text:
Afroyim v. Rusk, 387 U.S. 253 (1967)
Supreme Court of the United States
Filed: May 29th, 1967
Precedential Status: Precedential
Citations: 387 U.S. 253, 87 S. Ct. 1660, 18 L. Ed. 2d 757, 1967 U.S. LEXIS 2844
Docket Number: 456
Supreme Court Database ID: 1966-108
Author: Hugo Lafayette Black

387 U.S. 253 (1967)
AFROYIM
v.
RUSK, SECRETARY OF STATE.

No. 456.
Supreme Court of United States.

Argued February 20, 1967.
Decided May 29, 1967.
CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR THE SECOND CIRCUIT.
Edward J. Ennis argued the cause for petitioner. On the briefs was Nanette Dembitz.

*254 Charles Gordon, argued the cause for respondent. On the brief were Solicitor General Marshall, Assistant Attorney General Vinson, Beatrice Rosenberg and Jerome M. Feit.

MR. JUSTICE BLACK delivered the opinion of the Court.

Petitioner, born in Poland in 1893, immigrated to this country in 1912 and became a naturalized American citizen in 1926. He went to Israel in 1950, and in 1951 he voluntarily voted in an election for the Israeli Knesset, the legislative body of Israel. In 1960, when he applied for renewal of his United States passport, the Department of State refused to grant it on the sole ground that he had lost his American citizenship by virtue of § 401 (e) of the Nationality Act of 1940 which provides that a United States citizen shall "lose" his citizenship if he votes "in a political election in a foreign state."[1] Petitioner then brought this declaratory judgment action in federal district court alleging that § 401 (e) violates both the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment and § 1, cl. 1, of the Fourteenth Amendment[2] which grants American citizenship to persons like petitioner. Because neither the Fourteenth Amendment nor any other provision of the Constitution expressly grants Congress the power to *255 take away that citizenship once it has been acquired, petitioner contended that the only way he could lose his citizenship was by his own voluntary renunciation of it. Since the Government took the position that § 401 (e) empowers it to terminate citizenship without the citizen's voluntary renunciation, petitioner argued that this section is prohibited by the Constitution. The District Court and the Court of Appeals, rejecting this argument, held that Congress has constitutional authority forcibly to take away citizenship for voting in a foreign country based on its implied power to regulate foreign affairs. Consequently, petitioner was held to have lost his American citizenship regardless of his intention not to give it up. This is precisely what this Court held in Perez v. Brownell, 356 U.S. 44.

Petitioner, relying on the same contentions about voluntary renunciation of citizenship which this Court rejected in upholding § 401 (e) in Perez, urges us to reconsider that case, adopt the view of the minority there, and overrule it. That case, decided by a 5-4 vote almost 10 years ago, has been a source of controversy and confusion ever since, as was emphatically recognized in the opinions of all the judges who participated in this case below.[3] Moreover, in the other cases decided with[4] and since[5]Perez, this Court has consistently invalidated on a case-by-case basis various other statutory sections providing for involuntary expatriation. It has done so on various grounds and has refused to hold that citizens can be expatriated without their voluntary renunciation of *256 citizenship. These cases, as well as many commentators,[6] have cast great doubt upon the soundness of Perez. Under these circumstances, we granted certiorari to reconsider it, 385 U.S. 917. In view of the many recent opinions and dissents comprehensively discussing all the issues involved,[7] we deem it unnecessary to treat this subject at great length.

The fundamental issue before this Court here, as it was in Perez, is whether Congress can consistently with the Fourteenth Amendment enact a law stripping an American of his citizenship which he has never voluntarily renounced or given up. The majority in Perez held that Congress could do this because withdrawal of citizenship is "reasonably calculated to effect the end that is within the power of Congress to achieve." 356 U. S., at 60. That conclusion was reached by this chain of reasoning: Congress has an implied power to deal with foreign affairs as an indispensable attribute of sovereignty; this implied power, plus the Necessary and Proper Clause, empowers Congress to regulate voting by American citizens in foreign elections; involuntary expatriation is within the "ample scope" of "appropriate modes" Congress can adopt to effectuate its general regulatory power. Id., at *257 57-60. Then, upon summarily concluding that "there is nothing in the . . . Fourteenth Amendment to warrant drawing from it a restriction upon the power otherwise possessed by Congress to withdraw citizenship," id., at 58, n. 3, the majority specifically rejected the "notion that the power of Congress to terminate citizenship depends upon the citizen's assent," id., at 61.

First we reject the idea expressed in Perez that, aside from the Fourteenth Amendment, Congress has any general power, express or implied, to take away an American citizen's citizenship without his assent. This power cannot, as Perez indicated, be sustained as an implied attribute of sovereignty possessed by all nations. Other nations are governed by their own constitutions, if any, and we can draw no support from theirs. In our country the people are sovereign and the Government cannot sever its relationship to the people by taking away their citizenship. Our Constitution governs us and we must never forget that our Constitution limits the Government to those powers specifically granted or those that are necessary and proper to carry out the specifically granted ones. The Constitution, of course, grants Congress no express power to strip people of their citizenship, whether in the exercise of the implied power to regulate foreign affairs or in the exercise of any specifically granted power. And even before the adoption of the Fourteenth Amendment, views were expressed in Congress and by this Court that under the Constitution the Government was granted no power, even under its express power to pass a uniform rule of naturalization, to determine what conduct should and should not result in the loss of citizenship. On three occasions, in 1794, 1797, and 1818, Congress considered and rejected proposals to enact laws which would describe certain conduct as resulting in expatriation.[8] On each occasion *258 Congress was considering bills that were concerned with recognizing the right of voluntary expatriation and with providing some means of exercising that right. In 1794 and 1797, many members of Congress still adhered to the English doctrine of perpetual allegiance and doubted whether a citizen could even voluntarily renounce his citizenship.[9] By 1818, however, almost no one doubted the existence of the right of voluntary expatriation, but several judicial decisions had indicated that the right could not be exercised by the citizen without the consent of the Federal Government in the form of enabling legislation.[10] Therefore, a bill was introduced to provide that a person could voluntarily relinquish his citizenship by declaring such relinquishment in writing before a district court and then departing from the country.[11] The opponents of the bill argued that Congress had no constitutional authority, either express or implied, under either the Naturalization Clause or the Necessary and Proper Clause, to provide that a certain act would constitute expatriation.[12] They pointed to a proposed Thirteenth *259 Amendment, subsequently not ratified, which would have provided that a person would lose his citizenship by accepting an office or emolument from a foreign government.[13] Congressman Anderson of Kentucky argued:

"The introduction of this article declares the opinion. . . that Congress could not declare the acts which should amount to a renunciation of citizenship; otherwise there would have been no necessity for this last resort. When it was settled that Congress could not declare that the acceptance of a pension or an office from a foreign Emperor amounted to a disfranchisement of the citizen, it must surely be conceded that they could not declare that any other act did. The cases to which their powers before this amendment confessedly did not extend, are very strong, and induce a belief that Congress could not in any case declare the acts which should cause `a person to cease to be a citizen.' The want of power in a case like this, where the individual has given the strongest evidence of attachment to a foreign potentate and an entire renunciation of the feelings and principles of an American citizen, certainly establishes the absence of all power to pass a bill like the present one. Although the intention with which it was introduced, and the title of the bill declare that it is to insure and foster the right of the citizen, the direct and inevitable effect of the bill, is an assumption of power by Congress to declare that certain acts when committed shall amount to a renunciation of citizenship." 31 Annals of Cong. 1038-1039 (1818).
*260 Congressman Pindall of Virginia objected the notion, later accepted by the majority in Perez, that the nature of sovereignty gives Congress a right to expatriate citizens:

"[A]llegiance imports an obligation on the citizen or subject, the correlative right to which resides in the sovereign power: allegiance in this country is not due to Congress, but to the people, with whom the sovereign power is found; it is, therefore, by the people only that any alteration can be made of the existing institutions with respect to allegiance." Id., at 1045.
Although he recognized that the bill merely sought to provide a means of voluntary expatriation, Congressman Lowndes of South Carolina argued:

"But, if the Constitution had intended to give to Congress so delicate a power, it would have been expressly granted. That it was a delicate power, and ought not to be loosely inferred, . . . appeared in a strong light, when it was said, and could not be denied, that to determine the manner in which a citizen may relinquish his right of citizenship, is equivalent to determining how he shall be divested of that right. The effect of assuming the exercise of these powers will be, that by acts of Congress a man may not only be released from all the liabilities, but from all the privileges of a citizen. If you pass this bill, . . . you have only one step further to go, and say that such and such acts shall be considered as presumption of the intention of the citizen to expatriate, and thus take from him the privileges of a citizen. . . . [Q]uestions affecting the right of the citizen were questions to be regulated, not by the laws of the General or State Governments, but by Constitutional provisions. If there was anything *261 essential to our notion of a Constitution, . . . it was this: that while the employment of the physical force of the country is in the hands of the Legislature, those rules which determine what constitutes the rights of the citizen, shall be a matter of Constitutional provision." Id., at 1050-1051.
The bill was finally defeated.[14] It is in this setting that six years later, in Osborn v. Bank of the United States, 9 Wheat. 738, 827, this Court, speaking through Chief Justice Marshall, declared in what appears to be a mature and well-considered dictum that Congress, once a person becomes a citizen, cannot deprive him of that status:

"[The naturalized citizen] becomes a member of the society, possessing all the rights of a native citizen, and standing, in the view of the constitution, on the footing of a native. The constitution does not authorize Congress to enlarge or abridge those rights. The simple power of the national Legislature, is to prescribe a uniform rule of naturalization, and the exercise of this power exhausts it, so far as respects the individual."
Although these legislative and judicial statements may be regarded as inconclusive and must be considered in the historical context in which they were made,[15] any doubt *262 as to whether prior to the passage of the Fourteenth Amendment Congress had the power to deprive a person against his will of citizenship once obtained should have been removed by the unequivocal terms of the Amendment itself. It provides its own constitutional rule in language calculated completely to control the status of citizenship: "All persons born or naturalized in the United States . . . are citizens of the United States . . . ." There is no indication in these words of a fleeting citizenship, good at the moment it is acquired but subject to destruction by the Government at any time. Rather the Amendment can most reasonably be read as defining a citizenship which a citizen keeps unless he voluntarily relinquishes it. Once acquired, this Fourteenth Amendment citizenship was not to be shifted, canceled, or diluted at the will of the Federal Government, the States, or any other governmental unit.

It is true that the chief interest of the people in giving permanence and security to citizenship in the Fourteenth Amendment was the desire to protect Negroes. The Dred Scott decision, 19 How. 393, had shortly before greatly disturbed many people about the status of Negro citizenship. But the Civil Rights Act of 1866, 14 Stat. 27, had already attempted to confer citizenship on all persons born or naturalized in the United States. Nevertheless, when the Fourteenth Amendment passed the House without containing any definition of citizenship, the sponsors of the Amendment in the Senate insisted on inserting a constitutional definition and grant of citizenship. They expressed fears that the citizenship so recently conferred on Negroes by the Civil Rights Act could be just as easily taken away from them by subsequent Congresses, and it was to provide an insuperable obstacle against every governmental effort to strip Negroes of their newly acquired citizenship that the first clause was added to the Fourteenth Amendment.[16]*263 Senator Howard, who sponsored the Amendment in the Senate, thus explained the purpose of the clause:

"It settles the great question of citizenship and removes all doubt as to what persons are or are not citizens of the United States. . . . We desired to put this question of citizenship and the rights of citizens . . . under the civil rights bill beyond the legislative power . . . ." Cong. Globe, 39th Cong., 1st Sess., 2890, 2896 (1866).
This undeniable purpose of the Fourteenth Amendment to make citizenship of Negroes permanent and secure would be frustrated by holding that the Government can rob a citizen of his citizenship without his consent by simply proceeding to act under an implied general power to regulate foreign affairs or some other power generally granted. Though the framers of the Amendment were not particularly concerned with the problem of expatriation, it seems undeniable from the language they used that they wanted to put citizenship beyond the power of any governmental unit to destroy. In 1868, two years after the Fourteenth Amendment had been proposed, Congress specifically considered the subject of expatriation. Several bills were introduced to impose involuntary expatriation on citizens who committed certain acts.[17] With little *264 discussion, these proposals were defeated. Other bills, like the one proposed but defeated in 1818, provided merely a means by which the citizen could himself voluntarily renounce his citizenship.[18] Representative Van Trump of Ohio, who proposed such a bill, vehemently denied in supporting it that his measure would make the Government "a party to the act dissolving the tie between the citizen and his country . . . where the statute simply prescribes the manner in which the citizen shall proceed to perpetuate the evidence of his intention, or election, to renounce his citizenship by expatriation." Cong. Globe, 40th Cong., 2d Sess., 1804 (1868). He insisted that "inasmuch as the act of expatriation depends almost entirely upon a question of intention on the part of the citizen," id., at 1801, "the true question is, that not only the right of expatriation, but the whole power of its exercise, rests solely and exclusively in the will of the individual," id., at 1804.[19] In strongest of terms, not contradicted by any during the debates, he concluded:

"To enforce expatriation or exile against a citizen without his consent is not a power anywhere belonging to this Government. No conservative-minded *265 statesman, no intelligent legislator, no sound lawyer has ever maintained any such power in any branch of the Government. The lawless precedents created in the delirium of war . . . of sending men by force into exile, as a punishment for political opinion, were violations of this great law . . . of the Constitution. . . . The men who debated the question in 1818 failed to see the true distinction. . . . They failed to comprehend that it is not the Government, but that it is the individual, who has the right and the only power of expatriation. . . . [I]t belongs and appertains to the citizen and not to the Government; and it is the evidence of his election to exercise his right, and not the power to control either the election or the right itself, which is the legitimate subject matter of legislation. There has been, and there can be, no legislation under our Constitution to control in any manner the right itself." Ibid.
But even Van Trump's proposal, which went no further than to provide a means of evidencing a citizen's intent to renounce his citizenship, was defeated.[20] The Act, *266 as finally passed, merely recognized the "right of expatriation" as an inherent right of all people.[21]

The entire legislative history of the 1868 Act makes it abundantly clear that there was a strong feeling in the Congress that the only way the citizenship it conferred could be lost was by the voluntary renunciation or abandonment by the citizen himself. And this was the unequivocal statement of the Court in the case of United States v. Wong Kim Ark, 169 U.S. 649. The issues in that case were whether a person born in the United States to Chinese aliens was a citizen of the United States and whether, nevertheless, he could be excluded under the Chinese Exclusion Act, 22 Stat. 58. The Court first held that within the terms of the Fourteenth Amendment, Wong Kim Ark was a citizen of the United States, and then pointed out that though he might "renounce this citizenship, and become a citizen of . . . any other country," he had never done so. Id., at 704-705. The Court then held[22] that Congress could not do anything to abridge or affect his citizenship conferred by the Fourteenth Amendment. Quoting Chief Justice Marshall's well-considered and oft-repeated dictum in Osborn to the effect that Congress under the power of naturalization has "a power to confer citizenship, not a power to take it away," the Court said:

"Congress having no power to abridge the rights conferred by the Constitution upon those who have become naturalized citizens by virtue of acts of Congress, a fortiori no act . . . of Congress . . . *267 can affect citizenship acquired as a birthright, by virtue of the Constitution itself . . . . The Fourteenth Amendment, while it leaves the power, where it was before, in Congress, to regulate naturalization, has conferred no authority upon Congress to restrict the effect of birth, declared by the Constitution to constitute a sufficient and complete right to citizenship." Id., at 703.
To uphold Congress' power to take away a man's citizenship because he voted in a foreign election in violation of § 401 (e) would be equivalent to holding that Congress has the power to "abridge," "affect," "restrict the effect of," and "take . . . away" citizenship. Because the Fourteenth Amendment prevents Congress from doing any of these things, we agree with THE CHIEF JUSTICE'S dissent in the Perez case that the Government is without power to rob a citizen of his citizenship under § 401 (e).[23]

Because the legislative history of the Fourteenth Amendment and of the expatriation proposals which preceded and followed it, like most other legislative history, contains many statements from which conflicting inferences can be drawn, our holding might be unwarranted if it rested entirely or principally upon that legislative history. But it does not. Our holding we think is the only one that can stand in view of the language and the purpose of the Fourteenth Amendment, and our construction of that Amendment, we believe, comports more nearly than Perez with the principles of liberty and equal justice to all that the entire Fourteenth Amendment was adopted to guarantee. Citizenship is no light trifle *268 to be jeopardized any moment Congress decides to do so under the name of one of its general or implied grants of power. In some instances, loss of citizenship can mean that a man is left without the protection of citizenship in any country in the world—as a man without a country. Citizenship in this Nation is a part of a co-operative affair. Its citizenry is the country and the country is its citizenry. The very nature of our free government makes it completely incongruous to have a rule of law under which a group of citizens temporarily in office can deprive another group of citizens of their citizenship. We hold that the Fourteenth Amendment was designed to, and does, protect every citizen of this Nation against a congressional forcible destruction of his citizenship, whatever his creed, color, or race. Our holding does no more than to give to this citizen that which is his own, a constitutional right to remain a citizen in a free country unless he voluntarily relinquishes that citizenship.

