<sod>  [[Image:yorkconstantine.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Bronze statue of Constantine I outside [[York Minster]], near where he was acclaimed Emperor in 306]]
 
 ==Constantine and Christianity==
Constantine is perhaps best known for being the first Roman Emperor to endorse [[Christianity]], traditionally presented as a result of an omen - a fiery cross in the sky, with the inscription "''By this sign shalt thou conquer''" - before his victory in the [[Battle of Milvian Bridge]] in 312, when Constantine is said to have instituted the new standard to be carried into battle, called the [[labarum]]. The deity of the dream-omen reported in the Christian biographies was not publicly identified at the time.  Bronze coins struck for emperors often reveal details of their personal iconography. During the early part of Constantine's rule, representations first of Mars and then, from AD 310, Apollo as Sun God consistently appear on the reverse of his coinage.  Mars had been associated with the [[Tetrarchy]], and Constantine&rsquo;s use of this symbolism served to emphasise the legitimacy of his rule. After his breach with his father&rsquo;s old colleague Maximian in 309-10, Constantine began to claim legitimate descent from the 3rd century emperor Claudius Gothicus, the hero of the [[Battle of Naissus]]. Gothicus had claimed the divine protection of  Apollo-Sol.  In AD 310 Constantine experienced a vision in which Apollo-Sol appeared to him with omens of success. Thereafter the reverses of his coinage were dominated for several years by his "companion the unconquered Sol", <small>SOLI INVICTO COMITI</small> read the inscriptions. The depiction of his personal tutelary god represents Apollo with a solar halo, Helios-like, and the world-globe in his hands.  According to a number of historians and researchers, this is the god Constantine embraced with the omen at the Milvian Bridge: a syncretic Sun God, (''[[Helios|Sol Invictus]]''), with relations to [[Mithraism]], which had many common points with Christianity. 
 
Another aspect of Constantine that might indicate an incomplete acceptance of Christianity to a modern view was his willingness to wage wars in the name of a religion that preached peace and his notorious cruelty: he executed his own wife and eldest son in [[326]] for unknown reasons. He also had [[Licinius]] strangled after his defeat, something he had publicly promised not to do.
 
Christian historians, ever since Lactantius have adhered to the view that Constantine "adopted" Christianity as a kind of replacement for the official Roman [[paganism]]. Though the document called the "[[Donation of Constantine]]" was proved a forgery (though not until the 15th century, when the stories of Constantine's conversion were long-established "facts") it was attributed as documenting the conversion of the Roman Empire to Christianity for centuries. Even Christian skeptics have accepted this formulation, though seeing Constantine's policy as a political rather than spiritual move. 

Whether or not Constantine's personal deity was Sol Invictus or Christ Crucified, by the end of the 3rd century, Christian communities and their bishops had become a force to contend with, in urban centers especially. Christians were preferred for high government positions; the Church was granted various special privileges; and churches like the [[Church of the Nativity]] in [[Bethlehem]] and the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]] in [[Jerusalem]] were constructed. Christian bishops took aggressive public stances that were unknown among other cult leaders, even among the Jews. Proselytism had had to be publicly outlawed, simply to maintain public decorum. In the essential legions, however, Christianity was despised as womanish, and the soldiers followed [[Mithras]] and [[Isis]]. Since the Roman Emperors ruled by "divine right" and stayed in power through the support of the legions, it was important for them to be seen to support a strong state religion. The contumely of the Christians consisted in their public refusal to participate in official rites that no one deeply believed in, but which were an equivalent of an [[oath of allegiance]]. Refusal might easily bring upon all the Roman people the loss of the gods' support; such were the usual justifications for occasional lynchings of Christians by Roman soldiers, the fare of many [[martyrology|martyrologies]].  

Family influence is sometimes adduced to account for a personal adoption of Christianity: Helena in this agenda is said to be "probably born a Christian" though virtually nothing is known of her background, save that her mother was the daughter of an innkeeper and her father a sucessful soldier, a career that excluded overt Christians. Certainly Helena demonstrated extreme piety in her later life, in her trip to Palestine, where she discovered the [[True Cross]] and established basilicas. 
 
 Constantine and Licinius'  [[Edict of Milan]] (313) neither made paganism illegal nor made Christianity a state-sponsored religion. What it did was legalize Christianity, return confiscated Church property, and establish [[Sunday]] as a day of worship. Though the church prospered under Constantine's patronage, it also fell into the first of many public schisms.  He called the [[First Council of Nicaea]] to settle the problem of [[Arianism]], a dispute about the personhood and godhood of [[Jesus]].  It produced the [[Nicene Creed]], which favoured the position of [[Athanasius]], Arius's opponent, and became official doctrine.
 
