affected."},{"index":8,"size":140,"text":"Women's empoWerment. The first evaluation of Takaful found a decrease in women's decision-making power among women with no formal education (El-Enbaby et al. 2019). We tested whether this pattern still holds and found that it does not. The program continues to show no impact on decision-making among women who have some formal education, but in the second round, beneficiary women with no education are more likely to be able to influence decisions regarding what food can be cooked each day. We do not interpret these results as a large positive shift, but it is encouraging that women's decision-making was not reduced by the program. We also see some evidence of more equal gender norms among beneficiary households, indicated by increased agreement with the statement that a wife has the right to express her opinion if she disagrees with her husband."},{"index":9,"size":25,"text":"heAlth. There are no strong results on nutrition outcomes. We also do not find any effects on mental health, including worries, generalized anxiety, or self-esteem."},{"index":10,"size":69,"text":"Coping strAtegies. The households in our sample reported large impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on income and commonly reported borrowing money from relatives and reducing food expenditures as the main coping strategies for dealing with shocks. Relative to non-beneficiaries, Takaful beneficiaries were more likely to sell gold or jewelry to cope with shocks, an indication that Takaful households have more assets and are better able to protect their consumption."},{"index":11,"size":48,"text":"Thus, this evaluation has shown that the Takaful program caused several positive shifts in household wellbeing, with substantial investments in physical and human capital. While some aspects of household welfare were not affected by the program, these investments reflect choices that tend to pay off in the future."}]},{"head":"RECOMMENDATIONS","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"Continue AnD possibly extenD tAkAful. The program enabled households to avoid resorting to damaging coping strategies during shocks. Considering the increasing frequency of global shocks like COVID-19 and the Russian invasion of Ukraine, social protection programs could be an effective way to protect vulnerable households against large-scale shocks, since the program infrastructure needed to reach people is largely in place."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"proCeeD With plAns for reCertifiCAtion AnD grAD-uAtion of benefiCiAries Who hAve AChieveD self-suffiCienCy, using a generous cut-off point for self-sufficiency, given that many households have not managed to substantially increase their consumption despite increasing productive assets."},{"index":3,"size":58,"text":"improve CommuniCAtion regArDing exClusion restriCtions, progrAm length, AnD reCertifiCAtion so that beneficiaries understand that they will not be excluded from the program for engaging in formal sector work with income below a certain threshold and to ensure that beneficiaries are not surprised by sudden changes in program status or unnecessarily worried about the shortterm continuity of the transfers. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"tAble 1 Takaful impacts on asset ownership Asset Impact of Takaful Units AssetImpact of TakafulUnits Drip irrigation network 1% probability of owning any Drip irrigation network1%probability of owning any Plow (machine pulled) 2% probability of owning any Plow (machine pulled)2%probability of owning any Tractor 1% probability of owning any Tractor1%probability of owning any Goats and sheep 0.15 animals owned Goats and sheep0.15animals owned Buffalo and cows 0.08 animals owned Buffalo and cows0.08animals owned  "},{"text":" Continue to Work toWArD A Comprehensive soCiAl pro-teCtion strAtegy that continues to help protect the poor as well as contributing to longer-term developmental goals. Coordinating with the Ministry of Education to provide high-quality public service delivery will magnify the impacts of increased school enrollment, and coordinating with the Ministry of Health regarding diets and nutrition can improve nutrition outcomes.ConsiDer intensifying ComplementAry progrAmming to inCreAse benefits. In general, complementary programming on issues such as nutrition practices or financial training must be quite intensive to be effective. The Government of Egypt currently implements programs on these topics, most notably a nationwide nutrition campaign. However, it is worth considering pairing these programs with Takaful transfers and intensifying them by leveraging Takaful to link to vulnerable households. figure 1 Takaful impacts on school enrollment    figure 1 Takaful impacts on school enrollment Secondary  65    Secondary65 Preparatory  79  21  Preparatory7921 Primary  87  8.7  Primary878.7 0 20 40 60 80 100 020406080100  Non-Takaful Enrollment Estimated Impact    Non-Takaful EnrollmentEstimated Impact   ConsiDer greAter CoorDinAtion With CommuniCAtion ConsiDer greAter CoorDinAtion With CommuniCAtion   CAmpAigns related to family planning if the behavioral  CAmpAigns related to family planning if the behavioral  "}],"sieverID":"60a3169a-5661-4dbd-bc4a-ceca59d452e0","abstract":"response by families of having more children is confirmed and seen as conflicting with other national policy goals."}

data/part_4/052af1b29e4c82d18d2a518f399e1585.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"052af1b29e4c82d18d2a518f399e1585","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/17b617f0-c76b-4785-babf-78455443ae27/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Uso de diagramas de impacto para avaliar mudanças na pesquisa agrícola","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"O uso de diagramas de impacto é um método aberto, flexível e participativo para a avaliação de mudanças associadas a uma intervenção. Os produtos deste método são também chamados diagramas de fluxo de impacto. Como instrumento de monitorização e avaliação, os diagramas de impacto têm as seguintes vantagens: • Descrever as consequências directas e indirectas de novas tecnologias; impactos positivos e negativos; efeitos esperados; impactos directos e indirectos; e ligações causais. • Mostrar os pontos de vista dos produtores e/ou partes interessadas sobre a mudança, chamando a atenção para as lacunas identificadas."}]},{"head":"•","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Podem ser usados para a monitorização periódica das mudanças ao longo do tempo."}]},{"head":"•","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Podem ajudar à identificação de impactos não esperados e de indicadores de impacto."}]},{"head":"•","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"A natureza aberta e flexível do método permite também a representação de mudanças não esperadas."}]},{"head":"•","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Podem ser usados por grupos, agregados familiares ou indivíduos."}]},{"head":"•","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"São fáceis e agradáveis de usar. As desvantagens deste método incluem o tempo necessário para desenhar um diagrama e a incapacidade ou a falta de vontade de alguns produtores (especialmente mulheres) de os desenhar. Além disso, o método pode ser menos adequado para medir impactos económicos ou ambientais (os quais requerem informação quantitativa). "}]},{"head":"Uso de diagramas de impacto para avaliar o impacto de novas variedades de feijão","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Caso 1: O impacto da variedade de feijão KK22","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":200,"text":"Este diagrama foi originalmente desenhado por um grupo de mulheres camponesas na zona ocidental do Quénia. O diagrama mostra que o principal impacto positivo desta variedade resistente à podridão da raiz foi o rendimento mais alto obtido (2 kg de semente rendem 36 a 40 kg na colheita) o que permitiu a melhoria da segurança alimentar e o aumento do excedente comercializado. Este resultado, apesar de beneficiar todos os membros do agregado familiar, teve diferentes implicações entre homens e mulheres, reflectindo a divisão entre responsabilidades de mão-de-obra e financeiras do agregado familiar. A Figura 1 mostra que os dois principais benefícios para as mulheres são: mais alimentos disponíveis na época de fome (antes da colheita) e dinheiro para a compra de bens domésticos e para o pagamento da mão-de-obra contratada para a sementeira, sacha e colheita. Além disso, o menor consumo de lenha poupou-lhes tempo. Porém, o amadurecimento tardio característico desta variedade tornou a época de fome mais longa. O cultivo desta variedade aumentou também a mão-deobra das mulheres durante a época da sementeira, visto terem que semear em linhas separadas para garantir bons rendimentos, enquanto que no método tradicional o milho e o feijão são semeados na mesma cova. "}]},{"head":"Caso 2: O impacto da variedade de feijão K 132 no Uganda","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":156,"text":"Houve uma grande correspondência entre os diagramas de análise de impacto dos produtores e os impactos documentados por uma sondagem formal. O diagrama incluiu também algumas mudanças positivas intangíveis (famílias mais felizes) que não foram medidas pela sondagem, bem como comportamentos sociais negativos resultantes de grande afluência, nomeadamente aumento no consumo de bebidas alcoólicas, violência doméstica, relações extraconjugais e casos de SIDA. Algumas áreas de impacto, tais como o aumento de conflitos entre maridos e mulheres em relação ao acesso e uso dos rendimentos do feijão e o nível de impacto na comunidade, não foram bem captadas por nenhum dos métodos. Em geral, o diagrama de análise de impacto forneceu dados descritivos tanto a nível do agregado familiar como a nível individual. Os dados da sondagem complementaram bem esta informação com dados quantitativos sobre a percentagem de agregados familiares afectados, diferenças na produção e no consumo consoante o género e diferenças sazonais no consumo e rendimento. "}]},{"head":"Desenho de um diagrama de impacto","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"Antes de se desenhar um diagrama é importante colher informação de base (antecedentes) para se entender o contexto no qual a mudança ocorreu. Isto inclui a recolha de informação sobre a tecnologia ou intervenção em questão, quando foi introduzida na área e como a intervenção é percebida em relação a outras mudanças que ocorreram na mesma altura. É também importante colher informação quantitativa da situação antes e depois da intervenção. Por exemplo, para uma nova variedade devem ser colhidas informações sobre o rendimento agronómico, quanto tempo dura a colheita e quantas vezes se consome a cultura por semana."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"Este método pode ser aplicado a nível individual ou de grupo. Para a sua implementação deve identificar-se um facilitador qualificado."},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"Os passos a seguir na aplicação de diagramas de análise de impacto são:"},{"index":4,"size":1,"text":"1."},{"index":5,"size":18,"text":"Listar ou discutir todos os resultados directos e indirectos da intervenção -tanto os positivos como os negativos. 2."},{"index":6,"size":13,"text":"Explicar a ideia de um diagrama de impacto e mostrar um exemplo simples."}]},{"head":"3.","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"Começar o processo simbolizando a intervenção/tópico (pode ser usado um quadro preto, papel, desenhar no chão ou ter já preparadas imagens ou símbolos). A intervenção/tópico deve ser específica. É mais conveniente começar a desenhar num quadro para depois elaborar a versão final no papel. 4."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"Perguntar o que aconteceu em consequência de cada resultado."},{"index":3,"size":39,"text":"Cada consequência deve ser simbolizada ou escrita. Usar setas para indicar ligações e causa e efeito. Para alguns resultados é importante indicar se a mudança é positiva ou negativa se ela não for imediatamente óbvia para os não participantes."}]},{"head":"5.","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"A informação quantitativa pode ser obtida fazendo perguntas sobre quantidades ou número de pessoas relacionadas com cada impacto. Por exemplo, pode-se obter informação geral sobre os rendimentos de uma nova variedade ou a percentagem ou número de pessoas que tiveram um resultado particular. 6."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"Em grupos, pode obter informações sobre que categoria de pessoas ou agregados familiares são mais afectados por um resultado particular. 7."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"Os diagramas feitos por várias pessoas ou grupos podem ser "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figura 1 : Figura 1: Impacto da variedade de feijão KK22, segundo o ponto de vista das mulheres do grupo de produtores de Mkumu, Tiriki Oriental, Quénia. "},{"text":"Figura 2 : Figura 2: Impacto da variedade de feijão KK 132 de acordo com os produtores da Paróquia de Nabongo, Uganda "},{"text":"Para mais informação contactar: Soniia David (actualmente com o IITA) [email protected] CIAT Africa Coordination Kawanda Agricultural Research Institute P.O. Box 6247 Kampala, Uganda Telefone: +256(41)567670 Fax: +256(41)567635 E-mail: ciat- [email protected] Internet: www.ciat.cgiar.org  Estamos gratos pela Estamos gratos pela assistência financeira assistência financeira proporcionada para este proporcionada para este estudo pela Agência estudo pela Agência Canadiana para o Canadiana para o Desenvolvimento Desenvolvimento Internacional (CIDA) e a Internacional (CIDA) e a Agência Suiça para a Agência Suiça para a Cooperação e Cooperação e Desenvolvimento (SDC). Desenvolvimento (SDC).  "}],"sieverID":"be9785ff-2037-4f5e-a261-e0af827797da","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0582f3641a08a953e57cd1e28afeb232","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1bb23b81-4eed-4090-9e85-bafd758cf3c0/retrieve"},"pageCount":8,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"TechTip","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":172,"text":"P our identifier un insecte, un entomologiste tentera d'abord de réduire le nombre de possibilités en examinant l'apparence de l'animal en question. Par exemple, s'il a deux ailes, c'est probablement une des nombreuses espèces de la famille des mouches. S'il a huit pattes, il y a de fortes chances pour que ce soit une araignée. Ce processus d'identification est devenu beaucoup plus simple et beaucoup plus rapide depuis l'apparition des bases de données et des logiciels multimédias. Il est désormais possible par exemple de stocker d'importantes quantités de données biologiques et d'accéder à ces informations par le biais de fichiers matriciels, ou « clés », faciles à utiliser. L'une de ces « clés » multimédias est Lucid, un outil développé par le Centre for Biological Information Technology (CBIT), de l'University of Queensland, de Brisbane, en Australie, disponible sur cédérom ou sur Internet. Tout le monde, professeur de biologie ou fermier, peut utiliser Lucid pour identifier n'importe quel insecte nuisible et se procurer toutes les informations utiles sur les moyens de le combattre."}]},{"head":"Exemple d'utilisation","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":168,"text":"Imaginez que vous trouviez une mouche dans votre champ et que vous vouliez être sûr qu'elle est inoffensive. Pour l'identifier et en savoir plus à son sujet, il vous suffit de démarrer Lucid et de sélectionner la « clé » sur les mouches. Le système vous propose alors une liste de caractéristiques. Il vous suffit de valider celles qui correspondent à votre mouche pour réduire la liste des espèces possibles. Vous pouvez par exemple entrer la couleur du corps de la mouche, sa taille, la localisation géographie de votre champ, etc. Au cours de cette identification, différents modules multimédias (images, vidéo, son) et fonctions vous aident à réduire le nombre de possibilités. Une fois que vous avez identifié l'espèce à laquelle appartient cette mouche, Lucid vous propose des notes descriptives, des illustrations, des enregistrements audio et des vidéos. Le programme comprend également des liens vers des experts et des sites Internet proposant des informations plus détaillées et des conseils sur les meilleurs moyens de lutter contre ces ravageurs. "}]},{"head":"ICT Update","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Liens","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"Grahame Jackson occupe actuellement la présidence du réseau PestNet (e-mail : [email protected]). Les autres modérateurs du réseau PestNet sont : Wilco Liebregts (e-mail : [email protected]); Bob Macfarlane (e-mail : [email protected]); Banpot Napompeth (e-mail : [email protected]); Mat Purea (e-mail : [email protected])."},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"Grahame Jackson et coll."}]},{"head":"PestNet : un réseau e-mail de contrôle des ravageurs","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":151,"text":"Les ravageurs sont l'un des problèmes les plus graves auxquels se heurte la production agricole dans les pays tropicaux et lorsqu'ils s'attaquent aux cultures, les dégâts qu'ils causent peuvent être catastrophiques. Les paysans concernés ne peuvent pas se permettre d'attendre. Ils doivent trouver rapidement des conseils sur les mesures à prendre et réagir au plus vite. Mais la recherche d'informations prend généralement du temps. S'il faut d'abord « élever » les insectes ou préparer des spécimens pour identification, cela prend encore plus de temps. Les délais peuvent même être encore plus longs, et plus coûteux, s'il n'y a pas de taxonomiste au niveau local et qu'il faut envoyer ces spécimens à l'étranger. De plus, de nombreux pays n'ont pas de collections de référence d'insectes, de maladies ou de mauvaises herbes, ni de librairies adéquates permettant de vérifier les recommandations de lutte contre les ravageurs, ce qui complique encore plus les choses."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"L'objectif de PestNet, créé en 1999, est d'apporter une réponse à ces problèmes dans la région Asie-Pacifique. PestNet est un réseau informel qui grâce au courrier électronique met les personnes proposant des services de conseil dans les pays en développement en relation avec des spécialistes du monde entier. Bien que créé pour la région Pacifique, ce réseau s'est étendu pour aider aussi les paysans des pays d'Asie. Organisation non gouvernementale enregistrée aux Fidji, PestNet est un service gratuit géré entièrement par des bénévoles."},{"index":3,"size":125,"text":"PestNet traite toutes sortes de questions allant des périodes de quarantaine, de la lutte biologique et de la gestion des ravageurs, aux alertes en cas d'invasion et aux différentes formes que peut prendre la question : « Qu'estce que c'est que cet insecte et qu'est-ce que je peux faire pour m'en débarrasser ? ». C'est surtout ce dernier aspect qui a fait de PestNet non plus un simple forum de discussion, mais surtout un service gratuit d'identification en ligne qui a déjà largement prouvé sa valeur dans la pratique. La publication de photos numériques des ravageurs jointes aux messages se traduit par des réponses et des tentatives d'identification extrêmement rapides, souvent accompagnées d'offres de taxonomistes qui proposent d'examiner gratuitement des spécimens pour confirmer le diagnostic."},{"index":4,"size":214,"text":"PestNet utilise la liste de diffusion de Yahoo! Groups pour communiquer avec ses membres. Les listes de Yahoo! permettent au modérateur de chaque groupe de filtrer les messages postés avant leur diffusion sur la liste. C'est un détail logistique qui est cependant d'une importance essentielle pour maintenir le niveau de qualité et pour limiter la taille des messages, en particulier quand ils sont accompagnés de photos. De nombreux membres de PestNet Pour tenter de remédier à cette situation, une équipe de développeurs de logiciels de Mud Springs Geographers, Inc., a mis au point, en collaboration avec l'International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre (CIMMYT), l'« Awhere Almanac Characterization Tool » (ACT), un progiciel autonome adapté aux besoins des chercheurs en agronomie et des responsables politiques dans les pays en développement. La particularité d'Awhere-ACT est qu'il intègre des applications de systèmes d'information géographique dans des bases de données très complètes (sur le climat, l'utilisation des sols, l'altitude, etc.) présentant un intérêt pour l'agriculture. Il est également facile à utiliser : quelques jours de formation suffisent pour apprendre à produire des cartes indiquant par exemple les zones où les conditions climatiques sont similaires à un moment donné ou à une saison donnée. Ce progiciel est mis gratuitement à la disposition des utilisateurs dans les pays en développement."}]},{"head":"Gestion des ravageurs","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Les scientifiques impliqués dans un certain nombre de programmes de gestion des insectes nuisibles en Afrique profitent désormais des avantages offerts par Awhere-ACT, comme le montrent les exemples suivants. "}]},{"head":"Prévoir la diffusion des foreurs","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"NTIC et mouche de la carambole","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"Shantanu Mathur L es NTIC deviennent un instrument indispensable des méthodes classiques de contrôle tout comme des stratégies de gestion intégrée des ravageurs visant la réduction des infestations de ravageurs à des niveaux maîtrisables ou l'éradication complète des ravageurs en question. Les NTIC ont prouvé leur valeur dans le diagnostic et l'identification rapide des ravageurs, la conception et la planification de réponses efficaces, le choix et la mise en oeuvre de la stratégie d'éradication la mieux adaptée, et les mesures de quarantaine post-campagne."},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"Le projet sur la mouche de la carambole du Fonds international de développement agricole (FIDA) utilise à la fois des technologies de communication modernes et des modes traditionnels de diffusion des informations pour éradiquer ce ravageur qui détruit les sources de revenus des petits producteurs fruitiers au Surinam et en Guyane française."},{"index":3,"size":104,"text":"Au milieu des années 90, la présence de la mouche de la carambole représentait une grave menace pour la production et la commercialisation des fruits et des légumes dans les pays d'Amérique centrale, d'Amérique du Sud et des Caraïbes. Les entomologistes ont identifié 236 espèces différentes de fruits-hôtes, et des études ont montré que la dissémination initiale de la mouche de la carambole était liée à l'accroissement de l'arboriculture fruitière et au transport et à la commercialisation de produits contaminés. On a découvert également que la mouche de la carambole était extrêmement mobile et pouvait migrer sur des distances de plus de 50 km."},{"index":4,"size":97,"text":"Diverses NTIC ont été utilisées pour déterminer la zone de distribution de ce ravageur, mais c'est tout simplement le fax qui s'est révélé être le moyen le plus efficace de diffusion d'informations telles que des données issues d'enquêtes, bulletins, photographies et cartes aériennes. On a remarqué que la mouche de la carambole n'était pas arrêtée par les obstacles naturels, tels que des forêts denses, ou par des poches isolées d'arboriculture fruitière. Compte tenu du volume croissant du commerce non officiel de fruits entre les différents pays de la région, il était indispensable de réagir au plus vite."},{"index":5,"size":152,"text":"La clé de cette stratégie de lutte contre les ravageurs est la technique dite de « destruction des mâles » qui implique l'utilisation d'un puissant appât mêlé à un bio-insecticide. Les mouches mâles étant attirées par ce leurre et tuées par l'insecticide, la population mâle est réduite à un niveau qui rend impossible toute reproduction, ce qui conduit donc à GeoWeb est une application basée sur Internet qui vous permet d'avoir accès à des données et des images satellite utilisées par les analystes du Système mondial d'information et d'alerte rapide sur l'alimentation et l'agriculture (SMIAR) de la FAO. Les utilisateurs peuvent établir des cartes personnalisées leur permettant Liens l'éradication. Des blocs de fibres imprégnés de ce mélange sont disséminés par des avions ultra-légers équipés d'un simple système d'information géographique (SIG) ou d'un système de positionnement par satellite (GPS) afin de garantir la couverture complète de la zone infestée qui englobe plusieurs pays."},{"index":6,"size":120,"text":"Cette stratégie basée sur les NTIC -utilisant des technologies allant de documents écrits à des supports multimédias et à la télédétection -a sans aucun doute contribué à l'efficacité et à la réussite des programmes d'éradication. Les NTIC ont également été utilisées pour soutenir une campagne de relations publiques et un programme de vulgarisation agricole permettant aux communautés rurales de mieux comprendre cette opération et d'y participer. La radio, la télévision et des séances vidéo en groupes ont servi à renforcer les capacités institutionnelles locales, notamment en matière de formation, de surveillance environnementale et de programmes de recherche destinés à fournir des informations utiles pour le développement de techniques de détection, de contrôle et d'éradication de la mouche de la carambole."},{"index":7,"size":132,"text":"Le succès de la campagne de lutte contre la mouche de la carambole est lié en grande partie à la mise en place d'un cadre régional organisationnel efficace de concertation des efforts de détection, de contrôle et d'éradication de la mouche de la carambole. Une plate-forme utilisant des technologies modernes de diffusion par voie électronique des informations en combinaison avec des réseaux traditionnels de diffusion des connaissances a permis d'assurer la coordination des contributions des scientifiques, des techniciens et des gestionnaires. Bien que ce projet ait réduit à zéro les populations de ravageurs dans la plupart des zones infestées, son financement futur reste incertain. Il serait dommage que ce remarquable effort soit abandonné, faute de fonds, avant l'éradication totale de la mouche de la carambole des quelques régions où elle sévit encore."},{"index":8,"size":17,"text":"Pour de plus amples informations sur les programmes de lutte biologique du FIDA, consultez : www.ifad.org/events/ past/anniv/bio.htm. "}]},{"head":"Shantanu","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Gestion des ravageurs","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Projets et initiatives","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":138,"text":"Cette section propose une liste de projets et d'initiatives dans le domaine de la gestion intégrée des ravageurs. Des informations complémentaires, ainsi qu'une liste exhaustive des bases de données en ligne consacrées à la gestion intégrée des ravageurs, sont disponibles sur le site Internet de ce magazine (http://ictupdate.cta.int).   Des matériels de formation sur la gestion intégrée des ravageurs de nombreuses cultures sont disponibles sur cédérom ou sur Internet [11,15]. Les NTIC permettent également de proposer des formations par l'intermédiaire de campus virtuels ou de formations à distance [16] spécialement adaptées aux besoins de la communauté scientifique ou des agriculteurs et des agents de vulgarisation agricole. Un grand nombre de ces matériels de formation peuvent être utilisés comme matériaux de référence par les utilisateurs dans les pays ACP, ou ont été spécialement conçus pour des pays en développement donnés."}]},{"head":"AFRIQUE","index":12,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"ICT Update est un magazine multimédia disponible à la fois sur Internet (http://ictupdate.cta.int), en version papier et sous forme d'une newsletter diffusée par e-mail. ICT Update paraît tous les deux mois. Chaque numéro se concentre sur un thème particulier lié aux NTIC pour le développement agricole et rural dans les pays ACP. La version papier comprend quatre articles et une selection des « Projets » et « Liens » qui ont été postés sur le site Internet d'ICT Update. Les lecteurs sont invités à contribuer à ces rubriques sur Internet en nous communiquant des informations qu'ils jugent intéressantes (projets, initiatives, nouvelles et documents). La prochaine édition paraîtra le 1er juillet 2003. Pour en savoir plus sur Lucid, consultez : www.lucidcentral.com/ about/aboutlucid.htm. Vous pouvez télécharger l'application standard sur : www.lucidcentral.com/downloads/download.aspx 1 http://ictupdate.cta.int/index.php/link/a/157/ "},{"text":" coopération agricole et rurale (ACP-EU) Agro Business Park 2, 6708 PW Wageningen, Pays-Bas Renseignements : [email protected] Production et content management : Contactivity bv, Nieuwe Mare 23, 2312 NL Leiden, Pays-Bas Coordination rédactionelle : Rutger Engelhard Recherche et rédaction : Mark Mackintosh et Valerie Jones Site Internet : Sebastiaan van der Vliet Traductions : Patrice Pinguet Traductions, Amsterdam Conseillers scientifiques : Kevin Painting, Peter Ballantyne Merci à : Rodney Cooke, Dave Hodson, Geoff Norton et Richard Vernon Impression : Mostert & van Onderen, Leiden, Pays-Bas "},{"text":"Le Service de protection des végétaux du Secrétariat de la Communauté du Pacifique collabore avec des pays du Pacifique afin de réduire l'impact des ravageurs sur l'agriculture, les forêts et l'environnement. Pour ce faire, il propose notamment des services en ligne de conseils techniques, d'information, de vulgarisation agricole et de diagnostic. www.spc.org.nc/pps disposent en effet d'ordinateurs peu performants et de disposent en effet d'ordinateurs peu performants et de modems peu rapides. Le « temps de rotation » entre le modems peu rapides. Le « temps de rotation » entre le moment où un message est envoyé et le moment où il est moment où un message est envoyé et le moment où il est accepté par le modérateur et diffusé auprès des membres accepté par le modérateur et diffusé auprès des membres n'excède pas plus de quelques minutes. Par exemple, les n'excède pas plus de quelques minutes. Par exemple, les autorités chargées des mises en quarantaine de la autorités chargées des mises en quarantaine de la République de Palau ont récemment attrapé et photographié République de Palau ont récemment attrapé et photographié un lézard. La photo a été publiée sur PestNet, ce qui a permis un lézard. La photo a été publiée sur PestNet, ce qui a permis à un institut de Pékin d'identifier rapidement l'animal, à un institut de Pékin d'identifier rapidement l'animal, diagnostic confirmé ensuite par un spécialiste vivant aux diagnostic confirmé ensuite par un spécialiste vivant aux Samoa. Et tout cela en moins d'une heure ! Samoa. Et tout cela en moins d'une heure ! Le succès du réseau est dû en partie à sa durabilité, aux Le succès du réseau est dû en partie à sa durabilité, aux fournisseurs d'accès gratuit à Internet et à l'énorme fournisseurs d'accès gratuit à Internet et à l'énorme enthousiasme des participants pour aider les pays en enthousiasme des participants pour aider les pays en développement. PestNet a actuellement 400 membres dont développement. PestNet a actuellement 400 membres dont plus d'un tiers vivent dans 40 pays tropicaux, y compris dans plus d'un tiers vivent dans 40 pays tropicaux, y compris dans le Pacifique et en Asie du Sud-Est. PestNet a également des le Pacifique et en Asie du Sud-Est. PestNet a également des membres en Afrique, dans les Caraïbes et au Moyen-Orient. membres en Afrique, dans les Caraïbes et au Moyen-Orient. PestNet a récemment créé un site Internet PestNet a récemment créé un site Internet (www.pestnet.org) et lancé une campagne de sensibilisation (www.pestnet.org) et lancé une campagne de sensibilisation visant à étendre son réseau. L'objectif du site Internet est visant à étendre son réseau. L'objectif du site Internet est en premier lieu bien entendu d'expliquer le fonctionnement en premier lieu bien entendu d'expliquer le fonctionnement de PestNet, mais on y trouve aussi une liste de liens vers de PestNet, mais on y trouve aussi une liste de liens vers des sites Internet consacrés à la protection des végétaux des sites Internet consacrés à la protection des végétaux dans cette région, un formulaire d'identification à utiliser dans cette région, un formulaire d'identification à utiliser pour envoyer des photos, et des directives de prélèvement pour envoyer des photos, et des directives de prélèvement et de traitement d'échantillons pour la conservation et et de traitement d'échantillons pour la conservation et l'identification. l'identification. Quel est l'avenir de PestNet ? L'un des objectifs de ce Quel est l'avenir de PestNet ? L'un des objectifs de ce service est de mettre à profit les avantages des nouvelles service est de mettre à profit les avantages des nouvelles technologies de communication et d'information (NTIC) pour technologies de communication et d'information (NTIC) pour permettre aux organisations sur le terrain et aux paysans permettre aux organisations sur le terrain et aux paysans de se connecter à ce réseau. Des centres ruraux de courrier de se connecter à ce réseau. Des centres ruraux de courrier électronique voient actuellement le jour dans différentes électronique voient actuellement le jour dans différentes îles du Pacifique et cette évolution offre d'intéressantes îles du Pacifique et cette évolution offre d'intéressantes possibilités de relier PestNet de manière encore plus directe possibilités de relier PestNet de manière encore plus directe avec ses utilisateurs finaux. avec ses utilisateurs finaux. Pour devenir membre de PestNet, il suffit d'envoyer un e- Pour devenir membre de PestNet, il suffit d'envoyer un e- mail à [email protected], ou de suivre les mail à [email protected], ou de suivre les instructions figurant sur le site Internet (www.pestnet.org). instructions figurant sur le site Internet (www.pestnet.org). L'objectif d'IPM Link Afrique est de favoriser le développement d'un réseau de praticiens de la gestion intégrée des ravageurs dans les pays d'Afrique subsaharienne en facilitant l'accès à Internet et à d'autres outils électroniques de communication et de diffusion des informations. www.ag.vt.edu/ail/ L'objectif d'IPM Link Afrique est de favoriser le développement d'un réseau de praticiens de la gestion intégrée des ravageurs dans les pays d'Afrique subsaharienne en facilitant l'accès à Internet et à d'autres outils électroniques de communication et de diffusion des informations. www.ag.vt.edu/ail/  "},{"text":"Gestion des ravageurs 4 ICT Update, numéro 11, mai 2003 Awhere-ACT : SIG & gestion des ravageurs en Afrique  Rose W. Irungu et coll. Rose W. Irungu et coll. es scientifiques dans les pays en développement prennent de plus en plus conscience de l'utilité des informations spatiales pour évaluer et prévoir la répartition des insectes nuisibles. Dans ce cadre, les L es scientifiques dans les pays en développement prennent de plus en plus conscience de l'utilité des informations spatiales pour évaluer et prévoir la répartition des insectes nuisibles. Dans ce cadre, les L systèmes d'information géographique (SIG) peuvent systèmes d'information géographique (SIG) peuvent notamment jouer un rôle non négligeable au niveau de la notamment jouer un rôle non négligeable au niveau de la gestion, de la visualisation et de l'analyse des données gestion, de la visualisation et de l'analyse des données géographiques sous forme numérique. Pour l'instant géographiques sous forme numérique. Pour l'instant néanmoins, les systèmes d'information géographique néanmoins, les systèmes d'information géographique restent largement du domaine des restent largement du domaine des experts et leur popularisation se heurte experts et leur popularisation se heurte à des facteurs tels que leur coût, leur à des facteurs tels que leur coût, leur complexité et la disponibilité des complexité et la disponibilité des données, en particulier dans les pays données, en particulier dans les pays en développement. en développement.  "},{"text":"Identifier les meilleurs sites de dissémination d'un champignon pour contrôler l'acarien vert du manioc Le maïs est la plus importante culture alimentaire en Afrique subsaharienne, mais la productivité agricole est entravée par un certain nombre d'insectes nuisibles, en particulier le foreur du maïs. Il existe plusieurs espèces d'insectes foreurs indigènes dans la zone de culture du maïs en Afrique, mais le Chilo Partellus, qui n'est pas un insecte indigène, est de loin le plus redoutable. Venu d'Asie au début du XXe siècle, le Chilo s'est répandu dans tous les pays de l'Afrique orientale et australe, et ne cesse de s'étendre. Centre international sur la physiologie et l'écologie des insectes (ICIPE), basé à Nairobi, adopte une méthode de contrôle biologique classique, dans laquelle les prédateurs naturels associés au Chilo en Asie sont introduits en Afrique. Des chercheurs de l'ICIPE se servent d'Awhere-ACT pour étudier les répercussions écologiques de ces introductions. L'acarien vert du manioc, Mononychellus tanajoa, est un des principaux ravageurs du manioc dans de nombreux pays africains. Le contrôle de cet acarien est depuis plusieurs années l'objectif d'un programme de contrôle biologique de l'Institut international d'agriculture tropicale (IITA). Au Brésil, le pays d'origine de l'acarien vert, sa diffusion a été limitée de manière efficace par un champignon pathogène, le Neozygites tanajoae. L'IITA a récemment introduit ce champignon comme agent de contrôle au Bénin, où il s'est établi dans plusieurs zones. Devant le succès de cette opération, des chercheurs du Kenyan Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) et de l'IITA utilisent Awhere-ACT pour identifier les zones au Kenya dont les caractéristiques agrométéorologiques sont similaires à celles du Brésil et du Bénin, où le Neozygites a prouvé sa valeur dans la lutte contre l'acarien vert du manioc, de façon à déterminer les sites de dissémination potentiellement les plus efficaces. Pour de plus amples informations sur Awhere-ACT, consultez www.mudsprings.com. Des données d'échantillonnage sont superposées à des Des données d'échantillonnage sont superposées à des cartes des différents facteurs climatiques, tels que les cartes des différents facteurs climatiques, tels que les précipitations et les températures, afin d'identifier les précipitations et les températures, afin d'identifier les  conditions qui favorisent la conditionsquifavorisentla  propagation des foreurs. Sur la base propagation des foreurs. Sur la base L'utilisation d'applications issues de systèmes d'information géographique aide les de telles analyses, ils peuvent prévoir quelles sont les zones à risque en matière d'invasions de Chilo, et peuvent recommander les endroits où L'utilisation d'applications issues de systèmes d'information géographique aide lesde telles analyses, ils peuvent prévoir quelles sont les zones à risque en matière d'invasions de Chilo, et peuvent recommander les endroits où scientifiques africains à prendre introduire les prédateurs naturels. scientifiques africains à prendreintroduire les prédateurs naturels. des décisions plus judicieuses.    des décisions plus judicieuses. Rose W. Irungu est chargée de recherche à l'ICIPE Rose W. Irungu est chargée de recherche à l'ICIPE (e-mail : [email protected]).   (e-mail : [email protected]). Dave Hodson est responsable des SIG au CIMMYT Dave Hodson est responsable des SIG au CIMMYT (e-mail : [email protected]).   (e-mail : [email protected]). Eric I. Michugu est spécialiste des SIG à l'ICIPE Eric I. Michugu est spécialiste des SIG à l'ICIPE (e-mail : [email protected]).   (e-mail : [email protected]). Le projet de contrôle biologique des foreurs des céréales    Le projet de contrôle biologique des foreurs des céréales  "},{"text":"issue 8 -30 October 2002 Gestion des ravageurs ICT Update, numéro 11, mai 2003 5 Le CPC : une base multimédia d'identification des ravageurs constant des NTIC. Une des innovations du CPC est l'utilisation de liens « softs », c'est-àdire qui ne sont pas « fixes » comme les liens hypertexte. Lorsqu'un utilisateur entre une demande dans le CPC, il n'est pas emmené sur une page donnée, « fixe », mais les liens softs le conduisent immédiatement à un ensemble d'informations liées à sa demande, telles que des informations sur d'autres pays ou d'autres ravageurs, des termes repris dans le glossaire, des références bibliographiques ou d'autres bases de données. L'utilisation de nouveaux supports, tels que les DVD et les ordinateurs de poche de type PDA, est également envisagée. Compte tenu cependant des contraintes technologiques auxquelles sont confrontés de nombreux utilisateurs dans les pays ACP, le CPC restera sûrement disponible sur cédérom dans les prochaines années.Pour de plus amples informations sur le CPC ou pour souscrire un abonnement d'essai gratuit de 30 jours, consultez le site Internet : www.cabi.org/compendia/cpc/ index.htm ou envoyez un e-mail à : [email protected]'apparition de NTIC faciles d'accès et bon marché offre de nouvelles possibilités de plus en plus efficaces d'identification des ravageurs -la première étape essentielle d'une bonne gestion des ravageurs. Dans de nombreux pays africains, un outil multimédia baptisé CPC ou Crop Protection Compendium (Abrégé de la protection des cultures) aide les agriculteurs, les responsables agricoles et les scientifiques à identifier et à contrôler les maladies et les ravageurs affectant les cultures.Edité par CAB International (CABI) et soutenu par un consortium international rassemblant plus de 50 organisations du secteur public et du secteur privé, le CPC est une vaste compilation des connaissances en matière de protection des cultures, destinée à la prise de décision au niveau pratique. Mis à jour chaque année, le CPC est utilisé partout dans le monde par des spécialistes de la protection des cultures, des agents de vulgarisation agricole, des responsables de mise en quarantaine, des sélectionneurs de semences, des responsables politiques et des agriculteurs.Par exemple, un agriculteur qui souhaite identifier un coléoptère peut se rendre au télécentre local et consulter sur Internet ou sur cédérom la vaste encyclopédie du CPC sur la santé des plantes et la gestion intégrée des ravageurs. Il peut sélectionner la « clé », ou répertoire, sur les coléoptères, qui lui propose une liste de caractéristiques (taille, couleur, etc.) à partir de laquelle il valide celles qui correspondent à son insecte. Grâce aux images, aux textes et aux différentes fonctions du système, cet agriculteur peut identifier rapidement et facilement avec certitude le ravageur en question et trouver des informations sur les méthodes de lutte et les mesures à prendre.Theophilus Mlaki de la Commission tanzanienne pour la science et les technologies fait la promotion du CPC pour aider les agriculteurs ruraux. « Notre objectif est de donner aux responsables locaux les moyens d'être les cerveaux de l'information agricole de la communauté » nous dit-il. « Le CPC est facile à utiliser et accessible aux responsables qui font la tournée des villages pour aider les paysans à identifier les ravageurs.Le succès du CPC est en partie dû au grand nombre d'illustrations qu'il contient. Nous pouvons imprimer des photos ou illustrations d'un ravageur ou d'une maladie et les donner aux agriculteurs accompagnées d'informations en langue locale. » Au Niger, le CPC est aussi utilisé au Centre régional AGRHYMET comme outil d'identification des ravageurs des cultures et comme source d'information sur leur biologie,LiensFloraMap est un logiciel libre disponible sur cédérom qui dresse des cartes détaillées de la répartition probable des plantes. Fruit de plus de 20 années de recherche au Centro Amadou Bocar Bal et Julia Brunt    Amadou Bocar Bal et Julia Brunt l'écologie et les meilleures méthodes de contrôle. Créé en l'écologie et les meilleures méthodes de contrôle. Créé en 1974 par le Comité permanent inter-États de lutte contre la 1974 par le Comité permanent inter-États de lutte contre la sécheresse au Sahel (CILSS), le centre AGRHYMET organise sécheresse au Sahel (CILSS), le centre AGRHYMET organise des formations et diffuse des informations sur la production des formations et diffuse des informations sur la production alimentaire et la gestion des ressources naturelles. Le CPC alimentaire et la gestion des ressources naturelles. Le CPC est devenu un important outil pédagogique du centre est devenu un important outil pédagogique du centre AGRHYMET, en particulier pour les étudiants suivant ses AGRHYMET, en particulier pour les étudiants suivant ses formations sur la protection des cultures. Les étudiants sont formations sur la protection des cultures. Les étudiants sont particulièrement impressionnés par les illustrations, qui particulièrement impressionnés par les illustrations, qui  facilitent grandement l'utilisation des facilitent grandement l'utilisation des  clés de recherche. L'AGRHYMET a reçu clés de recherche. L'AGRHYMET a reçu En Afrique, un outil multimédia baptisé CPC aide les agriculteurs à identifier et à un exemplaire du CPC dans le cadre d'un projet USAID dont l'un des objectifs était de diffuser 250 exemplaires dans toute l'Afrique. En Afrique, un outil multimédia baptisé CPC aide les agriculteurs à identifier et àun exemplaire du CPC dans le cadre d'un projet USAID dont l'un des objectifs était de diffuser 250 exemplaires dans toute l'Afrique. contrôler les ravageurs affectant les cultures. CABI met constamment à jour la technologie sous-tendant le CPC afin de tirer pleinement profit des contrôler les ravageurs affectant les cultures.CABI met constamment à jour la technologie sous-tendant le CPC afin de tirer pleinement profit des  possibilités offertes par le possibilitésoffertesparle développement rapide et   développement rapide et  "},{"text":"Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), FloraMap permet de dresser la carte des ravageurs des cultures et de leurs ennemis naturels. Ce système met en évidence les conditions climatiques et topographiques qui favorisent la prolifération des ravageurs et permet aux spécialistes de la lutte intégrée de prédire les futures zones à risques. www.floramapciat.org/ Diagnosis est un logiciel multimédia d'aide au diagnostic des problèmes des cultures. L'utilisateur est confronté à une situation fictive et doit interroger le programme pour identifier le problème. www.diagnosis.co.nz/ Amadou Bocar Bal est formateur au centre Amadou Bocar Bal est formateur au centre AGRHYMET au Niger (e-mail : [email protected]). AGRHYMET au Niger (e-mail : [email protected]). Julia Brunt est responsable du programme CPC chez Julia Brunt est responsable du programme CPC chez CAB International (e-mail : [email protected]). CAB International (e-mail : [email protected]).  "},{"text":"Gestion des ravageurs 6 ICT Update, numéro 11, mai 2003   "},{"text":" Mathur est coordinateur des bourses de recherches au FIDA (e-mail : [email protected]). Les NTIC jouent un rôle Les NTIC jouent un rôle capital dans les stratéges de capital dans les stratéges de réduction à des niveaux réduction à des niveaux maîtrisables ou d'éradication maîtrisables ou d'éradication complète des ravageurs. complète des ravageurs. d'évaluer la situation d'une culture et de l'approvisionnement alimentaire dans un pays donné. http://geoweb.fao.org et http://www.fao.org/WAICENT/faoinfo/economic/giews/french/ smiar.htm d'évaluer la situation d'une culture et de l'approvisionnement alimentaire dans un pays donné. http://geoweb.fao.org et http://www.fao.org/WAICENT/faoinfo/economic/giews/french/ smiar.htm  "},{"text":"permanent Inter-États de lutte contre la sécheresse au Sahel Le projet Africover de la FAO apporte une réponse au manque, quantitatif et qualitatif, d'informations sur les changements de la couverture végétale et de l'utilisation des sols en dressant des cartes numériques pour toute l'Afrique, à l'aide de données obtenues par télédétection et par systèmes d'information géographique. L'objectif de ce projet est de renforcer la capacité durable des institutions africaines à produire et à utiliser des informations fiables pour prévoir le rendement des cultures et la répartition de l'habitat des ravageurs. www.africover.org Le Centre AGRHYMET, au Niger, utilise des données et des cartes obtenues par télédétection pour traiter les questions touchant à la gestion des ressources naturelles et à la sécurité alimentaire, en particulier les invasions de ravageurs, pour les neuf pays d'Afrique occidentale membres du Comité  "},{"text":"Action Network (PAN) Africa gère un centre de documentation en ligne sur les pesticides chimiques, la lutte intégrée et l'agriculture durable au Sénégal, qui est la première source d'information sur les pesticides en Afrique accessible au public. Ce centre encourage l'échange en ligne de documentation en français, en anglais et en espagnol, y compris des catalogues, des revues périodiques, des rapports et des études sur les pesticides, la lutte intégrée et la protection naturelle des cultures.www.pan-africa.sn/english/documentationeng.htm de PROCICARIBE, le réseau caribéen pour l'agronomie et les technologies agricoles, encourage grâce à des liens vers des organisations internationales la collaboration entre les États membres au niveau de l'amélioration de la gestion intégrée des ravageurs dans la région. L'objectif de ce réseau est d'améliorer les technologies de lutte intégrée contre les ravageurs adoptées par les techniciens, les chercheurs et les paysans, et de diffuser des informations sur la gestion intégrée des ravageurs par le biais de sa base de données, de son site Internet et de différentes documentations. www.procicaribe.org/networks/cipmnet/index.htm Le réseau Caribbean Animal and Plant Health Information Network (CARAPHIN) du Centre régional pour les Caraïbes de l'Institut interaméricain de coopération pour l'agriculture (IICA) diffuse en ligne des informations techniques sur la santé agricole et environnementale, en particulier des informations issues de la région des Caraïbes ou destinées aux pays de cette région. Le réseau concentre son travail sur les maladies des plantes et les invasions d'insectes nuisibles. http://infoagro.net/health/caraphin Yunlong Xia, chef du Département bio-informatique & technologies d'information du Centre international sur la physiologie et l'écologie des insectes (ICIPE) au Kenya (e-mail : [email protected]), analyse brièvement le rôle des NTIC dans la gestion intégrée des ravageurs dans les pays en développement, et les tendances dans ce domaine. En facilitant les communications internationales et le partage des ressources documentaires et des informations, les réseaux basés sur le Web ont renforcé à la fois le développement des politiques de gestion intégrée des ravageurs et l'efficacité des services de vulgarisation de la gestion intégrée des ravageurs. Des initiatives telles que l'Africa IPM Forum de l'ICIPE [2], le Global IPM Facility de la FAO [3], le Programme de gestion intégrée des ravageurs du GCRAI [4] et de nombreuses autres ressources en ligne [5], ont aidé les responsables politiques et les responsables agricoles régionaux à prendre conscience des avantages des méthodes de gestion intégrée des ravageurs et ont contribué à l'adoption et à la mise en oeuvre réussie de politiques de gestion intégrée des ravageurs dans de nombreux pays en développement. De plus, ces réseaux ont permis à de nombreux services de vulgarisation agricole d'étendre leur audience et, grâce à l'utilisation des NTIC dans les écoles d'agriculture sur le terrain et dans les télécentres, de nombreux agriculteurs des pays en développement utilisent désormais des techniques de gestion intégrée des ravageurs. Des applications de NTIC telles que cédéroms et outils d'identification des ravageurs basés sur le Web, ont été développées pour des utilisateurs très divers, des agriculteurs aux étudiants. A titre d'exemple on peut citer : l'initiative EcoPort de la FAO [6], le Crop Protection Compendium et le PEST CABWeb de CAB International [7], les services d'information sur les ravageurs des cultures de la Cornell University [8], ainsi que le logiciel et les cédéroms d'identification des ravageurs produits par le Centre of Biological Information Technology [9]. La diffusion et l'échange d'informations ont contribué à la mise en place de solutions de gestion intégrée pour un grand nombre de ravageurs. Par exemple, des initiatives telles que IPMNet [10], IPM Link Afrique [11] De quelle manière les NTIC ont-elles amélioré le contrôle des ravageurs ? La gestion intégrée des ravageurs a largement bénéficié des possibilités offertes par les NTIC. Dans une étude récente, Andrew Bartlett, responsable senior du développement du programme de gestion intégrée des ravageurs de la FAO [1], a classé les différents domaines de la ravageurs migrateurs dans la région. L'action de ce centre contribue à renforcer la communication et la coopération transfrontalières en utilisant un système d'information basé sur Internet qui comprend des bases de données sur les organisations nationales et régionales de contrôle des ravageurs. Le centre encourage également un système automatisé d'entrée et de consultation des informations sur les ravageurs migrateurs comprenant des cartes de répartition géographiques des ravageurs issus de systèmes d'information géographique. http://icosamp.ecoport.org De quelle manière les NTIC ont-elles amélioré le contrôle des ravageurs ? La gestion intégrée des ravageurs a largement bénéficié des possibilités offertes par les NTIC. Dans une étude récente, Andrew Bartlett, responsable senior du développement du programme de gestion intégrée des ravageurs de la FAO [1], a classé les différents domaines de laravageurs migrateurs dans la région. L'action de ce centre contribue à renforcer la communication et la coopération transfrontalières en utilisant un système d'information basé sur Internet qui comprend des bases de données sur les organisations nationales et régionales de contrôle des ravageurs. Le centre encourage également un système automatisé d'entrée et de consultation des informations sur les ravageurs migrateurs comprenant des cartes de répartition géographiques des ravageurs issus de systèmes d'information géographique. http://icosamp.ecoport.org gestion intégrée des ravageurs dans lesquels les NTIC sont utilisées de la manière suivante : définition des politiques en matière de gestion intégrée des ravageurs et services de vulgarisation agricole ; identification des ravageurs ; échange et diffusion des informations sur la gestion intégrée des ravageurs ; outils d'aide à la prise de décision basés sur le Web ; et formations assistées par NTIC. Pourriez-vous décrire ces différents domaines ? CARAÏBES Le réseau Caribbean Integrated Pest Management Network http://carinet.ecoport.org laboratoires phytosanitaires et autres organismes. trouver des informations sur les espèces (entités), les experts, les utilisateurs peuvent utiliser les bases de données CARINET pour organismes, des plantes vasculaires et non vasculaires. Les biosystématique des arthropodes, des nématodes, des micro-des Caraïbes destiné aux personnes impliquées dans la (CIPMNET) CARINET est le réseau de renforcement des capacités en taxonomie gestion intégrée des ravageurs dans lesquels les NTIC sont utilisées de la manière suivante : définition des politiques en matière de gestion intégrée des ravageurs et services de vulgarisation agricole ; identification des ravageurs ; échange et diffusion des informations sur la gestion intégrée des ravageurs ; outils d'aide à la prise de décision basés sur le Web ; et formations assistées par NTIC. Pourriez-vous décrire ces différents domaines ?CARAÏBES Le réseau Caribbean Integrated Pest Management Network http://carinet.ecoport.org laboratoires phytosanitaires et autres organismes. trouver des informations sur les espèces (entités), les experts, les utilisateurs peuvent utiliser les bases de données CARINET pour organismes, des plantes vasculaires et non vasculaires. Les biosystématique des arthropodes, des nématodes, des micro-des Caraïbes destiné aux personnes impliquées dans la (CIPMNET) CARINET est le réseau de renforcement des capacités en taxonomie Le réseau d'alerte précoce sur les famines Famine Early Warning Systems Network (FEWS NET) est une initiative dirigée par l'USAID, qui utilise des images satellite pour fournir des estimations du volume et de la vitalité de la végétation en Afrique, et dont le but est de donner aux 17 pays participant à cette opération les moyens de trouver eux-mêmes des solutions aux problèmes de sécurité alimentaire, souvent occasionnés par les invasions de ravageurs. Cette initiative est soutenue par AGRHYMET au Niger, le centre de surveillance de la sécheresse Drought Monitoring Centre au Kenya, et l'unité régionale d'alerte précoce Regional Early Warning Unit de la SADC au Zimbabwe, qui fournit les images satellite, les analyses et les rapports sur les conditions de la végétation. www.fews.net ASIE-PACIFIQUE L'Asia-Pacific Regional Technology Centre (APRTC) est une organisation à but non lucratif consacrée à l'amélioration des connaissances et du bien-être des paysans et à la promotion de pratiques agricoles durables. Le programme d'« e-learning » de l'APRTC, baptisé « agLe@rn », propose aux professionnels de l'agriculture des modules de formation centrés sur l'agriculture durable, y compris la gestion intégrée des ravageurs pour la culture du coton, du riz irrigué et des légumes, et encourage également une utilisation raisonnée des pesticides. www.aprtc.org Le projet Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk (PIER) rassemble et diffuse des informations sur les plantes exotiques présentant un danger actuel ou potentiel pour les écosystèmes des îles du Pacifique. En collaboration et en concertation avec d'autres États insulaires et d'autres pays de la ceinture du Pacifique, ainsi qu'avec diverses organisations internationales, ce projet fournit des informations aux responsables des mises en quarantaine, aux gestionnaires de Le réseau d'alerte précoce sur les famines Famine Early Warning Systems Network (FEWS NET) est une initiative dirigée par l'USAID, qui utilise des images satellite pour fournir des estimations du volume et de la vitalité de la végétation en Afrique, et dont le but est de donner aux 17 pays participant à cette opération les moyens de trouver eux-mêmes des solutions aux problèmes de sécurité alimentaire, souvent occasionnés par les invasions de ravageurs. Cette initiative est soutenue par AGRHYMET au Niger, le centre de surveillance de la sécheresse Drought Monitoring Centre au Kenya, et l'unité régionale d'alerte précoce Regional Early Warning Unit de la SADC au Zimbabwe, qui fournit les images satellite, les analyses et les rapports sur les conditions de la végétation. www.fews.netASIE-PACIFIQUE L'Asia-Pacific Regional Technology Centre (APRTC) est une organisation à but non lucratif consacrée à l'amélioration des connaissances et du bien-être des paysans et à la promotion de pratiques agricoles durables. Le programme d'« e-learning » de l'APRTC, baptisé « agLe@rn », propose aux professionnels de l'agriculture des modules de formation centrés sur l'agriculture durable, y compris la gestion intégrée des ravageurs pour la culture du coton, du riz irrigué et des légumes, et encourage également une utilisation raisonnée des pesticides. www.aprtc.org Le projet Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk (PIER) rassemble et diffuse des informations sur les plantes exotiques présentant un danger actuel ou potentiel pour les écosystèmes des îles du Pacifique. En collaboration et en concertation avec d'autres États insulaires et d'autres pays de la ceinture du Pacifique, ainsi qu'avec diverses organisations internationales, ce projet fournit des informations aux responsables des mises en quarantaine, aux gestionnaires de L'Information Core for Southern African Migrant Pests (ICOSAMP) est un système d'information destiné aux responsables politiques en Afrique australe. Ce projet crée un forum permettant de rassembler et de diffuser toutes les données concernant les  L'Information Core for Southern African Migrant Pests (ICOSAMP) est un système d'information destiné aux responsables politiques en Afrique australe. Ce projet crée un forum permettant de rassembler et de diffuser toutes les données concernant les  "},{"text":" et IPM CRSP[12]  ont créé divers canaux de diffusion des informations par le biais des NTIC, tels que sites Internet, bases de données en ligne et forums de discussion, listes de diffusion par e-mail et cédéroms multimédias. En particulier, l'IPM Communications Workshop for Eastern/ Southern Africa (ICWESA) organisé en 1998 s'est traduit par la création de réseaux régionaux de collaboration en ligne sur la gestion intégrée des ravageurs permettant d'échanger et de diffuser des infos, parmi lesquels l'Africa IPM Forum et la liste de diffusion IPM Link Afrique[13].Les systèmes d'aide à la prise de décision basés sur le Web fournissent aux utilisateurs toutes les informations dont ils ont besoin pour choisir la stratégie de lutte contre les ravageurs la plus appropriée, et notamment des moyens d'identification des ravageurs, des informations sur les cycles de vie des différentes espèces, des spécimens et des critères de prise de décision, des exemples de calculs des seuils, et des modèles de diffusion des ravageurs reliés à des systèmes de surveillance météorologique. Ils proposent également des informations détaillées sur les méthodes de lutte biologique sans danger pour l'environnement, ainsi que sur les pesticides existants, leurs risques et leurs répercussions sur l'environnement. Ces applications pourraient être améliorées par l'ajout de fonctions « intelligentes » telles que des outils d'« e-learning » et des simulations dynamiques des écosystèmes des cultures[14].  "}],"sieverID":"8230fbcb-6766-4f6b-93a0-4f7058864fb2","abstract":"Gestion des ravageurs 2 ICT Update, numéro 11, mai 2003 Editorial La lutte contre les ravageurs C haque année, les insectes nuisibles réduisent de 25 à 35 % la production mondiale des cultures vivrières, malgré l'utilisation de 32 milliards d'euros par an de pesticides.¹ Il faut donc trouver au plus vite de nouveaux modes de lutte contre les principaux ravageurs pour garantir la sécurité alimentaire de la population mondiale en croissance constante. Ce numéro d'ICT Update illustre le rôle de plus en plus important que les NTIC jouent dans la gestion intégrée des ravageurs, en particulier en matière d'identification des ravageurs, de prévention, d'éducation, de diffusion des connaissances et d'éradication. Au niveau de l'identification des ravageurs, un grand nombre de bases de données en ligne et de logiciels novateurs sont désormais disponibles pour déterminer et reconnaître les ravageurs (voir la rubrique TechTip). Les systèmes d'information géographique (SIG) sont largement utilisés pour identifier les zones à risque d'invasions de ravageurs, et par conséquent les zones où des mesures de prévention sont nécessaires. Rose W. Irungu et ses collaborateurs nous présentent Awhere-ACT, une application qui aide les agriculteurs africains à lutter contre le foreur du maïs et l'acarien vert du manioc. Dans le domaine de l'éducation, Amadou Bocar Bal et Julia Brunt nous expliquent le fonctionnement du CPC, une base de données sur la protection des végétaux disponible en ligne et sur cédérom, et son utilisation à des fins éducatives en Tanzanie et au Niger. Dans le domaine de la diffusion des connaissances, Grahame Jackson et ses collaborateurs gèrent PestNet, un réseau e-mail de contrôle des ravageurs dans la région Asie-Pacifique extrêmement efficace et facile à gérer. Shantanu Mathur nous montre comment un projet du FIDA visant à éradiquer la mouche de la carambole au Surinam et en Guyane française utilise la technologie satellite pour cibler efficacement les zones infestées. Pour finir, Yunlong Xia, chef du Département bioinformatique & technologies d'information du Centre international sur la physiologie et l'écologie des insectes (ICIPE) au Kenya, analyse le rôle des NTIC dans la gestion intégrée des ravageurs et les tendances dans ce domaine dans les pays en développement, et évoque également des perspectives d'avenir très encourageantes."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"05b6f2cbadd261ecb186fde57cb7e076","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d0431798-54c0-4e4d-a0fa-be3181a7a944/retrieve"},"pageCount":17,"title":"Molecular Basis of Disease Resistance in Banana progenitor Musa balbisiana against Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Results","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"RNA-seq and mapping of sequences to reference genome. In this study, RNA-Seq data from Xcm challenged and mock-inoculated BXW-susceptible banana genotype Pisang Awak and BXW-resistant genotype Musa balbisiana were analyzed for transcriptome comparison."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"In total, about 559 million raw reads were generated from sequencing of 30 libraries using Illumina HiSeq ™ 2500. The majority of samples had average of 5-10 million reads that uniquely mapped to the reference Musa acuminata genome version 2. The raw reads were deposited in the National Center for Biotechnology Information Sequence Read Archive under project SRPRJNA401071 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Traces/ study/?acc=SRP116676)."}]},{"head":"Differentially expressed genes (DEGs).","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"Readcounts for 35,238 annotated genes were loaded in R program and genes with low expression were filtered out. This filtering step reduced the dataset to 26,676 genes. The DEGs were identified in DESeq2 using filtered readcount data. The data from two time points, 12 h post inoculation (hpi) and 48 hpi, were analyzed and a model was created to identify genes that were responding to the treatment with pathogen and also had an interaction with the genotypes. The design parameter (~genotype + treatment + genotype:treatment) was used for DESeq2. The genes with fold change of greater than 1.5 or <−1.5 were identified."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"The numbers of DEGs were higher in BXW-resistant genotype Musa balbisiana in comparison to BXW-susceptible genotype Pisang Awak at both 12 hpi (1749 vs 4) and 48 hpi (245 vs 88) (Fig. 1A, Supplementary Tables S1-S4). Out of 1749 DEGs in Musa balbisiana, only 540 DEGs showed up-regulation and remaining 1209 were down-regulated, whereas all four DEGs in Pisang Awak were found to be up-regulated (Fig. 1B)."},{"index":3,"size":70,"text":"The number of DEGs for Musa balbisiana was considerably higher at 12 hpi in comparison to 48 hpi (1749 vs 245), in contrast a greater number of genes were differentially expressed at 48 hpi than at 12 hpi in Pisang Awak (88 vs 4) (Fig. 1B). In Musa balbisiana, 107/245 DEGs at 48 hpi were up-regulated, whereas only 33/88 DEGs were up-regulated in Pisang Awak at 48 hpi (Fig. 1B)."},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":"Several DEGs were observed due to genotype:treatment interactions (Supplementary Tables S5-S6). The difference in genotypes due to differences in treatment i.e. genotype:treatment interaction were observed to be higher at 12 hpi than 48 hpi."},{"index":5,"size":108,"text":"Go-term analysis. To know the functional categories of DEGs, GO enrichment analysis was performed using GO-terms provided by the Banana Genome Hub and the GOStats. A Gene Set Enrichment dataset was created using Gene-to-GO association in the Banana Genome Hub and used for identifying GO-terms that were over-represented in a given gene list. Out of 26,676 filtered genes set, 13,699 corresponding proteins were associated with at least one GO term. The GO-term analysis was performed for all the DEGs in both banana genotypes at 12 hpi and 48 hpi. At 12 hpi, the GO-terms were mainly due to interaction of bacterial pathogen with host plants (Supplementary Table S7)."},{"index":6,"size":73,"text":"No significant GO-term enrichment was seen for Pisang Awak at 12 hpi, however, many GO-terms were enriched for Musa balbisiana at 12 hpi (Supplementary Table S7). The majority of GO-terms in Musa balbisiana were associated with 'Defense response' suggesting that BXW-resistant genotype respond to pathogen attack at very early stage. At 48 hpi, several GO-terms were found in Pisang Awak, whereas only one significant GO-term was obtained for Musa balbisiana (Supplementary Table S7)."},{"index":7,"size":50,"text":"Gene annotation and metabolic pathway analysis. The transcripts were annotated based on the genome of Musa acuminata version 2 and mapped to the biotic stress pathway in Mapman using the Mercator tool. Table 1 lists number of annotated genes aligned to different functional categories (BINs) in metabolic pathways in Mapman."},{"index":8,"size":124,"text":"More number of genes were differentially expressed in BXW-resistant genotype in comparison to BXW-susceptible genotype due to interaction with Xcm at different time post inoculation (Table 1). The overview of genes mapped onto the biotic stress pathway at 12 hpi and 48 hpi for BXW-resistant and BXW-susceptible genotypes is illustrated in Fig. 2. Stress associated genes were differentially expressed in both banana genotypes in response to Xcm. About 25 genes associated with stress were up-regulated in Musa balbisiana at 12 hpi, whereas only one gene, Germin-like protein (GER1), was activated in Pisang Awak at 12 hpi (Tables 1 and 2). Germin-like protein was also up-regulated in Musa balbisiana at 48 hpi. All stress-associated genes were suppressed in Pisang Awak at 48 hpi (Table 1)."},{"index":9,"size":28,"text":"Several pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins were up-regulated and also many PR genes were suppressed in response to pathogen interaction with Musa balbisiana at 12 hpi (Fig. 2, Table 2)."},{"index":10,"size":70,"text":"Disease resistance (R) gene in leucine-rich repeat (LRR) family protein and putative disease resistance protein RPM1 were activated in Musa balbisiana as early response to pathogen at 12 hpi (Fig. 2, Table 2). Lipase-like PAD4 gene was also activated in Musa balbisiana at 48 hpi (Table 2). None of the R or PR genes were differentially expressed in BXW-susceptible genotype Pisang Awak as early response to pathogen infection (Fig. 2)."},{"index":11,"size":22,"text":"Transcript aligned with MLO-like protein 13 (MILDEW RESISTANCE LOCUS O 13) was suppressed in BXW-resistant Musa balbisiana at 12 hpi (Table 2)."},{"index":12,"size":87,"text":"Heat shock related transcripts were differentially expressed in Musa balbisiana at 12 hpi (Fig. 2). HSP20-like chaperones superfamily associated genes were up-regulated in Musa balbisiana at 12 hpi and as well as at 48 hpi (Table 2). However, genes associated with heat shock proteins were either not differentially expressed or suppressed in Pisang Awak at 12 hpi and 48 hpi respectively (Fig. 2).   Transcript associated with apoptosis regulator, BAG family molecular chaperone regulator 6-like was activated in Musa balbisiana upon pathogen attack at 12 hpi (Table 2)."}]},{"head":"Upregulated","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Downregulated","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Upregulated","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Downregulated","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Upregulated","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Downregulated","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Upregulated","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Downregulated","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"The genes related to transcription factors were differentially expressed in both genotypes at 12 hpi and 48 hpi (Fig. 2, Table 2). The genes associated with transcription factors like MADS-box transcription factor family, MYB, WRKY, C2H2 zinc finger family, AP2/EREBP, heat shock transcription factor C1 (HSFC1), GRAS transcription factor family, auxin response factor (ARF) family, C2C2 family, homeobox transcription factor family and basic helix-loop-helix family (bHLH) were activated in Musa balbisiana at 12 hpi. Some of the genes associated with transcription factors like MYB, trihelix, AP2/EREBY), bHLH and C2H2 were also up-regulated in Musa balbisiana at 48 hpi. The MYB transcription factor was also activated in Pisang Awak at both 12 hpi and 48 hpi (Fig. 2, Table 2)."},{"index":2,"size":104,"text":"As early response to pathogen interaction in Musa balbisiana, several receptor-like kinases such as wall associated receptor kinases, LRR receptor kinases, LRK10 like receptor kinase, receptor kinase DUF26, were up-regulated at 12 hpi and similarly receptor kinases were also activated at 48 hpi (Fig. 3, Table 2). Other genes involved in signaling pathways like mitogen-associated protein kinase (MAPK), phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate 5-kinase family protein, G protein were also found to be up-regulated in Musa balbisiana (Table 2). However, none of signaling pathway-associated gene was differentially expressed in Pisang Awak at 12 hpi, whereas LRR receptor kinases and G protein were up-regulated at 48 hpi (Table 2)."},{"index":3,"size":100,"text":"Transcripts involved in redox regulation like glutaredoxins, peroxiredoxin, thioredoxins, ascorbate, glutathione, catalases and heme family were up-regulated in Musa balbisiana at 12 hpi (Fig. 2, Table 2). Also superoxide dismutase gene was induced in Musa balbisiana as response to pathogen interaction at 48 hpi. However, upon pathogen infection either the redox state was not affected or suppressed in Pisang Awak (Fig. 2). Peroxidases and glutathione S transferases (GSTs) were also differentially expressed in Musa balbisiana at 12 hpi. Genes associated with oxidative burst such as polyamine oxidase-like gene was induced in Musa balbisiana as early response (12 hpi) to Xcm."},{"index":4,"size":105,"text":"As a result of plant-pathogen interaction, hormone metabolic pathways were activated in Musa balbisiana. Abscisic acid (ABA) metabolism was activated in Musa balbisiana at both 12 and 48 hpi (Fig. 2, Table 2). However, genes associated with ABA metabolism were not differentially expressed in Pisang Awak at 12 hpi and suppressed at 48 hpi (Fig. 2, Table 2). Genes associated with ninja family protein AFP3 was activated in Musa balbisiana at 12 hpi. Genes associated with ethylene synthesis and signal transductions were differentially expressed in Musa balbisiana at 12 hpi (Table 2). Ethylene pathway was suppressed in both genotypes at 48 hpi. Several genes associated  "}]},{"head":"Continued","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":140,"text":"with jasmonate (JA) metabolism were up-regulated in Musa balbisiana at both 12 hpi and 48 hpi (Table 2). The salicylic acid (SA) pathway was repressed in Musa balbisiana at 12 hpi (Fig. 2). However, no change was observed in JA and SA metabolism in Pisang Awak. Several genes associated with auxin metabolism were up-regulated in Musa balbisiana at both 12 hpi and 48 hpi (Table 2). Genes associated with beta-glucanases were found to be differentially expressed in Musa balbisiana. Only one transcript associated with β-1,3-glucan hydrolase was activated in Musa balbisiana at 12 hpi and 48 hpi (Table 2). All other β-1,3 glucan hydrolase genes were suppressed in Musa balbisiana at 12 hpi. Upon pathogen attack, transcripts associated with proteolysis were also differentially expressed in Musa balbisiana at both 12 hpi and 48 hpi and Pisang Awak at 48 hpi."},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"Also, production of several secondary metabolites was activated in Musa balbisiana in response to pathogen infection at both 12 hpi and 48 hpi. Activation of isoprenoids, lignin biosynthesis, phenylpropanoids, flavonoids, terpenoids was observed in Musa balbisiana at 12 hpi (Fig. 4, Table 2). The wax synthesis was activated at 48 hpi and suppressed at 12 hpi in Musa balbisiana. Lignin biosynthesis, phenylpropanoids, flavonoids pathways were suppressed in Pisang Awak (Fig. 4)."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"In response to bacterial infection, vicilin-like antimicrobial peptide was activated in Musa balbisiana at 12 hpi (Table 2)."},{"index":4,"size":71,"text":"Genes associated with transporters of peptides and oligopeptides, proteins, aminoacids, sugars, metals, potassium, metabolites and ABC transporters and multidrug resistance systems were differentially expressed in Musa balbisiana at 12 hpi and 48 hpi. Gene associated with bidirectional sugar transporter SWEET14-like was significantly suppressed in Musa balbisiana at 12 hpi (Table 2). Transporters for v-ATPases and ABC transporters and multidrug resistance systems were also differentially expressed in Pisang Awak at 48 hpi."},{"index":5,"size":68,"text":"Early nodulin like proteins were suppressed in Musa balbisiana at 12 hpi (Table 2).  Genes associated with E3 ubiquitin-protein ligases were differentially expressed in Musa balbisiana at 12 hpi and 48 hpi (Table 2). Several of the E3 ubiquitin ligases such as PUB22, PUB23, RMA1H1, Ring 1, ATL-4, RHA1B, RHA2B, were down-regulated in Musa balbisiana. E3 ubiquitin ligase BIG BROTHER-like was down-regulated in Pisang Awak at 48 hpi."},{"index":6,"size":213,"text":"Genes involved in metabolic pathways like cytochrome P450 were found to be up-regulated as well as down-regulated in Musa balbisiana at both 12 hpi and 48 hpi. However cytochrome P450 pathway was suppressed in Pisang Awak at 48 hpi.  Validation of RNA-seq data for selected genes by qRt-pCR analysis. The results of RNA-Seq analysis was validated by quantitative RT-PCR (qRT-PCR) using a set of 30 annotated genes differentially expressed in response to Xcm infection in Musa balbisiana and Pisang Awak (Table 3). The differential expression was confirmed by qRT-PCR for some of the genes involved in plant defense such as antimicrobial peptide vicilin, R genes (RPM1, LRR disease resistance family), PR genes, transcription factors (MYB, MADS-box, WRKY), receptor like kinases (wall associated receptor kinases and LRR receptor kinase), redox associated genes (polyamine oxidases), genes involved in signaling pathways (phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate 5-kinase 6 like), E3 ubiquitin ligase and germin-like protein. The expression of genes involved in hormone metabolism such as ABA pathway (carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase 4), ethylene pathway (1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate oxidase), auxin metabolism (auxin-induced protein 15A-like) and jasmonic acid pathway (linoleate 13S-lipoxygenase 2-1), alpha-galactosidase, sugar transporter gene (SWEET14), early nodulin-like protein, and genes involved in secondary metabolites like lignin biosynthesis (cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase 1) and starch biosynthesis (glucose-1-phosphate adenylyltransferase large subunit 1-like) was also corroborated."},{"index":7,"size":62,"text":"The comparison of RNA-Seq and qRT-PCR showed similar trends of expression for candidate transcripts but difference in magnitude (Fig. 5). Pearson correlation indicated that the RNA-Seq and qRT-PCR were strongly correlated (r = 0.64, P = 0.00012). The differences in the fold change observed between the RNA-seq and qRT-PCR results might be due to analysis of independent samples and using different algorithms."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"BXW is the most important production constraint of banana affecting livelihood of millions of people in east Africa. The wild type banana progenitor Musa balbisiana has resistance to BXW, whereas all cultivated banana varieties including commercial Cavendish varieties are susceptible. Currently, molecular basis of resistance and susceptibility of banana to Xcm is unknown. Therefore, transcriptome profiles of BXW-resistant and BXW-susceptible banana genotypes challenged with Xcm were compared to better understand molecular mechanism of resistance or susceptibility of banana upon bacterial infection. In presence of Xcm, resistant genotype showed higher number of DEGs at 12 hpi in comparison to 48 hpi, suggesting that defense pathways were activated by pathogen infection as early as 12 hpi."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"Plants defend themselves against pathogens by activating defense mechanisms, including hypersensitive response (HR), induction of genes encoding PR, antimicrobial peptides, generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and enforcement of the cell wall."},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":"Up-regulation of vicilin-like AMP in Musa balbisiana after artificial inoculation with Xcm suggested its involvement in plant defense and suppression of bacterial population like action of other AMPs. Vicilin-like AMPs are plant derived α-amylase inhibitors having antibacterial and antifungal activity 5 ."},{"index":4,"size":82,"text":"Once plants recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) through pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs), series of reactions are activated leading to PAMP-triggered immunity (PTI) as first line of plant immunity or basal defense. E3 ubiquitin ligase plays important role in PTI 6 . Suppression of E3 ubiquitin ligases PUB22 and PUB23 in BXW-resistant genotype Musa balbisiana in response to Xcm was in agreement with previous report demonstrating role of E3 ubiquitin ligases (PUB22, PUB23, and PUB24) as negative regulators of PTI in Arabidopsis 6 ."},{"index":5,"size":162,"text":"Receptor-like kinases act as PRRs, which recognize pathogens as the first layer of inducible defense. Our results showed activation of several receptor like kinases and receptor kinases in BXW-resistant genotype, indicating their role in plant defense (Table 2). WAKs are known to be involved in plant development and defense. AtWAK1 and AtWAK2 are reported to be involved in cell wall expansion 7 . OsWAK14, which is similar to WAK2, was reported to be positive regulator of blast resistance in rice 8 . LRR-RKs recognizes the pathogen effectors and induces innate immunity. Receptor kinase DUF26 also might have been involved in induction of disease resistance as previously reported that cysteine-rich receptor-like kinases (CRKs) containing DUF26 motif in their extracellular domains are involved in stress resistance 9 . The previous report demonstrating that AtLRK10L1.2, Arabidopsis ortholog of wheat LRK10 is involved in ABA-mediated signaling 10 , suggested that up-regulation of LRK10 like receptor kinase in Musa balbisiana should have activated the ABA signaling pathway."},{"index":6,"size":76,"text":"PTI involves activation of oxidative burst, MAPK activity and transcription factors, preventing colonization of pathogen in host cells and providing disease resistance. MAPK cascades are major plant plasma membrane-localized PRRs, signaling early basal defense responses against pathogen infection 11 . In this study, activation of MAPK in Musa balbisiana indicated that up-regulation of MAPK cascades in the BXW-resistant genotype might have signaled early defense responses, including generation of ROS and HR leading to program cell death."},{"index":7,"size":124,"text":"Upon pathogen attack, plant cell changes its redox state as one of the earliest immune responses and induces HR and programmed cell death 12 . In this study, differential expression of several genes associated with redox state was observed in BXW-resistant genotype Musa balbisiana at 12 hpi as early response to Xcm infection, whereas no change in redox state was detected in BXW-susceptible genotype Pisang Awak at 12 hpi (Table 2). In response to pathogen, plants produce ROS including superoxide, hydroxyl radicals and hydrogen peroxide, which trigger HR and also induces lignification and signal transduction pathways and leading to programmed cell death 13 . Several heat shock proteins were also activated in Musa balbisiana in response to ROS particularly H 2 O 2 accumulation."},{"index":8,"size":51,"text":"Our results demonstrated activation of polyamine oxidases and peroxidases involved in ROS 14,15 in BXW-resistant genotype Musa balbisiana as early response to Xcm attack indicating induction of programmed cell death. Similar increase in polyamine enzymatic activity is reported in barley (Hordeum vulgare) during HR in response to powdery mildew 16 ."},{"index":9,"size":136,"text":"During plant-pathogen interaction, the response starts from the cell wall followed by activation of signaling pathway leading to disease resistance. In this study, lignin biosynthesis was activated in Musa balbisiana at 12 hpi, indicating cell wall reinforcement (Fig. 4). The cytochrome P450 involved in the lignin biosynthetic pathway was also up-regulated in the BXW-resistant genotype leading activation of lignin accumulation. Lignin plays important role in plant defense as demonstrated that deposition of lignin provided resistance to Verticillium dahliae in Camelina sativa and to Sclerotinia sclerotiorum in cotton 17,18 . Lignin or lignin-like phenolic polymers are rapidly deposited upon pathogen attack creating physical barrier to pathogen invasion and makes the cell wall more resistant to cell wall degrading enzymes 19 . We also observed up-regulation of phenylpropanoid pathway responsible for lignin biosynthesis in Musa balbisiana (Fig. 4)."},{"index":10,"size":77,"text":"Our result was similar to the previous reports, in which genes encoding cytochrome P450 were highly induced in disease resistant cauliflower, pepper and grapevines in response to bacterial pathogen infection [20][21][22] . The cytochrome P450 superfamily is involved in several biochemical pathways leading to the production of primary and secondary metabolites. Our result confirmed induction of cytochrome P450, which might have led to significantly high production of secondary metabolites in Musa balbisiana in response to pathogen infection."},{"index":11,"size":74,"text":"We also observed significant up-regulation of peroxidases as early defense response against Xcm in Musa balbisiana (Fig. 2). Plant peroxidases play important role in defense mechanism by reinforcing the cell wall in response to pathogen attack, lignin and suberin formation, catalyzing cross-links between phenolic compounds in the secondary walls and polysaccharides, synthesis of phytoalexins, participating in the metabolism of ROS, activating HR at the infection site and restricting the spread of pathogen 23 ."},{"index":12,"size":176,"text":"Our results demonstrated up-regulation of several transcription factors in Musa balbisiana (Fig. 2, Table 2). Transcription factors respond to biotic stress by altering the expression of a cascade of defense genes. C2H2 zinc-finger transcription factors are known to function as a pathogen-induced early-defense gene in Capsicum annuum 24 .  In response to pathogen infection, MYB106 and MYB88 were up-regulated in BXW-susceptible genotype Pisang Awak. MYB106 is reported to be a negative regulator of trichome branching and positive regulator photosynthesis and growth 25,26 . MYB88 is involved in stomatal development as well as regulation in abiotic stress responses and female reproductive development 27 . However, role of MYB88 and MYB106 in plant defense is not known. Up-regulation of MYB4, MYB61 and MYB96 was observed in Musa balbisiana after infection with Xcm (Fig. 2). MYB4 is associated with protection against UV and MYB61 regulates several aspects of plant growth and development 28,29 . MYB96 was reported to be involved in regulation of lateral root growth in response to drought stress by activating the ABA-auxin signaling network 30 ."},{"index":13,"size":96,"text":"In this study, ERF transcription factor was also activated in the BXW-resistant genotype in response to pathogen infection (Fig. 2). The APETALA2/ethylene responsive factor (AP2/ERF) family is one of the largest transcription factor families involved in defense responses against various pathogens 31 . AP2-mediated disease resistance was demonstrated in Arabidopsis and tomato against Botrytis cinerea and Ralstonia solanacearum, respectively [32][33][34] . AP2 mediated defense responses are linked to hormones such as jasmonic acid (JA) and ethylene (ET) 31 , which was also noticed in Musa balbisiana at 12 hpi in response to pathogen attack (Fig. 2)."},{"index":14,"size":107,"text":"WRKY transcription factor family also plays an important role in regulating genes associated with plant defense responses. WRKY transcription factors are involved in phosphorylation sites for MAP kinases, which is part of PTI 35 . Our results showed up-regulation of WRKY4 and WRKY75 in BXW-resistant genotype in response to Xcm attack. It has been reported that overexpression of WRKY4 have provided resistance to fungal pathogens like Botrytis cinerea, but enhanced susceptibility to bacterial pathogens like Pseudomonas syringae 36 . WRKY75 transcription factor act as positive regulators of defense during interactions with bacterial pathogens and demonstrated to activate basal and R-mediated resistance in Arabidopsis and strawberry 37 ."},{"index":15,"size":65,"text":"In this study, the majority of WRKY (6, 11, 17, 22, 40, 41, 49, 65 and 72) transcription factors were suppressed in the BXW-resistant genotype indicating their involvement as negative regulator (Table 2). Several of WRKY transcription factors (AtWRKY7, 11, 17, 18, 23, 25, 27, 38, 40, 41, 48, 53, 58, 60, and 62) were also reported as negative regulators of defense signaling 35 ."},{"index":16,"size":125,"text":"ABA plays important role in plants responding for abiotic as well as biotic stress. Although ABA is known as a negative regulator of defense against biotic stresses, a number of reports have also shown its role in induction of disease resistance 38 . Our results demonstrated activation of ABA metabolism in BXW-resistant genotype in Musa balbisiana in response to pathogen attack (Fig. 2). ABA has been reported to play important role in plant defense by callose deposition in response to pathogen attack 39 . ABA suppresses β-1,3-glucanase, an enzyme that degrades callose, ensuring callose accumulation. Our results also showed suppression of the majority of genes associated with β-1,3-glucanases in Musa balbisiana after inoculation with Xcm at 12 hpi, suggesting cell wall enforcement by callose deposition."},{"index":17,"size":115,"text":"The phytohormones SA, JA and ET play key roles in defense responses against pathogens 40 . Generally, SA-dependent plant defense system is activated by biotrophic bacterial pathogens, whereas necrotrophic fungal pathogens and chewing insects trigger JA-dependent plant defenses. However, we observed suppression of SA and activation of JA pathway in Musa balbisiana in response to interaction with Xcm. Similar to our results, there are reports demonstrating antagonistic interactions between ABA and SA metabolism and ABA production contributing to JA accumulation and activation for resistance against pathogen infection 38,39 . In this study NPR1-like gene was also suppressed confirming no involvement of SA pathway for systemic acquired resistance (SAR) pathway in Musa balbisiana at 12 hpi."},{"index":18,"size":99,"text":"A second line of defense is Effector-Triggered Immunity (ETI), which involves R-gene families. The R-genes interactwith virulence factors of pathogens and trigger defense response characterized by rapid calcium fluxes, oxidative burst, transcriptional reprogramming within and around the infection sites and localized programmed cell death, which leads to suppression of pathogen growth 41 . Resistance proteins protect the plant against pathogens after recognition of virulence factor, however, in the absence of specific recognition of virulence factors, basal defense response occurs through PAMPs. Similar to our studies, it has been reported overlapping of the PAMP-triggered defense with R-protein-mediated defense 42 ."},{"index":19,"size":32,"text":"In response to Xcm infection, R-gene in LRR family protein and putative disease resistance protein RPM1 in NBS-LRR domain were up-regulated in Musa balbisiana at 12 hpi inducing immune response providing  3."},{"index":20,"size":41,"text":"resistance against pathogen (Table 2). LRR family proteins provide the important structural framework required for molecular interactions, and pathogen recognition 42 . Similar to our results, Arabidopsis thaliana RPM1 have shown to trigger the defense system against Pseudomonas syringae 43 ."},{"index":21,"size":44,"text":"Activation of R-gene lipase-like PAD4 gene was also observed in Musa balbisiana (Table 2). Lipase like gene is involved in SA signaling and function in R-gene-mediated and basal plant disease resistance 44 . However, activation of SA signaling was not observed in this study."},{"index":22,"size":50,"text":"A typical class of susceptibility (S) genes, MLO-like protein 13 was found to be suppressed in Musa balbisiana at 12 hpi. MLO is postulated to act as a negative regulator of plant defenses and resistance to powdery mildew was demonstrated by knocking out susceptibility S-genes at MLO loci 45 ."},{"index":23,"size":74,"text":"Induction of PR genes in BXW-resistant genotype Musa balbisiana in response to Xcm inoculation indicates their role in innate immune responses like HR and systemic acquired resistance (SAR) in plants against pathogen infection. Osmotin-like protein, a PR5, is reported to be involved in plant defense responses to several pathogens and abiotic stresses 46 . Transgenic sesame overexpressing osmotin-like PR gene demonstrated resistance against Macrophomena phaseolina infection by activating JA/ET and SA pathways 46 ."},{"index":24,"size":86,"text":"Germin-like protein (GER1 or GLP1) was activated in both BXW-susceptible and BXW-resistant genotypes at 12 hpi and 48 hpi, respectively. Germin-like protein are reported to be increased in several plants after pathogen infection and involved in plant defense 47 . It has been reported that differences between susceptibility and resistance are associated with differences in the timing and magnitude of the induced response rather than just with the expression of various genes 48 . Further investigation is required to understand the function of GER1 in banana."},{"index":25,"size":54,"text":"This study also showed activation of proteolysis in Musa balbisiana in response to pathogen at both 12 hpi and 48 hpi, whereas proteolysis was also induced at 48 hpi in Pisang Awak (Fig. 2). Generally, activation of proteolysis enables host plant cells to trigger defense response upon recognition of an invading pathogen 49 ."},{"index":26,"size":106,"text":"Our results also showed differential expression of transmembrane transporters in Musa balbisiana. Upon attack, pathogens use transporters to send signals to modify host cellular mechanisms promoting virulence and facilitating their own proliferation within the host tissues 50 . This study showed suppression of sugar transporter SWEET14-like protein in Musa balbisiana as early response to bacterial attack. However, no differential expression of this transcript was noticed in BXW-susceptible genotype Pisang Awak, indicating that SWEET14 facilitate bacterial colonization in susceptible interaction. Bacterial pathogens manipulate SWEET14 transporter for virulence by direct binding its effector to the SWEET promoter and inducing its expression leading to susceptibility to pathogen 51,52 ."