Cold-weather warfare
United Kingdom – Royal Navy sailors and Royal Marines train in Norway above the Arctic Circle. The Royal Marines Mountain Leader Training Cadre is the UK premier cold-weather troop detachment.
United States – The U.S. military maintains cold-weather and mountain warfare training centers at the Army Northern Warfare Training Center at Fort Wainwright, Fairbanks, Alaska, the Army Mountain Warfare School at Camp Ethan Allen, Jericho, Vermont, the Special Forces Command Mountaineering Warfare Training Detachment at Fort Carson, Colorado Springs, Colorado, the U.S. Air Force Arctic Survival School at Eielson AFB, Alaska, and the Marine Corps Mountain Warfare Training Center, in Bridgeport, California.

Naval operations: Subfreezing conditions have significant implications for naval operations. The 1988 U.S. Navy Cold Weather Handbook for Surface Ships outlines effects on: icing on the topsides of ships, ship systems, underway replenishment, flight operations, and personnel. It also discusses preparations for cold-weather fleet operations.

Topside icing on ships: Topside icing is a serious hazard to ships operating in sub-freezing temperatures. Thick layers of ice can form on decks, sides, superstructures, deck mounted machinery, antennas and combat systems. The presence of topside ice has many adverse effects, principally it:

Increases ship displacement
Decreases freeboard
Impairs operation of deck machinery
Impedes personnel movement on deck
Restricts helicopter operations
Disrupts operation of radio and radars

Combat systems degradation: Icing may prevent a warship from conducting any type of offensive operations, including restraining the doors of a vertical launch systems, binding gears, shafts, hinges and pedestals. Other effects include sluggish performance of lubricants, increased failure rate of seals, plugs and O-rings, frozen magazine sprinkler systems, excessively long warm-up times for electronics or weapon system electronics, and freeze up of compressed-air-operated components.

Arctic operations: Global climate change has opened the waters of the Arctic along the northern shores of Alaska, Russia and Canada. The region is rich in natural resources. Countries abutting the Arctic Ocean have shown greater military patrol activity. The Military Times reported in 2015 that Russia had reactivated ten military bases, had increased surface ship and aircraft patrols of its Northern Fleet, and had conducted missile tests in the region. The U.S. Navy plans to have sufficient assets by 2030 to respond militarily in the Arctic. As of 2015, it conducted regular submarine patrols, but few air or surface ship operations. Russia had twelve ice breakers versus two for the U.S.. As of 2013, Canada had six ice breakers. In 2016, Canada announced the building of five ice-breaking Arctic and offshore patrol ships.

See also: 

References: 

Further reading: Govan, Thomas P. (1946). Training for Mountain and Winter Warfare, Study No. 23. The Army Ground Forces. Historical Section- Army Ground Forces.
Armstrong, Richard N.; Joseph G., Welsh (2014), Winter Warfare: Red Army Orders and Experiences, Cass series on Soviet military theory and practice, Routledge, p. 208, ISBN 9781135211547, retrieved 12 December 2016

External links: 
Bundeswehr Training Video 1959 Bundeswehr Lehrfilm - "Der Einzelschütze im Hochwinter" 1959 – 1959 German Army training film, "Individual protection in deep winter" – German narration