Perez v. Brownell is overruled. The judgment is

Reversed.

MR. JUSTICE HARLAN, whom MR. JUSTICE CLARK, MR. JUSTICE STEWART, and MR. JUSTICE WHITE join, dissenting.

Almost 10 years ago, in Perez v. Brownell, 356 U.S. 44, the Court upheld the constitutionality of § 401 (e) of the Nationality Act of 1940, 54 Stat. 1169. The section deprives of his nationality any citizen who has voted in a foreign political election. The Court reasoned that Congress derived from its power to regulate foreign affairs authority to expatriate any citizen who intentionally commits acts which may be prejudicial to the foreign relations of the United States, and which reasonably may be deemed to indicate a dilution of his allegiance to this country. Congress, it was held, could appropriately consider *269 purposeful voting in a foreign political election to be such an act.

The Court today overrules Perez, and declares § 401 (e) unconstitutional, by a remarkable process of circumlocution. First, the Court fails almost entirely to dispute the reasoning in Perez; it is essentially content with the conclusory and quite unsubstantiated assertion that Congress is without "any general power, express or implied," to expatriate a citizen "without his assent."[1] Next, the Court embarks upon a lengthy, albeit incomplete, survey of the historical background of the congressional power at stake here, and yet, at the end, concedes that the history is susceptible of "conflicting inferences." The Court acknowledges that its conclusions might not be warranted by that history alone, and disclaims that the decision today relies, even "principally," upon it. Finally, the Court declares that its result is bottomed upon the "language *270 and the purpose" of the Citizenship Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment; in explanation, the Court offers only the terms of the clause itself, the contention that any other result would be "completely incongruous," and the essentially arcane observation that the "citizenry is the country and the country is its citizenry."

I can find nothing in this extraordinary series of circumventions which permits, still less compels, the imposition of this constitutional constraint upon the authority of Congress. I must respectfully dissent.

There is no need here to rehearse Mr. Justice Frankfurter's opinion for the Court in Perez; it then proved and still proves to my satisfaction that § 401 (e) is within the power of Congress.[2] It suffices simply to supplement Perez with an examination of the historical evidence which the Court in part recites, and which provides the only apparent basis for many of the Court's conclusions. As will be seen, the available historical evidence is not only inadequate to support the Court's abandonment of Perez, but, with due regard for the *271 restraints that should surround the judicial invalidation of an Act of Congress, even seems to confirm Perez' soundness.

I.

Not much evidence is available from the period prior to the adoption of the Fourteenth Amendment through which the then-prevailing attitudes on these constitutional questions can now be determined. The questions pertinent here were only tangentially debated; controversy centered instead upon the wider issues of whether a citizen might under any circumstances renounce his citizenship, and, if he might, whether that right should be conditioned upon any formal prerequisites.[3] Even the discussion of these issues was seriously clouded by the widely accepted view that authority to regulate the incidents of citizenship had been retained, at least in part, by the several States.[4] It should therefore be remembered that the evidence which is now available may not necessarily represent any carefully considered, still less prevailing, viewpoint upon the present issues.

Measured even within these limitations, the Court's evidence for this period is remarkably inconclusive; the Court relies simply upon the rejection by Congress of *272 legislation proposed in 1794, 1797, and 1818, and upon an isolated dictum from the opinion of Chief Justice Marshall in Osborn v. Bank of the United States, 9 Wheat. 738. This, as will appear, is entirely inadequate to support the Court's conclusion, particularly in light of other and more pertinent evidence which the Court does not notice.

The expatriation of unwilling citizens was apparently first discussed in the lengthy congressional debates of 1794 and 1795, which culminated eventually in the Uniform Naturalization Act of 1795.[5] 1 Stat. 414. Little contained in those debates is pertinent here. The present question was considered only in connection with an amendment, offered by Congressman Hillhouse of Connecticut, which provided that any American who acquired a foreign citizenship should not subsequently be permitted to repatriate in the United States. Although this obscure proposal scarcely seems relevant to the present issues, it was apparently understood at least by some members to require the automatic expatriation of an American who acquired a second citizenship. Its discussion in the House consumed substantially less than one day, and of this debate only the views of two Congressmen, other than Hillhouse, were recorded by the Annals.[6] Murray of Maryland, for reasons immaterial here, supported the proposal. In response, Baldwin of Georgia urged that foreign citizenship was often conferred only as a mark of esteem, and that it would be unfair to deprive of his domestic citizenship an American honored in this fashion. There is no indication that any member believed the proposal to be forbidden by the Constitution. The measure was rejected by the House without a reported *273 vote and no analogous proposal was offered in the Senate. Insofar as this brief exchange is pertinent here, it establishes at most that two or more members believed the proposal both constitutional and desirable, and that some larger number determined, for reasons that are utterly obscure, that it should not be adopted.

The Court next relies upon the rejection of proposed legislation in 1797. The bill there at issue would have forbidden the entry of American citizens into the service of any foreign state in time of war; its sixth section included machinery by which a citizen might voluntarily expatriate himself.[7] The bill contained nothing which would have expatriated unwilling citizens, and the debates do not include any pronouncements relevant to that issue. It is difficult to see how the failure of that bill might be probative here.

The debates in 1817 and 1818, upon which the Court so heavily relies, are scarcely more revealing. Debate centered upon a brief bill[8] which provided merely that any citizen who wished to renounce his citizenship must first declare his intention in open court, and thereafter depart the United States. His citizenship would have terminated at the moment of his renunciation. The bill was debated only in the House; no proposal permitting the involuntary expatriation of any citizen was made or considered there or in the Senate. Nonetheless, the Court selects portions of statements made by three individual Congressmen, who apparently denied that Congress had authority to enact legislation to deprive unwilling citizens of their citizenship. These brief dicta are, by the most generous standard, inadequate to warrant the Court's broad constitutional conclusion. Moreover, it must be observed that they were in great part deductions from *274 constitutional premises which have subsequently been entirely abandoned. They stemmed principally from the Jeffersonian contention that allegiance is owed by a citizen first to his State, and only through the State to the Federal Government. The spokesmen upon whom the Court now relies supposed that Congress was without authority to dissolve citizenship, since "we have no control" over "allegiance to the State . . . ."[9] The bill's opponents urged that "The relation to the State government was the basis of the relation to the General Government, and therefore, as long as a man continues a citizen of a State, he must be considered a citizen of the United States."[10] Any statute, it was thought, which dissolved federal citizenship while a man remained a citizen of a State "would be inoperative."[11] Surely the Court does not revive this entirely discredited doctrine; and yet so long as it does not, it is difficult to see that any significant support for the ruling made today may be derived from the statements on which the Court relies. To sever the statements from their constitutional premises, as the Court has apparently done, is to transform the meaning these expressions were intended to convey.

Finally, it must be remembered that these were merely the views of three Congressmen; nothing in the debates indicates that their constitutional doubts were shared by any substantial number of the other 67 members who eventually opposed the bill. They were plainly not accepted by the 58 members who voted in the bill's favor. The bill's opponents repeatedly urged that, whatever its constitutional validity, the bill was imprudent *275 and undesirable. Pindall of Virginia, for example, asserted that a citizen who employed its provisions would have "motives of idleness or criminality,"[12] and that the bill would thus cause "much evil."[13] McLane of Delaware feared that citizens would use the bill to escape service in the armed forces in time of war; he warned that the bill would, moreover, weaken "the love of country, so necessary to individual happiness and national prosperity."[14] He even urged that "The commission of treason, and the objects of plunder and spoil, are equally legalized by this bill."[15] Lowndes of South Carolina cautioned the House that difficulties might again arise with foreign governments over the rights of seamen if the bill were passed.[16] Given these vigorous and repeated arguments, it is quite impossible to assume, as the Court apparently has, that any substantial portion of the House was motivated wholly, or even in part, by any particular set of constitutional assumptions. These three statements must instead be taken as representative only of the beliefs of three members, premised chiefly upon constitutional doctrines which have subsequently been rejected, and expressed in a debate in which the present issues were not directly involved.

The last piece of evidence upon which the Court relies for this period is a brief obiter dictum from the lengthy opinion for the Court in Osborn v. Bank of the United States, 9 Wheat. 738, 827, written by Mr. Chief Justice Marshall. This use of the dictum is entirely unpersuasive, for its terms and context make quite plain that it cannot have been intended to reach the questions presented *276 here. The central issue before the Court in Osborn was the right of the bank to bring its suit for equitable relief in the courts of the United States. In argument, counsel for Osborn had asserted that although the bank had been created by the laws of the United States, it did not necessarily follow that any cause involving the bank had arisen under those laws. Counsel urged by analogy that the naturalization of an alien might as readily be said to confer upon the new citizen a right to bring all his actions in the federal courts. Id., at 813-814. Not surprisingly, the Court rejected the analogy, and remarked that an act of naturalization "does not proceed to give, to regulate, or to prescribe his capacities," since the Constitution demands that a naturalized citizen must in all respects stand "on the footing of a native." Id., at 827. The Court plainly meant no more than that counsel's analogy is broken by Congress' inability to offer a naturalized citizen rights or capacities which differ in any particular from those given to a native-born citizen by birth. Mr. Justice Johnson's discussion of the analogy in dissent confirms the Court's purpose. Id., at 875-876.

Any wider meaning, so as to reach the questions here, wrenches the dictum from its context, and attributes to the Court an observation extraneous even to the analogy before it. Moreover, the construction given to the dictum by the Court today requires the assumption that the Court in Osborn meant to decide an issue which had to that moment scarcely been debated, to which counsel in Osborn had never referred, and upon which no case had ever reached the Court. All this, it must be recalled, is in an area of the law in which the Court had steadfastly avoided unnecessary comment. See, e. g., M`Ilvaine v. Coxe's Lessee, 4 Cranch 209, 212-213; The Santissima Trinidad, 7 Wheat. 283, 347-348. By any *277 standard, the dictum cannot provide material assistance to the Court's position in the present case.[17]

Before turning to the evidence from this period which has been overlooked by the Court, attention must be given an incident to which the Court refers, but upon which it apparently places relatively little reliance. In 1810, a proposed thirteenth amendment to the Constitution *278 was introduced into the Senate by Senator Reed of Maryland; the amendment, as subsequently modified, provided that any citizen who accepted a title of nobility, pension, or emolument from a foreign state, or who married a person of royal blood, should "cease to be a citizen of the United States."[18] The proposed amendment was, in a modified form, accepted by both Houses, and subsequently obtained the approval of all but one of the requisite number of States.[19] I have found nothing which indicates with any certainty why such a provision should then have been thought necessary,[20] but two reasons suggest themselves for the use of a constitutional amendment. First, the provisions may have been intended in part as a sanction for Art. I, § 9, cl. 8;[21] it may therefore have been thought more appropriate that it be placed within the Constitution itself. Second, a student of expatriation issues in this period has dismissed the preference for an amendment with the explanation that "the dominant Jeffersonian view held that citizenship was within the jurisdiction of the states; a statute would thus have been a federal usurpation of state power."[22] This second explanation is fully substantiated by the debate in *279 1818; the statements from that debate set out in the opinion for the Court were, as I have noted, bottomed on the reasoning that since allegiance given by an individual to a State could not be dissolved by Congress, a federal statute could not regulate expatriation. It surely follows that this "obscure enterprise"[23] in 1810, motivated by now discredited constitutional premises, cannot offer any significant guidance for solution of the important issues now before us.

The most pertinent evidence from this period upon these questions has been virtually overlooked by the Court. Twice in the two years immediately prior to its passage of the Fourteenth Amendment, Congress exercised the very authority which the Court now suggests that it should have recognized was entirely lacking. In each case, a bill was debated and adopted by both Houses which included provisions to expatriate unwilling citizens.

In the spring and summer of 1864, both Houses debated intensively the Wade-Davis bill to provide reconstruction governments for the States which had seceded to form the Confederacy. Among the bill's provisions was § 14, by which "every person who shall hereafter hold or exercise any office . . . in the rebel service . . . is hereby declared not to be a citizen of the United States."[24] Much of the debate upon the bill did not, of course, center on the expatriation provision, although it certainly did not escape critical attention.[25] Nonetheless, I have not found any indication in the debates in either House that it was supposed that Congress was without authority to deprive an unwilling citizen of his citizenship. The bill was not signed by President Lincoln before the adjournment *280 of Congress, and thus failed to become law, but a subsequent statement issued by Lincoln makes quite plain that he was not troubled by any doubts of the constitutionality of § 14.[26] Passage of the Wade-Davis bill of itself "suffices to destroy the notion that the men who drafted the Fourteenth Amendment felt that citizenship was an `absolute.' "[27]

Twelve months later, and less than a year before its passage of the Fourteenth Amendment, Congress adopted a second measure which included provisions that permitted the expatriation of unwilling citizens. Section 21 of the Enrollment Act of 1865 provided that deserters from the military service of the United States "shall be deemed and taken to have voluntarily relinquished and forfeited their rights of citizenship and their rights to become citizens . . . ."[28] The same section extended these disabilities to persons who departed the United States with intent to avoid "draft into the military or naval service . . . ."[29] The bitterness of war did not cause Congress here to neglect the requirements of the Constitution; for it was urged in both Houses that § 21 as written was ex post facto, and thus was constitutionally *281 impermissible.[30] Significantly, however, it was never suggested in either debate that expatriation without a citizen's consent lay beyond Congress' authority. Members of both Houses had apparently examined intensively the section's constitutional validity, and yet had been undisturbed by the matters upon which the Court now relies.

Some doubt, based on the phrase "rights of citizenship," has since been expressed[31] that § 21 was intended to require any more than disfranchisement, but this is, for several reasons, unconvincing. First, § 21 also explicitly provided that persons subject to its provisions should not thereafter exercise various "rights of citizens";[32] if the section had not been intended to cause expatriation, it is difficult to see why these additional provisions would have been thought necessary. Second, the executive authorities of the United States afterwards consistently construed the section as causing expatriation.[33] Third, the section was apparently understood by various courts to result in expatriation; in particular, Mr. Justice Strong, while a member of the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania, construed the section to cause a "forfeiture of citizenship," Huber v. Reily, 53 Pa. 112, 118, and although this point was not expressly reached, his general understanding of the statute was approved by this Court in Kurtz v. Moffitt, 115 U.S. 487, 501. Finally, Congress in 1867 approved an exemption from the section's provisions for those who had deserted after the termination of general hostilities, and the statute as adopted specifically described the disability from which exemption was given as a "loss of his citizenship." *282 15 Stat. 14. The same choice of phrase occurs in the pertinent debates.[34]

It thus appears that Congress had twice, immediately before its passage of the Fourteenth Amendment, unequivocally affirmed its belief that it had authority to expatriate an unwilling citizen.

The pertinent evidence for the period prior to the adoption of the Fourteenth Amendment can therefore be summarized as follows. The Court's conclusion today is supported only by the statements, associated at least in part with a now abandoned view of citizenship, of three individual Congressmen, and by the ambiguous and inapposite dictum from Osborn. Inconsistent with the Court's position are statements from individual Congressmen in 1794, and Congress' passage in 1864 and 1865 of legislation which expressly authorized the expatriation of unwilling citizens. It may be that legislation adopted in the heat of war should be discounted in part by its origins, but, even if this is done, it is surely plain that the Court's conclusion is entirely unwarranted by the available historical evidence for the period prior to the passage of the Fourteenth Amendment. The evidence suggests, to the contrary, that Congress in 1865 understood that it had authority, at least in some circumstances, to deprive a citizen of his nationality.

II.

The evidence with which the Court supports its thesis that the Citizenship Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment was intended to lay at rest any doubts of Congress' inability to expatriate without the citizen's consent is no more persuasive. The evidence consists almost exclusively of two brief and general quotations from Howard *283 of Michigan, the sponsor of the Citizenship Clause in the Senate, and of a statement made in a debate in the House of Representatives in 1868 by Van Trump of Ohio. Measured most generously, this evidence would be inadequate to support the important constitutional conclusion presumably drawn in large part from it by the Court; but, as will be shown, other relevant evidence indicates that the Court plainly has mistaken the purposes of the clause's draftsmen.