},{"index":27,"size":76,"text":"Upon pathogen attack, early nodulin-like proteins were repressed in Musa balbisiana at 12 hpi. Normally, nodulin-like proteins are present in legumes and play an important role in symbiosis with Rhizobium bacteria 53 . Nodulin-like proteins are involved in transport of nutrients, amino acids, hormones and solutes required for plant development. As nodulin-like proteins assist pathogens to colonize on the host plants 53 , suppression of these proteins in BXW-resistant Musa balbisiana suggested restricted colonization of Xcm."},{"index":28,"size":149,"text":"In conclusion, comparative transcriptome of the BXW-resistant and the BXW-susceptible genotypes of banana provided some understanding of molecular basis of response against Xcm. The DEGs mapped to biotic stress pathways allowed us to identify number of candidate genes involved in banana-Xcm interaction. Our results demonstrated activation of both PAMP-triggered defense and R protein-mediated defense in the BXW-resistant genotype Musa balbisiana as response to Xcm infection. Upon Xcm attack, pathogen-recognition receptors trigger cascade of responses leading to PTI as first line of defense. Further pathogen effectors were recognized by disease resistant genes inducing R-gene-mediated resistance. In this study transcripts associated with HR and programmed cell death were found to be activated in BXW-resistant genotype as early response to Xcm attack. RNAseq and qRT-PCR results also indicated activation of antimicrobial peptide in the BXW-resistant genotype. The antimicrobial activity of vicilin-like peptide from Musa balbisiana needs to be further tested against Xcm."},{"index":29,"size":54,"text":"The differential expressions of several genes involved in plant defense were validated by qRT-PCR (Fig. 5 and Table 3). Further functional genomics need to be performed to understand in-depth molecular mechanism of defense against Xcm. The significant genes should be knocked out or over-expressed to better understand their role in plant defense against Xcm."},{"index":30,"size":72,"text":"To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first transcriptome analysis of the banana genotypes for the response to Xcm pathogen. Our data provide insights on the defense mechanism in the BXW-resistant wild type banana Musa balbisiana to the most damaging pathogen Xcm. This information can be used in crop improvement program to transfer the disease resistance trait from wild type banana to farmer-preferred banana cultivars commonly grown in Africa."}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"plant material, inoculation and sampling. The BXW disease resistant genotype Musa balbisiana (BB) and highly susceptible banana cultivar Pisang Awak (ABB, commonly known as Kayinja) were obtained from in vitro collection at IITA-Kenya. The in vitro plantlets were micropropagated in tissue culture."},{"index":2,"size":126,"text":"Pure culture of Ugandan isolate of Xcm isolate collected from Pathology Laboratory, IITA was maintained on YTSA medium (1% yeast extract, 1% tryptone, 1% sucrose and 1.5% agar) at 4 °C. A single bacterial colony was inoculated into 25 ml of YTS medium (1% yeast extract, 1% tryptone and 1% sucrose) and cultured at 28 °C with shaking at 150 rpm for 48 h. The bacterial culture was centrifuged at 5000 rpm for 5 min and pellet was re-suspended in sterile double distilled water. The optical density (OD 600 nm) of the bacterial suspension was checked and bacterial concentration was adjusted to 10 8 cfu/ml with sterile water. Fresh inoculum was used for all the experiments in order to have high virulent potential of the pathogen."},{"index":3,"size":117,"text":"One month-old in vitro rooted plantlets with 3-4 leaves were artificially inoculated with fresh culture of Xcm. About 100 μl of bacterial suspension (10 8 cfu ml −1 ) was artificially injected using insulin syringe into the midrib of the second fully open leaf. This method of artificial inoculation is similar to natural infection through injury by contaminated cutting tools, commonly practiced by farmers. Previous study in our laboratory showed development of BXW symptoms and complete wilting of Pisang Awak plantlets artificially inoculated with Xcm 54 . The inoculated leaf of M. balbisiana also showed necrotic and chlorotic patches due to hypersensitive response, but these symptoms did not progress and the plants were subsequently healthy 54 ."},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":"Additional plantlets were mock inoculated with sterile water as control in order to nullify the effect of wounding through injection."},{"index":5,"size":56,"text":"The inoculated leaf samples were collected at 0, 12 hpi, 48 hpi. These time points were selected as the expression of defense genes during early infection with Xcm was observed to be high at 12 hpi and then decreasing at 48 hpi 55 . Three biological and three technical replicates were used for each time point."},{"index":6,"size":264,"text":"The samples were: RNA extraction and library preparation. Total RNA was extracted from 100 mg leaf samples using the RNeasy plant mini kit (Qiagen, GmbH, Hilden, Germany) and treated with DNase (RNeasy Plant Mini kit, Qiagen). The quality of RNA was assessed using denaturing agarose gel stained with gelred (Biotium, USA) and quantified using a Nanodrop 2000 (Thermo Fisher Scientific, MA, USA). A total of 30 cDNA libraries were prepared in each of the two treatments [three biological replicates at each of the three time points (0, 12 hpi and 48 hpi) per genotype inoculated with bacterial culture and two time points (12 hpi, 48 hpi) inoculated with sterile water] using Illumina TruSeq RNA Sample Preparation Kit v2. Poly (A) mRNA was obtained from 1 µg of the total RNA using poly-T oligos attached to magnetic beads. The purified mRNA was fragmented and used to synthesize first strand cDNA using SuperScript II Reverse Transcriptase (Thermo Fisher Scientific) and random primers. Second strand cDNA was synthesized from the resultant first strand and this was end-repaired by adding ' A' (A-tailing) at the 3′ ends to allow the ligation of indexed adaptors. The adaptor indexes were used in such a way that it allowed for multiplexing in sequencing. The libraries were enriched through twelve cycles of PCR amplifications. Quantitative and qualitative assessments of the libraries were done using QuBit DNA assay (Thermo Fisher Scientific) as well as with Agilent DNA 1000 assay (Agilent technologies, CA, USA) on an Agilent 2100 bioanalyzer. All the assays on quality and quantity were performed according to the respective manufacturer's protocols."},{"index":7,"size":40,"text":"RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) and differential gene expression analysis. The cDNA library was sequenced pair-ends wise using the Illumina HiSeq ™ 2500, and 100-bp reads were generated. The sequencing was performed by Center for Genomics and Systems Biology, New York University."},{"index":8,"size":119,"text":"The reads were trimmed for quality using Trimmomatic and aligned against the reference Musa acuminata genome using Hisat2 56 . The reference genome for Musa acuminata DH Pahang annotation version 2 and annotations were downloaded from Banana Genome Hub 57 (http://banana-genome-hub.southgreen.fr/download). This genome sequence is considered to be the reference genome for Musa species due to its completeness and quality of annotation 58 . The quality of annotation has recently been quantified through a BUSCO analysis, which scores the genome of Musa acuminata DH Pahang at 96.5% and the genome of Musa balbisiana Pisang Klutuk Wulung at 66.5% 59 . This genome sequence has been extensively used in other transcriptome studies on Musa including genotypes having B-genome 60 ."},{"index":9,"size":86,"text":"The protein sequences from the Musa acuminata DH Pahang and Musa balbisiana Pisang Klutuk Wulung genomes were downloaded and the reciprocal best BLAST hits were obtained using a perl script. The gene identifiers (IDs) from Musa balbisiana Pisang Klutuk Wulung are reported in all tables based on the results of the reciprocal best BLAST search. The best BLAST hit is reported for the genes where the reciprocal best BLAST search hit was not available and it is denoted with the symbol \"*\" after the gene identifier."},{"index":10,"size":93,"text":"HTSeq-count was used to count the number of reads that map to the different annotated genes. Readcounts for annotated genes were loaded in R and genes with low expression were filtered out. The genes were removed from the dataset if none of its groups had a median of 10 reads mapping to the genome. The filtered readcount data was used as input for DESeq2 to determine differentially expressed genes. The genes with fold change of greater than 1.5 or <−1.5 and also an adjusted p-value less FDR corrected p-value of 0.1 were identified."},{"index":11,"size":46,"text":"The change in gene expression due to bacterial inoculation was calculated for both genotypes at each time point by comparing them with mock-inoculated plants of the same genotype using the contrasts function in DESeq2. Also the interaction between genotypes and pathogen i.e. genotypes:treatment interaction was recorded."},{"index":12,"size":104,"text":"Go-term enrichment analysis. A Gene Ontology (GO) Enrichment Analysis of differentially expressed genes was performed using GO-terms provided by the Banana Genome Hub and the GOStats package in R 61 . GOStats has a functionality that allows individuals to create their own GO annotation database for species that are currently not supported in the annotation databases. Using the Banana Genome Hub Gene-to-GO association a Gene Set Enrichment dataset was created and used for identifying GO-terms that were over-represented in a given gene list. The function has been enhanced to provide the FDR corrected p-values. All go-terms were adjusted for p-value of less than 0.05."},{"index":13,"size":68,"text":"Biotic stress and metabolic pathway analysis. The DEGs were mapped to different pathways using the Mapman 62 version 3.5.1R2. The mapping to the Mapman functional categories (BINs) was done for all the protein sequences from the Musa acuminata version 2 genome. The protein sequences were uploaded to the Mercator tool 63 . The pathway analysis used the overall metabolic pathway and the biotic stress pathways for this study."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Graphs showing differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in BXW-resistant wild type banana genotype Musa balbisiana and BXW-susceptible banana genotype Pisang Awak at 12 and 48 hours post-inoculation with Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum. (A) Venn diagram showing comparison of DEGs in two genotypes at 12 hpi and 48 hpi, (B) Graphs showing number of up or down-regulated DEGs. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Diagram showing differentially expressed genes in BXW-resistant and BXW-susceptible genotypes of banana after inoculation with Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum mapped onto known biotic stress pathway bins using Mapman. (A) BXW-resistant genotype Musa balbisiana at 12 hpi, (B) BXW-susceptible genotype Pisang Awak at 12 hpi, (C) BXW-resistant genotype Musa balbisiana at 48 hpi, (D) BXW-susceptible genotype Pisang Awak at 48 hpi. Figures were generated from Mapman. The scale is from down-regulated (blue) to up-regulated (red). "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Diagram showing mapping of the transcripts associated with receptor-like-kinases in the BXWresistant genotype Musa balbisiana at 12 hours post-inoculation with Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum. Figure was generated from Mapman. The scale is from down-regulated (blue) to up-regulated (red). "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Diagram showing differentially expressed genes mapped to secondary metabolic pathways in BXWresistant and BXW-susceptible genotypes of banana in response to interaction with Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum. (A) BXW-resistant genotype Musa balbisiana at 12 hpi, (B) BXW-resistant genotype Musa balbisiana at 48 hpi, (C) BXW-susceptible genotype Pisang Awak at 48 hpi. Figures were generated from Mapman. The scale is from down-regulated (blue) to up-regulated (red). "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. Comparison of RNA-Seq and qRT-PCR analysis for differential expression (log 2 fold change) of selected genes. Details of selected genes are provided in Table3. "},{"text":"Bin Name Pisang Awak at 12 hpi Musa balbisiana at 12 hpi Pisang Awak at 48 hpi Musa balbisiana at 48 hpi   "},{"text":"Table 1 . List 93 1 6 6 3 931663  "},{"text":"Gene ID from Musa balbisiana (Pisang Klutuk Wulung) Log2 Fold Change Description Pisang Awak at 12 hpi Stress-related  Ma02_g20530 ITC1587_Bchr2_P04749 17.87 Germin-like protein 8-14, similar to germin 3 of Arabidopsis thaliana Ma02_g20530ITC1587_Bchr2_P0474917.87Germin-like protein 8-14, similar to germin 3 of Arabidopsis thaliana Transcription factors    Transcription factors Ma05_g25630 ITC1587_Bchr5_P14199 18.46 MYB family transcription factor Ma05_g25630ITC1587_Bchr5_P1419918.46MYB family transcription factor  "},{"text":"Musa balbisiana at 12 hpi Disease Resistance and Pathogenesis-Related Protein   Gene ID from Musa balbisiana Gene ID from Musa balbisiana Log2 Fold Log2 Fold  Gene ID from Musa balbisiana Gene ID from Musa balbisianaLog2 Fold Log2 Fold  (Pisang Klutuk Wulung) (Pisang Klutuk Wulung) Change Change Description Description (Pisang Klutuk Wulung) (Pisang Klutuk Wulung)Change ChangeDescription Description Ma02_g08740 Ma05_g17450 ma06_g13940 ITC1587_Bchr2_P03721 ITC1587_Bchr5_P13538 ITC1587_Bchr6_P15886 2.23 0.91 1.28 Phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate 5-kinase 6-like Phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate 5-kinase Nicotinamidase 1 (NIC1) involved in the pyridine nucleotide salvage pathway which is connected to the de novo NAD biosynthesis through the ABA signaling pathway Ma02_g08740 Ma05_g17450 ma06_g13940ITC1587_Bchr2_P03721 ITC1587_Bchr5_P13538 ITC1587_Bchr6_P158862.23 0.91 1.28Phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate 5-kinase 6-like Phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate 5-kinase Nicotinamidase 1 (NIC1) involved in the pyridine nucleotide salvage pathway which is connected to the de novo NAD biosynthesis through the ABA signaling pathway Ma05_g06670 Transporters ITC1587_Bchr5_P12277 1.07 G-proteins rho guanine nucleotide exchange factor 8-like Ma05_g06670 TransportersITC1587_Bchr5_P122771.07G-proteins rho guanine nucleotide exchange factor 8-like Ma08_g10000 Ma08_g00630 ITC1587_Bchr8_P22338* ITC1587_Bchr8_P21529 0.97 −7.31 Putative protein pleiotropic regulator PRL2, essential for plant innate immunity Bidirectional sugar transporter SWEET14-like Ma08_g10000 Ma08_g00630ITC1587_Bchr8_P22338* ITC1587_Bchr8_P215290.97 −7.31Putative protein pleiotropic regulator PRL2, essential for plant innate immunity Bidirectional sugar transporter SWEET14-like Ma09_g08850 Ma11_g13300 ITC1587_Bchr9_P25823 ITC1587_Bchr11_P33322 0.99 −5.98 Nodulation receptor kinase-like Early nodulin-like protein 3 Ma09_g08850 Ma11_g13300ITC1587_Bchr9_P25823 ITC1587_Bchr11_P333220.99 −5.98Nodulation receptor kinase-like Early nodulin-like protein 3 Ma10_g09280 Ma06_g07960 ITC1587_Bchr7_P20253* ITC1587_Bchr6_P15344 0.91 −1.91 Leucine-rich repeat transmembrane protein kinase Early nodulin-like protein 1 Ma10_g09280 Ma06_g07960ITC1587_Bchr7_P20253* ITC1587_Bchr6_P153440.91 −1.91Leucine-rich repeat transmembrane protein kinase Early nodulin-like protein 1 Ma08_g08120 E3 ubiquitin ligase ITC1587_Bchr8_P22166 1.31 Leucine-rich receptor-like protein kinase family protein HSL1 Ma08_g08120 E3 ubiquitin ligaseITC1587_Bchr8_P221661.31Leucine-rich receptor-like protein kinase family protein HSL1 Ma09_g22650 Ma10_g14170 Ma07_g03310 ITC1587_Bchr9_P27517* ITC1587_Bchr10_P30158 ITC1587_Bchr7_P18846 1.75 1.37 −2.99 Probable leucine-rich repeat (LRR) disease resistance family protein Pseudo histidine-containing phosphotransfer protein 2 E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase PUB23-like Ma09_g22650 Ma10_g14170 Ma07_g03310ITC1587_Bchr9_P27517* ITC1587_Bchr10_P30158 ITC1587_Bchr7_P188461.75 1.37 −2.99Probable leucine-rich repeat (LRR) disease resistance family protein Pseudo histidine-containing phosphotransfer protein 2 E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase PUB23-like Ma09_g28690 Ma07_g03320 Redox regulation Ma04_g38470 Ma06_g26670 Ma05_g17000 Ma09_g05410 Ma01_g07400 Ma10_g29540 Ma05_g16120 ITC1587_Bchr9_P28091 ITC1587_Bchr7_P18846* ITC1587_Bchr4_P11526 ITC1587_Bchr6_P17425 ITC1587_BchrUn_random_ P35437 ITC1587_Bchr9_P25531* ITC1587_Bchr6_P17629* ITC1587_Bchr10_P31495 ITC1587_BchrUn_random_ P35166 −4.02 1.05 4.6 1.88 −0.93 2.52 3.21 1.09 −2.08 Putative disease resistance protein RPM1, confers resistance to Pseudomonas syringae pv. E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase PUB22 maculicola 1 Polyamine oxidase-like E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase RMA1H1-like Pathogenesis-related protein R major form precursor, involves in defense response to bacterium Pathogenesis-related family protein Glutaredoxin family GRX480 involved in SA/JA cross-talk WCRKC thioredoxin 1 involved in cell redox homeostasis E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase RHA1B-like Ma09_g28690 Ma07_g03320 Redox regulation Ma04_g38470 Ma06_g26670 Ma05_g17000 Ma09_g05410 Ma01_g07400 Ma10_g29540 Ma05_g16120ITC1587_Bchr9_P28091 ITC1587_Bchr7_P18846* ITC1587_Bchr4_P11526 ITC1587_Bchr6_P17425 ITC1587_BchrUn_random_ P35437 ITC1587_Bchr9_P25531* ITC1587_Bchr6_P17629* ITC1587_Bchr10_P31495 ITC1587_BchrUn_random_ P35166−4.02 1.05 4.6 1.88 −0.93 2.52 3.21 1.09 −2.08Putative disease resistance protein RPM1, confers resistance to Pseudomonas syringae pv. E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase PUB22 maculicola 1 Polyamine oxidase-like E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase RMA1H1-like Pathogenesis-related protein R major form precursor, involves in defense response to bacterium Pathogenesis-related family protein Glutaredoxin family GRX480 involved in SA/JA cross-talk WCRKC thioredoxin 1 involved in cell redox homeostasis E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase RHA1B-like Ma05_g02080 Ma01_g02150 Ma09_g05070 ITC1587_Bchr5_P11835 ITC1587_Bchr1_P00623* ITC1587_Bchr9_P25505 0.68 1.49 −2.73 NPR1-like protein 3 (NPR3), involves in defense response to bacterium Ascorbate-specific transmembrane electron transporter 1 E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase RHA2B Ma05_g02080 Ma01_g02150 Ma09_g05070ITC1587_Bchr5_P11835 ITC1587_Bchr1_P00623* ITC1587_Bchr9_P255050.68 1.49 −2.73NPR1-like protein 3 (NPR3), involves in defense response to bacterium Ascorbate-specific transmembrane electron transporter 1 E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase RHA2B Ma03_g14510 Heat shock protein Ma09_g29150 Ma10_g11130 Ma08_g12080 Ma10_g15710 Ma03_g14160 Ma05_g15800 Ma10_g24780 ITC1587_Bchr3_P06402 ITC1587_Bchr9_P28137 ITC1587_Bchr10_P29903 ITC1587_Bchr8_P22539 ITC1587_Bchr10_P30300 ITC1587_BchrUn_random_ P35655 ITC1587_Bchr5_P13135 ITC1587_Bchr10_P31078 −0.83 −4.23 0.99 1.04 −1.10 3.36 1.23 −1.26 MLO-like protein 13 Putative 26.5 kDa heat shock protein, HSP20-like chaperones, involves in response to response GDP-L-galactose phosphorylase 1, defense response to bacterium by callose deposition in cell RING-H2 finger protein ATL1-like wall Heme-binding-like protein RING-H2 finger protein ATL16-like to hydrogen peroxide Catalase isozyme 2, a peroxisomal catalase E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase ATL6-like Ma03_g14510 Heat shock protein Ma09_g29150 Ma10_g11130 Ma08_g12080 Ma10_g15710 Ma03_g14160 Ma05_g15800 Ma10_g24780ITC1587_Bchr3_P06402 ITC1587_Bchr9_P28137 ITC1587_Bchr10_P29903 ITC1587_Bchr8_P22539 ITC1587_Bchr10_P30300 ITC1587_BchrUn_random_ P35655 ITC1587_Bchr5_P13135 ITC1587_Bchr10_P31078−0.83 −4.23 0.99 1.04 −1.10 3.36 1.23 −1.26MLO-like protein 13 Putative 26.5 kDa heat shock protein, HSP20-like chaperones, involves in response to response GDP-L-galactose phosphorylase 1, defense response to bacterium by callose deposition in cell RING-H2 finger protein ATL1-like wall Heme-binding-like protein RING-H2 finger protein ATL16-like to hydrogen peroxide Catalase isozyme 2, a peroxisomal catalase E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase ATL6-like Ma08_g24440 Ma11_g19280 Ma07_g16650 ITC1587_Bchr8_P24119 ITC1587_Bchr11_P33899 ITC1587_Bchr7_P20364 1.16 1.68 −1.55 Class III heat shock protein 1-Cys peroxiredoxin (PER1) RING-H2 finger protein ATL2-like Ma08_g24440 Ma11_g19280 Ma07_g16650ITC1587_Bchr8_P24119 ITC1587_Bchr11_P33899 ITC1587_Bchr7_P203641.16 1.68 −1.55Class III heat shock protein 1-Cys peroxiredoxin (PER1) RING-H2 finger protein ATL2-like Ma01_g14540 Ma06_g19640 Ma04_g27580 ITC1587_Bchr1_P01860* ITC1587_Bchr6_P16418 ITC1587_Bchr5_P13665* 2.02 1.31 −1.56 Class I heat shock protein, HSP20-like chaperones Glutaredoxin involved in cell redox homeostasis E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase ATL4-like Ma01_g14540 Ma06_g19640 Ma04_g27580ITC1587_Bchr1_P01860* ITC1587_Bchr6_P16418 ITC1587_Bchr5_P13665*2.02 1.31 −1.56Class I heat shock protein, HSP20-like chaperones Glutaredoxin involved in cell redox homeostasis E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase ATL4-like Ma01_g10350 Hormone metabolism Miscellaneous ITC1587_Bchr1_P01490 1.19 Putative small heat shock protein Ma01_g10350 Hormone metabolism MiscellaneousITC1587_Bchr1_P014901.19Putative small heat shock protein Ma06_g13850 Absciscisic acid (ABA) Ma04_g03310 ITC1587_Bchr6_P15877 ITC1587_Bchr4_P08682 1.2 1.23 Stromal 70 kDa heat shock-related protein Glucan endo-1,3-beta-glucosidase Ma06_g13850 Absciscisic acid (ABA) Ma04_g03310ITC1587_Bchr6_P15877 ITC1587_Bchr4_P086821.2 1.23Stromal 70 kDa heat shock-related protein Glucan endo-1,3-beta-glucosidase Ma10_g14770 Ma04_g19490 Ma06_g08050 ITC1587_Bchr10_P30216 ITC1587_Bchr4_P10415 ITC1587_Bchr6_P15353 1.42 1.29 1.18 BAG family molecular chaperone regulator 6-like, involves in apoptosis after pathogen attack Putative probable carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase 4 Peptidase family M48 involved in proteolysis Ma10_g14770 Ma04_g19490 Ma06_g08050ITC1587_Bchr10_P30216 ITC1587_Bchr4_P10415 ITC1587_Bchr6_P153531.42 1.29 1.18BAG family molecular chaperone regulator 6-like, involves in apoptosis after pathogen attack Putative probable carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase 4 Peptidase family M48 involved in proteolysis Transcription factors Ma03_g33240 Ma07_g03700 ITC1587_Bchr3_P08330 ITC1587_Bchr7_P18873 0.94 1.24 Protein phosphatase 2C 51 Allantoate deiminase involved in proteolysis Transcription factors Ma03_g33240 Ma07_g03700ITC1587_Bchr3_P08330 ITC1587_Bchr7_P188730.94 1.24Protein phosphatase 2C 51 Allantoate deiminase involved in proteolysis Ma04_g05410 Ma08_g04270 Ma03_g18730 Ma11_g20890 Ma03_g11210 ITC1587_Bchr4_P08866 ITC1587_Bchr8_P21825 ITC1587_BchrUn_random_ ITC1587_Bchr11_P34045 P38210 ITC1587_Bchr3_P06202* 3.0 1.35 1.21 1.03 1.46 MADS-box transcription factor family protein AGL61 MADS-box transcription factor 14 (OsMADS14), APETALA1-like B Serine carboxypeptidase-like 18, involved in proteolysis Probable protein phosphatase 2C 9 Subtilisin-like protease involved in proteolysis Ma04_g05410 Ma08_g04270 Ma03_g18730 Ma11_g20890 Ma03_g11210ITC1587_Bchr4_P08866 ITC1587_Bchr8_P21825 ITC1587_BchrUn_random_ ITC1587_Bchr11_P34045 P38210 ITC1587_Bchr3_P06202*3.0 1.35 1.21 1.03 1.46MADS-box transcription factor family protein AGL61 MADS-box transcription factor 14 (OsMADS14), APETALA1-like B Serine carboxypeptidase-like 18, involved in proteolysis Probable protein phosphatase 2C 9 Subtilisin-like protease involved in proteolysis Ma09_g08260 Ma07_g20270 Ma04_g35970 ITC1587_Bchr9_P25771 ITC1587_Bchr7_P20689 ITC1587_Bchr4_P11328 1.31 0.64 2.26 MyB-related protein 308-like, encodes a R2R3 MYB protein, myb domain protein 4 (MYB4) Zeaxanthin epoxidase involved in first step of ABA biosynthesis Subtilisin-like protease involved in proteolysis Ma09_g08260 Ma07_g20270 Ma04_g35970ITC1587_Bchr9_P25771 ITC1587_Bchr7_P20689 ITC1587_Bchr4_P113281.31 0.64 2.26MyB-related protein 308-like, encodes a R2R3 MYB protein, myb domain protein 4 (MYB4) Zeaxanthin epoxidase involved in first step of ABA biosynthesis Subtilisin-like protease involved in proteolysis Ma10_g16050 Ma04_g10140 Ma11_g20890 ITC1587_Bchr10_P30324* ITC1587_Bchr4_P09286 ITC1587_Bchr11_P34045 1.05 0.61 1.03 Transcription repressor MYB4, encodes a R2R3 MYB Serine carboxypeptidase-like 18, involved in proteolysis Ma10_g16050 Ma04_g10140 Ma11_g20890ITC1587_Bchr10_P30324* ITC1587_Bchr4_P09286 ITC1587_Bchr11_P340451.05 0.61 1.03Transcription repressor MYB4, encodes a R2R3 MYB Serine carboxypeptidase-like 18, involved in proteolysis Ma08_g20860 Ma08_g04840 ITC1587_Bchr8_P23775 ITC1587_Bchr8_P21878 1.12 1.45 Transcription factor MYB1R1-like Zinc metalloprotease EGY3, involved in response to hydrogen peroxide Ma08_g20860 Ma08_g04840ITC1587_Bchr8_P23775 ITC1587_Bchr8_P218781.12 1.45Transcription factor MYB1R1-like Zinc metalloprotease EGY3, involved in response to hydrogen peroxide Ma02_g23870 Anti-microbial ITC1587_Bchr2_P05052 0.95 Putative Myb-related protein 306, encodes a R2R3 type Myb, myb domain protein 96 (MYB96) Ma02_g23870 Anti-microbialITC1587_Bchr2_P050520.95Putative Myb-related protein 306, encodes a R2R3 type Myb, myb domain protein 96 (MYB96) Ma01_g01800 Ma04_g39350 Ma03_g31180 ITC1587_Bchr1_P00594 ITC1587_Bchr4_P11595 ITC1587_Bchr3_P08153 0.60 3.36 5.44 MYB-related transcription factor family Ninja-family protein AFP3-like Vicilin-like antimicrobial peptides 2-2 Ma01_g01800 Ma04_g39350 Ma03_g31180ITC1587_Bchr1_P00594 ITC1587_Bchr4_P11595 ITC1587_Bchr3_P081530.60 3.36 5.44MYB-related transcription factor family Ninja-family protein AFP3-like Vicilin-like antimicrobial peptides 2-2 Ma04_g14250 Ethylene Pisang Awak at 48 hpi ITC1587_Bchr4_P09682 0.65 WRKY transcription factor 4 Ma04_g14250 Ethylene Pisang Awak at 48 hpiITC1587_Bchr4_P096820.65WRKY transcription factor 4 Ma09_g06980 Ma10_g30810 Ma06_g14430 Transcription factors Ma10_g18840 ITC1587_Bchr6_P15345* ITC1587_Bchr10_P31614 ITC1587_BchrUn_random_ P38187 ITC1587_Bchr10_P30560* 0.79 2.18 5.40 0.88 WRKY transcription factor 75 C2H2 zinc finger protein 4-like 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate oxidase Transcription factor MYB88 Ma09_g06980 Ma10_g30810 Ma06_g14430 Transcription factors Ma10_g18840ITC1587_Bchr6_P15345* ITC1587_Bchr10_P31614 ITC1587_BchrUn_random_ P38187 ITC1587_Bchr10_P30560*0.79 2.18 5.40 0.88WRKY transcription factor 75 C2H2 zinc finger protein 4-like 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate oxidase Transcription factor MYB88 Ma10_g07810 Ma11_g16580 Receptor-like kinases ITC1587_Bchr10_P29542 ITC1587_Bchr11_P33656* 1.19 2.05 C2H2 zinc finger family Ethylene receptor Ma10_g07810 Ma11_g16580 Receptor-like kinasesITC1587_Bchr10_P29542 ITC1587_Bchr11_P33656*1.19 2.05C2H2 zinc finger family Ethylene receptor Ma09_g04220 Ma03_g05720 Ma04_g03160 Ma08_g16960 Ma07_g22730 Ma03_g17120 Auxin Ma01_g11950 Ma07_g16540 Ma10_g27770 Ma06_g06990 Ma04_g24750 Ma01_g09550 Ma06_g07000 Signaling pathways Ma06_g09030 Ma06_g07010 Ma03_g07190 Ma04_g37190 Ma05_g18810 E3 ubiquitin ligase Ma11_g07820 Jasmonic acid Ma04_g13930 Ma04_g07150 Ma03_g11520 Miscellaneous Ma06_g08780 Ma07_g12340 Ma03_g26960 Ma09_g14370 Secondary Metabolites Ma03_g29980 Receptor-like kinases Ma02_g12690 Ma06_g06860 Ma11_g15300 Ma03_g26960 Ma02_g12710 Ma06_g25700 Ma09_g06030 Ma04_g18790 Ma04_g12630 Musa balbisiana at 48 hpi Ma08_g08120 Ma04_g33020 Stress-related Ma09_g08850 Ma07_g07170 Ma02_g20530 Ma10_g09280 Ma02_g17740 Disease resistance (R) and Pathogenesis-related (PR) ITC1587_Bchr9_P25437 ITC1587_Bchr3_P05677 ITC1587_BchrUn_random_ P39147* ITC1587_BchrUn_random_ P38061* ITC1587_Bchr7_P20906 ITC1587_Bchr3_P06850 ITC1587_Bchr1_P01647 ITC1587_BchrUn_random_ P38061 ITC1587_Bchr10_P31333 ITC1587_Bchr6_P15254 ITC1587_Bchr1_P00475 ITC1587_Bchr1_P01419* ITC1587_Bchr6_P15254* ITC1587_Bchr6_P15445 ITC1587_Bchr6_P15256 ITC1587_Bchr10_P30745* ITC1587_Bchr4_P11429 ITC1587_Bchr5_P13157* ITC1587_Bchr11_P32446 ITC1587_Bchr4_P09646 ITC1587_Bchr4_P09012 ITC1587_Bchr3_P06219 ITC1587_Bchr6_P15417 ITC1587_Bchr7_P19705 ITC1587_Bchr3_P07815 ITC1587_Bchr9_P26312 ITC1587_Bchr3_P08046* ITC1587_Bchr2_P04089* ITC1587_BchrUn_random_ ITC1587_Bchr5_P13764* P38862 ITC1587_Bchr3_P07815 ITC1587_Bchr2_P04072* ITC1587_BchrUn_random_ P39673 ITC1587_Bchr9_P25584 ITC1587_Bchr4_P10336 ITC1587_Bchr4_P09530 ITC1587_Bchr8_P22166 ITC1587_Bchr4_P11074 ITC1587_Bchr9_P25823 ITC1587_Bchr7_P19196 ITC1587_Bchr2_P04749 ITC1587_Bchr7_P20253* ITC1587_Bchr2_P04501 Ma03_g30610 ITC1587_Bchr3_P08112* Ma05_g05930 ITC1587_Bchr5_P12213 Ma06_g14360 ITC1587_Bchr6_P15924 Ma01_g14090 ITC1587_Bchr1_P00623* Ma11_g02650 ITC1587_Bchr11_P31934 Heat Shock Ma08_g29620 ITC1587_Bchr8_P24584* Signaling pathways Ma04_g04500 ITC1587_Bchr4_P08787 Ma04_g33310 ITC1587_Bchr4_P11096 Transcription factors 1.32 0.64 1.16 1.4 1.86 1.95 3.06 1.21 1.67 1.46 0.78 2.16 1.45 1.31 1.067 0.64 1.18 1.34 1.01 −1.04 2.02 1.53 1.0 1.10 0.61 1.19 0.96 4.90 5.46 0.62 0.61 4.17 1.39 1.40 3.58 1.37 1.3 2.30 1.16 5.04 16.16 0.91 1.11 2.12 1.92 1.94 0.92 1.39 3.03 0.89 1.60 Floral homeotic protein APETALA 2-like, AP2.7 Methylesterase 3 LRR receptor-like serine/threonine-protein kinase Putative Ethylene-responsive transcription factor 1 Basic Helix-Loop-Helix family Auxin-induced protein 15A-like LRR transmembrane protein kinase, SHR5-receptor-like kinase Heat shock transcription factor C1 (HSFC1) UDP-glucose:indole-3-acetate beta-D-glucosyltransferase LRR receptor-like serine/threonine-protein kinase Heat shock transcription factor C1 (HSFC1) UDP-glucosyltransferase GRAS transcription factor family UDP-glucosyltransferase G protein, translation factor GUF1 homolog Transcription factor, Auxin Response Factor (ARF) IN2-2 protein-like Zinc finger protein CONSTANS-LIKE 16-like, transcription factor C2C2(Zn) CO-like Putative E3 ubiquitin ligase BIG BROTHER/ Transcription factor C2C2(Zn) CO-like Linoleate 13S-lipoxygenase 2-1 required for wound-induced jasmonic acid accumulation Homeobox transcription factor family Protein TIFY 6b involved in jasmonic acid mediated signaling pathway Serine carboxypeptidase-like 18, involved in proteolysis Homeobox transcription factor family Carboxyl-terminal peptidase Homeobox transcription factor family Prolyl Oligopeptidase, involved in proteolysis Geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate synthase involved in isoprenoid biosynthesis Serine carboxypeptidase-like, involved in proteolysis Wall-associated kinase 2 (WAK2) Terpenoid cyclases, alpha-terpineol synthase Ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme E2 Wall associated kinase 5 (WAK5) Probable homogentisate phytyltransferase 1 involved in tocopherol biosynthesis Leucine-rich repeat receptor-like protein kinase family Cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase 1 (CAD1) involved in lignin biosynthetic process Leucine-rich receptor-like protein kinase HSL1 Mannitol dehydrogenase Germin-like protein 8-14 LRR receptor-like serine/threonine-protein kinase UDP-glycosyltransferase 73C2 Leucine-rich repeat transmembrane protein kinase UDP-glycosyltransferase 73C6-like Lipase-like PAD4 Receptor-like protein kinase, wheat LRK10 like Receptor-like protein kinase DUF 26 Naringenin, 2-oxoglutarate 3-dioxygenase, involved in response to fungus and bacterium, flavonoid biosynthetic process Class IV heat shock protein-like Mitogen-activated protein kinase 2 Malonyl-coenzyme A: anthocyanin 3-O-glucoside-6\"-O-malonyltransferase Ma09_g04220 Ma03_g05720 Ma04_g03160 Ma08_g16960 Ma07_g22730 Ma03_g17120 Auxin Ma01_g11950 Ma07_g16540 Ma10_g27770 Ma06_g06990 Ma04_g24750 Ma01_g09550 Ma06_g07000 Signaling pathways Ma06_g09030 Ma06_g07010 Ma03_g07190 Ma04_g37190 Ma05_g18810 E3 ubiquitin ligase Ma11_g07820 Jasmonic acid Ma04_g13930 Ma04_g07150 Ma03_g11520 Miscellaneous Ma06_g08780 Ma07_g12340 Ma03_g26960 Ma09_g14370 Secondary Metabolites Ma03_g29980 Receptor-like kinases Ma02_g12690 Ma06_g06860 Ma11_g15300 Ma03_g26960 Ma02_g12710 Ma06_g25700 Ma09_g06030 Ma04_g18790 Ma04_g12630 Musa balbisiana at 48 hpi Ma08_g08120 Ma04_g33020 Stress-related Ma09_g08850 Ma07_g07170 Ma02_g20530 Ma10_g09280 Ma02_g17740 Disease resistance (R) and Pathogenesis-related (PR) ITC1587_Bchr9_P25437 ITC1587_Bchr3_P05677 ITC1587_BchrUn_random_ P39147* ITC1587_BchrUn_random_ P38061* ITC1587_Bchr7_P20906 ITC1587_Bchr3_P06850 ITC1587_Bchr1_P01647 ITC1587_BchrUn_random_ P38061 ITC1587_Bchr10_P31333 ITC1587_Bchr6_P15254 ITC1587_Bchr1_P00475 ITC1587_Bchr1_P01419* ITC1587_Bchr6_P15254* ITC1587_Bchr6_P15445 ITC1587_Bchr6_P15256 ITC1587_Bchr10_P30745* ITC1587_Bchr4_P11429 ITC1587_Bchr5_P13157* ITC1587_Bchr11_P32446 ITC1587_Bchr4_P09646 ITC1587_Bchr4_P09012 ITC1587_Bchr3_P06219 ITC1587_Bchr6_P15417 ITC1587_Bchr7_P19705 ITC1587_Bchr3_P07815 ITC1587_Bchr9_P26312 ITC1587_Bchr3_P08046* ITC1587_Bchr2_P04089* ITC1587_BchrUn_random_ ITC1587_Bchr5_P13764* P38862 ITC1587_Bchr3_P07815 ITC1587_Bchr2_P04072* ITC1587_BchrUn_random_ P39673 ITC1587_Bchr9_P25584 ITC1587_Bchr4_P10336 ITC1587_Bchr4_P09530 ITC1587_Bchr8_P22166 ITC1587_Bchr4_P11074 ITC1587_Bchr9_P25823 ITC1587_Bchr7_P19196 ITC1587_Bchr2_P04749 ITC1587_Bchr7_P20253* ITC1587_Bchr2_P04501 Ma03_g30610 ITC1587_Bchr3_P08112* Ma05_g05930 ITC1587_Bchr5_P12213 Ma06_g14360 ITC1587_Bchr6_P15924 Ma01_g14090 ITC1587_Bchr1_P00623* Ma11_g02650 ITC1587_Bchr11_P31934 Heat Shock Ma08_g29620 ITC1587_Bchr8_P24584* Signaling pathways Ma04_g04500 ITC1587_Bchr4_P08787 Ma04_g33310 ITC1587_Bchr4_P11096 Transcription factors1.32 0.64 1.16 1.4 1.86 1.95 3.06 1.21 1.67 1.46 0.78 2.16 1.45 1.31 1.067 0.64 1.18 1.34 1.01 −1.04 2.02 1.53 1.0 1.10 0.61 1.19 0.96 4.90 5.46 0.62 0.61 4.17 1.39 1.40 3.58 1.37 1.3 2.30 1.16 5.04 16.16 0.91 1.11 2.12 1.92 1.94 0.92 1.39 3.03 0.89 1.60Floral homeotic protein APETALA 2-like, AP2.7 Methylesterase 3 LRR receptor-like serine/threonine-protein kinase Putative Ethylene-responsive transcription factor 1 Basic Helix-Loop-Helix family Auxin-induced protein 15A-like LRR transmembrane protein kinase, SHR5-receptor-like kinase Heat shock transcription factor C1 (HSFC1) UDP-glucose:indole-3-acetate beta-D-glucosyltransferase LRR receptor-like serine/threonine-protein kinase Heat shock transcription factor C1 (HSFC1) UDP-glucosyltransferase GRAS transcription factor family UDP-glucosyltransferase G protein, translation factor GUF1 homolog Transcription factor, Auxin Response Factor (ARF) IN2-2 protein-like Zinc finger protein CONSTANS-LIKE 16-like, transcription factor C2C2(Zn) CO-like Putative E3 ubiquitin ligase BIG BROTHER/ Transcription factor C2C2(Zn) CO-like Linoleate 13S-lipoxygenase 2-1 required for wound-induced jasmonic acid accumulation Homeobox transcription factor family Protein TIFY 6b involved in jasmonic acid mediated signaling pathway Serine carboxypeptidase-like 18, involved in proteolysis Homeobox transcription factor family Carboxyl-terminal peptidase Homeobox transcription factor family Prolyl Oligopeptidase, involved in proteolysis Geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate synthase involved in isoprenoid biosynthesis Serine carboxypeptidase-like, involved in proteolysis Wall-associated kinase 2 (WAK2) Terpenoid cyclases, alpha-terpineol synthase Ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme E2 Wall associated kinase 5 (WAK5) Probable homogentisate phytyltransferase 1 involved in tocopherol biosynthesis Leucine-rich repeat receptor-like protein kinase family Cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase 1 (CAD1) involved in lignin biosynthetic process Leucine-rich receptor-like protein kinase HSL1 Mannitol dehydrogenase Germin-like protein 8-14 LRR receptor-like serine/threonine-protein kinase UDP-glycosyltransferase 73C2 Leucine-rich repeat transmembrane protein kinase UDP-glycosyltransferase 73C6-like Lipase-like PAD4 Receptor-like protein kinase, wheat LRK10 like Receptor-like protein kinase DUF 26 Naringenin, 2-oxoglutarate 3-dioxygenase, involved in response to fungus and bacterium, flavonoid biosynthetic process Class IV heat shock protein-like Mitogen-activated protein kinase 2 Malonyl-coenzyme A: anthocyanin 3-O-glucoside-6\"-O-malonyltransferase  "},{"text":"Gene ID from Musa acuminata (DH Pahang) Gene ID from Musa balbisiana (Pisang Klutuk Wulung)    Log2 Fold  Log2 Fold   Change Description ChangeDescription Ma01_g17260 ITC1587_Bchr1_P02266 3.12 Transcription factor MYB86, myb domain protein 61 (MYB61) Ma01_g17260ITC1587_Bchr1_P022663.12Transcription factor MYB86, myb domain protein 61 (MYB61) Ma01_g18330 ITC1587_Bchr1_P02164 1.92 Trihelix transcription factor GTL1-like Ma01_g18330ITC1587_Bchr1_P021641.92Trihelix transcription factor GTL1-like Ma09_g16130 ITC1587_BchrUn_random_ P36803 0.84 AP2-like ethylene-responsive transcription factor Ma09_g16130ITC1587_BchrUn_random_ P368030.84AP2-like ethylene-responsive transcription factor Ma07_g04810 ITC1587_Bchr7_P18970 1.33 Transcription factor MYC2, basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) DNA-binding family protein Ma07_g04810ITC1587_Bchr7_P189701.33Transcription factor MYC2, basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) DNA-binding family protein Ma06_g05210 ITC1587_Bchr6_P15106 0.92 Putative ZOS4-07 -C2H2 zinc finger protein Ma06_g05210ITC1587_Bchr6_P151060.92Putative ZOS4-07 -C2H2 zinc finger protein Receptor-like kinases    Receptor-like kinases Ma03_g20500 ITC1587_Bchr3_P07270 1.86 LRR receptor-like serine/threonine-protein kinase RPK2 Ma03_g20500ITC1587_Bchr3_P072701.86LRR receptor-like serine/threonine-protein kinase RPK2 Ma04_g39220 ITC1587_Bchr4_P11583 1.86 Receptor-like protein kinase Ma04_g39220ITC1587_Bchr4_P115831.86Receptor-like protein kinase Ma09_g12980 ITC1587_Bchr9_P26183 1.39 LRR receptor-like serine/threonine-protein kinase Ma09_g12980ITC1587_Bchr9_P261831.39LRR receptor-like serine/threonine-protein kinase Signaling pathways    Signaling pathways Ma02_g10140 ITC1587_Bchr2_P03841* 2.59 Zinc finger Ran-binding domain-containing protein 2-like Ma02_g10140ITC1587_Bchr2_P03841*2.59Zinc finger Ran-binding domain-containing protein 2-like Ma02_g02010 ITC1587_BchrUn_random_ P34585   Ma02_g02010ITC1587_BchrUn_random_ P34585 Ma02_g24350 ITC1587_Bchr2_P05093 1.18 DELLA protein SLR1 Ma02_g24350ITC1587_Bchr2_P050931.18DELLA protein SLR1 Ma09_g24360 ITC1587_Bchr9_P27692 1.0 Glutamate receptor 3.3 Ma09_g24360ITC1587_Bchr9_P276921.0Glutamate receptor 3.3 Redox regulation    Redox regulation Ma03_g19080 ITC1587_Bchr3_P07100 1.27 Superoxide dismutase, defense response to bacterium Ma03_g19080ITC1587_Bchr3_P071001.27Superoxide dismutase, defense response to bacterium Hormone    Hormone Absciscisic acid (ABA)    Absciscisic acid (ABA) Ma07_g00090 ITC1587_Bchr7_P18560 0.76 HSI2-like 1 (HSL1), B3 domain-containing protein Ma07_g00090ITC1587_Bchr7_P185600.76HSI2-like 1 (HSL1), B3 domain-containing protein Jasmonic acid    Jasmonic acid Ma03_g11520 ITC1587_Bchr3_P06219 1.34 Linoleate 13S-lipoxygenase 2-1 Ma03_g11520ITC1587_Bchr3_P062191.34Linoleate 13S-lipoxygenase 2-1 Auxin    Auxin Ma06_g01320 ITC1587_Bchr11_P32703 6.78 Putative auxin efflux carrier component 8 Ma06_g01320ITC1587_Bchr11_P327036.78Putative auxin efflux carrier component 8 Secondary Metabolites    Secondary Metabolites Ma09_g29570 ITC1587_Bchr9_P28175 1.46 Nicotianamine aminotransferase A involve in tocopherol biosynthesis Ma09_g29570ITC1587_Bchr9_P281751.46Nicotianamine aminotransferase A involve in tocopherol biosynthesis Ma08_g04050 ITC1587_Bchr8_P21808 3.76 Putative 3-ketoacyl-CoA synthase 17 involve in wax metabolism Ma08_g04050ITC1587_Bchr8_P218083.76Putative 3-ketoacyl-CoA synthase 17 involve in wax metabolism Ma10_g20730 ITC1587_Bchr10_P30723 1.28 Tryptophan aminotransferase-related protein 2 involved in IAA biosynthesis Ma10_g20730ITC1587_Bchr10_P307231.28Tryptophan aminotransferase-related protein 2 involved in IAA biosynthesis E3 ubiquitin ligase    E3 ubiquitin ligase Ma06_g35270 ITC1587_Bchr6_P18218 0.93 E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase SDIR1 Ma06_g35270ITC1587_Bchr6_P182180.93E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase SDIR1 Miscellaneous    Miscellaneous Ma09_g26260 ITC1587_Bchr9_P27875 1.05 Glucan endo-1,3-beta-glucosidase 8 Ma09_g26260ITC1587_Bchr9_P278751.05Glucan endo-1,3-beta-glucosidase 8  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Details of the major differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in BXW-resistant banana genotype Musa balbisiana and BXW-susceptible banana genotype Pisang Awak upon pathogen attack. Note: Gene IDs from Musa balbisiana are based on the results of the reciprocal best BLAST search. The best BLAST hit is reported for the genes where the reciprocal best BLAST search hit was not available and it is denoted with*.  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Details of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) used for qRT-PCR analysis for validation of RNA-Seq fold changes in Pisang Awak and Musa balbisiana in response to artificial inoculation with Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum. Note: Gene IDs from Musa balbisiana are based on the results of the reciprocal best BLAST search. The best BLAST hit is reported for the genes where the reciprocal best BLAST search hit was not available and it is denoted with*.  "}],"sieverID":"99ab5508-d371-418f-a550-6b582a5449cc","abstract":"Banana Xanthomonas wilt disease, caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum (Xcm), is a major threat to banana production in east Africa. All cultivated varieties of banana are susceptible to Xcm and only the progenitor species Musa balbisiana was found to be resistant. the molecular basis of susceptibility and resistance of banana genotypes to Xcm is currently unknown. transcriptome analysis of disease resistant genotype Musa balbisiana and highly susceptible banana cultivar pisang Awak challenged with Xcm was performed to understand the disease response. The number of differentially expressed genes (DeGs) was higher in Musa balbisiana in comparison to pisang Awak. Genes associated with response to biotic stress were up-regulated in Musa balbisiana. the DeGs were further mapped to the biotic stress pathways. our results suggested activation of both pAMp-triggered basal defense and disease resistance (R) protein-mediated defense in Musa balbisiana as early response to Xcm infection. This study reports the first comparative transcriptome profile of the susceptible and resistant genotype of banana during early infection with Xcm and provide insights on the defense mechanism in Musa balbisiana, which can be used for genetic improvement of commonly cultivated banana varieties.Banana Xanthomonas wilt (BXW), caused by the bacterium Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum (Xcm), is one of the most devastating disease endangering the livelihood of millions of farmers in east Africa, which is the largest banana-producing and -consuming region in Africa 1 . The impacts of BXW disease are both rapid and extreme, unlike those of other diseases, which cause gradually increasing losses over years. The disease has caused estimated economic losses of about $2-8 billion over the decade and significant reductions in production have resulted in major price increases 1 . The disease affects all banana cultivars grown in east Africa 2 . Only diploid Musa balbisiana, which is a wild type banana native to Asia and one of the progenitors of modern cultivated bananas, was found to be resistant 2 .Resistant cultivars could play an important role in controlling the BXW disease in east Africa, where the consumption of bananas is highest in the world at 220 to 460 kg per person annually 3 . There is an ongoing project for developing transgenic bananas resistant to BXW using sweet pepper genes 4 . However, knowledge of resistance mechanism in Musa balbisiana against Xcm can be utilized for developing resistant varieties through cis-genesis using Musa genes associated with defense, or editing of genes related to susceptibility and/or negative regulation of plant immunity. Currently, there is no understanding about the molecular mechanism for disease resistance or susceptibility in response to Xcm infection. Therefore, to obtain insight into the molecular basis of disease resistance, the transcriptome-wide differential gene expression was investigated between the BXW-resistant genotype Musa balbisiana and BXW-susceptible genotype Pisang Awak in response to Xcm. Further the differentially expressed transcripts were mapped to biotic stress pathways using Mapman to identify genes associated with defense mechanism."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"06b4664d03f16b250b618c0931cbb542","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3f24a017-e28d-4a92-ab02-8d63476191be/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Un acervo genético como fuente de resistencia al principal complejo de plagas en el pasto Urochloa Planta susceptible Planta resistente","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Salivazo (Hemiptera: Cercopidae) ¿Qué hacemos?","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"» Un complejo de plagas conformado por ~40 especies. » Daño visual: Clorosis acropetala, secamiento y muerte. » Disminuye hasta un 74% la productividad de la carne. » Pérdidas estimadas de U$ 840 a 2,100 millones por año (en todos los cultivos hospederos)."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"Identificamos genotipos con alta resistencia al complejo de salivazo y los incorporamos al esquema de mejoramiento."}]},{"head":"¿Cómo lo hacemos? ¿Qué hemos encontrado?","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"Usamos métodos de prueba de alto rendimiento para acelerar los ensayos de salivazo y calificar el grado de resistencia en los genotipos Cultivares con alta resistencia Híbridos con altos niveles de resistencia Urocholoa humidicola tiene un área potencial de siembra de solo en América Latina tropical (Eso equivale a toda el área de 8 países) 6,300,000 km 2 Métodos de mejoramiento de alto rendimiento para acelerar los ensayos de salivazo y detección de plantas apomícticas."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"Herramientas y metodologías implementadas para reducir el ciclo de mejoramiento."},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"Alianzas fuertes y colaboración con sistemas nacionales de investigación y el sector privado."}]},{"head":"Lanzamientos exitosos","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Solo en América Latina, se han sembrado más de para el 2020. "}]},{"head":"www.cgiar.org","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Este trabajo está autorizado para su uso bajo la licencia Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) 2022-10-25. Diseño: JL Urrea (Alianza/CIAT)."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" apomícticos de Urochloa y Megathyrsus para los trópicos adaptados a diferentes estreses: 2001 en que fue liberado el primer híbrido apomíctico A la fecha, 6 híbridos apomícticos están disponibles en el mercado. "},{"text":"1,074,000 ha pequeños productores  1.    1. MITIGACIÓN    MITIGACIÓN Reducciones de metano/    Reducciones de metano/ unidad gran ganado BIÓTICOS unidad gran ganadoBIÓTICOS Inhibición Biológica de la Nitrificación Salivazo (Cercopidae)  Rizoctonia (añublo foliar) Inhibición Biológica de la NitrificaciónSalivazo (Cercopidae)Rizoctonia (añublo foliar)  ABIÓTICOS ABIÓTICOS Secuestro    Secuestro de GEI Acidez del suelo Escasez de agua Exceso de agua de GEIAcidez del sueloEscasez de aguaExceso de agua Mayor Calidad nutricional 20,000 En Africa implementaron híbridos de Urochloa mejorados en CIAT Maas et al (2015) Mayor Calidad nutricional20,000En Africa implementaron híbridos de Urochloa mejorados en CIAT Maas et al (2015)     con un potencial con un potencial de óxido nitroso lixiviación de nitrato y emisiones Uso eficiente del nitrógeno, reduciendo   de hectáreas 2 MILLONES estimado en de óxido nitroso lixiviación de nitrato y emisiones Uso eficiente del nitrógeno, reduciendode hectáreas 2 MILLONES estimado en  "},{"text":"Intensificación de la PRODUCCIÓN, mientras se reduce la huella ambiental Capacidad para mejorar la salud del suelo revirtiendo y evitando su degradación Fitomejoramiento de Forrajes: contribuyendo la sostenibilidad de los pequeños productores en los trópicos   "}],"sieverID":"c10023bd-38bd-42b5-a4d2-4079aabef420","abstract":""}

data/part_4/0700d0b3f05b667e3c6fcca94c634831.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0700d0b3f05b667e3c6fcca94c634831","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7cdf7dbd-63ac-4dc6-96a8-f981c947160e/retrieve"},"pageCount":9,"title":"/\\","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"Parecerte que solamente ahora nos vini'ramos e dar cuenta de que el proDlema del mejoramiento de la producci6n si bien es un problema bio16gico-cientifico, solamente tiene sentido real para el hombre cuando es examinado en su contenido econ6m1co y que muchas prActicas t~cnica8 obviamente estimulantes de la producci6n. son inGtiles por su incapacidad de incrementar igualmente el ifl~~~Rn ~r.nn6mieo del nroductor oecuario."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"-. -Esta es seguramente la gran diferencia. la fundamental diferencia. entre la lnvestigaci6n cientffica .bAsica que es Gtil al hombre en cuanto hace el mantenimiento de su bienestar personal directo y~la investigací6n agrlcola que atalle. no al agricultor, sin6 a la empresa agr~cola."},{"index":3,"size":36,"text":"Este punto creo yo que es particularmente importante de recalcar en esta reuni6n en que los ci~ntificos que investigan al hombre han querido invit~ a quien investigan una actividad creada por el hombre para su beneficio."},{"index":4,"size":124,"text":"Los factores eco16gicos ponen limites a la capacidad de producci6n animal de los tr6pioos. El suelo y el clima han formado una gran cantidad de uaidades ecol6gicas en el tr6pico, todmellas de naturaleza diferente y con capacidad muy diferente de producci6n. Para objetos de desarrollar un pr,2 grama de investigaci6n 16gico y de alcance in~ernacional. hemos consideradoo que el Tr6pico Americano puede dividirse en tres grupos dLacu.er.d.p_a_li\"'u\"\"s\"-___ _ , .. \",.1... CC~~A¡ 1-J 1) en suelos de aluvi6n de las planicies costeras y valles fluviales; 2) tierras fErtiles y valiosas cercanas a centros de poblaci6n y 3)treas de pradera~ lato~icas (eLAT, Informe Anual, 1972). Esta divisi6n. a-_ priori, en tres tipos de 'reas de producci6n ganadera, encuentra coincidencia en los palses del tr6pico Latinoamericano."},{"index":5,"size":223,"text":"En la primera encontramos ganederta de naturaleza semi-intensiva, caractérlstica de las zonas de media a alta precipitaci6n pluvial-yen las cuales se pr6ctica una ganáderla muy mezclada entre la lecherla. el engorde deganado y la crla de ganado de carne. El suelo es generalmente entre rico y marginal en f5sforo, y notablemente desprovisto de nitrogeno. Las esp~ -2 cies de pasto prevalentes son: Guinea (Fanicum maximum), Puntero,(HyParrhenia ~, Gordura (tlelinis minutiflora). pangola (Q!zitaria decumbens), y en las 'reas mis humedas Para (Brachiaria mutica). La productividad inicial de estas praderas es elevada. aprovechando al máximo la existencia de nitrogeno acumulado con la descomposici5n del bosque tropical, pero esta productividad disminuye r~pidamente. Por p~rdidas de la capacidad de cre-cimiento debido a. la carencia de nitr6geno y, en una gran tantidad de casos, tamli~n de f5Sóro. y por el consumo excesivo d~ los animales de las especies forrajeras se ofrece oportunidad para que las malezas comiencen a invadir las praderas. Esta invasi6n se agrava rápidamente al extremo de que si no hay control oportuno y constante de las malezas, las espacies forrajeras ll.!!, gan a desaparecer completamente. Obviamente la soluci6n a este problema r~ side en la provisi~n del fertilizante necesario. La t~cnologla de su uso y aprovechamiento es conocida, pero es menos conocida o casi desconocida la respuesta econ6mica que se puede esperar de la fertilizaci6n."},{"index":6,"size":78,"text":"Se considera que a pesar d.-~ efectiva respuesta que se obtiene con la fer tilizaci5n nitrogenada, esta no es econ5mica en el caso del ganado vacuno dw -:'uL'ilé, y cleb.e ir ,¡cCtmÍ''¡~dda del ;:ié8v aiJ. La. ~PÚ\\;tf. .. lt: b\":'iULC1 !Jiu.a llV agro! var la fuerte diferencia en la disponibilidad de alimento que ya existe de todas formas en el tr5pico. La aplicaci6n de f6sforo, por otro lado, se considera uns necesidad imperiosa en las treas de carencia."},{"index":7,"size":76,"text":"En el segundo tipo de ~rea, caracterizada por suelos ricos, que originalmente han soportado una gansderla muy extensa:y los cuales han ido siendo Ílrre:batados por la agricultura. van quédando solamente~s ganaderías lecheras, de explotaci6n intensiva, y algunas empresas de engorde de novillos para el consumo de las poblaciones cercanas. Los suelos de estas ~reas normalmente no responden a la fertilizac15n fosf6rica., pero presentan gran potencial para explotar su respuesta al nitr6geno sobre todo en la. lecherla."},{"index":8,"size":22,"text":"Finalmente, las lrea.s de suelos latos6licos se caracterizan por la explota-ci6n extensiva de ganado, sobre praderas naturales y de muy bajo rendimiento."},{"index":9,"size":114,"text":"Estos suelos son notablemente deficientes en f6sforo, al extrémo de que en algunos casos las especies'mejoradas de pasto no crecen sin la previa apli-caci6n de f6sforo. En el manejo de las pastizales naturales, el fuego aparece como dntca herramienta de trabajo empleada por ,el hombre para controlar el crecimiento excesivo de especies no deseadas y estimular el crecimiento de rebrotes tiernos aceptables para el ganado. La revisi6n de los tres tipos de ireas enunciadas hace resaltar que el problema fundamental es el' de mantener la fertilidad del suelo en un nivel permanente, que permita el d,esarro;Llo adecuado de las especies, y pErmita as1,mismo el aumento en la cantidad del forraje disponible para el ganado."},{"index":10,"size":138,"text":"En la Am~rica Latina no disponemos de estudios que prueben la ventaja eco-n6mica de la fertilizaci6n fosf6rica y casi ni siquiera del nitr6geno, sal vo pocas y limitadas excepciones (Vicente-Chandler:.!:!!l. 1967) Las investigaciones Australianas del sub-tr6pico demuestran que se obtiene un aumento progresivo en el rendimiento de la pradera natural, hacia la pra dera natural en la cual se Iia'introducido una leguminosa •forrajera adaptada\";\" y hacia la pradera natural que ha recibido la leguminosa y la aplicaci6n de f6sforo (Shaw and t•Mannetje, 1970). El incremento en la producci6n alcanzado con la introducci6n de la leguminosa (Stylosanthes humilis) fue del 360% y d,el 600% con la leguminosa mb f6sforo. Brumby (1972) ha calculado que en esas condiciones resulta muy ventajoso econ6micamente la inversi6n én la siembra de la leguminosa y mis aGn en la siembra' y en la fertilizaci6n."},{"index":11,"size":66,"text":"Parece entonces particulármente urgente dos cosas: 1) Provisi5n de fertilizan .te fosfatado a bajo costo (los productores de paises de gran consumo como -Australia y Nueva Zelandia reciben subsidio al uso del fertilizante fosfatado) 2) investigaci6n local sobre la adaptaci5n y ~todos de introducci5n de legu minos as tropicales, a ,la vez que eS necesario estimular el desarrollo de 18industiia productora áe semillas de leguminosas tropicales."},{"index":12,"size":132,"text":"Los problemas de adaptaci5n del ganado a condiciones tropicales han sido debatidos por largo tiempo. Mucho de la investigaci6n realizada en latinoame ' rica ha 'tenido que ver en una forma u otra con estE problema, ya sea porque'''~ se ha tratado de buscar la manera que razas no tropicales (principalmente ' Europeas ) se adapten a las condiciones eco16gicas del tr6pico y produzcan al mismo nivel que en sus regiones de origen, o porque se ba,'tratado de conseguir un mejoramiento, al menos parcial, en la producci6n de los animales criollo o indicas a travEs del cruzamiento de las hembras locales con machos europeos importados. Muy a pesar del esfuerzo desarrollado, las respuestas no son claras y sobre todo no lo son cuando se pretende encontrar resultados aplicaBles a la explotaci6n ganadera."},{"index":13,"size":81,"text":"Se puede decir que en el Tr6pico la raz6n final por la cual la productividad de los ,animale's es menor se debe a que el consumo de forraje por loa animales es inferior. Presumiblemente el consumO es menor porque la digestibi1i dad de los pastos tropicales es tambiEn inferior y porque en las razas euro peas, llegado un punto de temperatura ambiental los animales disminuyen suconsumo. Esta Gltima indicaci6n, obtenida en c!maras climSticas no ha sido demos~rada igualmente en el campo."},{"index":14,"size":137,"text":"-4 , Preston y Willis (1970) creen que de las diferencias observadas entre las razas de ganado europe~~lndico, la mSs significativa es la menor producci~n de calor en las razas rndicas lo cual les dS una ventaja sobre las europeas para soportar el calor ambiental elevado. . Por otro lado, la producci~ de calor del cuerpo aumenta con el consumo de alimento y pOr consiguiente in~ directamente con el nivel de producci~n. Asl, cabe preguntarse si serta mSs adaptado al ambiente tropical un animal indico de producci6n igualmente elevada a otro europeo. Los mecanismos de adaptaci6n a h's condidPnes tro picSes de parte de los animales de razas indicas parecerlan estar ligadosa su menor capacidad de producci6n de tal manera que si •se~etende.sobra~ pasar esta capacidad, cabe preguntarse si se sobrepasar1an tambi~n los me~ canismos de adaptaci6n."},{"index":15,"size":72,"text":"Willis y Preston (1969) encontraron en Cuba que un hato de ganado Charolais (Frances) tuvo una eficiencia reproductiva superior al Brahaman (IndiO), al Criollo y al Santa Gertrudis (IndiO x Europeo). En esta caso, el ganado Charolais habla sUfrido un proceso de adaptaci6n y selecc16n natural al tr~pico por espacio de 40 aftos, sugiriendo asl mismo la poeibilid8d de que se produzca un mecaDSmo de adaptaci~ a las condiciones adversas de clima."},{"index":16,"size":101,"text":"El caso parece reducirse en su ~ayor parte a la-provisi6n de alimento suf! cientemente rico en energla y protelna para el consumo del ganado, en cuyo caso las diferencias clim'ticas se hacen menos notorias. Se cita el caso de !rael que con ganado europeo mantiene el promedio nacional de producci~n lsctea.superior en el mundo (4,500 kg por vaca) en clima de temperatura ambiental superior a 34\"C, si bien muy seco. En este caso la alimentaci6n del ganado es principalmente a base de granos y concentrados. Es decir, es posible obtener una producci6n elevada en temperaturas altas cuando la alimentaci6n es adecuada."},{"index":17,"size":126,"text":"En el concepto que hemos expresado de que las prScticas tandientes al aumento de la producci6n deben ser medidas en su capaCidad de elevar la producci6n con beneficio econ6mico para la empresa ganadera (o puede ser dieho \"en su habilidad para reducir el cesto de producci6n lf ) no debemos necesariamente aceptar que se debe tender a aumentar la producci6n de cada animal al mSximo sin tomar en cuenta lo que se invierte en ese aumento de la producci6n. El caso m's claro ee presenta en muchas fireas del tr6~ pico en las cuales la producci6n de leche o carne es .factible y Elevada con la provisi~ de granos y concentrados (como en Israel), pero el costo de producci~n es tan alto que hacé imposible su•aplicaci6n."},{"index":18,"size":148,"text":"De todas las soluciones hasta ahora estudiadas. la alimentaci6n a base, de forrajes parece ser la mSs indicada y factible. En el tr6pico la pro~ ducci6n de forraje as superior a los climas templados. SegGn el resumen .J~ de Cooper (1970) en el tr6pico se pueden obtener rendimientos de forraje que sobrepzan las 80 teneladas de Materia Seca por afto en Pasto Elefante , (Pennisetum purpureum) y rendimientos superiores a• las 50 toneladas• en Pa~to Pangola (Digitaria decumbens) en tanto que en climas templadas los rendimientos superiores no sobrepasan las JO toneladas (Lolium perenne). Otra forma de expresar la gran capacidad de producci6n de las praclaras tropicales es obs•ervando el incremento en la producci6n obtenido por la aplicaci6n de Nitr6geno, que en climas tem~lados•esti alrededor de 20 f:!1l.\"''''i!~'''' r kilogramos de !/ ,. & Of en cambio en el tr6pico es del orden de 3S a 40 kilogramos."},{"index":19,"size":1,"text":"."},{"index":20,"size":1,"text":"-5"},{"index":21,"size":63,"text":"Actualmente se estin obteniendo rendimientos por hectirea en producto an! mal en los tr6picos superiores a los que se consiguen en climas templados. Si bien el rendimientó por animal. es generalmente inferior en los tr6picos, la gran cantidad de• forraje disponible en condiciones favorables (Humedad y fertilizaci6n) hace que se puedan usar cargas animales muy ele vadas y permanentes a trav~s del afta."},{"index":22,"size":16,"text":"El Significado de la Investigac16n en el Aumento de la Producci6n Ganadera en el Trogico Americano."},{"index":23,"size":48,"text":"El titulo mismo. de esta secci6n lleva impllcito el objetivo senalado a la investigaci6n. El aumento de la producci6n es sin duda el objetivo b~sico. Nif\\tamos, sin embargo, definir en qu~ condiciones econ6micas se produce este aumento y bajo que limitantes de precios el aumento es econ6micamente factible."},{"index":24,"size":44,"text":"Aceptando que el aumento de la producci6n es el objetivo bAsico, es necesario definir claramente el objetivo particular de cada una de las inves-•tigaciones que se realicen. Es preciso localizar la investigaci6n dentro del marco de•. empresa agrlcola a la cual se va aplicar."},{"index":25,"size":179,"text":"Es preciso recordar que la empresa agrleola constituye un todo ligado entre sl, que une intimamente y en forma intcrdependiente a los factores de tierra, suelo, animales, capital y gente. Evidentemente todos ellos afectan la productividad de la empresa agrlcola. Es resultado de esa interdependencia el hecho de que el cambio d.e un factor sea. generalmente, causa de cambios en los otros factores y•en el resultado final de la productividad de la empresa. Asl mismo. llama la atenci6n el hecho de qúe muchas veces el cambio de Uno de los factores, que en términos bio16gicos produce aumentos notables en la producci6n, econ6micamente no alcanza a producir incrementos de la misma magnitud . (Brumby, 1972.) Asl pues, al plantear un proyecto de investigaci6n deberemos definir claramente el marco de referencia de la empresa~ricola a la cual se va a referir y asegurarnos que el factor estudiado no interactGe con los de-mAs factores de la producci6n, es decir que sea independiente, o ~or lo menos que los resultados obtenidos puedan ser referidos a los grados de interacci6n con los otros factores."},{"index":26,"size":76,"text":"creemos por eso que la investigaci6n agrlcola que va a servir a la produc-ci6n debe plantearse en t~rminos del o los productos agrlcolas obtenidos. Asl al estabkéer programas de investlgaci6n creemos mls efectivo el montar programas para la producci6n de leche o de carne vacuna antes que programas orientados de acuerdo a disciplinas cientlficas como Fisiologla, Nutri ci6n 6 Gen~tica. La nécesidad de trabajar interdiciplinariamente quedaestablecida al organizar programas por producto antes que por disciplina ci~ntlfica."},{"index":27,"size":43,"text":"Esto de ninguna manera degrada la importancia de las ciencias, solamente implica la necesidad de coordinar y orientar las ciencias hacia el servicio de la producci6n. Bello (1971) describe grlf!camente las relaciones de la investigaci6n y su\" enfoque hacia la soluci6n de problemas."}]},{"head":"Informaci6n","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":445,"text":"PROBLEMA -----1;> I=AN~AL~IS[!I §S/7----+) RESULTAOO--9t ¡ SINTESIS¡---.. sobre el \",,\",\"-1 _ _  \"circulo vioioso\" el cual no llega a ofrecer nunca resultados utilb.ables sin\"/) que por el contrario se sigue cada vez alejando mb y mis de la Realidad de la cual pudo haber partido. Por ejemplo. un programa de inves-tigaci6n comenz6 debido a la realidad de que para mejorar la producci6n ganadera era preciso encontrar una o varias especies de forrajes que Se adaptaran a las condiciones de suelo pobre y poca humedad. El conocimie~ tO de la realidad identific6 el Problema de seleccionar especies adaptadas y productivas. esto origin6 el Analisis investigativo por medio de un campo de introducci6n de especies. En el primer ano se encontr6 que una especie aparentemente adaptable tenía una gran variabilidad en la forma y tamano de la hoja. Para estudiarlo se establecieron nuevas parcelas de esta especie en las cuales se trataba de determinar la frecue~ cia y distribuci6n de los tipos de hoja. Aparentemente se ~ensaba que tanto el tipo como el tsmafto de la hoja tendrían estrecha relacl0n con SU productividad, Al encontrar que ciertas hojas eran mas frecuentes y estaban siempre distribu1das en el tercio superior de las plantas se creylS del caso investigar los mecanismos genl!ticos que controlaban esta distribui6n. Para entonces, habtan pasado un buen nOmero de aftos y se habta tenido que crear un equipo t~cnico y físico muy diferente al original. Tambil!n, desafortunadamente, se habta perdidO la relacilSn con la Realidad y el Problema. cay~ndose en un \"circulo vicioso\". La SituacilSn d,e la produccilSn permaneci6 sin cambios, La segunda posibilidad es aquella en la cual la éadena no se detiene has ta llegar a la incorporacilSn de resultados (sintesis) en los sistemas de producci6n. En el mismo ejemplo anterior, se hubiera cumplido si el o los investigadores hbbieran pro~eguido sU investigaci6n hasta determinar una o dos especies forrajeras las más adaptadas y si con ellas se hubiera procedido a introducirlas en los sistemas de:\",producci6n existentes proveyendo al comercio de la semilla necesaria y los ml!todos de intro ducci6n adecuados. -Lamentablemente un gran pDrcentaje de la investigaci6n agrlcola de Latinoamérica ha sufrido el vicio de su propia perpetuaci6n en el estudio de problemas ajenos. \"Más aGn. con frecuencia se encuentra en America Latina investigaciones tendientes a resolver problemas creados por \"circulas vici.osos\" forllneos, resultantes\"del eBtrenamie~to exterior de los t~cnicos, ereemos entonces que la orientaci6n de la investigacilSn agr1cola debe ser hacia la soluci6n de problemas de la producci6n y que debe ser realizada de tal manera que se evite el estudio aislado de \"factores cuando su accilSn en el conjunto de la empresa agrtcola no sea aislada de los demas factores."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"El estudio de conjuntos empleando la Unidad de Producci6n como Unidad Expe rimental. sirve para resumir y medir el efecto final y conjunto de las interacciones entre los fe~tores de la produccilSn del tipo espec1fico del producto buscado."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"La Unidad de ProduccilSn es igual~ente v~lida para reunir niveles y tipos de factores que afecten la producii6n. sean estos obtenidos a base de la • -7"},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"• investigacl&n de segmentos de producci&n o del resultado de computaci&n electr~nica y •simulaia."},{"index":5,"size":23,"text":"La tendencia actual es a pensar que existe suficiente informaci5n• aislada, prÍlpia o adaptable, que per-mita la confeccl~n de \"Sistemas de l'roducci~n\" ."},{"index":6,"size":66,"text":"•los cuales deben ser probados, en su conjunto, en Unidades• Experiment.alea de l'roducci~n antes de ser recomendados al productor. Si• bien en algunos casos se exagera la aprente disponibilidad de conocimientos suficientes para aumentar la productividad de los suelos y explotaciones sanaderas del tr5pico, creo que constituyen una buena base para partir.desde• sl11 con la investigaci&n orientada hacia el aumento de la IX' 0.ducci611. . .."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"_ 1  \",   \",   Sistema Sistema NUEVOS PROBLEMAS   NUEVOS PROBLEMAS El esquema podr!a ampliarse par~ juntar la realidad del campo a la soluci6n El esquema podr!a ampliarse par~ juntar la realidad del campo a la soluci6n de problemas.   de problemas. CIRCULO VICIOSO J.tEAL¡IDAD\"'-' P~OBLEMA,--_\"\" ANALISIS ~ REstn;TADO~ SIN'l:lESIS J, \" PROBLEMAS QUE MODIFICAN LA REALIDAD ) sobre el Sistema 1 CIRCULO VICIOSO J.tEAL¡IDAD\"'-' P~OBLEMA,--_\"\" ANALISIS ~ REstn;TADO~ SIN'l:lESIS J, \" PROBLEMAS QUE MODIFICAN LA REALIDAD)sobre el Sistema 1 El esquema nos presenta dos posibilidades de acci6o; el primro en el cual El esquema nos presenta dos posibilidades de acci6o; el primro en el cual el estudio de un problema genera Resultados. los cuales a su vez crean un el estudio de un problema genera Resultados. los cuales a su vez crean un nuevo Problema que es Analizado (Xnvestigado) asl sucesivamente en un  nuevo Problema que es Analizado (Xnvestigado) asl sucesivamente en un  "}],"sieverID":"f86c5e4d-b1ff-48dc-8b5c-bace86cff774","abstract":"L\" .~g_a W~ tores que limitan o hacen al menos dif:tcil el mejQramiento de la prOducc!6n-ganadera en el Tr6pico ser:ta muy~rga de detallar. Algunas. de las grandes•categorias de factores son: EcolSgicos. Zoot'cnicos, Econ6mi J cos, Sociales y Politicos.'Debido a mi especialidad creo tener apenas la capacidad para hablar d.e los dos primeros y entrever las implicaciones econom:tcas de los cambios en la . producci5n. Los factores Sociales y Políticos, en ese u otro orden. tienden actualmente a ocupar la atenci6n del pGblico posiblemente con toda justifi-caci6n. porque si sabemos que es difícil estimular el aumento'de la producci5n ganadera debido a las limitantes econ6micas de los paises tropicales, tambi~n sabemos que la organizaci6n so~ial y el inter~¡ político han c~nstituido y en muchos casos contindsn constituyendo fuertes trabas para el progreso. Le tEcnica. definida como el acopio de conocimientos ha sido m's afortunada porque a pesar de la estrechez econ6mice. hemos sabido encontrar los medios para investigar y para aprender."}

data/part_4/0762c453c56ff55dc2fa13a4c54d16cf.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"0762c453c56ff55dc2fa13a4c54d16cf","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/3882/c0f7b31edbe6e6490badce91e16c403a.pdf"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Research data management for projects What's new? As of April 2018, all projects are responsible for developing a data management plan at the beginning of the project and for ensuring sufficient budget allocation for the implementation of the plan. See the WorldFish Research Data and Open Access Policy and FAQs here","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"Activities at this stage include:  Reviewing the donor policy on research data and open access;  Identifying types of datasets that will be collected during the project;  Identifying and locating pre-existing datasets that may be used in the project;  Ensuring that there is sufficient budget allocation for the research data management process, i.e. data collection, cleaning and analysis;  Developing a data management plan. Some funding agencies require a data management plan to be submitted together with the proposal."}]},{"head":"Grant stage:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"Once the grant has been awarded, the project leader will provide more details on the research data management approach during the project kick-off meeting.  Once the project has identified partners, it is recommended that they are briefed on the WorldFish Research Data and Open Access Policy. In some instances, a separate contract on data sharing will be developed;  Ensure clarity of ownership of the data;  Submit the data management plan to the Research Data Management team, who will review it for any updates, changes/additions;  Define the roles and responsibilities of the project team with regard to research data management."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"A module on the MEL* system will also act as an intellectual product tracking system and will be used to check on the progress of deliverables."}]},{"head":"Project implementation stage:","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Project implementation involves research design, data collection, cleaning, analyzing, documentation and archiving. This will be carried out within the project with support from the Research Data Management team."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"A folder structure will be created in the SharePoint document library and permission given to the appropriate project team members(s). The same folder structure will be replicated on the project Dataverse page."},{"index":3,"size":78,"text":"The project leader will need to identify one member of the project staff to be the project data lead. She/he will be expected to:  Act as the contact person for all project data-related matters;  Ensure that all project activities and work package leaders are on track with their data collection and data management schedules.  Upload and keep the Dataverse studies up to date. This includes methods, unpublished reports, data, data entry questionnaires, code books etc."}]},{"head":"Project close-out:","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"At the end of the project, the Research Data Management team and project leader will check to ensure that all deliverables pertaining to data have been and the data has been archived in the institutional data repository, WorldFish Dataverse, for long-term preservation. Data (and any relevant data collection and analysis tools) shall, subject to additional donor requirements, be deposited in Dataverse and made open access no later than 12 months after completion of data collection or appropriate project milestone, or no later than six months after publication of the information products underpinned by that data."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"The Research Data Management team will put in place necessary measures and controls to ensure the data is accurate and in formats that enable reusability. This includes anonymization (removal of personal identifiers and sensitive information), inclusion/submission of rich metadata and the application of proper licenses."},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"Please contact Saadiah Ghazali, Data Management Specialist, for any clarification on the above."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"a60e2265-51fa-4779-af07-1a41b986438a","abstract":"Steps towards compliance 1. Project proposal stage: During project proposal development, researchers are expected to have an idea of the type of data that will be collected and where it will be stored. A checklist will be provided to help researchers plan for their data management requirements."}

data/part_4/0782269bbe4fd60e81b3ee74042eea6e.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0782269bbe4fd60e81b3ee74042eea6e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f62d4f1f-1c10-4af7-8080-2c688c774020/retrieve"},"pageCount":8,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"The challenge","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"As populations grow and diets shift, demand for milk and meat is on the rise. This represents an enormous opportunity for livestock farmers in Kenya to improve incomes and diets. Yet the livestock sector is responsible for around 15% of all human-induced greenhouse gas emissions -i.e. about half of the agricultural GHG emissions are associated with livestock production. Around two thirds of the world's total agricultural land is used to feed these animals, much of which has been degraded."}]},{"head":"Our solution: towards reversing current trends","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"For smallholder farmers, livestock not only prevent hunger, they represent an opportunity to generate better incomes."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"With the right management, improved grasses can sequester substantial amounts of carbon, boost milk and meat production, and lower greenhouse gas emissions while improving sustainable crop-livestock production."}]},{"head":"What we can do","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"9 We draw on the largest collections of tropical forages in the world, from which we can analyze the impact of improved seeds on milk production and quality."},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"CONTACT Rolf Sommer [email protected]"}]},{"head":"The challenge","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Soil degradation can destabilize food production. The Kenyan Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries is determined to address the issue, and has recently launched a first draft of a National Agricultural Soil Management Policy, aimed at improving and sustaining land productivity through improved management of agricultural soils."}]},{"head":"Our solution: Towards reversing current trends","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"We design and evaluate management practices that improve soil health, boost crop yields, and remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. We assess soil health status, map where soils are degraded, and show which areas can be prioritized for investments including improvement of soil carbon stocks. We also measure how much carbon is stored in soils, and how much more carbon the soils could potentially sequester through improved management practices, contributing to climate change mitigation. We also evaluate different farming practices, their actual and potential tradeoffs in resource uses, as well as their farm-level climate-smart credentials."}]},{"head":"What we can do for you","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"9 We develop site-specific fertilizer recommendations and decision support systems for smallholder farmers to help them adopt best soil management practices with the right amount of mineral and organic fertilizer."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"9 Carry out biophysical simulations of the long-term trend of business-as-usual and improved management practices on soil health, nutrient-use efficiency, and"}]},{"head":"Long-term trials in Western Kenya","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"These trials provide the most comprehensive pictures of tropical soil health we have in Kenya."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"For more than 10 years, we have monitored crop yield improvements linked to soil health and fertility, showing the impact of soil conservation practices. Soil assessments, economic evaluations, and participatory methods help us make recommendations to farmers and decision makers for long-term sustainability."}]},{"head":"Restoring soil health","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"agronomic productivity; and quantify tradeoffs at farm level, balancing costs and benefits."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"9 Develop ready-to-finance packages of best-bet soil conservation practices, highlighting appropriate practices to enhance soil health and organic carbon stocks in certain regions."},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"Testing soil health in Western Kenya (photo: G. Smith/CIAT)."},{"index":4,"size":4,"text":"CONTACT Fred Kizito [email protected]"}]},{"head":"The challenge","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"Ecosystem services encompass multiple benefits that people receive from landscapes -from nutritious food and clean water to outdoor recreation. In Kenya, agriculture provides numerous ecosystem services central to food production while mitigating impacts of climate change. At the same time, agriculture exerts a greater negative impact on these services than any other land use, through for example, nutrient runoff, erosion, and deforestation. Yet, the immediate economic benefits of protecting ecosystems are not always obvious enough to provide incentives for change."}]},{"head":"Our solution: Uniting for impact to protect ecosystems","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"Our research links the enormous impact that landscape restoration can have on staple crops by looking at the bigger picture. We work with farmers, the private sector, and development partners in Kenya to protect landscapes and ecosystems -including soils and water systems -to advise which interventions are the most environmentally effective or financially viable in a given area."}]},{"head":"What we can do for you","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"9 Identify drivers of land-use change at regional, national, and sub-national scales, to recommend management practices to enhance carbon capture and soil moisture utilization."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"9 Pilot and monitor sustainable land management practices tailored to specific areas, such as terracing and grass"}]},{"head":"Nairobi Water Fund","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":112,"text":"Our research is guiding decision makers and the private sector within the framework of the Nairobi Water Fund to generate up to US$21.5 million in long-term benefits to Kenyans, including farmers and business members of the Fund. The Nature Conservancy (TNC) and partners, including CIAT, the Kenyan Water Resources Management Authority (WRMA), and the Green Belt Movement, launched the public-private initiative to support farmers and businesses to protect the Tana River watershed. CIAT scientists provide soil erosion data from farmers' fields, while monitoring water quality changes and presenting improved management options to big business downstream, so they can support farmers financially to improve water quantity and quality, cutting costs for water users."}]},{"head":"Ecosystem action -Restoring degraded lands","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"strips, showcasing benefits and guiding the upscaling of land restoration."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"9 Applying hydrological models, such as the Soil and Water"},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"Assessment Tool (SWAT), we advise decision makers and investors in land restoration how to avoid potentially harmful scenarios and to maximize the positive impact of investments."},{"index":4,"size":4,"text":"CONTACT Robin Buruchara [email protected]"}]},{"head":"The challenge","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"In Kenya, beans are the most important crop after maize, grown by farmers on small plots of land. Beans can contribute importantly to end hunger and achieve food security and improved nutrition. They are affordable, and an important source of protein, fiber, carbohydrates, folic acid, iron, and zinc, tackling malnutrition, especially among pregnant women and growing children. Yet, one of the challenges is putting more beans -and more nutritious beans -on the table of rural and urban consumers."}]},{"head":"Our solution: Capacity building and improving beans for Kenya","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Through the Pan-Africa Bean Research Alliance (PABRA), CIAT and local partners in Kenya are developing beans adapted to different agro-ecological conditions, tolerant to pests and diseases and impacts of climate change, while responding to market demand for seed size, color and taste. Since 1982, through the work of CIAT-led PABRA and national partners, 40 improved bean varieties have been released in Kenya, including drought-resilient varieties."}]},{"head":"Quick-cook beans hit the shelves","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"Dried grains, the most available and affordable bean product, take up to three hours to cook. That uses up time, energy, and money in sourcing electricity or paraffin -especially for women, who usually do the food preparation. In Kenya, researchers at CIAT, PABRA, and the Kenya Agriculture and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO) are working with the private company Lasting Solutions Ltd., to develop bean products that can be prepared in less than 15 minutes, with positive impacts on the environment, finances, and fuel consumption."}]},{"head":"Tackling malnutrition and iron deficiency through better beans","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Improved bush beans perform better than local varieties (photo: S. Malyon/CIAT)."}]},{"head":"What we can do for you","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"9 We strengthen capacity in national research programs, supporting cutting-edge bean research to tackle iron deficiency, drought, flooding, and pests and diseases."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"9"},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"We can fast-track more resilient and nutritionally improved beans in national feeding programs, working with private sector companies to improve market-driven varieties for farmers to grow. "}]},{"head":"CONTACT","index":19,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Climate change and extreme weather","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"The challenge "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"solution: Climate profiles and investment planning: local challenges and opportunities CIAT Climate change will affect particular crops and regions in Africa differently, and farmers must respond urgently to combat climate change and its impacts. We work with partners, including the Kenyan government, KALRO, and the World Bank, to help farmers manage agricultural risks related to climate variability, through investments targeted at specific vulnerabilities in counties throughout Kenya. is developing Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) and Climate Risk Profiles at the national and county levels in Kenya. The Climate Profiles initiative assesses interventions, policies, and institutions related to CSA, specifically identifying enabling environments and barriers to mainstream adoption of CSA, as well as ongoing and potential CSA activities. At national level, these profiles provide the context for agricultural investment planning and program development. At county scale, these profiles provide clear direction for implementation of the County Integrated Development Plans and on-the-ground project design and implementation of the World Bank US$250 million Kenya CSA Project. Our Our  "}],"sieverID":"6186d92c-7604-4a05-a619-a78b237a1e19","abstract":"The International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), in collaboration with our national research partners, has been working in Kenya for the last 30 years. Our cutting-edge science helps policy makers, private sector, scientists, civil society, and farmers respond to the most pressing challenges of our time.Our research draws on international expertise in various disciplines. Using the world's largest collections of beans and livestock forages, we work to tackle poverty, food insecurity, gender inequality, malnutrition, climate change, and land and environmental degradation, contributing towards seven of the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"07b4b827c2f9f6bb4433285e627e038a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3998fd1f-7b6f-4390-a2ab-a28ac02c95fb/retrieve"},"pageCount":21,"title":"The structure, conduct, and performance of the hatchery segment of the aquaculture value chain in Bangladesh","keywords":["structure","conduct","performance","hatchery","Bangladesh"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":122,"text":"A growing body of recent research has focused on actors in the midstream of agrifood value chains, such as traders and input suppliers, and their role facilitating commercialization and improving aquaculture farm productivity (Bremer et al., 2016;Liverpool-Tasie et al., 2020;Haque et al., 2021;Barrett et al., 2022). While the literature on aquaculture value chains has grown (e.g., Bush et al., 2019), many segments of aquaculture value chains remain understudied, including the upstream segments supplying inputs such as seed to farms. Seed is the most critical input for aquaculture, and ensuring good quality seed is crucial for the intensification and improvement of aquaculture production globally, including Bangladesh (Haque, 2007;Haque et al., 2012;Belton et al., 2018;Anderson et al., 2019;Jamabo et al., 2019;Wang et al., 2023)."},{"index":2,"size":154,"text":"The use of hatchery produced fish seed in aquaculture is increasing in Bangladesh (Hasan and Arthur, 2015;Jahan et al., 2015;Hernandez et al., 2018;Shikuku et al., 2021). Fish seed production increased from 276 MT in 2002to 671 MT in 2021(DoF, 2022). This increase in seed production facilitated the expansion of aquaculture output in the country, which increased from 786,604 MT to 2.64 million MT (DoF, 2022). The greater use of fish seed, along with higher levels of feed use, contributed to higher productivity, which rose from 2,580 kg/ha in 2002 to 5,129 kg/ha in 2021 (DoF, 2022). The use of fish seed is therefore associated with expansion of aquaculture production both at the extensive and intensive margins. The production of fish seeds primarily occurs in hatcheries, making the hatchery segment a crucial component of the aquaculture value chain that influences the overall growth and profitability of aquaculture farms (Hasan and Arthur, 2015;Karim et al., 2016)."},{"index":3,"size":230,"text":"The hatchery segment of the aquaculture value chain can be analyzes with respect to: 1) structure (e.g., the number, size, geographical location, and asset ownership of hatcheries); 2) conduct (e.g., type of seed production and sales, services offered to clients, seed delivery to clients, and credit provision); and 3) performance (e.g., employment generation, profit margins, competitiveness, seed quality). These factors play an important role in understanding the dynamics and functioning of hatcheries and their impact on the productivity and profitability of aquaculture farms. However, there is a limited number of methodologically rigorous studies focusing on the hatchery segment in Bangladesh. Previous research has primarily focused on seed marketing channels, disease management, water quality, length-weight relationships, transportation, and technology diffusion (Bui et al., 2010;Sabbir et al., 2010;Belton, 2012;Bui et al., 2013;Islam et al., 2015;Uppanunchai et al., 2015;Hemal et al., 2017;Debnath et al., 2020). While these studies provide valuable insights into different aspects of hatchery segment, there has been relatively little attention given to seed production, trade, and distribution -though see Lewis et al. (1996) for an exception. The few studies that address seed production and distribution have often focused on management practices in specific locations or individual hatcheries and have not used statistically representative sampling techniques (e.g., Islam et al., 2017a;Islam et al., 2017b;Khanom et al., 2020;Biswas et al., 2021). This lack of rigorous research makes it difficult to generalize results."},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":"There are four main characterizations often referenced in the literature on the fish hatchery segment of the aquaculture value chain."},{"index":5,"size":63,"text":"First, fish seed production within hatcheries is often said to be inefficient, with poor broodstock management and spawning practices (Hasan and Arthur, 2015;Debnath et al., 2020;Biswas et al., 2021). This inefficiency may be due to lack of resources and low technical capacity among hatchery staff, leading to the collection of cultured fish species from the local market for breeding (Hasan and Arthur, 2015)."},{"index":6,"size":49,"text":"Second, challenges such as lack of capital, poor water quality, and disease can interrupt seed production in hatcheries. Diseases are the most significant challenge due to the abrupt mortality of seed in hatcheries, which may lead to economic losses (Islam et al., 2015;Islam et al., 2017b;Debnath et al., 2020)."},{"index":7,"size":49,"text":"Third, hatcheries often suffer from a shortage of well-qualified staff due to lack of institutional support to develop trained hatchery operators. This can result in low technical capacity among hatchery staff, with many learning breeding techniques on the job (Hasan and Arthur, 2015;Islam et al., 2015;Khanom et al., 2020)."},{"index":8,"size":68,"text":"Fourth, the hatchery segment of the aquaculture value chain is known to provide substantial employment opportunities (Bhuiyan et al., 2011;Hamid and Haque, 2012;Siddika et al., 2016;Hernandez et al., 2018), but the scale of employment in seed production has rarely been evaluated. Moreover, hatcheries sometimes help their customers by providing services that reduce transaction costs such as packaging, transportation, or providing information (Islam et al., 2017a;Hernandez et al., 2018)."},{"index":9,"size":27,"text":"Considering the above context, a comprehensive structured survey was conducted to address the gap in the literature on the hatchery segment of aquaculture value chain in Bangladesh."},{"index":10,"size":108,"text":"The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. First, we analyze the structure of the hatchery segment in southern Bangladeshincluding the number and types of hatcheries, scale of operations, geographical location, socio-demographic characteristics, and asset ownership. Second, we analyze the hatchery conduct, with reference to the types and quantities of seeds produced, procurement and sales behavior, utilization of working capital and credit, and service provision to clients. Third, we analyze value chain performance in terms of employment generation, the impacts of COVID-19 on business operations, and business profitability. Fourth, we triangulate the data derived from hatcheries survey against farm-level data on seed procurement and use by farmers."}]},{"head":"Data and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Study area and types of hatchery","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"This study was conducted in seven of the main aquaculture producing districts in southern Bangladesh (Figure 1). The aquaculture production in this area comprises a variety of fish species (Indian major carps, Chinese carps, tilapia, catfish, brackish water fish species and others), as well as black tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon) and giant freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii). Crustaceans are mainly produced in polyculture with fish, and in some cases integrated with other crops such as rice or vegetables (Jahan et al., 2015), reflecting the diversity of farming practices in the region. The aquaculture farming systems in this region are diverse, ranging from improved extensive shrimp culture, to semi-intensive farms, and a handful of intensive operations (Ali et al., 2022)."