 When the Altar of Victory was desecrated and removed from its place of honor in the Senate, the Senate deputized Symmachus to appeal to the emperor for its return. Symmachus publicly characterized the late Emperor Constantine's policy, in a plea for [[freedom of religion]]:
 :He diminished none of the privileges of the [[Vestal Virgin|sacred virgins]], he filled the priestly offices with nobles, he did not refuse the cost of the Roman ceremonies, and following the rejoicing Senate through all the streets of the eternal city, he contentedly beheld the shrines ''with unmoved countenance'', he read the names of the gods inscribed on the pediments, he enquired about the origin of the temples, and expressed admiration for their builders. Although he himself followed another religion, he maintained its own for the empire, for everyone has his own customs, everyone his own rites. The divine mind has distributed different guardians and different cults to different cities. As souls are separately given to infants as they are born, so to peoples the genius of their destiny. ('' Possible Christian insertion in italics.'') 
 
As the general custom, Constantine was not baptized until close to his death, when his choice fell upon the Arian bishop, [[Eusebius of Nicomedia]]. Few Christian authors have emphasized that when Constantine the Great died peacefully, he was secure in the Arian faith.
 
 *[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/ambrose-sym.html Medieval sourcebook:] The Memorial of Symmachus, prefect of the City. (The Memorial has been emended to address three emperors, [[Valentinian II]] (died 392), [[Theodosius I]], and [[Arcadius]](began to rule 395), a historical impossibility. Thus there may be other Christian adulterations of the text. The reply of [[Ambrose]], bishop of Milan is appended, which is highly revealing in the character of his argument in rebuttal.)
 
 :''You will arrest Simon, chief of the Christians. You will keep him till he signs this document and consents to collect for us a double tax and double tribute from the Christians . . . for we Gods have all the trials of war and they have nothing but repose and pleasure. They inhabit our territory and agree with Caesar, our enemy.'' (quoted in Freya Stark, ''Rome on the Euphrates'' 1967, p. 375)
 
 It was not an unreasonable demand in the circumstances. The Sassanids were perennially at war with Rome. Christians were now suspected for potential treachery. The "Great Persecution" of the Persian Christian churches occurred in a later period, 340-363, after the Persian Wars that reopened upon Constantine's death. In 344 came the martyrdom of Catholicos Shimun bar Sabbae, with five bishops and 100 priests.
 
 ==Other achievements==
 His victory in [[312]] over [[Maxentius]] at the Battle of Milvian Bridge resulted in his becoming Western Augustus, or ruler of the entire western half of the empire. He gradually consolidated his military superiority over his rivals in the crumbling [[Tetrarchy]] until [[324]], when he defeated the eastern ruler, [[Licinius]], and became sole emperor. 
 <eod> <sod> [[Image:yorkconstantine.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Bronze statue of Constantine I outside [[York Minster]], near where he was acclaimed Emperor in 306]]
 
 ==Constantine and Christianity==
Constantine is perhaps best known for being the first Roman Emperor to endorse [[Christianity]], traditionally presented as a result of an omen - a fiery cross in the sky, with the inscription "''By this sign shalt thou conquer''" - before his victory in the [[Battle of Milvian Bridge]] in 312, when Constantine is said to have instituted the new standard to be carried into battle, called the [[labarum]]. 
 
Christian historians ever since [[Lactantius]] have adhered to the view that Constantine "adopted" Christianity as a kind of replacement for the official Roman [[paganism]]. Though the document called the "[[Donation of Constantine]]" was proved a forgery (though not until the 15th century, when the stories of Constantine's conversion were long-established "facts") it was attributed as documenting the conversion of the Roman Empire to Christianity for centuries. Even Christian skeptics have accepted this formulation, though seeing Constantine's policy as a political rather than spiritual move. 
 
By the end of the 3rd century, Christian communities and their bishops had become a force to contend with, in urban centers especially. Christians were preferred for high government positions; the Church was granted various special privileges; and churches like the [[Church of the Nativity]] in [[Bethlehem]] and the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]] in [[Jerusalem]] were constructed. Christian bishops took aggressive public stances that were unknown among other cult leaders, even among the Jews. Proselytism had had to be publicly outlawed, simply to maintain public decorum. In the essential legions, however, Christianity was despised as womanish, and the soldiers followed [[Mithras]] and [[Isis]]. Since the Roman Emperors ruled by "divine right" and stayed in power through the support of the legions, it was important for them to be seen to support a strong state religion. The contumely of the Christians consisted in their public refusal to participate in official rites that no one deeply believed in, but which were an equivalent of an [[oath of allegiance]]. Refusal might easily bring upon all the Roman people the loss of the gods' support; such were the usual justifications for occasional lynchings of Christians by Roman soldiers, the fare of many [[martyrology|martyrologies]].  
 
 Constantine and Licinius'  [[Edict of Milan]] (313) neither made paganism illegal nor made Christianity a state-sponsored religion. What it did was legalize Christianity, return confiscated Church property, and establish [[Sunday]] as a day of worship. Though the church prospered under Constantine's patronage, it also fell into the first of many public schisms.  He called the [[First Council of Nicaea]] to settle the problem of [[Arianism]], a dispute about the personhood and godhood of [[Jesus]].  It produced the [[Nicene Creed]], which favoured the position of [[Athanasius]], Arius's opponent, and became official doctrine.
 