The Amendment as initially approved by the House contained nothing which described or defined citizenship.[35] The issue did not as such even arise in the House debates; it was apparently assumed that Negroes were citizens, and that it was necessary only to guarantee to them the rights which sprang from citizenship. It is quite impossible to derive from these debates any indication that the House wished to deny itself the authority it had exercised in 1864 and 1865; so far as the House is concerned, it seems that no issues of citizenship were "at all involved."[36]

In the Senate, however, it was evidently feared that unless citizenship were defined, or some more general classification substituted, freedmen might, on the premise that they were not citizens, be excluded from the Amendment's protection. Senator Stewart thus offered an amendment which would have inserted into § 1 a definition of citizenship,[37] and Senator Wade urged as an alternative the elimination of the term "citizen" from the Amendment's first section.[38] After a caucus of the *284 chief supporters of the Amendment, Senator Howard announced on their behalf that they favored the addition of the present Citizenship Clause.[39]

The debate upon the clause was essentially cursory in both Houses, but there are several clear indications of its intended effect. Its sponsors evidently shared the fears of Senators Stewart and Wade that unless citizenship were defined, freedmen might, under the reasoning of the Dred Scott decision,[40] be excluded by the courts from the scope of the Amendment. It was agreed that, since the "courts have stumbled on the subject," it would be prudent to remove the "doubt thrown over" it.[41] The clause would essentially overrule Dred Scott, and place beyond question the freedmen's right of citizenship because of birth. It was suggested, moreover, that it would, by creating a basis for federal citizenship which was indisputably independent of state citizenship, preclude any effort by state legislatures to circumvent the Amendment by denying freedmen state citizenship.[42] Nothing in the debates, however, supports the Court's assertion that the clause was intended to deny Congress its authority to expatriate unwilling citizens. The evidence indicates that its draftsmen instead expected the clause only to declare unreservedly to *285 whom citizenship initially adhered, thus overturning the restrictions both of Dred Scott and of the doctrine of primary state citizenship, while preserving Congress' authority to prescribe the methods and terms of expatriation.

The narrow, essentially definitional purpose of the Citizenship Clause is reflected in the clear declarations in the debates that the clause would not revise the prevailing incidents of citizenship. Senator Henderson of Missouri thus stated specifically his understanding that the "section will leave citizenship where it now is."[43] Senator Howard, in the first of the statements relied upon, in part, by the Court, said quite unreservedly that "This amendment [the Citizenship Clause] which I have offered is simply declaratory of what I regard as the law of the land already, that every person born within the limits of the United States, and subject to their jurisdiction, is . . . a citizen of the United States."[44] Henderson had been present at the Senate's consideration both of the Wade-Davis bill and of the Enrollment Act, and had voted at least for the Wade-Davis bill.[45]*286 Howard was a member of the Senate when both bills were passed, and had actively participated in the debates upon the Enrollment Act.[46] Although his views of the two expatriation measures were not specifically recorded, Howard certainly never expressed to the Senate any doubt either of their wisdom or of their constitutionality. It would be extraordinary if these prominent supporters of the Citizenship Clause could have imagined, as the Court's construction of the clause now demands, that the clause was only "declaratory" of the law "where it now is," and yet that it would entirely withdraw a power twice recently exercised by Congress in their presence.

There is, however, even more positive evidence that the Court's construction of the clause is not that intended by its draftsmen. Between the two brief statements from Senator Howard relied upon by the Court, Howard, in response to a question, said the following:

"I take it for granted that after a man becomes a citizen of the United States under the Constitution he cannot cease to be citizen, except by expatriation or the commission of some crime by which his citizenship shall be forfeited."[47] (Emphasis added.)
It would be difficult to imagine a more unqualified rejection of the Court's position; Senator Howard, the clause's sponsor, very plainly believed that it would leave unimpaired Congress' power to deprive unwilling citizens of their citizenship.[48]

*287 Additional confirmation of the expectations of the clause's draftsmen may be found in the legislative history, wholly overlooked by the Court, of the Act for the Relief of certain Soldiers and Sailors, adopted in 1867. 15 Stat. 14. The Act, debated by Congress within 12 months of its passage of the Fourteenth Amendment, provided an exception from the provisions of § 21 of the Enrollment Act of 1865 for those who had deserted from the Union forces after the termination of general hostilities. Had the Citizenship Clause been understood to have the effect now given it by the Court, surely this would have been clearly reflected in the debates; members would at least have noted that, upon final approval of the Amendment, which had already obtained the approval of 21 States, § 21 would necessarily be invalid. Nothing of the sort occurred; it was argued by some members that § 21 was imprudent and even unfair,[49] but Congress evidently did not suppose that it was, or would be, unconstitutional. Congress simply failed to attribute to the Citizenship *288 Clause the constitutional consequences now discovered by the Court.[50]

Nonetheless, the Court urges that the debates which culminated in the Expatriation Act of 1868 materially support its understanding of the purposes of the Citizenship Clause. This is, for several reasons, wholly unconvincing. Initially, it should be remembered that discussion of the Act began in committee some six months after the passage of the Relief Act of 1867, by the Second Session of the Congress which had approved the Relief Act; the Court's interpretation of the history of the Expatriation Act thus demands, at the outset, the supposition that a view of the Citizenship Clause entirely absent in July had appeared vividly by the following January. Further, the purposes and background of the Act should not be forgotten. The debates were stimulated by repeated requests both from President Andrew Johnson and from the public that Congress assert the rights of naturalized Americans against the demands of their former countries.[51] The Act as finally adopted was thus intended "primarily to assail the conduct of the British Government [chiefly for its acts toward naturalized Americans resident in Ireland] and to declare the right of naturalized Americans to renounce their native allegiance";[52] accordingly, very little of the lengthy debate was in the least pertinent to the present issues. Several members did make plain, through their proposed amendments to the bill or their *289 interstitial comments, that they understood Congress to have authority to expatriate unwilling citizens,[53] but in general both the issues now before the Court and questions of the implications of the Citizenship Clause were virtually untouched in the debates.

Nevertheless, the Court, in order to establish that Congress understood that the Citizenship Clause denied it such authority, fastens principally upon the speeches of Congressman Van Trump of Ohio. Van Trump sponsored, as one of many similar amendments offered to the bill by various members, a proposal to create formal machinery by which a citizen might voluntarily renounce his citizenship.[54] Van Trump himself spoke at length in support of his proposal; his principal speech consisted chiefly of a detailed examination of the debates and judicial decisions pertinent to the issues of voluntary renunciation of citizenship.[55] Never in his catalog of relevant materials did Van Trump even mention the Citizenship Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment;[56] so far as may be seen from his comments on the House floor, Van Trump evidently supposed the clause to be entirely immaterial to the issues of expatriation. This is completely characteristic of the debate in both Houses; even its draftsmen and principal supporters, such as Senator Howard, permitted the Citizenship Clause to *290 pass unnoticed. The conclusion seems inescapable that the discussions surrounding the Act of 1868 cast only the most minimal light, if indeed any, upon the purposes of the clause, and that the Court's evidence from the debates is, by any standard, exceedingly slight.[57]

There is, moreover, still further evidence, overlooked by the Court, which confirms yet again that the Court's view of the intended purposes of the Citizenship Clause is mistaken. While the debate on the Act of 1868 was still in progress, negotiations were completed on the first of a series of bilateral expatriation treaties, which "initiated this country's policy of automatic divestment of citizenship for specified conduct affecting our foreign relations." Perez v. Brownell, supra, at 48. Seven such treaties were negotiated in 1868 and 1869 alone;[58] each was ratified by the Senate. If, as the Court now suggests, it was "abundantly clear" to Congress in 1868 that the Citizenship Clause had taken from its hands the power of expatriation, it is quite difficult to understand why these conventions were negotiated, or why, once negotiated, *291 they were not immediately repudiated by the Senate.[59]

Further, the executive authorities of the United States repeatedly acted, in the 40 years following 1868, upon the premise that a citizen might automatically be deemed to have expatriated himself by conduct short of a voluntary renunciation of citizenship; individual citizens were, as the Court indicated in Perez, regularly held on this basis to have lost their citizenship. Interested Members of Congress, and others, could scarcely have been unaware of the practice; as early as 1874, President Grant urged Congress in his Sixth Annual Message to supplement the Act of 1868 with a statutory declaration of the acts by which a citizen might "be deemed to have renounced or to have lost his citizenship."[60] It was the necessity to provide a more satisfactory basis for this practice that led first to the appointment of the Citizenship Board of 1906, and subsequently to the Nationality Acts of 1907 and 1940. The administrative practice in this period was described by the Court in Perez; it suffices here merely to emphasize that the Court today has not ventured to explain why the Citizenship Clause should, so shortly after its adoption, have been, under the Court's construction, so seriously misunderstood.

It seems to me apparent that the historical evidence which the Court in part recites is wholly inconclusive, *292 as indeed the Court recognizes; the evidence, to the contrary, irresistibly suggests that the draftsmen of the Fourteenth Amendment did not intend, and could not have expected, that the Citizenship Clause would deprive Congress of authority which it had, to their knowledge, only recently twice exercised. The construction demanded by the pertinent historical evidence, and entirely consistent with the clause's terms and purposes, is instead that it declares to whom citizenship, as a consequence either of birth or of naturalization, initially attaches. The clause thus served at the time of its passage both to overturn Dred Scott and to provide a foundation for federal citizenship entirely independent of state citizenship; in this fashion it effectively guaranteed that the Amendment's protection would not subsequently be withheld from those for whom it was principally intended. But nothing in the history, purposes, or language of the clause suggests that it forbids Congress in all circumstances to withdraw the citizenship of an unwilling citizen. To the contrary, it was expected, and should now be understood, to leave Congress at liberty to expatriate a citizen if the expatriation is an appropriate exercise of a power otherwise given to Congress by the Constitution, and if the methods and terms of expatriation adopted by Congress are consistent with the Constitution's other relevant commands.

The Citizenship Clause thus neither denies nor provides to Congress any power of expatriation; its consequences are, for present purposes, exhausted by its declaration of the classes of individuals to whom citizenship initially attaches. Once obtained, citizenship is of course protected from arbitrary withdrawal by the constraints placed around Congress' powers by the Constitution; it is not proper to create from the Citizenship Clause an additional, and entirely unwarranted, restriction *293 upon legislative authority. The construction now placed on the Citizenship Clause rests, in the last analysis, simply on the Court's ipse dixit, evincing little more, it is quite apparent, than the present majority's own distaste for the expatriation power.

I believe that Perez was rightly decided, and on its authority would affirm the judgment of the Court of Appeals.

NOTES

[1] 54 Stat. 1168, as amended, 58 Stat. 746, 8 U.S. C. § 801 (1946 ed.):

"A person who is a national of the United States, whether by birth or naturalization, shall lose his nationality by:

.....

"(e) Voting in a political election in a foreign state or participating in an election or plebiscite to determine the sovereignty over foreign territory."

This provision was re-enacted as § 349 (a) (5) of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952, 66 Stat. 267, 8 U.S. C. § 1481 (a) (5).

[2] "All persons born or naturalized in the United States and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States . . . ."

[3]  250 F. Supp. 686; 361 F.2d 102, 105.

[4] Trop v. Dulles, 356 U.S. 86; Nishikawa v. Dulles, 356 U.S. 129.

[5] Kennedy v. Mendoza-Martinez, 372 U.S. 144; Schneider v. Rusk, 377 U.S. 163. In his concurring opinion in Mendoza-Martinez, MR. JUSTICE BRENNAN expressed "felt doubts of the correctness of Perez . . . ." 372 U. S., at 187.

[6] See, e. g., Agata, Involuntary Expatriation and Schneider v. Rusk, 27 U. Pitt. L. Rev. 1 (1965); Hurst, Can Congress Take Away Citizenship?, 29 Rocky Mt. L. Rev. 62 (1956); Kurland, Foreword: "Equal in Origin and Equal in Title to the Legislative and Executive Branches of the Government," 78 Harv. L. Rev. 143, 169-175 (1964); Comment, 56 Mich. L. Rev. 1142 (1958); Note, Forfeiture of Citizenship Through Congressional Enactments, 21 U. Cin. L. Rev. 59 (1952); 40 Cornell L. Q. 365 (1955); 25 S. Cal. L. Rev. 196 (1952). But see, e. g., Comment, The Expatriation Act of 1954, 64 Yale L. J. 1164 (1955).

[7] See Perez v. Brownell, supra, at 62 (dissenting opinion of THE CHIEF JUSTICE), 79 (dissenting opinion of MR. JUSTICE DOUGLAS); Trop v. Dulles, supra, at 91-93 (part I of opinion of Court); Nishikawa v. Dulles, supra, at 138 (concurring opinion of MR. JUSTICE BLACK).

[8] For a history of the early American view of the right of expatriation, including these congressional proposals, see generally Roche, The Early Development of United States Citizenship (1949); Tsiang, The Question of Expatriation in America Prior to 1907 (1942); Dutcher, The Right of Expatriation, 11 Am. L. Rev. 447 (1877); Roche, The Loss of American Nationality—The Development of Statutory Expatriation, 99 U. Pa. L. Rev. 25 (1950); Slaymaker, The Right of the American Citizen to Expatriate, 37 Am. L. Rev. 191 (1903).

[9] 4 Annals of Cong. 1005, 1027-1030 (1794); 7 Annals of Cong. 349 et seq. (1797).

[10] See, e. g., Talbot v. Janson, 3 Dall. 133.

[11] 31 Annals of Cong. 495 (1817).

[12] Id., at 1036-1037, 1058 (1818). Although some of the opponents, believing that citizenship was derived from the States, argued that any power to prescribe the mode for its relinquishment rested in the States, they were careful to point out that "the absence of all power from the State Legislatures would not vest it in us." Id., at 1039.

[13] The amendment had been proposed by the 11th Cong., 2d Sess. See The Constitution of the United States of America, S. Doc. No. 39, 88th Cong., 1st Sess., 77-78 (1964).

[14] Id., at 1071. It is interesting to note that the proponents of the bill, such as Congressman Cobb of Georgia, considered it to be "the simple declaration of the manner in which a voluntary act, in the exercise of a natural right, may be performed" and denied that it created or could lead to the creation of "a presumption of relinquishment of the right of citizenship." Id., at 1068.

[15] The dissenting opinion here points to the fact that a Civil War Congress passed two Acts designed to deprive military deserters to the Southern side of the rights of citizenship. Measures of this kind passed in those days of emotional stress and hostility are by no means the most reliable criteria for determining what the Constitution means.

[16] Cong. Globe, 39th Cong., 1st Sess., 2768-2769, 2869, 2890 et seq. (1866). See generally, Flack, Adoption of the Fourteenth Amendment 88-94 (1908).

[17] Representative Jenckes of Rhode Island introduced an amendment that would expatriate those citizens who became naturalized by a foreign government, performed public duties for a foreign government, or took up domicile in a foreign country without intent to return. Cong. Globe, 40th Cong., 2d Sess., 968, 1129, 2311 (1868). Although he characterized his proposal as covering "cases where citizens may voluntarily renounce their allegiance to this country," id., at 1159, it was opposed by Representative Chanler of New York who said, "So long as a citizen does not expressly dissolve his allegiance and does not swear allegiance to another country his citizenship remains in statu quo, unaltered and unimpaired." Id., at 1016.

[18] Proposals of Representatives Pruyn of New York (id., at 1130) and Van Trump of Ohio (id., at 1801, 2311).

[19] While Van Trump disagreed with the 1818 opponents as to whether Congress had power to prescribe a means of voluntary renunciation of citizenship, he wholeheartedly agreed with their premise that the right of expatriation belongs to the citizen, not to the Government, and that the Constitution forbids the Government from being party to the act of expatriation. Van Trump simply thought that the opponents of the 1818 proposal failed to recognize that their mutual premise would not be violated by an Act which merely prescribed "how . . . [the rights of citizenship] might be relinquished at the option of the person in whom they were vested." Cong. Globe, 40th Cong., 2d Sess., 1804 (1868).

[20] Id., at 2317. Representative Banks of Massachusetts, the Chairman of the House Committee on Foreign Affairs which drafted the bill eventually enacted into law, explained why Congress refrained from providing a means of expatriation:

"It is a subject which, in our opinion, ought not to be legislated upon. . . . [T]his comes within the scope and character of natural rights which no Government has the right to control and which no Government can confer. And wherever this subject is alluded to in the Constitution— . . . it is in the declaration that Congress shall have no power whatever to legislate upon these matters." Id., at 2316.

[21] 15 Stat. 223, R. S. § 1999.

[22] Some have referred to this part of the decision as a holding, see, e. g., Hurst, supra, 29 Rocky Mt. L. Rev., at 78-79; Comment, 56 Mich. L. Rev., at 1153-1154; while others have referred to it as obiter dictum, see, e. g., Roche, supra, 99 U. Pa. L. Rev., at 26-27. Whichever it was, the statement was evidently the result of serious consideration and is entitled to great weight.

[23] Of course, as THE CHIEF JUSTICE said in his dissent, 356 U. S., at 66, naturalization unlawfully procured can be set aside. See, e. g., Knauer v. United States, 328 U.S. 654; Baumgartner v. United States, 322 U.S. 665; Schneiderman v. United States, 320 U.S. 118.