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"During the pre-survey scoping, three distinct categories of fish hatcheries were identified based on common fish species produce and sell. They are as follows:"},{"index":3,"size":124,"text":"(1) Carp+catfish. These hatcheries primarily focus on producing carp species (rohu, Labeo rohita; catla, Catla; mrigel, Cirrhinus cirrhosus; bata, Labeo bata; silver carp, Hypophthalmichthys molitrix; common carp, Cyprinus carpio, other carp 1 ) and catfish species (pangasius, Pangasianodon hypophthalmus; walking catfish, Clarias batrachus; stinging catfish, Heteropneustes fossilis; pabda catfish, Ompok pabda and long whiskers catfish, Mystus gulio). However, a few of them also produce some other fish like climbing perch (Anabas testudineus) and silver barb (Barbonymus gonionotus). Most of the seed are sold as fertilized spawn or hatchlings. Some hatcheries with nursery ponds also stock spawn to produce fries and/or fingerlings for sale to customers. Carp+catfish hatchery practices induced breeding by using pituitary gland (87%), synthetic hormone (11%) and human chorionic gonadotropin (2%) hormones."},{"index":4,"size":32,"text":"(2)Tilapia hatcheries, which produce only Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) seed and sell them as fry after nursing them for 18-22 days in hapa using 17amethyltestosterone (17a-MT) hormone to produce mono-sex male tilapia."},{"index":5,"size":60,"text":"(3)Crustacean hatcheries, that produce black tiger shrimp or freshwater prawn post larvae (PL) for sale to farmers or seed traders. These hatcheries buy black tiger shrimp nauplii from hatcheries located in the Cox's Bazar in southeastern Bangladesh, and nurse them from nauplii to PL stage. Freshwater prawn broodstock is collected from rivers through suppliers and the hatcheries produce nauplii themselves."},{"index":6,"size":20,"text":"1 Other carp includes grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella), bighead carp (Hypophthalmichthys nobilis), kalibaus (Labeo calbasu) and black carp (Mylopharyngodon piceus)."}]},{"head":"FIGURE 1","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Map of location of surveys hatcheries in Southern Bangladesh."}]},{"head":"Survey methods and data","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":130,"text":"The data used in this paper were collected between May and August 2022 through a comprehensive survey of 66 enterprises, including 42 carp+catfish, 16 tilapia, and 8 crustacean hatcheries. This survey was part of a larger 'stacked survey' that covered multiple segments of the aquaculture value chain, including 721 aquaculture farms. The stacked survey approach allows for collection of more comprehensive and accurate data than conventional value chain research methods, which often rely on small, non-representative, or qualitative samples across a few value chain nodes (Reardon et al., 2012). Survey weights were created by dividing the total number of hatcheries of each type in surveyed districts by the number of sampled hatcheries in each hatchery group. These weights were then applied where applicable during analysis to adjust for over/under sampling."},{"index":2,"size":187,"text":"The 2022 stacked survey was a follow-up to a survey originally conducted in 2013. In the first survey, the initial selection of seven districts was done purposively based on their importance for aquaculture production. All upazilas (sub-districts) with significant aquaculture production were included in the initial sample frame and then, a random selection was made using proportional probability to size (PPS) technique, resulting in 13 upazilas being chosen for the final sample. Within each selected upazila, a process of trimming took place during the second stage. Mouzas with fewer than 20 aquaculture farms, as reported in the national agricultural census of 2008, were eliminated from the sample. Subsequently, two to three mouzas were randomly selected from each upazila to be included in the farm survey. In each selected mouza, a list of aquaculture farms was compiled during a pre-survey farm census and 20 aquaculture farms were randomly chosen from census list for interview, constituting the farm household sample. A census of fish hatcheries was conducted in all upazilas included in the farm household sample. Respondents were randomly selected for interview from the census list of fish hatcheries."},{"index":3,"size":73,"text":"In 2022, we replicated the sampling approach used in the 2013 survey. This involved conducting a new complete listing fish hatcheries in each area surveyed in 2013. All hatcheries surveyed in 2013 that were still operating in 2022 (43%) were resurveyed. Replacements for respondents from the 2013 survey whose businesses had closed or who were not available to participate in the resurvey were selected at random from the 2022 census list of hatcheries."},{"index":4,"size":122,"text":"Interviews were conducted face to face by trained enumerators using a structured questionnaire implemented using a tablet. The 66 hatcheries surveyed in 2022 represented 34% of the total number of hatcheries operated in the seven southern districts of Bangladesh, based on a complete list of hatcheries operating in southern Bangladesh collected by the Bangladesh Aquaculture and Nutrition Activity (BANA) project (Personal communication, Bappy Shahrier). In addition to the structured micro-scale survey of individual hatcheries, we conducted 12 key informant interviews (KIIs) to collect meso-scale information about changes in the number of hatcheries operated, types of fish species produced, and volumes sold over the last 10 years prior to the survey. The KIIs provided valuable insights into temporal trends in the hatchery business."},{"index":5,"size":71,"text":"The final section of the paper presents data on seed procurement and use by farmers, drawn from a survey of 721 fish farmers. The selection methodology for the farm survey was similar to that described above. Farmers were categorized into four groups for analysis, based on the combination of species cultured, which were only fish (N=284), prawn + fish (N=165), shrimp + fish (=65) and prawn + shrimp + fish (N=211)."}]},{"head":"Data analysis","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"Data were downloaded from the KoBo Collect platform in Excel format and exported to Stata 17.0 (StataCorp LLC, College Station, Texas 77845 USA). Descriptive results from the data analysis were used to characterize hatcheries in combination with qualitative information from KIIs. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used for statistical analysis of the surveyed data, followed by a Bonferroni Multiple Range Test to determine the significance of variations among the hatchery categories averages. A probability of less than or equal 5% (p ≤ 0.05) was considered as significant in all instances, except where stated otherwise in the text."}]},{"head":"Results and discussion","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Hatchery and business characteristics","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":144,"text":"All survey respondents were men, with an average age of 51 years (Table 1). The mean level of formal education of 12 years was much higher than the national average in Bangladesh of 6 years (World Economics, 2022). Tilapia hatchery owners had been in business for significantly less time (11 years; p ≤ 0.05) compared to crustacean hatcheries (16 years) and carp+catfish (24 years) hatcheries, indicating that many new tilapia hatcheries have opened in the last decade prior to the survey. Saengnoree and Lebel (2003) reported that education and experience on fish farming technologies improved skill and knowledge to maintain intensive production and made the system sustainable. The majority of hatchery owners (81%) had attended short training courses on hatchery operation organized by Department of Fisheries or non-governmental organizations (NGOs). These training programs may have contributed to increasing their skills, knowledge, and social capital."},{"index":2,"size":181,"text":"Most hatchery owners (90%) specialized in hatchery business as their primary occupation (Table 1). However, most had multiple sources of household income. Almost all (99%) farmed fish and/or crustaceans, and a significant portion (66%) cultivated agricultural crops. This reflects the rural location of many hatcheries and may indicate that the hatchery owners were originally successful farmers prior to venturing hatchery enterprises. Moreover, 36% of carp +catfish and 9.4% of tilapia hatchery owners have worked in table fish trading. Additionally, 8% of carp+catfish owners also worked in fish feed trading as well. All hatchery owners in the study owned land, with an average size of 4.3 ha, which is significantly larger (13 times) than the average land size in southern Bangladesh (BBS, 2019), reflecting the high socio-economic status of the hatchery owners. respectively (Table 1). Crustacean hatcheries sold 117 million PL on average during the survey year. The average annual volume of working capital was significantly higher (p ≤ 0.05) in the crustacean hatcheries (USD 178,317) than carp+catfish (USD 19,927), and tilapia (USD 21,755) hatcheries, reflects the larger scale of the former."}]},{"head":"Structure","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":121,"text":"The number of hatcheries increased by 15% over the 10 years preceding the survey. The primary driver of this increase was the growth in fish hatcheries, while the number of crustacean hatcheries has decreased over the same period. The intensification of aquaculture, which refers to the increased productivity and scale of aquaculture operations, has created a higher demand for fish seed. This demand has been a key factor leading to the establishment of new fish hatcheries (Belton et al., 2018;Hernandez et al., 2018). The new fish hatcheries are located beyond the original core clusters in Jashore, where ideal iron-free water conditions and technical training were initially provided by a government hatchery in the 1970s (Lewis et al., 1996;Hernandez et al., 2018)."},{"index":2,"size":130,"text":"The first hatchery in the sample was established in 1980, but more than half (55%) started between 2006 and 2017 (Figure 2). Growth over this period was fastest for tilapia hatcheries (62%) and slowest for carp+catfish hatcheries (13%), indicating the growth rate of tilapia production outstripping that of carp production. This observation is consistent with the growth of tilapia production in Bangladesh, which has increased four times over the past 10 years (DoF, 2022). The meso-scale survey revealed growth in the production of indigenous catfish species' seed, with existing hatcheries expanded their facilities, and new hatcheries were established to meet the growing demand. This finding is consistent with a previous study (Shamsuzzaman et al., 2020), which reported a tripling of seed production for local catfish species over the past decade."},{"index":3,"size":97,"text":"Although some new hatcheries were established recently, the total number of crustacean hatcheries in the survey areas has fallen by 47% over the past decade, indicating a downward trend in the establishment and operation of crustacean hatcheries. The decline in crustacean hatcheries is attributed to a drop both seed (PL) production and lower demand from farms. This finding is consistent with data from farm household surveys conducted in the same zone as well as with data from DoF (2022), which reported a 42% decrease in the number of crustacean hatcheries and a 16% decrease in PL production."}]},{"head":"Assets","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":205,"text":"All surveyed hatcheries operated from fixed premises (Table 2), the majority (86%) of which were owned rather than rented (14%). The average floor space for hatchery infrastructure was 1,984 m2. Crustacean hatcheries had more floor space (p ≤ 0.05) compared to tilapia and carp+catfish hatcheries, likely due to the need for sophisticated management practices that require different types of infrastructure equipment. Most hatcheries (82%) had wellconstructed business premises to prevent theft and provide protection from the weather. The meso-scale interviews indicated that hatchery infrastructure has improved over the past decade, with some hatcheries converting their earthen floors to cement or concrete, which required significant capital investment. Additionally, the overall hatchery area has increased by 24%, from 2.1 ha in 2011 to 2.6 ha in 2021, reflecting larger operational scale to increase seed production. All tilapia and 96% of carp+catfish hatcheries had their own broodstock ponds to rear their own broodstock, with the share of land dedicated to ponds being 59% and 54% for tilapia and carp+catfish hatcheries, respectively. All tilapia, and 63% of carp+catfish hatcheries had Cumulative share of carp+catfish, tilapia, and crustacean hatcheries established by year, 1980-2020. Ali et al. 10.3389/faquc.2023.1219458 one of more nursery ponds in which to produce fries and/ or fingerlings."},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":"The types of production equipment used in hatcheries included overhead tanks, reservoir tanks, larvae rearing tanks, hatching jars, and spawning hapas (Table 2). The average value of production equipment increased from USD 5,267 in 2013 to USD 7,676 in 2021, suggesting that hatcheries invested in new and more advanced equipment to improve their seed production. In addition to production equipment, hatcheries owned equipment water pumps, furniture, scales, calculators, mobile phones, and oxygen cylinders (Table 3). The ownership of computer desktops/laptops increased from none in 2013 to 5% in 2021, likely due to adoption of technology that has made it easier to maintain accounts."},{"index":3,"size":253,"text":"The ownership of CCTV cameras has also increased, with 13% of crustacean hatcheries using them for business security. Similarly, the ownership of mobile phones has increased from 75% in 2013 to 91% in 2021, with the average value of mobile phones increased from USD 68 to USD 120 over this period, reflecting the shift from analog phones to more sophisticated smartphones. These phones are not only useful for maintaining connections between hatcheries and clients, but also for learning hatchery operation-related activities online. None of the hatcheries owned any large vehicles such as trucks. Vehicle ownership is limited primarily to motorbikes (5.9% of carp+catfish and 4.5% tilapia) for personal transportation and 'engine vans' (2% of carp+catfish) to transport inputs. The value of vehicles owned is relatively low, averaging USD 86 across hatchery categories (Table 3). Therefore, hatcheries relied heavily on rented vehicles, particularly small electric and motorized vehicles such as engine vans (65%) and autorickshaws (30%) for transporting inputs and seed. Most crustacean hatcheries (63%) rented 1-ton trucks, while 13% rented half-ton trucks for moving large loads for longer distances. The average annual expenditure per hatchery on transport increased from USD 135 in 2013 to USD 1140 in 2021 (Table 3). The low level of vehicle ownership and consequent dependence on rented transport services (i.e., hired vehicle plus driver), reflects the wider availability of third-party logistics firms (transport rental providers) in the study area, highlighting the crucial role that these play in enabling the movement of hatchery inputs and outputs between buyers and sellers."}]},{"head":"Conduct","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Seasonality","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"Fish hatcheries have a seasonal operation with peak and lean periods for seed production. The peak season runs from March to June, corresponding to the primary period for stocking grow-out farms. In contrast, the lean season for hatchery activities is during January-February and July-August. The spawn produced in the later months is mainly stocked in nursery ponds to produce overwintered fingerlings, which are used to stock grow-out ponds early in the following season. Hatcheries were not operated during the months of September to December and this period was considered an off-season or business off for the hatcheries."}]},{"head":"Composition, volume, and value of fish seed sold","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"The surveyed hatcheries produced a total of 20 different species, of which 18 fish species and 2 crustaceans (Table 4). Carp was the dominant species group (with concentration in a few carp species), followed by tilapia and crustaceans. Other species were produced in smaller quantities. These findings are consistent with our farm survey conducted at the same time, which identified carp, tilapia, and crustaceans as the main species farmed in the region."},{"index":2,"size":181,"text":"The volume of fish seed production has increased 1.3 times from 2013 to 2021. This increase was largely attributed to the production of tilapia seed, which saw a volume increase of 43% over the same period (DoF, 2022). Tilapia hatcheries produced only a single species, which contributed to 28% of the total fish seed production but only 17% of the total sales value, indicating relatively low unit price of tilapia seed in Bangladesh. Carp represent the largest share of fish seed, accounting for 67% of the volume and 66% of the sales value. The share of carp seed Catfish accounted for only 3.3% of total seed production in carp +catfish hatcheries, but contributed to 16% of total sales value. Among catfish seed, pangasius contributed to 51% of volume but only 13% of sales value. This suggests the higher per unit value of local indigenous catfish seed compared to pangasius. The production of local indigenous catfish seed increased by 62% over the last 10 years before the survey (DoF, 2022), indicating the potential for the development of catfish farming in southern Bangladesh."},{"index":3,"size":98,"text":"Crustacean seed/PL production decreased by 23% from 2013 to 2021 in surveyed hatcheries. This finding is consistent with national PL production data for Bangladesh, which reported a 16% drop of crustacean seed production over the same period (DoF, 2022). Black tiger shrimp dominated the production (99% of volume) and sales value (97% of sales value) of crustacean PL. Freshwater prawn contributed only a small portion (1% of volume) of PL produced in 2021, and production has decreased by 98% from 2013 to 2021 due to problems with unidentified disease in freshwater prawn hatcheries, as reported by Briggs (2013)."},{"index":4,"size":108,"text":"Fish seed were mostly sold as hatchlings, except for tilapia that was sold as fry. The hatcheries also kept some hatchlings to nurse in their own nursery pond and sold them as fries and/or fingerlings. The average annual sales volume and value of seeds were 4,737 kg and USD 49,702 for carp+catfish, 5,728 kg and USD 33,709 for tilapia, and 117 million PL and USD 245,606 for crustacean hatcheries, respectively. The population-weighted estimates of annual sales volume and value for all hatcheries operated in southern areas were significant, totaling 910 MT and USD 8.4 million for fish seed and 1,523 million and USD 2.2 million for crustacean PL."}]},{"head":"Hatchery procurement behavior","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":161,"text":"Almost all fish hatcheries (96%) used their owned broodstock to produce seed (Table 5) and recruited new broodstock every 2.3 years to improve quality and avoid inbreeding. The new broodstock were primarily sourced from their own farms (78%), followed by farms in the same district (25%), farms in other district (16%) and others (4.9%). The collection of broodstock from own farm is common practice in fish hatcheries in Bangladesh (Khanom et al., 2020). Most matured broodstock (86% of volume) were used annually, and each broodstock was used 2.6 times per year, suggesting a high level of efficiency in the hatchery operations. In contrast, crustacean hatcheries collected black tiger shrimp nauplii from other hatcheries in Cox's Bazar district and freshwater prawn broodstock from wild sources from suppliers. The average number of total suppliers and regular suppliers of broodstock was 4.5 and 3.4, respectively (Table 5) and were significantly higher (p ≤ 0.05) in the carp+catfish and crustacean hatcheries compared to tilapia hatcheries."}]},{"head":"Hatchery sales behavior","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":226,"text":"Hatcheries sold seeds to an average of 243 customers (Table 6) and the number of customers was significantly higher (p ≤ 0.05) in tilapia and carp+catfish hatcheries than crustaceans. About 69% of the clients were regular customers who bought 73% of the volume of seed sold, indicating the importance of social relationships and trust in determining the choice of hatcheries. Carp+catfish and tilapia hatcheries sold 50% and 30% of total seed directly to nursery owners, who then nurse them to produce fries and fingerlings to resell to farmers. This reflects a lengthening of the seed supply chain. In contrast, crustacean hatcheries primarily sold their seed directly to farmers (45% of volume) or large traders (53% of volume). The meso-scale data also indicates that the share of seed sold directly from hatcheries to farmers increased from 20% in 2013 to 30% in 2021, indicating a trend towards more direct sales and potentially shorter supply chains in the seed industry. Hatcheries sold seed to customers within various geographic ranges, including within the same union (11-22%), the same upazila (16-32%), same district (16-19%), and other districts (25-38%). The share of seed sold to customers in other districts decreased from 40% in 2013 to 27% in 2021, likely due to the establishment of new hatcheries in more remote areas, which allows for seed sales closer to the point of production."},{"index":2,"size":140,"text":"None of the hatcheries surveyed provided any cash credit to their customers. However, 20% of hatcheries (carp+catfish and tilapia) reported providing in-kind credit to well-known and trusted regular customers, with an average value of 28% of the volume of seed sold. Additionally, a quarter of tilapia and 17% of carp+catfish hatcheries reported receiving short-term delayed payment from regular clients, averaging 29% of the value of seed sold. Only 5% hatcheries reported receiving advanced payment from clients, amounting to 48% of total sales value. All hatcheries surveyed received payment in cash, but most carp+catfish (83%) and tilapia (86%) hatcheries also received payment via mobile phone based financial service. In contrast, crustacean hatcheries were more likely to receive payment by bank transfer (64%). This electronic payment may help to facilitate long-distance trade and improve the ease of conducting business across different locations."}]},{"head":"Services offered by hatcheries to clients","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"Hatcheries offered a variety of services to their clients beyond seed production and sales, as presented in Table 7. The most commonly provided service was packing at the time of sale, which was provided by 94% of the hatcheries. Sorting or grading seeds by size prior to sale was reported by 70% of hatcheries in 2021, which is an increase from 50% in 2013. In addition to these services, 20% of hatcheries reported providing in-kind credit to customers, and a smaller proportion (9%) offered seed delivery services. These additional services can help to develop a good relationship between buyers and sellers, ultimately leading to increased sales volume."},{"index":2,"size":84,"text":"Most hatcheries (71%) provided technical advice to clients, covering topics such as stocking seeds, application of feeds, chemicals and fertilizers, disease control, and seed prices. However, the quality of this technical information is unknown. Key informant interviews suggest that hatcheries regularly provide seed price information to farmers, nursery owners, and mobile seed traders, which is beneficial for all parties involved. Most respondents (49%) reported getting technical information from non-governmental organizations, followed by the Department of Fisheries (43%), chemical companies (23%), and feed companies (13%). "}]},{"head":"Financial management","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"The average annual working capital was USD 30,843 across hatchery categories (Table 8), with crustacean hatcheries having significantly higher (p ≤ 0.05) working capital compared to others, reflecting their larger scale of operation and higher operational costs. Most working capital came from reinvestment of business earning (84%) and own savings (4.3%). Bank loans were found to be a more important source of working capital for crustacean hatcheries (28% of funds) than for tilapia (14% of funds), and carp+catfish (6%)."},{"index":2,"size":92,"text":"More than 27% of respondents borrowed from at least one lender, with borrowing more common for crustacean compared to tilapia and carp+catfish hatcheries. All respondents who borrowed money took loans from government (56%) or private (44%) banks, suggesting widespread access to formal credit (e.g., Sabur et al., 2010;Sarwer, 2021). None of the hatcheries reported receiving any loans from microfinance institutions or informal moneylenders, and reported interest rates were relatively low across hatchery categories at 9.6% per annum, indicative of high levels of access to formal financial institutions (e.g., Jahan et al., 2015)."}]},{"head":"Performance","index":18,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Employment generation","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"The characteristics of employment by type of labor (family, permanent hired or causal hired) are presented in Table 9. Almost all hatcheries (96%) used family male labor for operational activities, with an average of 1.6 male family members employed. Additionally, 10% of hatcheries (carp+catfish, and tilapia) also employed female family labor, with an average 1.1 female family members employed. The majority of hatcheries (78%) hired permanent male labor, with an average of 3.7 workers, and crustacean hatcheries employed significantly higher workers (p ≤ 0.05) than other hatcheries. Moreover, 68% of the hatcheries employed casual male workers, with an average of 5.8 workers, for general manual activities. However, none of the respondents employed any casual or permanent female workers."},{"index":2,"size":146,"text":"The majority of family (95%), permanent (92%), and casual (99%) workers employed by hatcheries were ≥ 30 years old, indicating the challenges for young people to enter the hatchery business due to various factor such as lack of access to financing, limited knowledge and skills, and preference for other types of employment (Arulingam et al., 2019). The average daily wage earned by casual workers was USD 3.45/day, which is higher than the national average daily wage rate of Bangladesh (USD 2.14/day) for agricultural work (BBS, 2022). The average monthly wage of USD 102 paid to permanent workers did not differ significantly (p ≥ 0.05) between hatchery categories. However, the monthly wage rate was 55% higher than national minimum wage rate in Bangladesh (BBS, 2022). This suggests that employment in the hatchery sector may provide better wages and working conditions than many other agricultural jobs in Bangladesh."},{"index":3,"size":151,"text":"Hatchery business created an average of 543 days of employment per MT of fish seed or per million of PL sold across hatchery categories. The 66 surveyed hatcheries appointed an average 7.5 workers each, and created 943 full time equivalent (FTE) 2 jobs, assuming 2080 working hours per year. These FTEs included 17% family, 23% casual and 60% permanent labor (Table 9). Hatchery industry created employment opportunities mainly for men (99.7%), with only 5% of workers being aged ≤29 (i.e., youth). This reflects the family-owned and operated nature of many hatchery businesses, which may limit the opportunities for young people and women to enter the sector. These findings are consistent similar studies conducted in other aquaculture producing countries, which have also reported a high degree of family involvement and limited opportunities for youth and women in the fish seed production segment (Nasr-Allah et al., 2014;Joffre et al., 2021;Shoko et al., 2022)."},{"index":4,"size":93,"text":"The total FTE jobs created by hatcheries in the seven southern districts of Bangladesh were estimated (Table 10). Therefore, the total volume of fish and crustaceans seed produced in these districts was estimated using population weighted total for all hatcheries operated in surveyed districts. Total FTE jobs created by hatcheries were estimated by each hatchery by multiplying the mean labor days per unit of seed sold by the total quantities sold. These estimates are disaggregated for each hatchery group by family, casual, and permanent labor, youth and non-youth, and male and female employment."},{"index":5,"size":94,"text":"The total number of FTE jobs created by hatcheries in southern region was 2,491, with 421 FTEs from family labor, 584 FTEs from casual labor, and 1,486 FTEs from permanent labor. The majority of employment created was non-youth (2,376) and male (2,484). Fish seed production and sales created the majority (79%) of the employment, with crustacean hatcheries contributing the remaining 21%, or 530 FTEs. Carp and catfish hatcheries created the most employment (1,719 FTEs or 69% of the total), followed by crustacean hatcheries (530 FTEs or 21%), and tilapia hatcheries (241 FTEs or 10%)."}]},{"head":"Impacts of COVID-19 on the hatchery sector","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"The hatchery production and sales were negatively impacted by COVID-19, similar to other segments of aquaculture value chain in Bangladesh. Key informant interviews indicated that the interruptions in hatchery operations resulted in lower seed production and sales in 2020 and 2021 compared to 2019. The hatchery survey results show a 17% decrease in seed sales in 2021 compared to 2019, which was a significant decline. The reduction in sales volumes reflects fewer customers, and has resulted lower quantities of seed sold at a lower price than usual, and lower incomes for hatchery owners (Figure 3). These findings are consistent with other research on the impacts of COVID-19 on the aquaculture sector in Bangladesh that reported lower sales volume due to lockdowns and travel restrictions (Belton et al., 2021)."}]},{"head":"Financial performance","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"Average annual hatchery operating costs were substantial, at USD 22,996 (Table 11), and significantly higher (p ≤ 0.05) for crustacean hatcheries compared to tilapia and carp+catfish hatcheries. Variable costs account for 85% of total costs. Production inputs including feed, and salaries were the most important cost items across all types of hatchery, comprising 32% and 16% of variable costs, respectively, except for crustacean hatcheries. In crustacean hatcheries, transportation was the single largest cost item, accounting for 23% of variable costs. This result may reflect the need to collect inputs (e.g., nauplii, salt water) from suppliers located far away."},{"index":2,"size":99,"text":"Almost all hatcheries (95%) reported a positive profit. The mean annual gross profit margin was significantly higher (p ≤ 0.05) in the crustacean (USD 111,563) than the carp+catfish (USD 35,589) and tilapia (USD 15,458) hatcheries. The average annual net profit margin, which accounts for all annual fixed and operating costs, was USD 32,159, and differed significantly (p ≤ 0.05) between hatchery categories. Across all hatcheries, the average annual net profit margin was 54% of the gross revenue, which is relatively modest considering the total annual working capital investments. These findings suggest the existence of competitive seed markets in Bangladesh."},{"index":3,"size":92,"text":"None of the hatcheries reported any loss or waste at the time of sales or delivery of seed. However, 18% of hatcheries (26% of carp +catfish, and 13% of crustacean) reported facing disease and/or water quality problems such as white spot disease, fungal disease, tail and fin rot, gill rot, argulosis and lernaeasis. The average annual mortality rate was 13% and 10% for carp+catfish and crustacean hatcheries, respectively. Despite these challenges, the average annual economic loss due to mortality was only 0.71% of the total seed sales values, which is quite low.    "}]},{"head":"Farmers seed procurement and use","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":235,"text":"We analyzed fish seed procurement and use by farmers in the same locations where hatcheries surveyed. All farmers stocked carp fish seed, and most of them (72%) stocked tilapia seed (Table 12). Additionally, 16% of farmers particularly only fish and prawn+fish farmers also stocked catfish seed along with carp and tilapia. All farmers, except those stocking only fish, stocked freshwater prawn and/or tiger shrimp PL. The average annual fish stocking density was 498 kg/ha and it was significantly higher (p ≤ 0.05) in only fish farms, followed by prawn+fish, shrimp+fish, and prawn+shrimp +fish farms. The mean annual stocking density of crustacean was significantly higher (p ≤ 0.05) in shrimp+fish and prawn+shrimp +fish farms than prawn+fish farms. The mean seed stocking cost was USD 791 ha -1 and did not differ significantly (p ≥ 0.05) between farm categories.     More than 19% of crustacean farmers nurse PL prior to stock in grow-out farms. The use of PCR and SPF tested shrimp PL is crucial for disease prevention, biosecurity, improved growth and survival rates, quality assurance, and market access. However, only 15% of farmers stocked PCR tested PL, while 1.5% stocked SPF tested PL, with the average volume being 57% and 17% of the total PL stocked, respectively. The reasons given by respondents for not stocking PCR or SPF tested PL included high cost, ineffectiveness at preventing disease, unavailability, and no knowledge of PCR or SPF tested PL."},{"index":2,"size":99,"text":"Most fish seed used by farms (86%) was purchased from mobile seed traders, locally known as patilwala, and the remaining from hatcheries (7.7%), large seed traders (4.4%), nurseries (1.1%), and other sources (0.9%). In contrast, most crustacean seed (75%) was purchased from large seed traders, followed by mobile seed traders (22%), hatcheries (2.0%), and nurseries (0.9%). These findings were consistent with the hatchery surveys, which showed that most fish seed was sold to nursery operators who then sold to farmers through mobile seed traders, while crustacean seed was sold to large seed traders who then sold directly to farmers."},{"index":3,"size":106,"text":"More than one-fourth (27%) of farmers reported having received seed as in-kind credit from traders and the in-kind credit arrangement was more prevalent for crustacean seed (27% of total volume) compared to fish seed (9.5% of total volume). However, only 5.7% of farmers doing so reported being obligated to sell their produce to these traders, suggesting very little use of tied credit by seed traders. Key informant interviews suggested that in some cases, the price of seed purchased as in-kind credit was 3-5% higher than that of seed purchased immediately in cash, but interest was not always charged, based on the relationship between farmers and traders."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":186,"text":"The hatchery segment of aquaculture value chain in Bangladesh has experienced significant growth in the last decade, with an overall increase in the number of hatcheries and the volume of seed produced. Carp and tiger shrimp were the most commonly produced fish and crustacean species, amounting 67% and 99% of volume, respectively. Hatcheries used a high volume of their matured broodstock annually and replaced them at an average interval of 2.3 years, indicating a level of efficiency in their operation and broodstock management. Around 18% of hatcheries faced disease or water quality problems and reported to loss only 0.7% of total sales value, which is quite low. Hatcheries were familyowned and operated business that created a total 2,491 full time equivalent (FTE) jobs, predominantly for men. The mean annual net profit margin was relatively modest considering the investments, suggesting the existence of competitive seed production and marketing. The overall findings suggest that the hatchery segment of the aquaculture value chain in southern Bangladesh is dynamic, well developed, efficient, and relatively competitive. This contradicts the conventional perception of inefficiency and problems in the hatchery segment in Bangladesh."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"FIGURE 2 FIGURE 2 "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"TABLE 2 List of assets used for fish hatchery operation. Variables Variables  "},{"text":"TABLE 3 Value and ownership of equipment and vehicle, and used by hatcheries. Variables Variables  "},{"text":"TABLE 4 Share of seed sold by species, and average and total sales volume and value. Variables Variables  "},{"text":"TABLE 4 Continued  Variables Variables  "},{"text":"TABLE 5 Hatcheries broodstock procurement and production behavior. Variables Variables  "},{"text":"TABLE 6 Hatcheries sales behavior.Distribution of clients (% of fish volume) Variables Variables  "},{"text":"TABLE 7 Type of services provided by fish hatcheries to clients. % of respondents who… % of respondents who…  "},{"text":"TABLE 8 Continued  Variables Variables  "},{"text":"TABLE 9 Characteristics of labor use by hatchery business. Variables Variables  "},{"text":"TABLE 9 Continued  Variables Variables  "},{"text":"TABLE 10 Estimated total FTE jobs created by hatcheries in the surveyed seven districts. Variables Variables  "},{"text":"TABLE 11 Annual cost and profit margin of business operation. Cost items Cost items  "},{"text":"TABLE 11 Continued  Cost items Cost items  "},{"text":"TABLE 12 Fish seed procurement and use practices reported by farmers. Variables Variables  "},{"text":"TABLE 12 Continued Share of crustacean seed purchase by suppliers (%) Variables Variables  "}],"sieverID":"a628f311-8865-43a1-b840-fb20b3a49ffb","abstract":"Introduction: Seed production has experienced significant growth in Bangladesh over the last decade, driven by the increasing number of hatcheries. The hatchery segment plays a crucial role in the overall growth and development of aquaculture in the country. Understanding its structure, conduct and performance is essential for assessing its impact on the productivity and profitability of aquaculture farms. However, there is a limited number of methodologically rigorous studies focusing on the hatchery segment in Bangladesh. The study aimed to fill the gap in the exiting literature by conducting a methodologically analysis of the hatchery segment of aquaculture value chain in Bangladesh.Methods: This study was conducted in seven of the main aquaculture producing districts in southern Bangladesh. A comprehensive structured survey was conducted between May and August 2022 with 66 enterprises, including 42 carp+catfish, 16 tilapia, and 8 crustacean hatcheries.Results and discussion: The major findings and their implications are as follows.(1) The number of hatcheries increased by 15% over the past decade, with a 27% increase in fish hatcheries and a 47% decrease in crustacean hatcheries. (2) Carp and tiger shrimp were the most commonly produced fish and crustacean seeds, contributing 67% and 99% of volume and 66% and 97% of sales value, respectively. (3) The hatcheries were family-owned and operated enterprise, and generated a total 2,491 full time equivalent (FTE) jobs. (4) Hatcheries used 86% of their broodstock annually and replaced them regularly for improving quality and avoiding inbreeding. (5) 18% of hatcheries reported facing diseases and/or water quality problems, but mean economic loss was only 0.71% of seed sales value, which is a low level of loss and waste. (6) Average annual net profit margin was relatively modest, averaging 54% of the gross revenue, which suggests the existence of competitive seed production and marketing. The results showed that the hatchery segment in southern Bangladesh appears to be dynamic, well developed, efficient, and relatively competitive."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"07dcfb42985e9c149bcd46ef6835cf33","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f68cbe32-366d-4d25-8337-31cdc58326cf/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"PROFILE DU PROJET ILRI","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Les marchés alimentaires urbains en Afrique","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Promouvoir la sécurité sanitaire des aliments à travers une approche offre-demande (« pull-push »)"}]},{"head":"Sommaire de la méthodologie","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":185,"text":"Ce projet de recherche a pour objectif d'améliorer la sécurité sanitaire des aliments dans les marchés urbains informels du Burkina Faso (et d'Ethiopie), et plus particulièrement celui de la viande de la volaille et des légumes. Contrairement aux efforts précédents qui s'étaient focalisés sur la formation des producteurs ou régulateurs d'offre avec très peu d'attention sur le changement de comportement, le présent projet cherche à savoir si la demande du consommateur pourrait produire la même incitation (demande) pour la sécurité sanitaire des aliments dans les pays à revenu faible et intermédiaire comme cela l'a été dans les pays à revenu élevé. Le projet vise à augmenter la capacité des acteurs des marchés en vue de répondre à la demande à travers l'adaptation des bonnes pratiques ou technologies, et celui des régulateurs pour fournir un environnement favorable. Nous élaborons l'hypothèse que les deux approches, demande-offre (« pull-push ») doivent être implémentées ensemble dans les marchés urbains en Afrique afin de parvenir à une amélioration durable de la sécurité sanitaire des aliments. Simultanément un environnement favorable est un prérequis pour l'amélioration de la sécurité sanitaire des aliments."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"L'étude utilisera des méthodes de recherche formative et évaluation intervention en s'adressent aux acteurs de la chaine alimentaire pour répondre aux questions de recherche suivantes :"},{"index":3,"size":132,"text":"Régulateurs nationaux : Quel est le fardeau des maladies attribuées aux pathogènes prioritaires sélectionnés dans la viande de la volaille et les légumes dans les centres urbains au Burkina Faso et en Ethiopie sur la santé et l'économie dans le secteur des aliments et le public ? Comment est-il distribué ? Comment l'information désagrégée sur le fardeau des maladies influence-telle les attitudes et le comportement des régulateurs ? Régulateurs nationaux et locaux : Quelles sont les options les plus pertinentes et les plus rentables pour gérer les risques des pathogènes prioritaires dans les produits de la viande de volaille et les légumes dans chaque pays ? Le renforcement des capacités suivant les approches basées sur le risque et l'utilisation des outils d'aide aux décisions peut-il améliorer la sécurité sanitaire des aliments ?"},{"index":4,"size":163,"text":"Les acteurs des chaines d'aliments et les régulateurs locaux : Quels sont les obstacles perçus ? et quels sont les facilitateurs des acteurs de la chaine des valeurs des marchés urbains qui fournissent des aliments plus sains ? Un ensemble d'informations, de technologies et de mécanismes organisationnels simples et abordables, associé à des incitations (demande des consommateurs et surveillance réglementaire), peut-il donner aux acteurs de la chaîne de valeur les moyens de répondre à la demande des consommateurs et à la pression des régulateurs en améliorant leur hygiène alimentaire ? Les consommateurs : Quelles stratégies de communication peuvent être utilisées pour intégrer la demande des consommateurs urbains en matière de sécurité alimentaire au changement de comportement des régulateurs, des acteurs de la chaîne de valeur et des consommateurs ? Quelle est l'importance de la sécurité alimentaire pour les consommateurs urbains lorsqu'ils achètent sur les marchés locaux ? Quels sont les obstacles perçus sur l'accès des consommateurs urbains à des aliments plus sains ?"}]},{"head":"Modules thématiques","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Le projet est organisé en sept (07) modules thématiques :"},{"index":2,"size":139,"text":"Module 1 : Estimation du fardeau des maladies sur attribué aux pathogènes dans les aliments dans les centres urbains an Burkina Faso et en Ethiopie sur la santé et l'économie. Module 2 : Meilleure compréhension des marchés de viande de volaille et des légumes dans les centres urbains an Burkina Faso et en Ethiopie. Module 3 : Enquêtes microbiologiques quantitative et analyse des coûts-efficacité des interventions proposées. Module 4 : Augmentation de la capacité et de la motivation des régulateurs à gérer la sécurité sanitaire des aliments (intervention 1, approche « push ») Module 5 : Rendre les acteurs du marché capable d'approvisionner des aliments sains (intervention 2, approche « push ») Module 6 : Conceptualisation et implémentation d'une campagne des consommateurs (intervention 3, approche « pull ») Module 7 : Evaluation de l'intervention de l'approche « pull-push »"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"b6794447-ccfe-4d24-b649-2f7bf19c80ff","abstract":"Les marchés alimentaires urbains en Afrique : Promouvoir la sécurité sanitaire des aliments à travers une approche offre--demande (« pull-push ») 1Photos : ILRI/Apollo Habtamu ILRI voudrait remercier tous les donateurs et organisations qui dans le monde appui son travail à travers leurs contributions au CGIAR Trust Fund."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"08230f55b10175ff95076a5fb8e2263d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/59d34a9a-b4a7-457f-92a1-d14856a4cdeb/retrieve"},"pageCount":21,"title":"TRADE COMPETITIVENESS AMONG COMESA COUNTRIES IN AGRICULTURAL COMMODITY EXPORTS","keywords":["COMESA","trade","agriculture","revealed comparative advantage","competitiveness JEL Codes: F11","F13","F14","Q17"],"chapters":[{"head":"LIST OF TABLES","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"LIST OF FIGURES","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"TRADE COMPETITIVENESS AMONG COMESA COUNTRIES IN AGRICULTURAL COMMODITY EXPORTS 1-INTRODUCTION","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":280,"text":"Export trade is considered a key driver for achieving robust and sustained economic growth by raising the incomes of smallholder farmers in poor nations (FAO 1995;Brenton and Newfarmer 2007). Additional benefits of increased export trade include integration of countries into the global economy, being a source of productivity gains for firms, and providing an avenue for technology transfer and employment creation (Samen 2010). Therefore, increased export growth can lead to a sustainable and high level of economic growth. In the last decade, for example, the economies of fast-growing nations (those with triple export growth against their world market shares) were fueled by a rise in global export share. At the global scale, the value of export trade has been increasing since 2009 from USD 12.2 to 17.9 million by 2012 (see Table 1). In Africa, the share of traded goods and services in gross domestic product (GDP) rose from 21 to 36.3 percent between 1990 and 2008 against the world average of 25 percent. African nations have also recorded a slight growth in the share of exports. In the world agricultural trade, Africa's share has increased steadily from 1.2 to 3.3 percent between 19963.3 percent between -20003.3 percent between and 20093.3 percent between -20133.3 percent between (UNCTAD 2014)). Source: WTO (2015). Note: f.o.b. = Free-on-board However, compared with the rest of the world, African nations still trail in the share of world export markets despite existing unexploited potential. African merchandise trade with the rest of the world (Table 1) depicts only a 3 percent improvement for the 2009-2012 period. This stagnation in growth is attributed partly to existing trade barriers and the associated high trade-related costs that characterize African trade."},{"index":2,"size":111,"text":"In the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) region, a substantial decline in the average export share of global merchandise and services was recorded in the 1980s. The low performance was experienced despite preferential access to European Union (EU) and other markets. However, this leveled off in the mid-1990s after which few improvements have been observed (Brenton, Newfarmer, and Hoppe 2008). The unutilized potential for trade is an opportunity to spur the economic growth of the region. As noted by Brenton and Newfarmer (2007), to spur economic growth from export trade the following actions are required: efficient allocation of resources, reducing trade-related costs, and overcoming market and government failures."},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"In terms of product categories, agricultural products from Africa are also lagging behind the continent's exports (Table 2). However, during the 2009-2012 period, the export value of agricultural products increased substantially from USD 39.1 to 57.4 million, compared with fuels and mining products, which doubled over the same period (Table 2). Source: WTO (2015)."},{"index":4,"size":84,"text":"In this paper, we analyze the trade competitiveness of selected agricultural commodities traded among COMESA member states. The paper is organized into six sections: section 1 provides a general introduction on the status of Africa's trade in relation to global trade. Section 2 provides an overview of trade in the COMESA region. Section 3 describes the methodology applied in the study while in section 4 and 5 data and results are presented. Section 6 concludes and offers our recommendations based on the study findings."}]},{"head":"-AN OVERVIEW OF TRADE IN THE COMESA REGION","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":150,"text":"The COMESA region, with a population of 389 million people in 2019, is a huge market for trade (both import and export). In 2016, the region generated a total of USD 165 billion from exports and incurred an import bill of about USD 71 billion (COMESA 2017). This indicates the existence of a large agricultural trade surplus in the region. The main agricultural trade partner of COMESA members is the EU, which imports about 43 percent of the Eastern and Southern Africa (ESA) agricultural exports. Other partners include Japan, China, and the United States. China is growing as an important export market (Agritrade 2011). Agricultural trade in 2013 between COMESA member states was a mere 7 percent of all trade in the region, compared with the Association of Southeast Asian Nations' 25 percent. Kenya was identified as the main agricultural exporter and importer at 26 percent and 18.3 percent, respectively."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"Cereals account for 31 percent of all imports into the ESA region while the main exports are tea, coffee, and spices (23.3 percent), tobacco (14 percent), horticultural products (17.1 percent), cotton (4.4 percent), and sugar (6.1 percent) (Agritrade 2011). Source: Agritrade (2011)."},{"index":3,"size":53,"text":"1-The Agreement on Agriculture (AoA) refer to a group of agricultural products according definition refer to HS chapters 1 to 24 (excluding fish and fish products) and several manufactured agricultural products. This definition does not correspond to the definition of agricultural products presented in the breakdown of merchandise trade by main commodity group."},{"index":4,"size":228,"text":"The meaning of the term competitiveness is a hotly contested debate. Some economists such as Spence and Karingi (2011) believe that it is ill-defined, conceptually vague, and subject to abuse. Other economists observe that it is experienced at the firm level rather than at the national level, thereby excluding the notion of national competitiveness as an economic research and policy failure. This is because productivity at the firm level is inadequate to support the definition of competitiveness, as exports are influenced by several factors such as tariffs, exchange rates, certification standards, and infrastructure and market systems among others. Therefore, defining competitiveness at the national level contravenes the win-win Ricardian exchange theory from which international trade derives its raison d'être, and erroneously implies that the wealth of nations is derived only from international fortunes. In this study, however, competitiveness is defined as the ability of a country to sell goods under free and fair conditions in global markets while maintaining and expanding the real incomes of its people over the long term (OECD 2005). The issue of trade competitiveness has, however, evolved from analyzing exports to export performance. Even in today's world of free trade, the future of food dynamics is determined by competitiveness (ERD 2011). In analyzing competitiveness, the key determinants include export products, export destinations for products, and the nature of challenges countries face in export trade."},{"index":5,"size":246,"text":"According to Lopez-Gonzalez and Cirera (2012), export growth can be analyzed from two dimensions: intensive and extensive margin. Intensive margin refers to the number of exporting firms while intensive margin refer to the average exports per firm. Among ESA nations, export growth is considered an important driver of economic growth. Therefore, promoting export growth is an urgent agenda that requires countries in the ESA region to integrate correctly designed interventions for enhancing trade and trade competitiveness into their core growth strategies. This wide approach requires an understanding of a country's export profile in terms of volume, growth, diversification (products and markets), and sophistication to define its competitiveness. This calls for clarity in understanding the type of products exported and the nature of the challenges countries face in the export trade. Although export growth is a key driver of economic growth, the Alliance for Commodity Trade in Eastern and Southern Africa (ACTESA) has identified the lack of information on competitiveness of various countries in trade for major agricultural commodities as an impediment to designing programs to link farmers to regional and international markets in line with its mandate. ReSAKSS undertook this study to fill this existing knowledge gap as it works with ACTESA to provide a better understanding of trade competitiveness in informing appropriate policy measures necessary in harnessing a nation's economic potential. This study builds on the growing number of analytical studies on trade and a rich intraregional trade dataset ReSAKSS has been developing since 2009."},{"index":6,"size":179,"text":"In this study, we analyze trade in major agricultural food staples-namely, dry legumes and pulses, maize and rice grains, wheat and maize flours, tomatoes, onions, cassava, fish, milk and cream, bovine meat, and live bovine animals-produced in COMESA countries in the 1997-2013 period. To capture the dynamic aspects of competitiveness and degree of country specialization in production and trade, we calculate revealed comparative advantage (RCA) indices for the region's countries. The analysis is of specific products, their destination, main competitiveness constraints and their causes, opportunities for creation of new opportunities, and potential areas of intervention. In addition, the study documents what COMESA member states must do to adopt rationalization of agricultural production with a view to promoting complementarity and specialization. A better understanding of trade competitiveness helps inform policy measures and programming necessary for harnessing a nation's economic potential. From a broader perspective, this will contribute to creating knowledge and information that can be used to promote Article 129 of the COMESA Treaty, which articulates the achievement of regional food security and rational agricultural production within the Common Market."}]},{"head":"-METHODOLOGY","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"From a comparative advantage perspective, international trade is premised on Ricardian theory and Heckscher-Ohlin (H-O) theory. While Ricardian theory posits that comparative advantage is attributable to differences in technology across countries, H-O theory assumes technologies are similar across countries and that therefore comparative advantage arises from differences in costs of the factors of production. In all, the two theories are based on relative price determination-that is, the differences in pretrade relative prices across countries underlined by the invisible hands of the market."},{"index":2,"size":217,"text":"By H-O theory, for example, a country's comparative advantage would be determined by its relative factor scarcity. It is, however, impracticable to test H-O theory because relative factor prices are unobservable under autarky (Balassa 1989). Consequently, it may be prudent to use \"revealed\" comparative advantage (RCA), which is based on the observed trade patterns rather than the unobservable pretrade relative prices (Balassa 1965). Ricardian theory, on the other hand, is considered too simple for serious empirical analysis (Leamer and Levinsohn 1996). It ignores factors of production other than labor and is pegged on the unrealistic assumption that countries only specialize in the production of tradable goods. This causes serious difficulties when making essential labor compensations and international comparisons of productivity (Golub and Hsieh 2000). Thus, the index of RCA, refined and popularized by Balassa (1965Balassa ( , 1989)), has become widely accepted in analysis of trade data as a tool with which to measure a country's comparative advantage. Given a group of reference countries, the Balassa index measures normalized export shares, where normalization is with respect to the exports of the same sector in the group of the reference countries. In our study, we adopt the same approach to analyze competitiveness of the individual COMESA countries in trade in different commodities. We compute the index as follows:"},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"where ij X refers to country i's export of commodity j; it X refers to country i's total exports; n j X refers to the COMESA export of commodity j; and n t X refers to COMESA's total exports. In its original form,"},{"index":4,"size":37,"text":"the Balassa index has a skewed distribution, with values ranging from zero to infinity. To deal with the skewness, we adopt the normalization proposed by Laursen (1998Laursen ( , 2000)). Thus, the ultimate index is computed as"},{"index":5,"size":1,"text":"(2)"},{"index":6,"size":50,"text":"The is an estimation of a log transformation of the RCA, which ranges from -1 to +1 and is equal to 0 when A country is said to have a Revealed Comparative Advantage in a product when the computed lies between zero and one (i.e. when ), and a Revealed"},{"index":7,"size":13,"text":"Comparative disadvantage when the computed index is less than zero (i.e. when )."},{"index":8,"size":12,"text":"The RCA methodology has strengths and weaknesses. Its strengths include the following:"},{"index":9,"size":24,"text":"• RCA is flexible enough to assess comparative advantage in exporting differentiated products under the same species or the same products to different markets."},{"index":10,"size":15,"text":"• Compared with other methods, such as domestic resource costs, RCA is less data demanding."},{"index":11,"size":10,"text":"RCA is characterized by several weaknesses such as the following:"},{"index":12,"size":55,"text":"• RCA may not reveal \"true\" comparative advantage because real trade patterns may be distorted by government interventions. This may misrepresent the underlying comparative advantage. Our analysis proceeds on the understanding that intraregional trade in food staples in the COMESA region is officially free, although state interventions are often observed with varying degrees of intensity."},{"index":13,"size":31,"text":"• The methodology does not have straightforward policy implications because a positive RCA does not give a clear indication of whether resource allocation is at an optimal level or even excessive."},{"index":14,"size":33,"text":"• Lastly, RCA could also imply \"unexploited potential\" and hence the need to examine RCA over time rather than at only one point in time. (In this study we covered the 1997-2013 period.)"}]},{"head":"-DATA","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"The study uses trade statistics from the COMESA statistical database (COMSTAT) covering 1997 through 2013. COMSTAT receives trade statistics regularly from national statistical offices of the member states and compiles regional external trade statistics based on the United Nations General Trade System."},{"index":2,"size":82,"text":"Data from different countries are recorded using product and country nomenclatures and national currencies. However, for comparison and compilation of regional trade statistics, data from member states are harmonized into the recommended standard nomenclatures and codes prescribed by the COMESA Rules and Regulations for Compilation of Merchandise Trade Statistics. For example, the merchandise is classified using HS2012 codes while countries are coded using ISO3166:93 nomenclatures. Values are converted into US dollars. This enables aggregation of data from member states into regional statistics."},{"index":3,"size":87,"text":"Our analysis was confined to countries and products for which data were available. The countries covered are Burundi, the Comoros, Djibouti, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Libya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Rwanda, Seychelles, Sudan, Swaziland, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. Among the commodities covered are livestock and livestock products (bovine meat, milk and cream, fish, and live bovine animals), roots and tubers (cassava), grains and pulses (dry legumes and pulses, rice grain, maize grain), processed flours (maize and wheat flours), and vegetables (onions and tomatoes)."}]},{"head":"-RESULTS AND DISCUSSION","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":328,"text":"The computed RCA indices suggest that countries in the region have fluctuating advantages in trade in the different food staples analyzed (see the appendix).   Overall Egypt, Kenya, and Uganda had an RCA in the largest number of products (11 out of the 12 examined). Figure 1 provides a summary of the number of products in which each of the countries had an RCA. Notably, more than 50 percent of the countries had an RCA in more than half of the products considered. Among the countries performing poorly were Djibouti (with an RCA in only four products), Rwanda (with an RCA in three products), Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Eritrea, Libya, and Seychelles (each with an RCA in two products), and Comoros (with an RCA in only one product). This is not surprising because agriculture's contribution to the GDP of most of these countries is minimal. Libya and Democratic Republic of the Congo, for example, are more dependent on minerals, while Seychelles is more dependent on tourism. Burundi, Rwanda, and the Comoros have small land areas, which may limit mechanized agriculture, and this may explain their poor performance in the regional trade in the agricultural products analyzed. Fortunately, each country demonstrated an RCA in at least one product, which is important for mutual benefits from regional trade. In terms of individual products, fi sh was the most favored. Of the 19 countries examined, 15 had an RCA in fi sh production and trade (see Figure 2 above). Other favorable products were dry legumes and pulses, in which 12 countries had an RCA; bovine meat and tomatoes, in which 11 countries had an RCA; and live bovine and maize grain, in which 10 countries had an RCA. For the rest of the products, fewer than 50 percent of the countries recorded an RCA. Rice grain and wheat fl our were, however, the worst performers, with only six and seven countries out of the 19 analyzed registering an RCA, respectively."},{"index":2,"size":206,"text":"A trend analysis of the RCAs recorded by countries in diff erent products shows that very few countries consistently registered an RCA in products. Among the countries that showed consistency were Egypt (onions, rice grain, tomatoes, and wheat fl our), Ethiopia (dry legumes and pulses, live bovine animals, onions, and tomatoes), Kenya (bovine meat, live bovine animals, fi sh, and onions), Madagascar (dry legumes and pulses, cassava, and tomatoes), Malawi (dry legumes and pulses and rice grain), Mauritius (wheat fl our), Sudan (live bovine animals), and Uganda (dry legumes and pulses, maize fl our, and maize grain) (see the appendix for details). Fluctuation in the RCA indices of the countries in the region in diff erent products is probably underpinned by the nature of production systems. Most countries are in production most products and may enjoy an RCA or suff er a comparative disadvantage based on weather conditions. That is, a year with good rainfall can lead to a positive RCA and vice versa given that production is rainfed. Thus, switching to less weather-dependent production techniques may stabilize RCA positions of the individual countries. Most important, however, the results have shown products in which countries may devote their investments to take advantage of the regional market."}]},{"head":"-CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Although Africa's share of world agricultural trade has increased steadily from 1.2 to 3.3 percent between 1996-2000 and 2009-2013, African nations still lag behind in their shares of the world export market despite existing unexploited potential. In this study, we analyzed trade in major agricultural commodities (grains and pulses, processed flours, vegetables, roots and tubers, and livestock and livestock products) produced in the COMESA region."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"We computed RCA indices using trade statistics from the COMESA statistical database covering the 1997-2013 period. Findings according to the RCA indices showed that countries in the COMESA region had fluctuating advantages in trade in different food staples."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"Among Based on the study findings, our recommendations are as follows:"},{"index":4,"size":53,"text":" Regional economic communities and member states should use the results of the study to inform trade policies in the region. For instance, the COMESA Treaty envisages regional integration through specialization in production and trade. The results of the study can inform discussions on how such specialization and trade patterns can be realized."},{"index":5,"size":81,"text":" The fluctuating RCA indices from year to year reflect weather-dependent agricultural production systems. This means that individual countries' competitiveness fluctuates year to year depending on weather. To address the observed fluctuation in RCA indices countries should invest in production systems that are less weather-dependent, such as irrigated agriculture. Countries also need to promote drought-resistant and drought-tolerant crop varieties and early warning systems. 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Burundi"}]},{"head":"APPENDIX: REVEALED COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGES OF COMESA COUNTRIES","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"INTERNATIONAL FOOD POLICY RESEARCH INSTITUTE","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"A world free of hunger and malnutrition "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................1 2 An Overview of Trade in the COMESA Region...........................................................................2 3 Methodology ...............................................................................................................................4 4 Data ............................................................................................................................................5 5 Results and Discussion ..............................................................................................................5 6 Conclusions and Recommendations ..........................................................................................8 References ....................................................................................................................................9 "},{"text":"Table 1 : Merchandise export in agricultural products (f.o.b.), 2009-2012 ....................................1 Table 2: African exports by product group, 2009-2012 (in million USD) ......................................2 Table 3: ESA countries' main sources of agricultural imports and agricultural export markets, 2008-2009 (in million USD) ................................................................................2 Table 4: Average RCA of COMESA countries (1997-2013) ..........................................................5 "},{"text":"Figure 1 :Figure 2 : Figure 1: Summary of number of products for which the country has an RCA ............................6 Figure 2: Summary of number of countries with positive RCA by product ....................................7 "},{"text":"- Source: Authors' computation based on COMSTAT data. Note: -indicates comparative disadvantage; 0 indicates demarcation point; and + indicates comparative advantage. DRC = Democratic Republic of the Congo. "},{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Summary of number of products for which the country has an RCA "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2: Summary of number of countries with positive RCA by product "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Merchandise export in agricultural products (f.o.b.),[2009][2010][2011][2012]  Merchandise export (f.o.b.) 2009 2010 2011 2012 Merchandise export (f.o.b.)2009201020112012 World (in USD) 12,177,642 14,850,565 17,816,372 17,930,467 World (in USD)12,177,64214,850,56517,816,37217,930,467 Africa (in USD) 383,940 508,045 594,243 630,009 Africa (in USD)383,940508,045594,243630,009 African share of world trade (%) 3.15 3.42 3.34 3.51 African share of world trade (%)3.153.423.343.51  "},{"text":"Table 2 : African exports by product group, 2009-2012 (in million USD)     Product category 2009 2010 2011 2012 Product category2009201020112012 Agriculture 39,101 54,820 59,491 57,392 Agriculture39,10154,82059,49157,392 Fuels, mining products 245,748 331,177 382,209 437,719 Fuels, mining products245,748331,177382,209437,719 Manufactured goods 73,794 94,625 110,305 103,410 Manufactured goods73,79494,625110,305103,410 Agreement on agriculture 1 31,057 37,763 45,979 45,491 Agreement on agriculture 131,05737,76345,97945,491 Industrial goods 352,883 470,282 548,264 584,517 Industrial goods352,883470,282548,264584,517 Total 742,583 988,667 1,146,248 1,228,529 Total742,583988,6671,146,2481,228,529  "},{"text":"Table 3 : ESA countries' main sources of agricultural imports and agricultural export markets,2008-2009 (  "},{"text":"in million USD) Main sources of imports Import value Share of ESA agricultural imports (%) Main export markets Export value Share of ESA agricultural exports (%)  EU 1,137.861 15.66 EU 8,243.990 42.79 EU1,137.86115.66 EU8,243.99042.79 South Africa 1,071.285 14.74 USA 789.109 4.10 South Africa1,071.28514.74 USA789.1094.10 USA 582.945 8.02 China 748.524 3.88 USA582.9458.02 China748.5243.88 Uganda 318.871 4.39 Japan 574.417 2.98 Uganda318.8714.39 Japan574.4172.98 China 249.962 3.44   China249.9623.44  "},{"text":" Table 4 provides a summary of the average RCA of different COMESA countries in specific food staples between 1997 and 2013.  "},{"text":"Table 4 : Average RCA of COMESA countries (1997-2013)     Country Country  "},{"text":"RCA indices on different products Bovine meat C a s a v a Dry legumes & pulses Fish Live bovine animals Maize flour Maize grain   Milk& cream Onions Rice grain T o m a t o e Wheat flour Milk& creamOnionsRice grain T o m a t o e Wheat flour Burundi -  Burundi-  "},{"text":" East African Community members, products with highest positive RCA indices include bovine meat and cassava (Kenya and Uganda), live bovine animals (Kenya), and maize grain (Uganda). Among the Intergovernmental Authority on Development members, products with positive RCA indices include Ethiopian tomatoes, maize grain in Uganda, fish (Eritrea), cassava in Kenya, Ethiopia, and Uganda, bovine meat (Kenya, Uganda), and live bovine animals in Kenya, Ethiopia, and Sudan. However, among Southern African Development Community members, only Zambia had a positive RCA index in wheat flour and bovine meat. Madagascar enjoys a positive RCA index in onions, tomatoes, and cassava while Malawi boasts of a positive RCA index in cassava and dry legumes and pulses.  "}],"sieverID":"5f43b2aa-b5ba-41f7-af60-dae8a43be4a1","abstract":"The goal of the ReSAKSS Working Paper series is to provide timely access to preliminary research and data analysis results that relate directly to strengthening ongoing discussions and critical commentaries on the future direction of African agriculture and rural development. It is expected that most of the Working Papers will eventually be published in some other form and that their content may be revised further.This publication has been prepared as an output of ReSAKSS and has not been subject to a formal external review via IFPRI's Publications Review Committee. Any opinions expressed here are those of the authors and are not necessarily representative of or endorsed by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI)."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"08576cc06cadfd246fad3a524ce352f7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d07d1546-3dd8-484f-9063-30858024322a/retrieve"},"pageCount":31,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"A rapid appraisal of the Yemeni end-market for Somali livestock exporters Riccardo Costagli 1 , Mugunieri Godiah L. 1  "}]},{"head":"Figures vi","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Tables Table 1: Trends in livestock population by species in Yemen "}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":211,"text":"Yemen is located on the southwest coast of the Arabian Peninsula. It is a relatively low income country (GDP per capita=USD 1408 according to data from the World Bank) with oil accounting for 10% of the GDP, while agriculture (both crop and livestock production) accounts for about 20%. Historically, Yemen has produced, traded, imported and exported livestock over hundreds of years (Fleming 2008). Livestock is the primary source of income for farmers, accounting for over 50% of their income (Fleming 2008). Ownership of animals, and also most of the day-to-day management of the livestock is primarily undertaken by women; this includes cutting fodder and hand-feeding the livestock. Tables 1 and 2 respectively show trends in numbers of livestock in the country, as well as imports and exports.  The majority of livestock imported into Yemen originates from the Somali ports of Berbera and Bossaso (see Figure 1 for location), with the greatest number (78%) entering Yemen through the port of Al Mukha (or Mocha) 1 . The port of Al Mukalla is the second-most-used port (15%), while the port of Aden is third (about 7%) (Fleming 2008). A small number of livestock originate from the ports of Djibouti, Eritrea and Ethiopia and is imported through the facilities at Al Mukha 2 ."},{"index":2,"size":169,"text":"Overall, Yemen wields great strategic advantage over the other Middle East countries when trading with Somalia due to its geographical close proximity. Besides, Yemen was a crucial, albeit relatively less profitable, as the sole outlet channel for Somali livestock during the Saudi livestock dual export bans of 1997 and 2001-2009. It is important to note that Yemen is a meat deficit country due to the environmental limitations on livestock production and the large and growing population that currently stands at over 25 million (FAOSTAT 2016). The country depends on Somali livestock for a significant proportion of its red meat needs (La Grange III 2008). It is apparent that an appreciable amount of information exists on the market network and health requirements for export livestock from Somalia traded in Yemen (Fleming 2008; La Grange III) 4 . Not much is known, however, about the grading system used, prices for different grades, market actors and contractual arrangements practiced between the actors in this trade. This study aims to fill this gap."},{"index":3,"size":88,"text":"3. The main diseases seen at the quarantine facilities are pneumonia, diarrhea, peste des petits ruminants and sheep pox 4. Based on this information, the distribution channels for Somali animals seem to be very distinct since Al Mukha supplies markets in the west of the country especially Sanaa, the capital city, Ta'izz, Ibb, Dhamar, whereas Al Mukalla supply the coastal and eastern regions of the country including the port city of Aden and partly (especially for cattle and goats and to a limited extent sheep) the capital Sanaa."},{"index":4,"size":88,"text":"The approach in this study takes the form of a case study of the Berbera-Al Mukha livestock export channel interphase. This channel handles the largest proportion of livestock entering Yemen from Somalia. The case study was based on semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions with key informants from relevant stakeholders such as Somali agents, Yemeni distributors and wholesalers, retailers, butchers, and veterinary services personnel. Key informants were interviewed in Sanaa, Taiz and Al Mukha. A total of 20 people were interviewed. The study was undertaken in June 2008. "}]},{"head":"Justification","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Between 2008 and 2015, Yemen has continued to be an important destination for Somali livestock despite the internal conflict which started in 2011 5 , the civil war in 2015 6 (Amnesty International 2012) and the outbreak of the Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) in camels (Weber 2014). Table 3 shows trends in export volumes from the port harbour of Berbera to Yemen."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"Despite the importance of this market, there is limited knowledge about the end market regarding: grading and pricing of livestock, market actors involved in the value chain, as well as the contractual arrangements between these actors. This information is key in developing strategies in the up-stream market so as to expand the share of Somali livestock in the Yemen end market. Realizing that no additional study has been undertaken in the recent past, we think it is prudent to publish outcomes of the survey undertaken in 2008. "}]},{"head":"Objectives of the study","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"The study aims at assessing the main features of the Somali-Yemeni livestock trade using the Berbera-Al Mukha channel and covers the following:"},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"• Market actors along the marketing chain"},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"• Contractual arrangements among the market actors"},{"index":4,"size":10,"text":"• Grading system in use for cattle, sheep and goats"},{"index":5,"size":63,"text":"• Pricing for the different grades of cattle, sheep and goats Camels were not included in the study because they comprise an insignificant volume of live animals exported from Somaliland to Yemen (see Table 3). A detailed analysis of the upstream segment of this value chain (within Somaliland) was not the focus of this appraisal as it has been covered in Negassa (2008)."},{"index":6,"size":9,"text":"4. The Al Mukha marketing chain for imported livestock"}]},{"head":"Key features","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"Al Mukha is a small town located on the west coast of the country. Its economy revolves around the small port that is mostly used as a livestock entry point. The port appears to have the same capacity as Berbera (Somaliland) in terms of wharf length with five linear berths. A good road network links Al Mukha with other major towns of the western provinces such as: Ta'izz, Ibb, Dhamar and Sanaa, allowing animals to be quickly trucked to their final destinations either for direct slaughter or for finishing on farm."},{"index":2,"size":112,"text":"Upon arrival, livestock are inspected on-board by officials of the veterinary services to check the general condition of the consignment before allowing the animals to be off-loaded from the carrier. After the veterinary inspection the custom office carry out the document check and proceed to count the whole consignment when on the ground. The process can take up to six hours depending on the number of heads since the counting is done manually. Once animals are cleared the immigration office finally check crew and passengers status before allowing them out of the port. In cases vessels dock at night, all these operations are carried out the following morning when public offices open."},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"Once these formalities are completed animals are trekked to the nearby quarantine station, a 40-minute walk from the port. The animals are kept in the quarantine station to undergo the routine sanitary screening before being certified as fit."},{"index":4,"size":44,"text":"Animals cleared from the quarantine station are transported to the market and sold by Somaliland agents to Yemeni distributors/wholesalers in Al Mukha. These distributors, in turn, move the animals to the final markets or to the farms for finishing in case of young bulls."}]},{"head":"A description of the market actors","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Somaliland agents based in Al Mukha","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"There were around 25-30 agents of Somaliland exporters based in Al Mukha, with some of them having been in the country for more than 10 years. They operated only within Al Mukha town, transacting animals on behalf of Somaliland-based export traders. The agents' role and operations were restricted to transacting imported livestock at the point of entry. Usually one agent represented more than one Somaliland exporter."},{"index":2,"size":105,"text":"Contractual arrangements with distributors: More often than not, the distributors/wholesalers paid for livestock in kind (75%) and in cash (25%). Exchange goods were those from Yemeni industry, such as cooking oil, soft drinks, soap, biscuits and clothes. These goods were in turn transported back to Somaliland by the export traders and sold to raise capital for livestock purchase. The Yemeni rial was the most used currency when trade was transacted in cash. The dominant use of the Yemeni currency in this international cross-border trade, whereas it is not in an international currency 7 , perhaps explains why barter trade was more frequently preferred to cash."},{"index":3,"size":72,"text":"Time to pay for the animal imports depended on season, peak 8 or low. In peak season, consignments were paid for within a few days of delivery, whereas during the low season this period extended to about one month for small ruminants and two months for cattle and camels. During the low season, however, agents reported that around 10% of the consignment was more likely not to be paid for by distributors."},{"index":4,"size":131,"text":"One of the reasons used to justify delayed payments during low season was cash-and/or goods-flow problems faced by the distributors due to low turnover. However, some agents opined that this was merely a strategy used by distributors to force agents to remain within their trade network. Considering that shipments were made by Somaliland exporters at a 30-40 day interval, there was a tendency for the distributors to pay for the previous shipment (or balance thereof) when the following shipment was delivered. Agents of Somaliland traders observed that this trading arrangement was an impediment to Somaliland exporters, and constantly exposed them to many risks, including non-payment, cash flow problems and losses arising from currency fluctuations and indirect subsidies conferred to Yemeni distributors and butchers who apparently received good prices for Berberi sheep."},{"index":5,"size":59,"text":"When disputes over payments became serious and involved considerable amounts of money, the parties had the option of resorting to litigation in court. However, the legal process was noted to be very lengthy and expensive. More often than not, thus, the cases were resolved through negotiation between the sponsor of the agent (the Somaliland export trader and Yemeni distributors/wholesalers)."},{"index":6,"size":37,"text":"Costs incurred in transactions: Agents met all the import costs incurred (on behalf of the Somaliland exporter) from the import harbour to the quarantine station. A summary of these costs is given in Table 4 9 . "}]},{"head":"Yemeni wholesale distributors","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"The Yemeni wholesale distributors took title of imported livestock from Somaliland agents in Al Mukha and supplied them to different markets, including the capital city of Sanaa. There were approximately 50 wholesalers dealing in cattle and 150 in small ruminants. The small ruminant traders were categorized as either small or large scale, while those dealing in cattle were small, medium and large (Table 5)."},{"index":2,"size":75,"text":"7. Blinder (1996) offers a good definition of international currency, blending four characteristics which encompass the three classical functions of money (a medium of exchange, a unit of account and store of value): an international currency accounting for a preponderant share of the official reserves of central banks; a currency used \"hand-to-hand\" in foreign countries; a currency in which a disproportionate share of international trade is denominated; and a dominant currency in international financial markets."},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":"8. The peak of demand was reported around the Ramadan and Haj (Pilgrimage), and during the summer between May and September when most of wedding take place due to the school holidays."},{"index":4,"size":32,"text":"9. Agents also reported on average USD 30/head of cattle as the total costs incurred in Somaliland for transport from Tog Wajaale to Berbera port, labour, feeding and watering and development tax."},{"index":5,"size":72,"text":"10. Immature small ruminants aged about one year are occasionally imported in few numbers and serve a niche premium market. They are often transported free. One of the traders observed that originally this category was used by the shipping crew as food during shipment, where later, some traders developed interest and started making orders. The wholesale distributors sold the animals mainly to: (i) wholesale butchers; (ii) large tourist hotels; and (iii) restaurants."},{"index":6,"size":32,"text":"They also sold to individual customers, particularly during periods of religious ceremonies, weddings and conflict resolution gatherings, being events involving extended families and communities where livestock were purchased in bulk 11 ."},{"index":7,"size":32,"text":"The distributors transacted in both local and imported livestock. In cattle, imports animals (locally called beledi) constituted a large proportion (70%) of the turn-over, whereas in small ruminants, it comprised approximately 40%."},{"index":8,"size":68,"text":"Besides supplying the main markets within Yemen, there was also some cross-border trade with Saudi Arabia, particularly for sheep. However, it was noted that this trade significantly decreased after 2006 when the quarantine station in Djibouti became operational. There was no reported cross-border cattle trade with Saudi Arabia, ostensibly due to the harsh environment of the northeastern region of the country that constrained the movement of these animals."}]},{"head":"Wholesale butchers","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"There were two classes of wholesale butchers, large and small. Large wholesalers were those that transacted an average of 5-6 carcasses of cattle and 20 of small ruminants per day; while the small wholesalers handled 1-2 carcasses of cattle and 5-6 of small ruminants. Butchers sold the meat to retailer butchers, supermarkets, restaurants and bars."},{"index":2,"size":88,"text":"Retailer butchers were generally small, handling on average half a carcass of cattle and 1-2 of small ruminants per day (see Figure 3). They dealt almost exclusively with the general public. Cool chain use was very limited since demand was almost exclusively for fresh recently slaughtered meat. Most of the butchers visited in Sanaa were not equipped with cooling/freezing facilities since all the meat was sold fresh every day within 3-4 hours of slaughter. Butchers visited at 11:00 am did not have any meat left on the counter."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"Figure 3: Regular retail butcher in Al-Sayah market, Sanaa 11. Supplies to institutional buyers, such as schools, hospitals and the army was to a large extent handled by public/ governmental agencies. For example, the Military Economic Corporation was noted to be one of the strongest parastatal agencies supplying the army. They sourced their livestock locally."},{"index":4,"size":58,"text":"Consumers were reported to be extremely sensitive on freshness of meat, and usually only purchased meat from animals slaughtered on the same day. Some retail outlets had licences to slaughter lambs and kids (Jiqiiq) within their premises, and kept a number of lambs and kids within the premise for direct slaughter at the request of consumers (Figure 4). "}]},{"head":"Service providers within the chain","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Veterinary services","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":131,"text":"The veterinary services were mandated to certify the health of incoming livestock to avoid the introduction and spread of transboundary diseases into the country and to assure the safety of animal products for human consumption. They operated a quarantine station to ensure that sanitary operation for clearance of livestock imported by sea was undertaken in enclosed premises 12 . Imported livestock were required to be accompanied by a valid health certificate issued by the competent veterinary administration in the exporting country, as well as the appropriate shipping documentation (manifest, etc.). For some exporting countries, vaccination certificates were also required. For example, from Ethiopia vaccination certificate for foot and mouth disease (FMD), contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP), anthrax and black-quarter were required; whereas for those from Somaliland, an FMD vaccination certification was demanded."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"The first inspection was undertaken on board the livestock carrier after docking. Animals were clinically screened for symptoms such as nasal discharge, diarrhoea, cough, among others, and thereafter, a report from the captain was sought on the number of losses during the trip. In case of serious clinical conditions, the consignment was to be rejected with order of immediate departure for the vessel to its original port."},{"index":3,"size":114,"text":"Once in the quarantine station, serological screening was performed on randomly sampled animals and the samples sent to the central diagnostic laboratory in Sanaa. Testing was reportedly done for various diseases but the list could not be obtained from the station manager. The official quarantine period was set at 21 days, but if there was no disease notification, livestock were usually released after no more than 10 days for cattle and 6 days for camels and small ruminants. In case of clinical signs, affected animals were immediately separated into a specific section of the station. If a transboundary disease was unequivocally confirmed clinically and/or serologically, the entire batch was returned to the exporting country."},{"index":4,"size":39,"text":"12. The station was quite old and in need of some repair; however, it was reported that a regional program managed by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) would support the refurbishment of the infrastructure."},{"index":5,"size":30,"text":"Charges for the quarantined animals were USD 0.25/head for cattle and camels for the whole period and USD 0.1/ head for small ruminants. Feeding expenses were met by the agents."}]},{"head":"Livestock quality standards and grading system","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"The quality standards applied in the Yemeni market for live animals were investigated with the Somaliland agents, the Yemeni wholesale distributors and butchers. Information on the quality standards used in Somaliland was also counterchecked with the resident agents working for Somaliland export traders."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"Once cleared from the quarantine facility, the animals were transferred to the nearby holding grounds managed by Somaliland agents. For every consignment, the agents and distributors segregated the animals based on grades. The parameters that were used in grading were:"},{"index":3,"size":5,"text":"1. Age 2. Body condition"}]},{"head":"Conformation","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Breed","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Age: For all species, animals were divided into mature and immature. Maturity was determined through dentition and visual appraisal of body size. In cattle, the number of horn rings was also considered."}]},{"head":"Body condition:","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"The term body condition refers to the fleshiness of an animal and is one way of assuring quality of meat. Several body condition scoring approaches exist, depending on the production system in question (Hutchison et al. 2004). Two categories of body condition scores were identified, namely, excellent and good. The body score was assigned through visual appraisal of specific body parts. The extent to which specific skeletal body parts [like hips, hooks and pins, rump, shoulders, back (spinous processes of the thoracic vertebrae), ribs, etc.] were either hidden or smoothed (by flesh/fat), the higher the score assigned to the animal."