 When the Altar of Victory was desecrated and removed from its place of honor in the Senate, the Senate deputized Symmachus to appeal to the emperor for its return. Symmachus publicly characterized the late Emperor Constantine's policy, in a plea for [[freedom of religion]]:
 :He diminished none of the privileges of the [[Vestal Virgin|sacred virgins]], he filled the priestly offices with nobles, he did not refuse the cost of the Roman ceremonies, and following the rejoicing Senate through all the streets of the eternal city, he contentedly beheld the shrines ''with unmoved countenance'', he read the names of the gods inscribed on the pediments, he enquired about the origin of the temples, and expressed admiration for their builders. Although he himself followed another religion, he maintained its own for the empire, for everyone has his own customs, everyone his own rites. The divine mind has distributed different guardians and different cults to different cities. As souls are separately given to infants as they are born, so to peoples the genius of their destiny. ('' Possible Christian insertion in italics.'') 
 
 
 *[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/ambrose-sym.html Medieval sourcebook:] The Memorial of Symmachus, prefect of the City. (The Memorial has been emended to address three emperors, [[Valentinian II]] (died 392), [[Theodosius I]], and [[Arcadius]](began to rule 395), a historical impossibility. Thus there may be other Christian adulterations of the text. The reply of [[Ambrose]], bishop of Milan is appended, which is highly revealing in the character of his argument in rebuttal.)
 
 :''You will arrest Simon, chief of the Christians. You will keep him till he signs this document and consents to collect for us a double tax and double tribute from the Christians . . . for we Gods have all the trials of war and they have nothing but repose and pleasure. They inhabit our territory and agree with Caesar, our enemy.'' (quoted in Freya Stark, ''Rome on the Euphrates'' 1967, p. 375)
 
 It was not an unreasonable demand in the circumstances. The Sassanids were perennially at war with Rome. Christians were now suspected for potential treachery. The "Great Persecution" of the Persian Christian churches occurred in a later period, 340-363, after the Persian Wars that reopened upon Constantine's death. In 344 came the martyrdom of Catholicos Shimun bar Sabbae, with five bishops and 100 priests.

===Was Constantine a Christian?===
The religion of Constantine the Great, while generally assumed to be Christian in view of his pro-Christian policies, is disputed. 

Bronze coins struck for emperors often reveal details of their personal iconography. During the early part of Constantine's rule, representations first of [[Mars (god)|Mars]] and then (from [[310]]) of [[Apollo]] as Sun god consistently appear on the reverse of the coinage. Mars had been associated with the [[Tetrarchy]], and Constantine's use of this symbolism served to emphasize the legitimacy of his rule. After his breach with his father's old colleague Maximian in [[309]]-10, Constantine began to claim legitimate descent from the [[3rd century]] emperor [[Claudius Gothicus]], the hero of the [[Battle of Naissus]]. Gothicus had claimed the divine protection of Apollo-Sol. In 310 Constantine reportedly experienced a vision in which Apollo-Sol appeared to him with omens of success. Thereafter the reverses of his coinage were dominated for several years by his "companion, the unconquered Sol" -- the inscriptions read <small>SOLI INVICTO COMITI</small>. The depiction of his personal tutelary god represents Apollo with a solar halo, [[Helios]]-like, and the globe in his hands. According to a number of historians and researchers, this is the god Constantine embraced with the omen at the Milvian Bridge (the deity of this omen was not publicly identified at the time): a syncretic sun god, ''[[Helios|Sol Invictus]],'' with relations to [[Mithraism]], which had many common points with Christianity.

Another aspect of Constantine that might indicate an incomplete acceptance of Christianity (from a modern view) was his willingness to wage wars in the name of a religion that preached peace and his notorious cruelty: he executed his own wife and eldest son in [[326]] for unknown reasons. He also had [[Licinius]], the East Roman emperor, strangled after his defeat, something he had publicly promised not to do.

Family influence is sometimes adduced to account for a personal adoption of Christianity: Helena in this agenda is said to be "probably born a Christian" though virtually nothing is known of her background, save that her mother was the daughter of an innkeeper and her father a successful soldier, a career that excluded overt Christians. Certainly Helena demonstrated extreme piety in her later life in her trip to [[Palestine]], where she discovered the [[True Cross]] and established basilicas.

As the general custom, Constantine was not [[baptism|baptized]] until close to his death, when his choice fell upon the Arian bishop [[Eusebius]] of [[Nicomedia]]. Few Christian authors have emphasized that when Constantine the Great died peacefully, he was secure in the Arian faith.
 
 ==Other achievements==
 His victory in [[312]] over [[Maxentius]] at the Battle of Milvian Bridge resulted in his becoming Western Augustus, or ruler of the entire western half of the empire. He gradually consolidated his military superiority over his rivals in the crumbling [[Tetrarchy]] until [[324]], when he defeated the eastern ruler, [[Licinius]], and became sole emperor. 
 <eod>