[1] It is appropriate to note at the outset what appears to be a fundamental ambiguity in the opinion for the Court. The Court at one point intimates, but does not expressly declare, that it adopts the reasoning of the dissent of THE CHIEF JUSTICE in Perez. THE CHIEF JUSTICE there acknowledged that "actions in derogation of undivided allegiance to this country" had "long been recognized" to result in expatriation, id., at 68; he argued, however, that the connection between voting in a foreign political election and abandonment of citizenship was logically insufficient to support a presumption that a citizen had renounced his nationality. Id., at 76. It is difficult to find any semblance of this reasoning, beyond the momentary reference to the opinion of THE CHIEF JUSTICE, in the approach taken by the Court today; it seems instead to adopt a substantially wider view of the restrictions upon Congress' authority in this area. Whatever the Court's position, it has assumed that voluntariness is here a term of fixed meaning; in fact, of course, it has been employed to describe both a specific intent to renounce citizenship, and the uncoerced commission of an act conclusively deemed by law to be a relinquishment of citizenship. Until the Court indicates with greater precision what it means by "assent," today's opinion will surely cause still greater confusion in this area of the law.

[2] It is useful, however, to reiterate the essential facts of this case, for the Court's very summary statement might unfortunately cause confusion about the situation to which § 401 (e) was here applied. Petitioner emigrated from the United States to Israel in 1950, and, although the issue was not argued at any stage of these proceedings, it was assumed by the District Court that he "has acquired Israeli citizenship." 250 F. Supp. 686, 687. He voted in the election for the Israeli Knesset in 1951, and, as his Israeli Identification Booklet indicates, in various political elections which followed. Transcript of Record 1-2. In 1960, after 10 years in Israel, petitioner determined to return to the United States, and applied to the United States Consulate in Haifa for a passport. The application was rejected, and a Certificate of Loss of Nationality, based entirely on his participation in the 1951 election, was issued. Petitioner's action for declaratory judgment followed. There is, as the District Court noted, "no claim by the [petitioner] that the deprivation of his American citizenship will render him a stateless person." Ibid.

[3] See generally Tsiang, The Question of Expatriation in America Prior to 1907, 25-70; Roche, The Expatriation Cases, 1963 Sup. Ct. Rev. 325, 327-330; Roche, Loss of American Nationality, 4 West. Pol. Q. 268.

[4] Roche, The Expatriation Cases, 1963 Sup. Ct. Rev. 325, 329. Although the evidence, which consists principally of a letter to Albert Gallatin, is rather ambiguous, Jefferson apparently believed even that a state expatriation statute could deprive a citizen of his federal citizenship. 1 Writings of Albert Gallatin 301-302 (Adams ed. 1879). His premise was presumably that state citizenship was primary, and that federal citizenship attached only through it. See Tsiang, supra, at 25. Gallatin's own views have been described as essentially "states' rights"; see Roche, Loss of American Nationality, 4 West. Pol. Q. 268, 271.

[5] See 4 Annals of Cong. 1004 et seq.

[6] The discussion and rejection of the amendment are cursorily reported at 4 Annals of Cong. 1028-1030.

[7] The sixth section is set out at 7 Annals of Cong. 349.

[8] The bill is summarized at 31 Annals of Cong. 495.

[9] 31 Annals of Cong. 1046.

[10] 31 Annals of Cong. 1057.

[11] Ibid. Roche describes the Congressmen upon whom the Court chiefly relies as "the states' rights opposition." Loss of American Nationality, 4 West. Pol. Q. 268, 276.

[12] 31 Annals of Cong. 1047.

[13] 31 Annals of Cong. 1050.

[14] 31 Annals of Cong. 1059.

[15] Ibid.

[16] 31 Annals of Cong. 1051.

[17] Similarly, the Court can obtain little support from its invocation of the dictum from the opinion for the Court in United States v. Wong Kim Ark, 169 U.S. 649, 703. The central issue there was whether a child born of Chinese nationals domiciled in the United States is an American citizen if its birth occurs in this country. The dictum upon which the Court relies, which consists essentially of a reiteration of the dictum from Osborn, can therefore scarcely be considered a reasoned consideration of the issues now before the Court. Moreover, the dictum could conceivably be read to hold only that no power to expatriate an unwilling citizen was conferred either by the Naturalization Clause or by the Fourteenth Amendment; if the dictum means no more, it would of course not even reach the holding in Perez. Finally, the dictum must be read in light of the subsequent opinion for the Court, written by Mr. Justice McKenna, in Mackenzie v. Hare, 239 U.S. 299. Despite counsel's invocation of Wong Kim Ark, id., at 302 and 303, the Court held in Mackenzie that marriage between an American citizen and an alien, unaccompanied by any intention of the citizen to renounce her citizenship, nonetheless permitted Congress to withdraw her nationality. It is immaterial for these purposes that Mrs. Mackenzie's citizenship might, under the statute there, have been restored upon termination of the marital relationship; she did not consent to the loss, even temporarily, of her citizenship, and, under the proposition apparently urged by the Court today, it can therefore scarcely matter that her expatriation was subject to some condition subsequent. It seems that neither Mr. Justice McKenna, who became a member of the Court after the argument but before the decision of Wong Kim Ark, supra, at 732, nor Mr. Chief Justice White, who joined the Court's opinions in both Wong Kim Ark and Mackenzie, thought that Wong Kim Ark required the result reached by the Court today. Nor, it must be supposed, did the other six members of the Court who joined Mackenzie, despite Wong Kim Ark.

[18] The various revisions of the proposed amendment may be traced through 20 Annals of Cong. 530, 549, 572-573, 635, 671.

[19] Ames, The Proposed Amendments to the Constitution of the United States during the First Century of Its History, 2 Ann. Rep. Am. Hist. Assn. for the Year 1896, 188.

[20] Ames, supra, at 187, speculates that the presence of Jerome Bonaparte in this country some few years earlier might have caused apprehension, and concludes that the amendment was merely an expression of "animosity against foreigners." Id., at 188.

[21] The clause provides that "No Title of Nobility shall be granted by the United States: And no Person holding any Office of Profit or Trust under them, shall, without the Consent of the Congress, accept of any present, Emolument, Office, or Title, of any kind whatever, from any King, Prince, or foreign State."

[22] Roche, The Expatriation Cases, 1963 Sup. Ct. Rev. 325, 335.

[23] Ibid.

[24] 6 Richardson, Messages and Papers of the Presidents 226.

[25] See, e. g., the comments of Senator Brown of Missouri, Cong. Globe, 38th Cong., 1st Sess., 3460.

[26] Lincoln indicated that although he was "unprepared" to be "inflexibly committed" to "any single plan of restoration," he was "fully satisfied" with the bill's provisions. 6 Richardson, Messages and Papers of the Presidents 222-223.

[27] Roche, The Expatriation Cases, 1963 Sup. Ct. Rev. 325, 343.

[28] 13 Stat. 490. It was this provision that, after various recodifications, was held unconstitutional by this Court in Trop v. Dulles, 356 U.S. 86. A majority of the Court did not there hold that the provision was invalid because Congress lacked all power to expatriate an unwilling citizen. In any event, a judgment by this Court 90 years after the Act's passage can scarcely reduce the Act's evidentiary value for determining whether Congress understood in 1865, as the Court now intimates that it did, that it lacked such power.

[29] 13 Stat. 491.

[30] Cong. Globe, 38th Cong., 2d Sess., 642-643, 1155-1156.

[31] Roche, The Expatriation Cases, 1963 Sup. Ct. Rev. 325, 336.

[32] 13 Stat. 490.

[33] Hearings before House Committee on Immigration and Naturalization on H. R. 6127, 76th Cong., 1st Sess., 38.

[34] See, e. g., the remarks of Senator Hendricks, Cong. Globe, 40th Cong., 1st Sess., 661.

[35] The pertinent events are described in Flack, Adoption of the Fourteenth Amendment 83-94.

[36] Id., at 84.

[37] Cong. Globe, 39th Cong., 1st Sess., 2560.

[38] Wade would have employed the formula "persons born in the United States or naturalized under the laws thereof" to measure the section's protection. Cong. Globe, 39th Cong., 1st Sess., 2768-2769.

[39] Cong. Globe, 39th Cong., 1st Sess., 2869. The precise terms of the discussion in the caucus were, and have remained, unknown. For contemporary comment, see Cong. Globe, 39th Cong., 1st Sess., 2939.

[40] Scott v. Sandford, 19 How. 393.

[41] Cong. Globe, 39th Cong., 1st Sess., 2768.

[42] See, e. g., the comments of Senator Johnson of Maryland, Cong. Globe, 39th Cong., 1st Sess., 2893. It was subsequently acknowledged by several members of this Court that a central purpose of the Citizenship Clause was to create an independent basis of federal citizenship, and thus to overturn the doctrine of primary state citizenship. The Slaughter-House Cases, 16 Wall. 36, 74, 95, 112. The background of this issue is traced in tenBroek, The Antislavery Origins of the Fourteenth Amendment 71-93.

[43] Cong. Globe, 39th Cong., 1st Sess., 3031. See also Flack, The Adoption of the Fourteenth Amendment 93. In the same fashion, tenBroek, supra, at 215-217, concludes that the whole of § 1 was "declaratory and confirmatory." Id., at 217.

[44] Cong. Globe, 39th Cong., 1st Sess., 2890. See also the statement of Congressman Baker, Cong. Globe, 39th Cong., 1st Sess., App. 255, 256. Similarly, two months after the Amendment's passage through Congress, Senator Lane of Indiana remarked that the clause was "simply a re-affirmation" of the declaratory citizenship section of the Civil Rights Bill. Fairman, Does the Fourteenth Amendment Incorporate the Bill of Rights? 2 Stan. L. Rev. 5, 74.

[45] Senator Henderson participated in the debates upon the Enrollment Act and expressed no doubts about the constitutionality of § 21, Cong. Globe, 38th Cong., 2d Sess., 641, but the final vote upon the measure in the Senate was not recorded. Cong. Globe, 38th Cong., 2d Sess., 643.

[46] See, e. g., Cong. Globe, 38th Cong., 2d Sess., 632.

[47] Cong. Globe, 39th Cong., 1st Sess., 2895.

[48] The issues pertinent here were not, of course, matters of great consequence in the ratification debates in the several state legislatures, but some additional evidence is nonetheless available from them. The Committee on Federal Relations of the Texas House of Representatives thus reported to the House that the Amendment's first section "proposes to deprive the States of the right . . . to determine what shall constitute citizenship of a State, and to transfer that right to the Federal Government." Its "object" was, they thought, "to declare negroes to be citizens of the United States." Tex. House J. 578 (1866). The Governor of Georgia reported to the legislature that the "prominent feature of the first [section] is, that it settles definitely the right of citizenship in the several States, . . . thereby depriving them in the future of all discretionary power over the subject within their respective limits, and with reference to their State Governments proper." Ga. Sen. J. 6 (1866). See also the message of Governor Cox to the Ohio Legislature, Fairman, supra, 2 Stan. L. Rev., at 96, and the message of Governor Fletcher to the Missouri Legislature, Mo. Sen. J. 14 (1867). In combination, this evidence again suggests that the Citizenship Clause was expected merely to declare to whom citizenship initially attaches, and to overturn the doctrine of primary state citizenship.

[49] Senator Hendricks, for example, lamented its unfairness, declared that its presence was an "embarrassment" to the country, and asserted that it "is not required any longer." Cong. Globe, 40th Cong., 1st Sess., 660-661.

[50] Similarly, in 1885, this Court construed § 21 without any apparent indication that the section was, or had ever been thought to be, beyond Congress' authority. Kurtz v. Moffitt, 115 U.S. 487, 501-502.

[51] Tsiang, supra, n. 3, at 95. President Johnson emphasized in his Third Annual Message the difficulties which were then prevalent. 6 Richardson, Messages and Papers of the Presidents 558, 580-581.

[52] Tsiang, supra, at 95. See also 3 Moore, Digest of International Law 579-580.

[53] See, e. g., Cong. Globe, 40th Cong., 2d Sess., 968, 1129-1131.

[54] Van Trump's proposal contained nothing which would have expatriated any unwilling citizen, see Cong. Globe, 40th Cong., 2d Sess., 1801; its ultimate failure therefore cannot, despite the Court's apparent suggestion, help to establish that the House supposed that legislation similar to that at issue here was impermissible under the Constitution.

[55] Cong. Globe, 40th Cong., 2d Sess., 1800-1805.

[56] It should be noted that Van Trump, far from a "framer" of the Amendment, had not even been a member of the Congress which adopted it. Biographical Directory of the American Congress 1774-1961, H. R. Doc. No. 442, 85th Cong., 2d Sess., 1750.

[57] As General Banks, the Chairman of the House Committee on Foreign Affairs, carefully emphasized, the debates were intended simply to produce a declaration of the obligation of the United States to compel other countries "to consider the rights of our citizens and to bring the matter to negotiation and settlement"; the bill's proponents stood "for that and nothing more." Cong. Globe, 40th Cong., 2d Sess., 2315.

[58] The first such treaty was that with the North German Union, concluded February 22, 1868, and ratified by the Senate on March 26, 1868. 2 Malloy, Treaties, Conventions, International Acts, Protocols and Agreements between the United States and other Powers 1298. Similar treaties were reached in 1868 with Bavaria, Baden, Belgium, Hesse, and Württemberg; a treaty was reached in 1869 with Norway and Sweden. An analogous treaty was made with Mexico in 1868, but, significantly, it permitted rebuttal of the presumption of renunciation of citizenship. See generally Tsiang, supra, at 88.

[59] The relevance of these treaties was certainly not overlooked in the debates in the Senate upon the Act of 1868. See, e. g., Cong. Globe, 40th Cong., 2d Sess., 4205, 4211, 4329, 4331. Senator Howard attacked the treaties, but employed none of the reasons which might be suggested by the opinion for the Court today. Id., at 4211.

[60] 7 Richardson, Messages and Papers of the Presidents 284, 291. See further Borchard, Diplomatic Protection of Citizens Abroad §§ 319, 324, 325.