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"Conformation: Just like body condition, conformation was scored as either excellent or good. This was arrived at by visual appraisal from several positions of the frame or skeletal size, muscling and muscle structure and soundness of feet and legs. In terms of frame, the vast majority of traders indicated height as a crucial trait, where higher quality animals were those that were tall and large framed."},{"index":3,"size":164,"text":"This categorization of conformation seems to agree with arguments presented by Barham et al. (2006) who observed that conformation entails the visual features used in the selection of an animal, for specific uses. He further noted that the indicators of conformation include the frame size, muscle and body structure, predisposition to waste, feet and leg structure, and adherence to breed character. Regarding body structure, the animal should have a fairly long and strong back, a long loin, a long rump, and long and strong legs that are set under the four corners of the body frame. These features provide a frame that supports more muscle (i.e. more meat cuts) and low fat. Short-bodied and short-legged cattle are often associated with excessive fat and low quality Besides, animals that exhibit signs of being post-legged (i.e. a condition in which the joints in an animal are not set correctly), knock-kneed, splay-footed, sickle hocked, bucked-kneed or with short straight pasterns are considered to have poor conformation traits."},{"index":4,"size":78,"text":"This list of traits is not entirely new as a number of them have been mentioned in several past studies. For example, Scarpa et al. (2003) reported sex, age, body condition, estimated weight and breed as some of the key traits influencing purchase of livestock in local markets in the Kajiado district of Kenya. Akinleye et al. (2005) detailed the importance of age and estimated weight as important traits in the marketing of sheep and goats in Nigeria."},{"index":5,"size":143,"text":"Considerations for sex and breed 13 : Although livestock of both sexes were traded in Yemen, only males were imported from Somalia due to regulatory restrictions imposed by the Somali government to protect local breeding stock. Regarding breed, inquiries were made on the influence of breed in grading, especially considering that there were both local Yemeni and imported breeds for the different species of livestock. There was concurrence that local breeds were more in demand and commanded higher prices for cattle, sheep and goats. For instance, the Beledi sheep and goats from Yemen were purchased by distributors at higher prices than sheep and goats from Berbera and Bossaso even at parity of grade. The same price pattern was observed in the Saudi Arabia livestock market, where local sheep and goats breeds fetch higher prices compared to the imported breeds (Mugunieri et al. 2016)."}]},{"head":"Small ruminants (a)","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Grading in source markets (Somaliland):"},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"The Somali agents were requested to provide information on the grading of small ruminants in Somaliland. The results are summarized in Table 6."},{"index":3,"size":53,"text":"The most common age bracket for the imported sheep and goats was 3-4 and 4-5 years, respectively. Occasionally lambs aged one year and below (also called Jiqiiq) were also imported because of Yemen's proximity to Berbera where such stocks are able to withstand pre-and shipment stresses. Age estimation was undertaken through four methods:"},{"index":4,"size":1,"text":"1."},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"Visual appraisal of the body size (for both sheep and goats)"}]},{"head":"2.","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Dental examination (dentition) (for both species)"}]},{"head":"3.","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Visual appraisal of the wool in sheep 4."},{"index":2,"size":96,"text":"Counting of horn rings in goats. Appraisal of body size was reported as the most widely used approach. However, dentition was inspected in cases of doubt, and finally wool in sheep and horn rings in goats were used in circumstances where the other two methods could not lead to conclusive estimates. For example, it was observed that Somali Black head sheep shed wool coat at around two years of age. Over time the wool fibres become progressively thinner and at five years of age one can easily feel the skin underneath when the animal is touched."},{"index":3,"size":116,"text":"In the case of the short-eared Somali goats, it was reported that horns sprout at the age of 6 months, and thereafter develop two rings per year. However, from the age of three years apical rings start wearing out and are no longer conspicuous. Over time horns also become thicker. Routine use of horn-rings was reported to be constrained by castration, where a key informant observed that castration affected horn growth, that is, castrates' horns grew much more slowly, so those using horn rings could underestimate ages of castrates. However, it should be recalled that the males are generally castrated when they are about three years old, thus horn ringing would be less affected by castration."},{"index":4,"size":52,"text":"13. The issue of breed character is critical in conformation in the Somali system because selection for breeding is multifaceted partly because cattle perform multiple socio-econimic and livelihood functions in their system (Marshall et al. 2016). This leads to a scenario of high variability, not only between breeds, but also within breeds."},{"index":5,"size":10,"text":"(b) Grading in the end market of Al Mukha, Yemen"},{"index":6,"size":67,"text":"Livestock grading in the Yemeni market was investigated with wholesale distributors and wholesale and retail butchers. Unlike the source markets where three grades were identified for mature animals, only two grades (I and II) were delineated. For the immature, there was one grade like in Somaliland (Table 7). It would then appear that the grade III mature small ruminants traded in Somaliland were not imported into Yemen."},{"index":7,"size":36,"text":"It was observed that most of the demand was for animals from 2-3 years old that were purchased by private consumers, whereas the bigger 4-year old animals were commonly demanded by hotels, restaurants and institutional buyers."},{"index":8,"size":153,"text":"Triangulation between Somaliland agents and Yemeni distributors was used to clarify the different terminology between the two grading systems. It was noted that 'fat' and 'normal' body condition classes used in Somaliland corresponded to 'excellent' and 'good' in Yemen. 14  8 and 9 gives the indicative prices for different species that were offered by the agents of Somaliland exporters and by wholesale distributors in Al Mukha, respectively. Tables 8 and 9 reveal that margins were higher for superior grade animals, indicatively at about 23%, 9% and 12.5% for grade I mature, grade II mature and grade I immature respectively. It is apparent that these benefits do trickle back down the value chain, as recent studies have shown that producers in Somaliland were aware of the higher returns obtained from better quality small ruminants, and most make deliberate efforts to increase the proportion of superior grades in their farm-gate offtake (Wanyoike et al. 2015)."},{"index":9,"size":75,"text":"14. Also called Jiqiiq (lambs and kids). The name comes from the word 'crew' in Arabic. Somali livestock carrier crews have always brought a limited number of kids or/and lambs for self-consumption during their stay in Yemen. Originally no duty was charged on these animals because they were too small. Over time, appreciation of the tender meat from these young animals developed and a niche market created. In Arabic they are also called Al Bahari. "}]},{"head":"Cattle","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"(a) Grading in source markets (Somaliland) and the end market (Yemen)"},{"index":2,"size":161,"text":"Tables 10 and 11 give respectively a summary of the grading system for cattle in Somaliland markets for export quality animals based on the feedback received from agents of Somaliland exporters and the corresponding grading system in Al Mukha based on views of wholesalers distributors and wholesale and retail butchers.  Like in the case of small ruminants, body condition and conformation for cattle was done through visual appraisal. For cattle, age was estimated through three approaches, ranked in order of importance as: (i) body size; (ii) horn rings; and (iii) dentition 15. Two distinct categories were identified, the mature and immature. The mature bulls (collectively called Waaweyn, meaning big in Somali) ranged from 5-10 years. On the other hand, the immature (referred to as the Cujuul in Somali) were aged under five years (but often more than three years). The 3-10 year age category was not exclusive, since in certain exceptional circumstances, younger bulls (about 2.5 years) were at times exported."},{"index":3,"size":86,"text":"As in the case of small ruminants, the grade III mature cattle traded in Somaliland were not imported into Yemen. Furthermore, unlike in small ruminants where immature small ruminants had developed a niche market as slaughter stock, it was reported that the immature male cattle imports were finished up in coastal farms for about three months on a diet based on agricultural by-products. This practice did not, however, apply to immature male cattle imported from neighbouring Ethiopia as they were finished in feed lots before export."},{"index":4,"size":110,"text":"15. Since traded livestock usually lack records, examination of body weight (proxied by body size) and the teeth serves as the best and most practical method of age determination (Wythes and Shorthose 1991). In such circumstances, producers, veterinarians and traders have relied on dentition to make general age determinations. The application of dentition requires experience as it will vary from herd-to-herd and animal-to-animal, because of the animals' genetics, their diet, and the varied geographical locations in which they are raised. This practice has been applied even in developed economies like the United States of America (USDA, http://www.fsis.usda.gov/OFO/TSC/bse_information.htm), the State of Queensland (Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, http://www2.dpi.qld.gov.au/beef/3483.html), among others."},{"index":5,"size":98,"text":"The importance of body condition was emphasized by the Yemeni distributors supplying the capital Sanaa. They observed that cattle coming from Berbera, though poorer than those from Ethiopia, had better body condition when compared to those coming from Bossaso. They confirmed their awareness of the different features of the two marketing chains, highlighting the longer transport distance in the case of Bossaso chain leading to more stress on the animals. It was also noted that the finishing period for immature males coming from Bossaso was much longer than the three months for animals arriving from Berbera 16 ."},{"index":6,"size":7,"text":"(b) Pricing of different grades of cattle"},{"index":7,"size":61,"text":"The selling prices of different grades of cattle offered by Somaliland agents and Yemeni wholesale distributors are given in Table 12. Even though superior grade animals realized slightly higher margins in each age category, the margins from mature animals was generally higher than that obtained from immature stock for each grade classification, ostensibly because immature cattle had to undergo additional finishing."},{"index":8,"size":25,"text":"16. Negassa et al. (2008) have given a detailed description of the two value chains for live animals (sheep, goats, camels and cattle) in Somalia."}]},{"head":"Analysis of market strategies employed by Somaliland livestock export traders","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"The Somaliland export traders ship livestock to Yemen through their agents who reside in Yemen in order to circumvent the requirement for a letter of credit 17 that is a standard requirement in formal international trade. The lack of formal banking system in Somaliland constrained the use of letters of credit in export trade. Besides, the reliance on the Yemeni rial as the currency of trade between the two countries despite it not being an international currency most likely contributed to the preference for barter exchange by the majority of export traders."},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"The agents of Somaliland exporters (and by extension the Somaliland exporters themselves) portrayed a detailed knowledge of the quality requirements for the different species exported into Yemen. Besides, the Somaliland Chamber of Commerce, Industry and Agriculture had a resident representative in Yemen to safeguard the interests of the Somaliland trading community."},{"index":3,"size":103,"text":"It is important to point out that whereas three grades/classes of differentially priced livestock were shipped from the Somaliland port of Berbera en route to Yemen (i.e. grade I, II, III), only two grades of livestock were identifiable in Yemen markets (i.e. I and II), for all species. It was apparent that the grade category III in Somaliland markets was upgraded to grade II on landing in Yemen. Since grade III was purchased at a discount in Somaliland, and yet sold as grade II in Yemen, then intuitively, it offered a window for exporters to upscale the margins realizable from an export consignment."},{"index":4,"size":124,"text":"The proportion of grade III in any consignment was judiciously determined in order to minimise the chances of consignment rejection on quality basis, while at the same time aiming to maximise margins. Furthermore, the optimal blend within consignments was not constant throughout the year but changed according to the seasonal pattern of demand in Yemen. When demand was high, there was a tendency to increase the proportion of grade III, perhaps due to the constrained supply particularly during the three months between Ramadan and Hajj. The information from the group discussion revealed that the volume of animals absorbed in the market during that short period was in fact more than the three times the monthly volume imported during the remaining part of the year."},{"index":5,"size":110,"text":"Whereas the peak demand season favoured increasing proportion of grade III, the converse was true during the off-peak demand season. The traders estimated that more often than not, during the off-peak demand season, grades I, II and III animals were blended in the proportion of 40%, 40%, 20% or 50%, 40% and 10% respectively. This however changed drastically during the peak season to 30%, 20% and 50% respectively. The traders observed that the producers had difficulties responding to the peak season demand since it is based on the lunar calendar and switches forward by around 11 days/year, making it difficult to adapt it to the annual productive cycle of livestock."},{"index":6,"size":102,"text":"Although livestock exports from Yemen to Saudi Arabia were not reported, this could not be ruled out, and more importantly during the peak demand (Ramadan and Hajj) season. In the presence of the re-export of livestock from Yemen to Saudi 18 , the relaxation of grading in Yemen during the peak season would be in response to circumstances in Saudi Arabia. 17. A letter of credit is a document, typically from a bank (issuing bank), assuring that a seller (beneficiary) will receive payment up to the amount of the letter of credit, as long as certain documentary delivery conditions have been met."},{"index":7,"size":21,"text":"18. The existence of livestock re-export from Yemen to Saudi Arabia has been reported by a number of studies (USAID 2013)"},{"index":8,"size":71,"text":"During the peak season, the Saudi market is dominated by demand for animals for sacrificial slaughter (i.e. the sacrificial animal value chain). The grading of livestock for sacrificial slaughter is done differently from those transacted in commercial markets (Mugunieri et al. 2016). The grading of sacrificial animals in Saudi Arabia follows religious practices stated in the Sunnah 19 that specifies the type of animals that can be sacrificially slaughtered. These are:"},{"index":9,"size":13,"text":"• Goat, either male or female, of at least one year of age."},{"index":10,"size":13,"text":"• Sheep, either male or female, of at least six months of age."},{"index":11,"size":12,"text":"• Cow, ox or buffalo of at least two years of age."},{"index":12,"size":12,"text":"• Camel, male or female, of at least five years of age."},{"index":13,"size":11,"text":"Defective animals not acceptable in Qurbani 20 include those that are:"},{"index":14,"size":6,"text":"• Blind, one eyed or lame."},{"index":15,"size":11,"text":"• Emaciated such that it cannot walk to its slaughtering place."},{"index":16,"size":14,"text":"• Deformed with one-third of the ear or the nose or the tail missing."},{"index":17,"size":8,"text":"• Missing all or most of its teeth."},{"index":18,"size":4,"text":"• Born without ears."},{"index":19,"size":7,"text":"The following animals are acceptable in Qurbani:"},{"index":20,"size":5,"text":"• A castrated male goat."},{"index":21,"size":36,"text":"• An animal that has no horns, or whose horns are broken. However, if the horns of an animal are uprooted totally so as to create a defect in the brain, its Qurbani is not lawful."},{"index":22,"size":15,"text":"• An animal which is missing less than one third of ear, nose or tail."},{"index":23,"size":17,"text":"• A sick or injured animal, unless it has some above mentioned defects rendering its Qurbani unlawful."},{"index":24,"size":64,"text":"Based on the above, one may conclude that the high demand for livestock in Saudi Arabia by the Hajj pilgrims 21 , coupled with the more amenable grading of sacrificial animals in Saudi (as per the requirements prescribed in Sunna), could be one of the factors contributing to the relaxation of the grading system in the Yemeni markets in response to this cross-border demand."},{"index":25,"size":203,"text":"19. Sunnah is the way of life prescribed as normative for Muslims on the basis of the teachings and practices of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and interpretations of the Quran. According to Muslim belief, this practice is to be adhered to in fulfilling the divine injunctions, carrying out religious rites, and molding life in accord with the will of God. Instituting these practices was, as the Quran states, a part of Muhammad's responsibility as a Messenger of Allah. (Quran 3:164,33:21). The Sunnah of Muhammad includes his specific words, habits, practices and silent approvals; it is significant because it addresses ways of life dealing with friends, family and government. Recording the Sunnah was an Arabian tradition and, once people converted to Islam, they brought this custom to their religion. The Sunnah is a source of Islamic law, second only to the Quran. The term 'Sunni' denotes those who claim to practice these usages, as part of the Ummah. Book 7 is dedicated to the Hajj and its rites (Kitab Al-Haji) and book 22 to the sacrifices (Kitab Al−Adahi). The practices of sacrifice or Qurbani are here described in terms of philosophy, rules, sacrificial animals, rules of defective animals, and the distribution of the meat."},{"index":26,"size":18,"text":"20. As referred to in Islamic Law, this is the sacrifice of a livestock animal during Eid al-Adha."},{"index":27,"size":63,"text":"21. It is forecasted that by 2020 the number of pilgrims will reach more than 4.3 million-twice the 2008 figures (Ascoura 2013). One head of goat or sheep is prescribed for one person's sacrificial slaughter (Qurbani). For larger ruminants like cow, buffalo or camel, one head is sufficient for seven offerings and allows seven people to offer Qurbani jointly in one such animal."}]},{"head":"Conclusion and suggestions for further research","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"This study was conducted with the main intention of providing preliminary information on the market actors in the Yemen end-market for livestock originating from Somaliland. The study also aimed at shedding light on the contractual arrangements between these actors with Somaliland exporters, as well as the grading and pricing of livestock imported from Somaliland. Specifically, it was expected that information generated would be valuable in designing more elaborate studies to better understand the Yemeni end market and, thereafter, support the formulation of policies designed to deepen the participation of Somali traders in this market."},{"index":2,"size":110,"text":"Overall, the study found that livestock export trade between Somaliland (port of Berbera) and Yemen (through Al Mukha port) is an informal undertaking fretted with risks. The informal nature of this trade is similar to the crossborder trade that takes place between Djibouti, Somalia and Ethiopia (Majid 2010), with the exception that whereas the latter takes place over sea, the former occurs across land borders. Livestock are shipped across borders without letters of credit or pre-arranged sale contracts, with the trade being managed through cross-border clan relationships that face high transaction costs, including significant risks of confiscation, theft and disease as they transport and trade in animals (UNOCHA 2007;Wassie 2015)."},{"index":3,"size":156,"text":"Somaliland exporters rely on their agents based in Yemen, through whom they not only sell their livestock, but also obtain market information. This implies that just like the clan system that exists in the Horn of Africa cross-border trade (Majid 2010), Somaliland exporters to Yemen face very limited choice of traders with whom to transact. They, therefore, face monopolistic end markets, asymmetric information system and additional risks of rejection of their consignments due to disease. Besides, traders are not paid in cash, but compelled to accept credit instead, and when payment is made, it is dominated either by the unstable local currency (Yemeni rial) or barter exchange. This implies that the Yemeni end market is dominated by a credit system that flows from Somaliland exporters to Yemeni importers, perhaps attributed to their excessive power in the market, and seen to result in an unfair subsidy that constrains the growth of the Yemeni export market 22 ."},{"index":4,"size":116,"text":"Despite these shortcomings, Somaliland export traders showed a deep understanding of the market in Yemen, the types of animals demanded, as well as the quality attributes used to grade the different species. The grading systems in use in both Somaliland and Yemen corresponded to some degree, and the livestock supplied generally met the quality requirements. However, the quality requirements varied between lean and peak seasons. This variation provided an incentive for Somaliland traders to include grade III animals in their shipments so as to increase returns, which provided an outlet for grade III animals in Somaliland. However, Somaliland producers did not benefit much from the export of grade III animals as the prices were much lower."},{"index":5,"size":88,"text":"22. Livestock producers in Somalia also extend a similar credit facility to export traders in Somalia when they provide their animals for sale (see Negassa et al. 2008). More often than not, food import traders (who are also livestock exporters) offer a credit facility to livestock producers when they obtain goods (food and household goods) (Majid 2010), and this partly explains why households in pastoral areas of the Horn of Africa face higher prices for basic households goods and food products, as the mark-up finances this credit system."},{"index":6,"size":129,"text":"It is important to note that quality standards were applied more stringently during the lean season, but were significantly relaxed during the three month between the holy month of Ramadan and the Haji (peak season), due to increased demand. The peak demand season opened a short but lucrative window for export traders, and some reported that they were able to more than double their profits. However, many traders did not effectively utilize this window due to limited shipping capacity and a lack of sufficient volumes due to competition faced from traders supplying directly to the Saudi Arabia market. Besides, the Somaliland production seasonal operation appeared not to be sufficiently oriented to take best advantage of this surge in demand through co-ordination of mating and feeding that would enhance offtake."},{"index":7,"size":56,"text":"Lastly, there was a great deal of personal involvement by Somaliland exporters in cultivating commercial relationships with their Yemeni counterparts, which formed a key building block of this informal trade. Most of the traders travelled from Somaliland to Yemen several times a year to cultivate these relationships, which perhaps explains the resilience of this cross-border trade."},{"index":8,"size":52,"text":"Realizing that these findings emanate from a single rapid appraisal study, it may not be judicious to make policy recommendations at this time, but rather offer recommendations on additional research that could be undertaken to provide information that would enable interventions to be made to increase competitiveness of Somali traders in Yemen."},{"index":9,"size":282,"text":"At the onset, there is need to understand the structure of the Somaliland-Yemeni livestock export trade in terms of the number of traders and the competition between these traders for the share of the export market. As a comparison, according to Mugunieri et al. (2016), there are 18 exporters operating on the Somaliland-Saudi Arabia export channel, with two of these traders contributing to more than 90% of the export volumes. Furthermore, each Somali exporter is paired with a Saudi importer who takes ownership of the livestock when they enter a Saudi port. This trading arrangement has somewhat reduced the risk exposure for Somali exporters leading to continual growth in trade volumes. On the contrary, although the structure of the Somaliland-Yemeni trade channel is not known, there is anecdotal evidence of high incidences of entry and exit into this trade (unlike the case for Saudi Arabia). This could perhaps be due to high risks involved. First, Somaliland traders transact on credit for up to three months which increases their costs. It would be prudent to investigate the cost of this credit and reflect on how prices could be adjusted to cover such costs. Second, despite trading on credit, there are incidences of payment default by Yemeni buyers. The extent of this practice and its impact on trade needs to be investigated further. Third, transactions are undertaken either in local currency or through barter trade. This is not a common practice in international trade and its effect on the competitiveness of Somaliland traders needs to be investigated further. It is envisaged that information obtained from these studies would be useful in formulating strategies to strengthen the competitiveness of Somali exporters in the Yemeni market."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Position of Yemen relative to ports of Somalia "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2: Destination markets for livestock held at ports of entry, Yemen "},{"text":"Figure 4 : Figure 4: Retail butcher licensed to slaughter lambs and kids in Al-Jaman market, Sanaa "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" and Francis Wanyoike 2 1 Terra Nuova Eastern Africa 1 Terra Nuova Eastern Africa 2 International Livestock Research Institute 2 International Livestock Research Institute February 2017 February 2017  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Trends in number of livestock imported and exported from Yemen  "},{"text":"Table 3 : Numbers of livestock exported from Berbera to Yemen from 2008 to 2015  "},{"text":"Table 4 : Post-shipment costs incurred by Somaliland export traders to Yemen in 2008  "},{"text":"Table 5 : Categories of Yemeni wholesale distributors  "},{"text":"Table 6 : Grading of export quality small ruminants in Somaliland  "},{"text":"Table 7 : Grading of small ruminants in Yemen  "},{"text":"Table 8 : Prices for different grades offered by Somaliland agents in Al Mukha, June 2008  "},{"text":"Table 9 : Prices for different grades offered by Yemeni wholesale distributors in Al Mukha, June 2008  "},{"text":"Table 10 : Grading of export quality cattle in Somaliland  "},{"text":"Table 11 : Grading of export quality cattle in Al Mukha  "},{"text":"Table 12 : Selling price of different grades of cattle by market actors in Al Mukha, June 2008 Figures Figures Figure 1: Position of Yemen relative to ports of Somalia Figure 1:Position of Yemen relative to ports of Somalia Figure 2: Destination markets for livestock held at ports of entry, Yemen Figure 2:Destination markets for livestock held at ports of entry, Yemen Figure 3: Regular retail butcher in Al-Sayah market, Sanaa Figure 3:Regular retail butcher in Al-Sayah market, Sanaa Figure 4: Retail butcher licensed to slaughter lambs and kids in Al-Jaman market, Sanaa Figure 4:Retail butcher licensed to slaughter lambs and kids in Al-Jaman market, Sanaa  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Trends in livestock population by species in Yemen Species  Species (heads)  SpeciesSpecies (heads)  2010 2011 2012 2013 2010201120122013 Cattle 1,605,000 1,654,000 1,684,000 1,700,000 Cattle1,605,0001,654,0001,684,0001,700,000 Sheep 9,206,000 9,358,000 9,419,000 9,450,000 Sheep9,206,0009,358,0009,419,0009,450,000 Goats 9,016,000 9,106,000 9,159,000 9,160,000 Goats9,016,0009,106,0009,159,0009,160,000 Camels 403,000 436,000 440,000 445,000 Camels403,000436,000440,000445,000  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Trends in number of livestock imported and exported from Yemen 0    0 0 0 0 0 00000 Exports Cattle 0 0 0 0 0 0 ExportsCattle000000  Sheep 0 0 0 0 0 0 Sheep000000  Goats 2658 0 0 0 0 0 Goats265800000  Camels 0 0 0 0 31 0 Camels0000310 Source: FAOSTAT 2016       Source: FAOSTAT 2016  "},{"text":"Table 3 : Numbers of livestock exported from Berbera to Yemen from 2008 to 2015 Species    Number of heads    SpeciesNumber of heads  2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 20082009201020112012201320142015 Cattle 39,373 76,260 105,513 93,356 107,851 101,078 121,263 62,355 Cattle39,37376,260105,51393,356107,851101,078121,26362,355 Sheep and 373,887 561,992 398,029 336,040 363,050 426,334 552,821 272,352 Sheep and373,887561,992398,029336,040363,050426,334552,821272,352 goats         goats Camels 2311 1857 3545 251 0 849 3377 901 Camels23111857354525108493377901 Total 415,571 640,109 507,087 429,647 470,901 528,261 677,461 335,608 Total415,571640,109507,087429,647470,901528,261677,461335,608  "},{"text":"Table 4 : Post-shipment costs incurred by Somaliland export traders to Yemen in 2008 Costs per head (USD) Small ruminants Cattle Camels Costs per head (USD)Small ruminantsCattleCamels Customs charges 5.00 50.00 60.00 Customs charges5.0050.0060.00 Vessel charges 2.50 28.00 1 /25.00 2 35.00 1 /31.00 2 Vessel charges2.5028.00 1 /25.00 235.00 1 /31.00 2 Labour, feeding and watering 7.50 11.75 19.75 Labour, feeding and watering7.5011.7519.75 Quarantine charges 0.10 0.25 0.25 Quarantine charges0.100.250.25 Agent commission 2.00 10 10 Agent commission2.001010 Total/head 17.10 100 1 /97 2 125 1 /121 2 Total/head17.10100 1 /97 2125 1 /121 2 1 Mature animals    1 Mature animals 2 Immature animals 10    2 Immature animals 10  "},{"text":"Table 5 : Categories of Yemeni wholesale distributors Species traded Scale of operation Approximate number of Species tradedScale of operationApproximate number of   heads handled per transaction heads handled per transaction Small ruminants Large 200 Small ruminantsLarge200  Small 70-80 Small70-80 Cattle Large 2000 CattleLarge2000  Medium 500 Medium500  Small 150 Small150  "},{"text":"Table 6 : Grading of export quality small ruminants in Somaliland Category Grade Species Age (years) Body condition Conformation CategoryGradeSpeciesAge (years)Body conditionConformation Mature I Sheep 3-4 Fat Excellent MatureISheep3-4FatExcellent   Goats 4-5 Fat Excellent Goats4-5FatExcellent  II Sheep 2 Fat Good IISheep2FatGood   Sheep 3 Normal Good Sheep3NormalGood   Goats 3 Fat Good Goats3FatGood   Goats 4 Normal Good Goats4NormalGood  III Sheep 2 Normal Fair IIISheep2NormalFair   Goats 3 Normal Fair Goats3NormalFair Immature I Sheep/Goats 0.8-1 year Fat Excellent ImmatureISheep/Goats0.8-1 yearFatExcellent  "},{"text":"Table 7 : Grading of small ruminants in Yemen Category Grade Species Age (years) Body condition Conformation Destination CategoryGrade SpeciesAge (years)Body conditionConformationDestination Mature 1 Sheep 2-4 Excellent Excellent Purchased by retailer butchers Mature1Sheep2-4ExcellentExcellentPurchased by retailer butchers   Goats 2-4 Excellent Excellent Purchased by retailer butchers and Goats2-4ExcellentExcellentPurchased by retailer butchers and       institutional buyers(schools, Army) institutional buyers(schools, Army)  II Sheep 2-4 Good Good Purchased by retailer butchers, restaurants IISheep2-4GoodGoodPurchased by retailer butchers, restaurants       and hotels and hotels   Goats 2-4 Good Good Purchased by retailer butchers, restaurants Goats2-4GoodGoodPurchased by retailer butchers, restaurants       and hotels and hotels Immature 14 1 Sheep/Goats 0.8-1 year Excellent Excellent Purchased by hotels and restaurants in the Immature 14 1Sheep/Goats 0.8-1 year ExcellentExcellentPurchased by hotels and restaurants in the       coastal areas where due to the hot climate coastal areas where due to the hot climate       fat meat is avoided fat meat is avoided (c) Grade and price correlation    (c) Grade and price correlation Tables       Tables  "},{"text":"Table 8 : Prices for different grades offered by Somaliland agents in Al Mukha, June 2008 Category Grade Characteristics (age, body condition, conformation) Low season price (USD 1 /head) CategoryGradeCharacteristics (age, body condition, conformation)Low season price (USD 1 /head) Mature I 4-5 years, fat, excellent (goats)  MatureI4-5 years, fat, excellent (goats)    65 65   3-4 years, fat, excellent (sheep)  3-4 years, fat, excellent (sheep)  II 3 years, fat, good (goats)  II3 years, fat, good (goats)   2 years, fat, good and 3 years, normal, good (sheep) 55 2 years, fat, good and 3 years, normal, good (sheep) 55   4y, normal, good (goats)  4y, normal, good (goats) Immature I 0.8-1 year, fat, excellent 35-40 ImmatureI0.8-1 year, fat, excellent35-40  "},{"text":"Table 9 : Prices for different grades offered by Yemeni wholesale distributors in Al Mukha, June 2008 Category Grade Characteristics (age, body condition, conformation) Low season price (USD1/head) CategoryGradeCharacteristics (age, body condition, conformation)Low season price (USD1/head) Mature I 2-4 years, excellent, excellent 75-80 MatureI2-4 years, excellent, excellent75-80  II 2-4 years, good, good 58-60 II2-4 years, good, good58-60 Immature I 0.8-1 year, excellent, excellent 42-45 ImmatureI0.8-1 year, excellent, excellent42-45 1 June 2008 exchange rate: USD 1=199 Yemeni rial.  1 June 2008 exchange rate: USD 1=199 Yemeni rial.  "},{"text":"Table 10 : Grading of export quality cattle in Somaliland Grade Species Age (years) Body condition Conformation GradeSpeciesAge (years)Body conditionConformation I Mature cattle 6-8 Excellent Excellent IMature cattle6-8ExcellentExcellent II Mature cattle 5-8 Good Good IIMature cattle5-8GoodGood III Mature cattle 5-7 Fair Fair IIIMature cattle5-7FairFair I Immature cattle 3-4 Excellent Excellent IImmature cattle3-4ExcellentExcellent II Immature cattle 3-4 Good Good IIImmature cattle3-4GoodGood  "},{"text":"Table 11 : Grading of export quality cattle in Al Mukha Grade Species Age (years) Body condition Conformation Destination GradeSpeciesAge (years)Body conditionConformation Destination I Mature cattle 6-8 Excellent Excellent Purchased by retailer butchers and institutional IMature cattle6-8ExcellentExcellentPurchased by retailer butchers and institutional      buyers (schools, army and hospitals). buyers (schools, army and hospitals). II Mature cattle 6-8 Good Good Purchased by retailer butchers, hotels and IIMature cattle6-8GoodGoodPurchased by retailer butchers, hotels and      restaurants. restaurants. I Immature cattle 3-4 Excellent Excellent Purchased mostly for wedding parties and religious IImmature cattle3-4ExcellentExcellentPurchased mostly for wedding parties and religious      festivals. festivals. II Immature cattle 3-4 Good Good Purchased mostly for wedding parties and religious IIImmature cattle3-4GoodGoodPurchased mostly for wedding parties and religious      festivals. festivals.  "},{"text":"Table 12 : Selling price of different grades of cattle by market actors in Al Mukha, June 2008 Grade Category Characteristics (age, body condition, conformation) Somaliland agents (USD) 1 Yemeni distributors (USD) 1 Grade CategoryCharacteristics (age, body condition, conformation)Somaliland agents (USD) 1Yemeni distributors (USD) 1 I Mature 6-8 years, excellent, excellent 650-700 750-800 IMature6-8 years, excellent, excellent650-700750-800 II Mature 6-8 years, good, good 530-580 600-650 IIMature6-8 years, good, good530-580600-650 I Immature 3-4years, excellent, excellent 340-350 400-410 IImmature3-4years, excellent, excellent340-350400-410 II Immature 3-4 years, good, good 300-310 350-360 IIImmature3-4 years, good, good300-310350-360  "}],"sieverID":"75ae7f5f-0ba1-44bf-a94c-015fd83497b3","abstract":"Livestock is the backbone of Somaliland economy. It accounts for about 60% of the country's gross domestic product, 70% of employment opportunities and 85% of export earnings. There exists a distinct indigenous grading system for export quality livestock traded in Somaliland markets. Export quality cattle, sheep and goats are categorized in three grades: I, II and III, while camels are categorized into two grades: I and II. Animals thus categorized are exported to various countries in the gulf, including the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), Yemen, Oman, Egypt and the United Arab Emirates.Despite ample documentation on the grading and pricing of export quality livestock in Somaliland, there exists a limited of knowledge on how the animals are graded and priced within importing country markets. In addition, there is limited knowledge on how the grading applied in source markets interfaces with that practiced in importing country markets.To address this knowledge gap, a rapid appraisal of quality characteristics required by importers was carried out in Yemen, the second most important destination for Somaliland livestock. Its focus was on providing preliminary information on market actors, delineating the contractual arrangement between these actors and Somaliland exporters, and identifying livestock requirements in terms of age, conformation and body condition of animals in commercial grades, and the pricing and use of these grades. The study also identifies suitable areas for further research. This discussion paper presents results of this assessment.1. Al Mukha District is a district of the Taiz Governorate, Yemen. Its capital lies at Mocha (see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Mukha_District) 2. Besides Al Mukha, Aden and Al Mukalla, some animals also enter through Al Hudaydah and Salif. However, Somali livestock are shipped into Yemen mainly through Al Mukalla and Al Mukha. Somali animals shipped from Bossaso get in from Al Mukalla, whereas those from Berbera go through Al Mukha due to geographical proximity."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"086d2d0f39108264620698021604fb97","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3c37bbc8-bcd5-42e9-8165-58e3efd6cdad/retrieve"},"pageCount":9,"title":"Selección Participativa con Agricultores de Variedades de Yuca en la Región Caribe de Colombia","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":143,"text":"Mejoramiento de Yuca del ICA y encontró que los clones que se evaluaban eran seleccionados en un ambiente determinado y luego enviados a la región Caribe para su evaluación. Se evaluaron así clones que eran tolerantes de plagas y enfermedades, que daban alto rendimiento de raíces frescas y tenían raíces de colores claros, pero eran de menor contenido de materia seca (M.S.) y de almidón que la variedad regional. La participación de los agricultores en los ensayos hechos en las fincas se reducía a proporcionar el lote y a participar en las labores de cultivo y de cosecha, pero no se tenían en cuenta sus criterios ni sus preferencias. La relación de rendimiento [yuca fresca:yuca seca] en el secado natural de los clones seleccionados por los mejoradores en dichas pruebas fluctuaba entre 3:1 y 4:1, mientras que la variedad regional rendía como 2.2:1."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"Gracias a este análisis, y teniendo en cuenta que la variedad más sembrada en la región (MCOL 2215) había sido seleccionada, introducida y difundida por los agricultores sin la supervisión de los investigadores, los mejoradores del ICA y del CIAT decidieron involucrar al productor en la evaluación y en la selección de los clones, con los siguientes objetivos:"}]},{"head":"•","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Identificar, con la voz de los agricultores, las características de las variedades que ellos sembraban desde hacía muchos años."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"• Desarrollar luego un método que permitiera conocer, entender e incorporar los criterios de los agricultores en la selección de variedades de yuca en las etapas finales del proceso de mejoramiento."}]},{"head":"•","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Suministrar información de retorno efectiva y útil a los programas de mejoramiento."}]},{"head":"•","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"Ofrecer a los agricultores una gran variedad de clones para que ellos escojan la mejor alternativa y la incorporen en sus sistemas de producción."}]},{"head":"Materiales y Métodos","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Se desarrolló una metodología que constaba de cuatro etapas: diagnóstico; oferta tecnológica (genotipos) y evaluación; procesamiento; y análisis con información de retorno."}]},{"head":"Etapa de diagnóstico","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"Era necesario conocer las prácticas de los cultivadores de yuca y el concepto que tenían de las características de sus variedades más cultivadas. Esta fase se realizó en tres pasos:"}]},{"head":"−","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Revisión y análisis de la información secundaria existente en el ICA."}]},{"head":"−","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"Entrega de estacas (20 a 30) de cada uno de los 15 clones seleccionados, a 40 agricultores de cuatro subregiones, para que las sembraran y evaluaran según su sistema tradicional de cultivo; cada agricultor recibió de dos a cuatro variedades y, en cada subregión, se hicieron de dos a cinco repeticiones de cada variedad."}]},{"head":"−","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"Visita durante el ciclo del cultivo para diseñar un cuestionario de dos partes, sustituido finalmente por una entrevista informal con el agricultor, orientada a conocer su variedad ideal y las características de otras variedades cultivadas."}]},{"head":"Etapa de oferta tecnológica","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"Analizados los resultados de la etapa anterior, se seleccionó un grupo de 10 clones avanzados de los programas de mejoramiento del ICA y del CIAT en la región; el clon se considera aquí sólo como oferta tecnológica. Los agricultores fueron seleccionados por la tradición que tenían como cultivadores de yuca y por su disposición de participar; ellos emplean sus propios recursos en estas pruebas. En la etapa de evaluación se estableció una red de 60 pruebas con los clones seleccionados, para compararlos con el que planta el agricultor; en promedio, se plantaron 20 pruebas por ciclo, con 50 estacas por clon en una sola parcela. No hubo repetición de la prueba en la localidad."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"Las evaluaciones se desarrollaron en dos pasos: primero, contacto e interacción inicial con los agricultores, con diseño de formularios para una entrevista o evaluación abierta; segundo, toma de datos agronómicos por los investigadores. Los agricultores evaluaron los clones expresando sus criterios en términos propios correspondientes a los diferentes estados del cultivo. Se analizaron luego los criterios que los agricultores emplearon en los primeros 2 años, y se construyó con ellos un libro de campo que permitió el registro sistemático de los datos en la red de pruebas."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"La etapa de procesamiento de datos, análisis y retroinformación se desarrolló en dos fases: una de análisis de los datos obtenidos durante 5 años y otra de interiorización de los resultados por el grupo de mejoradores. El procesamiento de los datos constaba de tres pasos:"}]},{"head":"−","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"interpretación y frecuencia de las expresiones obtenidas en la evaluación abierta; − ordenamiento de grupos de variedades y orden de preferencia;"},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"− clasificación de la información, complementariedad entre datos agronómicos y datos subjetivos."},{"index":3,"size":61,"text":"En este trabajo se aplicaron procedimientos estadísticos mediante una computadora, tales como el análisis de sensibilidad varietal para datos incompletos en distintos ambientes; se emplearon aquí el método de regresión conjunta modificada desarrollado por Digby (1979), el análisis de correspondencia, el análisis de conglomerados ('cluster') según el método de Ward (1963), y la regresión logística respecto a la preferencia de clones."}]},{"head":"Resultados y Discusión","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Etapa de diagnóstico","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"La identificación de la tecnología local de producción que hizo el ICA permitió seleccionar dos ambientes en el trópico bajo húmedo y dos en el trópico bajo seco."},{"index":2,"size":196,"text":"En general, se halló un alto grado de uniformidad en las prácticas de cultivo y en la época de siembra de las subregiones y se identificaron las especies intercaladas con yuca en cada subregión. Partiendo de la microdivisión de las regiones para la producción de yuca hecha por Carter (1985) en esta región y teniendo en cuenta la variación de la humedad del suelo, la topografía, los métodos de preparación del suelo, las prácticas de uso del rastrojo y los sistemas de tenencia de la tierra, la red de pruebas se estableció en seis microregiones o ambientes, por lo menos. La definición de ambientes (mediante los aspectos anteriores) es fundamental considerando que la estabilidad en el tiempo es muy importante para el agricultor. Los ambientes definidos permitirán desarrollar un programa de selección varietal participativa y lograr una adopción más rápida, ya que se seleccionarían clones para microambientes específicos. Tanto el componente de prácticas del agricultor como el componente biofísico participan en la identificación del sistema de producción para el cual se seleccionan los clones. En la actualidad, los sistemas de información geográfica (SIG) son la herramienta que permite realizar esta estratificación de ambientes con mayor precisión."},{"index":3,"size":64,"text":"Como en muchos otros países, los agricultores siembran más una sola variedad de yuca; sin embargo, se observó que conservan y plantan muchas otras variedades para diferentes usos. Los agricultores plantan una variedad porque da, según ellos, un rendimiento alto (para el mercado fresco), es precoz y tiene excelente aceptación para el consumo en fresco. Estos resultados concuerdan con los identificados por Carter (1985)."},{"index":4,"size":87,"text":"Hay otras características importantes para cada subregión. La susceptibilidad a las enfermedades no tuvo la misma intensidad en todas las subregiones. Las diferencias en el hábito de ramificación, el efecto que éste tiene en el rendimiento y la calidad de las raíces se consideraron importantes en una subregión del trópico bajo seco. Este hecho permite pensar que la variedad local, llamada Venezolana, contiene varios clones. La duda fue resuelta por Ocampo y López (1990), quienes determinaron por electroforesis que no había diferencias entre los cuatro morfotipos identificados."},{"index":5,"size":84,"text":"Los productores cosechaban desde los 6 meses de edad del cultivo, pero los mejoradores evaluaban el rendimiento obtenido a los 10 ó 12 meses de edad. Deben estudiarse con detenimiento las características de las variedades poco utilizadas por los agricultores, ya que en ellas se conservan algunas que no tiene la variedad más cultivada. Conocidas estas características, se establecieron los primeros criterios para dar información de retorno a los programas de mejoramiento de las dos instituciones, o sea, del programa nacional y del CIAT."},{"index":6,"size":14,"text":"A este Centro se le solicitó hacer cruzamientos en que intervinieran los clones regionales."},{"index":7,"size":37,"text":"Los científicos consideraban la variedad ideal basados solamente en atributos del genotipo; la variedad ideal para los agricultores reunía, en cambio, una combinación de caracteres que dependían de aspectos tanto bióticos como físicos y socioeconómicos (Cuadro 1)."},{"index":8,"size":164,"text":"Un ciclo de cultivo no se consideró suficiente para hacer la evaluación completa de las variedades distribuidas; los agricultores pudieron identificar y evaluar, sin embargo, varios aspectos de la planta, desde la raíz hasta el follaje, así como la susceptibilidad del cultivo a plagas y enfermedades. También evaluaron aspectos relacionados con el mercado, como precocidad, calidad culinaria, color del peridermo (Carey 1987). Los agricultores evaluaron nuevos clones comparándolos con sus variedades locales, tanto en términos cuantitativos como en términos de similitud fenotípica. Esta evaluación permitió fortalecer la estratificación por microambientes. En esta etapa se considera que el agricultor entiende muy bien que la semilla recibida es de su propiedad y que puede evaluarla sin esperar la visita del profesional; la semilla se le entrega al agricultor en la época en que él siembra. La información de retorno que se obtuvo y el entusiasmo de los agricultores indicó la necesidad de estructurar un nuevo grupo de clones para iniciar una segunda etapa de este proceso."}]},{"head":"Etapa de oferta tecnológica","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":192,"text":"El esquema de mejoramiento seguido hasta entonces por las dos instituciones daba preferencia a la selección hecha por el mejorador, en un esquema de alta presión de selección, con una duración promedio de 7.5 años en el CIAT y 6 en el ICA para llevar pruebas controladas por los investigadores a las fincas de los agricultores. La oferta seleccionada comprendía 10 clones cuyo rendimiento promedio está entre 15 y 20 t/ha de raíces frescas y que tenían de 33% a 36% de M.S. en las raíces, buena tolerancia de enfermedades y plagas y diferentes hábitos de ramificación. A pesar de que los colores oscuros de la peridermis de la raíz eran los preferidos por los agricultores, se incluyeron varios clones con raíz de color café claro previendo su posible uso en la industria del secado natural. Como era de esperarse, hubo un sesgo del fitomejoramiento clásico porque se trató de incluir los 10 clones en todos los sitios para uniformar las pruebas. La etapa se consideró una oferta tecnológica porque los fitomejoradores hicieron un trabajo con estos clones que, de todas maneras, serían entregados muy pronto como variedad siguiendo el enfoque clásico."}]},{"head":"Etapa de evaluación","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"Esta etapa se inició con varios contactos iniciales en la interacción con los agricultores. Es necesario que el agricultor sepa quiénes son los profesionales que le están ofreciendo alternativas para mejorar su sistema de cultivo, que conozca los objetivos perseguidos en la investigación y el papel que él desempeña en la relación que se inicia alrededor de un cultivo. Este enfoque debe orientarse un poco más a desarrollar una relación alrededor de las personas y no alrededor de la tecnología como objeto. Un esquema de los pasos seguidos para lograrlo se presenta en la Figura 1."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"La necesidad de sistematizar una red de pruebas implicó el desarrollo de un libro de campo para el registro de los datos, tanto de la entrevista como de la información agronómica. Se generó un libro de campo sistematizado con los ocho registros siguientes:"}]},{"head":"−","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"ubicación del proyecto con datos para identificar la prueba;"},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"− datos sobre germinación y etapas intermedias del cultivo;"},{"index":3,"size":5,"text":"− información sobre la cosecha;"},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"− descripción del sitio de la prueba e identificación de los responsables;"},{"index":5,"size":12,"text":"− análisis de suelos, prácticas culturales, variedades locales y tipo de mercado;"},{"index":6,"size":15,"text":"− criterios para la precosecha; − criterios para la cosecha; − evaluación de la entrevista."}]},{"head":"Etapa de procesamiento, análisis y retroinformación","index":17,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Interpretación de expresiones","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"Las expresiones registradas en la evaluación abierta se referían a la raíz porque de 11 características registradas en el libro de campo, 8 correspondían a la raíz. Dos sesgos ocurridos en la etapa inicial de la metodología y expresados en el libro explican ese hecho: por un lado, los agricultores fueron invitados, en su mayoría, a las cosechas y muy poco a las evaluaciones intermedias; por el otro, aunque las variedades se plantaban intercaladas y asociadas con otras especies, como maíz y ñame, los investigadores se interesaban solamente en observar la yuca y muy poco en registrar características de las otras especies; más aún, éstas no se tenían en cuenta en el libro."}]},{"head":"Grupos de variedades","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Las variedades se ordenaron en tres categorías: bien aceptada, medianamente aceptada y muy poco aceptada. Al final, el orden de preferencia de los agricultores en 10 clones, mediante regresi��n logística, produjo una representación gráfica de variedades preferidas y no preferidas que se comparaban con la variedad regional."}]},{"head":"Datos agronómicos y subjetivos complementarios","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"La complementación de estos dos tipos de datos permitió definir los niveles aceptables, ya sea cualitativos, forma de la raíz, o cuantitativos, como contenido de M.S. (%), en los caracteres que más tuvieron en cuenta los agricultores."}]},{"head":"Análisis de componentes principales","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"Este análisis permite determinar los rasgos más importantes que consideraban los agricultores al seleccionar una variedad deseable. En general, el 67% de la variación acumulada quedaba explicado por seis componentes. El análisis mostró que los aspectos calificados como de baja aceptación como el color claro de la peridermis de la raíz, el color crema o amarillo de la pulpa, una altura de planta menor de un metro, la altura de la primera ramificación, el rendimiento de ocho raíces por planta, la longitud del pedúnculo y la facilidad de la cosecha fueron los más discriminantes para cada uno de los componentes principales."}]},{"head":"Análisis de 'cluster'","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"Este análisis de agrupamiento según características similares permitió definir seis ambientes, tanto en la asociación yuca-maíz, como en el monocultivo de yuca, para el desarrollo de la investigación en fincas con participación de agricultores (Figura 2)."},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"El agrupamiento se hizo respecto a la acumulación de M.S. en la raíz, al rendimiento de raíces, al índice de cosecha y a otras variables de tipo agronómico. Cada ambiente (A1....A6) se caracterizaba, además, por las condiciones fisicoquímicas del suelo, el tipo de productor y las prácticas culturales, entre otros factores."}]},{"head":"Análisis de estabilidad","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"Este análisis permite determinar la sensibilidad de los genotipos evaluados en diferentes ambientes (años y sitios distintos) respecto a caracteres agronómicos, en especial, por aquellos estrechamente relacionados con las preferencias de los agricultores. Este análisis permitió verificar también la correspondencia entre los mejores caracteres seleccionados por los fitomejoradores en ensayos controlados en centros de investigación y los preferidos por los agricultores en términos de materia seca y de rendimiento de raíces frescas."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"Este trabajo generó los siguientes productos verificables:"},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"• Dos nuevas variedades de yuca (CG 1141-1 y CM 3306-4) de doble uso (consumo fresco e industria), que fueron registrados en 1990 y 1993."},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":"• El programa nacional de yuca adoptó el enfoque aplicado, pero eliminó las pruebas regionales controladas e incorporó a los productores en la selección de clones desde la primera generación clonal de la F1."},{"index":5,"size":36,"text":"• El tiempo desde el cruzamiento hasta obtener una variedad aceptada por los agricultores se redujo a un lapso de 7 a 8 años; en el mejoramiento clásico ese tiempo era de 10 a 13 años."},{"index":6,"size":23,"text":"• Una metodología de selección varietal participativa, documentada y ampliamente explicada por Hernández (1993), que se aplicó con éxito en países como Brasil."},{"index":7,"size":44,"text":"• Dos de los clones que fueron rechazados para el mercado fresco en esa época por el color claro de la peridermis de la raíz, fueron registrados en 1999 como nuevas variedades para la industria. Ya son utilizados por los agricultores en lotes comerciales."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"50b704ee-6123-4059-ae4a-0ef51f50f04f","abstract":"La selección de variedades es una de las actividades en que más se ha reportado la participación de agentes del desarrollo distintos del fitomejorador. Esta experiencia ha sido documentada por los siguientes autores: (1988), en la evaluación de líneas avanzadas de arroz;− Chambers (1989), quien revisó unos cuantos ejemplos de agricultores que fueron expuestos a una canasta de diferente material genético;"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"087be638048a5751d1d6e4d4ca473940","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/adb781fd-8f08-4f47-a5f2-a48836d57f3b/retrieve"},"pageCount":11,"title":"Lở mồm long móng trên lợn và gia súc Hội thảo tập huấn Tăng cường quản lý sức khỏe vật nuôi cho chăn nuôi nông hộ Sơn La, tháng 12 năm 2020","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Giới thiệu chung","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Phòng bệnh"}]},{"head":"CGIAR Research Program on Livestock","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"The CGIAR Research Program on Livestock aims to increase the productivity and profitability of livestock agrifood systems in sustainable ways, making meat, milk and eggs more available and affordable across the developing world."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"This presentation is licensed for use under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Licence."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"The program thanks all donors and organizations which globally support its work through their contributions to the CGIAR system livestock.cgiar.org"},{"index":4,"size":10,"text":"More meat milk and eggs by and for the poor"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"➢➢➢➢ Là bệnh truyền nhiễm cấp tính, lây lan nhanh và mạnh ở các loài móng guốc chẵn ( trâu, bò, dê, cừu, lợn) ➢ Bệnh thường nhẹ, tỷ lệ tử vong thấp nhưng gây thiệt hại về kinh tế rất lớn do giảm năng suất ở vật nuôi và gây bệnh nặng ở động vật có năng suất cao (bò sữa) ➢ Virus có 7 serotype: O; A; C; Asia 1; SAT 1; SAT 2; SAT 3. Các type gây dấu hiệu lâm sàng giống nhau nhưng không có miễn dịch chéo. ➢ Tại Việt Nam có 3 type chính: O, A, Asia 1, gặp nhiều nhất là type O Đặc điểm dịch tễ ➢ Tỷ lệ nhiễm cao, có thể lên tới 100% ➢ Tỷ lệ chết thấp, chủ yếu chết do bỏ ăn hoặc do bệnh kế phát. ➢ Con non bệnh nặng hơn và dễ chết hơn (do con mẹ không cho bú) ➢ Đường truyền lây: có thể lan rất nhanh theo gió trên toàn đàn, động vật khỏe và động vật mang bệnh, thức ăn, nước uống, chất thải, dụng cụ, phương tiện vận chuyển. cao 40 -42 O C, mệt mỏi, ủ rũ, ăn ít hoặc bỏ ăn Sốt cao, mệt mỏi, ủ rũ, ăn ít hoặc bỏ ăn Triệu chứng ở miệng • Xuất hiện mụn nước ở miệng, má, môi, lợi, chân răng. Sau vài ngày thì vỡ, nếu không nhiễm khuẩn, 2 -3 ngày sẽ thành sẹo • Lưỡi dày lên và khó cử động • Nước dãi chảy như xà phòng, dính máu • Xuất hiện mụn nước ở miệng, má, môi, lợi, chân răng Triệu chứng ở chân • Mụn nước mọc trong kẽ chân, móng. • Bị nặng hoặc tạp nhiễm có thể bong móng • Con vật khó đi lại • Triệu chứng ở chân nặng hơn ở trâu bò, con vật biểu hiện què, đi khập khiễng • Nặng có thể loét và long móng Sinh sản • Mọc mụn ở núm vú, vú sưng • Viêm vú, tắc sữa • Mọc mụn ở núm vú, vú sưng • Xảy thai ở lợn nái, con đực ngừng giao phối • Con non dễ chết Dấu hiệu lâm sàng Dấu hiệu lâm sàng (trên trâu bò) Dễ chẩn đoán do các dấu hiệu lâm sàng rất đặc trưng (trâu bò: chảy nước dãi, lợn: què, đi lại khập khiễng) Chẩn đoán trong phòng thí nghiệm: sử dụng phản ứng ELISA hoặc RT-PCR đều cho kết quả nhanh và chính xác. ➢ Bệnh phẩm: nước trong mụn ở miệng, lưỡi, chân hoặc các mô biểu bì, niêm mạc miệng và lưỡi Diễn biến bệnh LMLM ➢ Đường xâm nhập • Đường hô hấp • Đường tiêu hóa • Qua nhau thai ➢ Đường bài thải • Hô hấp (ngày 3-5) • Các tiết dịch • (Máu, thịt) rút phát triển rất nhanh, ồ ạt với lượng lớn để tìm ký chủ mới Điều trị Chăm sóc hộ lý -Giữ chuồng trại sạch sẽ, khô ráo, cho ăn thức ăn mềm, uống nước sạch ➢ Không có thuốc đặc hiệu, chủ yếu điều trị triệu chứng -Dùng kháng sinh phổ rộng chống kế phát: amoxiclin, oxytetraxyclin… -Với các vết loét: sử dụng các dung dịch sát trùng nhẹ hoặc có tính axit: axit axetic 2%, thuốc tím 1%, axit xitric 1%, nước vắt chanh, dấm ăn… bôi vào các vết lóet. ➢ Dùng thuốc trợ sức, trợ lực, vitamin, thuốc bổ, gluco KC ➢ Vắc xin tiêm phòng bắt buộc: Trâu bò: Tiêm phòng lần đầu cho bê nghé từ 2 tuần tuổi, nhắc lại ở 4 tuần tuổi. Tái chủng 6 tháng 1 lần Lợn: Tiêm phòng lần đầu cho lợn từ 2 tuần tuổi, nhắc lại ở 4 tuần tuổi. Tái chủng mỗi 6 tháng 1 lần ➢ Áp dụng các biện pháp an ninh sinh học, dọn vệ sinh sát trùng chuồng trại ➢ Phương pháp phòng bệnh hiệu quả nhất là tiêm vắc xin. Yêu cầu chọn vắc xin tương đồng với chủng virus đang gây bệnh mới cho kết quả tốt. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"702fb240-559e-475f-958d-e1fdf1d3924c","abstract":"nghiên cứu Chăn nuôi Quốc tế (ILRI) 2 Viện Thú y (NIVR)"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"08f716409b09b0215dfe4f6140fe8041","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d4f10a13-8347-4705-ba42-03b28fd6da2d/retrieve"},"pageCount":45,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Sigles et abréviations","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Préface","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"Dans le cadre du projet de détection précoce, de rapportage et de surveillance de l'influenza aviaire en Afrique, financé par l'Agence américaine pour le développement international (USAID), un certain nombre de formations en surveillance participative de la maladie (SPM) concernant l'influenza aviaire hautement pathogène (IAHP) ont été réalisés en Afrique de l'Ouest et de l'Est en 2008 et 2009. L'objet de ce manuel est d'offrir une référence aux vétérinaires et aux agents de santé animale pendant et après une formation en SPM. Le manuel est principalement axé sur la SPM de l'IAHP, mais les méthodes peuvent être facilement adaptées et appliquées à d'autres maladies du bétail."}]},{"head":"Introduction à l'épidémiologie participative","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Epidémiologie participative","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"L'épidémiologie est l'étude des différents tableaux de la maladie au sein des populations."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"L'épidémiologie participative (EP) est l'utilisation d'approches et de méthodes participatives pour améliorer notre compréhension des tableaux des maladies au sein des populations. Ces approches et méthodes sont dérivées de l'évaluation participative."},{"index":3,"size":35,"text":"La participation est l'habilitation des populations leur permettant de trouver des solutions à leurs propres problèmes de développement. C'est à la fois une attitude et une philosophie qui encourage l'apprentissage, la découverte et la flexibilité."},{"index":4,"size":67,"text":"L'évaluation participative (EP/PA) est une famille d'approches et de méthodes qui permet aux populations de présenter, partager et analyser leur connaissance de la vie et des maladies, de planifier et d'agir. Elle est participative, flexible, de structure légère, adaptable, exploratoire, stimulante et inventive. Les types d'évaluation participative incluent une évaluation rurale rapide, une évaluation rurale participative (ERP), la recherche en systèmes de production et l'étude d'impact participative."},{"index":5,"size":44,"text":"Un groupe de praticiens et de formateurs en EP a élaboré les déclarations suivantes permettant de décrire l'EP : L'EP est une approche à l'épidémiologie, incluant notamment la surveillance active, réalisée par des professionnels et elle est sensible et utile à la communauté ;"},{"index":6,"size":34,"text":"C'est un dialogue interactif conduit au sein de la communauté et combinant des informations scientifiques et traditionnelles à l'aide d'outils de PRA, permettant à l'enquêté et à la communauté de faire des découvertes ;"},{"index":7,"size":27,"text":"Elle est flexible, semi-structurée et adaptable au changement de situations. Des données provenant de sources multiples sont rapidement analysées, permettant une réaction et une réponse rapides ;"},{"index":8,"size":24,"text":"Elle est fondée sur un partenariat égal fait de respect et de confiance mutuels et encourage une attitude positive permettant l'autonomisation de la communauté."}]},{"head":"Les principes clés de l'évaluation participative","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Comportement et attitude : écouter, apprendre et respecter. Avoir l'esprit ouvert. Etre un facilitateur et non un expert."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"Apprentissage mutuel : partager les connaissances, l'expérience et l'analyse."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"Combiner le savoir local et le savoir professionnel en vue d'une action acceptable, efficace. Etre préparé à désapprendre."},{"index":4,"size":44,"text":"Compréhension : les gens prennent des décisions rationnelles basées sur les informations qu'ils ont à leur disposition. S'il apparaît que les gens ne se comportent pas de manière rationnelle, c'est probablement parce que nous n'avons pas bien compris certains facteurs clés de la situation."},{"index":5,"size":31,"text":"Connaissances existantes : les gens accumulent un ensemble de connaissances sur les sujets qui sont importants pour leur subsistance. Certains individus ont des perspectives uniques et très valables sur les situations."},{"index":6,"size":18,"text":"Ignorance optimale : nous n'avons pas besoin de connaître chaque détail éventuel d'un problème pour pouvoir le résoudre."},{"index":7,"size":11,"text":"Elle est tournée vers l'action plutôt que basée sur les données."},{"index":8,"size":224,"text":"Dans l'épidémiologie, la maladie survient suite à des interactions entre l'hôte (l'animal), l'agent (exemple, les virus ou les bactéries) et l'environnement dans lequel sont présents l'hôte et l'agent (Figure 1). Les facteurs qui influencent la survenue de la maladie sont appelés déterminants (voir le Tableau 1). Le contexte social fait partie de l'environnement dans lequel la maladie survient ; il est déterminé par le comportement des populations. L'EP est une approche utile pour l'étude du contexte social dans lequel survient une maladie ainsi que d'autres aspects de l'interaction entre l'hôte, l'agent et l'environnement. Exemple : Fièvre de la côte orientale Pour l'observation de cas cliniques de la fièvre de la côte orientale (ECF) dans une population bovine, il faut une population bovine (l'hôte) susceptible d'être infectée par le Theileria parva (l'agent), par le vecteur de la tique (Rhipicephalus appendiculatus). La susceptibilité de la population bovine est déterminée par son âge, sa race, une exposition antérieure au T. parva, le statut de vaccination, etc. Pour la présence du T. parva dans la région, l'environnement doit être favorable au maintien du R. appendiculatus, par exemple, une température et une humidité appropriées qui peuvent être déterminées par la végétation, l'altitude et l'existence d'hôtes appropriés. L'exposition du bétail aux tiques est déterminée par les pratiques de gestion comme les méthodes de pâturage et la lutte contre les tiques."}]},{"head":"Agent Maladie Environnement Hôte","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Méthodes d'épidémiologie participative L'EP est basée sur la communication et le transfert des connaissances, à partir d'une variété de méthodes. Il existe trois principaux groupes de méthodes :"},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"L'entretien informel : des entretiens semi-structurés avec des informateurs clés, des groupes de discussion ou des éleveurs individuels ; Le classement et l'évaluation : un classement simple, un classement par paires, l'empilement proportionnel (« proportional piling »), une matrice de cotation ; La visualisation : la cartographie, les calendriers, les calendriers saisonniers, les marches transversales."},{"index":3,"size":78,"text":"Ces méthodes sont complétées par : des sources d'information secondaire : obtenues avant de se rendre dans la zone d'étude et au cours de l'étude ; une observation directe des animaux, des fermes, des villages, etc. en étant dans la zone de l'étude ; des diagnostics de laboratoire : s'ils sont disponibles, des tests de diagnostic sur le terrain sont utilisés, complétés par une collecte et des essais d'échantillons effectués par un laboratoire national ou régional pour confirmation."},{"index":4,"size":15,"text":"Les données sont recoupées par des questions d'approfondissement, une triangulation et des diagnostics de laboratoire."}]},{"head":"Epidémiologie et systèmes de surveillance","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"L'épidémiologie est l'étude des différents tableaux de la maladie au sein des populations."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"La surveillance : La collecte d'informations et de renseignements tournés vers l'action dans des délais réalistes (information pour l'action)."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"Un système de surveillance est un ensemble d'activités complémentaires, exemple : la recherche des cas, la déclaration des maladies et la confirmation de laboratoire."},{"index":4,"size":292,"text":"Selon une définition modifiée de Thacker et al. (1988), les sept caractéristiques d'un système de surveillance efficace sont les suivants : un taux élevé de détection : le système devrait pouvoir détecter autant d'épisodes de maladies que possible ; un système sensible et spécifique o la sensibilité est le nombre de cas réels qu'un système identifie correctement par rapport au nombre total de sujets réellement malades étudiés. Plus la sensibilité du système est élevée, plus l'on identifie de cas de sujets réellement malades (ce qui donne un nombre plus faible de cas faux négatifs) ; o la spécificité est le nombre d'animaux non malades qu'un système identifie correctement par rapport au nombre total de sujets réellement non malades examinés. Plus la spécificité d'un système est élevée, plus l'on identifie des animaux réellement non malades (ce qui donne un nombre plus faible de cas faux positifs). un système dans les temps : le système doit pouvoir détecter, enquêter, assurer un feedback et permettre l'action sur un épisode de maladie suspect dans des délais correspondant au cycle infectieux de la maladie ; un système représentatif : le système devrait refléter l'apparition réelle et la distribution de l'épisode dans toutes les communautés, les systèmes de production et les couches sociales ; un système flexible : le système devrait pouvoir détecter et prendre en compte les maladies émergentes ; un système simple : si les procédures sont trop difficiles, les paysans et le personnel chargé de la surveillance ne seront probablement pas motivés pour signaler, agir et lutter contre les épisodes de maladie suspects ; l'appropriation : les parties prenantes devraient avoir un sentiment d'appropriation en raison de leur participation à la conception du système et de la pertinence du résultat par rapport à leurs besoins."},{"index":5,"size":37,"text":"Dans la pratique, aucun système de surveillance singulier ne présentera ces sept caractéristiques, aussi un système de surveillance doit-il intégrer différentes activités pour répondre aux besoins des parties prenantes et atteindre ses buts et ses objectifs techniques. "}]},{"head":"Définition de cas clinique","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"Une définition de cas clinique liste les principaux signes cliniques de la maladie concernée, sur la base de ce que l'agriculteur ou l'aviculteur est susceptible de savoir et de voir et peut vous dire ou vous montrer. La définition de cas clinique devrait être conçue de façon à cerner la plupart des animaux réellement malades (sensibilité élevée). Si les cas répondent à la définition du cas clinique, des mesures plus approfondies devraient alors être prises telles qu'un test diagnostic sur le terrain pour confirmer ou infirmer le diagnostic clinique."}]},{"head":"Outils de l'épidémiologie participative","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Vous trouverez ci-dessous une vue d'ensemble des différents outils basés sur plusieurs publications de référence clés (Pretty et al., 1995;Mariner et Paskin, 2000 ;Catley, 2005)."}]},{"head":"Interview semi-structurée","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"Exemple : Flambée soudaine de décès dans la définition de cas dans la volaille (Indonésie, IAHP) Mort subite (moins de 4 heures) Avec ou sans Pétéchies ou oedème des pattes, cyanose de la crête, oedème de la tête, pétéchies sur la poitrine et les pattes, écoulement nasal, salivation, tête tombante, chute de ponte, baisse de la consommation alimentaire. N.B. S'applique au foyer et non à une volaille individuelle."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"Exemple : la définition clinique de la survenue de la stomatite-entérite (Rinderpest) Larmoiement Ecoulement nasal Plus deux ou plusieurs des signes suivants Fièvre, érosions/lésions orales, salivation, opacité cornéenne, diarrhée, mort N.B. S'applique au foyer et non à un animal individuel. L'interview est une technique spécialisée qui s'améliore avec la pratique. Bien que n'importe qui puisse recueillir des informations utiles dans le cadre d'un entretien, le volume et la fiabilité des informations obtenues peuvent grandement s'améliorer avec l'expérience."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"« Au coeur de toute bonne recherche et élaboration participatives se trouve la technique de l'entretien sensible. Sans cette technique, quelles que soient les autres méthodes que vous pourrez utiliser, la discussion produira des informations insuffisantes et une compréhension limitée. La discussion peut susciter la suspicion, la peur ou même l'hostilité chez les populations locales."},{"index":4,"size":112,"text":"L'entretien semi-structuré peut être défini comme suit : une conversation orientée dans laquelle seuls les thèmes sont prédéterminés et dans laquelle de nouvelles questions ou de nouveaux éclairages peuvent apparaître comme résultat de la discussion et des analyses visualisées ». (Pretty et al., 1995) La méthode de l'entretien est informelle mais elle a un objectif défini.  Dans les sociétés pastorales, l'aube et le crépuscule sont souvent les meilleurs moments pour trouver les propriétaires de bétail dans leurs campements, mais pas toujours les meilleurs moments pour les interviewer. Quant aux petits exploitants sédentaires, ils peuvent être occupés à leurs cultures dans la matinée ; il vaut mieux donc réaliser les entretiens dans l'après-midi."},{"index":5,"size":103,"text":"Demandez toujours si le moment est favorable et s'il ne l'est pas, quand vous pourriez avoir une rencontre. L'interview devrait être programmée pour environ une heure ; si elle dure plus longtemps, les participants commenceront à y perdre intérêt et la qualité des informations fournies diminuera. Apprenez à repérer les signes de fatigue et d'ennui. Les signes d'agitation et les conversations en aparté montrent, soit que l'interview a besoin d'être ranimée par le passage à un sujet présentant un plus grand intérêt pour les personnes enquêtées, soit qu'il est temps de terminer et de poser les quelques questions clés qui pourraient encore rester."}]},{"head":"Les présentations","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":163,"text":"La première étape de tout entretien, ce sont les présentations. Les membres de l'équipe de l'étude devraient se présenter et demander aux participants de se présenter. Votre introduction doit être précise mais ne pas influencer la réponse des participants. Par exemple, si vous mettez l'accent sur un sujet particulier tel que la volaille ou la péripneumonie contagieuse bovine (PPCB) dans votre présentation, les enquêtés mettront souvent un accent excessif sur ces sujets dans leurs réponses. Normalement, les équipes d'études devraient enregistrer les noms et l'affiliation communautaire des enquêtés. A ce stade, les enquêteurs devraient également essayer d'identifier si les enquêtés sont des participants adéquats pour l'évaluation en question. L'équipe d'évaluation doit faire attention de ne pas susciter des attentes chez la communauté concernant des projets ou services futurs. La présentation est une bonne occasion pour diffuser certaines de ces attentes en déclarant que l'évaluation n'est qu'une étude et que les membres de l'équipe d'évaluation ne sont pas les décideurs concernant les futurs programmes. "}]},{"head":"Les questions","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Il est essentiel pour la fiabilité des informations collectées que les questions soient des questions ouvertes plutôt que des questions directives qui restreignent ou dirigent l'enquêté vers une réponse particulière ou un type de réponse particulier. Dans une évaluation concernant la santé animale, il est souvent préférable de commencer par une question comme : « Quels problèmes de santé animale rencontrez-vous ? »."},{"index":2,"size":75,"text":"Une bonne question ne fait pas d'hypothèses. Par exemple, si les enquêtés ont décrit un problème de maladie en cours qui correspond à la variole ovine et que vous voulez savoir quand des foyers sont survenus par le passé, vous aurez peut-être envie de demander : « Quand est-ce que cette maladie est apparue la dernière fois ? ». Mais il serait préférable de demander : « Avez-vous déjà vu cette maladie auparavant ? »."},{"index":3,"size":47,"text":"La première question présume que la maladie est déjà survenue et communique l'hypothèse aux enquêtés qui peuvent indiquer une année pour se montrer poli ou par crainte de sembler non informés. La deuxième question donne plus de liberté aux enquêtés pour déclarer ce qu'ils savent avec assurance."},{"index":4,"size":223,"text":"Les questions devraient être ordonnées de façon à ce que l'entretien progresse des thèmes généraux aux thèmes spécifiques. Autant que possible, les enquêtés devraient déterminer l'orientation de l'entretien. En conséquence, la plupart des questions ne peuvent pas être pré-planifiées. Elles doivent être conçues sur-le-champ à la lumière des informations déjà présentées et les enquêteurs doivent être capables de réfléchir de manière instantanée. Le fait que la plupart des questions ne puissent pas être pré-planifiées ne signifie pas qu'un nombre restreint de questions clés ne peuvent pas être insérées dans l'entretien. Par exemple, l'équipe d'évaluation peut avoir un intérêt particulier à élucider l'épidémiologie locale de la PPCB et souhaiter poser des questions dans chaque entretien sur la dernière apparition de la PPCB. Ceci peut se faire, mais il faut faire très attention au moment où la question sera posée dans le flux de l'entretien pour éviter de diriger la discussion. Si la maladie est endémique, les participants soulèveront probablement le sujet de la PPCB et l'équipe d'évaluation pourra poser sa question standard en toute sécurité. Si les participants n'introduisent pas le sujet de la PPCB, la question de la PPCB pourra être posée à la fin de l'entretien. Néanmoins, l'équipe d'évaluation devra noter que la communauté n'a pas introduit le sujet et que ceci démontre probablement que la PPCB n'est pas une priorité locale."},{"index":5,"size":140,"text":"Les questions quantitatives sur des sujets comme les taux de mortalité et la taille des troupeaux ne reçoivent pas de réponses très précises. Il vaut mieux généralement éviter ce type de question. Selon l'expérience des auteurs, les éleveurs savent exactement combien d'animaux ils possèdent ; c'est leur principale source de richesse. Mais, comme dans la plupart des sociétés, s'enquérir directement de la richesse en termes quantitatifs est impoli ou attire la malchance. Si les gens répondent, les paysans pauvres peuvent exagérer et les riches peuvent déprécier leurs possessions. McCauley et al (1983) ont apparemment collecté des données exactes sur la taille des troupeaux pour le calcul des taux de mortalité par la triangulation de trois éléments d'information : les informations des propriétaires ; l'observation directe des troupeaux ; les informations provenant de voisins sur les possessions du sujet en bétail."}]},{"head":"Les questions d'approfondissement","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":156,"text":"En EP/PA, le terme « poser des questions d'approfondissement » signifie poser des questions détaillées sur un sujet donné soulevé par les enquêtés. Poser des questions d'approfondissement est à la fois une technique de collecte de données et une technique de contrôle de la qualité des données. Cette méthode peut être utile pour vérifier la cohérence interne des informations ou simplement pour recueillir des informations plus détaillées sur un sujet donné. Dans le cas de l'EP, l'on utilise souvent les questions d'approfondissement pour obtenir une description plus détaillée d'une entité morbide particulière volontairement évoquée par un enquêté. Par exemple, les enquêtés peuvent décrire une maladie qui cause la mort subite dans le bétail sans rigidité cadavérique. L'équipe d'évaluation peut demander si la maladie peut affecter l'homme et, si c'est le cas, comment la maladie se manifeste chez l'homme. Une réponse positive avec une description caractéristique des abcès de l'anthrax confirmera cette description comme étant de l'anthrax."},{"index":2,"size":102,"text":"Vérifier la cohérence interne des informations est un moyen important de contrôle de la qualité des données en EP/PA. Poser des questions d'approfondissement permet d'établir le caractère plausible des déclarations faites par les participants en recueillant plus d'informations détaillées et en ayant une meilleure contextualisation de la question. Cela ne signifie pas qu'il faut poser des « questions pièges » ou chercher à amener les participants à se contredire. Le processus d'ERP est fondé sur le respect éclairé des opinions et des observations individuelles. L'on évalue avec respect la qualité et le mérite de toutes les déclarations provenant de tous les individus."}]},{"head":"L'observation","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"Pendant les entretiens, il est très important d'observer et d'écouter. Les enquêtés sont-ils détendus et confiants ? Y a-t-il un contact visuel ? Quels types de langage corporel sont exprimés ? Y a-t-il des questions sensibles ? Est-ce que tout le monde participe ? Qui ne participe pas ? Y a-t-il des personnes qui sont à l'aise et d'autres pas ? Quelles sont les différences d'apparence entre les personnes qui participent et celles qui ne participent pas ? Est-ce le genre, la richesse ou l'âge, le problème (ne posez pas de questions, observez) ? Des entretiens de suivi peuvent être organisés avec des participants « non participants » dans des groupes où ils se sentiront peut-être plus à l'aise."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"En général, les propriétaires de bétail adorent parler de leur bétail. L'EP consiste à laisser les gens partager leurs connaissances et à apprendre auprès d'eux. Ecoutez. Soyez patients et ouverts.  "}]},{"head":"Classement et évaluation","index":15,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Classement par paires","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"Le classement par paires ou la comparaison est une méthode de classement légèrement plus complexe où chaque élément est comparé individuellement avec tous les autres éléments, l'un après l'autre. Le classement par paires peut être utilisé pour comprendre l'importance relative des différentes espèces ou maladies et, suite à des questions d'approfondissement, comprendre les avantages de différentes espèces ou l'impact de différentes maladies. "}]},{"head":"Méthode de classement","index":17,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Cholera aviaire","index":18,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Maladie de Newcastle","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Cholera aviaire"}]},{"head":"Gumboro","index":20,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Maladie de Newcastle","index":21,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Maladie de Newcastle","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Maladie de Newcastle Variole aviaire Gumboro"}]},{"head":"Maladie de Gumboro","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Nombre de fois que la maladie a été choisie"}]},{"head":"Résultat","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Dans cet exemple, la ND vient en premier avec un score de 5, la typhose aviaire en second avec 4, la coccidiose en troisième avec 3, la maladie de Gumboro en quatrième avec 2, le choléra aviaire en cinquième avec 1 et la variole aviaire en dernier avec 0."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"Les questions d'approfondissement durant l'exercice permettent de comprendre le classement : Pourquoi la ND est la plus importante."},{"index":3,"size":247,"text":"Pourquoi la variole aviaire est la moins importante. Quels sont les aspects des maladies et de la volaille les plus importants pour la communauté.   Poser des questions d'approfondissement sur les différences et calculer les scores moyens des différents segments de la communauté, revient à analyser les résultats dissociés. Par exemple, les femmes évaluent souvent les maladies de manière très différente des hommes parce que leurs besoins et leurs préoccupations diffèrent de ceux des hommes.   3. Utilisez la liste de maladies courantes déjà donnée pendant l'entretien, écrivez les noms des maladies sur les cartes ou utilisez des images ou des objets pour représenter les maladies. N'utilisez pas plus de quatre ou cinq maladies, en regroupant toutes les autres maladies mentionnées dans une catégorie appelée « autres maladies ». 4. Utilisez les jetons affectés à la volaille ou aux animaux malades, demandez au fermier de diviser les jetons pour indiquer la proportion de la volaille ou des animaux qui ont souffert de l'une des maladies courantes au cours de l'année passée. 5. En prenant une maladie à la fois, demandez au fermier d'utiliser les jetons affectés à chaque maladie pour montrer la proportion de volailles/animaux qui sont morts sur l'ensemble de la volaille ou des animaux qui ont souffert de la maladie et la proportion de volailles/animaux qui ont été guéris. 6. Comptez les jetons à la fin, lorsque le fermier a fini d'évaluer chaque maladie. 7. Résumez et procédez à une vérification croisée des résultats avec le fermier."}]},{"head":"« Empilement proportionnel »","index":25,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Exemple d'empilement proportionnel pour la morbidité et la mortalité","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":208,"text":"La morbidité globale du troupeau est c = 27 % La mortalité globale du troupeau est j + k + l + m + o = 19 % La létalité globale est (j + k + l + m + o)/c = 19/27 = 70 % Morbidité due à des maladies individuelles = d, e, f, g, h, i La mortalité de la maladie dans le troupeau spécifique est j/a, k/a, l/a, m/a, n/a, o/a Exemple, la mortalité du troupeau due à la ND est j/a = 13 % La létalité spécifique à la maladie est le nombre de morts par rapport au nombre de malades pour chaque maladie : j/d, k/e, l/f, m/g, n/h, o/i Exemple, la létalité due à la ND est j/d = 13/16 = 81 %   Si possible, laissez les jetons dans les différentes lignes jusqu'à la fin de l'exercice de façon à créer une vraie matrice qui indique les schémas de l'évaluation et afin que les participants puissent avoir une idée des différents signes liés aux différentes maladies. L'utilisation de cet outil requiert du temps, il est donc habituellement utilisé avec des fermiers particulièrement informés qui sont disposés à passer un peu plus de temps à discuter des maladies dans leur moindre détail."},{"index":2,"size":223,"text":"Environ cinq jetons sont utilisés par élément en haut de la matrice. L'exemple ci-dessus présente cinq maladies ; 30 jetons ont donc été utilisés. Si nous n'avions que quatre maladies, seuls 20 jetons seraient utilisés. Il est préférable de ne pas avoir plus de six éléments en haut de la matrice, avec un maximum de 10 à 12 indicateurs. Si vous en utilisez davantage, l'exercice devient plus complexe et plus long et les enquêtés y perdront intérêt.  Dans de nombreux pays, il est important d'obtenir tout d'abord le cycle saisonnier des pluies tandis que dans d'autres pays, il peut être pertinent d'obtenir le cycle saisonnier de la température ou de l'humidité. D'autres facteurs saisonniers comme la disponibilité de pâturage, l'accès à l'eau, la présence d'animaux ou d'oiseaux sauvages ou la présence de vecteurs peuvent être importants en fonction du système d'exploitation, des espèces et des maladies concernées. La gestion du bétail et les pratiques de commercialisation peuvent être saisonnières comme les mouvements du bétail, les saisons de mise bas, les abris, l'approvisionnement en stocks ou l'écoulement des stocks. Les activités humaines telles que les fêtes, les congés ou les moments où l'on a besoin d'argent peuvent affecter le nombre de têtes de bétail ainsi que la commercialisation et l'abattage. L'apparition saisonnière des principales maladies concernées et leurs vecteurs (le cas échéant) sont indiqués."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"Après avoir élaboré le calendrier saisonnier, les résultats sont ensuite discutés et approfondis avec les participants pour savoir pourquoi les choses se passent à certains moments et comment elles peuvent être liées ou non à d'autres facteurs."}]},{"head":"La méthode d'évaluation","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"A partir des informations déjà recueillies plus tôt au cours de l'entretien, vous devriez déjà connaître les pratiques d'exploitation locale, les problèmes courants de maladies et avoir une certaine idée des facteurs qui peuvent affecter l'apparition des maladies. A partir de ces    Pendant l'élaboration du calendrier, les participants mentionneront souvent des facteurs de risque clés comme l'humidité, les populations de vecteurs, les conditions de pâturage, la pénurie d'eau, etc.. Ainsi, non seulement les calendriers fournissent des informations sur le cycle des saisons, mais ce sont également des outils utiles pour l'identification de facteurs prédisposants."}]},{"head":"La cartographie participative","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"La cartographie est l'un des outils les plus utiles de l'épidémiologie participative. Elle fournit des informations spatiales sur la distribution, les mouvements, les interactions, les maladies et les vecteurs de maladies du bétail, qui sont extrêmement utiles en épidémiologie."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"Certaines informations sont plus faciles à décrire et à analyser de manière visuelle que par écrit. Il est plus facile de dessiner une carte que de décrire une carte avec des mots. La cartographie est utile au début d'une enquête pour définir les frontières spatiales du système étudié. Elle joue également le rôle d'un brise-glace parfait parce qu'un grand nombre de personnes peuvent y participer."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"Les cartes produites sur le sol en utilisant des matériaux disponibles au niveau local sont faciles à ajuster jusqu'à satisfaction des enquêtés du résultat de la carte."},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"Les cartes n'ont pas besoin de mots écrits ou d'étiquettes ; les personnes non lettrées peuvent donc y participer."},{"index":5,"size":44,"text":"Une fois qu'une carte a été dessinée, elle peut être utilisée pour indiquer l'emplacement des foyers de maladies, la propagation de la maladie à travers une région sur une période donnée et les facteurs de risque concernant l'apparition ou la propagation de la maladie."},{"index":6,"size":53,"text":"A l'instar des autres activités, il est utile de préparer un guide d'entretien mental ou écrit des éléments à approfondir au cours de l'exercice de cartographie. Il faudrait demander aux enquêtés non seulement d'illustrer les emplacements sur la carte, mais également de donner les raisons qui justifient les mouvements et l'utilisation des ressources."},{"index":7,"size":234,"text":"La méthode de cartographie participative 1. Demandez au groupe de dessiner les sites caractéristiques de leur village ou de leur zone sur une carte, par exemple le lieu de la réunion, les routes principales, les fleuves, les lacs, les lieux publics importants, etc.. Selon le lieu de la réunion et le type de participants, la carte peut être dessinée sur le sol et les éléments peuvent être représentés par des objets ou, la carte peut être dessinée sur une feuille de tableau mobile en utilisant des marqueurs de couleur. Il est important que la carte soit assez grande pour que tout le monde puisse la voir et contribuer à son élaboration. 