Pluralistic Ignorance as a Contributing Factor to Concussion Underreporting.
BACKGROUND
Concussion underreporting is endemic, and social norms are an established predictor of concussion reporting behavior. However, pluralistic ignorance-a situation in which most individuals in a group hold the belief that their peers' views differ from their own, despite views actually being similar-has not been studied in this context.


AIM
To assess whether pluralistic ignorance contributes to concussion underreporting.


METHOD
We surveyed 2,504 military service academy cadets. Each cadet was presented with a survey asking about their willingness to self-report a concussion, their perception of other cadets' willingness to report a concussion, and personal and demographic factors.


RESULTS
Most cadets viewed themselves as more willing to report a concussion than others (mean difference = 1.12, 95% CI [1.02, 1.21]), a belief consistent with pluralistic ignorance. Demographic characteristics were associated with holding this belief. For example, female cadets and upper-class cadets were more likely to show this disparity than male or under-class cadets, respectively. Collegiate athletes not only showed similar willingness to report concussion as nonathletes but also perceived other cadets as less likely to report concussions. Meanwhile, future pilots showed less self-report willingness and perceived that others were similarly unwilling to report concussions.


DISCUSSION
A majority of this economically and geographically diverse population displays characteristics of pluralistic ignorance: They largely share proconcussion reporting sentiments but incorrectly perceive that others do not. This belief is not held uniformly in all subpopulations, which may inform how these beliefs are developed and maintained.


CONCLUSIONS
Pluralistic ignorance is an important consideration in concussion education efforts.
['Baugh|Christine M|CM|https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9340-6338', 'Foster|Craig A|CA|', 'Johnson|Brian R|BR|', "D'Lauro|Christopher|C|"]
pluralistic ignorance concussion social norms concussion reporting disclosure young adult