label: Sentence

text: Afroyim

text: v

text: Rusk

text: U

text: S

text: Supreme

text: Court

text: of

text: the

text: United

text: States

text: Filed

text: May

text: th

text: Precedential

text: Status

text: Precedential

text: Citations

text: U

text: S

text: S

text: Ct

text: L

text: Ed

text: d

text: U

text: S

text: LEXIS

text: Docket

text: Number

text: Supreme

text: Court

text: Database

text: ID

text: Author

text: Hugo

text: Lafayette

text: Black

text: U

text: S

text: AFROYIM

text: v

text: RUSK

text: SECRETARY

text: OF

text: STATE

text: No

text: Supreme

text: Court

text: of

text: United

text: States

text: Argued

text: February

text: Decided

text: May

text: CERTIORARI

text: TO

text: THE

text: UNITED

text: STATES

text: COURT

text: OF

text: APPEALS

text: FOR

text: THE

text: SECOND

text: CIRCUIT

text: Edward

text: J

text: Ennis

text: argued

text: the

text: cause

text: for

text: petitioner

text: On

text: the

text: briefs

text: was

text: Nanette

text: Dembitz

text: Charles

text: Gordon

text: argued

text: the

text: cause

text: for

text: respondent

text: On

text: the

text: brief

text: were

text: Solicitor

text: General

text: Marshall

text: Assistant

text: Attorney

text: General

text: Vinson

text: Beatrice

text: Rosenberg

text: and

text: Jerome

text: M

text: Feit

text: MR

text: JUSTICE

text: BLACK

text: delivered

text: the

text: opinion

text: of

text: the

text: Court

text: Petitioner

text: born

text: in

text: Poland

text: in

text: immigrated

text: to

text: this

text: country

text: in

text: and

text: became

text: a

text: naturalized

text: American

text: citizen

text: in

text: He

text: went

text: to

text: Israel

text: in

text: and

text: in

text: he

text: voluntarily

text: voted

text: in

text: an

text: election

text: for

text: the

text: Israeli

text: Knesset

text: the

text: legislative

text: body

text: of

text: Israel

text: In

text: when

text: he

text: applied

text: for

text: renewal

text: of

text: his

text: United

text: States

text: passport

text: the

text: Department

text: of

text: State

text: refused

text: to

text: grant

text: it

text: on

text: the

text: sole

text: ground

text: that

text: he

text: had

text: lost

text: his

text: American

text: citizenship

text: by

text: virtue

text: of

text: e

text: of

text: the

text: Nationality

text: Act

text: of

text: which

text: provides

text: that

text: a

text: United

text: States

text: citizen

text: shall

text: lose

text: his

text: citizenship

text: if

text: he

text: votes

text: in

text: a

text: political

text: election

text: in

text: a

text: foreign

text: state

text: Petitioner

text: then

text: brought

text: this

text: declaratory

text: judgment

text: action

text: in

text: federal

text: district

text: court

text: alleging

text: that

text: e

text: violates

text: both

text: the

text: Due

text: Process

text: Clause

text: of

text: the

text: Fifth

text: Amendment

text: and

text: cl

text: of

text: the

text: Fourteenth

text: Amendment

text: which

text: grants

text: American

text: citizenship

text: to

text: persons

text: like

text: petitioner

text: Because

text: neither

text: the

text: Fourteenth

text: Amendment

text: nor

text: any

text: other

text: provision

text: of

text: the

text: Constitution

text: expressly

text: grants

text: Congress

text: the

text: power

text: to

text: take

text: away

text: that

text: citizenship

text: once

text: it

text: has

text: been

text: acquired

text: petitioner

text: contended

text: that

text: the

text: only

text: way

text: he

text: could

text: lose

text: his

text: citizenship

text: was

text: by

text: his

text: own

text: voluntary

text: renunciation

text: of

text: it

text: Since

text: the

text: Government

text: took

text: the

text: position

text: that

text: e

text: empowers

text: it

text: to

text: terminate

text: citizenship

text: without

text: the

text: citizen

text: s

text: voluntary

text: renunciation

text: petitioner

text: argued

text: that

text: this

text: section

text: is

text: prohibited

text: by

text: the

text: Constitution

text: The

text: District

text: Court

text: and

text: the

text: Court

text: of

text: Appeals

text: rejecting

text: this

text: argument

text: held

text: that

text: Congress

text: has

text: constitutional

text: authority

text: forcibly

text: to

text: take

text: away

text: citizenship

text: for

text: voting

text: in

text: a

text: foreign

text: country

text: based

text: on

text: its

text: implied

text: power

text: to

text: regulate

text: foreign

text: affairs

text: Consequently

text: petitioner

text: was

text: held

text: to

text: have

text: lost

text: his

text: American

text: citizenship

text: regardless

text: of

text: his

text: intention

text: not

text: to

text: give

text: it

text: up

text: This

text: is

text: precisely

text: what

text: this

text: Court

text: held

text: in

text: Perez

text: v

text: Brownell

text: U

text: S

text: Petitioner

text: relying

text: on

text: the

text: same

text: contentions

text: about

text: voluntary

text: renunciation

text: of

text: citizenship

text: which

text: this

text: Court

text: rejected

text: in

text: upholding

text: e

text: in

text: Perez

text: urges

text: us

text: to

text: reconsider

text: that

text: case

text: adopt

text: the

text: view

text: of

text: the

text: minority

text: there

text: and

text: overrule

text: it

text: That

text: case

text: decided

text: by

text: a

text: vote

text: almost

text: years

text: ago

text: has

text: been

text: a

text: source

text: of

text: controversy

text: and

text: confusion

text: ever

text: since

text: as

text: was

text: emphatically

text: recognized

text: in

text: the

text: opinions

text: of

text: all

text: the

text: judges

text: who

text: participated

text: in

text: this

text: case

text: below

text: Moreover

text: in

text: the

text: other

text: cases

text: decided

text: with

text: and

text: since

text: Perez

text: this

text: Court

text: has

text: consistently

text: invalidated

text: on

text: a

text: case

text: by

text: case

text: basis

text: various

text: other

text: statutory

text: sections

text: providing

text: for

text: involuntary

text: expatriation

text: It

text: has

text: done

text: so

text: on

text: various

text: grounds

text: and

text: has

text: refused

text: to

text: hold

text: that

text: citizens

text: can

text: be

text: expatriated

text: without

text: their

text: voluntary

text: renunciation

text: of

text: citizenship

text: These

text: cases

text: as

text: well

text: as

text: many

text: commentators

text: have

text: cast

text: great

text: doubt

text: upon

text: the

text: soundness

text: of

text: Perez

text: Under

text: these

text: circumstances

text: we

text: granted

text: certiorari

text: to

text: reconsider

text: it

text: U

text: S

text: In

text: view

text: of

text: the

text: many

text: recent

text: opinions

text: and

text: dissents

text: comprehensively

text: discussing

text: all

text: the

text: issues

text: involved

text: we

text: deem

text: it

text: unnecessary

text: to

text: treat

text: this

text: subject

text: at

text: great

text: length

text: The

text: fundamental

text: issue

text: before

text: this

text: Court

text: here

text: as

text: it

text: was

text: in

text: Perez

text: is

text: whether

text: Congress

text: can

text: consistently

text: with

text: the

text: Fourteenth

text: Amendment

text: enact

text: a

text: law

text: stripping

text: an

text: American

text: of

text: his

text: citizenship

text: which

text: he

text: has

text: never

text: voluntarily

text: renounced

text: or

text: given

text: up

text: The

text: majority

text: in

text: Perez

text: held

text: that

text: Congress

text: could

text: do

text: this

text: because

text: withdrawal

text: of

text: citizenship

text: is

text: reasonably

text: calculated

text: to

text: effect

text: the

text: end

text: that

text: is

text: within

text: the

text: power

text: of

text: Congress

text: to

text: achieve

text: U

text: S

text: at

text: That

text: conclusion

text: was

text: reached

text: by

text: this

text: chain

text: of

text: reasoning

text: Congress

text: has

text: an

text: implied

text: power

text: to

text: deal

text: with

text: foreign

text: affairs

text: as

text: an

text: indispensable

text: attribute

text: of

text: sovereignty

text: this

text: implied

text: power

text: plus

text: the

text: Necessary

text: and

text: Proper

text: Clause

text: empowers

text: Congress

text: to

text: regulate

text: voting

text: by

text: American

text: citizens

text: in

text: foreign

text: elections

text: involuntary

text: expatriation

text: is

text: within

text: the

text: ample

text: scope

text: of

text: appropriate

text: modes

text: Congress

text: can

text: adopt

text: to

text: effectuate

text: its

text: general

text: regulatory

text: power

text: Id

text: at

text: Then

text: upon

text: summarily

text: concluding

text: that

text: there

text: is

text: nothing

text: in

text: the

text: Fourteenth

text: Amendment

text: to

text: warrant

text: drawing

text: from

text: it

text: a

text: restriction

text: upon

text: the

text: power

text: otherwise

text: possessed

text: by

text: Congress

text: to

text: withdraw

text: citizenship

text: id

text: at

text: n

text: the

text: majority

text: specifically

text: rejected

text: the

text: notion

text: that

text: the

text: power

text: of

text: Congress

text: to

text: terminate

text: citizenship

text: depends

text: upon

text: the

text: citizen

text: s

text: assent

text: id

text: at

text: First

text: we

text: reject

text: the

text: idea

text: expressed

text: in

text: Perez

text: that

text: aside

text: from

text: the

text: Fourteenth

text: Amendment

text: Congress

text: has

text: any

text: general

text: power

text: express

text: or

text: implied

text: to

text: take

text: away

text: an

text: American

text: citizen

text: s

text: citizenship

text: without

text: his

text: assent

text: This

text: power

text: cannot

text: as

text: Perez

text: indicated

text: be

text: sustained

text: as

text: an

text: implied

text: attribute

text: of

text: sovereignty

text: possessed

text: by

text: all

text: nations

text: Other

text: nations

text: are

text: governed

text: by

text: their

text: own

text: constitutions

text: if

text: any

text: and

text: we

text: can

text: draw

text: no

text: support

text: from

text: theirs

text: In

text: our

text: country

text: the

text: people

text: are

text: sovereign

text: and

text: the

text: Government

text: cannot

text: sever

text: its

text: relationship

text: to

text: the

text: people

text: by

text: taking

text: away

text: their

text: citizenship

text: Our

text: Constitution

text: governs

text: us

text: and

text: we

text: must

text: never

text: forget

text: that

text: our

text: Constitution

text: limits

text: the

text: Government

text: to

text: those

text: powers

text: specifically

text: granted

text: or

text: those

text: that

text: are

text: necessary

text: and

text: proper

text: to

text: carry

text: out

text: the

text: specifically

text: granted

text: ones

text: The

text: Constitution

text: of

text: course

text: grants

text: Congress

text: no

text: express

text: power

text: to

text: strip

text: people

text: of

text: their

text: citizenship

text: whether

text: in

text: the

text: exercise

text: of

text: the

text: implied

text: power

text: to

text: regulate

text: foreign

text: affairs

text: or

text: in

text: the

text: exercise

text: of

text: any

text: specifically

text: granted

text: power

text: And

text: even

text: before

text: the

text: adoption

text: of

text: the

text: Fourteenth

text: Amendment

text: views

text: were

text: expressed

text: in

text: Congress

text: and

text: by

text: this

text: Court

text: that

text: under

text: the

text: Constitution

text: the

text: Government

text: was

text: granted

text: no

text: power

text: even

text: under

text: its

text: express

text: power

text: to

text: pass

text: a

text: uniform

text: rule

text: of

text: naturalization

text: to

text: determine

text: what

text: conduct

text: should

text: and

text: should

text: not

text: result

text: in

text: the

text: loss

text: of

text: citizenship

text: On

text: three

text: occasions

text: in

text: and

text: Congress

text: considered

text: and

text: rejected

text: proposals

text: to

text: enact

text: laws

text: which

text: would

text: describe

text: certain

text: conduct

text: as

text: resulting

text: in

text: expatriation

text: On

text: each

text: occasion

text: Congress

text: was

text: considering

text: bills

text: that

text: were

text: concerned

text: with

text: recognizing

text: the

text: right

text: of

text: voluntary

text: expatriation

text: and

text: with

text: providing

text: some

text: means

text: of

text: exercising

text: that

text: right

text: In

text: and

text: many

text: members

text: of

text: Congress

text: still

text: adhered

text: to

text: the

text: English

text: doctrine

text: of

text: perpetual

text: allegiance

text: and

text: doubted

text: whether

text: a

text: citizen

text: could

text: even

text: voluntarily

text: renounce

text: his

text: citizenship

text: By

text: however

text: almost

text: no

text: one

text: doubted

text: the

text: existence

text: of

text: the

text: right

text: of

text: voluntary

text: expatriation

text: but

text: several

text: judicial

text: decisions

text: had

text: indicated

text: that

text: the

text: right

text: could

text: not

text: be

text: exercised

text: by

text: the

text: citizen

text: without

text: the

text: consent

text: of

text: the

text: Federal

text: Government

text: in

text: the

text: form

text: of

text: enabling

text: legislation

text: Therefore

text: a

text: bill

text: was

text: introduced

text: to

text: provide

text: that

text: a

text: person

text: could

text: voluntarily

text: relinquish

text: his

text: citizenship

text: by

text: declaring

text: such

text: relinquishment

text: in

text: writing

text: before

text: a

text: district

text: court

text: and

text: then

text: departing

text: from

text: the

text: country

text: The

text: opponents

text: of

text: the

text: bill

text: argued

text: that

text: Congress

text: had

text: no

text: constitutional

text: authority

text: either

text: express

text: or

text: implied

text: under

text: either

text: the

text: Naturalization

text: Clause

text: or

text: the

text: Necessary

text: and

text: Proper

text: Clause

text: to

text: provide

text: that

text: a

text: certain

text: act

text: would

text: constitute

text: expatriation

text: They

text: pointed

text: to

text: a

text: proposed

text: Thirteenth

text: Amendment

text: subsequently

text: not

text: ratified

text: which

text: would

text: have

text: provided

text: that

text: a

text: person

text: would

text: lose

text: his

text: citizenship

text: by

text: accepting

text: an

text: office

text: or

text: emolument

text: from

text: a

text: foreign

text: government

text: Congressman

text: Anderson

text: of

text: Kentucky

text: argued

text: The

text: introduction

text: of

text: this

text: article

text: declares

text: the

text: opinion

text: that

text: Congress

text: could

text: not

text: declare

text: the

text: acts

text: which

text: should

text: amount

text: to

text: a

text: renunciation

text: of

text: citizenship

text: otherwise

text: there

text: would

text: have

text: been

text: no

text: necessity

text: for

text: this

text: last

text: resort

text: When

text: it

text: was

text: settled

text: that

text: Congress

text: could

text: not

text: declare

text: that

text: the

text: acceptance

text: of

text: a

text: pension

text: or

text: an

text: office

text: from

text: a

text: foreign

text: Emperor

text: amounted

text: to

text: a

text: disfranchisement

text: of

text: the

text: citizen

text: it

text: must

text: surely

text: be

text: conceded

text: that

text: they

text: could

text: not

text: declare

text: that

text: any

text: other

text: act

text: did

text: The

text: cases

text: to

text: which

text: their

text: powers

text: before

text: this

text: amendment

text: confessedly

text: did

text: not

text: extend

text: are

text: very

text: strong

text: and

text: induce

text: a

text: belief

text: that

text: Congress

text: could

text: not

text: in

text: any

text: case

text: declare

text: the

text: acts

text: which

text: should

text: cause

text: a

text: person

text: to

text: cease

text: to

text: be

text: a

text: citizen

text: The

text: want

text: of

text: power

text: in

text: a

text: case

text: like

text: this

text: where

text: the

text: individual

text: has

text: given

text: the

text: strongest

text: evidence

text: of

text: attachment

text: to

text: a

text: foreign

text: potentate

text: and

text: an

text: entire

text: renunciation

text: of

text: the

text: feelings

text: and

text: principles

text: of

text: an

text: American

text: citizen

text: certainly

text: establishes

text: the

text: absence

text: of

text: all

text: power

text: to

text: pass

text: a

text: bill

text: like

text: the

text: present

text: one

text: Although

text: the

text: intention

text: with

text: which

text: it

text: was

text: introduced

text: and

text: the

text: title

text: of

text: the

text: bill

text: declare

text: that

text: it

text: is

text: to

text: insure

text: and

text: foster

text: the

text: right

text: of

text: the

text: citizen

text: the

text: direct

text: and

text: inevitable

text: effect

text: of

text: the

text: bill

text: is

text: an

text: assumption

text: of

text: power

text: by

text: Congress

text: to

text: declare

text: that

text: certain

text: acts

text: when

text: committed

text: shall

text: amount

text: to

text: a

text: renunciation

text: of

text: citizenship

text: Annals

text: of

text: Cong

text: Congressman

text: Pindall

text: of

text: Virginia

text: objected

text: the

text: notion

text: later

text: accepted

text: by

text: the

text: majority

text: in

text: Perez

text: that

text: the

text: nature

text: of

text: sovereignty

text: gives

text: Congress

text: a

text: right

text: to

text: expatriate

text: citizens

text: A

text: llegiance

text: imports

text: an

text: obligation

text: on

text: the

text: citizen

text: or

text: subject

text: the

text: correlative

text: right

text: to

text: which

text: resides

text: in

text: the

text: sovereign

text: power

text: allegiance

text: in

text: this

text: country

text: is

text: not

text: due

text: to

text: Congress

text: but

text: to

text: the

text: people

text: with

text: whom