2. Demandez au groupe de dessiner les sites caractéristiques liés au bétail, exemple les zones de pâturage, les points d'eau, les marchés où les animaux sont vendus, les Utilité des chronogrammes dans l'EP : Ils aident à clarifier les détails des épisodes de maladies mentionnés par les enquêtés car ils amènent ceux-ci à se souvenir de choses qui se sont passées avant ou pendant l'épisode de la maladie.  Les transects renvoient au processus permettant d'obtenir une coupe transversale représentative de la zone donnée en traversant en ligne droite (ou aussi droite que possible) la zone. La marche transversale ne devrait pas coïncider avec la route principale mais devrait commencer d'un côté de la zone, traverser la route principale et continuer de l'autre côté."},{"index":8,"size":127,"text":"Méthode 1. Trouvez un informateur clé ou un éleveur pour vous accompagner dans la marche le long du transect. 2. Pendant la marche transversale, observez et notez directement les systèmes de production et la vie communautaire, pas uniquement dans la rue principale. 3. Entretenez-vous de manière informelle avec l'informateur clé ou l'éleveur pendant votre marche. Les questions peuvent être suscitées par ce que vous voyez en chemin. 4. Si vous rencontrez des membres de la communauté en chemin, vous pouvez vous arrêter et conduire de petits entretiens informels, selon le cas. 5. A partir des notes relatives à la marche transersale, vous pouvez construire un diagramme de la coupe transversale indiquant l'occupation du sol, le bétail, etc. et procéder à une triangulation avec les cartes déjà préparées. "}]},{"head":"Influenza aviaire hautement pathogène (IAHP)","index":29,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Contexte","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":161,"text":"L'influenza aviaire est une maladie courante qui affecte la volaille. Elle est causée par un virus de la famille des orthomyxoviridae et varie en sévérité selon la souche du virus. Ainsi distinguons-nous l'Influenza aviaire faiblement pathogène (IAFP) de l'Influenza aviaire hautement pathogène (IAHP). Chez la volaille, l'IAHP se caractérise par une brusque attaque, une maladie chronique d'une courte durée et une mortalité virtuellement proche de 100% chez les espèces vulnérables. L'IAHP est généralement provoquée par les sous-types H5 et H7 et son apparition devrait être notifiée à l'Office international des épizooties (OIE). Actuellement, la souche de l'IAHP la plus généralement connue est l'influenza aviaire de type A H5N1 qui a contaminé plus de 400 personnes depuis 2003 entraînant la mort de plus de la moitié de celles-ci. L'on pense que la souche H5N1 actuelle peut muter en une souche qui est facilement transmissible d'un humain à un autre et causer un foyer de grippe à l'échelle mondiale, une pandémie de grippe."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"Pour plus d'informations sur les caractéristiques virales et l'impact potentiel de la souche de l'IAHP sur la santé publique, veuillez consulter des références de l'OIE (http://www.oie.int/eng/ressources/AI-EN-dc.pdf) et de l'Organisation Mondiale de la Santé (OMS)."}]},{"head":"Signes cliniques et diagnostic différentiel","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Les souches de l'IAFP provoquent une maladie bénigne, sans mortalité. Les plumes ébouriffées et la chute de ponte comptent au nombre d'autres signes."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"Les souches de l'IAHP sont extrêmement contagieuses et provoquent une mort rapide (en quelques heures) avec un taux de mortalité avoisinant les 100%. Au nombre des signes et symptômes l'on compte : des signes gastro-intestinaux, respiratoires et/ou nerveux ; le gonflement des yeux et la crête bleuâtre ; la difficulté à respirer, un affaiblissement sévère, le manque d'appétit ; les hémorragies sur les pattes ; l'écoulement nasal ; la chute de ponte et de la prise alimentaire."},{"index":3,"size":69,"text":"Certaines maladies présentent des signes cliniques similaires assortis d'une forte mortalité : la ND : c'est le diagnostic différentiel le plus important pour l'IAHP. L'on ne peut distinguer les deux maladies cliniquement, une confirmation du diagnostic par un laboratoire est donc toujours nécessaire ; la bursite infectieuse ou maladie de Gumboro ; l'infection respiratoire chronique ; la bronchite infectieuse ; le choléra aviaire ; la peste du canard; l'intoxication."}]},{"head":"Période d'incubation et transmission","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"La période d'incubation d'une maladie est le temps qui s'écoule entre la première infection d'une bête et l'apparition des signes cliniques. Pour la volaille, la période d'incubation de l'IAHP se situe entre un et sept jours."},{"index":2,"size":109,"text":"La grippe aviaire peut être transmise par contact direct entre les oiseaux appartenant à une bande ou par contact avec une faune aviaire infectée. On peut identifier l'agent pathogène (le virus) dans les écoulements nasaux, le sang, les matières fécales ou dans le fumier. De surcroît, le virus peut survivre dans la nourriture et l'eau contaminées. La transmission peut également se faire de manière individuelle par des personnes ou des matières par le truchement de chaussures, vêtements ou équipements contaminés (par exemple les véhicules, les cages et les plateaux d'oeufs). Les virus hautement pathogènes peuvent survivre pendant de longues périodes dans la nature, surtout quand les températures sont basses."}]},{"head":"Précautions à prendre dès la découverte d'un cas suspect d'IAHP","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"Chaque pays a ses Procédures opératoires normalisées (SOP) pour la collecte et la soumission des échantillons, qui reposent sur les directives de l'OIE et/ou de la FAO. Nous donnons ci-dessous un bref aperçu des mesures qu'il est suggéré de prendre dès la découverte d'un cas suspect d'IAHP. Toutefois, vous êtes priés de vous assurer que vous utilisez la SOP en vigueur dans votre pays. Pour obtenir des informations sur un échantillonnage plus détaillé pour l'IAHP et sur la façon de gérer les événements suspects cliquez sur ce lien : http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/a0960e/a0960e00.htm."}]},{"head":"Principes généraux pour la collecte et la soumission d'échantillons","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Assurez-vous que les équipements affectés à la collecte d'échantillons, les milieux de transport et les installations de stockage sont en place avant d'entamer toute activité de prélèvement."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"L'équipement de protection individuelle (EPI) : Toujours porter un EPI approprié au moment du prélèvement d'échantillons sur un cas présumé d'IAHP. L'EPI minimum suggéré serait composé de : tablier, paire de gants, lunettes de protection, masque et bottes. "}]},{"head":"Le prélèvement d'échantillons","index":35,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Oiseaux entiers morts récemment","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"Ceux-ci peuvent également être soumis à analyse tant qu'ils sont tenus au frais (2-8°C) et acheminés au laboratoire dans un délai de 12 heures."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"Les échantillons devraient être tenus à 4°C dans le milieu de transport viral et acheminés au laboratoire dès que possible. Si les échantillons sont envoyés au laboratoire dans un délai de deux jours, ils peuvent être maintenus à une température de 4°C dans une glacière ou en les conservant dans des compresses froides."},{"index":3,"size":47,"text":"Si l'expédition des échantillons au laboratoire excède deux jours, vous devrez les congeler à une température inférieure ou égale à moins 70°C jusqu'à leur acheminement au laboratoire. Il est important d'éviter la congélation et le dégel répétés puisque cela pourrait tuer tout virus présent dans le prélèvement."}]},{"head":"L'équipement de nettoyage","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Un nettoyage et une désinfection adéquats éviteront la propagation de l'agent pathogène à d'autres animaux ou humains à travers la contamination environnementale. Assurez-vous que vous disposez d'eau, d'un seau, d'une brosse à ongle, de savon, d'essuie-tout et de désinfectant à pulvériser."}]},{"head":"La conservation, l'emballage et le transport","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Il est important de contacter le laboratoire le plus proche pour obtenir des instructions spécifiques sur l'emballage et le transport des échantillons de diagnostic. Ceci permettra de s'assurer que la qualité du spécimen n'est pas compromise par le mauvais état de l'emballage."}]},{"head":"Pour un emballage et un acheminement appropriés des échantillons :","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Evitez la contamination réciproque entre les spécimens ; Evitez la décomposition du spécimen ; Evitez la fuite des liquides ; Préservez l'identité de chaque échantillon ; Etiquetez convenablement l'emballage.  (Thacker et al., 1998). "}]},{"head":"Interprétation du test","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Une bande colorée apparaîtra dans la section gauche de la fenêtre du résultat pour montrer que le test fonctionne correctement ; c'est la bande de contrôle (C). Lorsqu'une autre bande colorée apparaît dans la section droite de la fenêtre de résultat, cette dernière sera la bande du test (T). "}]},{"head":"Résultat négatif","index":41,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Résultat positif","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"La présence de deux bandes colorées (T et C) dans la fenêtre de résultat, quelle que soit celle qui s'affiche en premier, indique un résultat positif."}]},{"head":"Résultat invalide","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"Lorsque la bande de contrôle (C) ne s'affiche pas dans la fenêtre de résultat après réalisation du test, le résultat est frappé de nullité. Un résultat frappé de nullité peut découler du non-respect de la procédure adéquate ou de la détérioration du matériel de test. Si l'on obtient un résultat entaché d'erreur, alors l'échantillon devra être encore testé. "}]},{"head":"Stockage et stabilité","index":44,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Contrôle de l'IAHP","index":45,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Depuis l'apparition de la grippe aviaire de type A H5N1 dans différentes parties du monde, les services vétérinaires travaillent sur des plans de prévention et de réponse à la poussée épidémique. Ceux-ci sont souvent couplés à des plans élaborés par le secteur de la santé humaine de sorte que les plans de prévention de l'épidémie de grippe aient une forme intersectorielle face à la menace. "}]},{"head":"Surveillance participative de la maladie relative à l'IAHP","index":46,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"La SPM est l'application de l'EP à la surveillance de la maladie. La SPM utilise l'EP pour une surveillance active de l'IAHP, une forme de surveillance clinique active soutenue par des diagnostics de laboratoire."}]},{"head":"Pourquoi utiliser la SPM pour la surveillance de l'IAHP ?","index":47,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":179,"text":"Beaucoup d'informations de valeur peuvent être collectées en un temps court. La SPM peut servir à cibler les populations avicoles qui abriteraient l'IAHP ; La SPM permet une meilleure compréhension des maladies de la volaille dans une zone ; La SPM est une méthode de surveillance très sensible, ce qui signifie qu'elle peut détecter des cas possibles d'IAHP qui peuvent ensuite faire l'objet d'investigations plus poussées pour voir s'ils sont causés par l'IAHP ou non. La SPM a été efficace dans la détection d'autres maladies, exemple l'épidémie de peste bovine au nord du Kenya et les foyers de peste des petits ruminants dans de nouvelles zones du Kenya ; La SPM dispose d'autres avantages potentiels dans le cadre plus large des Services de santé animale parce qu'elle fournit des informations sur les priorités et besoins concernant le cheptel. Elle peut aider à impulser de bonnes relations entre les éleveurs et les agents en charge des services de la santé animale ; La sensibilisation à la prévention et au contrôle de l'IAHP peut être faite dans le cadre de l'exercice."}]},{"head":"Où et quand réaliser une SPM de l'IAHP ?","index":48,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"On utilise la SPM pour une surveillance délibérée ou ciblée de l'IAHP dans des lieux que l'on pense être des zones à haut risque de présence de la maladie. Au nombre de celles-ci, l'on compte :"},{"index":2,"size":75,"text":"Les zones à forte densité de population avicole tels les élevages avicoles domestiques largement répandus, les exploitations avicoles commerciales à petite échelle et/ou les fermes commerciales de plus grande taille ; Les zones abritant des marchés d'oiseaux sur pied, les routes commerciales et les points d'abattage ; Les zones où de grands nombres d'oiseaux migrateurs et résidents convergent et sont en contact avec la volaille domestique exemple les lacs, les marécages et les rizières ;"},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"Les zones signalées ou déclarées par la rumeur comme des foyers de l'IAHP ou de maladies semblables à l'IAHP."}]},{"head":"Planification de la SPM pour l'IAHP","index":49,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Lors de la planification de la réalisation d'une SPM, l'on a besoin de prendre des décisions touchant ce qui suit :"}]},{"head":"Objectif","index":50,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Les exemples d'objectifs pour la SPM de l'IAHP sont : Détecter la présence de l'IAHP de type H5N1 dans la zone-cible ; Déterminer des antécédents d'événements similaires à l'IAHP dans la zone-cible.  "}]},{"head":"Méthodes","index":51,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Informations secondaires","index":52,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"Avant d'entamer véritablement la SPM de l'IAHP, les praticiens de la SPM devraient réunir des informations secondaires ou informations de base concernant le village et sa périphérie. Au nombre de celles-ci l'on pourrait compter une carte de la zone ; des données relatives à la population humaine et animale ; la localisation des fermes avicoles, des couvoirs et des marchés ; des données sur les foyers de maladie de la volaille et les maladies courantes de la volaille et les noms et contacts des informateurs clés."}]},{"head":"Informateurs clés","index":53,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":162,"text":"L'administration locale et les responsables des services vétérinaires devraient être informés du travail à réaliser par vous. Ils peuvent contribuer en apportant des informations secondaires et en vous présentant à des informateurs clés tels que le personnel du service vétérinaire local et le conseiller agricole, qui peuvent jouer un rôle important dans la planification et la mise en oeuvre de la SPM. Les informateurs clés sont une source d'informations secondaires et peuvent aider à organiser des rencontres avec d'autres informateurs clés tels que les leaders locaux et les responsables des associations d'éleveurs. Ils peuvent aussi faciliter les rencontres avec les éleveurs commerciaux et les éleveurs du système traditionnel, et organiser les rencontres de groupes avec les aviculteurs. L'intégration des informateurs clés dans la SPM peut aider à renforcer la relation entre les services de production animale et la communauté, ce qui pourrait encourager la déclaration des foyers de maladies et l'amélioration de la prise de mesures pour le contrôle de la maladie."}]},{"head":"Entretiens","index":54,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":280,"text":"Une fois la zone d'investigation identifiée, vous devez déterminer : le nombre de villages à couvrir de manière à représenter la zone convenablement ; la façon de couvrir efficacement un village en vue de se faire une idée juste de son statut épidémiologique ; o réalisation d'entretiens avec les informateurs clés tels que les agents des services vétérinaires, les agents de vulgarisation agricole, les autorités locales pour obtenir des informations secondaires et planifier la SPM ; o réalisation d'entretiens de groupe avec les ménages et les propriétaires de petites exploitations avicoles commerciales. Le nombre des entretiens de groupe dépendra de la taille du village et de l'organisation des gens. Pour certains villages, un grand entretien de groupe fournira des informations représentatives suffisantes alors que pour d'autres, il vous faudra probablement réaliser trois à quatre entretiens de groupe à différents endroits du village ou avec différents types d'aviculteurs ; o les visites de fermes et les visites aux aviculteurs traditionnels pour une observation directe des problèmes de gestion de la volaille et de ceux liés aux maladies de la volaille. Une fois encore, le nombre de visites dépendra de la taille du village et de l'existence éventuelle là-bas de problèmes importants liés aux maladies de la volaille ; o observation directe : utilisez la marche transversale, les visites des espaces abritant le cheptel tels que les marchés, les points d'abattage, etc. ; s'il convient d'adapter le temps de votre visite pour rencontrer ces aviculteurs ; s'il est possible d'interroger des groupes constitués à la fois d'hommes et de femmes ou s'il est nécessaire d'interroger séparément les hommes et les femmes ; la dernière alternative a des implications en termes de temps."}]},{"head":"Outils pour la SPM de l'IAHP","index":55,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"L'interview semi-structurée La SPM repose sur les interviews semi-structurées. D'autres outils d'EP sont utilisés au besoin pendant l'entretien. Les outils simples tels que le classement simple, l'empilement proportionnel et la cartographie peuvent être utilisés dans la plupart des entretiens pendant que des outils plus complexes tels que la matrice de cotation et l'empilement proportionnel liés à la morbidité et à la mortalité sont utilisés avec les groupes et les individus qui affichent une connaissance et un intérêt plus grands et qui sont disposés à accorder plus de temps."}]},{"head":"La cartographie","index":56,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Elle peut être utilisée pour obtenir les informations suivantes :"},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"La localisation des fermes, des installations, des points d'eau, des zones de services et des zones sociales ; La possible propagation de la maladie dans l'éventualité de l'existence d'un foyer entre les fermes et/ou villages ; Un aperçu des points névralgiques pour la propagation de la maladie ; La cartographie peut aussi aider à la planification des activités ultérieures de SPM telles que celles relatives aux lieux où réaliser d'autres entretiens additionnels, des visites de fermes ou à domicile et des marches transversales."}]},{"head":"Le calendrier saisonnier","index":57,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"Les variations du temps dans l'apparition des maladies sont un aspect ordinaire de la recherche épidémiologique. Les calendriers saisonniers peuvent être utilisés pour comprendre les perceptions locales des variations saisonnières affectant l'incidence des maladies sur la volaille. En Afrique, certaines maladies telles que les vers apparaissent toute l'année tandis que d'autres telles que la Maladie de Newcastle ont tendance à être saisonnières."}]},{"head":"Le chronogramme","index":58,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"Un chronogramme montre les principaux événements épidémiologiques/de santé animale dans une période de temps définie (de plusieurs semaines à 50 ans) dans une zone donnée. Pour la SPM de l'IAHP, un chronogramme allant de un à trois ans peut être utilisé pour montrer la configuration des derniers foyers de maladies de la volaille à forte mortalité."}]},{"head":"Classement simple et empilement proportionnel","index":59,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"Le classement simple et l'empilement proportionnel peuvent fournir des informations sur les espèces auxquelles appartient le cheptel ou les maladies courantes dans un village."}]},{"head":"Empilement proportionnel pour la morbidité et la mortalité","index":60,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Cet exercice devrait être effectué avec les aviculteurs pris individuellement puisqu'il reflète l'incidence de la maladie et la mortalité au sein de leur troupeau selon leurs propres perceptions."}]},{"head":"Matrice de cotation","index":61,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"La matrice de cotation est utilisée pour comprendre la caractérisation locale des maladies de la volaille ou les syndromes épidémiologiques et les significations des noms locaux des maladies."}]},{"head":"Utilisation des cartes de risque de l'IAHP","index":62,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"Ces dernières années, des cartes de risque de plus en plus sophistiquées ont été mises au point pour identifier les endroits où il y a une plus grande probabilité, soit de l'introduction, soit de la propagation d'une maladie selon un ensemble de facteurs. Dans le projet dénommé Détection précoce, rapportage et surveillance de l'influenza aviaire en Afrique, des "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Interaction entre l'hôte, l'agent et l'environnement dans la survenue de la maladie "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2 : Poulet local, au Togo. "},{"text":" guide d'entretien En évaluation participative, EP/PA, l'on n'utilise pas de questionnaire. L'équipe de l'étude prépare plutôt un guide d'entretien comprenant des points et exercices importants à couvrir. Ceci permet à l'entretien d'être flexible et aux enquêtés d'exprimer leur pensée avec leurs propres mots, dans leurs propres cadres conceptuels. Un exemple de guide d'entretien pour une étude participative visant à identifier et à hiérarchiser les problèmes de santé animale dans une communauté est présenté dans l'Encadré 1. Le guide d'entretien propose une orientation générale et veille à ce qu'aucun point majeur ne manque dans l'entretien. Le guide d'entretien est flexible, elle permet aux enquêtés de discuter de questions qui les intéressent particulièrement et à l'équipe d'évaluation d'enquêter sur des thèmes spécifiques soulevés par les enquêtés. Tous les éléments d'un guide d'entretien n'ont pas besoin d'être couverts par chaque groupe de participants ; c'est à vous d'en juger. "},{"text":"Encadré 1 :Figure 3 : Figure 3 : Entretien semi-structuré au Burkina Faso "},{"text":"Figure 4 : Figure 4 : Entretien semi-structuré au Togo "},{"text":"Figure 5 : Figure 5 : Entretien semi-structuré en Tanzanie "},{"text":"Figure 6 : Figure 6 : Exercice de classement simple en Tanzanie. "},{"text":" « L'empilement proportionnel » est une technique qui permet aux fermiers d'attribuer des scores relatifs à un certain nombre d'éléments différents ou de catégories sur la base d'un seul critère. L'évaluation se fait en demandant aux fermiers de diviser 100 jetons (des fèves, des cailloux ou des éléments similaires qui sont familiers à la communauté et disponibles au niveau local) en différents tas représentant les catégories. Par exemple, les fermiers pourraient donner des points à une série de maladies (les catégories) selon l'importance des maladies pour leur subsistance (le paramètre). Ou alors, on pourrait demander aux fermiers d'évaluer la maladie selon la fréquence d'apparition. "},{"text":"Figure 7 : Figure 7 : Résultats de l'empilement proportionnel par le nombre d'espèces détenues au Bénin Méthode d'empilement proportionnel 1. Ayez clairement à l'esprit votre question d'empilement proportionnel et notez-la dans votre carnet. 2. Pour élaborer la liste des éléments ou des catégories à évaluer, commencez par une question ouverte. Par exemple : « Quels sont les maladies qui afectent vos bovins ? » 3. Posez des questions d'approfondissement. Demandez qu'ils décrivent les maladies et qu'ils donnent des éclaircissements. 4. Expliquez que vous voulez faire un exercice pour mieux comprendre ce que vous apprenez sur les problèmes de maladie de leur bétail. Dessinez des cercles sur le sol, un cercle pour chaque maladie mentionnée et placez à côté de chaque cercle un dessin ou une carte qui illustre la maladie. 5. Placez une centaine de jetons en un tas et demandez aux enquêtés de les diviser selon une caractéristique ou un paramètre particulier. Enregistrez la question maintenant si vous ne l'avez pas fait plus tôt. Par exemple : demandez-leur de diviser les jetons pour représenter l'impact que chaque maladie a sur leurs moyens de subsistance. 6. Assurez-vous qu'ils reconnaissent chaque catégorie par son dessin ou sa carte. 7. Donnez-leur le temps de discuter et de diviser les tas par consensus. Quand ils semblent avoir fini, résumez et procédez à une vérification croisée du résultat. Par exemple : « Vous avez classé cette maladie au premier rang, suivie de celleci, puis celle-là et cette dernière est classée au plus bas. Êtes-vous tous d'accord avec ces résultats ? » 8. Comptez les jetons, mais laissez-les en place pour pouvoir discuter du résultat. 9. Posez des questions d'approfondissement sur les résultats. Pourquoi ont-ils fait les choix qu'ils ont faits ? "},{"text":"Figure 8 : Figure 8 : Exercice d'empilement proportionnel au Kenya. "},{"text":"Figure 9 : Figure 9 : Exercice d'empilement proportionnel au Nigeria. "},{"text":"Figure 10 : Figure 10 : Exercice d'empilement proportionnel pour la morbidité et la mortalité en Ouganda. "},{"text":"Figure 11 : Figure 11 : Exemple d'empilement proportionnel pour la morbidité et la mortalité pour une population de volailles "},{"text":"Figure 12 : Figure 12 : Exercice de matrice de cotation en Tanzanie "},{"text":"Figure 13 : Figure 13 : Exercice de matrice de cotation au Kenya "},{"text":"Figure 14 : Figure 14 : Calendrier saisonnier au Kenya "},{"text":"Figure 15 : Figure 15 : Cartographie participative en Ouganda Figure 16 : Cartographie participative au Togo "},{"text":"Figure 17 : Figure 17 : Carte du district de Ngorongoro en Tanzanie "},{"text":"Figure 19 : Figure 19 : Marche le long d'un transect en Tanzanie "},{"text":"Figure 20 :Figure 21 : Figure 20: Détection des virus par confrontation avec les anticorps "},{"text":" fr ro on nt ta at ti io on n a av ve ec c l le es s a an nt ti ic co or rp ps s La présence d'une seule bande (C) dans la fenêtre de résultat indique un résultat négatif. "},{"text":"LEncadré 2 : 'équipe chargée de la SPM : la taille de l'équipe peut varier selon l'objectif de l'activité et les ressources disponibles. L'idéal serait qu'une équipe chargée de la SPM soit composée de deux personnes au moins : soit deux vétérinaires chargés de la SPM, soit un vétérinaire SPM assisté d'un vétérinaire local ou d'un agent du Service de santé animale. Autres questions logistiques à examiner : celles-ci doivent être planifiées et fournies, exemple les fournitures et les équipements, le transport, etc... Guide d'entretien pour la SPM en usage au Bénin et au Togo dans le cadre de l'IAHP Présentations Raisons de la visite : décidée par le Département vétérinaire, rechercher les défis à la production avicole Pratiques agricoles Production animale : espèces élevées Type de volaille et gestion (provenance des animaux et des aliments : vente) Défis rencontrés Maladies de la volaille (attention particulière au taux de mortalité élevé et ± symptômes respiratoires) − Foyers (au cours de l'année précédente) − Maladies actuelles − Décrire les maladies signes cliniques Questions posées par les éleveurs Conseils − Sensibilisation générale sur l'IAHP − Vaccination : DN + autres − Action à prendre au cas où des oiseaux tomberaient malades : la personne à contacterProcéder à une marche transversale et à des visites de champ et domicile afin de trianguler et de rechercher les problèmes épidémiologiques actuels "},{"text":" Les systèmes de surveillance des maladies du bétail peuvent inclure les éléments suivants : la surveillance passive, qui intègre les informations des sources de données existantes comme les rapports de maladies des éleveurs, des agents de santé animale communautaire et des vétérinaires du secteur public et du secteur privé, les particulier si la maladie existe particulier si la maladie existe dans la zone depuis un certain dans la zone depuis un certain temps. Ils comprennent souvent temps. Ils comprennent souvent la pathologie, les vecteurs et les la pathologie, les vecteurs et les réservoirs liés à l'apparition de la réservoirs liés à l'apparition de la maladie. L'EP vise à explorer ce maladie. L'EP vise à explorer ce savoir existant auprès des savoir existant auprès des communautés et des communautésetdes informateurs clés pour mieux informateurs clés pour mieux comprendre la situation de la comprendre la situation de la maladie dans le contexte local. maladie dans le contexte local. Le savoir vétérinaire existant Le savoir vétérinaire existant recouvre le savoir autochtone, recouvre le savoir autochtone, l'expérience des éleveurs et les l'expérience des éleveurs et les informations que ceux-ci ont informations que ceux-ci ont obtenues auprès d'agents de la obtenues auprès d'agents de la vulgarisation, d'autres éleveurs, vulgarisation, d'autres éleveurs, des médias, etc…   des médias, etc…  "},{"text":"2.2.1. Classement simple Le classement simple consiste à classer les éléments par ordre à partir de critères définis.Les espèces peuvent aussi être classées sur la base de leur importance relativement au revenu des ménages, ce qui peut donner un classement légèrement différent. Par exemple : Demandez au groupe de classer les maladies sur la base des critères que vous avez définis. Par exemple, demandez-leur de classer les maladies dans l'ordre du niveau d'impact qu'elles ont sur la subsistance des ménages. 6. Donnez-leur le temps de discuter et de classer les cartes par consensus.Encouragez-les à faire des ajustements s'ils le désirent. Lorsqu'ils semblent avoir fini, demandez-leur s'ils sont tous d'accord sur le résultat. 7. Laissez les cartes en place. Résumez et procédez à une vérification croisée de 4. Ovins 4. Ovins 5. Anes 5. Anes Espèces de bétail par ordre d'importance relativement à la subsistance d'un ménage Espèces de bétail par ordre d'importance relativement à la subsistance d'un ménage 1. Bovins 1. Bovins 2. Caprins 2. Caprins 3. Ovins 3. Ovins 4. Poulets 4. Poulets 5. Anes 5. Anes Les maladies courantes de bétail basées selon leur niveau d'impact sur le revenu des Les maladies courantes de bétail basées selon leur niveau d'impact sur le revenu des ménages, exemple les maladies des bovins ménages, exemple les maladies des bovins 1. PPCB 1. PPCB 2. Septicémie hémorragique (HS) 2. Septicémie hémorragique (HS) 3. Fièvre aphteuse (FMD) 3. Fièvre aphteuse (FMD) 4. Trypanosomiase 4. Trypanosomiase 5. Anthrax 5. Anthrax Par exemple : Par exemple : Espèces de bétail par population/Effectif Espèces de bétail par population/Effectif 1. Poulets 1. Poulets 2. Caprins 2. Caprins 3. Bovins 3. Bovins  "},{"text":"Exemple de classement par paires concernant l'importance des maladies courantes de la volaille Typhose aviaire Coccidiose Cholera aviaire Maladie de Newcastle Variole aviaire Maladie de Gumboro Typhose aviaire Expliquez que vous voulez faire un exercice pour mieux comprendre ce que vous apprenez sur les problèmes de maladie de leur volaille. Ayez des images, des symboles ou des objets représentant chaque maladie ou notez le nom de chaque maladie sur une carte. Placez les images, les symboles, les objets ou les cartes sur une surface plane ou sur le sol, à un endroit où tout le monde peut les voir et rappelez aux participants ce que chacun de ces éléments représente. 5. Choisissez une carte de maladie et une autre. Demandez : « Laquelle des maladies est la plus importante ? Celle-ci ou celle-là ? » Une fois qu'ils ont choisi, procédez à une vérification croisée de la réponse, puis demandez : « Etes-vous tous d'accord ? Pourquoi cette maladie est-elle plus importante que celle-là ? » 6. Répétez la question en comparant la même maladie à chacune des autres maladies, l'une après l'autre, procédez à une vérification croisée et posez des questions d'approfondissement. Puis, sélectionnez la deuxième maladie et comparez-la avec toutes les autres maladies, l'une après l'autre et ainsi de suite jusqu'à ce que toutes les maladies aient été comparées à toutes les autres maladies. 7. Le résultat de chaque comparaison est enregistré (voir l'exemple dans le Tableau 2) ainsi que les détails de toutes les discussions générées par la vérification croisée et les questions d'approfondissement. 8. Comptez le nombre de fois où chaque maladie a été sélectionnée, la maladie qui a été sélectionnée le plus de fois est classée au premier rang. Typhose Typhose Maladie de Typhose Typhose TyphoseTyphoseMaladie deTyphoseTyphose aviaire aviaire Newcastle aviaire aviaire aviaireaviaireNewcastleaviaireaviaire Coccidiose Coccidiose Maladie de Coccidiose Coccidiose CoccidioseCoccidiose Maladie deCoccidiose Coccidiose   Newcastle   Newcastle par paires     par paires 1. Ayez clairement à l'esprit votre question de classement par paires et notez-la 1. Ayez clairement à l'esprit votre question de classement par paires et notez-la dans votre carnet. Par exemple : « Comparez l'importance des divers problèmes dans votre carnet. Par exemple : « Comparez l'importance des divers problèmes de maladie de la volaille ».     de maladie de la volaille ». 2. Pour élaborer la liste des éléments à classer, commencez par une question 2. Pour élaborer la liste des éléments à classer, commencez par une question  "},{"text":" Exemple d'empilement proportionnel1. Notre objectif est de savoir quels sont les fruits préférés par les enfants âgés de 5 à 15 ans dans une communauté X. 2. Quels sont les fruits courants dans cette région ? La banane, le citron, l'orange et la mangue. 3. Utilisez les fèves pour montrer quels sont les fruits que les enfants préfèrent. Le résultat de l'exercice est présenté ci-dessous. Fruits Score Raison FruitsScoreRaison Banane 66 douce, facile à obtenir et pas chère Banane66douce, facile à obtenir et pas chère Citron 0 amer, n'en mangent que lorsqu'il n'y a pas d'autres Citron0amer, n'en mangent que lorsqu'il n'y a pas d'autres   fruits fruits Orange 19 pas chère et de saison Orange19pas chère et de saison Mangue 15 de saison, douce et chère Mangue15de saison, douce et chère  "},{"text":"2.2.4. Empilement proportionnel pour montrer une morbidité et une mortalité relatives L 'empilement proportionnel peut être utilisé pour démontrer l'impact des maladies sur le troupeau d'animaux ou le troupeau de volaille, en démontrant la morbidité relative, la mortalité du troupeau d'animaux ou de volaille et la létalité de différentes maladies. Les avantages de cette méthode sont les suivants : 1) elle ne nécessite pas de connaître le nombre réel d'animaux composant le troupeau et, 2) elle compare la morbidité et la mortalité de différentes maladies ; ceci peut atténuer le préjugé envers un problème de maladie particulière. Méthode d'empilement proportionnel pour la Méthode d'empilement proportionnel pour la morbidité et la mortalité morbidité et la mortalité 1. Utilisez un tas de 100 jetons pour 1. Utilisez un tas de 100 jetons pour représenter la volaille ou le troupeau représenter la volaille ou le troupeau d'animaux qui appartiennent à un d'animaux qui appartiennent à un fermier particulier. fermier particulier. 2. Demandez au fermier d'indiquer quelle 2. Demandez au fermier d'indiquer quelle proportion de volailles ou du troupeau proportion de volailles ou du troupeau d'animaux était en bonne santé et d'animaux était en bonne santé et quelle proportion est tombée malade quelle proportion est tombée malade au cours de l'année passée (pas au cours de l'année passée (pas besoin de compter les fèves à ce besoin de compter les fèves à ce stade). stade).  "},{"text":"Tableau 3 : Exemple de matrice de cotation des signes cliniques et des causes des maladies courantes de la volaille en Ouganda Kalusu (ND) Nsense (Coccidiose)     Ebiwuka Kawali Senyiga EbiwukaKawaliSenyiga    (Vers) (Variole (Maladie (Vers)(Variole(Maladie     aviaire) respiratoire) aviaire)respiratoire) Mortalité élevée 14 5 2 1 8 Mortalité élevée145218 Diarrhée 8 11 9 1 1 Diarrhée811911 Perte de poids 4 11 12 1 2 Perte de poids4111212 Fièvre 15 8 0 3 4 Fièvre158034 Lésions sur les 0 0 0 30 0 Lésions sur les000300 barbillons      barbillons Toux 16 0 5 0 9 Toux160509 Ecoulement nasal 15 0 4 0 11 Ecoulement nasal1504011 Infection par voie 14 0 0 0 16 Infection par voie1400016 aérienne      aérienne Introduction de 15 0 1 3 11 Introduction de1501311 nouveaux volatiles      nouveaux volatiles  "},{"text":"2.3. Outils de visualisation 2.3.1. Calendrier saisonnier De nombreux problèmes et questions de santé animale montrent des variations saisonnières. Un calendrier saisonnier peut être utilisé pour visualiser et analyser les perceptions locales du cycle saisonnier des principales pratiques d'exploitation, des maladies, des facteurs de risque, etc.. Il est intéressant de faire un rapprochement entre la survenue saisonnière des maladies et le caractère saisonnier des facteurs qui affectent ces différentes maladies comme le climat, les pratiques de gestion, les vecteurs, etc.. Des facteurs nouveaux ou inhabituels peuvent apparaître qui sont importants dans une zone spécifique. L'information peut être utile pour améliorer les stratégies de contrôle des maladies comme le choix de la période de la vaccination prophylactique ou du traitement. Pour pouvoir développer un Pour pouvoir développer un calendrier saisonnier, il est tout calendrier saisonnier, il est tout d'abord nécessaire de bien d'abord nécessaire de bien connaître la terminologie et les connaître la terminologie et les descriptions locales des descriptionslocalesdes saisons ainsi que la manière saisons ainsi que la manière dont celles-ci se rapportent aux dont celles-ci se rapportent aux mois de l'année. Ces moisdel'année.Ces informations peuvent être informationspeuventêtre recueillies   auprès recueilliesauprès d'informateurs clés. L'aspect d'informateurs clés. L'aspect saisonnier des différentes saisonnierdesdiff��rentes manifestations ou activités manifestations ou activités concernées est alors démontré concernées est alors démontré par l'indication de la période de par l'indication de la période de l'apparition ou de l'analyse de l'apparition ou de l'analyse de cette apparition en rapport avec cette apparition en rapport avec les saisons.   les saisons.  "},{"text":" informations, vous pouvez élaborer une liste d'éléments dont vous voulez examiner le caractère saisonnier, individuellement et en relation avec les autres éléments. 1. Tracez une ligne sur le sol ou en haut d'une feuille de tableau mobile et indiquez que cette ligne représente une année. 2. Notez les saisons de l'année le long de la ligne selon l'ordre de survenue et vérifiez avec les participants qu'il s'agit bien des saisons locales. Notez les noms sur les cartes ou sur la feuille ou bien utilisez des objets locaux ou des images pour représenter les saisons. 3. Si les mois de l'année sont couramment utilisés, inscrivez-les le long de la ligne à côté des saisons correspondantes. 4. Demandez aux participants de penser à la pluie et de voir comment elle varie selon les saisons. Donnez-leur un tas de 30 jetons et demandez-leur de répartir les jetons entre les saisons pour indiquer le cycle saisonnier des pluies. Plus il pleut pendant une saison, plus l'on affectera de jetons à cette saison. S'il ne pleut pas au cours d'une saison, aucun jeton ne devra être affecté à cette saison. Tous les jetons devraient être utilisés. Tracez une ligne pour créer la première ligne du calendrier. 5. Répétez le processus avec chaque indicateur (activité, manifestation, maladie) sur une nouvelle ligne, en utilisant 30 jetons chaque fois afin de construire progressivement une matrice (voir l'exemple du Tableau 4). Le nom de l'indicateur peut être inscrit sur la feuille de tableau mobile ou sur une carte et placé à côté de la matrice. Pour les participants illettrés, une image ou un objet  "},{"text":"Table 4 : Exemple d'un calendrier saisonnier pour les maladies des bovins dans la communauté Maasai, en Tanzanie (traduit en français)  J F M A M J J A S O N D JFMAMJJASOND SAISON           SAISON SÈCHE           SÈCHE  "},{"text":"GRANDE SAISON DES PLUIES SAISON FROIDE ET SÈCHE PETITE SAISON DES PLUIES Fièvre de la côte orientale ■■■■ ■■■■■■■■ ■■■■■■ ■■ Fièvre de la vallée du Rift   ■■ ■■■■■■■ ■■■■■■■ ■■■■ ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ Maladie de la peau  ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ ■■■ ■ Maladie de la peau■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ bosselée     bosselée Peste des petits ■■■■■■■■■■   ■■■■■■■■■■ Peste des petits■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ ruminants     ruminants Anaplasmose ■■ ■■■■■■■ ■■■■■■■ ■■■■ Anaplasmose■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ Pleuropneumonie ■■■■■■ ■■■■■■ ■■■■■ ■■■ Pleuropneumonie■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ contagieuse bovine     contagieuse bovine Fièvre aphteuse ■ ■■■■■■■■■ ■ ■■■■■■■■■ Fièvre aphteuse■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ Fièvre catarrhale  ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ ■■■■  Fièvre catarrhale■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ maligne     maligne Trypanosomiase ■■ ■■■■■ ■■■■■■■■■■ ■■■ Trypanosomiase■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ Mouches tsé-tsé ■ ■■■■ ■■■■■■■■■ ■■■■■■ Mouches tsé-tsé■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ Tiques ■■ ■■■■■■■■ ■■■■■■■ ■■■ Tiques■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■  "},{"text":"Autres méthodes : Etablissement de la période d'apparition de maladies Cette méthode indique simplement la présence ou l'absence d'un indicateur par saison plutôt qu'une évaluation et donne donc des informations utiles mais moins détaillées.1. Tracez une ligne sur le sol ou en haut d'une feuille de tableau mobile et indiquez que cette ligne représente une année. 2. Notez les saisons de l'année le long de la ligne selon l'ordre d'apparition de la maladie et vérifiez avec les participants qu'il s'agit bien des saisons locales. Notez les noms sur les cartes ou sur la feuille ou bien, pour les groupes illettrés, utilisez des objets locaux pour représenter les saisons. 3. Si les mois de l'année sont couramment utilisés, inscrivez-les le long de la ligne à côté des saisons correspondantes. 4. Demandez aux participants de penser à la pluie et de voir comment elle varie selon les saisons. Demandez-leur de marquer sur la matrice les moments de pluie ; dessinez sur le sol avec un bâton ou sur la feuille de tableau mobile avec un marqueur. 5. Répétez le processus avec chaque indicateur (activité, manifestation, maladie).Le nom de l'indicateur peut être inscrit sur une carte ou sur la feuille de tableau mobile et placé à côté de la matrice. Pour les participants illettrés, une image ou un objet peut représenter l'indicateur. Les indicateurs utilisés seront liés aux espèces ou aux maladies concernées. Ils peuvent être déterminés avant l'entretien de l'EP mais ils peuvent également être ajoutés ou modifiés suite aux discussions intervenant pendant l'entretien. 6. Une fois le calendrier rempli, les résultats devraient être discutés avec les participants en utilisant des questions ouvertes et des questions  "},{"text":"Table 5 : Exemple d'un calendrier saisonnier des maladies (SPM de l'IAHP de Tororo/Butaleja,  Ouganda)            Ouganda)       Mois      Mois J F M A M J J A S O N D JFMAMJJASOND Saison sèche            Saison sèche Saison pluvieuse            Saison pluvieuse Kawoya (ND)            Kawoya (ND) Amabwa (Variole            Amabwa (Variole aviaire)            aviaire) Ehidukhano sio            Ehidukhano sio musayi (Coccidiose)            musayi (Coccidiose) Ekusa/nafuya            Ekusa/nafuya (Puces/acariens)            (Puces/acariens) Senyiga (Signes            Senyiga (Signes respiratoires)            respiratoires)  "},{"text":"un chronogramme préparé pour la période 1999-2008, indiquant les principaux événements s'étant déroulés en Ouganda ainsi que les principaux événements nationaux ou locaux se rapportant au bétail Année Evénements généraux Evénements liés au bétail 1999 Les chronogrammes peuvent également leur permettre de se souvenir d'informations supplémentaires, exemple d'autres foyers de maladies non encore mentionnés. Ils permettent d'estimer la durée des événements, exemple les apparitions de maladies et la fréquence de leur apparition. Ils peuvent montrer la relation de cause à effet entre les différents événements, exemple les périodes de fortes pluies et l'apparition de la fièvre de la vallée du Rift (RVF). Ils permettent à l'équipe de surveillance d'impliquer les communautés dans l'évaluation des cibles, par exemple à quel moment suivant un rapport sur la maladie, la mise en oeuvre des interventions de lutte contre la maladie devrait-elle commencer.L'échelle du chronogramme peut varier en fonction de la question donnée. Par exemple, il pourrait s'agir de 50 ans ou plus pour les maladies à long cycle épidémique comme la RVF ou la peste bovine, de trois à cinq ans pour une maladie survenant plus fréquemment comme la ND ou simplement de quelques mois ou quelques semaines si vous étudiez les événements concernant l'apparition d'une maladie spécifique, exemple la nouvelle introduction d'une maladie dans une zone.Demandez aux participants d'indiquer les événements clés pendant la période (les événements touchant la communauté, les principaux événements liés au bétail et les événements liés aux maladies du bétail). La marche transversale est un outil qui implique le recours à l'observation directe, à l'entretien informel et à la visualisation pour décrire et indiquer l'emplacement et la distribution des ressources, des principales caractéristiques, du paysage et des principales occupations du sol le long d'une coupe transversale d'un village ou d'une zone. Les marches transversales ou le long d'un transect peuvent servir à : identifier et expliquer les relations de cause à effet entre la topographie, la végétation naturelle, les systèmes d'élevage et d'autres activités d'exploitation et autres formes d'établissements humains ; identifier les principaux problèmes et possibilités perçus par différents groupes de participants en rapport avec les principales caractéristiques ou zones le long du transect ; apprendre la technologie et les pratiques locales ; trianguler les données collectées à travers d'autres outils comme la cartographie ; et chercher à approfondir les informations déjà mentionnées par la communauté. 2007 Ebola au Bundibugyo FMD dans l'Est de l'Ouganda, fin de la 2007Ebola au BundibugyoFMD dans l'Est de l'Ouganda, fin de la  Foyer de la fièvre de Marburg dans l'Ouest de peste bovine déclarée en Ouganda Foyer de la fièvre de Marburg dans l'Ouest depeste bovine déclarée en Ouganda  l'Ouganda par l'OIE l'Ougandapar l'OIE  L'Ouganda reçoit CHOGM (la Reine) Foyer confirmé de la peste des petits L'Ouganda reçoit CHOGM (la Reine)Foyer confirmé de la peste des petits  Inondations dans la région de Teso ruminants (PPR) dans le Karamoja Inondations dans la région de Tesoruminants (PPR) dans le Karamoja  Paix dans le Nord de l'Ouganda  Paix dans le Nord de l'Ouganda  La saga de Balaio  La saga de Balaio 2008 Budo inferno FMD, recensement du bétail, fin de 2008Budo infernoFMD, recensement du bétail, fin de  Obama élu Président des Etats-Unis l'infection de la peste bovine déclarée Obama élu Président des Etats-Unisl'infection de la peste bovine déclarée  Décès du ministre d'Etat du MAAIF, Sebunya en Ouganda Décès du ministre d'Etat du MAAIF, Sebunyaen Ouganda  Décès de Kyabazinga Fin du PACE Décès de KyabazingaFin du PACE 2.3.4. Marche transversale  2.3.4. Marche transversale La méthode  La méthode 1. Décidez de l'échelle du chronogramme en fonction de la question donnée (50 ans, 10 1. Décidez de l'échelle du chronogramme en fonction de la question donnée (50 ans, 10  ans, 3 ans, etc.)  ans, 3 ans, etc.) 2. Mariage de Kabaka Le recrutement des vétérinaires 2. Mariage de KabakaLe recrutement des vétérinaires  Guerre du Congo diplômés a commencé Guerre du Congodiplômés a commencé   Afflux de PPCB du Congo Afflux de PPCB du Congo 2000 Les massacres de Kanungu PPCB 2000Les massacres de KanunguPPCB  Kisangani I et II  Kisangani I et II  Besigye déclare ses intentions politiques  Besigye déclare ses intentions politiques 2001 Les élections présidentielles Démarrage du PACE 2001Les élections présidentiellesDémarrage du PACE  Signature du pacte de l'EA PPCB Signature du pacte de l'EAPPCB  Foyer d'Ebola dans le Nord de l'Ouganda  Foyer d'Ebola dans le Nord de l'Ouganda 2002 Bill Clinton visite l'Ouganda Fin provisoire de la peste bovine 2002Bill Clinton visite l'OugandaFin provisoire de la peste bovine  La guerre du Congo se termine déclarée en Ouganda La guerre du Congo se terminedéclarée en Ouganda   PPCB PPCB 2003 Mort d'Amin (ancien président) Décentralisation des services 2003Mort d'Amin (ancien président)Décentralisation des services   vétérinaires vétérinaires 2004 Foyer d'Ebola dans le Nord de l'Ouganda FMD 2004Foyer d'Ebola dans le Nord de l'OugandaFMD  L'Ouganda se retire du Congo  L'Ouganda se retire du Congo  Amendements constitutionnels  Amendements constitutionnels 2005 Mort d'Obote (ancien Président) FMD, anthrax dans le QENP 2005Mort d'Obote (ancien Président)FMD, anthrax dans le QENP  Découverte de pétrole en Ouganda  Découverte de pétrole en Ouganda  Amendement de la Constitution  Amendement de la Constitution  Ebola  Ebola 2006 Elections présidentielles dans le cadre du La propagation de la FMD atteint des 2006Elections présidentielles dans le cadre duLa propagation de la FMD atteint des  système multipartite niveaux records, anthrax dans le système multipartiteniveaux records, anthrax dans le  Inondations dans l'Est et le Nord de l'Ouganda QENP (des hippopotames sont morts) Inondations dans l'Est et le Nord de l'OugandaQENP (des hippopotames sont morts)  "},{"text":" Mucus trachéal, poumons, reins, ovaires (les organes dans leur ensemble) garder au frais (2-8°C) et ne les congeler que si leur transport jusqu'au laboratoire excédera deux jours. envoyer au laboratoire. Avant de commencer, vous aurez besoin des équipements suivants : Avant de commencer, vous aurez besoin des équipements suivants : Un bocal à bouchon vissable/bocal universel contenant le milieu de transport ; Un bocal à bouchon vissable/bocal universel contenant le milieu de transport ; Des écouvillons ;   Des écouvillons ; Une paire de ciseaux ;   Une paire de ciseaux ; Une colonne de distillation et des barres de glace ou un récipient d'azote liquide pour Une colonne de distillation et des barres de glace ou un récipient d'azote liquide pour stocker le milieu de transport et les écouvillons ;  stocker le milieu de transport et les écouvillons ; Des marqueurs de laboratoire/étiquettes échantillonnage ; Des marqueurs de laboratoire/étiquettes échantillonnage ; Un tableau de données pour relever les données relatives aux oiseaux ; Un tableau de données pour relever les données relatives aux oiseaux ; Un ruban d'emballage et des fiches de transmission. Un ruban d'emballage et des fiches de transmission. Prélevez autant d'échantillons que possible sur les oiseaux malades ou des oiseaux morts Prélevez autant d'échantillons que possible sur les oiseaux malades ou des oiseaux morts récemment qui entrent dans la définition de cas cliniques établis de l'IAHP (on entend par récemment qui entrent dans la définition de cas cliniques établis de l'IAHP (on entend par oiseaux morts récemment, des oiseaux morts dans les 12 dernières heures). Ne prélevez oiseaux morts récemment, des oiseaux morts dans les 12 dernières heures). Ne prélevez pas d'échantillon sur les poulets à l'intérieur du poulailler, mais faites-les sortir pour réduire le pas d'échantillon sur les poulets à l'intérieur du poulailler, mais faites-les sortir pour réduire le temps passé dans un environnement probablement infecté. temps passé dans un environnement probablement infecté. Prélèvement d'échantillons effectué sur des oiseaux malades. Prélèvement d'échantillons effectué sur des oiseaux malades. Prélèvements trachéal et cloacal milieu de transport garder au frais (2-8°C) envoyer Prélèvements trachéal et cloacalmilieu de transportgarder au frais (2-8°C) envoyer au laboratoire.   au laboratoire. Prélèvement d'échantillons effectué sur des oiseaux morts récemment Prélèvement d'échantillons effectué sur des oiseaux morts récemment  "},{"text":"3.4.2. Utilisation de test d'antigène rapide Plusieurs tests d'antigène rapides sont disponibles pour la grippe A. Pour tous les tests, des échantillons devraient être prélevés sur les oiseaux malades ou ceux morts récemment. Nous n'avons de préférence spécifique pour aucun des tests disponibles. Lisez toujours les instructions fournies avec le kit avant de l'utiliser. A titre d'exemple, nous discuterons de l'utilisation du test d'antigène rapide. En tenant verticalement le compte-gouttes au-dessus de l'orifice de l'échantillon de l'appareil d'analyse, éjecter cinq gouttes dans l'orifice de l'échantillon.Ne pas tenir le compte-gouttes dans une position verticale (ceci entraîne l'écoulement de gouttes plus petites) ; Présence d'une faible quantité de matière fécale ; Ne pas respecter le délai de cinq minutes avant d'appliquer le tampon à l'appareil d'analyse (ce délai permet au tampon d'extraction d'agir sur tout virus contenu dans la matière fécale). Inconvénients La faible sensibilité : lorsqu'un test se révèle positif, il est fortement probable qu'il soit un vrai positif, mais lorsqu'un test se révèle négatif, il y a approximativement 30-40% de chances que ce soit un faux négatif. C'est-à-dire que l'oiseau excrète le virus mais à un niveau qui est inférieur à la capacité de détection du test (voir Figure 11) ; Le test est généralement négatif chez les canards et les oies et affiche un faux résultat positif chez les pigeons ; il devrait donc être exclusivement utilisé sur les poulets et les cailles Avantage Avantage Le diagnostic rapide en 15 minutes permet de prendre rapidement la décision appropriée. Le diagnostic rapide en 15 minutes permet de prendre rapidement la décision appropriée. Méthode Méthode 1. Prendre un écouvillon cloacal ; 1. Prendre un écouvillon cloacal ; 2. Mettre l'écouvillon dans le tube extracteur tampon, mélanger, presser l'écouvillon 2. Mettre l'écouvillon dans le tube extracteur tampon, mélanger, presser l'écouvillon contre la paroi du tube pour extraire tout le liquide et puis retirer l'écouvillon. Attendre contre la paroi du tube pour extraire tout le liquide et puis retirer l'écouvillon. Attendre au moins cinq minutes ; au moins cinq minutes ; 3. Aspirer le tampon en utilisant le compte-gouttes fourni ; 3. Aspirer le tampon en utilisant le compte-gouttes fourni ; 4. Attention aux erreurs courantes 4. Attention aux erreurs courantes Présence de grande quantité de matière fécale sur l'écouvillon ; Présence de grande quantité de matière fécale sur l'écouvillon ;  "},{"text":" Le kit devrait être stocké à une température ambiante (2-30°C) ou réfrigéré. Ne le congelez pas et ne l'exposez pas directement à la lumière du soleil.Remarque : en collectant les échantillons et lors de l'utilisation du matériel pour le test d'antigène rapide sur le terrain, il faut limiter la propagation de l'infection en se débarrassant des échantillons infectés de façon appropriée soit par incinération, soit par incinération et enfouissement. EPI protège tous ceux qui sont en contact avec la volaille potentiellement infectée par la grippe aviaire de type A H5N1. Il est particulièrement important lors du prélèvement des échantillons et pendant l'abattage de la volaille malade et morte infectée par le virus de type H5N1. Des suggestions quant au moment d'utiliser les différents types d'EPI sont disponibles ci-dessous. Veuillez noter que des directives spécifiques peuvent exister dans votre pays. Différents pays ont leurs propres systèmes nationaux de déclaration de maladies mais ils sont tous tenus d'informer l'OIE de l'apparition d'un foyer de maladie à déclaration obligatoire telle que la grippe aviaire de type A H5N1. Discuter des systèmes de déclaration possibles dépasse le cadre de ce manuel, mais tous les praticiens de la SPM devraient avoir connaissance du système en vigueur dans leur pays. Ainsi, tous les praticiens de la SPM devraient-ils savoir à qui rendre compte lorsqu'une mortalité anormale probablement due à l'IAHP est détectée.Voici ci-dessous quelques suggestions de mesures :Informer le vétérinaire de district (ou celui qui en tient lieu). S'accorder sur le nom de celui qui devrait prélever les échantillons et sur celui de la personne qui informera le laboratoire ; Informer le responsable de l'administration locale ; Dès confirmation du laboratoire national, le vétérinaire en chef du district (ou celui qui en tient lieu) devrait informer l'Union africaine -le Bureau interafricain des ressources animales (UA-IBAR) et l'OIE. c. Des gants ; c. Des gants ; d. Un masque ; d. Un masque ; e. Des lunettes. e. Des lunettes. 2. Retirer l'EPI utilisée et s'en débarrasser immédiatement par incinération avant de 2. Retirer l'EPI utilisée et s'en débarrasser immédiatement par incinération avant de quitter la zone infectée. quitter la zone infectée. 3.4.4. Considérations relatives à la déclaration 3.4.4. Considérations relatives à la déclaration 3.4.3. Utilisation de l'EPI 3.4.3. Utilisation de l'EPI L'utilisation de l'Cas non-évolutifs (niveau vert) L'utilisation de l'Cas non-évolutifs (niveau vert) 1. Désinfecter les chaussures, surtout les semelles, en quittant le village ; 1. Désinfecter les chaussures, surtout les semelles, en quittant le village ; 2. Se laver les mains à l'eau et au savon : 2. Se laver les mains à l'eau et au savon : a. immédiatement après avoir touché N'IMPORTE QUELLE volaille ; a. immédiatement après avoir touché N'IMPORTE QUELLE volaille ; b. en quittant le village. b. en quittant le village. Cas évolutifs ou suspects (niveau jaune) Cas évolutifs ou suspects (niveau jaune) 1. Lors de la réalisation des tests rapides sur la volaille, vous devriez porter les EPI 1. Lors de la réalisation des tests rapides sur la volaille, vous devriez porter les EPI suivants : suivants : a. Des bottes ; a. Des bottes ; b. Un masque ; b. Un masque ; c. Des gants ; c. Des gants ; d. Un tablier. d. Un tablier. 2. Les poulets sains ne devraient pas être manipulés par toute personne qui a déjà 2. Les poulets sains ne devraient pas être manipulés par toute personne qui a déjà touché des poulets malades ou morts. touché des poulets malades ou morts. 3. A la fin des tests, rassembler les EPI et autres objets afin de s'en débarrasser et les 3. A la fin des tests, rassembler les EPI et autres objets afin de s'en débarrasser et les brûler immédiatement. brûler immédiatement. 4. Se laver les mains à l'eau et au savon et désinfecter les chaussures avant de quitter 4. Se laver les mains à l'eau et au savon et désinfecter les chaussures avant de quitter le village. le village. a. Une combinaison ; a. Une combinaison ; b. Des bottes ; b. Des bottes ;  "},{"text":" Guide d'entretien : développez un guide d'entretien adéquat qui aidera à atteindre l'objectif. Voir l'Encadré 2 pour obtenir un exemple de guide d'entretien pour la SPM de l'IAHP. Outils d'EP : décidez des outils à utiliser lors des entretiens pour promouvoir la participation et le dialogue, et pour enrichir les informations réunies. Définition de cas : développez une définition de cas claire et simple pour les cas compatibles d'IAHP. Si l'on découvre un événement épidémiologique qui correspond à la définition du cas, décidez de l'action à entreprendre. Méthode d'échantillonnage : décidez, entre autres actions, du centre géographique, des informateurs clés probables, du nombre de fermes ou de villages à visiter et du nombre de groupes et d'individus à interroger. Système de positionnement géographique (GPS) : décidez s'il faut utiliser un GPS pour obtenir les coordonnées spatiales des sites visités lors de la SPM. Tests rapides et confirmation par les laboratoires : déterminez si les tests antigéniques rapides seront prêts pour être utilisés dans le village et quels échantillons additionnels doivent être prélevés pour un test de confirmation en laboratoire.  "}],"sieverID":"767c2b0b-c7f0-4c34-9b74-57972f7c941d","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0918522a368f83a2906ce958268a9c40","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/bb3def05-a8c7-4d00-ad6c-c567be3a0fcc/retrieve"},"pageCount":26,"title":"PROGRAMME DE RADIO RURALE No 02/5 LES PAYSANS FACE A LA LIBÉRALISATION ÉCONOMIQUE","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"CTA","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Programme de radio rurale","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"2002/5 LES PAYSANS FACE A LA LIBÉRALISATION ÉCONOMIQUE","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"FICHE TECHNIQUE L'état se désengage ou démissionne?","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"Une quinzaine d'années après les premiers exercices d'ajustement structurel et alors que l'accord agricole de l'OMC est en cours de renégotiation, les producteurs africains souhaitent un bilan de la libéralisation économique, négotiée sans eux mais en leurs noms, par leurs gouvernements. En effet malgré les efforts des paysans de la sous région, qui ont amené une augmentation spectaculaire de la production agricole, les positions des produits africains sur les marchés mondiaux se sont affaiblies, les cours mondiaux du cacao, du café et du coton notamment se sont effondrés, la balance des échanges agro-alimetaires s'est déséquilibrée, les conditions de vie de beaucoup de producteurs se sont détériorées et les ressources naturelles continuent à se dégrader. «L'état nous a abandonnés» est un leitmotiv qui s'entend partout dans les campagnes africaines."},{"index":2,"size":115,"text":"Cette évolution n'est pas le fait unique de conditions climatiques défavorables mais bien le résultat des règles imposées aux producteurs. On a assisté en effet au démantèlement des politiques publiques et au désengagement de l'état, au moment précis ou les producteurs africains avaient le plus besoin d'appui. Conjugué a cela le fait que les agricultures africaines sont maintenant en concurrence directe avec des agricultures plus puissantes, mieux dotées et largement subventionnées, il est évident que les producteurs africains sont largement désavantagés. Il est aussi un fait incontestable que les agriculteurs pauvres ont généralement beaucoup moins profité de la libéralisation des filières que les propriétaires des grandes exploitations, ceci raison notamment du prix élevé des intrants."}]},{"head":"Quelle place pour l'exploitation familiale dans une économie libéralisée?","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":325,"text":"Malgré un déclin certain, l'exploitation familiale représente encore en Afrique de l'Ouest le principal type d'unité de production de consommation et de gestion des ressources naturelles. Le plus gros de la production agricole africaine se fait en effet toujours autour du groupe familial, même quand l'exploitation est intégrée á l'économie de marché. Certes la taille des exploitations, les systèmes de culture et d'élevage, les niveaux d'équipement et les performances économiques varient considerablement mais ce sont au sein des exploitations familiales que se construit l'essentiel de l'économie, de la société et de l'environnement. C'est en son sein que se tissent les liens de solidarité qui constituent le système le plus solide de sécurité et d'assurance sociale. C'est là qu'est assuré la sécurité alimentaire mais aussi l'essentiel de l'emploi, de l'épargne, de l'investissement et une bonne gestion des ressources naturelles. Mais cette exploitation familiale est battue en brèche par les conséquences du désengagement de l'état : Depuis l'arrêt des programmes publics de soutien à l'agriculture, beaucoup de paysans n'ont plus les moyens d'acheter des engrais ni de renouveller le matériel agricole. Ces systèmes de culture sans intrants et très peu mécanisés et dont le rendement à l'hectare est très faible, est surtout le fait des vieux, des femmes et des enfants car les jeunes hommes sont souvent obligés de migrer pour s'employer comme maneouvres dans les villes. De plus, la priorité donnée aux approches filières se traduit par une concentration des investissements sur quelques zones et les exploitations familiales font de plus en plus place à PROGRAMME DE RADIO RURALE -LIBÉRALISATION 02/5 une nouvelle forme d'entreprenariat agricole. Cette situation a par contre favorisé le développement des organisations de producteurs et la mutation de nombreuses ONGs, même si l'engagement de ces nouveaux acteurs est loin encore de combler le vide laissé par les institutions publiques. Ne touchant pour l'instant qu'une minorité de paysans, elles ne peuvent mobiliser des moyens et des compétences comparables. Mais les choses changent …."}]},{"head":"Les organisation paysannes en phase de structuration et de consolidation","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":492,"text":"Se structurer et consolider les acquis, ce sont les nouveaux défis des organisations paysannes. Il faut dire qu'elles n'ont guère le choix ! Un peu partout en effet, y compris dans la sphère des donateurs, on assiste à une prise de conscience que l'avenir des filières repose d'abord sur les producteurs et leurs organisations. Il s'agit donc de s'organiser de façon à s'imposer comme des interlocuteurs responsables et professionnels face aux privés mais aussi en tant que représentant des multiples petits producteurs. Pour cela les organisations paysannes doivent d'abord travailler sur la définition d'une stratégie ( par exemple faut il s'impliquer dans l'approvisonnement d'intrants en traitant directement avec les firmes internationales ?) Ensuite régler de nombreux aspects organisationnels ( se fédérer ou pas ? etc..). Egalement renforcer les appuis et les mesures d'accompagnement (Quels cadres embaucher et comment travailler avec eux ?) Enfin consolider le financement de l'organisation pour assurer son autonomie financière ( Faut il instaurer une cotisation ? -Peut on faire payer des services comme le Conseil de Gestion ou le conseil technique ?). Sékou Bicaba, producteur de coton au Burkina Faso « On travaillait de plus en plus dur et on devenait de plus en plus pauvre alors on a voulu comprendre pourquoi. On pensait que tous nos problèmes venaient du coton mais au fonds on a commencé à se demander si c'était seulement le coton notre problème. Alors on a entendu parler du Conseil de Gestion et on a commencé a se former. Le Conseil de Gestion déterre tous les problèmes qui étaient cachés et une fois sortir il faut les résoudre. Pour être franc, aprés 30 ans de vulgarisation, l'État ne sait même pas où en est son agriculture. C'est pourquoi nous sommes convaincus que face aux aléas du marché et si on veut lutter contre la pauvreté, il faut développer le Conseil de Gestion » Les défenseurs du libre-échange se sont préparés pendant plus de 50 ans. Grâce à des politiques et des programmes adaptés, ils ont pu créer des conditions permettant la réussite des acteurs du secteur public et privé, des organisations socio-professionnelles ou des organisations sous-régionales. Il est important que nous bénéficions de la même chose chez nous. Mais l'impact est sensible à ce niveau en ce sens que pour des paysans qui avaient un rendement de 500 kilos a l'hectare, aujourd'hui il s'en sort, la majorité s'en sort avec au moins 2,5 tonnes à l'hectare et une minorité même arrive à s'en sortir aujourd'hui avec 3,5 tonnes à l'hectare, ce qui fait 3500 kilos à l'hectare. Maintenant le crédit étant octroyé en nature, le recouvrement également se fait en nature après la récolte et stocké dans un magasin que nous avons conçu au niveau de ces GPA …bon et quand il y a des plus-values, ça veut dire que le reliquat est remis au paysan en question mais si il y a des moins-values, ça veut dire alors qu'il doit rembourser le déficit."}]},{"head":"Mamadou Cissokho Président d'honneur du ROPPA (Réseau des","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Sources bibliographiques","index":8,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Organisations Paysannes et des Producteurs   "},{"text":" KanBon nous n'avons pas le choix: ce sont les producteurs eux mêmes qui ont décidé cela….Le producteur qui livre, qui respecte ses engagements à 100%, ou bien à 80% jusqu'à 70%, nous on dit qu'il est de la première catégorie. Bon, le producteur qui est en dessous de ça, lui il est en deuxième catégorie parce que peut être il a livré moins que ça et il est endetté mais celui qui n'a rien rien livré et qui est endetté en même temps, lui il est troisième catégorie et suspendu pour la campagne.DadjoOk… mais la catégorie 1 là, quels sont les avantages liés à ce statut ? Kan Bon, la catégorie 1, ce sont les producteurs qui vont bénéficier des paiements anticipés que nous leur donnons en début de campagne pour travailler. des céréales qu'on retrouve : les céréales, je crois, devraient être vendues. Au poids plutôt que au volume et les consommateurs s'y retrouveraient beaucoup plus facilement. Ça c'est un des grands points qui restent encore à finaliser ici. Il y a aussi toute la filière… on parle ici de commercialisation collective, ce sont des producteurs qui commercialisent avec des commerçants, avec des organismes de stocks sécuritaires ou autre mais il faut savoir que quand même les commerçants ont leur place dans cette filière et les commerçants pour la plupart, ne sont pas des professionnels, ce sont des commerçants qui un jour sont céréaliers, le lendemain sont … Ce sont des opportunistes pour la plupart et ils sont souvent aussi ….Le climat des affaires autant au Burkina que un peu partout… on l'a vécu aussi au Mali… est quand même très peu professionnel, ce qui fait que il y a beaucoup de dangers a commercialiser avec des commerçants et l'UGVBM, maintenant UGCPA, en a souffert elle aussi, avec des créances irrécupérables qui font suite à des fournitures de garanties frauduleuses et autre ….Donc il y a ce qu'on pourrait dire un ménage à faire dans la filière et il ne peut se faire sans l'aide de l'état.Benaja A s'en sortir parce que on a toujours dit de ne pas mettre tous tes oeufs dans le même panier. Il y a des fois je prévois d'avoir 50 sacs mais si je n'ai pas 50 sacs, en tous cas je sais que ça ne pourra pas faire mon affaire et le Conseil de Gestion commence à me dire : « Ah, fais attention, il ne faut pas mettre tous tes oeufs dans le même panier donc on a commencé aussi à associer l'élevage. C'est le Conseil de Gestion qui a amené ça et on a commencé à valoriser l'élevage aussi pour prendre les résidus dans les champs, venir donner aux animaux et récupérer le fumier pour partir mettre dans les champs….Même si il y a une mauvaise saison et que le champs est gâté, on peut vendre les animaux pour compenser le manque à gagner dans les champs. Benaja Oui ça s'est opéré …c'est par exemple le sésame. Le sésame c'est quelque chose que nos parents cultivaient parce que il y avait un peu de temps, un temps mort ou bien il y avait un champ qu'on voulait faire en jachère et on mettait le sésame là bas. Or avec le Conseil de Gestion, on fait les calculs : un hectare de coton, toutes les dépenses que tu as fait , la main d'oeuvre, les intrants, les insecticides, tout ce que tu as mis là bas, c'est calculé. Par contre le sésame, tu peux avoir 50 mille francs sur l'hectare de sésame mais tu as gagné parce que tu n'as pas mis de l'engrais, tu n'as pas mis des herbicides, tu n'as même pas mis de main d'oeuvre. Par contre tu vas te retrouver avec une dépense de 5000 francs sur l'hectare or par contre dans le coton, tu peux avoir 150 mille francs mais tu n'as pas gagné comme dans le champ de sésame. Donc le Conseil de Gestion nous amène à faire ces comparaisons là. Studio Un outil de prévision irremplaçable donc et précieux puisque grâce au Conseil de gestion, les paysans acquièrent des rudiments de comptabilité et la capacité de construire un budget et de comprendre ce que représente un chiffre d'affaires. Roger Kombia est encadreur au sein du Conseil de Gestion de Dédougou ; il nous donne quelques exemples. Dadjo Alors il y a un leader paysan, qui est d'ailleurs membre de votre organisation UPPM, c'est Secobi Kaba, qui a dit que « Pour être franc, l'état a peur d'avoir des paysans qui raisonnent. Nous sommes convaincus, nous les paysans que face aux aléas du marché, si on veut lutter contre la pauvreté, il faut absolument développer le Conseil de Gestion » C'est ce que Secobi Kaba a dit. Qu'est ce que vous vous en pensez ? au niveau de la production, les appuis techniques sont très importants, La question de la technique en tous cas est médiocre au niveau des paysans, ils ignorent tout de la technique. Dadjo Mais pour ce qui est de l'appui financier là, qui va payer puisque l'état est absent de la brousse ? En Cote d'Ivoire, avec l'avènement de la libéralisation, la Caisse de Stabilisation et de Soutien des prix des produits agricoles , la fameuse CAISTAB était dissoute. Désormais livrées à elles-mêmes après la disparition de ce filet de sécurité, de nombreuses coopératives de producteurs pensaient pouvoir profiter de la brèche ainsi ouverte pour prendre en main l'exportation de leurs propres produits. Mais elles se sont révélées insuffisamment armées pour aborder un créneau dominé par les multinationales américaines et européennes. Alors il y en a beaucoup en Cote d'Ivoire qui souhaitent le retour de la Caistab. Parmi eux, Cissé Lociné, président de la Fédération Ivoirienne des Producteurs de Café-Cacao, au micro de Boni Kabié Sinon tout le système mis en place était bien. Au niveau de la libéralisation, les bailleurs de fonds ont dit de ne pas fixer les prix…Pourtant aux États Unis, les planteurs de coton, de mais et tout ça, sont subventionnés. Subventionner quelqu'un, c'est d'abord donner un prix et ces prix réajustés. Ça veut dire que quand le planteur américain plante le mais, le prix sur le marché mondial, c'est 200 francs, les États Unis lui met 200 francs, ça lui fait 400 francs, il produit à 200 francs mais il gagne 400 francs. Donc il a une subvention, donc il est stabilisé et il sait que si il produit telle tonne, c'est multiplié par 400. Donc il a une idée de ce prix et quand je fais 10 hectares, 15 hectares, voilà ce que je gagne. Mais chez nous, ici, on nous dit, tu peux pas …le nombre d'hectares égal a tels francs… tu ne peux pas parce que demain tu ne sais pas a quel prix ce sera acheté. Donc c'est pourquoi nous voulons une stabilisation, pour que le paysan soit un homme d'affaires, s'asseyent, fassent ses calculs , pour dire voilà ce que je peux gagner cette année, voilà ce que je vais gagner dans 5 ans, voilà ce que j'aurais dans 10 ans…pour que ce ne soit pas de la loterie ! Donc nous, notre bataille c'est pro-rata de chaque planteur. Donc notre problème c'est que il faut on connaisse le poids produit par chaque planteur. Et je crois que c'est dans ce but là aussi que l'état est en train de faire le recensement des producteurs de café-cacao pour qu'on sache qui sont les producteurs, combien ils sont, quelle est leur superficie…Donc le retour à la stabilisation est une meilleure chose se désengage de plus en plus et l'on constate que l'Office n'a plus les moyens d'antan et les moyens diminuent d'année en année, est ce que ce n'est pas une fuite des responsabilités de l'état qui finalement abandonne des paysans sans mesures d'accompagnement suffisantes ? Dembélé Tout cadre qui vient dans la région de Ségou, son premier désir c'est d'avoir un lopin de terre dans la zone Office pour faire un peu de riziculture parce que c'est quelque chose … on nous a toujours fait miroiter ça comme quoi on peut se faire facilement des sous là dedans et donc tout jeune cadre qui vient, la première initiative qu'il a à faire, c'est d'essayer d'avoir un lopin de terre au niveau de la zone et d'essayer de se lancer dans cette activité là. Donc j'ai fait comme les autres : j'ai d'abord commence à quelques kilomètres de Macina, il y a un patelin là bas, j'ai commencé là bas et donc ça a mal tourné Dembélé Effectivement vous avez parfaitement raison parce que ici tout jeune cadre qui arrive pour la première fois à Ségou, on vous parle tellement de cette histoire de riziculture, on vous miroite ça, pour vous c'est vraiment l'aubaine pour vous en sortir rapidement, vous voyez …donc, sans analyser tous ces facteurs, vous vous lancez là dedans et c'est quand vous êtes là dedans maintenant que vous vous rendez compte que c'est pratiquement un piège…parce que les paysans qui sont sur place, ils nous voient d'un mauvais oeil, nous les fonctionnaires , aller et nous établir parmi eux. Parce que leur mentalité c'est quoi ? Vous vous êtes déjà fonctionnaires, vous touchez un salaire mensuel et avec tout ça encore, vous voulez aller vous lancer dans la riziculture, donc pour faire de l'extra , vous voyez ….Et donc là ça les dérange énormément . Ils vous le dirons pas en face mais il y a ce sentiment d'égoïsme voilà qui est là …Ils se dit « toi tu es déjà fonctionnaire, que tu travailles ou pas, parce que c'est la mentalité, que tu travailles ou pas, tu as ton salaire à la fin du mois. Tu laisses tout ça et après tu viens encore te lancer dans la riziculture donc pour t'enrichir d'une façon extravagante. Donc vous voyez avec cette mentalité qu'ils ont, ils font tout pour vous jeter des bâtons dans les roues. Studio Mais parmi tous ces nouveaux paysans, il y en a de plus chanceux comme par exemple Mamadou Touré qui lui aussi, s'est lancé a partir de rien dans la culture de riz et pour qui, malgré de grosses difficultés, la libéralisation est une aubaine : Touré Quand on va pour une première fois, tu penses que tu as les moyens, tu vas t'en sortir, n'est ce pas …Et le problème c'est quoi ? C'est à dire que la réalité du terrain est réellement différente. Comme je te l'ai dit souvent, tu te fais un peu arnaquer par les résidents là ! … Donc quelqu'un qui veut réellement s'installer, qu'il prenne réellement conseil, pas seulement avec les résidents mais aussi les non-résidents et là peut être il peut l'approcher et lui dire …. D'abord réellement il faut que la personne prenne conseil auprès de ceux qui ne résident pas parce que, je te dis, les services d'encadrement officiels, là réellement on ne les voit pas …on ne voit pas. Par exemple l'Office, ils ont une division paysanne mais réellement sur le terrain tu les vois pas… ça on les voit pas. Bon peut être que si eux ils étaient présents, là ça pourrait éviter certains déboires d'un nouveau venu, ça il y a pas de problèmes ….Bon et puis il y a certains facteurs aussi qui jouent parce que les terres de l'Office, c'est des terres qui ont été aménagées il y a un peu longtemps, n'est ce pas …Donc quelqu'un qu'on te met dans une parcelle avec des élévations, des bosses, tu as vu …réellement c'est pas facile ….C'est pas facile parce que pour réellement réussir dans un champ de l'Office, en tous cas dans la zone où je suis, il faut peut être dompter ton champ pendant au moins 2 ou 3 ans parce que là il faut procéder toi même au nivellement, ainsi de suite là … donc c'est au bout de 2 ou 3 ans que réellement ton champ tu peux dire que c'est presque ….c'est des trucs comme ça, tu as vu ..sinon c'est très difficile que du tic au tac, c'est à dire du premier coup que tu t'en sors, c'est un peu …. A moins que ce soit quelqu'un qui a déjà l'expérience, sinon c'est pas facile. AU BÉNIN, APRÉS LA LIBÉRALISATION DE LA FILIÈRE DES INTRANTS AGRICOLES, SA GESTION ÉCHAPPE LARGEMENT AUX PRODUCTEURS CHAPEAU Organisés et bien structurés, les producteurs béninois de coton ont su profiter dans l'ensemble d'un environnement libéralisé et ont su s'imposer comme interlocuteurs devant les pouvoirs publics. Devant les grands enjeux et intérêts divergents des différents acteurs de la filière, le réseau des organisations paysannes du Bénin, la FUPRO a mis en place la CAGIA ou Coopérative d'Approvisionnement et de Gestion des Intrants Agricoles. Pourtant malgré les espoirs nés de cette création, le prix des intrants n'a pas baissé, une réalité qui a beaucoup déçu les producteurs. Sonon Cyprien, le directeur de la Cagia répond à cette critique au micro de Grégoire Yacouto train de travailler pour que les prix baissent mais on a oublié de souligner que ce n'est pas au niveau des intrants que le problème des prix se pose seulement : vous avez quand même les hydrocarbures dans ce pays ou les prix ont passé de tant à tant donc le problème des prix est beaucoup plus un problème d'ordre international avec des répercussions au plan local. Donc je ne pense pas que ce soit au niveau du secteur des intrants seulement que le problème des prix se pose. Ceci dit, notre ambition bien sûr est de travailler à ce que les prix baissent donc il s'agit de situer la dynamique des prix dans le temps et en rapport avec les contraintes du marché international. TVA pour les producteurs en ce qui concerne les intrants. Ce qui était à l'époque connu c'est que en plus donc le paiement de la TVA par le gouvernement pour les producteurs, il y avait des ressources propres qui étaient dégagées de la SONAPRA pour pouvoir combler le déficit en cas de besoin pour que ces prix là ne soient pas répercutés directement au niveau des producteurs. Ivoire sont parmi les plus gros producteurs de café et de cacao d'Afrique, la Cote d'Ivoire étant même le premier producteur mondial de cacao avec 1 million 200 000 tonnes par an. Mais avec le désengagement de l'état et l'arrivée massive des privés dans les deux filières, la qualité des produits s'en ressent vivement. Une enquête de Joseph Taye en Cote d'Ivoire et de Etienne Tassé au Cameroun. Kandia La libéralisation a posé des effets sur le café cacao parce que nous constatons que la qualité n'est pas faite sur le terrain. Studio Kandia Alphonse est producteur de cacao dans un village de la région de San Pedro en Côte d'Ivoire. En tant que secrétaire de sa coopérative, il regrette la situation créée par la libéralisation de la filière : Kandia Il a trop d'acheteurs aujourd'hui, trop de pisteurs, ce qui fait que les producteurs même, s'ils peuvent, ils vont cueillir aujourd'hui et puis vendre le cacao sur place parce que je constate que cette année même, le cacao qui est vendu au champ, tout est humide, en pâte et le cacao n'est plus fermenté. En trois jours, deux jours, les gens mettent leur cacao au soleil et là c'est pas la qualité que nous souhaitons. Donc pour qu'on ait une bonne qualité, il faut qu'on revienne à la raison, vraiment fermenter le cacao durant les jours demandés et sécher massivement afin que le cacao soit sec mais aujourd'hui nous constatons que le cacao n'est jamais sec …je suis planteur mais il faut le dire : peu de planteurs qui sont dans les coopératives arrivent à sécher bien pour bénéficier du prix de qualité et la plupart des producteurs ne font pas la qualité. Studio Mais beaucoup de producteurs justement ne veulent plus faire partie des coopératives car les acheteurs privés intervenant sur le marché payent tout de suite tandis que la coopérative tarde à payer. C'est en tous cas ce que pense Dolla Makué François, un producteur de café de la région de Bamboutos a PROGRAMME DE RADIO RURALE -LIBÉRALISATION 02/5 l'Ouest du Cameroun, qui a quitté la CAPLABAM, la coopérative dont il faisait partie Dolla Makué:. Je vends mon café seulement au marché soit à Mbouda, soit au François marché de Mbouda, soit au marché de Batcham . Parce que la coopérative, il y avait beaucoup de complications : François des fois on pèse le café, on enlève certains poids. Des fois, on dit que le café n'est pas bien sec, des fois on dit que le café n'est pas trié, des fois on dit que le café est descendu. Alors nous les planteurs on se débrouillait ailleurs. Tassé Aujourd'hui, est ce que vous êtes satisfaits de vendre votre café au marché ou bien vous regrettez d'avoir quitté la coopérative? Dolla Makué: Je suis content de répondre. Maintenant je suis très content de François vendre mon café partout où je m'en vais parce que quand je vendais le café à la coopérative, on gardait mon argent, on ne me payait pas, des fois un an, deux ans, fins des fins même on avait même bouffé certains crédits. Donc je suis très content de vendre mon café partout. plus que de vendre à la CAPLABAM. Studio Mais pour Louis Tiolla, le directeur de cette coopérative camerounaise, la CAPLABAM, ce qui se passe est grave car les producteurs sont attirés par un gain immédiat et facile, mais ces calculs à très court terme ne peuvent que leur nuire à la fin du compte. Louis Tiolla au micro de Etienne Tassé : Tiola Au niveau des sociétés coopératives, notre côte était bien, très bien au niveau de la qualité du café mais vous savez que quand on libère là il y a beaucoup d'aventuriers qui interviennent sur le marché du café, il y'a beaucoup des usiniers, ceux qui ne maîtrisent pas les processus de transformation du café et alors ils font ce qu'ils veulent, ils achètent le café humide, ils achètent le café mal traité au niveau du paysan et le paysan assoiffé de sous, les apporte le produit qui n'est pas bien fermenté, qui n'est pas bien sec, en sachant qu'au marché on va toujours acheter. Et c'est ça qui a fait que notre label ne soit pas bon sur le marché international.. aller vendre au marché comme je disais tout à l'heure, vendre et prendre l'argent tout de suite. Tassé L'une des raisons que j'ai entendue avancer c'est que vous étiez rigoureux au niveau du contrôle qualité alors qu'au niveau du privé ce n'était pas tellement ça. Ça se confirme ou pas ? Tiola : Mais c'est tout à fait normal, quand tu veux bien vendre son produit, il faut être rigoureux sur la qualité du produit bon quand ils ne sont pas rigoureux sur la qualité du produit très souvent ça provient du fait qu'ils payent d'abord très moins chers au niveau du planteur c'est à dire que le planteur, ils font semblant d'avoir, de bien payer, vendre leur produit alors qu'on est entrain de les tromper avec de fausses balances, là, l'acheteur privé qui est sur le marché, il trouve toujours son compte, alors qu'ici au niveau des coopératives nous sommes très rigoureux sur la qualité du produit. Studio Mais tout n'est pas perdu pour tout le monde et l'une des sociétés privées qui profite le plus de la libéralisation est Olam Cam, une succursale de Olam International basée a Singapour. Installée au Cameroun en 1995, un an après la libéralisation de la filière café cacao, elle exporte partout dans le monde et les devises qui proviennent de ces exportations ne sont pas rapatriées au Cameroun mais servent a importer du riz chinois et thaïlandais vendu sur la marché local. Pour Mbe Nguette Hippolyte, l'un des responsables de cette société, Olam Cam ne fait qu'obéir aux lois du marché: Mbe Nguette Nous avons notre système d'achat qui consiste à suivre les cours du jour et le planteur préfère travailler directement avec un exportateur que de travailler avec une coopérative qui conserve des prix pour toute une année. Tassé Les coopératives estiment également que vous ne veillez pas à la qualité, est ce que vraiment vous veillez à la qualité ? Mbe Nguette Disons que lorsque nous sommes sur le terrain, nous voulons d'abord faire du stock, nous voulons faire la quantité et par rapport à nos principaux acheteurs en Europe, il y a une certaine norme qui est tolérable par nos clients ; c'est pour ça que nous nous hasardons à prendre certaines qualités refusées par les coopératives. Tassé Est -ce que cela veut dire que vous êtes moins exigeants au niveau de la qualité? Mbe Nguette Non, mais là c'est trop dire, puisque, avant que tout produit sorte du pays, il faudra n'est ce pas l'accord du gouvernement, l'accord du MINAGRI. Nous obtenons des bulletins de vérification pour chaque lot que nous exportons et qui sont déclarés conformer à l'embarquement. Tassé Et comment vous jugez alors la libéralisation de la filière café-cacao? Mbe Nguette Disons que la libéralisation de la filière café-cacao, ça profite à l'exportateur, c'est le planteur qui peut en souffrir à un certain moment. LA LIBÉRALISATION ÉCONOMIQUE DONNE DES AILES AUX PRODUCTEURS DE MAIS ANS LE SUD-EST DU TOGO. CHAPEAU Le Togo a été un des premiers pays après les indépendances, á se doter dans les années 70, d'un Office de Grains, \"Togo Grain\", organisme d'état chargé d'acheter, de stocker et de vendre la production céréalière du pays. Mais après un court succès, l'expérience de \"Togo Grain\" a échoué et ses silos sont abandonnés dans la plupart des villes du pays. Mais aujourd'hui avec le désengagement de l'état, les paysans organisent eux même , avec l'appui technique et financier d'ONGs, leur propres circuits de production et de commercialisation. C'est le cas de l'ONG « Avotode » basée à Anécho dans le sud est du Togo, qui soutient plus d'une centaine de groupements de producteurs, les GPA, qui produisent prés de 350 tonnes de mais. Honoré Blao a rencontré Wilson Golou, directeur de l'ONG Avotode. Grains était une société étatique et tout ce qui est de l'état, la gestion est toujours …disons la gestion n'est pas aussi rigoureuse que ça. Et le problème de Togo-Grains a beaucoup résidé au niveau des silos : Il semblerait que le matériel utilisé n'était pas aussi adapté à la conservation, ce qui a fait que pour la plupart du temps, les produits finis étaient vite dégradés et dégradés avant le temps prévu. Il y avait eu beaucoup de pertes postrécolte. Au delà la gestion n'était pas aussi rigoureuse, tout le système était mal géré, ce qui a créé, s'il faut le dire ainsi, un déficit au niveau de ces structures. Et aujourd'hui Togo-Grains n'est plus aussi fonctionnel comme ce fût dans le temps et cela entre également dans cette droite ligne de désengagement de l'état. Donc on peut dire que Togo-Grains a échoué actuellement dans sa mission. Blao Avec les organisations paysannes que vous appuyez, comment vous mesurez l'impact sur les communautés paysannes ? Golou Je dirais que l'impact aujourd'hui est très positif parce que c'est tout un circuit : avant que un GPA ne bénéficie alors d'un crédit, il faut d'abord qu'il soit membre épargnant. Ce crédit octroyé au GPA est re-octroyé à titre individuel au niveau de chaque membre du GPA et cela ne s'octroie pas en espèces au niveau des individus mais en nature : le crédit en nature est constitué par des intrants agricoles : je veux nommer par là les engrais chimiques, les semences sélectionnées, les pesticides pour traiter les semences et disons les semences de Cajanus-Cajun et de Mucuna qui sont des légumineuses que nous utilisons pour l'amélioration de la fertilité du sol. Dakuyo Kan CTA Bon en fait au début, les gens comprenaient pas mais c'est dans ces trois Oui, nous créons des classes au niveau des paysans ! Dakuyo KanCTA Bon en fait au début, les gens comprenaient pas mais c'est dans ces trois Oui, nous créons des classes au niveau des paysans ! Inter-Réseaux : Grain de sel No 14, 18, 19, 20 Programme de radio rurale 2002/5 LES PAYSANS FACE A LA LIBÉRALISATION Coté A : 1 Deux solutions pour contrecarrer les conséquences de la libéralisation: le conseil de gestion et la commercialisation collective -14'17 2 Le retour de la caisse de stabilisation, une solution pour les producteurs ivoiriens de café cacao ? -5'37 LES PAYSANS FACE A LA LIBERALISATION DEUX SOLUTIONS POUR CONTRECARRER LES CONSÉQUENSES DE LA LIBÉRALISATION: LE CONSEIL DE GESTION ET LA COMMERCIALISATION COLLECTIVE. CHAPEAU : Selon certains, la libéralisation de l'économie a complètement \"cassé\" les paysans africains qui sont souvent présentés comme des victimes sans défense. Mais au Burkina Faso, comme dans d'autres pays d'ailleurs, les paysans s'unissent et s'organisent. C'est le cas à Dédougou à quelques 5 heures de route de la capitale où plusieurs organisations paysannes ont mis au point deux outils particulièrement originaux, la commercialisation collective et le Conseil de Gestion. Un reportage signé Crépin Hilaire Dadjo. DURÉE DE LA BANDE 14'17 Bruits Marché de Dédougou …. Studio Nous sommes à Dédougou, une région très fertile de l'Ouest du Burkina. Dans cette région, la production céréalière est souvent excédentaire donc au moment des récoltes, vu la grande quantité de céréales arrivant en même temps sur le marché, les commerçants ont l'embarras du choix et les paysans sont donc à leur merci et acceptent des prix très bas. Et c'est ainsi qu'est née l'idée de commercialisation collective pratiquée par l'UGCPA, nouveau nom de l'UGVBM l'Union des Groupements Villageois de la Boucle du Nouhoum. José Dakuyo est membre de l'Union et nous parle de son expérience Dakuyo Je suis élu comme responsable au niveau du Bureau Exécutif, au niveau de l'UGCPA. Dadjo D'accord, mais un paysan, un producteur comme vous, quel intérêt est ce que vous avez à donner à d'autres personnes pour qu'elles vendent vos produits, est ce que c'est pas mieux de le donner directement aux commerçants parce que l'argent est plus rapide à avoir ? Dakuyo Nous refusons de travailler avec les commerçants parce que le commerçant en tant que tel voit son intérêt plus que l'intérêt du producteur alors que c'est le producteur qui fatigue beaucoup sur les champs…. Alors nous nous disons que si les producteurs pouvaient s'unir comme l'organisation que nous venons de mettre en place et commercialiser eux même leurs céréales, ça allait un peu faciliter la tâche …. Dadjo Oui mais vous comment vous vous avez connu l'existence de l'Union ? Ils sont venus dans votre village ? Comment ça s'est passé ? Dakuyo Bon, au début c'est les agents techniques qui sont passés informer les GV, les Groupements Villageois …ils sont passés et puis nous informer si on pouvait faire des organisations et puis s'unir et collectons et vendre nous même années que les producteurs ont commence à bien comprendre et à courir vers l'organisation. Dadjo Ok mais une Union comme ça, il faut quand même payer ceux qui travaillent dedans, est ce que vous producteurs vous êtes prêts à payer quelque chose pour que cette Union puisse exister toujours ? Dakuyo Oui puisque avec la contribution de 2000 francs sur le sac, nous nous disons que c'est couvert… en tous cas « solider » les paiements des agents et des différents charges que nous menons dans l'activité pour soutenir toujours l'organisation a vivre. Dadjo D'accord, donc, si je comprend bien, vous êtes très contents avec la vente collective de vos céréales ? Dakuyo Très bien même ! Studio Et du point de vue des paysans, il y a de quoi être satisfait car en dehors de la fixation des prix qui dépend donc des paysans et non plus des commerçants, le système mis au point par l'Union prévoit également le versement d'une ristourne de 1000 à 1500 francs par sac et aussi des paiements anticipés dés que les travaux champêtres commencent. Pourtant malgré ces gros avantages, de sérieux problèmes demeurent comme l'explique Marcel Kan, employé permanent de l'UGCPA. Kan Les paysans, ils vont des fois vers les commerçants alors que ils sont aussi au niveau de l'organisation. Donc ils parlent des prix qui sont bas au niveau de l'organisation et quand c'est comme ça ils bradent une partie aux commerçants et une partie à