Ethical challenges in international surgical education, for visitors and hosts.
OBJECTIVE
Contributing to medical practice in developing countries has become increasingly prevalent. Primary care and preventative health initiatives have been most visible, although attention has recently shifted to surgical disease, which represents a large burden in resource-poor settings. Typically dominated by individual efforts, there is now a more concerted approach, with surgical care being included in the comprehensive primary health care plan set by the World Health Organization. Although ethical dilemmas in international surgery have been discussed sporadically in the context of specific missions from the visiting surgeon/team perspective, we are missing a comprehensive evaluation of these issues in the literature. Here we have chosen to systematically categorize ethical issues confronted while teaching and operating in a developing country into 2 broad categories: venue (i.e., host) and visitor related.


METHODS
For each category, topics within follow an ordinal sequence that one might use when designing a surgical education mission. Illustrative examples are provided, as well as a depiction of the ethical principles or theories involved.


RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS
This article provides a discussion written from visiting and host surgeon perspectives on diverse ethical challenges for which there is limited literature, including location selection, unmet needs at home, role of sponsors, and personal gain. In addition to candid discussion and a solutions-focused approach, the reader is provided with an "ethical checklist" for international surgical education, akin to the World Health Organization surgical safety checklist, to serve as a framework for the design of surgical missions that avoid ethical pitfalls.
['Howe|Kathryn L|KL|', 'Malomo|Adefolarin O|AO|', 'Bernstein|Mark A|MA|']
D001921:Brain D003399:Craniotomy D003469:Culture D003906:Developing Countries D013502:General Surgery D006301:Health Services Needs and Demand D006801:Humans D007258:Informed Consent D009493:Neurosurgery D009873:Operating Rooms D010348:Patient Care Team D011320:Primary Health Care D013523:Surgical Equipment
Ethics Education World Health Organization World health Surgery DALY Disability adjusted life year WHO