text: the

text: sovereign

text: power

text: is

text: found

text: it

text: is

text: therefore

text: by

text: the

text: people

text: only

text: that

text: any

text: alteration

text: can

text: be

text: made

text: of

text: the

text: existing

text: institutions

text: with

text: respect

text: to

text: allegiance

text: Id

text: at

text: Although

text: he

text: recognized

text: that

text: the

text: bill

text: merely

text: sought

text: to

text: provide

text: a

text: means

text: of

text: voluntary

text: expatriation

text: Congressman

text: Lowndes

text: of

text: South

text: Carolina

text: argued

text: But

text: if

text: the

text: Constitution

text: had

text: intended

text: to

text: give

text: to

text: Congress

text: so

text: delicate

text: a

text: power

text: it

text: would

text: have

text: been

text: expressly

text: granted

text: That

text: it

text: was

text: a

text: delicate

text: power

text: and

text: ought

text: not

text: to

text: be

text: loosely

text: inferred

text: appeared

text: in

text: a

text: strong

text: light

text: when

text: it

text: was

text: said

text: and

text: could

text: not

text: be

text: denied

text: that

text: to

text: determine

text: the

text: manner

text: in

text: which

text: a

text: citizen

text: may

text: relinquish

text: his

text: right

text: of

text: citizenship

text: is

text: equivalent

text: to

text: determining

text: how

text: he

text: shall

text: be

text: divested

text: of

text: that

text: right

text: The

text: effect

text: of

text: assuming

text: the

text: exercise

text: of

text: these

text: powers

text: will

text: be

text: that

text: by

text: acts

text: of

text: Congress

text: a

text: man

text: may

text: not

text: only

text: be

text: released

text: from

text: all

text: the

text: liabilities

text: but

text: from

text: all

text: the

text: privileges

text: of

text: a

text: citizen

text: If

text: you

text: pass

text: this

text: bill

text: you

text: have

text: only

text: one

text: step

text: further

text: to

text: go

text: and

text: say

text: that

text: such

text: and

text: such

text: acts

text: shall

text: be

text: considered

text: as

text: presumption

text: of

text: the

text: intention

text: of

text: the

text: citizen

text: to

text: expatriate

text: and

text: thus

text: take

text: from

text: him

text: the

text: privileges

text: of

text: a

text: citizen

text: Q

text: uestions

text: affecting

text: the

text: right

text: of

text: the

text: citizen

text: were

text: questions

text: to

text: be

text: regulated

text: not

text: by

text: the

text: laws

text: of

text: the

text: General

text: or

text: State

text: Governments

text: but

text: by

text: Constitutional

text: provisions

text: If

text: there

text: was

text: anything

text: essential

text: to

text: our

text: notion

text: of

text: a

text: Constitution

text: it

text: was

text: this

text: that

text: while

text: the

text: employment

text: of

text: the

text: physical

text: force

text: of

text: the

text: country

text: is

text: in

text: the

text: hands

text: of

text: the

text: Legislature

text: those

text: rules

text: which

text: determine

text: what

text: constitutes

text: the

text: rights

text: of

text: the

text: citizen

text: shall

text: be

text: a

text: matter

text: of

text: Constitutional

text: provision

text: Id

text: at

text: The

text: bill

text: was

text: finally

text: defeated

text: It

text: is

text: in

text: this

text: setting

text: that

text: six

text: years

text: later

text: in

text: Osborn

text: v

text: Bank

text: of

text: the

text: United

text: States

text: Wheat

text: this

text: Court

text: speaking

text: through

text: Chief

text: Justice

text: Marshall

text: declared

text: in

text: what

text: appears

text: to

text: be

text: a

text: mature

text: and

text: well

text: considered

text: dictum

text: that

text: Congress

text: once

text: a

text: person

text: becomes

text: a

text: citizen

text: cannot

text: deprive

text: him

text: of

text: that

text: status

text: The

text: naturalized

text: citizen

text: becomes

text: a

text: member

text: of

text: the

text: society

text: possessing

text: all

text: the

text: rights

text: of

text: a

text: native

text: citizen

text: and

text: standing

text: in

text: the

text: view

text: of

text: the

text: constitution

text: on

text: the

text: footing

text: of

text: a

text: native

text: The

text: constitution

text: does

text: not

text: authorize

text: Congress

text: to

text: enlarge

text: or

text: abridge

text: those

text: rights

text: The

text: simple

text: power

text: of

text: the

text: national

text: Legislature

text: is

text: to

text: prescribe

text: a

text: uniform

text: rule

text: of

text: naturalization

text: and

text: the

text: exercise

text: of

text: this

text: power

text: exhausts

text: it

text: so

text: far

text: as

text: respects

text: the

text: individual

text: Although

text: these

text: legislative

text: and

text: judicial

text: statements

text: may

text: be

text: regarded

text: as

text: inconclusive

text: and

text: must

text: be

text: considered

text: in

text: the

text: historical

text: context

text: in

text: which

text: they

text: were

text: made

text: any

text: doubt

text: as

text: to

text: whether

text: prior

text: to

text: the

text: passage

text: of

text: the

text: Fourteenth

text: Amendment

text: Congress

text: had

text: the

text: power

text: to

text: deprive

text: a

text: person

text: against

text: his

text: will

text: of

text: citizenship

text: once

text: obtained

text: should

text: have

text: been

text: removed

text: by

text: the

text: unequivocal

text: terms

text: of

text: the

text: Amendment

text: itself

text: It

text: provides

text: its

text: own

text: constitutional

text: rule

text: in

text: language

text: calculated

text: completely

text: to

text: control

text: the

text: status

text: of

text: citizenship

text: All

text: persons

text: born

text: or

text: naturalized

text: in

text: the

text: United

text: States

text: are

text: citizens

text: of

text: the

text: United

text: States

text: There

text: is

text: no

text: indication

text: in

text: these

text: words

text: of

text: a

text: fleeting

text: citizenship

text: good

text: at

text: the

text: moment

text: it

text: is

text: acquired

text: but

text: subject

text: to

text: destruction

text: by

text: the

text: Government

text: at

text: any

text: time

text: Rather

text: the

text: Amendment

text: can

text: most

text: reasonably

text: be

text: read

text: as

text: defining

text: a

text: citizenship

text: which

text: a

text: citizen

text: keeps

text: unless

text: he

text: voluntarily

text: relinquishes

text: it

text: Once

text: acquired

text: this

text: Fourteenth

text: Amendment

text: citizenship

text: was

text: not

text: to

text: be

text: shifted

text: canceled

text: or

text: diluted

text: at

text: the

text: will

text: of

text: the

text: Federal

text: Government

text: the

text: States

text: or

text: any

text: other

text: governmental

text: unit

text: It

text: is

text: true

text: that

text: the

text: chief

text: interest

text: of

text: the

text: people

text: in

text: giving

text: permanence

text: and

text: security

text: to

text: citizenship

text: in

text: the

text: Fourteenth

text: Amendment

text: was

text: the

text: desire

text: to

text: protect

text: Negroes

text: The

text: Dred

text: Scott

text: decision

text: How

text: had

text: shortly

text: before

text: greatly

text: disturbed

text: many

text: people

text: about

text: the

text: status

text: of

text: Negro

text: citizenship

text: But

text: the

text: Civil

text: Rights

text: Act

text: of

text: Stat

text: had

text: already

text: attempted

text: to

text: confer

text: citizenship

text: on

text: all

text: persons

text: born

text: or

text: naturalized

text: in

text: the

text: United

text: States

text: Nevertheless

text: when

text: the

text: Fourteenth

text: Amendment

text: passed

text: the

text: House

text: without

text: containing

text: any

text: definition

text: of

text: citizenship

text: the

text: sponsors

text: of

text: the

text: Amendment

text: in

text: the

text: Senate

text: insisted

text: on

text: inserting

text: a

text: constitutional

text: definition

text: and

text: grant

text: of

text: citizenship

text: They

text: expressed

text: fears

text: that

text: the

text: citizenship

text: so

text: recently

text: conferred

text: on

text: Negroes

text: by

text: the

text: Civil

text: Rights

text: Act

text: could

text: be

text: just

text: as

text: easily

text: taken

text: away

text: from

text: them

text: by

text: subsequent

text: Congresses

text: and

text: it

text: was

text: to

text: provide

text: an

text: insuperable

text: obstacle

text: against

text: every

text: governmental

text: effort

text: to

text: strip

text: Negroes

text: of

text: their

text: newly

text: acquired

text: citizenship

text: that

text: the

text: first

text: clause

text: was

text: added

text: to

text: the

text: Fourteenth

text: Amendment

text: Senator

text: Howard

text: who

text: sponsored

text: the

text: Amendment

text: in

text: the

text: Senate

text: thus

text: explained

text: the

text: purpose

text: of

text: the

text: clause

text: It

text: settles

text: the

text: great

text: question

text: of

text: citizenship

text: and

text: removes

text: all

text: doubt

text: as

text: to

text: what

text: persons

text: are

text: or

text: are

text: not

text: citizens

text: of

text: the

text: United

text: States

text: We

text: desired

text: to

text: put

text: this

text: question

text: of

text: citizenship

text: and

text: the

text: rights

text: of

text: citizens

text: under

text: the

text: civil

text: rights

text: bill

text: beyond

text: the

text: legislative

text: power

text: Cong

text: Globe

text: th

text: Cong

text: st

text: Sess

text: This

text: undeniable

text: purpose

text: of

text: the

text: Fourteenth

text: Amendment

text: to

text: make

text: citizenship

text: of

text: Negroes

text: permanent

text: and

text: secure

text: would

text: be

text: frustrated

text: by

text: holding

text: that

text: the

text: Government

text: can

text: rob

text: a

text: citizen

text: of

text: his

text: citizenship

text: without

text: his

text: consent

text: by

text: simply

text: proceeding

text: to

text: act

text: under

text: an

text: implied

text: general

text: power

text: to

text: regulate

text: foreign

text: affairs

text: or

text: some

text: other

text: power

text: generally

text: granted

text: Though

text: the

text: framers

text: of

text: the

text: Amendment

text: were

text: not

text: particularly

text: concerned

text: with

text: the

text: problem

text: of

text: expatriation

text: it

text: seems

text: undeniable

text: from

text: the

text: language

text: they

text: used

text: that

text: they

text: wanted

text: to

text: put

text: citizenship

text: beyond

text: the

text: power

text: of

text: any

text: governmental

text: unit

text: to

text: destroy

text: In

text: two

text: years

text: after

text: the

text: Fourteenth

text: Amendment

text: had

text: been

text: proposed

text: Congress

text: specifically

text: considered

text: the

text: subject

text: of

text: expatriation

text: Several

text: bills

text: were

text: introduced

text: to

text: impose

text: involuntary

text: expatriation

text: on

text: citizens

text: who

text: committed

text: certain

text: acts

text: With

text: little

text: discussion

text: these

text: proposals

text: were

text: defeated

text: Other

text: bills

text: like

text: the

text: one

text: proposed

text: but

text: defeated

text: in

text: provided

text: merely

text: a

text: means

text: by

text: which

text: the

text: citizen

text: could

text: himself

text: voluntarily

text: renounce

text: his

text: citizenship

text: Representative

text: Van

text: Trump

text: of

text: Ohio

text: who

text: proposed

text: such

text: a

text: bill

text: vehemently

text: denied

text: in

text: supporting

text: it

text: that

text: his

text: measure

text: would

text: make

text: the

text: Government

text: a

text: party

text: to

text: the

text: act

text: dissolving

text: the

text: tie

text: between

text: the

text: citizen

text: and

text: his

text: country

text: where

text: the

text: statute

text: simply

text: prescribes

text: the

text: manner

text: in

text: which

text: the

text: citizen

text: shall

text: proceed

text: to

text: perpetuate

text: the

text: evidence

text: of

text: his

text: intention

text: or

text: election

text: to

text: renounce

text: his

text: citizenship

text: by

text: expatriation

text: Cong

text: Globe

text: th

text: Cong

text: d

text: Sess

text: He

text: insisted

text: that

text: inasmuch

text: as

text: the

text: act

text: of

text: expatriation

text: depends

text: almost

text: entirely

text: upon

text: a

text: question

text: of

text: intention

text: on

text: the

text: part

text: of

text: the

text: citizen

text: id

text: at

text: the

text: true

text: question

text: is

text: that

text: not

text: only

text: the

text: right

text: of

text: expatriation

text: but

text: the

text: whole

text: power

text: of

text: its

text: exercise

text: rests

text: solely

text: and

text: exclusively

text: in

text: the

text: will

text: of

text: the

text: individual

text: id

text: at

text: In

text: strongest

text: of

text: terms

text: not

text: contradicted

text: by

text: any

text: during

text: the

text: debates

text: he

text: concluded

text: To

text: enforce

text: expatriation

text: or

text: exile

text: against

text: a

text: citizen

text: without

text: his

text: consent

text: is

text: not

text: a

text: power

text: anywhere

text: belonging

text: to

text: this

text: Government

text: No

text: conservative

text: minded

text: statesman

text: no

text: intelligent

text: legislator

text: no

text: sound

text: lawyer

text: has

text: ever

text: maintained

text: any

text: such

text: power

text: in

text: any

text: branch

text: of

text: the

text: Government

text: The

text: lawless

text: precedents

text: created

text: in

text: the

text: delirium

text: of

text: war

text: of

text: sending

text: men

text: by

text: force

text: into

text: exile

text: as

text: a

text: punishment

text: for

text: political

text: opinion

text: were

text: violations

text: of

text: this

text: great

text: law

text: of

text: the

text: Constitution

text: The

text: men

text: who

text: debated

text: the

text: question

text: in

text: failed

text: to

text: see

text: the

text: true

text: distinction

text: They

text: failed

text: to

text: comprehend

text: that

text: it

text: is

text: not

text: the

text: Government

text: but

text: that

text: it

text: is

text: the

text: individual

text: who

text: has

text: the

text: right

text: and

text: the

text: only

text: power

text: of

text: expatriation

text: I

text: t

text: belongs

text: and

text: appertains

text: to

text: the

text: citizen

text: and

text: not

text: to

text: the

text: Government

text: and

text: it

text: is

text: the

text: evidence

text: of

text: his

text: election

text: to

text: exercise

text: his

text: right

text: and

text: not

text: the

text: power

text: to

text: control

text: either

text: the

text: election

text: or

text: the

text: right

text: itself

text: which

text: is

text: the

text: legitimate

text: subject

text: matter

text: of

text: legislation

text: There

text: has

text: been

text: and

text: there

text: can

text: be

text: no

text: legislation

text: under

text: our

text: Constitution

text: to

text: control

text: in

text: any

text: manner

text: the

text: right

text: itself

text: Ibid

text: But

text: even

text: Van

text: Trump

text: s

text: proposal

text: which

text: went

text: no

text: further

text: than

text: to

text: provide

text: a

text: means

text: of

text: evidencing

text: a

text: citizen

text: s

text: intent

text: to

text: renounce

text: his

text: citizenship

text: was

text: defeated

text: The

text: Act

text: as

text: finally

text: passed

text: merely

text: recognized

text: the

text: right

text: of

text: expatriation

text: as

text: an

text: inherent

text: right

text: of

text: all

text: people

text: The

text: entire

text: legislative

text: history

text: of

text: the

text: Act

text: makes

text: it

text: abundantly

text: clear

text: that

text: there

text: was

text: a

text: strong

text: feeling

text: in

text: the

text: Congress

text: that

text: the

text: only

text: way

text: the

text: citizenship

text: it

text: conferred

text: could

text: be

text: lost

text: was

text: by

text: the

text: voluntary

text: renunciation

text: or

text: abandonment

text: by

text: the

text: citizen

text: himself

text: And

text: this

text: was

text: the

text: unequivocal

text: statement

text: of

text: the

text: Court

text: in

text: the

text: case

text: of

text: United

text: States

text: v

text: Wong

text: Kim

text: Ark

text: U

text: S

text: The

text: issues

text: in

text: that

text: case

text: were

text: whether

text: a

text: person

text: born

text: in

text: the

text: United

text: States

text: to

text: Chinese

text: aliens

text: was

text: a

text: citizen

text: of

text: the

text: United

text: States

text: and

text: whether

text: nevertheless

text: he

text: could

text: be

text: excluded

text: under

text: the

text: Chinese

text: Exclusion

text: Act

text: Stat

text: The

text: Court

text: first

text: held

text: that

text: within

text: the

text: terms

text: of

text: the

text: Fourteenth

text: Amendment

text: Wong

text: Kim

text: Ark

text: was

text: a

text: citizen

text: of

text: the

text: United

text: States

text: and

text: then

text: pointed

text: out

text: that

text: though

text: he

text: might

text: renounce

text: this

text: citizenship

text: and

text: become

text: a

text: citizen

text: of

text: any

text: other

text: country

text: he

text: had

text: never

text: done

text: so

text: Id

text: at

text: The

text: Court

text: then

text: held

text: that

text: Congress

text: could

text: not

text: do

text: anything

text: to

text: abridge

text: or

text: affect

text: his

text: citizenship

text: conferred

text: by

text: the

text: Fourteenth

text: Amendment

text: Quoting

text: Chief

text: Justice

text: Marshall

text: s

text: well

text: considered

text: and

text: oft

text: repeated

text: dictum

text: in

text: Osborn

text: to

text: the

text: effect

text: that

text: Congress

text: under

text: the

text: power

text: of

text: naturalization

text: has

text: a

text: power

text: to

text: confer

text: citizenship