leur Union quand bien même ils sont engagés déjà au niveau de l'Union. Donc ça créé un peu problème et c'est pourquoi quand l'Union n'a pas atteint ses objectifs et ça créé problème. Dadjo Mais dans ces cas là, qu'est ce que vous faites quand vous n'atteignez pas vos objectifs ? Kan Ça joue sur l'Union parce que l'Union doit fonctionner en fonction de la quantité des céréales livrées. Alors il y a un budget qui a été voté pour ça. Bon, cette campagne doit atteindre tant de tonnage pour pouvoir fonctionner ..parce que il y a l'autonomie qui s'en vient ..alors quand on a pas ça c'est difficile. Dadjo D'accord. Mais d'une façon générale, quelles sanctions…. je ne sais pas si il y a des sanctions que vous prenez par rapport à un tel paysan qui joue sur deux tableaux à la fois ? Kan Bon …. Avec la réglementation sur la commercialisation…bon, parce que il y a des changements qui se font, l'Assemblée Générale décide …alors les paysans fautifs, il y en a, on suspend et puis ils sont poursuivis pour rembourser les dettes …bon c'est pourquoi on a une catégorisation : Catégorie 1, Catégorie 2, Catégorie 3… Dadjo C'est pas dangereux ce que vous faites ? Kombia Ici c'est la mise en place des documents comptables, des documents simples qui allaient permettre d'enregistrer les renseignements comptables dont nous avons besoin. Kombia Il a raison ! Effectivement , si il parle de développer le Conseil de Gestion, Kombia Oui …. On peut dire que l'état fuit ces paysans aujourd'hui…effectivement, peut être en partenariat les paysans doivent lutter puisque les grands pères ou bien les papas les ont abandonné ! Studio Des partenariats indispensables donc face à la libéralisation et au désengagement (que certains appellent \"démission\") de l'état. LES PAYSANS FACE A LA LIBÉRALISATION LE RETOUR DE LA CAISSE DE STABILISATION, UN VOEU EXPRIMÉ PAR LES PRODUCTEURS IVOIRIENS DE CAFE CACAO ? CHAPEAU : Kabié Alors une dernière question, la solution qui était préconisée face aux problèmes nés de la libéralisation, serait une meilleure intégration régionale des tous les pays producteurs de café cacao dans la sous région, qu'en est il aujourd'hui ? Est ce que il y a eu des tentatives réussies ? Lociné Il y a eu des tentatives mais il faut dire que les gens ne sont pas sincères. L'intégration régionale, on peut pas laisser faire par l'état : ils ont leurs idées ailleurs, ils ont leurs besoins ailleurs …Parce que quand vous parlez de l'intégration sous régionale, il y a le Ghana qui est dans un système stabilisé, il y a la Côte d'Ivoire à qui les bailleurs de fonds ont demandé de déstabiliser… il faut libéraliser pour qu'on vous paye vos dettes. Donc ces deux qui ont deux politiques différentes, peuvent pas mettre leurs produits ensemble pour vendre ! Alors il faut trouver une plate-forme, c'est à dire la stabilisation ….LES PAYSANS FACE A LA LIBÉRALISATION LES NOUVEAUX PAYSANS DE LA LIBÉRALISATION : L'EXEMPLE DU RIZ AU MALI CHAPEAU : Au Mali, depuis très longtemps, quand on pensait riz, on pensait Office du Niger, ce célèbre complexe rizicole créé en 1932 pendant la colonisation par un illuminé, Emile Bélime. Omniprésent pendant plus d'un demi-siècle, l'Office du Niger a perdu de sa superbe et les choses ont bien changé : privé de ses prérogatives, de son patrimoine et d'une bonne partie de son personnel, l'Office du Niger a dû, comme beaucoup d'autres secteurs, se soumettre à la libéralisation de l'économie. Un reportage réalisé à Ségou par Filifing Diakité. DURÉE DE LA BANDE : 7'33 Diakité Est ce que on préfère les nationaux aux étrangers parce que certains pensent que les étrangers …pour la plupart les pays dont proviennent nos partenaires, pourraient venir s'installer… : De grands agriculteurs des pays développés pourraient venir acheter des parcelles, s'installer …alors est ce que il est prévu des mesures de préférence des nationaux aux étrangers ? Diarra Ça c'est une très bonne question et c'est une question d'actualité. En fait l'Office du Niger, l'état, le gouvernement malien a des textes législatifs en la matière pour le mode de tenure des terres en zone Office du Niger. Bon pour ces privés, qu'ils soient nationaux ou étrangers, qui désirent s'installer en zone Office du Niger, doivent respecter des conditions qui permettent à tous les investisseurs de venir investir en zone Office du Niger. Donc tant que le Diarra Oui, je pense que l'état a conscience de cette situation, c'est pourquoi déjà les réflexions sont en cours pour déjà mettre à l'abri les producteurs, que j'appelle les exploitations familiales …donc l'état a mission de protéger les producteurs. Studio Ambroise Dembélé est informaticien de son état et croyant profiter des nouvelles conditions ouvertes par la libéralisation de la filière, il est devenu un de ces nouveaux paysans mais il a eu de nombreux déboires : Diakité Donc finalement, si je comprends bien, vous les nouveaux paysans, quand vous vous installez, en dehors du fait que la loi vous accorde cela, vous n'avez aucune autre protection, vous êtes laissés à vous même ? Touré Effectivement c'est ça. Studio La aussi donc le désengagement de l'état semble être interprété davantage comme une démission. LES PAYSANS FACE A LA LIBÉRALISATION DURÉE DE LA BANDE : 2'25 Sonon Nous sommes en Yacouto Alors vous voulez dire que en fait l'augmentation du prix des intrants qu'on observe depuis peu relève plutôt du marché international, mais est ce que il n'y a pas aussi l'organisation de la CAGIA ? Sonon Je dois dire que le problème de l'augmentation des prix des intrants n'est pas une donnée nouvelle en tant que telle c'est à dire qu'il faut dissocier le prix de session des produits aux producteurs et le coût réel et je ne sais pas si vous avez eu l'occasion de consulter les rapports de la SONAPRA et bien il est arrivé a beaucoup de moments ou la SONAPRA parce que c'était l'état, était obligée de subventionner, d'apporter un coût supplémentaire au prix des intrants pour que les paysans ne soient pas pénalisé. Yacouto Est ce que aujourd'hui la CAGIA ne peut pas négocier directement avec le gouvernement pour que le gouvernement puisse aussi subventionner les prix de session aux paysans ? Sonon Il y a une information qui n'est pas à la portée souvent de nous, communs des mortels, c'est que, au temps de la SONAPRA comme maintenant, le gouvernement apporte des subventions dans la mesure par exemple ou le LA QUALITÉ DU CAFÉ ET DU CACAO PÂTIT DE LA LIBÉRALISATION DES FILIÈRES CHAPEAU Kandia Pour maintenir le cap de cette bonne qualité, c'est sur que il faut que tout le monde arrive à passer par les coopératives parce que les coopératives ont un suivi et ces suivis font que tout le monde regarde dans le même sens. Donc j'invite tous les producteurs à rentrer dans les coopératives pour qu'il y ait un suivi pour qu'enfin ils arrivent à faire la qualité. Tassé Qu'est ce qui vous a amené à quitter la coopérative ? années avant la libéralisation s'il n'y avait que les coopératives, les sociétés coopératives qui achetaient le café et je crois que les planteurs avaient l'esprit coopératif c'est à dire ils venaient déposer leurs produits sans même demander un cent, on traitait le café et l'on partait vendre et on leur reversait l'argent et quand l'État ne subventionne plus les engrais, vous savez les conséquences sur, au niveau des plantations de café, les planteurs, beaucoup LES PAYSANS FACE A LA LIBÉRALISATION gouvernement paye la LES PAYSANS FACE A LA LIBÉRALISATION Le Cameroun et la Cote d'DURÉE DE LA BANDE : 8'26 Taye Et si on vous demandait aujourd'hui comment avoir des fèves de qualité, qu'est ce qu'il faut faire pour avoir des bonnes fèves de qualité? Kandia Il faut enlever les fèves plates et puis bien sécher mais avant d'arriver au séchoir, il faut fermenter le cacao 6 a 7 jours et c'est pas ce qui est fait Alors comment maintenir le cap de cette bonne qualité? il y a eu baisse ? Tiola : C'est sûr qu'il y a baisse, ce n'est même pas à demander vous savez que quand il y a déjà beaucoup d'intervenants sur le marché par rapport aux aujourd'hui. Taye Est-ce qu'au niveau du tonnage vous avez maintenu le même tonnage ou bien DURÉE DE LA BANDE : 2'45 Dolla Makué: Tassé : Golou Togo- Inter-Réseaux : Grain de sel No 14, 18, 19, 20 Programme de radio rurale 2002/5 LES PAYSANS FACE A LA LIBÉRALISATION Coté A : 1 Deux solutions pour contrecarrer les conséquences de la libéralisation: le conseil de gestion et la commercialisation collective -14'17 2 Le retour de la caisse de stabilisation, une solution pour les producteurs ivoiriens de café cacao ? -5'37 LES PAYSANS FACE A LA LIBERALISATION DEUX SOLUTIONS POUR CONTRECARRER LES CONSÉQUENSES DE LA LIBÉRALISATION: LE CONSEIL DE GESTION ET LA COMMERCIALISATION COLLECTIVE. CHAPEAU : Selon certains, la libéralisation de l'économie a complètement \"cassé\" les paysans africains qui sont souvent présentés comme des victimes sans défense. Mais au Burkina Faso, comme dans d'autres pays d'ailleurs, les paysans s'unissent et s'organisent. C'est le cas à Dédougou à quelques 5 heures de route de la capitale où plusieurs organisations paysannes ont mis au point deux outils particulièrement originaux, la commercialisation collective et le Conseil de Gestion. Un reportage signé Crépin Hilaire Dadjo. DURÉE DE LA BANDE 14'17 Bruits Marché de Dédougou …. Studio Nous sommes à Dédougou, une région très fertile de l'Ouest du Burkina. Dans cette région, la production céréalière est souvent excédentaire donc au moment des récoltes, vu la grande quantité de céréales arrivant en même temps sur le marché, les commerçants ont l'embarras du choix et les paysans sont donc à leur merci et acceptent des prix très bas. Et c'est ainsi qu'est née l'idée de commercialisation collective pratiquée par l'UGCPA, nouveau nom de l'UGVBM l'Union des Groupements Villageois de la Boucle du Nouhoum. José Dakuyo est membre de l'Union et nous parle de son expérience Dakuyo Je suis élu comme responsable au niveau du Bureau Exécutif, au niveau de l'UGCPA. Dadjo D'accord, mais un paysan, un producteur comme vous, quel intérêt est ce que vous avez à donner à d'autres personnes pour qu'elles vendent vos produits, est ce que c'est pas mieux de le donner directement aux commerçants parce que l'argent est plus rapide à avoir ? Dakuyo Nous refusons de travailler avec les commerçants parce que le commerçant en tant que tel voit son intérêt plus que l'intérêt du producteur alors que c'est le producteur qui fatigue beaucoup sur les champs…. Alors nous nous disons que si les producteurs pouvaient s'unir comme l'organisation que nous venons de mettre en place et commercialiser eux même leurs céréales, ça allait un peu faciliter la tâche …. Dadjo Oui mais vous comment vous vous avez connu l'existence de l'Union ? Ils sont venus dans votre village ? Comment ça s'est passé ? Dakuyo Bon, au début c'est les agents techniques qui sont passés informer les GV, les Groupements Villageois …ils sont passés et puis nous informer si on pouvait faire des organisations et puis s'unir et collectons et vendre nous même années que les producteurs ont commence à bien comprendre et à courir vers l'organisation. Dadjo Ok mais une Union comme ça, il faut quand même payer ceux qui travaillent dedans, est ce que vous producteurs vous êtes prêts à payer quelque chose pour que cette Union puisse exister toujours ? Dakuyo Oui puisque avec la contribution de 2000 francs sur le sac, nous nous disons que c'est couvert… en tous cas « solider » les paiements des agents et des différents charges que nous menons dans l'activité pour soutenir toujours l'organisation a vivre. Dadjo D'accord, donc, si je comprend bien, vous êtes très contents avec la vente collective de vos céréales ? Dakuyo Très bien même ! Studio Et du point de vue des paysans, il y a de quoi être satisfait car en dehors de la fixation des prix qui dépend donc des paysans et non plus des commerçants, le système mis au point par l'Union prévoit également le versement d'une ristourne de 1000 à 1500 francs par sac et aussi des paiements anticipés dés que les travaux champêtres commencent. Pourtant malgré ces gros avantages, de sérieux problèmes demeurent comme l'explique Marcel Kan, employé permanent de l'UGCPA. Kan Les paysans, ils vont des fois vers les commerçants alors que ils sont aussi au niveau de l'organisation. Donc ils parlent des prix qui sont bas au niveau de l'organisation et quand c'est comme ça ils bradent une partie aux commerçants et une partie à leur Union quand bien même ils sont engagés déjà au niveau de l'Union. Donc ça créé un peu problème et c'est pourquoi quand l'Union n'a pas atteint ses objectifs et ça créé problème. Dadjo Mais dans ces cas là, qu'est ce que vous faites quand vous n'atteignez pas vos objectifs ? Kan Ça joue sur l'Union parce que l'Union doit fonctionner en fonction de la quantité des céréales livrées. Alors il y a un budget qui a été voté pour ça. Bon, cette campagne doit atteindre tant de tonnage pour pouvoir fonctionner ..parce que il y a l'autonomie qui s'en vient ..alors quand on a pas ça c'est difficile. Dadjo D'accord. Mais d'une façon générale, quelles sanctions…. je ne sais pas si il y a des sanctions que vous prenez par rapport à un tel paysan qui joue sur deux tableaux à la fois ? Kan Bon …. Avec la réglementation sur la commercialisation…bon, parce que il y a des changements qui se font, l'Assemblée Générale décide …alors les paysans fautifs, il y en a, on suspend et puis ils sont poursuivis pour rembourser les dettes …bon c'est pourquoi on a une catégorisation : Catégorie 1, Catégorie 2, Catégorie 3… Dadjo C'est pas dangereux ce que vous faites ? Kombia Ici c'est la mise en place des documents comptables, des documents simples qui allaient permettre d'enregistrer les renseignements comptables dont nous avons besoin. Kombia Il a raison ! Effectivement , si il parle de développer le Conseil de Gestion, Kombia Oui …. On peut dire que l'état fuit ces paysans aujourd'hui…effectivement, peut être en partenariat les paysans doivent lutter puisque les grands pères ou bien les papas les ont abandonné ! Studio Des partenariats indispensables donc face à la libéralisation et au désengagement (que certains appellent \"démission\") de l'état. LES PAYSANS FACE A LA LIBÉRALISATION LE RETOUR DE LA CAISSE DE STABILISATION, UN VOEU EXPRIMÉ PAR LES PRODUCTEURS IVOIRIENS DE CAFE CACAO ? CHAPEAU : Kabié Alors une dernière question, la solution qui était préconisée face aux problèmes nés de la libéralisation, serait une meilleure intégration régionale des tous les pays producteurs de café cacao dans la sous région, qu'en est il aujourd'hui ? Est ce que il y a eu des tentatives réussies ? Lociné Il y a eu des tentatives mais il faut dire que les gens ne sont pas sincères. L'intégration régionale, on peut pas laisser faire par l'état : ils ont leurs idées ailleurs, ils ont leurs besoins ailleurs …Parce que quand vous parlez de l'intégration sous régionale, il y a le Ghana qui est dans un système stabilisé, il y a la Côte d'Ivoire à qui les bailleurs de fonds ont demandé de déstabiliser… il faut libéraliser pour qu'on vous paye vos dettes. Donc ces deux qui ont deux politiques différentes, peuvent pas mettre leurs produits ensemble pour vendre ! Alors il faut trouver une plate-forme, c'est à dire la stabilisation ….LES PAYSANS FACE A LA LIBÉRALISATION LES NOUVEAUX PAYSANS DE LA LIBÉRALISATION : L'EXEMPLE DU RIZ AU MALI CHAPEAU : Au Mali, depuis très longtemps, quand on pensait riz, on pensait Office du Niger, ce célèbre complexe rizicole créé en 1932 pendant la colonisation par un illuminé, Emile Bélime. Omniprésent pendant plus d'un demi-siècle, l'Office du Niger a perdu de sa superbe et les choses ont bien changé : privé de ses prérogatives, de son patrimoine et d'une bonne partie de son personnel, l'Office du Niger a dû, comme beaucoup d'autres secteurs, se soumettre à la libéralisation de l'économie. Un reportage réalisé à Ségou par Filifing Diakité. DURÉE DE LA BANDE : 7'33 Diakité Est ce que on préfère les nationaux aux étrangers parce que certains pensent que les étrangers …pour la plupart les pays dont proviennent nos partenaires, pourraient venir s'installer… : De grands agriculteurs des pays développés pourraient venir acheter des parcelles, s'installer …alors est ce que il est prévu des mesures de préférence des nationaux aux étrangers ? Diarra Ça c'est une très bonne question et c'est une question d'actualité. En fait l'Office du Niger, l'état, le gouvernement malien a des textes législatifs en la matière pour le mode de tenure des terres en zone Office du Niger. Bon pour ces privés, qu'ils soient nationaux ou étrangers, qui désirent s'installer en zone Office du Niger, doivent respecter des conditions qui permettent à tous les investisseurs de venir investir en zone Office du Niger. Donc tant que le Diarra Oui, je pense que l'état a conscience de cette situation, c'est pourquoi déjà les réflexions sont en cours pour déjà mettre à l'abri les producteurs, que j'appelle les exploitations familiales …donc l'état a mission de protéger les producteurs. Studio Ambroise Dembélé est informaticien de son état et croyant profiter des nouvelles conditions ouvertes par la libéralisation de la filière, il est devenu un de ces nouveaux paysans mais il a eu de nombreux déboires : Diakité Donc finalement, si je comprends bien, vous les nouveaux paysans, quand vous vous installez, en dehors du fait que la loi vous accorde cela, vous n'avez aucune autre protection, vous êtes laissés à vous même ? Touré Effectivement c'est ça. Studio La aussi donc le désengagement de l'état semble être interprété davantage comme une démission. LES PAYSANS FACE A LA LIBÉRALISATION DURÉE DE LA BANDE : 2'25 Sonon Nous sommes en Yacouto Alors vous voulez dire que en fait l'augmentation du prix des intrants qu'on observe depuis peu relève plutôt du marché international, mais est ce que il n'y a pas aussi l'organisation de la CAGIA ? Sonon Je dois dire que le problème de l'augmentation des prix des intrants n'est pas une donnée nouvelle en tant que telle c'est à dire qu'il faut dissocier le prix de session des produits aux producteurs et le coût réel et je ne sais pas si vous avez eu l'occasion de consulter les rapports de la SONAPRA et bien il est arrivé a beaucoup de moments ou la SONAPRA parce que c'était l'état, était obligée de subventionner, d'apporter un coût supplémentaire au prix des intrants pour que les paysans ne soient pas pénalisé. Yacouto Est ce que aujourd'hui la CAGIA ne peut pas négocier directement avec le gouvernement pour que le gouvernement puisse aussi subventionner les prix de session aux paysans ? Sonon Il y a une information qui n'est pas à la portée souvent de nous, communs des mortels, c'est que, au temps de la SONAPRA comme maintenant, le gouvernement apporte des subventions dans la mesure par exemple ou le LA QUALITÉ DU CAFÉ ET DU CACAO PÂTIT DE LA LIBÉRALISATION DES FILIÈRES CHAPEAU Kandia Pour maintenir le cap de cette bonne qualité, c'est sur que il faut que tout le monde arrive à passer par les coopératives parce que les coopératives ont un suivi et ces suivis font que tout le monde regarde dans le même sens. Donc j'invite tous les producteurs à rentrer dans les coopératives pour qu'il y ait un suivi pour qu'enfin ils arrivent à faire la qualité. Tassé Qu'est ce qui vous a amené à quitter la coopérative ? années avant la libéralisation s'il n'y avait que les coopératives, les sociétés coopératives qui achetaient le café et je crois que les planteurs avaient l'esprit coopératif c'est à dire ils venaient déposer leurs produits sans même demander un cent, on traitait le café et l'on partait vendre et on leur reversait l'argent et quand l'État ne subventionne plus les engrais, vous savez les conséquences sur, au niveau des plantations de café, les planteurs, beaucoup LES PAYSANS FACE A LA LIBÉRALISATION gouvernement paye la LES PAYSANS FACE A LA LIBÉRALISATION Le Cameroun et la Cote d'DURÉE DE LA BANDE : 8'26 Taye Et si on vous demandait aujourd'hui comment avoir des fèves de qualité, qu'est ce qu'il faut faire pour avoir des bonnes fèves de qualité? Kandia Il faut enlever les fèves plates et puis bien sécher mais avant d'arriver au séchoir, il faut fermenter le cacao 6 a 7 jours et c'est pas ce qui est fait Alors comment maintenir le cap de cette bonne qualité? il y a eu baisse ? Tiola : C'est sûr qu'il y a baisse, ce n'est même pas à demander vous savez que quand il y a déjà beaucoup d'intervenants sur le marché par rapport aux aujourd'hui. Taye Est-ce qu'au niveau du tonnage vous avez maintenu le même tonnage ou bien DURÉE DE LA BANDE : 2'45 Dolla Makué: Tassé : Golou Togo-  …comme ça on allait se débarrasser aux mains des commerçants. …comme ça on allait se débarrasser aux mains des commerçants. Dadjo Je comprend pas …vous voulez dire, vous créez des classes aussi au niveau DadjoJe comprend pas …vous voulez dire, vous créez des classes aussi au niveau Dadjo Est ce que les gens étaient d'accord ? des paysans ? DadjoEst ce que les gens étaient d'accord ? des paysans ? PROGRAMME DE RADIO RURALE -LIBÉRALISATION 02/5 PROGRAMME DE RADIO RURALE -LIBÉRALISATION 02/5 PROGRAMME DE RADIO RURALE -LIBÉRALISATION 02/5 PROGRAMME DE RADIO RURALE -LIBÉRALISATION 02/5  "}],"sieverID":"a5d5e429-67b9-4057-ae2a-e5d9b29fb687","abstract":"CTA est financé par l'Union Européenne Le Centre technique de coopération agricole et rurale (CTA) a été créé en 1983 dans le cadre de la Convention de Lomé entre les États du Groupe ACP (Afrique, Caraïbes, Pacifique) et les pays membres de l'Union européenne. Depuis 2000, le CTA exerce ses activités dans le cadre de l'Accord de Cotonou ACP-CE.Le CTA a pour mission de développer et de fournir des services qui améliorent l'accès des pays ACP à l'information pour le développement agricole et rural, et de renforcer les capacités de ces pays à produire, acquérir, échanger et exploiter l'information dans ce domaine."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"096afdec43963170d7bf4d3c6d95fb93","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f61c3c4e-300a-4e7d-92c3-ef79053cb4c2/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"Okulwanyisa ebiwuka n'endwadde z'ebimera nga tukwatidde wamu abakyala n'abaami: Ebibuuzo ebitera okubuuzibwa abakyala n'abaami nga tunoonyereza wamu n'okusomesa abalimi","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":159,"text":"Ebibuuzo ebitera okubuuzibwa Q1: Wano mu makaago ani asaanidde okubuuzibwa kubikwata ku bizibu byemusisinkana mu kulwanyisa ebiwuka n'endwadde z'ebimera? Ebiseera ebisinga tubuuza omuntu asinga okusalawo ennyo mu by'okulima oba kale omuntu gwetuba tusisinkanye awaka. Wabula tuwandiika kikula kye. Kino kituufu? Ebiseera ebisinga, abasajja n'abakazi batera okwetaba mumirimu ejenjawulo ejikwtagana nokulima ebirime, kubitereka oba n'okubirongoosa nga bamaze okukungulwa. N'olwekyo kiba kirungi netubuuza ebibuuzo abaami n'abakyala abawerako tusobole okufuna amagezi gabwe gebalina buli omu era n'ebizibu byabwe ssekinnoomu nga ekikula kye bwekili. Okubuuza yenna gwoba osanze ewaka si kirungi kubanga ebiddibwamu ababeera awaka naye nga tebamanyi bikwata kubyakulima tebitera kubeera bituufu. Okunonyereza okusinga mubyobulimi tekutera kwawula ndowooza za'baami oba abakyana naddala bwekituuka kunsoonga ezikwatagana ku kusalawo mubyobulimi naddala kubikwata kukulwanyisa ebiwuka nendwadde ezebimera. Ebibuuzo ebikwata kumirimu gy'abaami oba abakyala era n'okusalawo mu kulwanyisa endwadde n'ebiwuka mu bimera birina okuba nga bitegerekeka ate nga bya ssimba okusobola okufuna ekifaananyi ekirungi. Akasanduuko akasooka ku mabbali wano kalina ebibuuzo eby'okulabirako byetuyinza okubuuza abakyala n'abaami."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"Akatabo kano kalambulula emiganyulwo n'ebirungi byetuyinza okufuna singa tuba tusomesezza ennima y'ebirme byaffe ennungi wamu n'okubinonyerezaako singa tuba tukikoze nga tussizza essira kukikula ky'abantu. Wadde nga kizuuliddwa nti bwetussa essira ku kikula ky'abantu kiba kirungi mukunonyereza kuby'enima, engeri n'obukodyo bwetuyinza okukozesa sibyebintu by'oyinza okuyita ebyangu. Byetuzaako wamanga by'ebimu kubibuuzo ebitera okubuzibwa abamu kubanoonyereza baffe ab'ekikula ky'abantu mu kitongole ekinoonyereza kuby'obulimi mu nsi yonna mu nteekateeka yaffe ekola ku kunoonyereza ku mmere ey'omutaka, emirandira wamu n'amatooke. Ku nkomerero y'ekiwandiiko kino wansi tutaddeyo endagiriro y'ebisomebwa ebirala mw'osobola okufuna ebisingawo."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"Omukazi akung'anyizza emiti gya muwogo mu Tbough Khmum mu nsi eya Kambodiya. Okusimba emiti gya muwogo nga girina obulwadde kyongera okusaasaanya obulwadde bwa muwgo. Ekifaananyi kyakubwa: N. Minato. Q3: Tuyita abakazi n'abasajja mu misomo gyaffe, naye ate abakazi tebatera kujja. Kiki kyetuyinza okukola?"},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":"Abakazi nga bbo balina ebibalemesa okujja mu misomo, okugeza obudde tebubamala olwemirimu gyawaka eminji gyebalina (naddala ku makya olweggulo n'akawungeezi)."},{"index":5,"size":117,"text":"Okutambula kwabwe nakwo kutono olw'o'kuba nti balina okufuna olukusa okuva eri babbabwe, ngate n'oluusi betya nga bali mu bantu abangi (GENNOVATE RTB-HT Team, 2017). Obeera teekedwa okulonda obudde n'ebifo w'onosomeseza nga bisobozesa abakyala okujja okwetaba mu misomo. Mu mbeera ezimu, kyandibadde kirungi okukakasa nti abaami bafaayo okuyamba ku bakyala baabwe okusobola okujja okwetaba mu misomo egy'eby'obulimi. Ebimu ku byawandiikibwa biraga nti singa abakyala n'abaami bona baba betabye mu misomo, kyongera obunji bwa'balimi abateeka munkola ebiba bisomesebwa mumisomo. Era ebyawandikibwa byongera okulaga nti okwetaba kwabasajja mu misomo kwankizo nnyo bwekituuka mukuteeka munkola ebisomesebwa naddala nga bikwata ku nnima ey'omulembe eyandyetaaze ssente ennyingi kubanga abaami bano bebasinga okusalawo ku nsaasanya ya ssente awaka (Lambrecht n'abalala, 2016). Mu mbbera endala"},{"index":6,"size":16,"text":"Abakazi bafuyira ennimiro ezo'bumonde obuzungu nga bambadde ebyambalo ebiziyiza obulabe eri omuntu. Ekifananyi kyakubwa: N.D. Thoai."},{"index":7,"size":14,"text":"Abakazi nga bayiga enteekateeka yensigo obutaliibwa buwuka mu Assamu, Buyingi. Ekifananyi kyakubwa: M. Begum."},{"index":8,"size":18,"text":"wabula, abakyala baagala nnyo okusoma bokka na bokka nga temwegasseemu basajja. Awo nawo tulina okussa ekitiibwa ku'ndowooza yabwe."},{"index":9,"size":20,"text":"Q4: Twakizuula nti abalimi abakyala abava mu mawanga agamu tebasobola kusoma wadde okuwandiika olulimi lwaffe olunansi. Tuyinza tutya okubatuusaako obubaka?"},{"index":10,"size":36,"text":"Okusomesa nga mukozesa obubaka obuwandiike sikyekisaanidde mumbeera eyo. Bwoba osomesa kirungi obeerewo nomukyala avunula byoyogera era ofube okubeerawo nebyokulabilako, era owe bosomessa omukisa okwetaba mukusomesa nga osomesezza mu nnimiro so si mukibiina basobole okuwulira obulungi nokuyiga."},{"index":11,"size":195,"text":"Q5: Abalimisa abasinga basajja, kyokka nga ate twandyagadde okutuusa obubaka obukwata kuby'okulima eri n'abakyala. Tukole tutya? Singa tukolagana n'abanonyereza oba banasayansi b'eby'obulimi nga kw'ogasse n'abalimisa mu kulwanyinsa endwadde n'ebiwuka by'ebirime nga basajja bokka tekijja kugasa wadde okukola amakulu. Polojekiti eno erina okubaamu abakugu ab'enjawulo bannassayansi wamu n'abo abakola ku mbeera z'abantu ate nga mulimu abaami n'abakyala mukyenkanyi. Abakugu mu mbeera z'abantu balina okukolagana ne bannassayansi okuva polojekiti lw'etandise okutuuka kunkomelero-katugambe okuva mu kuteekateekera polojekiti okutuusa lw'enekebejjebwa oba nga ebirubirirwa byayo ebyabagibwa mu ntandikwa bitukirizibbwa. N'ekirala kiba kyamugaso nnyo singa abakugu abaddukanya polojekiti eno emirimu gyabwe bagikola nga gissa essira ku buli kikula kyamuntu. Abakyala bo bayinza okugamba nti baagala omulimisa nga mukyala si lwakuba nti afaananya ekikula nabo naye kubanga betaaya singa baba boogera oba okukubaganya ebirowoozo bwebaba bali ne mukyala munaabwe (Lamontage-Godwin n'abalala, 2017). Wabula singa abakyala abalimisa tebaliiwo, osobola okufunayo abakyala abafaayo ennyo kubyo'bulimi nobatendeka nga abasomesa baabalala, ate oluvannyuma nabo nebatendeka bakyala banaabwe. Kino nno kizzaamu abakyala amaanyi okwesowolayo nebakulembera banaabwe nokutandika okwekiririzaamu. Era abasomesa abakyaaala basobola okukola entegeka esobozesa abalimi abakyaala okusoma obulungi. Kyazuulibwa nti abakyala bassa nnyo mu nkola ebiba bibasomeseddwa singa bakyala banaabwe be babeera babibasomesezza (Kondylis n'abalala, 2016)."},{"index":12,"size":87,"text":"Q6: Tetwagala kwongera bakyala buzibu yénsonga lwaki tetutandikawo nkola mpya. Tukole tutya? Okugeza okubika ennimiro, okutemera ebikata nóbuyonjo bwomusiri nkola nnunji eziziyiza akawuka kalumonde, naye enkola zino zetaaga amanyi manji, obudde nénsimbi. Enkola eyokussa obuwuka obumanyiddwa mubutonde okulya obuwuka bunabwo nga obwo obulya amalagala galumonde, okukozesa obuwoowo obusikiriza obuwuka n'okukozesa ebifuuyira ebyamasanyalaze ebiriko obukebe obutono bisobola okukeendeeza kubudde n'esaawa ezeetaagisa okulwanyisa obuwuka mumisiri gyálumonde. Okuwaayo obuyambi nga, ebyuma ebikozesebwa mukufuuyira, mukukabala, n'okukungula Mama ne mutabani we mu lusuku lwabwe olw'amatooke mu Isingiro, Uganda. Ekifaananyi kyakubwa: A. Rietveld."},{"index":13,"size":19,"text":"Omukugu wékitongole ekya CIP nga annyonnyola engeri y'okumezaamu endokwa z'obummoonde obuzungu mu Kvemo Kartli, Georgia. Ekifaananyi kyakubwa: I. Mdzeluri."}]},{"head":"EYAKULIRA OKUWANDIIKA AKATABO KANO Nozomi Kawarazuka","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Wa bya sayansi mu CIP • [email protected]"}]},{"head":"Okusiima eri abalala abayambako mu kuwandiika akatabo kano","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Twebaza Jan Kreuze (CIP), James Legg (IITA), Netsayi Mudege (CIP), Steven Michael Cole (IITA), Jonathan Newby (Alliance Bioversity-CIAT) ne Renee Bullock (ILRI) olw'omulimu ogw'okuwa amagezi ku mpaandiika eyakatabo kano okuviiraddala nga katandikibwa."},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"Okunoonyereza kuno kwakolebwa nga kuvuggirirwa ensimbi ekibiina eky'obwannakyewa mu nsi yonna ekya CGIAR ekinoonyereza kuby'obulimi nga kiyita mu nteekateeka yakyo enoonyereza ku mmere ey'omuttaka, ey'emirandira wanu n'amatooke era nekiwagirwa ensawo yakyo eyatondebwawo bannamikago. Basangibwa ku kibanja eky'omutimbagano: (https:// www.cgiar.org/funders/)."},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":"Omusajja nga afuuyira eddagala mu nnimiro yentula nga tewali yadde nekyokwekumisa kyayambade nga ali Mbale, Uganda. Ekifaananyi kyakubwa: J. Okonya. kisobola okuba ekyokuzzamu amanyi eri abalimi abaami n'abakyala naddala bwetituuka mukuffissa obudde namanyi gebayinza okukozesa mu nga baziyizza nókulwanyisa ebiwuka néndwadde zebirime."},{"index":4,"size":149,"text":"Q7: Twetaaga okulowooza kukikula kyabalimi oba baami oba bakyaala bwetuba nga tuloondoola emisoso ejikwata kukuziyiza nokulwanyisa ebiwuka néndwade zébirime jejiba jakolebwaamu? Ye, kyetaagisa. Olina okubabuuza engeri nga bo abakyala n'abaami gyebaganyuddwa mu kusoma era n'engeri gyebanabissa mu nkola mu nnimiro zaabwe. Eby'okuganyulwamu eri abakyaala bo biyinza okubeera nga biri ku bo boka okugeza okwongera okwekkiririzaamu era n'okwongera okulabirira ennimiro zaabwe zibale emmere emala awaka. Abakyala era batera okugabana obubaka obuba bubasomeseddwa n'ebaganda baabwe, balamu baabwe era n'emikwano gyabwe (GENNOVATE RTB-Team, 2010). N'olwekyo ng'ogyeko abakyala ababa basomye, waliyo n'abantu abalala abayinza okuganyulwa mu kusomesebwa okwo wewaawo nga baba tebakufunye butereevu. Okulondoola ebikwata kumisomo nga ofudeyo nnyo eri ekikula ky'abayizi (baami oba bakyaala) kiyambannyo abanoonyerezza okwekenenya era n'okwetegereza engeri abasomessa gyebabeera bafuddeyo ku biki abaami n'abakyala byebaba basuubira okuganyulwa nga bo abanonyereza bwebaba baakiteekateeka mu ntandikwa ya polojecti. Era kino kiyamba okutema empenda ku ngeri abalisomesa abalala mumaaso bwebalikolamu emirimu gyabwe."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Akasanduuko 1: Ebibuuzo eby'okulabirako ebiggyayo ekikula Ebibuuzo ebitera okubuuzibwa Ebibbuzo ebiggyayo ekikula ky'omuntu Ekikula ky'abuzibwa  Mwami  Mukyala Ekikula ky'abuuzibwa n'ekika ky'amakaage  Mwami, amaka gakulirwa mwami  Mwami, amaka gakulirwa mukyala  Mukyala, amaka gakulirwa mwami  Mukyala, amaka gakulirwa mukyala    Kika kirala ( kinnyonnyole……..…….)  Kika kirala ( kinnyonnyole……..…….) Mu maka wano ani Wano awaka ani asalawo ku ssente zemuba  Mu maka wano aniWano awaka ani asalawo ku ssente zemuba asalawo ennyo ku bikwata kuby'okulima? muteeka mu kugula eddagala eritta ebiwuka mu nnimiro?  Ebiseera ebisinga mwami asalawo ennyo ku bikwata kuby'okulima?muteeka mu kugula eddagala eritta ebiwuka mu nnimiro?  Ebiseera ebisinga mwami   Omwami asinga ku mukyala   Omwami asinga ku mukyala  Mwami  Omukyala asinga ku mwami   Mwami Omukyala asinga ku mwami  Mukyala  Ebiseera ebisinga mukyala   Mukyala Ebiseera ebisinga mukyala  Bombi  Muntu mulala wano awaka ( )  Bombi Muntu mulala wano awaka () Mu maka gano ani Mu maka gano ani:  Mu maka gano aniMu maka gano ani: avunaanyizibwa kukutangira n' okulwanyisa ebiwuka n' ebirwadde by' ebirime Agula eddagala ly'ebiwuka? Afuuyira eddagala? Akoola omuddo mu nnimiro?  avunaanyizibwa kukutangira n' okulwanyisa ebiwuka n' ebirwadde by' ebirimeAgula eddagala ly'ebiwuka? Afuuyira eddagala? Akoola omuddo mu nnimiro?  Mwami Ayoza engoye ezikozesebwa mukufuuyira?   MwamiAyoza engoye ezikozesebwa mukufuuyira?  Mukyala    Mukyala  Bombi    Bombi  "}],"sieverID":"51d60231-e8a6-47a4-b808-6213111c640e","abstract":"GENNOVATE RTB-HT Team. (2017). Gender in agricultural change: Towards more inclusive innovation in farming communities (GENNOVATE Report to the CGIAR Research Programs on Roots, Tubers and Bananas and Humidtropics)."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"09c4869fabc501a2fbcad1131ccc4d0b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a04c4733-eb8e-4936-8fd4-c7a62d39fd29/retrieve"},"pageCount":15,"title":"Nitrogen Deficiency Tolerance and Responsiveness of Durum Wheat Genotypes in Ethiopia","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":236,"text":"Durum wheat (Triticum turgidum var. durum Desf ) is an important food crop in the world and an endemic species of Sub-Saharan Africa. It has been grown for many years by smallholder farmers in the Ethiopian Highlands to ensure production for their own consumption [1] and income generation as input to food processing industries. Prior to the introduction of improved bread wheat varieties, durum wheat was the dominant (60-70%) wheat crop produced in Ethiopia. However, due to the introduction of bread wheat from international breeding programs into the country and its widespread adaptation with satisfactory yield potential, farmers have given less attention to durum wheat cultivation, despite the crop's importance in various aspects. Currently, it accounts for 20% of total wheat production and 30% of both cultivated land and smallholder wheatproducing households across the entire area covered [2]. According to [3], bread and durum wheat were produced in Ethiopia by approximately 4.94 million households during the \"meher\" and \"belg\" (rain and dry) seasons on an estimated 2.13 million ha of land, with an annual production of 6.23 million tons and a mean national yield of 3.05 t•ha −1 . Regardless of the long history of durum wheat cultivation and its importance in Ethiopian agriculture, its average productivity remains far below the world average (3.5 t•ha −1 ) [4]. Tis is partly due to the lack of varieties that are resistant to biotic and abiotic stresses [5,6]."},{"index":2,"size":121,"text":"Among the abiotic stresses, nitrogen defciency is one of the most important crop production constraints in Ethiopia, where soils are generally defcient in nutrients [7][8][9]. Nitrogen is an important nutrient for plant growth, development, and productivity, as well as for efcient and proftable crop production. Tus, limited nitrogen supply to the crop substantially reduces plant physiological activities, morphological growth, and hence grain as well as biomass yields [10,11]. Currently, nitrogen efciency in crop production has emerged as a highly desirable trait from economic and environmental perspectives [12]. Furthermore, with increased awareness of environmental protection and sustainable agricultural production, it is more important than ever to include selection for low-nitrogen-tolerant wheat cultivars for high yield and quality in the breeding process [13]."},{"index":3,"size":112,"text":"Genotypes that perform well under optimal or high nitrogen conditions may not perform well under low N conditions. As a result, selection in both low and high N environments is critical for identifying high nitrogen use-efcient and/or tolerant wheat genotypes with the potential to perform well in both N environments [14]. Such information is very important, particularly in the case of resource-poor farmers, since it enables them to target appropriate cultivars that can result in optimum yields under low N supplies. It also avoids signifcant yield reduction from using inefcient cultivars and economic loss and environmental degradation due to the application of high amounts of nitrogen in the case of nonresponsive cultivars."},{"index":4,"size":151,"text":"Since such information is scanty in Ethiopia in particular and in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) countries in general, resource-poor farmers have still been applying the same quantity of nitrogen fertilizer regardless of the existence of substantial diversities in nitrogen efciency among the available cultivars, as reported by several studies [10,[15][16][17][18]. Tus, in the context of continuous nutrient mining without equivalent replenishment to the soil in Ethiopia and SSA in general, where suboptimal fertilizers application is a very common practice, identifcation and availing of N-efcient and/or N-responsive cultivars among resource-poor farmers, as well as increasing yield, are invaluable for sustaining wheat production and productivity. Te availability of information for such cultivars that can produce high yields under optimum N conditions while also performing better under low N conditions is of great signifcance to the small-landholding farmers in Ethiopia because it allows them to simultaneously address the needs of both low-and high-input production systems."},{"index":5,"size":90,"text":"Te most widely used concept of nitrogen efciency in plant breeding is to exploit existing genetic variations under nitrogen stress conditions and select superior genotypes based on their yield, yield components, physiological traits, and stress screening indices [19,20]. Te conventional plant breeding technique of selecting for such traits has signifcantly increased wheat productivity under both optimum and low nitrogen conditions. Diferent studies [13,21] showed the presence of genetic variability in nitrogen use efciency in terms of N uptake and N utilization, which has been used to develop low-N-tolerant wheat varieties."},{"index":6,"size":192,"text":"Despite the availability of huge durum genetic resources, little research has been conducted in Ethiopia on the variation of durum wheat genotypes for low-nitrogen tolerance and responsiveness to nitrogen application. Consequently, there is a need to screen the available durum wheat genotypes for N-efciency as well as for their responsiveness to N application and provide information useful for the breeding program. In line with this, we hypothesized that the two hundred durum wheat genotypes covered in this study show substantial genetic diversity for N-efciency and Nresponsiveness. Terefore, the main objectives of this study were (i) to evaluate and select durum wheat genotypes for low-nitrogen tolerance and responsiveness to N application and (ii) to determine the most efective stress tolerance indices useful for the selection of low-N-tolerant durum wheat genotypes.  1). Te mean annual rainfall of the study areas ranged from 865-1020 mm, while the mean maximum and minimum temperatures varied from 20-28.8 °C and 8-12.3 °C, respectively (Table 1). Te main rainy season lasts from June to September at all sites. Te major soil order in the study areas was black vertisol with high wet aggregate stability and water logging capacity [22]."}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Soil Sampling and Analysis.","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":195,"text":"Before sowing, three composite soil samples were collected from each of the three sites, and soil nitrogen analysis was performed according to the standard procedure (Table 2). Te collected soil samples were air-dried, crushed using a mortar and pestle, and sieved to pass through a 2 mm mesh. Te soil samples were analyzed for textural class, soil pH, total nitrogen (N), available phosphorous (av. P), organic matter (OM) contents, and cation exchange capacity (CEC) at the soil laboratory of the Debre Zeit Agricultural Research Center (DZARC). Te pH of the composite soil samples was measured in 1 : 2.5 soil water suspensions. Te total N, available P, and OM contents of the soil were determined by the semi-micro-Kjeldahl [23,24] and wet digestion [25] methods, respectively. Te neutral ammonium acetate (CH 3 COONH 4 ) saturation method [26] was employed to determine the CEC of the soils. Te results of the physicochemical properties of the soils are shown in Table 2. Te total N contents of the studied soils ranged from 0.08-0.12%, thereby belonging to the very low to low category [27]. Consequently, the initial status of the soils was found suitable for establishing the experiments."}]},{"head":"Treatments and Experimental","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"Design. Two hundred durum wheat genotypes obtained from the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre (CIM-MYT), the Ethiopian Biodiversity Institute (EBI), and the durum wheat breeding program of the Debre Zeit Agricultural Research Center (DZARC) were evaluated under low and optimum nitrogen (N) conditions (Table 3 and Table S1). Te experiments were conducted on a feld that had previously been cropped with tef (Eragrostis tef (Zucc.) Trotter)."},{"index":2,"size":227,"text":"Te N treatments consisted of two levels: unfertilized (low N), and 92 kg•N•ha −1 (optimum N). Te experiments were laid out in an alpha-lattice design with two replications. To accommodate both the N fertilized and unfertilized plots, each block was divided into two adjacent 1.5 meters apart from sub-blocks. Te entire test genotypes were sown separately in the adjacent sub-blocks with and without N. Hand sorting was used to select clean seeds of each genotype to a reasonably uniform size before sowing. Planting was carried out on July 24, 2020, July 25, 2020, and August 6, 2020, at the Debre Zeit, Minjar, and Chefe Donsa locations, respectively. Te plots were 1 m × 1.2 m (1.2 m 2 ) in size and spaced 0.5 m apart. One of the sub-blocks in each block received 92 kg•N•ha −1 fertilizer in splits, with one-third of the total amount applied at the time of sowing and the remaining two-thirdstop-dressed during the tillering stage of the crop development, while the other sub-block was not fertilized. Te recommended rate of phosphorus fertilizer (10 kg•P•ha −1 ) in the form of triple supperphosphate was uniformly applied to all plots in order to reduce the confounding efect of other nutrients. Within each block, the test genotypes were assigned to plots at random. Weeding was carried out by hand, so the test felds were weed-free."},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"To control stem, leaf, and yellow rust infestations, the fungicide Nativo 300SC (200 g/l Tebuconazole + 100 g/l Trifoxystrobin) was used, and all other crop management techniques were applied uniformly to all plots as per the recommendations. Experimental felds were harvested when all genotypes reached harvest maturity on December 12, 2020, at Debre Zeit; on December 17, 2020, at Minjar; and on January 4, 2021, at Chefe Donsa."}]},{"head":"Data Collection.","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":210,"text":"Data on days to 50% heading (DH), days to 90% physiological maturity (DM), plant height (PH), number of fertile tillers per plant (NFT), spike length (SL), number of spikelets per spike (SPS), and number of seeds per spike (NSPS) were collected following the procedures used by [28]. Te measurements of PH, NFT, SPS, SL, and NSPS were taken from ten randomly selected plant samples per plot. After plants were manually harvested, data on aboveground biomass yield (BY) and grain yield (GY) were recorded and converted to a hectare basis. Te BY was measured in the feld using spring balance during harvesting. Te harvested biomass was air-dried and threshed, and the grain yield (GY) was determined using an analytical balance and adjusted to a standard moisture content of 12.5%. Harvest index (HI) was calculated as the ratio of grain to the total biomass yield. Te normalized diference vegetative index (NDVI) was measured using a hand-held green seeker optical sensor. Te relative GY, BY, and NDVI readings were calculated by dividing the GY, BY, and NDVI readings of a genotype under low N by the GY, BY, and NDVI readings of the same genotype under optimal N. Te stress tolerance indices were computed as described by [29] as per the following equations: "},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"where Y ns and Y st are the yields of a given genotype under optimum and low N conditions, respectively; whereas μY ns and μY st are the mean yields of all the tested genotypes under optimum and low N conditions, respectively."},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"where P ns and P st are performances of a given genotype unstressed and stressed conditions."}]},{"head":"Screening Procedure for N-Efciency and N-Responsiveness.","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"Te durum wheat genotypes were classifed for N-efciency and responsiveness using the procedure set by [30]. Te genotype performances under optimum N were plotted against their performances under low N. Tis categorization enabled one to diferentiate between N-efcient and Ninefcient genotypes based on above-and below-average performances under low N, respectively. Similar categorization was also made for the N-responsive and Nnonresponsive genotypes, relying on above-and belowaverage performances under optimum N, respectively [10,30]. Eventually, the durum wheat genotypes were classifed as efcient or inefcient, responsive or nonresponsive to N fertilization based on the aforementioned criteria using sigma plot software."}]},{"head":"Data Analyses.","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"Te F-max ratio for homogeneity of variance was carried out to determine the validity of the experiment and to combine the data over locations [31]. Since the error variances for all traits were homogeneous, the data were pooled and analyzed across locations. Te data were subjected to a combined analysis of variance using Meta-R software [32]. Te phenotypic correlation coefcients were calculated using R-software version 4.1.3 [33] to determine the relationships between tolerance indices and grain yield, as well as the other quantitative and physiological traits and grain yield under optimum and low N conditions. Te factoextra R package was used to create correlation plots."}]},{"head":"Results and Discussion","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Yield, Yield Components, and Physiological Traits.","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"Te combined analysis of variance across the three locations revealed that the tested genotypes varied signifcantly in all of the measured variables for yield, yield components, and other traits under both N unstressed (Y ns ) and stressed (Y st ) conditions (Tables S6 and S7). Likewise, the genotype by environment interaction efects were also highly signifcant for all the measured traits in both environments except for the number of fertile tillers plant −1 (NFT), spike length (SL), the number of seed spike −1 (NSPS), and harvest index (HI) under optimum nitrogen (N) conditions. Tis variation could be due to genetic variability among genotypes."},{"index":2,"size":138,"text":"Grain yield difered signifcantly (P < 0.01) between durum wheat genotypes grown under optimum and low-N environments (Table S6). Tis demonstrated that the genotypes responded diferently to the N application. Te interaction of genotypes and environments was also signifcant (P < 0.01) indicating that genotypes performed diferently in various environmental conditions.  S2). In general, about 17% of the tested genotypes performed well under low N conditions, which was consistent with the fndings of [37], who reported that when plant material performs relatively well under low N input, yield reduction does not exceed 35-40%. Genotypes with the lowest yield reduction percentages are considered tolerant to low N conditions, whereas genotypes with the highest yield reduction percentages are sensitive to low N conditions. Terefore, the tolerant genotypes could serve as potential donors in the development of N-efcient durum wheat varieties."},{"index":3,"size":164,"text":"Te biomass yield (BY) of durum wheat was also signifcantly (P < 0.01) afected by the genotypes and their interaction with the environment under both optimum and low-N environments (Table S6). Te BY was relatively higher under both N conditions for genotypes 181 and 72 as compared to genotypes 101 and 5, which produced low biomass yields (Table S2). Te genotypes with the highest biomass yield may have a higher tillering capacity and higher N uptake efciency. Moreover, NDVI signifcantly (P < 0.001) varied among genotypes and locations under low N and among genotypes under optimum N (Table S6). In line with this study, [38] noted signifcant variation in plant height (PH), NSPS, BY, HI, and the normalized diference vegetative index (NDVI) among wheat cultivars. [10,34] also found signifcant genotype by environment interactions for PH and NDVI in wheat under optimum and low N conditions. Moreover, [39] found signifcant variation in wheat germplasm grown for semiarid climate adaptability in growth, yield, and yield-related traits."}]},{"head":"Stress Tolerance Indices.","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":132,"text":"Te combined analysis of variance across the three locations revealed highly signifcant genotype variations and genotype-by-environment interactions for all the stress indices except for yield stability index (YSI), tolerance index (TOL), and relative reduction of yield due to stress (RRS) (Table S7). Similar to these results, [40] found signifcant winter wheat cultivar variations and cultivar by location interaction for stress tolerance indicators like MP, GMP, and STI, but not TOL. In contrast to our fndings, they reported no signifcant efects of genotype and genotype by location interaction on SSI. Furthermore, unlike the present fndings [41], we observed signifcant efects of wheat cultivar and cultivar-by-environment interaction on YSI under waterlogging stress. Tis disparity could be attributed to diferences in the test genotypes and the environmental conditions under which the experiments were carried out."},{"index":2,"size":188,"text":"Te present results demonstrated that durum wheat genotypes with higher grain yields under optimum N had greater SSI and MP values, whereas those with higher grain yields under low N had larger STI, YI, and GMP values. Under both N conditions, high-yielding genotypes, such as 101, 140, 155, 10, and 27, also had higher SSI, STI, YSI, MP, YI, and GMP values (Table S3). According to [42], higher GMP and YSI values have been used as selection criteria for identifying nitrogen stress-tolerant cultivars with high grain yield potential under limited N supply. Similarly, [38] used stress indices as selection criteria to identify promising and poor-performing wheat cultivars for low-N tolerance [43], which identifed N stress-tolerant durum wheat genotypes under normal and stress conditions using TOL, SSI, GMP, and YSI. However, [40] proposed using STI in conjunction with GMP and MP to screen cultivars. Accordingly, in this study, genotypes such as 155, 101, and 27 were the most promising of the 200 durum wheat genotypes evaluated for low-N tolerance. Moreover, these genotypes gave higher grain yields under optimum N conditions, indicating that they are also the most responsive ones."}]},{"head":"Screening of Genotypes for Low N-Tolerance and N-","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Responsiveness. Te screening of the 200 durum wheat genotypes for low N-tolerance and N-responsiveness was made based on absolute and relative values of grain yield, biomass yield, and NDVI values, as presented follows."}]},{"head":"Screening of Genotypes Based on Grain Yields.","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":204,"text":"According to [30], categorization of nutrient response effciencies of crop genotypes classifed 58 genotypes (29%) as highly N-efcient and responsive, 30 genotypes (15%) as efcient and nonresponsive, 42 genotypes (21%) as inefcient and responsive, and 70 genotypes (35%) as inefcient and nonresponsive to N application (Figure 1). All the tested genotypes yielded more under optimum than low N conditions, and this can be attributed to the genetic variabilities of the genotypes and the defciency of nutrients, particularly N, necessary for plant growth and development.   121, 158, 191, 142, 27, 10, 80, 164, and 45 were found to be the most desirable genotypes because they were grouped as efcient and responsive to N and produced higher grain yield under both N defciency and sufciency. On the other hand, genotypes 6, 22, 29, 79, 171, 199, 151, 193, 102, 47, and 3 were considered as being among the most inefcient and nonresponsive to N application (Figure 1 and Table 4) because they produced lower grain yield under both optimum and low N conditions. Similar to these results, [10,44,45] used grain yield to categorize diverse wheat genotypes as efcient and responsive, efcient and nonresponsive, inefcient and responsive, and inefcient and nonresponsive to N, zinc, and manganese, respectively."},{"index":2,"size":102,"text":"Relative GY also varied signifcantly among durum wheat genotypes, ranging from 30.2% for genotype 22 to 77.1% for genotype 175. Genotype 175 had the highest relative grain yield, followed by genotypes 100, 164, 14, and 17, while genotype 22 had the lowest relative grain yield, followed by genotypes 74, 16, 171, and 128 (Figure 2). Based on relative grain yield, 48.5% and 51.5% of the total genotypes evaluated were classifed as N-efcient and inefcient, respectively. Relative yield has been used as a parameter for genotype ranking in several studies, including that of [46] in wheat, [47] in potato, and [48] in barley."}]},{"head":"Screening of Genotypes Based on Biomass Yields.","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":320,"text":"Based on the data presented in Figure 3, of the 200 durum wheat genotypes evaluated, 70 (35%), 26 (13%), 28 (14%), and 76 (38%), were considered efcient and responsive, efcient and nonresponsive, inefcient and responsive, and inefcient and nonresponsive, respectively. Te genotypes 27,80,84,43,57,49,70,45,33,9, 54, and 82 had higher biomass yields under low N conditions compared to genotypes 6, 102, 151, 193, 2, 126, 22, 87, 104, 31, and 3, which had lower biomass yields (Figure 3 and Table 4), possibly due to variation in N uptake and utilization. Terefore, genotypes with high biomass yield under low N condition can be considered as low N tolerant and those with lower biomass yield are grouped as low N sensitive genotypes when biomass yield is regarded as a selection parameter for N efciency. Tese top-performing genotypes also gave greater biomass yields under optimum N conditions, indicating that they were among the most responsive. Te results showed that the majority of Ethiopian landraces produced higher biomass yields under low N conditions than genotypes obtained from other sources, which could be attributed to the 'genotypes' high biomass production capacity and possibly high N uptake efciencies under low N conditions. Similarly, [10] screened twelve bread and durum wheat cultivars for N efciency, considering total above ground biomass yield as a categorization criterion. [49] also classifed ten wheat genotypes as efcient, responsive, inefcient, or nonresponsive for phosphorus use efciency based on total dry matter biomass yield. Te current results indicate the need to consider both BY and GY to categorize durum wheat genotypes for Nefciency and N-responsiveness, with due emphasis given to GY. Tis was because most genotypes characterized as N-efcient and N-responsive based on BY alone did not similarly give a higher grain yield under both optimum and low N conditions. In this regard, [10] suggested relying more on GY than BY as the main criteria for the categorization of wheat genotypes for Nefciency and/or N-responsiveness."},{"index":2,"size":106,"text":"Te relative BY varied greatly among durum wheat genotypes, with 50% of the total genotypes classifed as Nefcient and the remaining 50% classifed as N inefcient, indicating the presence of variability among the tested materials. As a result, genotypes 200, 146, 100, 188, 57, 39, 14, 168, 110, 70, and 167 produced the highest BY yield and performed best under both N conditions (Figure 4 and Table 4). Genotypes 22,16,74,79,11,183,132,and 184, on the other hand, were among durum wheat genotypes with a relative BY of less than 45%. Similarly, based on relative dry matter yield [50], we grouped durum wheat genotypes as acid soil-tolerant and intolerant.  "}]},{"head":"Screening of Genotypes Based on NDVI Readings.","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":164,"text":"Te use of NDVI readings allows for quick and accurate crop tracking of N status and yield estimation in crops [51]. According to the fndings of this study, durum wheat genotypes difered greatly based on NDVI readings. Based on this criterion, about 31.5, 13, 16, and 39.5% of the total genotypes evaluated were classifed as efcient and responsive, efcient and nonresponsive, inefcient and responsive, and inefcient and nonresponsive to N fertilization, respectively (Figure 5). Te highest NDVI readings were found in genotypes 45,9,84,80,196,43,35,48,55,191, and 49, while the lowest readings were recorded in genotypes 193, 151, 143, 3, 134, 188, 117, 120, and 93 under low N conditions. Tese variations could be attributed to diferences in N uptake and utilization efciencies and genetic variability for the response to N applications among durum wheat genotypes [10]. Te potential of using NDVI readings as a tool to distinguish and identify superior wheat genotypes grown under dry land and irrigated conditions was demonstrated by the authors of [52]."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"Te relative NDVI values also varied signifcantly among durum wheat genotypes grown under optimum and low-N    environments. Te genotype with the highest relative NDVI value was 200, followed by 39, 57, 9, 160, 146, 17, and 166. On the other hand, the genotype with the lowest relative NDVI value was 79, followed by 3,22,172,193,44,151, and 10 (Figure 6 and Table 4). In this study, 46.5% of the genotypes were N-efcient, while the remaining 53.5% were Ninefcient (Figure 6)."},{"index":3,"size":448,"text":"Generally, the screening procedure for N-efcient and N-responsive durum wheat genotypes in the current study is summarized in Table 4. Results presented in Table 4 show that the use of multiple criteria is more reliable in selecting N-efcient and N-responsive durum wheat genotypes than using single or few criteria. Biomass yield and NDVI reading were chosen as selection criteria over other agronomic traits      International Journal of Agronomy because they demonstrated a moderately signifcant correlation with grain yield under optimum and low N conditions. Te description of the best-performing genotypes based on the fndings of this study, including their pedigree, origin, and performance for key traits, is shown in Table 5.  S4). Tere were strong positive correlations between GY and SSI (r � 0.99 * * ), GMP (r � 0.81 * * ), and STI (r � 0.77 * * ) but only a moderate correlation with YI (r � 0.55 * * ), and no correlation with MP, TOL, and RRS under optimum N conditions (Figure 7 and Table S4). A weak but signifcant negative correlation (r � −0.083 * * ) was observed between GY and YSI. Positive and signifcant correlations of GY were found with YI (r � 0.99 * * ), GMP (r � 0.93 * * ), STI (r � 0.92 * * ), and MP (r � 0.74 * * ) under low N conditions. Moderately signifcant and positive correlations of GY were found with YSI (r � 0.57 * * ) and SSI (r � 0.49 * ). GY and RRS had a signifcant negative correlation (r � −0.21 * * ). TOL (r � −0.57) was negatively and nonsignifcantly correlated with GY under the low N condition (Figure 7 and Table S4). Tese results generally revealed that the strongest correlations were found between GY and SSI and between GY and YI under optimum and low N growth conditions, respectively, indicating that selection based on these indices under both N conditions could be more efective. Te stress screening indices GMP, STI, YI, and SSI showed similar correlation trends with GY under both optimum and low N conditions (Figure 7); thus, either one or multiples of these traits can be used to select low-N-tolerant durum wheat genotypes. In accordance with our fndings, [53] reported that STI, GMP, and MP were the stress indices of choice for identifying low-N-tolerant wheat cultivars. In line with our fndings, the correlation of grain yield with most of the stress indices under normal and stressed conditions was reported by [54,55] in durum wheat for drought tolerance, [56] in spring wheat for heat stress tolerance, [57] in maize for drought tolerance, and [38,40] in wheat for low-N tolerance."}]},{"head":"Relationships among","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":190,"text":"Additionally, the SSI screening index had strong and signifcant positive correlations with MP (r � 0.95 * * ), GMP (r � 0.77 * * ), TOL (r � 0.74 * * ), and STI (r � 0.73 * * ) (Figure 7 and Table S4). It had a moderate and signifcant correlation with YI (r � 0.49 * * ). STI depicted signifcant positive correlations with GMP (r � 0.97 * * ), YI (r � 0.92 * * ), and MP (r � 0.90 * * ). A negative but signifcant correlation was observed between YSI and RRS (r � −0.97 * * ), and it is moderately correlated with TOL (r � −0.58 * * ) and YI (0.57 * * ). MP had signifcant correlations with GMP (r � 0.93 * * ) and YI (0.74 * * ). TOL was moderately correlated with RRS (r � 0.57 * * ), while the correlation between RRS and YI (r � −0.57 * * ) was moderate but negative. Te YI was highly correlated to GMP (r � 0.92 * * ) (Figure 7 and Table S4)."}]},{"head":"Grain Yield versus Yield","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":182,"text":"Components. Correlation coefcients were also estimated for grain yield against phenological, yield components, and physiological traits under both optimum and low N conditions (Figure 8 and Table S5). Under optimum N condition, there were moderately signifcant and positive correlations between GY and BY (r � 0.56 * * ), HI (r � 0.51 * * ), and NDVI values (r � 0.32 * * ) (Figure 8 and Table S5). GY had a signifcant but weak correlation with NSPS (r � 0.18 * * ). BY showed a signifcant positive correlation with NDVI values (r � 0.80 * * ), and moderately signifcant positive correlations with DM, PH, NFT, SL, and SPS, but it showed signifcant negative correlations with NSPS and HI. Similarly, NDVI exhibited a moderate to highly signifcant positive correlations with all traits studied except NSPS and HI (Figure 8). Te strong correlation of NDVI with BY and GY shows a signifcant agronomic and biological relationship between these traits, as NDVI can be used to predict the BY and N status of crops in the feld, as indicated by [58]."},{"index":2,"size":187,"text":"Similar correlation trends with that under optimum N were observed under low N conditions, as well. GY correlated signifcantly with HI (r � 0.67 * * ), BY (r � 0.63 * * ) and NDVI values (r � 0.33 * * ) (Figure 9 and Table S5). Both BY and NDVI had signifcant positive correlations with DH, DM, PH, NFT, SL, and SPS but a negative association with NSPS (Figure 9). In this study, all phenological and yield component traits were positively and signifcantly correlated to each other except NSPS, which had a negative correlation with all traits except GY and HI under both optimum and low N conditions (Figures 8 and 9; Table S5). Generally, the relationship between grain yield and BY, HI, and NDVI under low N conditions is slightly higher than under high N conditions. In agreement with our results, [34] reported a signifcant and positive correlation between GY and NDVI values under high and low N conditions. Similar association durum wheat genotypes distinguished and identifed as low-N-tolerant in our study could be exploited as parental parents for developing N-efcient durum wheat varieties."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Categorization of durum wheat genotypes into N-efciency and N-responsive groups based on grain yield. Horizontal and vertical broken lines depict mean grain yield under low and optimum N conditions, respectively. "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure2: Categorization of N-efcient and inefcient genotypes based on relative grain yield (only the 15 most extreme genotypes from each efcient and inefcient category were mentioned in the abovementioned fgure due to limited space to accommodate all; the break is the demarcation between N-efcient and inefcient genotypes). "},{"text":"Figure 3 : Figure 3: Categorization of N-efcient and N-responsive durum wheat genotypes based on above-ground total biomass yield. Horizontal and vertical broken lines depict the mean biomass yield under low and optimum N conditions, respectively. "},{"text":"Figure 4 : Figure4: Categorization of N-efcient and inefcient genotypes based on relative biomass yield (only the 15 most extreme genotypes from each efcient and inefcient category were mentioned in the abovementioned fgure due to limited space to accommodate all; the break is the demarcation between N-efcient and inefcient genotypes). "},{"text":"Figure 5 : Figure 5: Categorization of N-efcient and N-responsive durum wheat genotypes based on NDVI reading. Horizontal and vertical broken lines depict mean NDVI values under low and optimum N conditions, respectively. "},{"text":"Figure 6 : Figure6: Categorization of N-efcient and inefcient genotypes based on relative NDVI reading (only the 15 most extreme genotypes from each efcient and inefcient category were mentioned in the abovementioned fgure due to limited space to accommodate all; the break is the demarcation between N-efcient and inefcient genotypes). "},{"text":"10  "},{"text":"Parameters Evaluated 3 . 4 . 1 . Grain Yield versus Stress Screening Indices. Te results of regression analyses for grain yield (GY) under optimum and low N conditions against stress indices revealed that the relationships vary in strength and signifcance levels (Figure 7 and Table "},{"text":"Figure 7 : Figure 7: Phenotypic correlations between grain yield and stress screening indices among the 200 durum wheat genotypes evaluated under optimum and low N conditions at three locations. "},{"text":" Te experiments were carried out at Debre Zeit, Chefe Donsa, and Minjar/Memhir Hager/research sites in Ade'a, Gimbichu, and Minjar Shenkora districts, respectively, in the central highlands of Ethiopia during the main cropping season of 2020. Te study sites are located at 8 °44′-8 °57′ N, 38 °58′-39 °16′ E, and 1900-2435 meters above sea level (Table  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Description of the study areas. Longitude (E) Alt. (masl) RF (mm) Max. temp. ( °C) Min. temp. ( °C) S/ No Latitude (N) 1 Sites Districts Debre Zeit Ade'a 8 °44′ Location 38 °58′ 1900 984 Weather 26.8 11.4 S/ No Latitude (N) 1 Sites Districts Debre Zeit Ade'a 8 °44′Location 38 °58′1900984Weather 26.811.4 2 Chefe Donsa Gimbichu 8 °57′ 39 °16′ 2435 1020 20.0 8.0 2Chefe DonsaGimbichu8 °57′39 °16′2435102020.08.0 3 Minjar/memhir Hager Minjar Shenkora 8 °46′ 39 °16′ 2257 865 28.8 12.3 3Minjar/memhir Hager Minjar Shenkora8 °46′39 °16′225786528.812.3  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Presowing soil physicochemical properties of experimental felds. Locations pH (1 : 2.5 H 2 O) Total nitrogen (%) Available phosphorous (mg kg −1 ) Organic matter (%) Soil texture Cation exchange capacity (meq 100 g −1 ) LocationspH (1 : 2.5 H 2 O)Total nitrogen (%)Available phosphorous (mg kg −1 )Organic matter (%)Soil textureCation exchange capacity (meq 100 g −1 ) Debre Zeit 6.78 0.1 15.19 1.51 Clay 51.6 Debre Zeit6.780.115.191.51Clay51.6 Chefe Donsa 6.84 0.08 5.85 1.68 Clay 40.4 Chefe Donsa6.840.085.851.68Clay40.4 Minjar 6.79 0.12 10.09 2.07 Clay 45.8 Minjar6.790.1210.092.07Clay45.8  "},{"text":"Table 3 : Sources, numbers, and identifcation codes of durum wheat genotypes tested under an optimum and low-nitrogen environment at Debre Zeit, Chefe Donsa and Minjar areas during the 2020 main cropping season. 4  International Journal of Agronomy 4International Journal of Agronomy Sources Number of genotypes Genotypes with identifcation codes SourcesNumber of genotypesGenotypes with identifcation codes ICARDA 13 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, and 19 ICARDA131, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, and 19 CIMMYT 83 86-168 CIMMYT8386-168 EBI 67 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 28, 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 38, 39, 40, and 42-85 EBI678, 9, 10, 11, 13, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 28, 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 38, 39, 40, and 42-85 DZARC released varieties 25 26, 27, 30, 37, 41, and 169-188 DZARC released varieties2526, 27, 30, 37, 41, and 169-188 DZARC breeding lines 12 189-200 DZARC breeding lines12189-200 Total 200  Total200  "},{"text":"Table 4 : Summary of durum wheat genotypes classifed using multiple criteria for low-N tolerance. Parameters Parameters  "},{"text":"Table 5 : Description of the best-performing durum wheat genotypes. Genotypes Genotypes code Origin Names/pedigree Performance for key traits 55 Land race EBI 226958 AGY, ABY, ANDVI, RGY, RBY, and RNDVI 166 CD15DZELT/of/1516/2015 CIMMYT JUPARE C 2001  *  2/IM/5/K0FA/4/DUKEM1//PATKA-7/YAZI-1/3/ PATKA-7/YAZI-1/6/ALAS/. . . AGY, ABY, ANDVI, RGY, RBY, and RNDVI 17 FIGSDRYWET108 ICARDA IRNS294/ID-98797 AGY, ABY, ANDVI, RGY, RBY, and RNDVI 57 Land race EBI 222415 AGY, ABY, ANDVI, RGY, RBY, and RNDVI 154 CD15DZELT/of/1032/2015 CIMMYT JUPARE C 2001  *  2/KHAPLI/5/M0HAWK/4/DUKEM-1//PATKA-7/ YAZI-1/3/PATKA-7YAZI-1/11/. . . AGY, ABY, ANDVI, RGY, RBY, and RNDVI 75 Land race EBI 236974-1 AGY, ABY, ANDVI, RGY, and RNDVI 82 Land race EBI 231585 AGY, ABY, ANDVI, RGY, and RBY 196 Breeding pipeline, DWNL p#21 DZARC Icasyr-1/3/Gcn//Sti/Mrb3 AGY, ANDVI, RGY, and RNDVI 100 CDSS09B00190T-099Y-036M-18Y-0M CIMMYT RBC/HUALITA/5/MOHAWK/3/GUANAY//TILO-1/LOTUS-4/4/ ARMENT//SRN-3/NIGRIS-4/3/. . . AGY, ABY, RGY, RBY, and RNDVI 191 Breeding pipeline, DWNL p#13 DZARC JUPARE C 2001  *  2/IM/5/K0FA/4/DUKEM-1//PATKA-7/YAZI-1/3/ PATKA-7/YAZI-1/6/ALAS/. . . AGY, ANDVI, RGY, RBY, and RNDVI 146 CD15DZELT/of/745/2015 CIMMYT CND0/VEE//PLATA-8/3/6  *  AGY, ABY, RGY, RBY, and RNDVI PLATA-11/6/PLATA-8/4/GARZA/AFN// CRA/3/GTA/5/RASC0N/9/. . . AGY, ABY, ANDVI, RGY, and RNDVI 48 Land race EBI 222191 relative normalized relative biomass yield; RNDVI � relative grain yield; RBY � AGY � absolute grain yield; ABY � absolute biomass yield; ANDVI � absolute normalized diference vegetative index; RGY � diference vegetative index; EBI � Ethiopian biodiversity institute; DZARC � Debre Zeit Agricultural Research center. Genotypes Genotypes code Origin Names/pedigree Performance for key traits55 Land race EBI 226958 AGY, ABY, ANDVI, RGY, RBY, and RNDVI166 CD15DZELT/of/1516/2015 CIMMYT JUPARE C 2001  *  2/IM/5/K0FA/4/DUKEM1//PATKA-7/YAZI-1/3/ PATKA-7/YAZI-1/6/ALAS/. . . AGY, ABY, ANDVI, RGY, RBY, and RNDVI17 FIGSDRYWET108 ICARDA IRNS294/ID-98797 AGY, ABY, ANDVI, RGY, RBY, and RNDVI57 Land race EBI 222415 AGY, ABY, ANDVI, RGY, RBY, and RNDVI154 CD15DZELT/of/1032/2015 CIMMYT JUPARE C 2001  *  2/KHAPLI/5/M0HAWK/4/DUKEM-1//PATKA-7/ YAZI-1/3/PATKA-7YAZI-1/11/. . . AGY, ABY, ANDVI, RGY, RBY, and RNDVI75 Land race EBI 236974-1 AGY, ABY, ANDVI, RGY, and RNDVI82 Land race EBI 231585 AGY, ABY, ANDVI, RGY, and RBY196 Breeding pipeline, DWNL p#21 DZARC Icasyr-1/3/Gcn//Sti/Mrb3 AGY, ANDVI, RGY, and RNDVI100 CDSS09B00190T-099Y-036M-18Y-0M CIMMYT RBC/HUALITA/5/MOHAWK/3/GUANAY//TILO-1/LOTUS-4/4/ ARMENT//SRN-3/NIGRIS-4/3/. . . AGY, ABY, RGY, RBY, and RNDVI191 Breeding pipeline, DWNL p#13 DZARC JUPARE C 2001  *  2/IM/5/K0FA/4/DUKEM-1//PATKA-7/YAZI-1/3/ PATKA-7/YAZI-1/6/ALAS/. . . AGY, ANDVI, RGY, RBY, and RNDVI146 CD15DZELT/of/745/2015 CIMMYT CND0/VEE//PLATA-8/3/6  *  AGY, ABY, RGY, RBY, and RNDVI PLATA-11/6/PLATA-8/4/GARZA/AFN// CRA/3/GTA/5/RASC0N/9/. . .AGY, ABY, ANDVI, RGY, and RNDVI 48 Land race EBI 222191relative normalized relative biomass yield; RNDVI � relative grain yield; RBY � AGY � absolute grain yield; ABY � absolute biomass yield; ANDVI � absolute normalized diference vegetative index; RGY �diference vegetative index; EBI � Ethiopian biodiversity institute; DZARC � Debre Zeit Agricultural Research center.  "}],"sieverID":"f0bcb9ea-d976-4672-8b08-e0bc43f76504","abstract":"Development of low-nitrogen (N) tolerant and N-responsive durum wheat genotypes is required since nitrogen efciency has emerged as a highly desirable trait from economic and environmental perspectives. Two hundred durum wheat genotypes were evaluated at three locations under optimum (ON) and low (LN) nitrogen conditions to screen genotypes for low-nitrogen tolerance and responsiveness to an optimum N supply. Te results showed signifcant variations among the durum wheat genotypes for low-N tolerance and responsiveness. Te average reduction in grain yield under the LN condition was 48.03% across genotypes. Only 17% of the genotypes tested performed well (grain yield reduction <40%) under LN conditions. Based on the absolute grain yield, biomass yield, and normalized diference vegetative index value, on average, 32, 14, 17, and 37% of the tested genotypes were classifed as efcient and responsive, efcient and nonresponsive, inefcient and responsive, and inefcient and nonresponsive, respectively. Considering the absolute and relative grain yield, biomass yield, normalized diference vegetative index values, and stress tolerance indices as selection criteria, 17 genotypes were chosen for subsequent breeding. Among the screening indices, geometric mean productivity, stress tolerance index, yield index, and stress susceptibility index exhibited positive and signifcant correlations with grain yield under both N conditions; hence, either of these traits can be used to select low-N-tolerant genotypes. Te common genotypes identifed as LN-tolerant and responsive to N application in this study could be used as parental donors for developing N-efcient and responsive durum wheat varieties."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0b93f0487c86c728f3d7df7ca6ebe7e2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2582468b-c18a-407c-8076-40cac11b40d2/retrieve"},"pageCount":11,"title":"CIP thanks all donors and organizations which globally support its work through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund. https://www.cgiar.org/funders","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Importance of the potato","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"• Potatoes originated in the highlands of South America."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"• Third most consumed food crop in the world, after wheat and rice."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"• Provides more calories per unit area and unit of time than crops grown in cool climates."},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"• Has the highest concentration of protein (more than 2% of fresh matter) among roots or tubers."},{"index":5,"size":15,"text":"• A medium-sized potato may fulfil half the daily vitamin C requirement in an adult."}]},{"head":"Cont'd…","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"• High in potassium, good for blood pressure, bones and muscles."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"• Micronutrient-rich (iron and zinc) and improves nutrition, especially in infants and pregnant and lactating women."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"• An income-boosting cash crop that enhances the lives of smallholder farmers through better:"},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"❖houses, ❖education for children and ❖healthcare."}]},{"head":"Nutritious crop and an income booster 1.2. Understanding the crop cycle","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Cont'd…","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Stage 1 (2-4 weeks):"},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"• Plant strong and well sprouted tubers with multiple (minimum of 3) sprouts."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"• What influences plant emergence: ❖soil type and moisture, ❖seed physiological age, ❖planting depth, and ❖soil temperature."},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"• This phase is very critical for better yields."}]},{"head":"Planting to emergence","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Stage 2 (2-4 weeks):"},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"• Crop duration depends on the variety used."},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"• Fertilization should have been completed by now."},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"• Plant protection measures are critical against diseases like late blight at this stage rather than later."}]},{"head":"Emergence to tuber initiation","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Stage 3"},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"• The flowering stage begins as leaf growth ends."},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"• All the leaves are fully grown."},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"• Ensure that plants have maximum soil around the stems and the leaves are protected from pests and diseases."}]},{"head":"Tuber initiation to end of leaf growth","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Stage 4"},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"• This is the stage when leaves turn yellow and die."},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"• Crop growth stops and tubers grow in size."},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"• All the foliage must die for maximum yields."},{"index":5,"size":16,"text":"• Control pests and diseases as needed, but chemical application must stop 2-3 weeks before harvest."}]},{"head":"Tuber bulking to plant death","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"CIP is a research-for-development organization with a focus on potato, "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" sweetpotato and Andean roots and tubers. It delivers innovative sciencebased solutions to enhance access to affordable nutritious food, foster inclusive sustainable business and employment growth, and drive the climate resilience of root and tuber agri-food systems. Headquartered in Lima, Peru, CIP has a research presence in more than 20 countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America. www.cipotato.org CIP is a CGIAR research center CGIAR is a global research partnership for a food-secure future. Its science is carried out by 15 research centers in close collaboration with hundreds of partners across the globe. www.cgiar.org "}],"sieverID":"9b2f740a-3ce6-4b4b-bd5a-4be8034c3b1c","abstract":""}

data/part_4/0bd07197a59a424ad453871f0c467d49.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0bd07197a59a424ad453871f0c467d49","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1dca1f05-a581-4bf8-a8e6-71a3ef091fd8/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"through Sweetpotato CReSP","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"What is CReSP?","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"Climate Resilience through Sweetpotato (CReSP) is a global initiative coordinated by the International Potato Center (CIP) to harness the power of sweetpotato for enabling farming families to improve their livelihoods and nutrition in the face of climatic changes. CReSP brings together partners in research, extension, production and policy to facilitate better access to climate smart and nutritious sweetpotato varieties and improve their utilization among vulnerable populations where and when needed. CReSP connects proven technologies, good practice delivery approaches, and evidence of performance and impact to ensure that sweetpotato contributes effectively to broad and integrated adaptation strategies that serve the demand of millions of people affected by declining farm productivity or climate change induced disasters."},{"index":2,"size":181,"text":"CReSP is currently working in Mozambique, Ethiopia, and Malawi to strengthen preparedness and responses to droughts and floods, and is set to expand to Bangladesh, Madagascar, and Haiti where sweetpotato can greatly contribute to climate resilient agriculture and disaster risk reduction. The vision of CReSP is sweetpotato strengthening the resilience of food systems for the poor, and contributing to the nutrition security of 50 million people in high vulnerability regions in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. What CReSP can deliver OFSP as a priority technology into national policy and is delivering OFSP to a further 150,000 households affected by the 2015/16 drought. Similarly in Malawi, CIP has been working with the Government and with private sector Nankhwali Farm and NGO's to multiply and deliver OFSP to over 200,000 households affected by floods and droughts, and the national Root and Tuber Crops Development Trust is now supporting this effort. In the Philippines, following typhoon Haiyan, sweetpotato roots continued to supply food amidst the general devastation to the food production system, and sweetpotato planting material provided a quick first harvest for affected populations."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" work?CReSP works through partnerships to bring the benefits of sweetpotato to millions of vulnerable people. Practically, CReSP connects and supports partners working across the entire landscape of climate resilient technologies, delivery, and policy. They include• researchers developing locally adapted sweetpotato varieties responding to the needs of their countries,• commercial seed multipliers and public sector extension services delivering planting material and training to smallholder farmers,• nutrition agencies providing nutrition education and counseling to vulnerable families so that they can better utilize sweetpotato for child nutrition,• farmers and traders marketing seasonal surplus production to meet demand in diversified markets,• disaster risk reduction programs integrating sweetpotato into their preparedness and response plans.What is the emerging evidence?In Mozambique, CIP and IIAM (Agricultural Research Institute of Mozambique) have developed over 20 climate smart OFSP varieties for different parts of the country. In response to the 2011 drought, CIP and Government of the Mozambique supported over 150,000 households with planting material. As a long-term outcome, over 80 percent of households in intervention communities produce and consume nutritious OFSP today. Utilizing lessons on variety selection, planning, and delivery from this response, the Government of Mozambique has incorporated What is the vision for expansion? Just as in Southern Africa and the Philippines, sweetpotato can strengthen the resilience of food systems for the poor, and improve the nutrition security of millions of people in many more countries. In 2016, CIP and the Government of Ethiopia have started distribution of sweetpotato in drought-affected areas in Tigray and Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' Region (SNNPR) regions. In Bangladesh and Madagascar, governments are increasing their demand for sweetpotato technologies to help build more climate-resilient food production systems, whereas in Haiti civil society agencies are incorporating sweetpotato as part of their disaster response strategies.CReSP provides a platform for responding to these different demands in a joint-up and efficient manner, making available proven technologies, good practice delivery guidelines, and a rigorous evidence base to support continued learning and adaptation. "}],"sieverID":"c8ce7dc6-1744-4b42-a043-bedb9a771030","abstract":""}

data/part_4/0be3b905fd1a8980f5c8916c7faedb78.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0be3b905fd1a8980f5c8916c7faedb78","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/bcf1eca7-f97d-4cfb-a59f-f7a323fa8366/retrieve"},"pageCount":5,"title":"Proteolysis and endocytosis in Trypanosoma brucei","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":186,"text":"A resurgence of interest in proteolytic enzymes has occurred in recent years as a consequence of the greater realization of the importance of proteases in the control of intracellular metabolic processes. 1 Their involvement is now known to extend beyond simple protein digestion or the regulation of blood clotting and complement activation, and involves such complex tasks as hormonal processing, intracellular protein transport and the regulation of metabolic pathways. However, most work has concentrated on mammalian cells and only a small amount has been done on microorganisms. For example, our knowledge of the proteolytic enzymes of African trypanosomes is confined almost entirely to those found in the endosomal/lysosomal system, namely, their acidic thiol-dependent proteases. 2 In contrast, little or nothing is known about the proteases that are involved in the subtle regulation of their metabolic processes. In part this may be due to the presence of very high levels of lysosomal cathepsin-like activity in the African trypanosomes, which tend to mask the presence of other highly specific enzymes. Consequently, there is a need to find ways of circumventing the blanketing effect of the trypanosomal lysosomal proteases."},{"index":2,"size":99,"text":"In general, proteases are classified according to the mechanism of action of the enzymes. This is frequently ascertained by employing specific inhibitors known to react with particular amino acid residues within the enzymes. For example, trypsin and related enzymes are shown to be serine proteases by their reaction and inhibition with diisopropylfluorophosphate (DFP), a reagent that reacts almost exclusively with serine residues at the active sites of these enzymes. Here we describe some of our observations on the uptake and hydrolysis of fluorescently labelled materials by African trypanosomes as well as some effects of protease inhibitors on these organisms."}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":136,"text":"Analysis of the thiol-dependent proteolytic activity of African trypanosomes, and of the serum derived modulator of these proteases, was done by electrophoresis in fibrinogen containing sodium dodecylsulphate polyacrylamide gels (Fbg-SDS-PAGE) as described previously. 2,4 Detection of serine esterases was performed by incubating 3 H DFP (Amersham, UK) with the respective material as described by Scheiner and Quigley. 5 The uptake of 3 m M 3 H DFP by Trypanosoma brucei 6 was performed in pH 8.0 phosphate buffered saline glucose (PSG). Uptake of rhodamine-lisamine-BSA (Molecular Probes Inc., Eugen, OR, USA) was performed on an SLM Aminco 8000 spectrofluorometer (excitation, 560 nm; emission, 590 nm) using 6,7 trypanosomes isolated and incubated (in PSG pH 7.4) in the presence of 50 m M hypoxanthine. 7 The hydrolysis of Z-Phe-Arg-NHMec was followed specrofluorometrically (excitation, 380 nm; emission, 460 nm)."}]},{"head":"Results","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":137,"text":"Trypanosoma brucei incorporate 3 H DFP into TCA precipitable material. The uptake is dose and time dependent and conforms to a first rate order equation (Figure 1). The chloromethylketones Ac-Ala-Ala-Ala-AlaCK, MeOSuc-ValCK, TPCK, or TLCK had a statistically insignificant effect on the total uptake of 3 H DFP by either trypanosomes or trypanosome lysates. Analysis of the proteins labelled with 3H DFP, by SDS-PAGE and fluorography, showed a doublet at 71 kDa, minor bands at 52 and 39 kDa and a band at 27 kDa. Only minor differences were observed between the control and TLCK or TPCK treated samples. Curiously, the presence of TPCK slightly enhanced the labelling of the 39 kDa band. A doublet of Mr approximately 70 kDa was labelled in living trypanosomes, the lower of which was only weakly labelled in homogenates of the parasites."},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":"Analysis by Fbg-SDS-PAGE clearly demonstrates the presence of thiol-dependent proteases in African trypanosomes, which are apparently localized within their endosomal/lysosomal system. 2 We have observed and now isolated, a moiety from rat serum which has the capacity to bind to and either stabilize or activate this lysosomal proteolytic activity. The molecule has a similar Mr to serum albumin but, unlike serum albumin, it does not bind to amicon blue dye-A. It also has properties similar to kininogens (pI 4.8) and is found in commercial preparations of human high and low molecular weight kininogens, but again, antibody reactivity suggests distinct identities of the molecules."},{"index":3,"size":119,"text":"Characterization of the activating molecule is under way, but it is also necessary to ascertain whether it is taken up by African trypanosomes. We are therefore studying endocytosis by these parasites. Preliminary studies have been performed using Z-Phe-Arg-NHMec and rhodamine-BSA. Providing the parasites are properly temperature equilibrated, they show an almost immediate steady state hydrolysis of Z-Phe-Arg-NHMec. (If they are not temperature equilibrated there is a lag phase of 1-3 min before a steady state is reached.) The hydrolysis rate of Z-Phe-Arg-NHMec shows a non-linear increase upon increasing the temperature of the reaction medium. The fluorescence of rhodamine-BSA in T. brucei is localized between the nucleus and the flagellar pocket and its uptake is time, dose and temperature dependent."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":430,"text":"African trypanosomes contain acid 2,8,9,10,11,12 and alkaline 2,7,10,13,14 endopeptidase activities. They may also contain cathepsin-D-like activity, although data to support this is weak at present 12 (J. Lonsdale-Eccles and G. Mpimbaza, unpublished observations). With respect to the alkaline pH peptidolytic activity we have already shown that trypanosomes contain a DFP and TLCK susceptible activity. 2 We wished to see if there were additional serine peptidase activities in the parasites and so tried the method of Scheiner and Quigley 5 to explore this possibility. Although we were able to incorporate DFP into discrete proteins, incubation with a variety of chloromethylketones failed to prevent the incorporation of 3 H DFP into these molecules. In view of the fact that we have already seen a DFP and TLCK susceptible activity in trypanosomes, it seems unlikely this observation may be the result of the specificity of the enzymes being too tightly defined for the chloromethylketones concerned. It seems more likely that the levels of TLCK and TPCK susceptible serine protease activity in the parasites may be lower than those of the enzymes detected in the SDS gels. Thus, the observed 3 H labelled bands in Figure 2 are probably not proteases but rather serine esterases with, as yet, ill-defined specificity. Pertinent to this is the observation that T. brucei contains at least two particle-bound phospholipases which are differentially inhibited by DFP. 15 While the situation with respect to serine proteases is still unclear, the situation with respect to the thiol-dependent acid proteases, which we have termed trypanopains, is better defined. One such enzyme has been isolated and purified from T. congolense. 11 A similar activity has been located in subcellular fractions containing lysosome-like organelles from T. brucei, 2 and in equivalent fractions from T. congolense (J. Lonsdale-Eccles and D. Grab, unpublished observations). Their intralysosomal location would suggest that they play a role similar to that played by the corresponding mammalian intralysosomal activities although this has not yet been delineated. Nor is it clear what controls the activity of these enzymes. However, we have observed that plasma contains a moiety that can bind to and apparently activate or stabilize trypanopain activity when analysed by Fbg-SDS-PAGE. 2,4 Curiously, preliminary experiments using Z-Phe-Arg-NHMec showed no apparent enhancement of activity with this moiety. This may mean that the binding of the serum moiety occurs at a regulatory site removed from the active centre of the trypanopain, thereby causing allosteric activation in a manner similar to the La protease. Alternatively, the moiety may stabilize the enzyme against autodegradation or other inactivation processes that may occur during the Fbg-SDS-PAGE analysis."},{"index":2,"size":273,"text":"Because a number of the physical properties of this moiety, such as its pI and Mr, resemble those of low Mr kininogen, we explored this further. Commercial preparations of human kininogens were tested and were found to contain this activity. However, antibody studies suggest that the moiety is distinct from the high or low Mr kininogens. Thus the molecule may be a molecule that is unrelated to kininogens but that which co-purifies with them. Alternatively, it may be an immunologically distinct but related molecule. Other observations suggest that it may be a variant of serum albumin. Although we have not yet identified the molecule, we wish to ascertain whether it is taken up by trypanosomes and regulates their proteolytic activity in vivo. In order to measure the endocytosis of this moiety, we need to set up appropriate endocytotic assays. We have done this by using fluorescently labelled protein that can be monitored quantitatively by spectrofluorometry and qualitatively by microscopy. However, our observations have been complicated by the fact that the uptake of rhodamine-BSA, and other molecules, by trypanosomes in vitro is not always reproducible (J. Lonsdale-Eccles and P. Webster, unpublished observations). Definitive quantitative measurements of endocytosis must therefore await the resolution of this difficulty. Nevertheless, rhodamine-BSA is taken up in a time, temperature and dose dependent manner into a distinct region between the nucleus and flagellar pocket in the area previously suggested to be that in which the endocytotic network is located. 16,17 Regardless of its identity, the molecule is a potential candidate to regulate trypanopain activity in vivo and our current studies are aimed at elucidating whether it plays such a role.  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Dose dependent uptake of DFP by T. brucei. The parasites (5 × 10 8 ) were incubated in 1 mL PSG with various amounts of DFP (1.5 -25 m L). After 45 min ice-cold TCA was added to give a final concentration of 10% TCA. The precipitate was washed twice with 500 m L 10% TCA and four times with ethanol. The samples were dried and then resuspended in 250 m L SDS-gel sample buffer. 50 m L aliquots were subjected to scintillation counting. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. SDS-PAGE analysis of DFP-labelled proteins. Samples were prepared essentially as described in Figure 1 except that the trypanosomes were pre-incubated for 45 min in the presence and absence of 1 mM chloromethylketones. The samples were subjected to SDS-PAGE, Coomasie brilliant blue staining, and fluorography. The Coomasie stained gel (not shown) demonstrated an equal loading of all samples, except for Lane 4, which had approximately half the amount of protein. Lanes 1-3, intact trypanosomes; Lanes 4-7, trypanosomes lysates; Lanes 1-3, intact trypanosomes; Lanes 4-7, trypanosome lysates. "}],"sieverID":"25000bce-d63e-4fc2-9e61-7a87158fa755","abstract":""}