text: not

text: a

text: power

text: to

text: take

text: it

text: away

text: the

text: Court

text: said

text: Congress

text: having

text: no

text: power

text: to

text: abridge

text: the

text: rights

text: conferred

text: by

text: the

text: Constitution

text: upon

text: those

text: who

text: have

text: become

text: naturalized

text: citizens

text: by

text: virtue

text: of

text: acts

text: of

text: Congress

text: a

text: fortiori

text: no

text: act

text: of

text: Congress

text: can

text: affect

text: citizenship

text: acquired

text: as

text: a

text: birthright

text: by

text: virtue

text: of

text: the

text: Constitution

text: itself

text: The

text: Fourteenth

text: Amendment

text: while

text: it

text: leaves

text: the

text: power

text: where

text: it

text: was

text: before

text: in

text: Congress

text: to

text: regulate

text: naturalization

text: has

text: conferred

text: no

text: authority

text: upon

text: Congress

text: to

text: restrict

text: the

text: effect

text: of

text: birth

text: declared

text: by

text: the

text: Constitution

text: to

text: constitute

text: a

text: sufficient

text: and

text: complete

text: right

text: to

text: citizenship

text: Id

text: at

text: To

text: uphold

text: Congress

text: power

text: to

text: take

text: away

text: a

text: man

text: s

text: citizenship

text: because

text: he

text: voted

text: in

text: a

text: foreign

text: election

text: in

text: violation

text: of

text: e

text: would

text: be

text: equivalent

text: to

text: holding

text: that

text: Congress

text: has

text: the

text: power

text: to

text: abridge

text: affect

text: restrict

text: the

text: effect

text: of

text: and

text: take

text: away

text: citizenship

text: Because

text: the

text: Fourteenth

text: Amendment

text: prevents

text: Congress

text: from

text: doing

text: any

text: of

text: these

text: things

text: we

text: agree

text: with

text: THE

text: CHIEF

text: JUSTICE

text: S

text: dissent

text: in

text: the

text: Perez

text: case

text: that

text: the

text: Government

text: is

text: without

text: power

text: to

text: rob

text: a

text: citizen

text: of

text: his

text: citizenship

text: under

text: e

text: Because

text: the

text: legislative

text: history

text: of

text: the

text: Fourteenth

text: Amendment

text: and

text: of

text: the

text: expatriation

text: proposals

text: which

text: preceded

text: and

text: followed

text: it

text: like

text: most

text: other

text: legislative

text: history

text: contains

text: many

text: statements

text: from

text: which

text: conflicting

text: inferences

text: can

text: be

text: drawn

text: our

text: holding

text: might

text: be

text: unwarranted

text: if

text: it

text: rested

text: entirely

text: or

text: principally

text: upon

text: that

text: legislative

text: history

text: But

text: it

text: does

text: not

text: Our

text: holding

text: we

text: think

text: is

text: the

text: only

text: one

text: that

text: can

text: stand

text: in

text: view

text: of

text: the

text: language

text: and

text: the

text: purpose

text: of

text: the

text: Fourteenth

text: Amendment

text: and

text: our

text: construction

text: of

text: that

text: Amendment

text: we

text: believe

text: comports

text: more

text: nearly

text: than

text: Perez

text: with

text: the

text: principles

text: of

text: liberty

text: and

text: equal

text: justice

text: to

text: all

text: that

text: the

text: entire

text: Fourteenth

text: Amendment

text: was

text: adopted

text: to

text: guarantee

text: Citizenship

text: is

text: no

text: light

text: trifle

text: to

text: be

text: jeopardized

text: any

text: moment

text: Congress

text: decides

text: to

text: do

text: so

text: under

text: the

text: name

text: of

text: one

text: of

text: its

text: general

text: or

text: implied

text: grants

text: of

text: power

text: In

text: some

text: instances

text: loss

text: of

text: citizenship

text: can

text: mean

text: that

text: a

text: man

text: is

text: left

text: without

text: the

text: protection

text: of

text: citizenship

text: in

text: any

text: country

text: in

text: the

text: world

text: as

text: a

text: man

text: without

text: a

text: country

text: Citizenship

text: in

text: this

text: Nation

text: is

text: a

text: part

text: of

text: a

text: co

text: operative

text: affair

text: Its

text: citizenry

text: is

text: the

text: country

text: and

text: the

text: country

text: is

text: its

text: citizenry

text: The

text: very

text: nature

text: of

text: our

text: free

text: government

text: makes

text: it

text: completely

text: incongruous

text: to

text: have

text: a

text: rule

text: of

text: law

text: under

text: which

text: a

text: group

text: of

text: citizens

text: temporarily

text: in

text: office

text: can

text: deprive

text: another

text: group

text: of

text: citizens

text: of

text: their

text: citizenship

text: We

text: hold

text: that

text: the

text: Fourteenth

text: Amendment

text: was

text: designed

text: to

text: and

text: does

text: protect

text: every

text: citizen

text: of

text: this

text: Nation

text: against

text: a

text: congressional

text: forcible

text: destruction

text: of

text: his

text: citizenship

text: whatever

text: his

text: creed

text: color

text: or

text: race

text: Our

text: holding

text: does

text: no

text: more

text: than

text: to

text: give

text: to

text: this

text: citizen

text: that

text: which

text: is

text: his

text: own

text: a

text: constitutional

text: right

text: to

text: remain

text: a

text: citizen

text: in

text: a

text: free

text: country

text: unless

text: he

text: voluntarily

text: relinquishes

text: that

text: citizenship

text: Perez

text: v

text: Brownell

text: is

text: overruled

text: The

text: judgment

text: is

text: Reversed

text: MR

text: JUSTICE

text: HARLAN

text: whom

text: MR

text: JUSTICE

text: CLARK

text: MR

text: JUSTICE

text: STEWART

text: and

text: MR

text: JUSTICE

text: WHITE

text: join

text: dissenting

text: Almost

text: years

text: ago

text: in

text: Perez

text: v

text: Brownell

text: U

text: S

text: the

text: Court

text: upheld

text: the

text: constitutionality

text: of

text: e

text: of

text: the

text: Nationality

text: Act

text: of

text: Stat

text: The

text: section

text: deprives

text: of

text: his

text: nationality

text: any

text: citizen

text: who

text: has

text: voted

text: in

text: a

text: foreign

text: political

text: election

text: The

text: Court

text: reasoned

text: that

text: Congress

text: derived

text: from

text: its

text: power

text: to

text: regulate

text: foreign

text: affairs

text: authority

text: to

text: expatriate

text: any

text: citizen

text: who

text: intentionally

text: commits

text: acts

text: which

text: may

text: be

text: prejudicial

text: to

text: the

text: foreign

text: relations

text: of

text: the

text: United

text: States

text: and

text: which

text: reasonably

text: may

text: be

text: deemed

text: to

text: indicate

text: a

text: dilution

text: of

text: his

text: allegiance

text: to

text: this

text: country

text: Congress

text: it

text: was

text: held

text: could

text: appropriately

text: consider

text: purposeful

text: voting

text: in

text: a

text: foreign

text: political

text: election

text: to

text: be

text: such

text: an

text: act

text: The

text: Court

text: today

text: overrules

text: Perez

text: and

text: declares

text: e

text: unconstitutional

text: by

text: a

text: remarkable

text: process

text: of

text: circumlocution

text: First

text: the

text: Court

text: fails

text: almost

text: entirely

text: to

text: dispute

text: the

text: reasoning

text: in

text: Perez

text: it

text: is

text: essentially

text: content

text: with

text: the

text: conclusory

text: and

text: quite

text: unsubstantiated

text: assertion

text: that

text: Congress

text: is

text: without

text: any

text: general

text: power

text: express

text: or

text: implied

text: to

text: expatriate

text: a

text: citizen

text: without

text: his

text: assent

text: Next

text: the

text: Court

text: embarks

text: upon

text: a

text: lengthy

text: albeit

text: incomplete

text: survey

text: of

text: the

text: historical

text: background

text: of

text: the

text: congressional

text: power

text: at

text: stake

text: here

text: and

text: yet

text: at

text: the

text: end

text: concedes

text: that

text: the

text: history

text: is

text: susceptible

text: of

text: conflicting

text: inferences

text: The

text: Court

text: acknowledges

text: that

text: its

text: conclusions

text: might

text: not

text: be

text: warranted

text: by

text: that

text: history

text: alone

text: and

text: disclaims

text: that

text: the

text: decision

text: today

text: relies

text: even

text: principally

text: upon

text: it

text: Finally

text: the

text: Court

text: declares

text: that

text: its

text: result

text: is

text: bottomed

text: upon

text: the

text: language

text: and

text: the

text: purpose

text: of

text: the

text: Citizenship

text: Clause

text: of

text: the

text: Fourteenth

text: Amendment

text: in

text: explanation

text: the

text: Court

text: offers

text: only

text: the

text: terms

text: of

text: the

text: clause

text: itself

text: the

text: contention

text: that

text: any

text: other

text: result

text: would

text: be

text: completely

text: incongruous

text: and

text: the

text: essentially

text: arcane

text: observation

text: that

text: the

text: citizenry

text: is

text: the

text: country

text: and

text: the

text: country

text: is

text: its

text: citizenry

text: I

text: can

text: find

text: nothing

text: in

text: this

text: extraordinary

text: series

text: of

text: circumventions

text: which

text: permits

text: still

text: less

text: compels

text: the

text: imposition

text: of

text: this

text: constitutional

text: constraint

text: upon

text: the

text: authority

text: of

text: Congress

text: I

text: must

text: respectfully

text: dissent

text: There

text: is

text: no

text: need

text: here

text: to

text: rehearse

text: Mr

text: Justice

text: Frankfurter

text: s

text: opinion

text: for

text: the

text: Court

text: in

text: Perez

text: it

text: then

text: proved

text: and

text: still

text: proves

text: to

text: my

text: satisfaction

text: that

text: e

text: is

text: within

text: the

text: power

text: of

text: Congress

text: It

text: suffices

text: simply

text: to

text: supplement

text: Perez

text: with

text: an

text: examination

text: of

text: the

text: historical

text: evidence

text: which

text: the

text: Court

text: in

text: part

text: recites

text: and

text: which

text: provides

text: the

text: only

text: apparent

text: basis

text: for

text: many

text: of

text: the

text: Court

text: s

text: conclusions

text: As

text: will

text: be

text: seen

text: the

text: available

text: historical

text: evidence

text: is

text: not

text: only

text: inadequate

text: to

text: support

text: the

text: Court

text: s

text: abandonment

text: of

text: Perez

text: but

text: with

text: due

text: regard

text: for

text: the

text: restraints

text: that

text: should

text: surround

text: the

text: judicial

text: invalidation

text: of

text: an

text: Act

text: of

text: Congress

text: even

text: seems

text: to

text: confirm

text: Perez

text: soundness

text: I

text: Not

text: much

text: evidence

text: is

text: available

text: from

text: the

text: period

text: prior

text: to

text: the

text: adoption

text: of

text: the

text: Fourteenth

text: Amendment

text: through

text: which

text: the

text: then

text: prevailing

text: attitudes

text: on

text: these

text: constitutional

text: questions

text: can

text: now

text: be

text: determined

text: The

text: questions

text: pertinent

text: here

text: were

text: only

text: tangentially

text: debated

text: controversy

text: centered

text: instead

text: upon

text: the

text: wider

text: issues

text: of

text: whether

text: a

text: citizen

text: might

text: under

text: any

text: circumstances

text: renounce

text: his

text: citizenship

text: and

text: if

text: he

text: might

text: whether

text: that

text: right

text: should

text: be

text: conditioned

text: upon

text: any

text: formal

text: prerequisites

text: Even

text: the

text: discussion

text: of

text: these

text: issues

text: was

text: seriously

text: clouded

text: by

text: the

text: widely

text: accepted

text: view

text: that

text: authority

text: to

text: regulate

text: the

text: incidents

text: of

text: citizenship

text: had

text: been

text: retained

text: at

text: least

text: in

text: part

text: by

text: the

text: several

text: States

text: It

text: should

text: therefore

text: be

text: remembered

text: that

text: the

text: evidence

text: which

text: is

text: now

text: available

text: may

text: not

text: necessarily

text: represent

text: any

text: carefully

text: considered

text: still

text: less

text: prevailing

text: viewpoint

text: upon

text: the

text: present

text: issues

text: Measured

text: even

text: within

text: these

text: limitations

text: the

text: Court

text: s

text: evidence

text: for

text: this

text: period

text: is

text: remarkably

text: inconclusive

text: the

text: Court

text: relies

text: simply

text: upon

text: the

text: rejection

text: by

text: Congress

text: of

text: legislation

text: proposed

text: in

text: and

text: and

text: upon

text: an

text: isolated

text: dictum

text: from

text: the

text: opinion

text: of

text: Chief

text: Justice

text: Marshall

text: in

text: Osborn

text: v

text: Bank

text: of

text: the

text: United

text: States

text: Wheat

text: This

text: as

text: will

text: appear

text: is

text: entirely

text: inadequate

text: to

text: support

text: the

text: Court

text: s

text: conclusion

text: particularly

text: in

text: light

text: of

text: other

text: and

text: more

text: pertinent

text: evidence

text: which

text: the

text: Court

text: does

text: not

text: notice

text: The

text: expatriation

text: of

text: unwilling

text: citizens

text: was

text: apparently

text: first

text: discussed

text: in

text: the

text: lengthy

text: congressional

text: debates

text: of

text: and

text: which

text: culminated

text: eventually

text: in

text: the

text: Uniform

text: Naturalization

text: Act

text: of

text: Stat

text: Little

text: contained

text: in

text: those

text: debates

text: is

text: pertinent

text: here

text: The

text: present

text: question

text: was

text: considered

text: only

text: in

text: connection

text: with

text: an

text: amendment

text: offered

text: by

text: Congressman

text: Hillhouse

text: of

text: Connecticut

text: which

text: provided

text: that

text: any

text: American

text: who

text: acquired

text: a

text: foreign

text: citizenship

text: should

text: not

text: subsequently

text: be

text: permitted

text: to

text: repatriate

text: in

text: the

text: United

text: States

text: Although

text: this

text: obscure

text: proposal

text: scarcely

text: seems

text: relevant

text: to

text: the

text: present

text: issues

text: it

text: was

text: apparently

text: understood

text: at

text: least

text: by

text: some

text: members

text: to

text: require

text: the

text: automatic

text: expatriation

text: of

text: an

text: American

text: who

text: acquired

text: a

text: second

text: citizenship

text: Its

text: discussion

text: in

text: the

text: House

text: consumed

text: substantially

text: less

text: than

text: one

text: day

text: and

text: of

text: this

text: debate

text: only

text: the

text: views

text: of

text: two

text: Congressmen

text: other

text: than

text: Hillhouse

text: were

text: recorded

text: by

text: the

text: Annals

text: Murray

text: of

text: Maryland

text: for

text: reasons

text: immaterial

text: here

text: supported

text: the

text: proposal

text: In

text: response

text: Baldwin

text: of

text: Georgia

text: urged

text: that

text: foreign

text: citizenship

text: was

text: often

text: conferred

text: only

text: as

text: a

text: mark

text: of

text: esteem

text: and

text: that

text: it

text: would

text: be

text: unfair

text: to

text: deprive

text: of

text: his

text: domestic

text: citizenship

text: an

text: American

text: honored

text: in

text: this

text: fashion

text: There

text: is

text: no

text: indication

text: that

text: any

text: member

text: believed

text: the

text: proposal

text: to

text: be

text: forbidden

text: by

text: the

text: Constitution

text: The

text: measure

text: was

text: rejected

text: by

text: the

text: House

text: without

text: a

text: reported

text: vote

text: and

text: no

text: analogous

text: proposal

text: was

text: offered

text: in

text: the

text: Senate

text: Insofar

text: as

text: this

text: brief

text: exchange

text: is

text: pertinent

text: here

text: it

text: establishes

text: at

text: most

text: that

text: two

text: or

text: more

text: members

text: believed

text: the

text: proposal

text: both

text: constitutional

text: and

text: desirable

text: and

text: that

text: some

text: larger

text: number

text: determined

text: for

text: reasons

text: that

text: are

text: utterly

text: obscure

text: that

text: it

text: should

text: not

text: be

text: adopted

text: The

text: Court

text: next

text: relies

text: upon

text: the

text: rejection

text: of

text: proposed

text: legislation

text: in

text: The

text: bill

text: there

text: at

text: issue

text: would

text: have

text: forbidden

text: the

text: entry

text: of

text: American

text: citizens

text: into

text: the

text: service

text: of

text: any

text: foreign

text: state

text: in

text: time

text: of

text: war

text: its

text: sixth

text: section

text: included

text: machinery

text: by

text: which

text: a

text: citizen

text: might

text: voluntarily

text: expatriate

text: himself

text: The

text: bill

text: contained

text: nothing

text: which

text: would

text: have

text: expatriated

text: unwilling

text: citizens

text: and

text: the

text: debates

text: do

text: not

text: include

text: any

text: pronouncements

text: relevant

text: to

text: that

text: issue

text: It

text: is

text: difficult

text: to

text: see

text: how

text: the

text: failure

text: of

text: that

text: bill

text: might

text: be

text: probative

text: here

text: The

text: debates

text: in

text: and

text: upon

text: which

text: the

text: Court

text: so

text: heavily

text: relies

text: are

text: scarcely

text: more

text: revealing

text: Debate

text: centered

text: upon

text: a

text: brief

text: bill

text: which