data/part_4/0bf094c9caba6a5be44a95a1afdb1f0b.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0bf094c9caba6a5be44a95a1afdb1f0b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c2331536-6e10-4d6b-9960-3533539e0459/retrieve"},"pageCount":69,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"Onion (Allium cepa L.) is member of the family Alliaceae and the most widely grown herbaceous biennial vegetable crop with cross pollinated and monocotyledonous behavior having diploid chromosome number (2n = 16) (Hanelt, 1990). Onion is different from the other edible species of Allium for its single bulb and is usually propagated by true botanical seed. It is believed to have originated in Afghanistan, the area of Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, western Tien Shan and India while western Asia and the areas around the Mediterranean Sea are secondary centers of diversity (Saud et al., 2013)."},{"index":2,"size":158,"text":"It has been cultivated for more than 5000 years and does not exist as a wild species (Schwarth and Mohan, 1999). Onions are used primarily as flavoring agents and their distinctive pungency and form essential ingredients for flavoring varieties of dishes, sauces, soup, sandwiches, snacks as onion rings etc. And which increase the taste of food (Rahim, 1992); freshly cut onions often cause a stinging sensation in the eyes of people nearby, due to the presence of a volatile oil (allyl propyl disulphide). The mature bulb contains some starch, appreciable quantities of sugars, some protein, and vitamins A, B, and C ( Elhag and Osman, 2013;Opara, 2003). It is also one of the richest sources of flavonoid in the human diet and flavonoid consumption has been associated with a reduced risk of cancer, heart disease and diabetes. In addition it is known for anti-bacterial, antiviral, anti-allergenic and antiinflammatory potential and used as preservative and medicinal plant (MoARD, 2009)."},{"index":3,"size":90,"text":"The world production of onion is about 3944 million MT per years from 3.17 million ha (FAO, 2011); more than 90% of which is consumed within the countries of production. About 9,745.36 tons of onion seed was produced in the world with maximum seed yield (17.269 t/ha) was obtained in the world (FAO, 1999). With respect to its importance; onion stands second, following tomato and with respect to production, it ranks fourth in the world (Abdolhossein and Sayed, 2015). Onion is grown in more than 175 countries in the world."},{"index":4,"size":30,"text":"Based on the average production from 2008-2013, the world's top producer of onion is China, contributing an average of 31% to the total production followed by India (10%) (FAOSTAT, 2011)."},{"index":5,"size":108,"text":"In Ethiopia it ranks first among Allium species both in area coverage and total production (CSA, 2014). Its area coverage was 24,357.7 ha and total annual production was 219,735.3 tons, but in the year of 2014/2015 the production has increased to 230,745.2 tons and the average productivity of onion was increased from 9 to 10.1 t/ha (CSA, 2014(CSA, , 2015) ) and its seed yield per hectare was 1.3 tons Lemma and Shimels (2003). As compared to the world average, Ethiopia's onion seed yield per hectare is very low; this may be due to effect of genotype, locality, season, soil type, and method of seed production (Brewster, 1994)."},{"index":6,"size":107,"text":"The area coverage of onion is steadily increasing mainly due to its high profitability, ease of production, and the expansion of irrigation infrastructure in different parts of the country (Olani and Fikre, 2010;Weldemariam Seifu et al., 2015). Likewise the demand for quality onion seed is increasing (Amsalu et al., 2014). However, seed supply is inadequate, its price is increasing every year and onion seed available in the market are poor in quality (Olani and Fikre, 2010). Onion seeds are poor in keeping quality and lose viability within a year. Owing to these challenges, onion seed production gradually started by smallholder farmers in different parts of the country."},{"index":7,"size":116,"text":"Onion seed production is influenced by many factors, among which varieties, bulb size, soil, climate, spacing, fertilizer application, planting time are important. Cool weather with ample moisture supply is required for flower stalk initiation. Then drier conditions with good sunshine are required for pollination, seed maturity, harvesting and processing (Olani and Fikre, 2010). High temperature during flowering result in flower abortion, subsequently result in lower seed yield. On the other hand, very low temperature, foggy weather and rainfall during flowering time affect the movement of honey-bees and pollination process. Rainfall during harvesting time adversely affects the quality of onion seed. Therefore, selection of appropriate planting time in a given locality is crucial for onion seed production."},{"index":8,"size":141,"text":"The effect of planting time on onion seed production was studied by several researchers in different parts of the world and reported its significant effects both on productivity and quality. Ud-Deen (2008) studied the effect of different planting dates and recommended 30 th October as the best planting date for onion seed production in Bangladesh. On the other hand, Mollah et al. (2015) assessed the effect of different planting dates on onion seed production in Borga, Bangladesh and identified 15 th November as the best planting date for onion seed production. El-Helaly and Karam (2012) identified mid of November as the best planting date for onion seed production in Giza region of Egypt. Mehri et al. (2015) in Iran assessed two onion varieties and reported appropriate planting time for seed production to be from 22 nd September to 6 th October."},{"index":9,"size":135,"text":"Although Ethiopia has very diverse agro ecology, the number of studies on the effect of planting time on onion seed production is very limited. Studies in central Ethiopia showed that onion seed production is best if mother bulbs are planted in September and October for flowering to take place in the months of January and February in cooler and drier months (Olani and Fikre, 2010). Teshome et al. (2014) recommended October 25 th as the best planting date for onion seed production in Kobo, North Wollo. The above findings depict the importance of identifying appropriate planting time for onion seed production in each locality and for each variety. Therefore, the present study was conducted to identify the appropriate planting time for onion seed production and associated selected seed quality indicators in Tehuledere district, Northeastern Ethiopia."}]},{"head":"Statement of the problem","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":243,"text":"Planting time is one of the most important factors for onion seed production as it is associated with temperature. Limitation of cool weather conditions to induce flowering is the main constraint of onion seed production in many tropical countries, including Ethiopia. As a result, many countries have to import onion seed from sub-tropical or temperate countries where the winter season provides the chilling requirement for flowering. The demand for quality, true-to-type seeds is increasing from time to time. The price of quality seeds is also high. Environmental conditions greatly influence growth and development of onion plant, and growth phases of onion have different environmental requirements (Ziant et al., 2012) Onion bulbs require a certain period of cool treatment (vernalization time) for maximum flowering of the stalks. Cool temperature for bulb was important to ensure effective flowering of seed crop. In addition of this, the seeds available in the market are poor in quality (Lemma and Shimeles, 2003). Most of the time germination is poor and the problem is further exacerbated by its short shelf life (one year under favorable condition). Owing to these, producers are commonly using 6-8 kg of seeds per hectare as opposed to the recommended rates of 3.5-4 kg/ha in order to guarantee good seedling emergence (Lemma and Shimeles, 2003;Teshome et al., 2014). This incurs more cost to farmers besides the ever increasing price of onion seed on the local markets. All these are hampering the advancement of onion production."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"Study on planting time and cultivar selection to improve quality of seed is limited. This is one of the problems of farmers around the current research site as well as many parts of Ethiopia."},{"index":3,"size":111,"text":"In North Wollo, onion is one of the widely grown vegetable crops and the area has also suitable climate for onion seed production. Onion seed yield per hectare at Kobo (North Wollo) is 1.156 t/ha (Teshome et al., 2014). Similarly, Tehuledere district has suitable climate for onion bulb and seed production. However, there is no experience on onion seed production in the district and farmers are dependent on seed produced in other parts of the country or imported from abroad. Keeping all these above facts in view, the present study was therefore, undertaken to determine an appropriate planting time for better plant growth, yield components, yield and quality of onion seed."}]},{"head":"Objective","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"To determine the appropriate planting time for a better plant growth, yield components, yield and quality of onion seed at Tehuledere district."}]},{"head":"LITERATURE REVIEW","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"Onion is an herbaceous, biennial and monocot crop. It takes two seasons for seed production, and during the first season bulbs are formed while flower stalks and seeds are developed in the second season (Brewster, 2008). Onion is grown mainly for its bulb, although the green shoots are important to prepare salad. Onion requires deep alluvial and friable or sandy loam soil with a pH of 6.0-6.8 (Brewster, 1994)."}]},{"head":"The Onion Crop","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"The onion bulb consists of the swollen bases (sheaths) of bladed leaves surrounding swollen bladeless leaves. Each leaf consists of a blade and sheath; the blade may or may not be distinctive. The sheath develops to encircle the growing point and forms a tube that encloses younger leaves and the shoot apex. Collectively, the grouping of these sheaths comprises the pseudo stem. Leaves arise from the short, compressed, disc like stem which continues to increase in diameter with maturation and resembles an inverted cone (Bosekeng, 2012). The onion skin is formed from the dry paper like outermost leaf scales that lose their freshness during bulbing. Major bulb quality features are uniformity of shape, size and skin colour, pungency and dry matter (Rubatzky and Yamaguchi, 1997)."},{"index":2,"size":159,"text":"The test and odor characteristics of the alliums are their major attribute. Other features are the umbel inflorescence, flower with nectars, a three-chambered ovary and a basic chromosome number of eight for the cultivated species. The major flavor of alliums results from the activity of the enzymes, alliinase, acting on certain sulfur-containing compounds (S. alkyl cysteine sulfoxides) when tissues are broken or crushed. Onion roots are shallow, most occur within 15-20 cm of the surface, and seldom extends horizontally beyond 50 cm. Onion roots are short lived, being continuously produced. Roots rarely have branch and rarely increase in diameter (Brewster, 1994). The terminal inflorescences develop from the ring like apical meristem scapes and generally elongate well above the leaves and ranges in height from 30 to more than 100 cm. The scape is the stem internodes between the spathe and the last foliage leaf. At first, the scape is solid but, by differential growth, becomes thin walled and hollow."},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":"The number of scapes that develop depends on the number of sprouted lateral buds. A spherical umbel is borne in each scape and can range from 2 to 15 cm in diameter."},{"index":4,"size":29,"text":"The umbel is an aggregate of many flowers at various stages of development; usually there are 200-600 small individual flowers. The flowering periods may last four or more weeks."},{"index":5,"size":87,"text":"Flowers are perfect, having six white petals, six stamens and a three carpel pistil. Flowers have nectars, an attractant to pollinating insects, usually honey bees.Alliums have perfect flowers but, cannot self-pollinate because the male anthers shed pollen before the female stigma is receptive. Therefore, they cross-pollinate via insects (flies and bees) or by manually pollinating (hand-pollinating) the flowers in a controlled environment. Seed producers must keep in mind that varieties of the same species will cross-pollinate with other varieties of the same species (Currah and Proctor, 1990)."},{"index":6,"size":15,"text":"After pollination, fertilization of ovules starts within 12 h and is complete in 3-4 days."},{"index":7,"size":59,"text":"Pollination itself stimulates the initial development of ovules and ovaries. In fertilized ovules, the endosperm nuclei start to divide and cell division and expansion by the embryo occurs 5-6 days later. The embryo reaches its full development when the seed attains maximum dry weight. Initially the endosperm is liquid, and this is termed as the 'milk stage' (Jilani, 2004)."},{"index":8,"size":66,"text":"But at about seventeen days after pollination, cell walls develop within the endosperm and it progresses to the pasty 'dough stage'. At this point, the seed coat starts to turn black. Later on seed attains its maximum fresh weight at about 30 days after flowering. Up to this point, seed dry weight growth is near exponential and seed dry weight is then about half its maximum."},{"index":9,"size":41,"text":"The endosperm then becomes solid and the seed reaches its maximum dry weight. After flowering, life completed and on maximum maturity day, the flower turns to give seed. The seeds may be up to 300 per gram (Currah and Proctor, 1990)."},{"index":10,"size":78,"text":"Onion seed matures about 45 days after anthesis. Seed are black, irregular shaped, and relatively small and about 200 seeds weigh one gram. Seeds lose viability rapidly unless stored under optimal condition of 0 o C and low RH. Under high temperature and humidity of tropical conditions, its viability may be less than a year in the tropics; the growers use short-day variety because day length is shorter in the tropics than that of temperate zones (Anonymous,Allium,Webaddress,http://cms.cnr.edu.bt/cms/files/docs/Five/vegetables%20pro duction/Study%20guides/)."}]},{"head":"Onion Varieties in Ethiopia","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"Different types of onion cultivars are available in Ethiopia. These are fresh market, bunching and dehydrator types, which could be open pollinated, or hybrids. The fresh market types (red colored, highly pungent) have high acceptance in the local market compared to bunching and dehydrator types. The dehydrator onions are large and are commonly produced for flaxes, onion powder, and onion rings that are mainly used for snacks. The onion cultivars vary in vegetative characteristics such as foliage length, leaf arrangement (erect, pending) and leaf color. They also differ in bulb characteristics, internal structure (single, double, multiple) bulb shape (flat to cylindrical to spindle), color (red, yellow, white), flavor rate (sweet, mid pungent and pungent) (Geremew et al., 2010)."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"The five common varieties of onion in Ethiopia are Adama Red, Bombey Red, Red Creole, Melkam, and Nasik Red (Dereselegn). Bombay Red and Adama Red varieties are widely grown in Ethiopia (EARO, 2004). Oromia National Regional State is the most important production region for onions (64%), followed by Amhara National Regional State (30%) (CSA, 2008/09). Adama Red is a dark red colored and firm, very pungent, flat globe shaped."},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"It flowers and set seed very easily. It is accepted both by producers and consumers and is successfully produced by small farmers and commercial growers in most regions of the country. The cultivars are grown in Awash valley and Lake Region in larger quantity."},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"Melkam, high yielder but light red in bulb color than Adama Red (Kahsay et al., 2013)."},{"index":5,"size":193,"text":"Red Creole is red colored and firm, very pungent, not easily bolting, relatively tolerant to purple blotch disease. Bombay Red is thick, flat shaped, light red, light pungent, susceptible to purple blotch disease. It has a high proportion of split bulbs and has short shelf life compared to Adama Red. Dereselgn (Nasik Red) is early maturing; medium red, large bulb sizes and fits to short growing season. Adama Red and 'Nasik' Red having DMC (%) of 17.67 and 17.27, respectively showed higher and significant difference from 'Melkam' and 'Bombay' Red which had DMC (%) of 15.23 and 14.41, respectively. Adama Red variety was found to be superior for quality in terms of TSS content, DMC and storability (Kahsay et al., 2013) Most of the onion varieties are adapted to low and mid altitude areas (700-1800 m.a.s.l), even though onion can grow up to 2000 m.a.s.l. The ideal temperature for mother bulb production is 18 0 C to 24 0 C day and 10 0 C to 12 0 C night temperature. For bulb production it can go higher beyond these ranges. However, it is major factor for flower stalk development and seed set."},{"index":6,"size":24,"text":"Higher temperature can prevent flowering. After bulb develops, cool weather with ample moisture supply is required for flower stalk initiation (Olani and Fikre, 2010)."},{"index":7,"size":56,"text":"Temperature controls the development and the performance of the onion plant in all its growth phases (Coolong and Randle, 2003). To obtain germination percentage of at least 70% and temperature between 7.5°C and 30°C is needed (Abu-Rayyan et al., 2012). According to Shanmugasundaram and Kalb (2001), onion seedlings grow best at temperatures between 20°C and 25°C."}]},{"head":"Photoperiod","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"Onions react to day length for bulb initiation and the leaves of the plant are the photoperiodic stimulus receptor (Okporie and Ekpe, 2008). As the photoperiodic stimulus is received, formation of bladed green leaves near the apical meristem ceases and only bladeless leaves are formed. The photoperiodic stimulus favors carbohydrate accumulation exported from the leaf blade to the leaf sheath (Mondal et al., 1986), causing the sheaths of the leaves to thicken and enlarge. These thickened leaf sheaths will develop into a storage organ, the bulb. As the bulb matures, the outer (oldest) one to four leaf scales dry out and become protective skin (Brewster, 1994)."},{"index":2,"size":158,"text":"The day length requirement for bulb formation differs according to cultivar type, ranging between 12 and 16 hours (van den Berg et al., 1997). Adaptation of onion cultivars to a certain production area is largely dependent on the day length of that area and the day length requirement of the specific cultivar (Wiles, 1989). Short day onion cultivars require a day length of 11-12 hours for bulb formation, and can be planted in the tropics (30°N and S from the equator) (Wiles, 1989). The day length in this area remains close to 12 hours throughout the year. Intermediate day cultivars require a day length of 12-14 hours for bulbing and can be planted in areas between 30° and 45° latitude as a winter or spring sown crop. Long day onion cultivars requiring a day length of 16 or more hours for bulbing are well adapted to areas between 45° to 60° latitude (Van den Berg et al., 1997)."},{"index":3,"size":118,"text":"A cultivar sown in areas where the photoperiod is longer than required, premature bulb formation is enhanced, bulb development and maturity rates increase, and this will result in smaller bulbs and low yields (Wickramasinghe et al., 2000). Photoperiod of a specific production area at the time of bulb initiation will therefore influence cultivar selection. In the tropics, the growers use short-day variety because day length is shorter in the tropics than that of temperate zones (http://cms.cnr.edu.bt/cms/files/docs/ Five/vegetables%20production/Stud y%20guides/). In Bangladesh, short-day length prevails in the growing seasons (winter) of onion (Ud-Deen, 2008), so to minimize the cultivation and production problems, emphasis must be given to improve cultivation methods of onion, such as proper planting geometry and planting time."},{"index":4,"size":73,"text":"Based on the study on growth responses of tropical onion cultivar to photoperiod and temperature in Keren, Eritrea, it was reported that 11.5 h and 12.5 h day lengths induced more leaf production in response to growing degree days (GDD) in all cultivars; Hagaz Red 1, Hagaz Red 2 and Red Creole. However, the 35/18˚C (day/night) temperature decreased the leaf number at 11.5 h and 12.5 h day lengths (Tesfay et al., 2011)."}]},{"head":"Relative humidity","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"Under high atmospheric water vapor the rate of photosynthesis and water absorption by the plant roots is reduced because of the partial or complete closure of the stomata (Brewster, 2008). Warm, dry atmospheric conditions are important for bulb formation. Dry conditions reduce the occurrence of leaf diseases such as leaf blight (Botrytis squamosa) (Msuya et al., 2005). Warm and dry conditions during harvesting promote the rapid drying of the leaves, causing the neck of the bulb to dry off quickly that will prevent moisture loss from the bulb and maintaining the firmness of the bulb."}]},{"head":"Rainfall","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"During flowering, seed development and maturity excessive rainfall and very cool condition is undesirable as they lead to disease development and poor seed setting. Good sun shine at the time of full blooming stage will facilitate the activity of beneficial insects for higher rate of cross pollination and seed set. The relative humidity should be lower at the time of seed development (Olani and Fikre, 2010)."}]},{"head":"Importance of Onion","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"Onion is an important bulb crop in Ethiopia it was rapidly becoming popular among producers and consumers. Onion was introduced to the agricultural community of Ethiopia in the early 1970s when foreigners brought it in (Lemma and Shimeles, 2003). Onion is a daily flavouring food in the community. People use onion for daily food. It also used for marketing, hotels and traders (Maru and Gibramu, 2014). Though shallots are traditional crop in Ethiopia; onions are becoming more widely grown in recent years. It is widely produced by small farmers and commercial growers throughout the year for local use and export market."},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"Onion is valued for its distinct pungency and form essential ingredients for flavorings of dishes, sauces, soup, sandwiches, snacks as onion rings etc. It is popular over the local shallot because of its high yield potential per unit area, availability of desirable cultivars for various uses, ease of propagation by seed , high domestic (bulb and seed ) and export ( bulb, cut flowers) markets in fresh and processed forms (Lemma et al., 2004)."},{"index":3,"size":174,"text":"Ethiopia has high potential to benefit from onion production. The demand for onion increases from time to time for its high bulb yield, seed and flower production potential (Lemma and Shimeles, 2003). Over the last 15 years the total surface area dedicated to onion crop in the world has doubled and presently reaching 2.74 million hectares. Because of its importance, average world yield increased from 12 MT/ha in the early 1960s to 17 MT/ha in 2001. As a result, the increase in the cultivated area and the yield obtained, the world production onion is about 3944million MT per year (FAO, 2011). In Ethiopia, the total area under production reached 24,357.7 hectares and the production was estimated to be over 219, 735.3 (CSA, 2014). According to Lemma et al. (2006) the production of vegetables is becoming important with the expanding irrigated agriculture and with the growing awareness on the importance of the sector as source of income, improved food security, source of raw materials for industries, generates employment opportunity because it demands large labor force."},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"Onions are a very good source of vitamin C, B6, biotin, chromium, calcium and dietary fiber."},{"index":5,"size":68,"text":"In addition, they contain good amounts of folic acid and vitamin B1 and K. A 100 gram serving provides 44 calories, mostly as complex carbohydrate, with 1.4 grams of fiber. Like garlic, onions also have the enzyme alliinase, which is released when an onion is cut or crushed and it irritates your eyes. Onions contain a large amount of sulphur and are especially good for the liver (http://www.foods-healing-power.com/health-benefits-ofonions.html#sthash.XbNIa9MU.dpuf)."},{"index":6,"size":39,"text":"It's also an anti-inflammatory, antibiotic, antiviral, and thought to have diverse anti-cancer powers. Onions can do for your heart: Boost beneficial HDL cholesterol, thin the blood, retard blood clotting, lower total blood cholesterol, lower triglycerides, and lower blood pressure."},{"index":7,"size":121,"text":"One way the antioxidants in onions can protect you against cancer is by reducing the DNA damage in cells caused by free radicals. Onions have also been shown to have a significant blood sugar-lowering action, even comparable to some prescription drugs. The active compound that seem to be responsible for lowering glucose works by competing with insulin for breakdown sites in the liver, thereby increasing the life span of insulin. Onions have historically been used to treat asthma, too. Its action in asthma is due to its ability to inhibit the production of compounds that cause the bronchial muscle to spasm and to relax bronchial muscle. Onions have potent antibacterial activity, destroying many disease-causingpathogens, including E. coli and salmonella (http://www.foods-healing-power.com/health-benefits-ofonions. html#sthash.XbNIa9MU.dpuf)."}]},{"head":"Onion Production in Ethiopia","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":175,"text":"In recent years onion is becoming popular vegetable in Ethiopia. Shallots were the traditional alliaceous crop of the Ethiopian high land, but research efforts on onion in the country have resulted in the development of varieties which are currently under wider production in different parts of the country. The most popular of these is 'Adama Red' (Lemma and Shimeles, 2003). Moreover, a new cultivar 'Melkam' has also been selected from the Indian cv. 'Pusa Red', suitable for lowland irrigated production. Onion is grown by both small scale farmers and commercial growers especially under irrigation. Ethiopia has a great potential to produce the crop throughout a year both for domestic use and export market. Its higher yield potential, availability of desirable cultivars for various uses, ease of propagation by seed, high domestic (bulb and seed) and export (bulb, cut flowers) markets in fresh and processed forms is making onion increasingly important in Ethiopia. The major production is in the rift valley areas, besides bulb production, there is a great potential for seed production in these areas."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"Experiment from Melkassa Research Centre showed the cooler seasons of October to February as suitable period for high seed yield reaching about (1.2 t/ha). The problem behind onion seed production is the poor keeping quality of seeds and loses of its viability within a year, therefore, it is important to produce fresh seed every year (Griffiths et al., 2002)."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"Onion seed production can bring a high economic benefit for small scale farmers (Lemma and Shimeles, 2003). Onion seed prices are very high which provides a good motivation for prospective commercial producers of seeds. Currently onion seed is being produced by farmers and investors around Melkassa, Awash, along the road to Zeway and its surroundings."},{"index":4,"size":76,"text":"The company collects and distributes the seeds in local market. There are two onion seed production methods, the seed-to-seed and bulb-to-seed methods (Olani and Fikre, 2010). The bulb to seed method has advantage of maintaining seed quality, allows rouging off color, misshapen, splits, rotten bulbs, sprout bulbs and require short period of time for seed production. Whereas seed to seed method has the advantage speed up the production practices without affecting the variety's quality (FAO, 2010)."}]},{"head":"Seed Production Potential of Onion","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Bolting (inflorescence production), can occur in all the Alliums vegetables. The inflorescence develops from the shoot apical meristem under appropriate environmental conditions."},{"index":2,"size":194,"text":"Underneath the spathe on the broad top of the stem numerous membranous bracts develop each covering several young florets arising on kidney-shaped regions of dividing cells (Tindall, 1983). Looking from the outside towards the center of each floret there develop three members in each of five whorls of floral organs: the outer perianth, the inner perianth, outer stamens, inner stamens and the carpels. These develop as glucose projections, with the outer whorls developing first. The carpels develop as three U-shaped up-swellings on the surface within the inner stamens. These up-swellings grow towards the center and their interned edges meet, fold within themselves and form the ovules, two of which occur in each carpel (Rabinowitch and Currah, 2002). In onion there are commonly 200 to 600 flowers per umbel, depending on cultivar, growing conditions and whether the umbel is formed from the main growing point or an axillary shoot. Similar umbels containing large numbers of flowers are produced by leeks and Japanese bunching onions. Chives typically have about 30 flowers per umbel, rakkyo six to 30 flowers and Chinese chives have approximately 40 white, star shaped, and fragrant flowers in a flat-topped umbel (Brewester, 2008)."},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"Alliums have perfect flowers but, cannot self-pollinate because the male anthers shed pollen before the female stigma is receptive. Therefore, they cross-pollinate via insects (flies and bees) or by manually pollinating (hand-pollinating) the flowers in a controlled environment."},{"index":4,"size":206,"text":"Seed producers must keep in mind that varieties of the same species will cross-pollinate with other varieties of the same species (Currah and Proctor, 1990). After pollination, fertilization of ovules starts within 12 h and is complete in 3-4 days. Pollination itself stimulates the initial development of ovules and ovaries. In fertilized ovules, the endosperm nuclei start to divide and cell division and expansion by the embryo occurs 5-6 days later. The embryo reaches its full development when the seed attains maximum dry weight. Initially the endosperm is liquid, and this is termed as the 'milk stage' (Jilani, 2004). But at about 17 days after pollination, cell walls develop within the endosperm and it progresses to the pasty 'dough stage'. At this point, the seed coat starts to turn black. Later on seed attains its maximum fresh weight at about 30 days after flowering. Up to this point, seed dry weight growth is near exponential and seed dry weight is then about half its maximum. The endosperm then becomes solid and the seed reaches its maximum dry weight. After flowering, life completed and on maximum maturity day, the flower turns to give seed. The seeds may be up to 300 per gram (Currah and Proctor, 1990)."},{"index":5,"size":156,"text":"There are two methods of onion seeds production which are seed-to seed method and bulb-to seed. Each of them has advantages and disadvantages, while higher seed yield and good quality are those achieved from bulb -to-seed method. Bulb-to-seed allows the seed producers to select specific bulbs that offer the characteristics, and high-quality genetics they're looking for. In bulb to seed method a bulb crop is raised first and seeds are produced from the planted bulbs. However, seed-to-seed production is much cheaper, because there's no need to store bulbs from one season to the next; nor do any bulbs have to be replanted. It is possible where the crop can overwinter as growing plants. In this method, seeds are planted rather than bulbs, in which growing plants are vernalized and induced to flower and produce seeds without going through a bulb stage and it will result in the selection of easy bolting genotypes (Jones and Mann, 1963)."},{"index":6,"size":122,"text":"Onions are sensitive to photoperiod and temperature. Both are known to interact to enhance bulbing. Long day are favorable to onion production as this enhance leaf development and formation which, in turn, is directly related to bulb size. Bulb formation and subsequent growth are influenced by temperature and photoperiod (Lancaster et al., 1996). Bulbing, flowering and seed production of onion are controlled by climatic condition such as temperature and photoperiod and seed production is more demanding than bulb production (Rabinowitch, 1990). Temperature greatly influences the flowering of onion. Cool temperature with adequate water supply is most suitable for earlier growth followed by warm, drier condition for maturation. Low temperature (9°C to 17 o C) is required for flower stalk development (Singh, 2001)."},{"index":7,"size":137,"text":"Length of day affects flowering and bulb formation in certain varieties of onion. Silver Skin variety grown from sets developed normal bulbs and showed the first blossoms under the normal length of day. Under a 10-hour day, however, the plants remained green for 12 months and formed no bulb and no flower. In seedlings, a minimum time of about 40 days at 9 o C to 12 o C at 16 hours is required. Photoperiods are required to produce an inflorescence initial and at least another 40 days of cool temperature and long photoperiods are required for the inflorescence to enlarge and become visible. Thus, in the field, bolting will be favored if large seedlings or sets exposed to long periods at temperature around 9 o C before they start to develop bulbs (Rabinowitch and Brewster, 1990)."},{"index":8,"size":106,"text":"Most tropical countries near the equator import much of their onion seeds because temperature is not cool enough to induce optimal flowering. However, there is also possibility of producing onion seed using artificial vernalization (Kimani et al., 1994). Study of vernalization under natural condition at high altitude in Kenya using three local and eight introduced onion cultivars showed that onion seed production was possible (Kimani et al., 1994). Onion seed yield is directly dependent on the amount of flowering. Mother bulb treatment at low temperature prior to planting ensures reliable flowering of seed crop (Brewester, 1994). Thus cold treatment of mother bulbs helps producing quality seed."},{"index":9,"size":16,"text":"Effect of vernalization on the yield and quality of onion seed was studied by Ami (2011)."},{"index":10,"size":93,"text":"Maximum number of seeds (412.22) per umbel, seed yield (91.05 g) per plot, and 1000-seed weight (4.272 g per 1000 seeds) were obtained from 20 g bulbs which were vernalized at 50 ± 100 C for 14 days (Muktadir, 2000). Maximum number of seeds (363.73) per umbel, seed yield (0.46 g) per umbel, seed yield (3.31 g) per plant, seed yield (75.54 g) per plot, seed yield (755.40 kg) per ha and 1000-seed weight (3.76 g per 1000 seeds) were obtained from 15 g bulbs which were vernalized at 12°C for 21 days."},{"index":11,"size":30,"text":"Vernalization of mother bulbs tremendously affects flowering of onion. In an experiment onion bulbs were exposed to artificial vernalization by exposure to cold at 8°C to 9°C for 6, 9"},{"index":12,"size":78,"text":"and 12 weeks in 1990 and 6 and 9 weeks in 1991, the controls were left at ambient temperature. The bulbs were planted at monthly intervals from February to April in 1990 and March to May in 1991 in Zimbabwe. Vernalization gave earlier flowering, the effect being greater against the longer cold treatment. Yield from the control, although later, was of similar weight to that from the vernalized bulbs. These results were observed by Miska et al. (1997)."},{"index":13,"size":251,"text":"Planting season can also affect onion seed production. The optimum mother bulb planting time has been reported to be between August and October in Ethiopia. Where August, September, and October bulb planting gave high number of flower stalk and seed yield. In the upper Awash and the Lake region, September to February with temperature of 26 0 C to 28 0 C during the day and 11 0 C to 18 0 C nights with low humidity were found to be suitable for flower stalk emergence and satisfactory seed set for easy bolting varieties like Adama Red (Lemma, 1998). In north Côte devour, it has been shown that time of planting was critical in order to achieve a satisfactory seed yield, where a cold requirement was defined in terms of hours below a threshold of 15 0 C (Currah and Proctor, 1990). The tallest seed stalks were associated with the highest yields and the greatest number of seeds per plant; however, they also noted that this may not be a cause and effect relationship. Seed stalk height was correlated with days required for flowering. It is possible that the flowers on the taller seed stalks were visited more often by bees than those on shorter seed stalks, or that air circulation was better around the taller stalks. It is also possible that the taller seed stalk provide more photosynthetic to the plant causing the weight of each seed to be greater than the weight of seed from plants with short stalks."}]},{"head":"Effect of Planting Date on Onion Seed Production","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Planting date is important for proper temperature and photoperiod both of which influence the flowering and number of seed stalks, ultimately affecting the seed yields. Karim and Ibrahim (2013)  seed were obtained from early planting from the planting of (November 25)."},{"index":2,"size":117,"text":"The reduction in seed yield as a result of late planting was may be due to flower abortion and low seed yield per plant (El-Helaly and Karam 2012). Malik et al. (1999) reported that the highest yield and quality of onion seed was obtained with early planting (15 th October) in India. Mosleh (2008) indicated significant influence of planting date on onion growth and seed yield, and early planting was found favorable for getting higher bulb and seed yield in Bangladesh. El-Aweel and Ghobashi (1999) also reported significant seed yield increase with early planting (10 th November), which was mainly attributed to increase in weight of seed and number of umbels per plant and 1000 seed weight."},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"Teshome et al. (2014) reported significant (p<0.001) effect of bulb size and planting time on seed yield per hectare. According to them, the highest seed yield (1.155 t/ha) was obtained from large bulb size planted on 25 October, followed by medium bulb size planted on the same date (0.983 t/ha) while, the least (0.075 t/ha) was obtained from small bulb size planted on 15 November."}]},{"head":"Effect on germination and emergence","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":178,"text":"Onions are a cool season crop and tolerant to frost. Onion seed can germinate at temperatures as low as 1.4°C to 3.5°C. However, for a germination and emergence percentage of more than 70%, temperatures between 7.5°C and 30°C are needed (Abu-Rayyan et al., 2012). In Germany, an emergence percentage of 90% and more were obtained with soil temperatures ranging between 10°C to 25°C (Kretschmer, 1994). Ansari (2007) reported that a delayed sowing date accelerated the emergence of onion seedlings in Iran. Onion seedlings from seed sown in January emerge after 22 days experiencing an average temperature of 17.7°C, whereas February sown seed emerge after only 10 days experiencing an average temperature of 24.7°C. Seedlings emerge after only 7 days when onion seed was sown in March when there was much higher average temperature (34.7°C) than the earlier sowing dates. These results indicated that higher temperatures can shorten the number of days from germination to emergence. Onions therefore, can germinate at a wide temperature range with the highest germination percentage and seedling emergence between 15°C to 25°C (Ansari, 2007)."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"Large "}]},{"head":"Seedling and vegetative growth","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"The seedling phase of onions (from the loop up to the cotyledon senescence stage) is a long and slow period of growth and can be as long as 2 to 3 months (Sullivan et al., 2001;Brewster, 2008). The relative growth rate (RGR) of onion seedlings (1.00) is almost half of that of other cool season crops such as lettuce (1.91) and cabbage (1.96) and is temperature dependent. However, onion seedlings are the fastest growing of most edible alliums (Brewster, 2008)."},{"index":2,"size":92,"text":"Leaf growth and leaf canopy development during the vegetative growth phase from the cotyledon senescence up to the fall of the first leaf stage are temperature related. For leaf growth and leaf canopy development a minimum or base temperature of 6°C is required and at temperatures below 6°C leaf growth will cease. The relative leaf growth rate (RLGR) increase linearly with an increase in temperature from 6°C to 20°C (Brewster, 2008). With a further increase in temperature, growth rate will start to slow down and at temperatures above 26°C it will cease."}]},{"head":"Bolting","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Bolting is the development of a seed stalk, important for onion seed production but not bulb production (Voss et al., 1999). Bolting will also reduce the marketable yield of onion bulbs."},{"index":2,"size":96,"text":"Un-timely bolting occurs when the onion plant is exposed to low temperatures (8°C to 13°C) when plants are ready to start forming bulbs (start of bulbing phase). The sensitivity to low temperatures increases with an increase in plant age (Cramer, 2003). The number of leaves has been used to determine a critical plant size at which bolting will be induced under low temperature conditions. According to Khokhar et al. (2007) sensitive plant size is when 7 to 10 leaves are formed (i.e., at the end of the first leaf fall and the beginning of bulbing stage)."},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":"When sowing is done too early in the season, the onion plant will reach the minimum plant size for bulbing when temperatures are still low and will bolt instead of forming bulbs."},{"index":4,"size":79,"text":"Sowing date therefore needs to be at a time to prevent plants receiving a cold spell when reaching a minimum plant size resulting in bolting instead of bulbing. However, with late sowing the occurrence of bolting is lower, but plants are still small when bulb formation starts resulting in small bulbs of a poor quality (Cramer, 2003). Therefore, sowing date is one of the important production factors that need to be taken in to consideration for bolting to occur. "}]},{"head":"Flower development and seed formation","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"Inflorescence development in onion has three definite successive phases: floral initiation due to low temperature \"Thermo phase\", growth and development of differentiated inflorescence \"competition phase\" and the actual flowering and seed production stage \"completion phase\" that is favored by high temperature and long days (Rabinowitch and Brewster, 1990;Brewster,1994). The progress of flower opening on the umbels is somewhat irregular. Hence, both closed buds and the open flowers at all stages of development are present all over the head at peak flowering in varying proportion in different regions of the umbel (Currah and Ockendon, 1978)."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"According to a study conducted by Masuda and Hayashi (1956)  "}]},{"head":"Components of Seed Yield","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"The most important components for onion seed production are umbel size, flower stalk height, number of flower stalks per plant and per plot and flower stalk diameter, which are closely related with the size of mother bulb and cultivars (Prats et al., 1996). The number of flower stalks per plant varied from1 to 15 per plant at Melkassa and the terminal number of 50-200 flowers produced per umbel on \"Adama Red\" depending on the number of shoots axis (Lemma, 1998). Seed yield per plant was positively and significantly correlated with the number of seed stalk per plant and seed yield per umbel (Prats et al., 1996;Lemma, 1998)."},{"index":2,"size":134,"text":"Umbel diameter was the most important index for seed yield (Prats et al., 1996). This character was influenced strongly by base flower stalk diameter. While cause and effect relationship between seed weight and the evaluated components in the inflorescence, it was found that umbel diameter was determining seed yield. This indicated that this character could be a good index for seed yield estimation in onion. According to Teshome et al. (2014), the maximum umbel diameter was recorded from large bulb size (5.8 cm) but was on par with the one obtained from medium sized bulbs (5.58 cm). The lowest umbel diameter (5.02 cm) was obtained from small bulbs. The maximum umbel diameter (6.01 cm) was also obtained from those planted on 25 October, followed by 5 November (5.57 cm) and 15 November (4.82 cm)."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"This might be due to higher supply of food materials to the umbel by larger bulb size and early planting also created favorable environmental conditions for earliest flowering and subsequently large umbel size."},{"index":4,"size":147,"text":"Number of seed per umbel was recorded the maximum (515.33) and the least (256.56) number of seeds per umbel were recorded from planted on 25 October and 15 November, respectively. Early planting (25 October) increased seed number per umbel by 100% than the last planting (15 November). Regarding mother bulb size, large bulbs increased seed number per umbel by 26.23% than the small bulbs. In addition to bulb size and planting time, the variation in number of seeds per umbel might be due to flower abortion caused by high temperature, lack of efficient pollinators of all the flowers in the umbel, shortage of nutrition which caused high competition and death of the weak florets in the umbel. Delayed planting resulted in poor plant growth and delayed bolting, moreover, high temperature at scape forming stages might have reduced the number of seed per umbel (Teshome et al., 2014)."},{"index":5,"size":108,"text":"A study by Sidhu et al. (1996) in India, showed that the higher seed yield in some onion cultivars was due to the higher number of seed stalks per plant and to a wider umbel diameter and, hence, the capacity of flowering of the plants was expressed by the umbel size. The seed yield difference among the genotypes ranged from 0.39-1 t/ ha. The number of flower stalks per plant varied from 3-15 with umbel diameter differences of 5-10 cm. The range of flower stalk height was from 76-115 cm; the highest seed yield among the cultivars was correlated with seed stalks number per plant and umbel diameter."}]},{"head":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","index":19,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Description of the Study Area","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":121,"text":"The experiment was conducted at Jari small scale irrigation scheme, Tehuledere district in Northeastern Ethiopia, during the period of September 2015 to April 2016. Geographically the experimental site is located at 11°14′N latitude and 39 0 40′E longitude and at an elevation of 1700 m above sea level (m.a.s.l). The mean maximum and minimum temperatures during the growing season were 28.2 o C and 6.6 o C, respectively. And its mean annual rainfall is 1204.6 mm (JARSC, 2015)). Monthly temperature and rain fall data of the trial site during the experiment period is given in Table 2. The soil of the experimental site is sandy loam in texture. The area is regionally well known for the production of onion (JARSC, 2015). "}]},{"head":"Experimental Materials and Design","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"The experiment was conducted under irrigation from July 2015-May 2016. Onion cultivar 'Adama Red' was used for this study. Adama Red is a dark red colored and firm, very pungent, flat globe shaped. It flowers and sets seed very easily, and is widely cultivated in the study area. It is well accepted by both producer and consumer and successfully produces by smallholder farmer and commercial grower scattered in most regions of the country (CSA, 2013)."},{"index":2,"size":98,"text":"Recommended bulb size with a bulb diameter ranging from 4.1 -5 cm (Teshome et al., 2014) and dark red colour, firm, very pungent and flat globe shaped free from insect, disease and mechanical injury was selected and used for the study. Hence, bulb-to-seed method was used for this study. Treatments of the experiment were nine planting time set at 15 days interval:1 st September (T1), 16 th September (T2), 1 st October (T3), 16 th October (T4), 31 st October (T5), 15 th November (T6), 30 th November (T7), 15 th December (T8) and 30 th December (T9)."},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"The experiment was laid out as Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with three replications. The size of each experimental plot was 2.1 m wide and 3 m long, having six rows."}]},{"head":"Cultural Practices","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Land Preparation: Land of the experiment field was opened on July, 2015. The experimental field was cleared and ploughed four times by oxen and harrowed manually to prepare fine seedbed. The whole field was divided in to three blocks each containing nine plots."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"Isolation: Onion is cross pollinated crop, and the seed field was isolated from other onion field by 500 meters to avoid cross pollination by insects."}]},{"head":"Planting of Mother Bulbs:","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"The selected bulbs were kept at room temperature up to last planting and the planting was done at every fifteen days interval for successive days of planting. The bulbs were prepared by cutting and removing their one-third top part to facilitate uniform, easy and quick sprouting of growing buds. The lower portion with disc-like stem and roots was dusted with ash to prevent decay due to possible fungal infection."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"Planting/spacing: The onion bulbs were planted in rows at spacing of 50, 30 and 20 cm between water furrows/rows on the bed and plants in the rows, respectively (Olani and Fikre, 2010). A distance of 1 m and 1.3 m was maintained between plots and blocks, respectively. Each plot had six rows (ridges), consisting of 90 plants/plot. The middle four rows were used for recording agronomic data."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"Fertilizer: Recommended fertilizer rates of urea 100 kg/ha and 200 kg/ha DAP (Olani and Fikre, 2010) were applied. DAP was applied as a single application at the time of planting and Urea was applied in two split doses of equal amounts, at planting and forty five days after planting."},{"index":4,"size":23,"text":"Staking: Staking was provided by using sticks to keep the scapes erect and to protect them from lodging by strong wind and storm."}]},{"head":"Irrigation:","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"The field was irrigated three days after planting to facilitate for easy germination of bulbs. Then irrigated every seven days until full flowering and then at every 10 days interval followed by 10-15 days interval near maturity (Olani and Fikre, 2010)."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"Weeding: Weeding was done from fifteen days after planting up to harvesting within 7-14 days interval at each growing phases."},{"index":3,"size":97,"text":"Harvesting: all umbels per plant do not mature at one time due to difference in the stalks to flowering; hence it was harvested at mature umbels when about 50% black seed is exposed on an umbel. Harvesting was done by hands. When heads are cut was supported in the palm of hand and held between the fingers to avoid seed shattering. The best seed quality is obtained when seed moisture content is between 50 and 65%. Below 50% and lower, umbel shattering occurs. In addition, under 50% seed moisture content results in lower germination and seed weight."},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":"Seed extraction: Seeds were threshed by mowing or rubbing of dried umbels and then cleaning the seeds by winnowing followed by pure seed separation by floatation."},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"Seed Storage: Dried seed was stored in paper bags in dry and aerated conditions."}]},{"head":"Data Collection and Measurement","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":127,"text":"Data on different growth, seed yield and seed quality parameters were collected at different growth stages from the middle four rows of each plot. Ten plants from the four central rows of each plot were randomly selected to collect data on plant height (cm), number of leaves per plant, number of scapes per plant, scape height (cm), scape diameter, umbel diameter, number of seeds per umbel, seed yield per umbel (g), seed yield per plant (g), and thousand seed weight (g). On the other hand, data on days to 50% flowering and maturity, and seed yield per plot (g) were collected on net plot size basis. Seed germination (%) test was conducted according to ISTA (1985) at Dessie seed laboratory and seed germination percentage was calculated accordingly."}]},{"head":"Growth Parameters","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Plant height (cm): Plant height was recorded by measuring from ground to the top of the plant, and was measured before harvesting. The mean of ten plants from each plot was considered."}]},{"head":"Number of leaves per plant:","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Leaves were counted after sixty days of planting from selected ten plants."}]},{"head":"Number of scapes per plant:","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Number of scapes per plant was taken from ten plants in a plot at first harvest."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"Scape height (cm): Height was measured from the end of the sheath part to the umbel from ten plants."}]},{"head":"Diameter of scape (cm):","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"The diameter of scape was measured at the widest part of scape by using vernier caliper and taken from ten plants."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"Days to maturity: Days to maturity was recorded when 50% of the capsule turned brown and started splitting."}]},{"head":"RESULTS AND DISCUSSION","index":30,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Growth and Phenological Parameters as Affected by Planting Time of Onion","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"Data on growth, seed yield and seed quality parameters is depicted on Table 3, Table 4 and   Table 5 below. Plant height, number of green leaves per plant, number of scapes per plant, scape length, diameter of scape, days to 50% flowering, diameter of umbel, number of seeds per umbel, weight of seeds per umbel, 1000 seed weight, seed yield per plant, seed yield per plot, seed yield per hectare, germination percentage, and seed vigor index were considered to analyze the effects of planting time on plant phenology."}]},{"head":"Plant height and number of leaves","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":383,"text":"Planting time significantly affected both plant height and number of leaves per plant (Table 3). Plant height ranged from 82.6 cm to 61.8 cm with an average of 74.1 cm. The maximum plant height (82.6 cm) was recorded from plants planted on September 1 st and the lowest plant height (61.8 cm) was recorded from plants planted on December 30 th (Table 2). Number of leaves per plant ranged from 54.4 to 14.6 with an average of 31.6. The maximum number of leaves per plant (54.4) was recorded from plants planted in September, while the minimum number of leaves per plant (15.4) was recorded from plants planted in December. Therefore, onion planted in September (14.2 0 C to 18.4 0 C) showed vigorous vegetative growth compared to those planted in December (14.6 0 C to 19.3 0 C). The increase in plant height could mainly be due to early planting which might have provided plants with relatively cooler period compared to the latter eight plantings. The cooler period stimulates cytokine and giberelin accumulation, modifying the hormonal balance and leading the plant to increase the plant development and responsible for elongation of flower stalk (Rakhimbaev and Ol'Shaskaya, 1976). The taller plant height provides more photosynthetic capacity to the plant than shorter height. Similarly, Teshome et al. (2014) reported the significant effect of planting dates on plant height, and onion planted in October had maximum plant height compared to those planted in November. Likewise, Mehri et al. (2015) reported the significant effect of planting dates on plant height and number of leaves per plant. Onion plants planted in September were longer and with more number of leaves compared to those planted in November. This could be attributed to the increase in the vegetative growth of the onion plant through the effect of planting time, the cooler time was important for the synthesis of different growth component of onion stem and seed. This good foliage indicates higher growth, development and productivity of plant. The tallest plants also produced more number of leaves. On the other hand, Mollah et al. (2015) reported that onion plants planted in November were longer and with more number of leaves per plant compared to those planted in October. This difference could be attributed to climatic (temperature) variation among the study site."}]},{"head":"Scape number per plant, scape height and scape diameter","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":156,"text":"Planting time significantlyinfluenced scape number per plant, scape height and scape diameter (Table 3). The number of scapes per plant ranged from 2.7 to 6.3 with an average of 4.4. The height and diameter of scapes ranged from 72.5 cm to 49.9 cm and from 1.48 cm to 0.58 cm, respectively. The maximum number of scapes per plant, scape height and scape diameter was recorded from plants planted early (September 1 st ). On the other hand onion planted late (December 15 th and 30 th ) had short and minimum number of scapes per plant with small scapes diameter. Therefore, early planting resulted in vigorous plants. In agreement to this result, El-Helaly and Karam (2012) reported maximum number of scapes per plant, scape length and scape diameter from early planting dates. Similarly, Teshome et al. (2014) reported maximum scape diameter and scape height from onion plants planted in October compared to those planted in November."}]},{"head":"Days to 50% flowering and maturity","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":187,"text":"Planting time significantly (p≤ 0.01) affected both 50% flowering and maturity date of onion (Table 3). Onion planted in October and November required minimum number of days to flower. On the other hand, onion planted in December and September took maximum number of days for flowering. This might be attributed to the coincidence of growth stage of the crop and occurrence of cold weather to induce flower stalk. This might be the reason that in early planting there was low temperature which might have contributed for the enhancement of bolting and flower stalk development and subsequent flower development, while at late planting, the temperature increased which in turn might have delayed bolting and subsequent flowering. The variation in days to flowering among the treatments might be due to the relative low temperature observed in the early growth stages (Table 3) Tesfu and Charles, (2010). Thus, the duration the plants exposed to the low temperature decreased progressively as planting was delayed. This result agrees with finding of Teshome et al. (2014) who reported that planting time had marked influence on the number of days required for 50% flowering."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"Onion planted in September took maximum number of days to mature. On the other hand, onion planted in December required minimum number of days to reach maturity. This indicates that onion planted in relatively hot climatic (temperature) condition (19.3 0 C) matured early compared to those planted in relatively cold condition (14.2 0 C). This result agrees with the findings of Ud-Deen (2008). "}]},{"head":"Seed yield and quality parameters of onion as affected by planting time","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"Data presented in Table 4 depicted that planting time significantly influenced onion seed yield and seed yield related parameters such as umbel diameter, number of seeds per umbel, seed yield per umbel, 1000-seed weight, seed yield per plant and seed yield per hectare. Onion planted in September and October had significantly higher umbel diameter, number of seeds per umbel, seed yield per umbel, 1000-seed weight, seed yield per plant and seed yield per hectare compared to those planted in November and December. Similarly, in Bangladesh, Ud-Deen ( 2008) recorded higher seed yield from onion plants planted in October compared to those planted in November."}]},{"head":"Umbel diameter","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Planting time significantly influenced umbel diameter. Umbel diameter ranged from 5.8 1 cm to 3.3 cm with a mean of 4.8 cm. Mollah et al. (2015) recorded umbel diameter with a range of 6.9 cm to 3.0 cm.  "}]},{"head":"Thousand seed weight","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Planting time significantly influenced (p≤0.01) thousand seed weight ( "}]},{"head":"Correlation Analysis amongPlanting Time and Different Parameters","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Correlation coefficient (r) values computed to determine the relationships between and within the planting time and parameter are depicted in Table 6. The correlation values explain the apparent association of the planting time parameters with each other and clearly indicated the magnitude and directions of the association and relationships."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"With increase in time of planting (from September 1 st to December 30 th ) there was increase in temperature. Onion requires ample moisture with cool environment. So the increase in temperature influences flower stalks development, flowering and seed maturation."},{"index":3,"size":103,"text":"Plant height (r= -0.915**) and number of leaves/plant (r = -0.858**) was negatively but significantly correlated with planting time (Table 6). Both plant height and number of leaves/plant could mainly important for photosynthesis and pollination. This implied that the Umbel diameter (r = -861**), number of seed/umbel (r = -916**), thousand seed weight (r = -0.855**) and seed yield/hectare (r = -895**) was negatively but significantly correlated (Table 6). For that reason, it is possible to say that umbel size of the onion plant is one of the major characters highly demanded for flower and seed production and positive relation with seed yield."},{"index":4,"size":96,"text":"Similarly, Germination percentage(r = -876**), seed vigor index I (r = -787**) and seed vigor index II (r = -872**) was negatively but significantly (p≤0.01) correlated. The result indicated that the above mentioned parameters can be increased by early planting in which the plant can accumulate high seed yield and quality due to the extended vegetative growth of the plant (Table 6). Bewuketu (2012) reported that parameters can be increased by extending crop cycle by early planting. * And** Significant at 5% and 1% probability levels, respectively. The decimal numbers without any asterisk are non-significant (P>0. "}]},{"head":"SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"Planting time is one of the most important factors for onion seed production. For production of higher yield of quality onion seed, the bulbs must be planted at optimum time. However, there are no research recommendations pertaining to planting time under the environmental conditions of Jari. The present study was therefore conducted to determine an appropriate time for a better growth, yield and quality of onion seed at Tehuledere, Jari district. The experiment was carried out from September 1 st to May 30 th 2016 under irrigation condition using Adama Red variety. The experiment consisted of nine different planting times arranged in randomized complete block design with three replications."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"Data were recorded both on plant and plot basis for growth, yield, yield components and quality parameters of onion. The finding showed significant differences among the different planting dates with regard to growth, yield and quality parameters, viz. number of leaves/plant, number of scape/plant, scape diameter, days to 50% flowering, days to maturity, number of seed per umbel, weight of seed per umbel, thousand seed weight, seed yield/plant."},{"index":3,"size":281,"text":"The highest seed yield/plot, seed yield per hectare, germination percentage, speed of germination, seed vigor index I and II were obtained from early planting date; while significantly the lowest values were recorded from late planting. Therefore, based on the finding of the current study, early planting (September 1 st ) can be used for high yield and better quality of onion seed. The tallest scape height was associated with the highest yields and the greatest number of seeds per plant. The taller scape height might have provided more photo assimilates to the plant causing the weight of each seed to be greater than the weight of seed from plants with short scape. The highest seed yield (1032.7 kg/ha) as well as the highest germination percentage (94.3%) was recorded from onion planted on 1 st September. On the other hand, the lowest seed yield (29.7 kg/ha) and germination percentage (15.3%) recorded from onion planted in December. It was evident that plants sown in September 1 st exhibited superior performance both in growth, yield and quality characters. This may be because there was enough time for the early planted onion plants to complete both their growth and developmental stages, which in turn enhanced the production and partitioning of photoassimilates, thus leading to an increase in growth and yield characters. Plants sown late (30 th December) had no adequate time to complete their life cycle fully. Several growth, yield component and quality parameters were negatively but significantly correlated with planting time. In this condition planting time and temperature were found to have positive relation, and onion requires ample moisture with cool environment. The increase in temperature influences flower stalks development, flowering and seed maturation."},{"index":4,"size":28,"text":"Based on overall results of the present study, the optimum planting time for seed production of Adama red onion variety at Jari irrigation scheme, Tehuledere district of Northeastern"},{"index":5,"size":37,"text":"Ethiopia is 1 st September. Since this result is based on one season work, in order to give conclusive recommendation, further investigation is needed at Tehuledere district and other locations with similar agro-ecological conditions in the region."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" in Japan, the flowering period lasted for 29 days and during the middle 15 days, 84.9% of the total flowers were open. The number of flower opening on each day was influenced by the number of hours of sunshine on the same day and the previous day. The time and rate of flowering were found to be affected mainly by temperature.Globerson et al. (1981), in Israel, reported that flowering in an umbel is completed in 25 to 31 days. They further indicated that onion seed set and development varied with many factors, both environmental and genetic factors affecting the total duration of seed development.Teshome et al. (2014), in Kobo, found early flowering (69 days) from the large bulbs planted on 25 October, while the longest days to attain 50 % flowering were recorded from small bulb size planted on 15 November (82.67). This might be because there was low temperature during early planting which might have contributed for the enhancement bolting and flower stalk development and subsequent flower development, while at late planting the temperature increased which, in turn, `might have delayed bolting and subsequent flowering and maturity.Large bulbs contributed to the plants by giving enough amount of reserved food.Anisuzzaman et al. (2009) reported that planting time had marked influence on the number of days required for emergence of 50% flowering and sometimes early maturing is good, as it can escape from bad weather and diseases.Vinney et al. (2011)  also reported that low temperatures favor bolting. "},{"text":"4. 2 . 3 Number of unproductive scape per plant and weight of seed per umbelPlanting time was significantly influenced (p≤0.01) on number of unproductive scape per plant. The maximum unproductive scape per plant (2.7) was recorded from early planting whereas the lowest (0.73) was recorded from late planting.Planting time was highly significantly influenced (p≤0.0) on weight of seed per umbel. The maximum seed weight per umbel (2.603 g) was recorded from early planting 1 st September whereas the lowest weight of seed per umbel (0.13 g) was recorded from December 30 th . Early planting is important for the conductive temperature for the development and growth of flowering and seed set. This result is agrees withTeshome et al. (2014), El-Helaly andKaram (2012), who reported that maximum weight of seeds recorded from early planting. "},{"text":" 05) PT-Planting Time, PH-Plant Height,NL-Number of leaves/plant,NS-Number of scape /plant, DS-Diameter of scape,SH-Scape height, FL-Days to 50% flowering, DM-Days to 50% maturity, UD-Umbel Diameter, NSU-Number of seed /umbel,TSU-Thousand seed weight, SYPP-Seed yield /plant,SYPH-Seed yield per hectare, GP-Germination Percentage,SVII-Seed vigor Index I and SVI II-Seed Vigor Index II. "},{"text":"2.3. Climatic Requirement 2.3.1. Temperature . Table1. Characteristics of different onion varieties    Table1. Characteristics of different onion varieties Onion Cultivar Maturity Bulb Color Bulb Shape Bulb Size(g) Bulb Yield Seed Yield Onion Cultivar MaturityBulb ColorBulb ShapeBulb Size(g) Bulb YieldSeed Yield  Days    (qt/ha) (qt/ha) Days(qt/ha)(qt/ha) Adama Red 120-135 Dark Red Flat Globe 65-80 350 10-13 Adama Red120-135Dark RedFlat Globe65-8035010-13 Red Creole 130-140 Light Red Flat Globe 60-70 300 2-6 Red Creole130-140Light RedFlat Globe60-703002-6 Bombay Red 90-110 Red Flat Globe 70-80 300-400 13-20 Bombay Red90-110RedFlat Globe70-80300-40013-20 Melkam 130-142 Red High Globe 85-100 400 11-15 Melkam130-142RedHigh Globe85-10040011-15 Dereselegn 100-115 Red Globe 85-100 380 - Dereselegn100-115RedGlobe85-100380- Source: Lemma and Shimels (2003)     Source: Lemma and Shimels (2003)  "},{"text":" reported the impacts of planting time, day length, soil pH and soil moisture on the production of onion.Planting time for onion is different across the countries due to seasonal variations. EL-Helaly and Karam (2012) conducted a field experiment at Cairo University, Giza Governorate during2008-2009 and 2009-2010  season, to assess the influence of planting date (November 15, December 15 and January 15) on production of onion cv.Giza 20. Results showed significant effect for most of studied characters. Significantly the highest scape number / plant, scape diameter, main scape length, umbel diameter, seed yield /fed, weight of 1000 seeds and percentage of seed germination were obtained from planting on mid of November.Khodadadi (2012) conducted a study aimed at determining the planting date and size of the mother bulb effects on some traits which are related to seed on onion Rey variety in Iran during the 2008-2010. The result showed that the planting date significantly affected number of plant emergence plant height and yield per hectare. Significantly the highest seed yield was recorded from the planting date of November 6.November), and reported the highest seed yield for GholiGhese onion variety planted on mid-September.Rahim et al. (2009) reported significant effect of planting time and mulches on agronomic traits contributing for growth and seed yield of onion cultivar Taherpuri. Ud-Deen (2008) conducted an experiment to study the effect of mother bulb size and planting time on growth, bulb and seed yield of onion. Onion bulbs of different sizes (20 g, 15 g and 10 g) were planted at different dates viz., October 30, October 15 and November 30. The large mother bulb and early planting were favorable for getting higher bulb and seed yields. TheMohanty et al. (2001) reported that the planting on November 16 gave the tallest plants (50.52) with the highest number of leaves per plant (14.85), bulb diameter (5.93 cm) , bulb weight (70.78 g) and bulb yield ( 0.283 t/ha). Further delay in planting resulted in reduced vegetative growth and yield.George et al. (2009) conducted an experiment to study the effect of sowing date, transplanting date and varieties on production of transplanted short day onion varieties in south eastern Georgia's Vidalia growing region. The propensity of some varieties to form double bulbs can be reduced with later sowing and transplanting dates. Sowing the first week of October rather than the fourth week of September and transplanting in December rather than November can reduce double bulbs in some varieties.  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Monthly Temperature ( o C) and Rain fall (mm) at Jari during the trial period   Temperature   Temperature Months Maximum Minimum Mean Rain fall MonthsMaximumMinimumMeanRain fall September 28.4 8.4 18.4 66.43 September28.48.418.466.43 October 27.2 5.2 16.2 20.8 October27.25.216.220.8 November 25.8 2.6 14.2 75.2 November25.82.614.275.2 December 25.8 3.4 14.6 22.4 December25.83.414.622.4 January 27.4 7.2 17.3 39.2 January27.47.217.339.2 February 31.0 7.6 19.3 29 February31.07.619.329 March 31.2 6.8 19.0 98.3 March31.26.819.098.3 April 28.8 11.6 20.2 97.6 April28.811.620.297.6 Source: Kombolcha Meteorological Directorate (2016)   Source: Kombolcha Meteorological Directorate (2016)  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Effect of planting Time on Growth and Phonological Parameters of Onion at Jari Planting Plant No. of No. of Scape Scape Days to Days to PlantingPlantNo. ofNo. ofScapeScapeDays toDays to Time height leaves/ scape/ diameter height 50% 50% Timeheightleaves/scape/diameterheight50%50%  (cm) plant plant (cm) (cm) Flowering maturity (cm)plantplant(cm)(cm)Floweringmaturity Sept 1 st 82.6 a 46.7 a 6.3 a 1.48 a 72.5 a 79.3 abc 130.2 b Sept 1 st82.6 a46.7 a6.3 a1.48 a72.5 a79.3 abc130.2 b Sept 16 th 80.9 a 54.4 a 5.0 bc 1.25 b 70.4 a 80.7 ab 132.8 a Sept 16 th80.9 a54.4 a5.0 bc1.25 b70.4 a80.7 ab132.8 a Oct 1 st 80.1 ab 46.5 a 4.7 cd 0.88 e 69.8 a 77.3 cd 129.0 b Oct 1 st80.1 ab46.5 a4.7 cd0.88 e69.8 a77.3 cd129.0 b Oct 16 th 77.7 ab 25.3 b 5.9 ab 0.99 d 64.7 a 58.7 e 129.6 b Oct 16 th77.7 ab25.3 b5.9 ab0.99 d64.7 a58.7 e129.6 b Oct 31 st 72.5 abcd 27.3 b 4.0 de 1.12 c 69.5 a 68.0 d 124.0 d Oct 31 st72.5 abcd27.3 b4.0 de1.12 c69.5 a68.0 d124.0 d Nov 15 th 69.5 bcd 31.9 b 3.5 ef 0.72 f 64.7 a 60.7 e 126.7 c Nov 15 th69.5 bcd31.9 b3.5 ef0.72 f64.7 a60.7 e126.7 c Nov 30 th 76.2 abc 14.6 c 4.8 cd 0.72 f 55.3 b 81.0 ab 120.3 e Nov 30 th76.2 abc14.6 c4.8 cd0.72 f55.3 b81.0 ab120.3 e Dec 15 th 65.3 cd 15.4 c 2.7 f 0.61 g 53.4 b 73.2 cd 120.0 e Dec 15 th65.3 cd15.4 c2.7 f0.61 g53.4 b73.2 cd120.0 e Dec 30 th 61.8 d 22.5 bc 2.7 f 0.58 g 49.9 b 84.3 a 110.1 f Dec 30 th61.8 d22.5 bc2.7 f0.58 g49.9 b84.3 a110.1 f Mean 74.1 31.6 4.4 0.93 63.4 73.7 124.8 Mean74.131.64.40.9363.473.7124.8 LSD (5%) 11.4 9.8 0.96 0.09 9.2 6.7 2.1 LSD (5%)11.49.80.960.099.26.72.1 CV (%) 8.9 17.9 12.63 5.96 8.4 5.2 0.95 CV (%)8.917.912.635.968.45.20.95 Means followed by the same letter within a column are not significantly different at 5% Means followed by the same letter within a column are not significantly different at 5% probability level.       probability level.  "},{"text":"2 Number of seeds per umbel Teshome et al. (2014)  reported umbel diameter with a range of 6.0 cm to 4.8 cm. Therefore, umbel diameters recorded in the present study are in the range of previous investigators reports. The highest umbel diameter (5.8 cm) was recorded from onion plants planted on September 1 st but was not significantly different from those planted on September 16 th , October 1 st and November 15 th . On the other hand, the smallest umbel diameter(3.3 cm)    was recorded from plants planted on December 30 th . Therefore, early planting increasesumbel diameter compared to late planting. The umbel size of the onion plant is one of the major characters highly demanded for flower and seed production. The plants with wider umbel size can accommodate large number of flowers which later became seeds , thereby increase seed yield; this positive effect of umbel size for high yield further indicated by positive relation with seed yield. Similarly, Teshome et al. (2014) recorded the highest umbel diameter from onion planted in October compared to in November. Likewise, in Egypt, El-Planting time significantly influenced (p≤0.01) number of seeds per umbel. Number of seeds per umbel ranged from 533.3 to 47.4 with an average of 214.0. Teshomeet al. (2014) reported 515.3 to 256.6 seeds per umbel. Likewise, Mollah et al. (2015) reported 299.9 to 93.0 seeds per umbel in Bangladesh. Therefore, the result of the present study is in agreement with previous findings. Significantly the highest number of seeds per umbel (533.3) was recorded from September 1 st planting date. On the other hand, minimum number of seeds per umbel (47.4) was recorded from December 30 th planting date. However, it was statistically on par with December 15 th and November 15 th plantings dates. High temperature during flowering also resulted in flower abortions and hence lower seed yield. So, selection of appropriate months in a given locality is crucial in onion seed production. Teshome et al. (2014) reported that, variation in number of seeds per umbel might be due to flower abortion caused by high temperature, lack of efficient pollinators of all the flowers in the umbel, shortage of nutrition which caused high competition and death of the weak florets in the umbel. 4.2. 4.2. Helaly and Karam (2012) recorded significantly higher umbel diameter on onion plants Helaly and Karam (2012) recorded significantly higher umbel diameter on onion plants planted in November compared to those planted in December and January. On the other hand, planted in November compared to those planted in December and January. On the other hand, in Bangladesh, Mollah et al. (2015) reported the maximum umbel diameter from onion plants in Bangladesh, Mollah et al. (2015) reported the maximum umbel diameter from onion plants planted in November compared to those planted in October. This difference might be planted in November compared to those planted in October. This difference might be attributed to the climatic variability among the study sites. attributed to the climatic variability among the study sites.  "},{"text":"Table 4 The maximum thousand seed weight (3.6 g) was recorded from early planting time such as September 1 st and September 16 th . On the other hand, the minimum thousand seed weight (2.2 g) was recorded from onion plants planted on November 15 th and it was statistically on par with those planted on December 15 th , December 30 th and October 31 st . This might be attributed to climatic condition prevailing during the seed filling stage. Therefore, early planting result in well filled seeds compared to late plantings. In addition, the seed filling period of late planting time was significantly shorter than early plantingtime. However, in Bangladesh,Mollah et al. (2015) recorded heavy 1000-seed weights from plants planted in November compared to those planted in October.Planting time significantly (p≤0.01) influenced seed yield per plant (Table4). Similarly, Ud-Deen (2008), El-Helaly and Karam (2012),Teshome et al. (2014),Mollah et al. (2015) reported the significant effects of planting time on seed yield per plant. The average seed yield per plant ranged from 10.0 g to 0.3 g with an average of 3.2 g. The highest seed yield per plant (10.0 g) was obtained from plants planted on September 1 st (14.2-18.4 0 C). On the other hand, the lowest seed yield per plant (0.25 g) was recorded from plants planted on December 30 th (14.6-19.3 0 C) but was not statistically significantly different from those planted on December 15 th , November 15 th and October 31 st . Therefore, early planting time resulted in higher seed yield per plant. Cool temperature for flower development in early planting time and subsequent favorable temperature could have increased the final seed yield per plant. High atmospheric temperature causes early maturity of bulbs before attaining sufficient growth of plant and thereby resulting in low seed yield in onion. The difference in seed yield per plant might be due to the number of scapes per plant, number of seed per umbel and cool temperature for flower development in early planting and subsequent favorable temperature could have increased the final seed yield per plant. Similarly, Teshome et al. ). El-Helaly and ). El-Helaly and  "},{"text":"6 Seed yield per plot and per hectare Planting time significantly (p≤ 0.01) influenced seed yield per plot and hectare and ranged from 322.19 g to 9.33 g and 1032.7 kg/ha to 29.7 kg/ha respectively (Table4). The maximum seed yield 322.19 g/plot and 1032.7 kg/ha was obtained from September 1 st planting. On the other hand, the least seed yield 9.33 g/plot and 29.7 kg/ha was recorded from December 30 th planting but the seed yield per ha was statistically on par with December 15 th , October 31 st and November 15 th plantings. In late planting it might be resulted in reduced cycle and less yield, because the plants received stimulus for bulb development before reaching full vegetative development. Therefore, early planting times are suitable for higher onion seed yield at Jari irrigation scheme.  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Effect of Planting Time on Onion Seed Yield and Yield Component at Jari Planting Umbel No. of 1000- Seed Weight of Seed Seed PlantingUmbelNo. of1000-SeedWeight ofSeedSeed Time diameter seed/ seed yield/ seed/umbel yield yield Timediameterseed/seedyield/seed/umbelyieldyield  (cm) umbel weight plant (g) (g/plot) kg/ha (cm)umbelweightplant(g)(g/plot)kg/ha    (g) (g)    (g)(g) Sept 1 st 5.8 a 533.3 a 3.6 a 10.0 a 2.6 a 322.19 a 1032.7 a Sept 1 st5.8 a533.3 a3.6 a10.0 a2.6 a322.19 a1032.7 a Sept 16 th 5.3 ab 395.2 b 3.6 a 5.5 b 1.9 b 203.5 b 652.3 b Sept 16 th5.3 ab395.2 b3.6 a5.5 b1.9 b203.5 b652.3 b Oct 1 st 5.2 ab 351.9 b 2.9 b 4.9 bc 1.5 c 217.8 b 691.5 b Oct 1 st5.2 ab351.9 b2.9 b4.9 bc1.5 c217.8 b691.5 b Oct 16 th 4.7 bc 218.4 c 2.9 b 4.4 c 1.3 c 172.3 c 552.5 c Oct 16 th4.7 bc218.4 c2.9 b4.4 c1.3 c172.3 c552.5 c Oct 31 st 4.4 bc 107.5 d 2.4 cd 0.8 e 0.2 e 31.9 e 102.2 e Oct 31 st4.4 bc107.5 d2.4 cd0.8 e0.2 e31.9 e102.2 e Nov 15 th 5.0 abc 60.2 e 2.2 d 0.4 e 0.2 e 11.6 e 37.4 e Nov 15 th5.0 abc60.2 e2.2 d0.4 e0.2 e11.6 e37.4 e Nov 30 th 4.8 bc 153.0 d 2.7 bc 2.1 d 0.6 e 88.2 d 280.8 d Nov 30 th4.8 bc153.0 d2.7 bc2.1 d0.6 e88.2 d280.8 d Dec 15 th 4.3 c 59.4 e 2.4 cd 0.5 e 0.2 e 17.9 e 57.4 e Dec 15 th4.3 c59.4 e2.4 cd0.5 e0.2 e17.9 e57.4 e Dec 30 th 3.3 d 47.4 e 2.3 cd 0.3 e 0.1 e 9.3 e 29.7 e Dec 30 th3.3 d47.4 e2.3 cd0.3 e0.1 e9.3 e29.7 e Mean 4.8 214.0 2.8 3.2 0.95 119.4 381.8 Mean4.8214.02.83.20.95119.4381.8 LSD (%) 0.9 45.88 0.4 0.6 0.19 24.1 73.7 LSD (%)0.945.880.40.60.1924.173.7 CV (%) 10.9 12.38 8.9 10.9 11.2 11.7 11.2 CV (%)10.912.388.910.911.211.711.2 Means followed by the same letter within a column are not significantly different at 5% Means followed by the same letter within a column are not significantly different at 5% probability level.       probability level. 4.2.        4.2.  "},{"text":"7 Germination percentage, speed of germination and seed vigor index Similarly, Teshome et al. (2014)  reported germination percentage ranging from 77.1% to 97.6%. Therefore, the result of the present study is in agreement with previous research results. The highest germination percentage was recorded from seeds harvested from onion plants planted on September 1 st . On the other hand, low germination percentage was recorded from seeds harvested from those planted on December 15 th but statistically on par with those planted on November 15 th . The reason for increasing the percentage of seed germination in early planting may be due to the highest seed size and seed weight. Therefore, early planting is suitable to produce high quality onion seed at Jari irrigation scheme. Similarly,Teshome et   al. (2014)  recommended early planting date to produce high quality seed at Kobo. Speed of germination was significantly affected (p≤0.01) by planting time. Early planted Speed of germination was significantly affected (p≤0.01) by planting time. Early planted (September 1 st ) gave the highest speed of germination (7.85), while the lowest speed of (September 1 st ) gave the highest speed of germination (7.85), while the lowest speed of germination (1.27) obtained from the late planted (December 14) (Table 5). Seed vigor index germination (1.27) obtained from the late planted (December 14) (Table 5). Seed vigor index  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Effect of Planting Time on Onion Quality Parameters at Jari Means followed by the same letter within a column are not significantly different at 5% Means followed by the same letter within a column are not significantly different at 5% probability level probability level  "},{"text":" cooler time was important for the synthesis of different growth component of onion stem and seed. This good foliage indicates higher growth, development and productivity of plant. Planting Germination Speed of Seed Vigor Seed Vigor Index PlantingGerminationSpeed ofSeedVigorSeed Vigor Index Time percentage Germination Index I  II TimepercentageGerminationIndex III Sept 1 st 94.3 a 7.85 a 1117.8 a 25.2 a Sept 1 st94.3 a7.85 a1117.8 a25.2 a Sept 16 th 71.0 b 5.91 b 665.3 b 18.0 b Sept 16 th71.0 b5.91 b665.3 b18.0 b Oct 1 st 50.3 c 4.17 c 333.5 c 12.54 c Oct 1 st50.3 c4.17 c333.5 c12.54 c Oct 16 th 50.7 c 4.2 c 339.3 c 12.55 c Oct 16 th50.7 c4.2 c339.3 c12.55 c Oct 31 st 25.0 e 2.08 e 104.5 d 6.3 e Oct 31 st25.0 e2.08 e104.5 d6.3 e Nov 15 th 18.0 f 1.49 fg 91.0 d  4.3 f Nov 15 th18.0 f1.49 fg91.0 d4.3 f Nov 30 th 39.0 d 3.23 d 337.2 c 9.7 d Nov 30 th39.0 d3.23 d337.2 c9.7 d Dec 15 th 15.3 f 1.27 g 89.6 d  3.7 f Dec 15 th15.3 f1.27 g89.6 d3.7 f Dec 30 th 21.7 e 1.8 ef 142.7 d 5.2 ef Dec 30 th21.7 e1.8 ef142.7 d5.2 ef Mean 42.8 3.55 357.8 4.4 Mean42.83.55357.84.4 LSD (5%) 6.1 0.51 69.6  1.7 LSD (5%)6.10.5169.61.7 CV (%) 8.3 8.31 11.2  9.3 CV (%)8.38.3111.29.3  "},{"text":"Table 6 . Correlation Analysis of Planting time among Growth, Yield components, Seed yield and Quality of Onion at Jari  PT PTH NL NS DS SH FL DM UD NSU TSU SYPP SYPH GP SVII SVIII PTPTHNLNSDSSHFLDMUDNSUTSUSYPPSYPHGPSVIISVIII PT 1 -0.915* -0.858* -0.834* -0.905* -0.929* 0.034 -0.901* -0.861* -0.916* -0.855* -0.881* -0.895* -0.876* -0.787* -0.872* PT1-0.915*-0.858*-0.834*-0.905*-0.929*0.034-0.901*-0.861*-0.916*-0.855*-0.881*-0.895*-0.876*-0.787*-0.872* PTH  1 0.684* 0.920* 0.786* 0.798* 0.039 0.850* 0.875* 0.879* 0.846* 0.845* 0.890* 0.860* 0.753* 0.849* PTH10.684*0.920*0.786*0.798*0.0390.850*0.875*0.879*0.846*0.845*0.890*0.860*0.753*0.849* NL   1 0.506 0.718* 0.808* 0.188 0.724* 0.686* 0.816* 0.746* 0.716* 0.735* 0.731* 0.660 0.724* NL10.5060.718*0.808*0.1880.724*0.686*0.816*0.746*0.716*0.735*0.731*0.6600.724* NS    1 0.782* 0.679* -0.072 0.738* 0.754* 0.816* 0.804* 0.863* 0.877* 0.871* 0.785* 0.863* NS10.782*0.679*-0.0720.738*0.754*0.816*0.804*0.863*0.877*0.871*0.785*0.863* DS     1 0.848* 0.035 0.730* 0.708* 0.835* 0.821* 0.828* 0.788* 0.854* 0.822* 0.861* DS10.848*0.0350.730*0.708*0.835*0.821*0.828*0.788*0.854*0.822*0.861* SH      1 -0.234 0.887* 0.794* 0.726* 0.621 0.669* 0.685* 0.656 0.559 0.655 SH1-0.2340.887*0.794*0.726*0.6210.669*0.685*0.6560.5590.655 FL       1 -0.339 -0.074 0.306 0.337 0.226 0.217 0.293 0.365 0.297 FL1-0.339-0.0740.3060.3370.2260.2170.2930.3650.297 DM        1 0.885* 0.714* 0.688* 0.676* 0.710* 0.663 0.553 0.653 DM10.885*0.714*0.688*0.676*0.710*0.6630.5530.653 UD         1 0.803* 0.730* 0.776* 0.781* 0.754* 0.723* 0.755* UD10.803*0.730*0.776*0.781*0.754*0.723*0.755* NSU          1 0.948** 0.976** 0.980** 0.973** 0.928* 0.971** NSU10.948**0.976**0.980**0.973**0.928*0.971** TSU           1 0.925* 0.923* 0.966** 0.922* 0.960** TSU10.925*0.923*0.966**0.922*0.960** SYPP            1 0.986** 0.981** 0.954** 0.983** SYPP10.986**0.981**0.954**0.983** SYPH             1 0.966** 0.903** 0.961** SYPH10.966**0.903**0.961** GP              1 0.970** 0.999** GP10.970**0.999** SVII               1 0.978** SVII10.978** SVIII                1 SVIII1  "}],"sieverID":"3c41b25d-dfae-4a0b-970f-663cae7f05cc","abstract":"Onion (Allium cepa L.) is member of the family Alliaceae and the most widely grown herbaceous biennial vegetable crop. Quality planting material is one of the major inputs to successful vegetable production. However, it is one of the major constraints in Ethiopia. Northeastern Ethiopia has suitable agro-climatic condition for onion seed production. However, onion seed production packages, including its appropriate planting time, are not yet determined. Evidences on effects of the different planting time on quality and yield level is not well explored. Therefore, this experiment was conducted at Jari small scale irrigation scheme from September 2015 to April 2016 to determine an appropriate planting time for a better plant growth, yield components, seed yield and quality of Adama red onion variety. The experiment was laid out in randomized complete block design with three replications."}

data/part_4/0c1fc77f9f1d346b084d926f936cb77a.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0c1fc77f9f1d346b084d926f936cb77a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ee72815d-a460-4b3f-890b-842746e4c2f7/retrieve"},"pageCount":8,"title":"Enhancing livelihoods of poor livestock keepers through increased use of fodder in Syria Enhancing livelihoods of poor livestock keepers through increased use of fodder in Syria","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"Feed scarcity prevents small-scale sheep and goat keepers in Syria to take advantage of the growing market for livestock products to improve their livelihoods, build assets and get out of poverty. This is due to poor access to information, credit, appropriate technologies; lack of enabling policies and institutions; and weak extension system, input delivery services and fodder innovation capacity. An IFADfunded project was implemented from 2007 to 2011 by ICARDA, communitybased organizations (CBOs), and public and private sector partners to address the constraints."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"The overall objective of the project was to enhance livelihoods of poor livestock keepers through increased use of fodder. Activities were implemented at three learning sites -El-Bab, (Aleppo province), Salamieh (Hama province) and Tal-Amri (Homs province). A network of partners led by ICARDA, including the Extension Directorate (ED) and Animal Wealth Resource Administration (AWRA) of the Syrian Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian Reform (MAAR), Aga Khan Rural Support Programme (AKF), and farmers\" groups run the activities at each site."},{"index":3,"size":86,"text":"Innovation capacity of the networks was strengthened through training, and joint learning by cross-site visits and field days. Informal seed systems were promoted to increase quality forage seed supply and farmer-to-farmer seed exchange. Farmers, research and development partners were trained in fodder and forage seed production and management of small ruminants. Appropriate fodder/forage seed production and feeding packages for small-scale lamb fattening and milk production were disseminate to more than 500 households, resulting in increased household forage production, and outputs of milk and meat and incomes."},{"index":4,"size":88,"text":"Measures were taken to enhance uptake of some of the fodder/feeding options disseminated during the implementation of the project, including: empowering farmers through capacity building, promoting effective seed delivery systems, and site advisory committees who ensured that stakeholder concerns are incorporated into workplans. Attempts were also made to link producers to markets. Uptake of lamb fattening will depend on availability of low-cost or economic rations, since high feeding cost is the major constraint. Also, enabling institutions and policies to ensure better access to credit and markets are essential."}]},{"head":"The current IFAD 853 was linked with the following projects in Syria:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"-North-Eastern Region Rural Development, Idleb Rural Development, and the Badia Rangeland Development."},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"Staff of the development projects participated in shortterm courses on fodder and livestock production organized by the project. They were also invited to field days and annual workshops to facilitate joint learning and information exchange. A round-table discussion was held with directors of the development projects to agree on collaborative activities."}]},{"head":"Conditions for uptake","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Existing linkages with other IFAD initiatives:"}]},{"head":"Beneficiaries","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"Poor livestock farmers who keep sheep and goat for meat and milk, landless livestock keeper who will benefit from increased fodder supply, poor crop-livestock farmers who produce fodder/forage seed for their own use and/or for sale."}]},{"head":"Main program components","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"Program interventions aimed to address constraints to fodder adoption identified through stakeholder consultations, namely: poor access to information, appropriate technologies; lack of enabling policies and institutions; and weak extension system, input delivery and innovation capacity."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"The main components were: partner and learning site selections and creation of innovation platforms, dissemination of forage/forage seed production and feeding packages to reduce feeding cost for lamb fattening and dairying; strengthening fodder innovation capacity of partners, and empowering women."},{"index":3,"size":93,"text":"El-Bab, Salameih and Tal-Amri were selected as pilot sites based on consultations and start-up workshops at the national, provincial, and community levels with farmers, CBOs, research and development partners, and decision-makers from relevant public and private sectors. Key members of the network were farmers, CBOs, staff of ED, ARWA, and ICARDA. AKF, the only NGO was active only at the Salamieh site. Local advisory committees were established to engage farmers, develop and implement work-plans, and monitor and evaluate activities. Fodder innovation platforms were set up at each site to promote dissemination of technologies."},{"index":4,"size":65,"text":"Seed delivery systems were evaluated. On-farm demonstration to disseminate best practices for fodder/fodder seed production using cereals (barley, oat, and triticale) and legumes (common vetch, narbon vetch, and grasspea) for grain and straw production, and for spring grazing were implemented. Grasspea, common vetch, narbon vetch, and broken lentil and faba bean grains as protein supplements in rations for lamb fattening and milk production were compared."},{"index":5,"size":27,"text":"Short-term training on fodder/forage seed and livestock production were organized for research and extension staff; while farmers were given hands-on training. Women were trained in milk processing."},{"index":6,"size":14,"text":"Field days and cross-site visits were organized for farmers and decision-makers, research and development"}]},{"head":"Beneficiaries and Outputs","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"The project strengthened linkages, and built trust among staff ED, AWRA and AKF staff at Salameih. At El-Bab AWRA research staff became more active; a strong linkage was established between ED staff and farmers, and between farmers and traders. Staff of AWRA and ICARDA staff became active at Tal-Amri. In general, ICARDA assumed additional responsibility of coordinating stakeholder platforms. Women\"s groups were allowed to participate in project activities."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"Innovative capacity was strengthened. Farmers acquired knowledge on fodder/livestock production through crosssite visits and field days. Farmer-to-farmer seed exchange is on the increase. More farmers are growing fodder to feed their animals as evidenced by the expanding area under fodder. Small-scale lamb fattening and dairy farmers are shifting from feeding barley grain and straw to feeding mixed and balanced rations as supplements."},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"Farmers in El-Bab reported 15-40% increased household fodder/fodder seed yields. Households are storing more fodder to sustain them during the winter and early spring period when they normally experienced shortage. At Tal-Amri and Salameih, farmers reported 20-40% increase in daily milk off-take per ewe from adoption of improved feeding packages. A range of 10-56% increase in net profit per lamb from improved feeding packages was reported."}]},{"head":"Impact PROGRAMME IMPLEMENTATION","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Grant Number 853","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Staff to facilitate joint learning and knowledge sharing. Seven extension leaflets were developed and distributed to farmers. Results and lessons learnt from the project were disseminated through local news papers and television stations, workshops, and peer reviewed journals."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"Participation of women was encouraged through women\"s field days, cross-site visits and training."},{"index":3,"size":60,"text":"Consultations with potential partners in the public and private sectors, coupled with the star-up workshops at the national, provincial and community levels ensured sustainability and acceptability. Also, involving decision makers such as the directors of ED, AKF and AWRA; and site Advisory Committees which engaged with farmers and community-based organizations from the start of the project ensured sustainability and acceptability."},{"index":4,"size":52,"text":"Presenting farmers with a \"basket-of-options\" allowed them to select options that fit their social conditions and resources. This facilitated adoption and ensured sustainability. Disseminating improved varieties of adapted forages known to farmers was important for acceptability and sustained use of technologies. Farmers who produced feeds were linked with seed and feed traders."},{"index":5,"size":10,"text":"-Village-based seed production ensured seed availability and accessibility of technologies."}]},{"head":"Sustainability, Acceptability and Accessibility","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Grant Number 853","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"Women were encouraged to participate in the implementation of the project activities. Gender balance was ensured in training and capacity building activities. Training on milk processing was organized for women in collaboration with AKF at Salameih which was attended by women from El-Bab and Barkum villages. A Women\"s Field Day was organized at El-Bab which was attended by women from Salameih. The training and field days allowed cross-site visit allowed joint learning and knowledge exchange among women. Women research and extension staff participated in all the short-term training courses."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"Women-headed households were encouraged to parttake in on-farm demonstrations of best practices for fodder production and lamb fattening."},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":"To overcome restrictions of women\"s mobility, and to encourage them to participate, the project arranged transport and other logistics for male relatives. A female extension staff was assigned to coordinate all women related activities."},{"index":4,"size":1,"text":"-."}]},{"head":"Gender dimension","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"Outputs and outcomes form the project were published in local news papers, and shown on local television. Crosssite visits were organized for farmers and relevant actors to learn from each other. Field days were organized to show new technologies. Results and experiences were shared during presentations at local and international workshops; and publication in peer reviewed journals."}]},{"head":"Dissemination pathways","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"-Quality of seeds from village-based seed systems."},{"index":2,"size":3,"text":"--Feed/fodder markets assessment."},{"index":3,"size":4,"text":"-Adoption and impact assessment."},{"index":4,"size":8,"text":"-Policy and institutional options to reduce feed scarcity."},{"index":5,"size":6,"text":"-Economic rations from on-farm feed resources."},{"index":6,"size":8,"text":"-Forage systems to reduce early spring feed gap."}]},{"head":"Further research needs","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"The key constraint was lack of quality seed, for large-scale multi-locational on-farm demonstration, especially forage legume seeds."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"Managing the delicate institutional and human relations among actors and institutions, to build effective innovation platforms was a big challenge."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"Restrictions on mobility prevented women from the Tal-Amri to participate in field days and cross-site visits for joint-learning."},{"index":4,"size":23,"text":"Other problems were ensuring provincial balance in the implementation of activities, and recruiting supporting staff with good background with forage and livestock research."}]},{"head":"Constraints faced during the implementation","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Fodder innovation networks of different actors were established at El-Bab, Salameih and Tal-Amri. Their innovation capacity was strengthened through training and information exchange."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"Linkages between ED, AKF, ICARDA and AWRA was strengthened. Capacity of about 200 research and extension staff and 1000 farmers including women for fodder/livestock production was improved. Seven extension leaflets were developed, and 1000 copies of each distributed to farmers. High-yielding barley, oats, triticale vetch and grasspea seed were distributed to about 500 households. Relevant database to provide adoption guidlines for forage/livestock production was established. "}]},{"head":"Outputs","index":15,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Background","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Livestock are an important pathway out of poverty for the rural poor. Worldwide, 50% of the world\"s poor own livestock and depend on them for their livelihoods. Livestock are living assets contributing to food security and are an important source of protein and minerals for nutritional security."},{"index":2,"size":93,"text":"There is increasing demand for livestock products worldwide in the form of meat, milk and milk products such as cheese and butter. This presents poor livestock producers with significant opportunities to increase benefits from their livestock and income through livestock markets. Access to fodder and water are often identified as major constraints to livestock productivity. This inability to feed livestock adequately remains one of the most widespread global constraints in the livestock sector. Removing it would assist smallholder livestock producers to improve their livelihoods by taking advantage of market opportunities and building assets."},{"index":3,"size":191,"text":"Past efforts to enhance smallholder livestock production have shown little evidence of widespread adoption of new technological innovations such as new fodder options or new ways of feeding livestock. This has been attributed to a range of factors including poor approaches to introducing technologies, inappropriate technologies and services relative to the needs of the poor, low sustainability of the changes introduced, inadequate local livestock-support organizations and weak linkages to markets. Recent experiences in Nigeria and India focusing on fodder issues have highlighted the importance of understanding and developing partnerships and processes and working in what is known as an \"innovation systems framework\" to achieve sustainable improvements in poverty reduction. In effect this involves focusing on putting knowledge to achieve desired social/economic outcomes. Such knowledge is held by different \"actors\" within the system; looking at how these actors interact, their working practices and the policy environment in which they operate can help to remove bottlenecks to development. Recent experiences in Southeast Asia with developing forage technologies with active participation of poor farmers and local extension services have shown that this approach results in high adoption rates at project sites and surrounding areas."},{"index":4,"size":87,"text":"Furthermore, studies by International Agricultural Research Centres (IARCs) and their partners show that when fodder options are linked to markets for meat and milk and when they have direct effects on income generation, fodder options to support livestock production are competitive with other farm enterprises in terms of returns to land and labour. These successful experiences in fodder uptake and significant accumulation of knowledge on preferences for fodder plants, seed systems, fodder management and integration of fodder into feeding systems provide the technical platform for this project."}]},{"head":"Project Goals","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"The current project seeks to engage with a wide range of stakeholders to strengthen the capacity of poor livestock keepers to:  select and adopt fodder options  access market opportunities to enable them to improve their livelihoods."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"The project seeks to achieve these goals in ways that will ensure the sustainability of their farming systems. The programme is framed around four overall outputs and associated activities. The project seeks to establish:  Mechanisms for strengthening and/or establishing consortia of players in the livestock/fodder arena to allow small-scale innovations to spread across systems."}]},{"head":"","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Options for getting research off the shelf and into practice including innovative communication strategies and strategies for making changes at farm level to sustainably improve fodder supply."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Project Brief: Enhancing livelihoods of poor livestock keepers through increasing use of fodder  Grant Number 853 Grant Number 853 Grant Number 853 Grant Number 853 ANNEX ANNEX USEFUL INFORMATION USEFUL INFORMATION Useful links Useful links ED Syria, Extension Directorate ED Syria, Extension Directorate AWRA Syria, Animal Wealth Research Administration AWRA Syria, Animal Wealth Research Administration AKF Syria, Aga Khan Rural Support Program AKF Syria, Aga Khan Rural Support Program Year of publication Year of publication 2011 2011 Acronyms Acronyms AKF Aga Khan Rural Support Programme AKF Aga Khan Rural Support Programme ARWA Animal Wealth Research Administration ARWA Animal Wealth Research Administration CBO community-based organization CBO community-based organization ICARDA International Center for Agricultural Research in Dry Areas ICARDA International Center for Agricultural Research in Dry Areas IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development MAAR Syrian Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian Reform MAAR Syrian Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian Reform  "}],"sieverID":"45878877-8567-466d-b141-32798329b0d9","abstract":""}

data/part_4/0c2bf536c3efb94c81091c4fe7c90cb3.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0c2bf536c3efb94c81091c4fe7c90cb3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0dfeae3f-8955-4565-8e66-c767a1ca9642/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Coordination and Change Coordination and Change Coordination et Changement Coordination et Changement The Volta Basin Development Challenge Project V5 profile","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"The project will orient, align and integrate the four research for development projects (V1 -V4) that have been designed to respond to the basin development challenge in order to contribute to poverty reduction and improved livelihood resilience in the basin. Project V5 will ensure coherence among the other four Volta Basin Development Challenge (VBDC) projects, and manage their interdependencies and research protocols to allow smooth running of the program leading to quality research outputs."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"The project will engage policy makers and other stakeholders in the basin through strategic partnership thereby creating opportunities for next and end users feedback that will enrich the research process in all VBDC projects and subsequently the uptake of research outputs."},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"Through process research, V5 will investigate the way scientific knowledge is produced by V1-V4 and how that contributes to innovations and change providing recommendations for up-and out-scaling of interventions."},{"index":4,"size":48,"text":"Le projet va orienter, aligner et intégrer les quatre projets de recherche pour le développement (V1-V4) qui ont été conçus pour répondre au défi du développement du bassin afin de contribuer à la réduction de la pauvreté et à la consolidation des moyens de subsistance dans le bassin."},{"index":5,"size":47,"text":"Projet V5 veillera à la cohérence entre les quatre autres projets de défi pour le développement du Bassin de la Volta (VBDC), et gèrera leurs interdépendances et les protocoles de recherche afin de permettre un bon déroulement du programme conduisant à des résultats de recherche de qualité."},{"index":6,"size":54,"text":"Le projet fera participer les décideurs politiques et autres parties prenantes dans le bassin grâce à un partenariat stratégique, créant ainsi pour les utilisateurs intermédiaires et finaux, des occasions de donner leur feedback pour enrichir le processus de recherche dans tous les projets VBDC, et facilitent par la suite l'adoption des résultats de recherche."},{"index":7,"size":43,"text":"A travers la recherche sur le processus de la recherche, V5 étudiera la façon dont les connaissances scientifiques sont produites par V1-V4 et comment cela contribue à l'innovation et au changement afin de fournir des recommandations pour l'extension et la dissémination des interventions. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":" Dr. Olufunke Cofie, Volta Basin Authority. [email protected] La recherche du VBDC est bien intégrée et alignée au contexte local, national et régional. Une meilleure compréhension de la complexité des enjeux de l'eau, de l'alimentation et de l'environnement par les acteurs au niveau du bassin, et une conscience plus accrue des avantages liés à une gestion intégrée des eaux pluviales et des petits barrages, qui devrait être à même d'encourager des investissements fondés sur l'évidence dans les systèmes de petits barrages à usages multiples.  Project V5 profile Project V5 profile Project V5 profile Project V5 profile Expected outcomes: Expected outcomes: Résultats attendus: Résultats attendus: Expected outcomes: Expected outcomes:Résultats attendus: Résultats attendus: VBDC research is well integrated and aligned to the  VBDC research is well integrated and aligned to the local, national and regional context. Increased un-  local, national and regional context. Increased un- derstanding among actors of the complex water-  derstanding among actors of the complex water- food-environment challenges at the basin level, and  food-environment challenges at the basin level, and increased awareness of the benefits of integrated  increased awareness of the benefits of integrated rainwater and small reservoir management which  rainwater and small reservoir management which should encourage evidence-based investments in  should encourage evidence-based investments in small reservoir systems for multiple uses.  small reservoir systems for multiple uses. Project Lead Organization / Project Lead Organization / Organisation Coordinatrice du Projet : Organisation Coordinatrice du Projet : Project Lead Organization / Project Lead Organization / Organisation Coordinatrice du Projet : Organisation Coordinatrice du Projet : Volta Basin Authority (VBA) / Autorité du Bassin de la Volta (ABV) Volta Basin Authority (VBA) / Autorité du Bassin de la Volta (ABV) Project partners / Project partners / partenaires du Projet : partenaires du Projet : Project partners / Project partners / partenaires du Projet : partenaires du Projet :  "}],"sieverID":"c2e1ffce-9f73-4e1d-910e-a33715c515ad","abstract":""}

data/part_4/0c3b8b0e47c8796189b7fdd887a52f87.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0c3b8b0e47c8796189b7fdd887a52f87","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/169c8f52-24c7-4044-84e4-94d8c3d12afe/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"A project in Tanzania introduced pit storage and storage granary structures as two reliable technologies to store sweetpotato roots and extend their shelf life. A formative evaluation study showed that men and women had different views and opinions about their ability to adopt these technologies","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"Men only mentioned cash related constraints for adoption while women observed diverse obstacles including: lack of construction materials such as trees for roofing difficulty in fetching sand which is obtained far from the village, dependence on the construction skills of men for construction of the stores, roofing and maintenance of the structures as well as concerns about the security of the crop when stored outside the family's living space."},{"index":2,"size":88,"text":"Women were afraid that since men have a low regard for sweetpotato, they may refuse to support them in constructing the stores which would divert women's meagre resources towards hiring male labourers for construction of storage structures. Instead women preferred to store sweetpotato inside the home where they could keep an eye on it. They preferred chipping and sundrying the sweetpotato and storing the dried chips in their house because they could control the process themselves without depending on men. They suggested solar driers as a much-preferred technology."}]},{"head":"Women prefer sweetpotato technologies that they can manage without depending on men","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Technology Development","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Technologies should be co-developed with scientists as well as male and female users of the technologies to ensure that they do not reinforce or reproduce gender inequalities."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"Gender responsive technology development calls for a change in the mindset of the developers so as to design technologies that address priorities and constraints of men and women farmers and other end users."},{"index":3,"size":106,"text":"To design effective technologies it is important to conduct a gender analysis to understand who does what, who decides what, who loses and who benefits from changes. Although both men and women expressed great interest in ridge planting, men were quıcker to adopt rıdgıng than women. Ridging is labour ıntensıve and hard work especially in the dry season and may requıres support from casual labourers who are expensıve and at tımes dıffıcult to fınd. As men control marketed crops and income, they can more easily ınvest and experıment wıth new practıces and technologıes, while female cassava farmers lack funds to pay labourers to undertake the activity."}]},{"head":"Guidelines for Gender Mainstreaming in Technology Development","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"If men learn of a method that gives more profit and that there is a market for the produce they can help because they will see that there is a lot to benefıt. (Rwibare women)"},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"Women did adopt quickly other technologies that were less capital intensive, like pruning. Though both technologies are beneficial, ridging is likely to yield more economic benefits for farmers, which implies that female farmers' productivity may lag behind. Responds to constraints women and men face."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"Takes into account resources and power relations within households and communities."},{"index":4,"size":8,"text":"Focuses on improving benefits for women and men."}]},{"head":"Gender Responsive Innovation:","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"1 2 3"},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"Enabling poor rural people to overcome poverty"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Both men and women in a farmer household should participate in technology trials as well as demonstration plots to ensure that both their needs and interests are recognised and taken into account during technology development and adaptation.Assess what the costs and benefits of technnology change for men, women and youth are before implementing or rolling-out a new technology or innovation. "},{"text":"Women are limited in implementing technology that is capital or labour intensive Ridge planting is one of the techniques demonstrated in farmer group gardens by a CGIAR Research Program on Roots, Tubers and Bananas (RTB) project in Uganda to extend the shelf life of cassava. CASE #1 CASE #2 CASE #1CASE #2  "}],"sieverID":"88dc6ffd-d812-4f8a-8d25-fd5312df1f4a","abstract":""}

data/part_4/0c4088288d4b0f7af8b6eb5e306e2cd6.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"0c4088288d4b0f7af8b6eb5e306e2cd6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H013687.pdf"},"pageCount":112,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Objectives for the Purpose of MOl The Group discussed the draft statements and suggested further amcndmcnts."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"In particular, some spirited discussions on objective No. 3 -Finance & Administration took place, particularly in relation to the words: t! ensure that MOl acts in a commercially responsible and business-like manner\" and \" ensure that MOl acts in a reasonable realistic and responsible manner\"."},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"These suggested drafts would be discussed further in the final review session. "}]},{"head":"8.","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"The Group also completed exercises in exploring the concepts in Performance Evaluation and Human Resources Development Planning."}]},{"head":"9.","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"In the final session, the Group discussed the arrangements for the Final Day discussions and formulation of an Action Plan. The Government's policy of privatization, and in particular the objective to foster a privately managed and owned, commercially oriented farming sector will have significant implications, requiring MOl to adopt a greater service delivery orientation, in which giving \"value for money\" will be a major organizational thrust."}]},{"head":"Management of Change within MOl","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"*","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"The workshops proceedings did not explore to any great extent the implications for future financial management within MOl, apart from recognizing that MOl will be moving in the direction for greater financial autonomy by the inclusion of the function of revenue collection of water fees for 0 & M services."}]},{"head":"*","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"No conclusions could be reached on the ability of the existing accounting and costing system to provide actively-based costing information to assist in the process of diagnostic analysis, or to provide accurate information on operating and maintenance costs which will be the basis on which water charges will be assessed. 2."}]},{"head":"Focussing the Organization","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"THE MISSION STATEMENT i j II *","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"A preliminary statement produced by workshops partIcIpants -more consideration needed -followed by promulgation within MOL "}]},{"head":"5.","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"This process should be managed and co-ordinated by a small high power committee headed by: Sayed Kamal Abdu, Deputy First Under Secretary Prof. EI Monshid, Under Secretary, HRS Both of them have been extensively involved in both the TNA and Organizational Constraints and Strategic Planning Workshops."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"V. EVALUATION OF THE WORKSHOPS Evaluation 5.01 The workshops were evaluated with respect to several dimensions: content and achievement of goals set for the workshops, the process, overall rating of the workshops, strong points, weak points, and suggestions for improvement. Annex L contains the results of the evaluation."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"Achievement of Goals 5.02 With respect to the achievement of the goals, Group I evaluated in the range of 3.8 and 4.7 for the thirteen objectives specified; Group II evaluated in the range of 3.7 and 4.6 for the nine objectives specified. ( The scale is from 1 to 5, and 5 is the highest)."},{"index":4,"size":40,"text":"5.03 Process: The process consisting of six items from orientation etc. up to physical arrangement and comfort is evaluated in the range of 3.9 to 4.9 by Group I and in the range of 4.0 to 4.5 by Group II."},{"index":5,"size":31,"text":"5.04 Overall Rating of the workshops: The overall ratings of the workshops were an average of 4.5 for Group I, and an average of 4.1 for Group II. Privatization policy 3."},{"index":6,"size":4,"text":"Water control -future policy."}]},{"head":"GROUP C","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"1."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"To utilize Sudan water share as agreed on the Nile water agreement."}]},{"head":"2.","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Increase Sudan water resources b y reducing losses in the Nile and making use of water available for non-Niletic rivers, seasonal streams (Khors) and ground water."}]},{"head":"3.","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Achieve food security as well as self sufficiency of agricultural products. ..."}]},{"head":"GROUP D","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"1.","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"Privatization."}]},{"head":"2.","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Changing the tenants to farmers and the taxes they pay."}]},{"head":"3.","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Heightening of Roseires dam."}]},{"head":"ANNEX L-2","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"11."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"To identify performance categories and indicators for institutional assessment."}]},{"head":"4.15","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"12."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"To select performance indicators relevant to their organization. 4.2 13."},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"To describe concepts in human resource development planning. 4.30"}]},{"head":"Opinion and feedback","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"What is your overall rating of the MOIIIIMI program for each of the items. Please circle the appropriate number. Physical arrangement and comfort 3.9"},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"Please answer the following questions:"},{"index":3,"size":1,"text":"1."}]},{"head":"How would you rate this training program (check).","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Average -4.9"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" an exercise in developing a set of Stratcgic Objectives in relation to four of the objectives of purpose: "},{"text":"4. 05 * The following steps were involved in managing the change process within MOL Preliminary discussion completed -more internal consideration needed. "},{"text":" The summary of the workshops were presented and discussed on the final day in the morning by Group III. As a result of the deliberations the following action plan was developed for further work to be done by MOl in the near future. The action plan was also discussed later in the afternoon in a wrap-up meeting with the First Under Secretary and other senior officers of MOL A broad agreement was arrived at. The First Under-Secretary endorsed the action plan and committed his support to its implementation by MOL 11. Redefining 11.Redefining  3. -Key issues Interpreting the Mission for specific Interest Groups Interpretation of Mission 3. -Key issues Interpreting the Mission for specific Interest Groups Interpretation of Mission  (a) -Strategic objectives Objectives of Purpose for MOl Government & Ministers (b) Other Agencies at Govt. -coordination -Activities, Work Plans. Summary of Key Issues. (a) -Strategic objectives Objectives of Purpose for MOl Government & Ministers (b) Other Agencies at Govt. -coordination -Activities, Work Plans. Summary of Key Issues.  (c) \"A ROLLING PROCESS\". Clients of MOL (c) \"A ROLLING PROCESS\". Clients of MOL   (d) Staff of MOL (d)Staff of MOL Action Plan * Some preliminary work has to be done by workshops participants. Action Plan*Some preliminary work has to be done by workshops participants. 4. 5. 6. 7. 4.06 Decision required to proceed further with concept within MOL Analyzing the External Environment Workshops have identified some key issues * More analysis needed. Analyzing existing Organizational Capacity & Strength (Internal Analysis) Workshops have identified some (a) New functions (b) Existing functions which should be strengthened (c) Activities which could be transferred or diminished * Clearly a more complete analysis is required -including extent of existing budget and manpower devoted to existing activities. Determining MOl's Objectivesof Purpose Developing Strategic Objectives 4. 5. 6. 7. 4.06 Decision required to proceed further with concept within MOL Analyzing the External Environment Workshops have identified some key issues * More analysis needed. Analyzing existing Organizational Capacity & Strength (Internal Analysis) Workshops have identified some (a) New functions (b) Existing functions which should be strengthened (c) Activities which could be transferred or diminished * Clearly a more complete analysis is required -including extent of existing budget and manpower devoted to existing activities. Determining MOl's Objectivesof Purpose Developing Strategic Objectives 8. IF DECISION IS POSITIVE THEN: Deriving the Related Operational Objectives 8. IF DECISION IS POSITIVE THEN: Deriving the Related Operational Objectives 3 Strategies Internal workshops to expose more staff to concepts and techniques, using planning 3Strategies Internal workshops to expose more staff to concepts and techniques, using planning  Activities/Work Plans for September 1993 (IIMI) as guideline. Activities/Work Plans for September 1993 (IIMI) as guideline. 4. 9. This further elaboration of the process within MOl will require some preparation: Implementing yearly Budget/Activities 4.9. This further elaboration of the process within MOl will require some preparation: Implementing yearly Budget/Activities  10. Completion of Revised Drafts of Monitoring and Evaluation of Performance 10. Completion of Revised Drafts of Monitoring and Evaluation of Performance   Vision Statement Vision Statement   Mission Statement Mission Statement  "}],"sieverID":"fbdba3b0-4091-4266-9264-e8bb9faf7534","abstract":""}

data/part_4/0c4af57f37f4993605528dd61efc6e44.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0c4af57f37f4993605528dd61efc6e44","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5381d4c2-3b79-4732-9f44-85bd00e50d1b/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"Cassava cryopreservation by rapid freezing methodology","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Methodology:","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":239,"text":"1. Propagated the plants by shots or buds on 4E medium (Roca 1984). Each explants type on different containers during 2-3 months. Put maximum 30 units /50 ml/container, 28-30°C, 12/12 photoperiods with two T8 tubes/shelf. 2. Under stereoscope with the highest magnification take shoot (1-3 mm in height) and grown on a Petri dish with pre-induction Kin-0.5 medium during 3 days under light, 28°C, 12/12 photoperiod. 3. Moved the explants to a new Petri dish with a Pre-culture C4-medium (Escobar et al 1997) for 3 days, at 28°C, on light conditions. 4. Moved the tips on a cryovial and add 1 ml of cool cryoprotectant solution. Put on ice bucket during 2 hours. 5. Removed the solutions, and take out the tips. Moved on a Petri dish with filter paper Whatman No. 2 and dried on a closed container under flow-cabinet per 1 hour, at room temperature 6. Put 10 tips each on a clean and dried cryovial. Transfer to a dewar flask or ice bucked with L. N. at least for 1 hour 7. After frozen step, take the cryovial and warm on a 37°C bath for 1.5-2 min. 8. Recover the tips on Recovery R3 medium (2 days) and them move on Induction Kin 0.5 medium. Those steps are under dark conditions. After 2 weeks post-freezing move gradually to light conditions. 9. Evaluations (growth and shoot recovery) could be done after 1-1,5 month after last media changes."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"c73fc523-cffd-40f7-a49e-f735fce3c398","abstract":"This methodology was proposed by the validation exercise developed as a GPG-2 initiative among other CG centers.This protocol is a modification of Escobar and Roca, W.M. (1997), Cryopreservation of cassava shoot tips though rapid freezing."}

data/part_4/0c65bcce9dd5318097bc53280562cb37.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0c65bcce9dd5318097bc53280562cb37","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/iwmi-tata/PDFs/2012_Highlight-46.pdf"},"pageCount":8,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"state. Of interest to us in this evaluation is the pumping behavior of electric pump owners in the aftermath of metering of electric tube wells. Why is the pumping behavior of pump owners likely to be changed by metering? Prior to metering of tube wells, all electric tube well owners in the state were subjected to a flat electricity tariff. This meant that there was no marginal cost of pumping and farmers were likely to keep pumping for as many hours as electricity was available. Farmers whose tube wells have been metered are now subjected to a time of the day tariff, while those whose tube wells have not yet been metered still continue to pay flat tariff. Table 1 shows TOD timings, metered tariff and flat tariff rates."},{"index":2,"size":85,"text":"Following, standard economic theory, it is expected that the total number of hours pumped by owners of tube wells will decrease post metering. However whether this is reflected in reduced water sales will depend on a number of variables that are set out later in the section on the theory of change. Such a contraction will have significant economic consequence because of the 6.1 million farming households in West Bengal, more than half (3.1 million households) report hiring irrigation services from other farmers (Mukherji 2008)."},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"In view of this, our evaluation questions are:"},{"index":4,"size":1,"text":"1."},{"index":5,"size":20,"text":"How has the shift in policy from flat rate tariff to metered tariff influenced hours of pumping, and water sales?"}]},{"head":"2.","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"What have been the effects of this policy change on water buyers?"}]},{"head":"3.","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"What are the secondary impacts of the policy change, in terms of its impact on cropping patterns and crop output?"}]},{"head":"WHY IS ENERGY-IRRIGATION NEXUS IN AGRICULTURE OF POLICY INTEREST?","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":293,"text":"Until the early 1970s, all state electricity boards (SEBs) charged their tube well owners based on metered consumption. However, as the number of tube wells increased manifold during the 1970s and the 1980s, the SEBs found the transaction costs of metering to be prohibitively high and in response, introduced flat tariffs for agriculture (Shah et al. 2007). While this solution lowered the transaction costs of bill collection, it resulted in a set of still graver problems affecting both the electricity and the groundwater sectors. For one, many state governments soon started using the electricity tariff as an electoral tool of appeasement and hence the flat tariffs remained perpetually low (Dubash and Rajan 2001), leading to financial insolvency of the electricity utilities. Unmetered electricity supply also became a convenient garb for the SEBs to hide their inefficiencies (Sant and Dixit 1996). Over time, the SEBs came to treat their agricultural consumers as a liability and quality of power supply to agriculture deteriorated rapidly. Since the marginal cost of extracting groundwater was close to zero, it provided incentive for over-pumping in many regions arid and semi-arid regions, though not necessarily so in water rich eastern India. In view of several criticisms of flat tariff and unmetered supply to agriculture, there is a growing pressure from the government of India and the international donor agencies to revert to metering. This is also clearly articulated in the Electricity Act of 2003. West Bengal is one of the few states that embarked on a path of universal metering -a path that all other states would have to accept sooner or later as a matter of exigency. It is therefore of great policy interest to understand the impact of metering of tube wells on groundwater use in West Bengal."}]},{"head":"THEORY OF CHANGE AND PRIMARY IMPACT VARIABLE OF INTEREST","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":167,"text":"A few stylized facts about water markets will help us understand the context of metering and its impact. First, water sales and purchases are common: thus farmers who pump groundwater, not only use it to irrigate their own fields, but also sell water to other farmers. Conversely, pump owners may also buy water from other pump owners given that land is highly fragmented. Farmers who buy water typically tend to have smaller land holdings and are often unable to install tube wells and pump sets (Banerji et al. 2011;Mukherji 2007). In the pre-metering scenario, water buyers grew exactly the same crops as pump owners including water intensive crops such as summer boro paddy. It is to be noted that the increase in the importance of summer cultivation was enabled almost entirely through the use of groundwater. It is possible therefore, that the impact of a change in pricing regime is felt disproportionately in the summer season. Given these stylized facts, our primary impact variables of interest are:"},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"• Total number of hours of groundwater pumped, by season. The hypothesis is that this would decrease, particularly in the summer season, where there are no alternatives to groundwater."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"• Number of hours of groundwater used for irrigating one's own farm, by season. This can either stay the same or decrease."},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"• Number of hours of groundwater sold, by season. The expectation is that this would either decrease, or remain unchanged, depending on various factors."}]},{"head":"EVALUATION DESIGN AND CHALLENGES","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":126,"text":"The evaluation design takes advantage of surveys conducted in 2004 and 2007, prior to the introduction of the power pricing reforms. The 2004 survey covered 40 villages in 14 districts and interviewed 580 respondents including pump owners and water buyers. The 2007 survey covered 15 villages in 5 districts and interviewed 155 respondents. Since the roll out of the metering was staggered, and only 70 percent completed by 2010, this provided a unique natural experiment setting to examine the impact of the metering on the set of impact variables described above. Through the resurvey in 2010 which involved revisiting the same households and villages as were visited in 2004 and 2007, it was possible to create a panel data use a difference-in-differences framework to analyze impact."},{"index":2,"size":137,"text":"Our identification strategy can clearly fail if there were systematic patterns to roll out of the metering. The way in which metering was accomplished provided at least two ways to identify impact. In particular, the staggered and largely (but not entirely) non-systematic patterns of geographic coverage enabled us to define whether or not a village was metered; thus one of our treatment variables is defined at the village level. Furthermore, because one of *These are villages with some households reporting meters, and others with none or non-functional meters. In the analysis these were categorized as metered (treatment) villages. Here, suffice it to say that loss due to attrition was minimal, even though we had accounted for attrition is our power calculations. All the estimates of impact presented in this report therefore do not account for attrition bias."}]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Comparability of treatment and control groups in the baseline","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"Table 4 examines whether there are differences between the treatment and control groups of villages for several of the impact variables in the baseline. The standard errors are clustered and take into account the two strata, and the village clustering. It is clear that for nearly all the impact variables being considered, the difference between treatment and control villages in the baseline was insignificant, with the exception of the number of hours of irrigation pumped in the rabi season. However, rabi accounts for less than 10 percent of all the groundwater pumped, and therefore the lack of equality of means in  15) 0.12 this variable is not economically significant. Thus the expost randomization seems to have worked."}]},{"head":"Secular decline in the number of irrigation hours","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":209,"text":"Table 4 also highlights the substantial decreases in the total number of irrigation hours across both the treatment and control groups. This decrease is seen both in the number of hours used for irrigating own farms, as well as in the number of hours sold, with the decrease being slightly greater in the latter. Comparing across seasons, the summer season (which also accounts for the largest share of total irrigation hours) accounts for much of the decline. Thus the impact of metering needs to be understood in light of a secular decline in the number of irrigation hours pumped, used and sold, especially in the summer season. This appears to have been accompanied by a decrease in the area under cultivation (and under paddy in particular) between the baseline and endline surveys. Data from the West Bengal government's Directorate of Agriculture suggests that in 2010 area under paddy declined in Bankura, North 24 Parganas, Nadia and Murshidabad districts as compared to previous years and this is confirmed by remote sensing data on boro area by IWMI. In related work, we have shown that much of this contraction in irrigated area has had to do with restrictive groundwater policies followed by the state government since mid-1990s (Mukherji et al. 2012)."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"The p-values refer to a test of equality of means in the baseline (column 4) and follow-up (column 7)."}]},{"head":"Calculating double-difference estimates of impact","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"If the treatment villages saw a greater decrease in the number of hours pumped or sold, as compared to the control villages, this could be attributed to the impact of metering, independent of the secular decrease mentioned in the previous paragraph. In all cases, the coefficient ß represents the impact estimate, while å refers to an error term where the farmer and location subscripts have been suppressed."}]},{"head":"DID estimates for primary impact variables (irrigation hours pumped, sold and bought, by season)","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"In table 5, we present impact estimates (the estimated ß) for a range of impact variables. Consider first the variables related to total pumping hours, and the allocation of hours pumped to self-irrigation and sales. None of the double difference impact estimates is significant at conventional levels, for formulation (2); the coefficient has a p-value of 22 percent. Thus at least as far as these aggregate figures are concerned, the metering appeared to have no impact. Note however, that all the signs are correct; it is therefore more accurate to say that the impact of the metering was overwhelmed by the decrease in irrigation pumping hours seen across the board."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"When irrigation hours are examined by season, however, a different picture emerges. In the summer season, there is a statistically significant decrease in the number of irrigation hours among owners of electric pumpsets; this is also seen among owners of electric submersibles at a pvalue of 0.20. Corroboration of a significant reduction in number of irrigation hours purchased is also seen among water buyers, but it is not statistically significant."},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"These results are consistent with the theory of change outlined above which suggests:"},{"index":4,"size":71,"text":"1. Reduction in pumping, both self and sold/bought, post metering; but the magnitude could be limited if the unit cost of electricity is low. This is so in off peak (Table 1), and about 80 percent of pumping happens during those off-peak hours. Also, for boro paddy cultivation, if summer acreage share falls over time as has happened in a large subset of our districts, this can dilute the treatment effect."},{"index":5,"size":58,"text":"2. Exclusion of especially smallholders from water buying, if the cost of monitoring water trades is significant. This is mitigated if unit cost of electricity is low; if water buyers not that small; and if there is secular decline in paddy cultivation in boro anyway (since that's water intensive cost with possibly high monitoring cost of water trading)."}]},{"head":"DID estimates for secondary impact variables (cropping pattern and productivity)","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":201,"text":"It is of course possible that the adjustment to a changed tariff regime was felt though impact on cropping patterns, either by reducing reliance on boro cultivation with a corresponding increase in rabi shares, or a switch away from rice in the summer 'boro' season. But the evidence in table 6 suggests otherwise: there was no statistically significant impact either on seasonal shares or on share of boro paddy. At the same time, the decrease in water use in the boro season, and in sales in that season, has not adversely affected paddy output; the impact coefficient although negative, is not significant. This is not entirely unexpected and may be symptomatic of the overuse of water under a flat rate regime. In that case, pre metering, with zero unit cost of extraction for self-irrigation, there may have been significant water 'overuse.' However, to the extent that buyers paid a markup price, there could not have been any overuse on buyers 'plots. Thus post metering, with a positive unit cost of extraction, overuse by self-irrigators could have been wiped out. By overuse we mean use of water beyond crop requirements; reduction would then show up as no significant decline in crop yield."}]},{"head":"CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":184,"text":"As far as the impact of the metering of tube wells is concerned, our major conclusion is that the expected impact was felt only in the boro season, which saw a greater reduction in pumping hours in the treatment groups as compared to the control groups. There is also some evidence that this decreased was not confined to irrigation on own-farm, but that water sales and purchases were also adversely affected as a consequence. Yet the metering did not influence either cropping patterns, or the output of boro paddy. The latter could well be explained by over use of water among those who irrigate their own farms, so that reductions in water use do not translate into decreased output. The impact was insignificant for all indicators in the kharif and rabi seasons. This result is not surprising given the overwhelming reliance of boro paddy on irrigation water. Evidence of decreased sales and purchases potentially has implications for equity, especially if small farmers are being driven out of the market completely. Yet their decreased access to water does not seem to have altered cropping patterns."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"EC (in Rs/year) ES in Rs/year)  2008-09 130 490 74 8800 10800 2008-0913049074880010800 2009-10 140 510 79 8800 10800 2009-1014051079880010800 2010-11 218 588 152 10736 13176 2010-112185881521073613176  "},{"text":"Table 2 Number of villages in treatment and control groups  Zone Village classification Number of villages (Treatment) with meters in 2009 Number of villages 2009 (Control) with no meters in Both* Total ZoneVillage classificationNumber of villages (Treatment) with meters in 2009Number of villages 2009 (Control) with no meters inBoth*Total New Alluvium Zone (North 24 Baseline 9 4 1 14 New Alluvium Zone (North 24Baseline94114 Parganas, Nadia and Bagri part of      Parganas, Nadia and Bagri part of Murshidabad) Augmented 2 2 0 4 Murshidabad)Augmented2204 Old Alluvium Zone (Birbhum, Baseline 11 10 1 22 Old Alluvium Zone (Birbhum,Baseline1110122 Bankura, Bardhaman and Rarh      Bankura, Bardhaman and Rarh part of Murshidabad) Augmented 3 11 0 14 part of Murshidabad)Augmented311014  "},{"text":"Table 3 Number of baseline farmers who did or did not receive metered bills In this Highlight, we present estimates based on the village-level treatment as this is based on the largest sample size. Further details on sampling design, power calculations, and questionnaire and data collection may be found inMeenakshi et al. 2011.   2008/09  2009/10 2008/092009/10  Received metered bills (Treatment) Did not receive metered bills (Control) Received metered bills (Treatment) Did not receive metered bills (Control) Received metered bills (Treatment)Did not receive metered bills (Control)Received metered bills (Treatment)Did not receive metered bills (Control) New Alluvium Zone 61 19 65 15 New Alluvium Zone61196515 Old Alluvium Zone 52 51 61 42 Old Alluvium Zone52516142 Total 113 70 126 57 Total1137012657 the firms entrusted with providing meters often installed   the firms entrusted with providing meters often installed defective or non-operational meters, this provided yet    defective or non-operational meters, this provided yet another path to identification: it was possible for us to    another path to identification: it was possible for us to allocate farmers as belonging to either treatment or    allocate farmers as belonging to either treatment or control groups depending on whether or not meters were   control groups depending on whether or not meters were installed and they received a bill based on unit pricing.    installed and they received a bill based on unit pricing. This was done separately for 2008-09 and 2009-10    This was done separately for 2008-09 and 2009-10 cropping years (Table 2 and Table 3). Our districts were   cropping years (Table 2 and Table 3). Our districts were divided into two stratum -new alluvium districts    divided into two stratum -new alluvium districts (dominated by electric centrifugal pumps) and old    (dominated by electric centrifugal pumps) and old alluvium districts (dominated by electric submersible    alluvium districts (dominated by electric submersible pumps).     pumps).  "},{"text":"Table 4 Summary statistics, using village-level definitions treatment and control groups  Baseline Followup BaselineFollowup  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Difference-in-difference estimates of Impact, using village-level treatment  Vtmt*Electric Vtmt*Electric Vtmt*ElectricVtmt*Electric pumpset submersible pumpset pumpsetsubmersible pumpset (a) (b) (a)(b)  "}],"sieverID":"ec3a8ef0-7936-4087-a0e8-d6e70f74e047","abstract":"In this Highlight, we quantify the impact of metering of electric tube wells on groundwater use in West Bengal, India. Quantification of impact was made feasible through surveys conducted in 2004 and 2007 and then again a follow-up survey in 2010 by revisiting the same villages and households. Difference in difference framework was used to quantify the impact. Our major result is that the expected impact on reducing pumping hours was felt only in the boro season. There is also some evidence that this decrease was not confined to irrigation on own-farm, but that water sales and purchases were also adversely affected as a consequence. Yet the metering did not influence either cropping patterns, or the output of boro paddy. The latter could well be explained by over use of water among those who irrigate their own farms, so that reductions in water use do not translate into decreased output. These impacts have to be seen against the backdrop of an overall decline in pumping hours that was seen in both control and treatment groups, which may have served to swamp the impact of the metering."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0d05e833ad2a11b979daf6ff89f6c63d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/1803/overview.pdf"},"pageCount":10,"title":"An Overview of Fisheries Conflicts in South and Southeast Asia: Recommendations, Challenges and Directions 1","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":145,"text":"Most fisheries in South and Southeast Asia (SSEA) have been experiencing a biological decline, mainly due to growing fishing pressure. The fisheries are a source of food and income for the growing number of fishing households living at the subsistence level in the region. The fisheries are also under pressure from the commercialization and commoditization of fish in the global market, as well as from other development, industrial and recreational uses of this natural resource and its adjacent environment. The 2004 tsunami that hit the region brought destruction to the already problematic state of fishers' lives and livelihoods, as well as the fisheries and other coastal resources in the region (Pauly 2005). Given all these factors, stakeholders and institutions involved in natural resources management are faced with serious conflicts. Conflicts are broadly defined as a situation of noncooperation between parties with contradictory objectives (FAO 1998)."},{"index":2,"size":164,"text":"Conflicts in fisheries in SSEA are often viewed in the context of the allocation or access rights to the limited resources among stakeholders with diverging economic and social motivations. However, they are often far more complex because of the multiple socio-economic factors, such as institutional and market failures, that add to the conflicts (Ahmed et al. 1998;Torell and Ne ws Str ait s Tim es , Ap ril 8, 20 00 . p.1 4 articles articles Salamanca 2002). Conflicts arising from gear use, landing site use or market behavior are not primarily about resource allocation. They are rooted in more complex institutional issues such as cultural differences and political power struggles (Bennett et al. 2001). These concerns are among the many broad targets of key international instruments such as the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries of the Food and Agriculture Organization, the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development, and the formulation of the International Plan of Action for the Management of Fishing Capacity."},{"index":3,"size":121,"text":"The WorldFish Center initiated two projects to better understand conflicts in fisheries and the associated threats to the sustainability of fishery resources and human survival in selected developing countries in SSEA. The emphasis of the two projects was on the recognition of the importance of documenting conflicts and the identification of options for managing the problems that create these conflicts. This paper provides a summary of selected highlights of the two projects on fisheries conflict management executed by The WorldFish Center in collaboration with research partners situated in areas in SSEA where there are fisheries conflicts. The two projects identified study sites in Bangladesh, Cambodia, India, the Philippines and Thailand. Both projects started in 2003 and were completed in July 2005."}]},{"head":"Fish Fights over Fish Rights Project","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":185,"text":"The project aimed to improve understanding of the dynamics of conflicts arising from excess capacity and to recommend management options for managing fishing capacity and conflicts in small-scale fisheries in the region. Case studies were conducted in eight fishing villages experiencing a range of conflicts. In Cambodia, the three sites included were: Tamol Leu village in Pursat province representing the smallscale inland fishery in Tonle Sap Lake; Kampong Chhnang village in Kandal province representing the riparian fisheries in the Mekong areas; and Doun Toak village in Kampot province near the west Thai border representing coastal fisheries in the northwest of the Gulf of Thailand. In the vast fishing grounds of the Philippine archipelago, three fishing villages in the municipalities of Concepcion in Iloilo province, Escalante in Negros Occidental province and Daan-Bantayan in Cebu province were selected to represent the many coastal fishers that run in conflict with each other in the Visayan Sea. Finally, Bo Daeng and Na Tub fishing villages in Songkhla province in Thailand were selected to represent the coastal fishing communities where multi-species small-scale fishers have problems with the commercial anchovy fishers."},{"index":2,"size":99,"text":"The WorldFish Center collaborated with the Inland Fisheries Research and Development Institute (IFReDI) of the Department of Fisheries, Cambodia; the University of the Philippines Visayas (UPV), Philippines; the Coastal Resources Institute (CORIN) of the Prince of Songkhla University and the Southern Marine Fisheries Development Center (SMDEC) of the Department of Fisheries, Thailand to implement the project with a research grant from the Ford Foundation. The GTZ provided funds for the conduct of a regional consolidation workshop that was instrumental in bringing together experiences in conflicts and fisheries management and provided a venue for developing methods for resolving these conflicts."}]},{"head":"Enabling Better Management of Fisheries Conflicts Project","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":149,"text":"The Fish Fights over Fish Rights project initiatives were complemented by this second project. It focused on determining the most appropriate ways of communicating good practice for managing fisheries conflicts, promoting key lessons and practices from earlier projects on conflict and consensus building and, finally, on adapting and demonstrating these practices in study sites where conflicts often disadvantaged poor fishers. The project had a goal of conducting uptake methods for government and NGO workers who are involved in fisheries management. To achieve these adaptive research and communications objectives, seven study sites in freshwater and marine environments in Bangladesh, Cambodia and India were selected. This two-year conflict management project started in July 2003 in collaboration with the Fisheries Action Coalition Team (FACT) in Cambodia, Mitraniketan in India, and the WorldFish Center Regional Office in Bangladesh. The project was funded by the Department for International Development of the United Kingdom (DFID-UK)."}]},{"head":"Framework for Analyzing Conflicts","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Theoretical Background","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":144,"text":"Why are there conflicts in fisheries? What drives fishers and other stakeholders to conflicts? Charles (1992) provided a framework for analyzing conflicts in fisheries by introducing a trio of fishery paradigms, i.e., conservation, rationalization and social paradigms (Fig. 1). These three paradigms and the policy objective (or development priorities) at which most groups of fishery resource users operate explain why there are conflicts. The three corners of the triangle represent the extreme cases of the three philosophical paradigms and their unique policy objectives. The conservation paradigm operates with a policy objective centered articles on resource maintenance or conservation. This paradigm is based on the premise that the primary duty of the fishery manager is to take care of the fish, and fishers are viewed as a \"predatory fleet\" that must be directly managed through restrictive fishing hours, fishing location, fishing effort and catch quota."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"The rationalization paradigm emphasizes the pursuit of economic performance and productivity. The policy context related to this paradigm is founded on the assumption that society should seek to maximize fishery rents, comprising economic benefits over and above payments to fishers and vessels; and those fisheries that cannot attain this objective are \"supposed to be rationalized\"."},{"index":3,"size":115,"text":"The social or community paradigm focuses on fishers as members of coastal communities, rather than as components of a fishing fleet. It focuses on community welfare, distributional equity, and other social and cultural fishery benefits. Charles noted that this paradigm tends to be popular among fishers' unions, fishing cooperatives and those living in or involved with fishing communities. However, these groups were underrepresented among the staff and management of government fishery administrations during the time of his research. More recently, there has been an overwhelming interest in this paradigm and the \"advocacy\" element in this paradigm has contributed to a better understanding of its policy objectives even at the lower levels of the policymaking hierarchy."},{"index":4,"size":93,"text":"Conflicts arise when the many dynamic interactions among natural resources, humans and institutions contradict each other because of the underlying differences in priorities pursued by various fisheries players. Charles (1992) organized the wide range of fisheries conflicts into four interrelated categories: (i) fishery jurisdiction; (ii) management mechanisms; (iii) internal allocation; and (iv) external allocation. These categories were intended to be comprehensive but not mutually exclusive. In a more recent study, Bennett et al. (2001) extended the four conflict categories into five to include conflicts between fishers and those outside the fishery (Table 1)."}]},{"head":"The 'Fish Fights over Fish Rights' Conceptual Framework","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"Noting this conflict paradigm in the SSEA fisheries context, Fig. 2 illustrates the conceptual framework developed and used by the Fish Fights over Fish Rights project and provides the background for the Enabling Better Management of Fisheries Conflicts project. The framework mainly derived from the Driver-Problem-Issue-Intervention analysis that put into context the dynamics of the variables that would potentially address the objectives of the two conflict management studies. This conceptual framework evolved through the analysis of outcomes of case studies and through debates in national and regional stakeholder consultations organized by the Fish Fights over Fish Rights project."},{"index":2,"size":165,"text":"Considering that both studies deal with conflicts associated with scarcity of and competition for fishery resources in the region, the main conflict drivers fall under three categories: (i) policies, institutions for governance and property rights; (ii) population increase and poverty; and (iii) economic incentives/markets and new/improved technology. The state of these variables with reference to the fisheries sector in each country was reviewed in order to identify the circumstances that drive the excess capacity problem in the fisheries sector in the region in general. Fig. 2 also features the local and national security concerns such as fisher's livelihood, food security, degradation of fishery habitat and stocks, and risk to the lives of enforcers. Finally, the framework presents categories of management and policy interventions that hypothetically offer opportunities for addressing the issues and the excess fishing capacity problem. The options were broadly grouped into three categories: (i) strategies for exit from the fisheries; (ii) review of policies and institutions; and (iii) information, education and communication (IEC)."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"Among these three groups of interventions, the Fish Fights over Fish Rights project focused   (Pido et al. 1996)."}]},{"head":"Result Highlights","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Conflicts, Typologies and Linkages with Excess Fishing Capacity","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"Results of these two projects ascertained the existence of a variety of conflicts associated with declining fishery resources. In all eight case study sites, excess fishing capacity was indicated by modified stocks and catches composed mainly of juveniles and fewer high-value fishes; decreasing quantity and quality of catch; increasing number of fishers and boats; fishers fishing farther away; and emerging conflicts among various resource users. These indicators were parallel to the results of biological assessments that showed exploitation levels of commercial fish species to be beyond the optimum range as most fisheries in the region were harvested up to maximum biological levels (Silvestre et al. 2003)."},{"index":2,"size":92,"text":"The conflicts in the study sites were attributed to competition for access/ownership rights, issues of subsistence, economic profits and institutional weaknesses in the smallscale fisheries sector in SSEA. In Cambodia, conflicts in inland fisheries centered on poor governance as demonstrated by the weak implementation of policies, notably the Sub-Decree on Community Fisheries, on the allocation of fishing lots among commercial interest groups and a growing subsistence populace. Conflicts in coastal marine fisheries were about competition for productive fishing grounds and species targeted by gears used by small-scale fishers and large commercial operators."},{"index":3,"size":87,"text":"Conflicts in the floodplains in Bangladesh had some similarities with those in Cambodia. The diversity of products and livelihood opportunities in the rivers and floodplains in Bangladesh attract many users and stakeholders, but the stagnating inland fishery harvests set the conflict scenario. There has been a dramatic increase in the number of new fishers eking a living from shared resources with traditional fishers. Control of the fisheries, especially by curtailing illegal fishing practices by politically influential users and the weakness of institutions became major causes of disputes."},{"index":4,"size":52,"text":"The conflicts in the Philippines, Thailand and India were similar in terms of disputes between smalland large-scale fishers in capture articles  The anchovy fishing operators, however, contended that their way of fishing was not detrimental to the resource and livelihoods of smallscale fishers and challenged the government-imposed ban on gears they used."},{"index":5,"size":87,"text":"In India, the main conflicts in the study areas arose from competition for access to the shared fishery resources, in particular, the encroachment of mechanized boats in the area within 8 km from the shore allocated for traditional fishers. Other disputes were due to use of small mesh nets, trawling in breeding grounds and weak market structure. Conflicts also arose over the pollution caused by effluent discharges and oil spills from various industries. Tourism was also noted as a cause of conflict between promoters and traditional fishers. "}]},{"head":"Security Threats Arising from Fisheries Conflicts","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":126,"text":"In the Fish Fights over Fish Rights project, further evaluation of conflicts observed in the case study sites showed some pattern of relationship between conflict type and the nature of threats that could potentially arise from such conflicts (Salayo et al. 2006). Type I conflicts (Fig. 3) tended to create threats to the overall health of the fishery resources. The stakeholders believed that if Type I conflicts were not addressed, the \"non-owners\" or outsiders who gain access to the fishery would conduct illegal and \"harmful\" practices to obtain maximum benefits at intensive exploitation levels. In addition, food security was threatened by fishing rights being sold to other 'outsider' fishers. Type II conflicts included those that manifest themselves due to lack of enforcement and implementation of regulations."},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"The lack of clarity and purpose of regulations was listed as reason for violations and conflicts. For example, the establishment of marine protected areas (MPAs) as conservation measure is a trend in the Philippines. However, the lack information on the purpose Interview with fishers in the Visayan Sea, Philippines, July 2004."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"Anchovy fishing boat operating in the Gulf of Songkhla, Southern Thailand."},{"index":4,"size":23,"text":"The Anlong Raing floating village in Tonle Sap, Cambodia is home to many fishers relying on implementation of the Sub-Decree on Community Fisheries."},{"index":5,"size":18,"text":"Coastal area in Andra Pradesh India where traditional and mechanized fishers and their families compete for marine resources."},{"index":6,"size":30,"text":"articles for those affected created conflicts, as MPAs restricted access and limited fishing areas for most fishers. The fishers perceived it as a threat to their livelihoods and food security."},{"index":7,"size":37,"text":"Type III conflicts especially those between fishers using basic gears and other fishers using more efficient but illegal and destructive gears. can result in degradation of fishery habitat and stocks and consequently loss of livelihood and subsistence."},{"index":8,"size":128,"text":"Similarly, Type IV conflicts may also ruin the environment. Type V conflicts occur when non-fishery issues that do not directly use fishery resources nevertheless affect the fishery significantly. Such conflicts have been reported in Cambodia and the Philippines, where fishers had disputes with law enforcers, including government fishery officers. Apart from fomenting disrespect for the law and the law-makers and enforcers among fishing communities, such conflicts also result in more serious ramifications such as a politicization of policies related to fisheries and fishing communities and a lack of political determination. Both these phenomena were perceived to be detrimental, especially to the livelihoods of 'unfavored' fisher groups, as the destructive/illegal fishing operations of many of the politically favored groups were perceived as threats to the survival of the fishery."}]},{"head":"Challenges and Directions","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"The two projects on conflicts in capture fisheries in inland and marine environments indicate that conflict management should be embedded in natural resource management."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"In particular, options for managing excess fishing capacity should involve measures for understanding and managing conflicts and the associated threats."},{"index":3,"size":89,"text":"In recognition of the challenges, the sector is expected to persist on its important and immediate goals of, among others: (i) protection of fishery resources and conservation of fishery habitats; and (ii) development through provision of sustainable livelihoods to marginalized groups in the fishery sector. To achieve these goals, providing specific action plans to the policy and management interventions proposed in this paper are viewed as the challenges and directions that may pave the way for obtaining positive outcomes from conflicts and for elimination and resolution of negative conflicts."}]},{"head":"Strategic Exit from the Fisheries: A Way for Managing Excess Capacity","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"This is a sensitive issue of survival of the poor and marginalized fishers. Large-scale commercial fishers find it difficult to exit as capital investment in fisheries is not easily transferable to other income-generating opportunities."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"A creation of awareness through information and communication strategies could establish the credibility of benefits arising from exit strategies. The creation of sustainable alternative livelihoods is a challenge in resource-depleted and capital-deprived environments. Furthermore, the capacity to shift to other skills and work-styles is often limited among fishers. Aquaculture is often perceived as an alternative for reducing capacity and fishing pressure while making fish available to the growing populations. However, aquaculture development has unintended negative impacts on various sectors when not applied responsibly."}]},{"head":"Review of Policies and Institutions","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":141,"text":"The basic laws and regulations for managing fisheries are already in place in the countries included in this study. However, conflicts are prevalent because of the poor implementation and enforcement of most fishery laws and regulations. Thus, it is necessary to involve all stakeholders in the fishery and related sectors as well as the policy makers and fisheries managers in a thorough and periodic review of policies and institutions. Participatory management,  It must allow for pooling of specialized competencies and also for mutual interactive learning throughout the decision making process. However, to be accepted by all stakeholders and to be effective, governance needs to be transparent, equitable, legitimate and consistent (MARE undated brochure). In some countries in SSEA, interactive governance has taken place through the devolution of power for the management of the fishery to local government units and fishery agencies."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"There is a need for additional work to address cross-border fisheries conflicts and security issues across the globe. These issues are beyond the scope of the current study, yet relevant for another phase with a global and cross-country scope. Therefore, during the Regional Consolidation Workshop held from 17-20 May 2005 in the Philippines, it was decided to draft a follow-up collaborative project."}]},{"head":"Conclusions and Recommendations","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"The two WorldFish conflict management projects demonstrated that conflicts due to excess fishing capacity in the small-scale sector cut across the social and biological dimensions of managing the fisheries. This complexity reinforces the challenge for all stakeholders to develop the necessary management and policy interventions. The Fish Fights over Fish Rights project identified the following thematic policy recommendations for managing fishing capacity and related conflicts in small-scale fisheries in the region: "}]},{"head":"Promote and harmonize action plans through good governance.","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"Fishery agencies should formulate and implement a national plan of action for addressing over-capacity and resource use conflicts in fisheries; harmonize relevant plans of action at the international/regional levels; and promote collaboration in implementing international/regional action programs."}]},{"head":"Advocate management interventions and politicize security threats.","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"All groups of stakeholders, from fishers to policy-makers and academicians, are encouraged to promote a conducive policy climate; promote effective natural resource management; and support fisheries and resource management."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Framework for understanding and resolving conflicts. "},{"text":" marine fisheries. In the Visayan Sea in the Philippines, these conflicts had worsened due to the national fisheries policy, known as the 1998 Fisheries Code, which excluded large-scale fleets from fishing zones within 15 km from the shoreline. Large-scale fishers contested the government on the fairness of the regulation, while small-scale fishers protested against the poor implementation of such regulations as evidenced by the unchecked intrusion of large-scale fishers in near-shore waters. This legitimacy of access issues bred other forms of disputes, from fishing gear entanglements (where active gears destroys passive fixed gears of the small-scale fishers), to threats to the lives of village-level volunteer coast guards arising from altercations with large-scale illegal gear operators.At the Gulf of Songkhla in Southern Thailand, fishing zones had been demarcated for all gears under the National Committee for Fisheries Policy by the Department of Fisheries. The policy was intended to address problems of overcapacity and avert potential conflicts between commercial anchovy fishers and operators of other small-scale gears. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Patterns of relationship between conflict type and nature of threats arising from such conflicts. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" Conceptual framework for addressing excess capacity in small-scale fisheries in Southeast Asia with reference to strategies for exit as interventions that consider conflict management measures. Conservation paradigm Rationalization paradigm Conservation/resource maintenance Economic performance/productivity Community welfare/equity Community welfare paradigm Conflict Key problems Issues Policies, institutions for governance, property rights Population increase Poverty E x c e s s C a p c Local / regional security concerns Fishers' livelihoods Food security Degradation of fishery (habitat, stocks) Risk to lives Overfishing Environmental degradation Resource use & law enforcement Figure 2. Main drivers Market, Economics, new / improved i of enforcers & fishers (traditional conflicts t security) y technology Management / Policy options Strategies for exit from the fisheries Effort reduction/limiting entry/catch limit Gear/ area/ temporal restrictions Sustainable alternative livelihoods Review of policies & Institutions Governance & property rights Participatory management Information, education & communication Enhancement of stakeholder awareness Capacity building for non-fishing livelihoods Participatory management Conservation paradigm Rationalization paradigm Conservation/resource maintenance Economic performance/productivity Community welfare/equity Community welfare paradigm Conflict Key problems Issues Policies, institutions for governance, property rights Population increase Poverty E x c e s s C a p c Local / regional security concerns Fishers' livelihoods Food security Degradation of fishery (habitat, stocks) Risk to lives Overfishing Environmental degradation Resource use & law enforcement Figure 2. Main drivers Market, Economics, new / improved i of enforcers & fishers (traditional conflicts t security) y technologyManagement / Policy options Strategies for exit from the fisheries Effort reduction/limiting entry/catch limit Gear/ area/ temporal restrictions Sustainable alternative livelihoods Review of policies & Institutions Governance & property rights Participatory management Information, education & communication Enhancement of stakeholder awareness Capacity building for non-fishing livelihoods Participatory management on determining and evaluating  on determining and evaluating potential strategies for exit from  potential strategies for exit from the fisheries. This focus was  the fisheries. This focus was intended to contribute to efforts to  intended to contribute to efforts to reduce excess fishing pressure and  reduce excess fishing pressure and consequently ease conflict resolution  consequently ease conflict resolution or eliminate disputes and threats to  or eliminate disputes and threats to security. Meanwhile, the Enabling  security. Meanwhile, the Enabling Better Management of Fisheries  Better Management of Fisheries Conflicts project focused on the  Conflicts project focused on the IEC interventions by developing  IEC interventions by developing simple communication strategies and  simple communication strategies and tools to guide conflict assessment,  tools to guide conflict assessment, negotiations and development of a  negotiations and development of a consensus building attitude among  consensus building attitude among stakeholders. The project also applied  stakeholders. The project also applied other tools such as the Participatory  other tools such as the Participatory Institutional Survey and Conflict  Institutional Survey and Conflict Evaluation Exercise called PISCES  Evaluation Exercise called PISCES (Bennett et al. 2001) and noted  (Bennett et al. 2001) and noted the Rapid Appraisal of Fisheries  the Rapid Appraisal of Fisheries Management Systems developed  Management Systems developed earlier by ICLARM  earlier by ICLARM  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Fisheries conflicts in study sites in Cambodia, Philippines, Thailand, Bangladesh and India. Typology of  Parties involved and specific conflict issue  Typology ofParties involved and specific conflict issue Conflicts Cambodia Philippines Thailand Bangladesh India ConflictsCambodiaPhilippinesThailandBangladeshIndia Type I Community fishers Small-scale fishers vs. Large vs. small- Traditional fishers Traditional vs. Type ICommunity fishersSmall-scale fishers vs.Large vs. small-Traditional fishersTraditional vs. Who controls the vs. large fishing lot commercial fishers scale fishers over vs. katha (brush fish mechanized fishers Who controls thevs. large fishing lotcommercial fishersscale fishers overvs. katha (brush fishmechanized fishers fishery owners and medium- and fishery regulatory rights and access to aggregating device) who venture in 8 fisheryowners and medium-and fishery regulatoryrights and access toaggregating device)who venture in 8 (access issues) scale fishers over bodies over zoning designated zones by owners over fishing km inshore waters (access issues)scale fishers overbodies over zoningdesignated zones byowners over fishingkm inshore waters  access rights on of fishing grounds to type of fishery and access allocated for access rights onof fishing grounds totype of fishery andaccessallocated for  designated zones by delineate access by use of light luring  traditional fishers designated zones bydelineate access byuse of light luringtraditional fishers  type of fishery category of fishers and modern fishing Conflict due to  type of fisherycategory of fishersand modern fishingConflict due to    gears by large-scale pseudo-property  gears by large-scalepseudo-property    fishers (due to residency  fishers(due to residency     /ancestral) rights  /ancestral) rights     among small-scale  among small-scale     fishers  fishers Type II Community and Small-scale fishers vs. Commercial trawlers, Legal fishers vs. Fishers vs. state Type IICommunity andSmall-scale fishers vs.Commercial trawlers,Legal fishers vs.Fishers vs. state How are the fisheries medium-scale fishers commercial fishers push netters illegal gear operators government on mesh How are the fisheriesmedium-scale fisherscommercial fisherspush nettersillegal gear operatorsgovernment on mesh controlled vs. large fishing lot and sea patrols vs. regulatory over lack of size regulation controlledvs. large fishing lotand sea patrolsvs. regulatoryover lack ofsize regulation  owners, on over- over variable levels agencies over lack enforcement on use  owners, on over-over variable levelsagencies over lackenforcement on use  enforcement of rules of patrolling and of enforcement to of illegal gears  enforcement of rulesof patrolling andof enforcement toof illegal gears  by lot owners who enforcement of the control the number   by lot owners whoenforcement of thecontrol the number  utilize military force latter that favor of fishing vessels   utilize military forcelatter that favorof fishing vessels   commercial fishers and limit entry   commercial fishersand limit entry  Fishers vs. fisheries who can afford and operation of   Fishers vs. fisherieswho can affordand operation of  officials, local penalties destructive gears   officials, localpenaltiesdestructive gears  authorities, illegal     authorities, illegal  fishers over poor     fishers over poor  governance (weak     governance (weak  action on illegal     action on illegal  fishing, sale of public     fishing, sale of public  fishing areas, etc.)     fishing areas, etc.) Type III Rivalry between ethic Local artisanal vs. Rivalry between Traditional and new Traditional fishers Type IIIRivalry between ethicLocal artisanal vs.Rivalry betweenTraditional and newTraditional fishers Relations between groups migrant commercial resident small- fishers compete for complain over use Relations betweengroupsmigrant commercialresident small-fishers compete forcomplain over use the fishery users  fishermen over access scale vs. migrant riverine resources of ring seines by the fishery usersfishermen over accessscale vs. migrantriverine resourcesof ring seines by (linguistic, religion, Community fishers vs. and competition on large-scale anchovy  mechanized fishers (linguistic, religion,Community fishers vs.and competition onlarge-scale anchovymechanized fishers ethnic, scale of outsider illegal fishers fishing zones fishers over Fishers vs. Beel  ethnic, scale ofoutsider illegal fishersfishing zonesfishers overFishers vs. Beel fishing) on poaching inside  legitimacy of access Management  fishing)on poaching insidelegitimacy of accessManagement  community fishing  and destruction of Committee (BMC)  community fishingand destruction ofCommittee (BMC)  areas  gears   areasgears Type IV Lowland farmers vs. Fishery and sectors Rice farmers vs. None reported in Traditional vs. Type IVLowland farmers vs.Fishery and sectorsRice farmers vs.None reported inTraditional vs. Relations between fishers over access such as tourism, prawn breeders over case study area mechanized fishers Relations betweenfishers over accesssuch as tourism,prawn breeders overcase study areamechanized fishers fishers and other and use of water and navigation/ docking, resource use  and hatchery fishers and otherand use of water andnavigation/ docking,resource useand hatchery users of the aquatic inundated forest sand quarrying and   operators over users of the aquaticinundated forestsand quarrying andoperators over environment  mariculture over   collection of prawn environmentmariculture overcollection of prawn (fishing vs. tourism  varying use of aquatic   brooders (fishing vs. tourismvarying use of aquaticbrooders and similar water  resources    and similar waterresources resource-based     Fishers vs. resource-basedFishers vs. industries)     government and industries)government and      industries on industries on      discharge of effluents; discharge of effluents;      also tourism also tourism Type V Fishers vs. law Fishers vs. Fishers vs. Conflicts due to Fishers vs. Type VFishers vs. lawFishers vs.Fishers vs.Conflicts due toFishers vs. Relationship between enforcement government government overlapping of government Relationship betweenenforcementgovernmentgovernmentoverlapping ofgovernment fishers and non- authorities over authorities over authorities over functions and on overlapping fishers and non-authorities overauthorities overauthorities overfunctions andon overlapping fishery issues lack of proper variable standards lack of proper weak institutional functions of agencies fishery issueslack of propervariable standardslack of properweak institutionalfunctions of agencies  management and in management and management and structure at various and weak structure at management andin management andmanagement andstructure at variousand weak structure at  poor enforcement due enforcement arising enforcement levels various government poor enforcement dueenforcement arisingenforcementlevelsvarious government  to weak institutional from devolution   levels to weak institutionalfrom devolutionlevels  structures of functions and    structuresof functions and   overlapping    overlapping   institutional    institutional   structures    structures  "},{"text":"Table 1  gives a summary of conflicts gives a summary of conflicts divided into five categories: divided into five categories: (i) rights and access; (ii) enforcement (i) rights and access; (ii) enforcement of regulations; (iii) fishery group- of regulations; (iii) fishery group- related disputes; (iv) non-fishery related disputes; (iv) non-fishery use of fishery resources; and use of fishery resources; and (v) non-fishery concerns affecting (v) non-fishery concerns affecting the fishery. Conflicts were the fishery. Conflicts were categorized according to these categorized according to these five typologies to find patterns/ five typologies to find patterns/ relationships between typologies and relationships between typologies and corresponding management/policy corresponding management/policy options. Such patterns, if they exist, options. Such patterns, if they exist, can facilitate the formulation of can facilitate the formulation of conclusions and recommendations. conclusions and recommendations.  "}],"sieverID":"b46d3e64-ab14-45e6-8c16-c56eff80e9df","abstract":"Updated version of the paper delivered during the Regional Consolidation Workshop of the Fish Fights over Fish Rights project of the WorldFish Center, held at IRRI, Philippines, 17-20 May 2005. Updates mainly include final project results. Location of study sites in the South and Southeast Asian region."}