text: provided

text: merely

text: that

text: any

text: citizen

text: who

text: wished

text: to

text: renounce

text: his

text: citizenship

text: must

text: first

text: declare

text: his

text: intention

text: in

text: open

text: court

text: and

text: thereafter

text: depart

text: the

text: United

text: States

text: His

text: citizenship

text: would

text: have

text: terminated

text: at

text: the

text: moment

text: of

text: his

text: renunciation

text: The

text: bill

text: was

text: debated

text: only

text: in

text: the

text: House

text: no

text: proposal

text: permitting

text: the

text: involuntary

text: expatriation

text: of

text: any

text: citizen

text: was

text: made

text: or

text: considered

text: there

text: or

text: in

text: the

text: Senate

text: Nonetheless

text: the

text: Court

text: selects

text: portions

text: of

text: statements

text: made

text: by

text: three

text: individual

text: Congressmen

text: who

text: apparently

text: denied

text: that

text: Congress

text: had

text: authority

text: to

text: enact

text: legislation

text: to

text: deprive

text: unwilling

text: citizens

text: of

text: their

text: citizenship

text: These

text: brief

text: dicta

text: are

text: by

text: the

text: most

text: generous

text: standard

text: inadequate

text: to

text: warrant

text: the

text: Court

text: s

text: broad

text: constitutional

text: conclusion

text: Moreover

text: it

text: must

text: be

text: observed

text: that

text: they

text: were

text: in

text: great

text: part

text: deductions

text: from

text: constitutional

text: premises

text: which

text: have

text: subsequently

text: been

text: entirely

text: abandoned

text: They

text: stemmed

text: principally

text: from

text: the

text: Jeffersonian

text: contention

text: that

text: allegiance

text: is

text: owed

text: by

text: a

text: citizen

text: first

text: to

text: his

text: State

text: and

text: only

text: through

text: the

text: State

text: to

text: the

text: Federal

text: Government

text: The

text: spokesmen

text: upon

text: whom

text: the

text: Court

text: now

text: relies

text: supposed

text: that

text: Congress

text: was

text: without

text: authority

text: to

text: dissolve

text: citizenship

text: since

text: we

text: have

text: no

text: control

text: over

text: allegiance

text: to

text: the

text: State

text: The

text: bill

text: s

text: opponents

text: urged

text: that

text: The

text: relation

text: to

text: the

text: State

text: government

text: was

text: the

text: basis

text: of

text: the

text: relation

text: to

text: the

text: General

text: Government

text: and

text: therefore

text: as

text: long

text: as

text: a

text: man

text: continues

text: a

text: citizen

text: of

text: a

text: State

text: he

text: must

text: be

text: considered

text: a

text: citizen

text: of

text: the

text: United

text: States

text: Any

text: statute

text: it

text: was

text: thought

text: which

text: dissolved

text: federal

text: citizenship

text: while

text: a

text: man

text: remained

text: a

text: citizen

text: of

text: a

text: State

text: would

text: be

text: inoperative

text: Surely

text: the

text: Court

text: does

text: not

text: revive

text: this

text: entirely

text: discredited

text: doctrine

text: and

text: yet

text: so

text: long

text: as

text: it

text: does

text: not

text: it

text: is

text: difficult

text: to

text: see

text: that

text: any

text: significant

text: support

text: for

text: the

text: ruling

text: made

text: today

text: may

text: be

text: derived

text: from

text: the

text: statements

text: on

text: which

text: the

text: Court

text: relies

text: To

text: sever

text: the

text: statements

text: from

text: their

text: constitutional

text: premises

text: as

text: the

text: Court

text: has

text: apparently

text: done

text: is

text: to

text: transform

text: the

text: meaning

text: these

text: expressions

text: were

text: intended

text: to

text: convey

text: Finally

text: it

text: must

text: be

text: remembered

text: that

text: these

text: were

text: merely

text: the

text: views

text: of

text: three

text: Congressmen

text: nothing

text: in

text: the

text: debates

text: indicates

text: that

text: their

text: constitutional

text: doubts

text: were

text: shared

text: by

text: any

text: substantial

text: number

text: of

text: the

text: other

text: members

text: who

text: eventually

text: opposed

text: the

text: bill

text: They

text: were

text: plainly

text: not

text: accepted

text: by

text: the

text: members

text: who

text: voted

text: in

text: the

text: bill

text: s

text: favor

text: The

text: bill

text: s

text: opponents

text: repeatedly

text: urged

text: that

text: whatever

text: its

text: constitutional

text: validity

text: the

text: bill

text: was

text: imprudent

text: and

text: undesirable

text: Pindall

text: of

text: Virginia

text: for

text: example

text: asserted

text: that

text: a

text: citizen

text: who

text: employed

text: its

text: provisions

text: would

text: have

text: motives

text: of

text: idleness

text: or

text: criminality

text: and

text: that

text: the

text: bill

text: would

text: thus

text: cause

text: much

text: evil

text: McLane

text: of

text: Delaware

text: feared

text: that

text: citizens

text: would

text: use

text: the

text: bill

text: to

text: escape

text: service

text: in

text: the

text: armed

text: forces

text: in

text: time

text: of

text: war

text: he

text: warned

text: that

text: the

text: bill

text: would

text: moreover

text: weaken

text: the

text: love

text: of

text: country

text: so

text: necessary

text: to

text: individual

text: happiness

text: and

text: national

text: prosperity

text: He

text: even

text: urged

text: that

text: The

text: commission

text: of

text: treason

text: and

text: the

text: objects

text: of

text: plunder

text: and

text: spoil

text: are

text: equally

text: legalized

text: by

text: this

text: bill

text: Lowndes

text: of

text: South

text: Carolina

text: cautioned

text: the

text: House

text: that

text: difficulties

text: might

text: again

text: arise

text: with

text: foreign

text: governments

text: over

text: the

text: rights

text: of

text: seamen

text: if

text: the

text: bill

text: were

text: passed

text: Given

text: these

text: vigorous

text: and

text: repeated

text: arguments

text: it

text: is

text: quite

text: impossible

text: to

text: assume

text: as

text: the

text: Court

text: apparently

text: has

text: that

text: any

text: substantial

text: portion

text: of

text: the

text: House

text: was

text: motivated

text: wholly

text: or

text: even

text: in

text: part

text: by

text: any

text: particular

text: set

text: of

text: constitutional

text: assumptions

text: These

text: three

text: statements

text: must

text: instead

text: be

text: taken

text: as

text: representative

text: only

text: of

text: the

text: beliefs

text: of

text: three

text: members

text: premised

text: chiefly

text: upon

text: constitutional

text: doctrines

text: which

text: have

text: subsequently

text: been

text: rejected

text: and

text: expressed

text: in

text: a

text: debate

text: in

text: which

text: the

text: present

text: issues

text: were

text: not

text: directly

text: involved

text: The

text: last

text: piece

text: of

text: evidence

text: upon

text: which

text: the

text: Court

text: relies

text: for

text: this

text: period

text: is

text: a

text: brief

text: obiter

text: dictum

text: from

text: the

text: lengthy

text: opinion

text: for

text: the

text: Court

text: in

text: Osborn

text: v

text: Bank

text: of

text: the

text: United

text: States

text: Wheat

text: written

text: by

text: Mr

text: Chief

text: Justice

text: Marshall

text: This

text: use

text: of

text: the

text: dictum

text: is

text: entirely

text: unpersuasive

text: for

text: its

text: terms

text: and

text: context

text: make

text: quite

text: plain

text: that

text: it

text: cannot

text: have

text: been

text: intended

text: to

text: reach

text: the

text: questions

text: presented

text: here

text: The

text: central

text: issue

text: before

text: the

text: Court

text: in

text: Osborn

text: was

text: the

text: right

text: of

text: the

text: bank

text: to

text: bring

text: its

text: suit

text: for

text: equitable

text: relief

text: in

text: the

text: courts

text: of

text: the

text: United

text: States

text: In

text: argument

text: counsel

text: for

text: Osborn

text: had

text: asserted

text: that

text: although

text: the

text: bank

text: had

text: been

text: created

text: by

text: the

text: laws

text: of

text: the

text: United

text: States

text: it

text: did

text: not

text: necessarily

text: follow

text: that

text: any

text: cause

text: involving

text: the

text: bank

text: had

text: arisen

text: under

text: those

text: laws

text: Counsel

text: urged

text: by

text: analogy

text: that

text: the

text: naturalization

text: of

text: an

text: alien

text: might

text: as

text: readily

text: be

text: said

text: to

text: confer

text: upon

text: the

text: new

text: citizen

text: a

text: right

text: to

text: bring

text: all

text: his

text: actions

text: in

text: the

text: federal

text: courts

text: Id

text: at

text: Not

text: surprisingly

text: the

text: Court

text: rejected

text: the

text: analogy

text: and

text: remarked

text: that

text: an

text: act

text: of

text: naturalization

text: does

text: not

text: proceed

text: to

text: give

text: to

text: regulate

text: or

text: to

text: prescribe

text: his

text: capacities

text: since

text: the

text: Constitution

text: demands

text: that

text: a

text: naturalized

text: citizen

text: must

text: in

text: all

text: respects

text: stand

text: on

text: the

text: footing

text: of

text: a

text: native

text: Id

text: at

text: The

text: Court

text: plainly

text: meant

text: no

text: more

text: than

text: that

text: counsel

text: s

text: analogy

text: is

text: broken

text: by

text: Congress

text: inability

text: to

text: offer

text: a

text: naturalized

text: citizen

text: rights

text: or

text: capacities

text: which

text: differ

text: in

text: any

text: particular

text: from

text: those

text: given

text: to

text: a

text: native

text: born

text: citizen

text: by

text: birth

text: Mr

text: Justice

text: Johnson

text: s

text: discussion

text: of

text: the

text: analogy

text: in

text: dissent

text: confirms

text: the

text: Court

text: s

text: purpose

text: Id

text: at

text: Any

text: wider

text: meaning

text: so

text: as

text: to

text: reach

text: the

text: questions

text: here

text: wrenches

text: the

text: dictum

text: from

text: its

text: context

text: and

text: attributes

text: to

text: the

text: Court

text: an

text: observation

text: extraneous

text: even

text: to

text: the

text: analogy

text: before

text: it

text: Moreover

text: the

text: construction

text: given

text: to

text: the

text: dictum

text: by

text: the

text: Court

text: today

text: requires

text: the

text: assumption

text: that

text: the

text: Court

text: in

text: Osborn

text: meant

text: to

text: decide

text: an

text: issue

text: which

text: had

text: to

text: that

text: moment

text: scarcely

text: been

text: debated

text: to

text: which

text: counsel

text: in

text: Osborn

text: had

text: never

text: referred

text: and

text: upon

text: which

text: no

text: case

text: had

text: ever

text: reached

text: the

text: Court

text: All

text: this

text: it

text: must

text: be

text: recalled

text: is

text: in

text: an

text: area

text: of

text: the

text: law

text: in

text: which

text: the

text: Court

text: had

text: steadfastly

text: avoided

text: unnecessary

text: comment

text: See

text: e

text: g

text: M

text: Ilvaine

text: v

text: Coxe

text: s

text: Lessee

text: Cranch

text: The

text: Santissima

text: Trinidad

text: Wheat

text: By

text: any

text: standard

text: the

text: dictum

text: cannot

text: provide

text: material

text: assistance

text: to

text: the

text: Court

text: s

text: position

text: in

text: the

text: present

text: case

text: Before

text: turning

text: to

text: the

text: evidence

text: from

text: this

text: period

text: which

text: has

text: been

text: overlooked

text: by

text: the

text: Court

text: attention

text: must

text: be

text: given

text: an

text: incident

text: to

text: which

text: the

text: Court

text: refers

text: but

text: upon

text: which

text: it

text: apparently

text: places

text: relatively

text: little

text: reliance

text: In

text: a

text: proposed

text: thirteenth

text: amendment

text: to

text: the

text: Constitution

text: was

text: introduced

text: into

text: the

text: Senate

text: by

text: Senator

text: Reed

text: of

text: Maryland

text: the

text: amendment

text: as

text: subsequently

text: modified

text: provided

text: that

text: any

text: citizen

text: who

text: accepted

text: a

text: title

text: of

text: nobility

text: pension

text: or

text: emolument

text: from

text: a

text: foreign

text: state

text: or

text: who

text: married

text: a

text: person

text: of

text: royal

text: blood

text: should

text: cease

text: to

text: be

text: a

text: citizen

text: of

text: the

text: United

text: States

text: The

text: proposed

text: amendment

text: was

text: in

text: a

text: modified

text: form

text: accepted

text: by

text: both

text: Houses

text: and

text: subsequently

text: obtained

text: the

text: approval

text: of

text: all

text: but

text: one

text: of

text: the

text: requisite

text: number

text: of

text: States

text: I

text: have

text: found

text: nothing

text: which

text: indicates

text: with

text: any

text: certainty

text: why

text: such

text: a

text: provision

text: should

text: then

text: have

text: been

text: thought

text: necessary

text: but

text: two

text: reasons

text: suggest

text: themselves

text: for

text: the

text: use

text: of

text: a

text: constitutional

text: amendment

text: First

text: the

text: provisions

text: may

text: have

text: been

text: intended

text: in

text: part

text: as

text: a

text: sanction

text: for

text: Art

text: I

text: cl

text: it

text: may

text: therefore

text: have

text: been

text: thought

text: more

text: appropriate

text: that

text: it

text: be

text: placed

text: within

text: the

text: Constitution

text: itself

text: Second

text: a

text: student

text: of

text: expatriation

text: issues

text: in

text: this

text: period

text: has

text: dismissed

text: the

text: preference

text: for

text: an

text: amendment

text: with

text: the

text: explanation

text: that

text: the

text: dominant

text: Jeffersonian

text: view

text: held

text: that

text: citizenship

text: was

text: within

text: the

text: jurisdiction

text: of

text: the

text: states

text: a

text: statute

text: would

text: thus

text: have

text: been

text: a

text: federal

text: usurpation

text: of

text: state

text: power

text: This

text: second

text: explanation

text: is

text: fully

text: substantiated

text: by

text: the

text: debate

text: in

text: the

text: statements

text: from

text: that

text: debate

text: set

text: out

text: in

text: the

text: opinion

text: for

text: the

text: Court

text: were

text: as

text: I

text: have

text: noted

text: bottomed

text: on

text: the

text: reasoning

text: that

text: since

text: allegiance

text: given

text: by

text: an

text: individual

text: to

text: a

text: State

text: could

text: not

text: be

text: dissolved

text: by

text: Congress

text: a

text: federal

text: statute

text: could

text: not

text: regulate

text: expatriation

text: It

text: surely

text: follows

text: that

text: this

text: obscure

text: enterprise

text: in

text: motivated

text: by

text: now

text: discredited

text: constitutional

text: premises

text: cannot

text: offer

text: any

text: significant

text: guidance

text: for

text: solution

text: of

text: the

text: important

text: issues

text: now

text: before

text: us

text: The

text: most

text: pertinent

text: evidence

text: from

text: this

text: period

text: upon

text: these

text: questions

text: has

text: been

text: virtually

text: overlooked

text: by

text: the

text: Court

text: Twice

text: in

text: the

text: two

text: years

text: immediately

text: prior

text: to

text: its

text: passage

text: of

text: the

text: Fourteenth

text: Amendment

text: Congress

text: exercised

text: the

text: very

text: authority

text: which

text: the

text: Court

text: now

text: suggests

text: that

text: it

text: should

text: have

text: recognized

text: was

text: entirely

text: lacking

text: In

text: each

text: case

text: a

text: bill

text: was

text: debated

text: and

text: adopted

text: by

text: both

text: Houses

text: which

text: included

text: provisions

text: to

text: expatriate

text: unwilling

text: citizens

text: In

text: the

text: spring

text: and

text: summer

text: of

text: both

text: Houses

text: debated

text: intensively

text: the

text: Wade

text: Davis

text: bill

text: to

text: provide

text: reconstruction

text: governments

text: for

text: the

text: States

text: which

text: had

text: seceded

text: to

text: form

text: the

text: Confederacy

text: Among

text: the

text: bill

text: s

text: provisions

text: was

text: by

text: which

text: every

text: person

text: who

text: shall

text: hereafter

text: hold

text: or

text: exercise

text: any

text: office

text: in

text: the

text: rebel

text: service

text: is

text: hereby

text: declared

text: not

text: to

text: be

text: a

text: citizen

text: of

text: the

text: United

text: States

text: Much

text: of

text: the

text: debate

text: upon

text: the

text: bill

text: did

text: not

text: of

text: course

text: center

text: on

text: the

text: expatriation

text: provision

text: although

text: it

text: certainly

text: did

text: not

text: escape

text: critical

text: attention

text: Nonetheless

text: I

text: have

text: not

text: found

text: any

text: indication

text: in

text: the

text: debates

text: in

text: either

text: House

text: that

text: it

text: was

text: supposed

text: that

text: Congress

text: was

text: without

text: authority

text: to

text: deprive

text: an

text: unwilling

text: citizen

text: of

text: his

text: citizenship

text: The

text: bill

text: was

text: not

text: signed

text: by

text: President

text: Lincoln

text: before

text: the

text: adjournment

text: of

text: Congress

text: and

text: thus

text: failed

text: to

text: become

text: law

text: but

text: a

text: subsequent

text: statement

text: issued

text: by

text: Lincoln

text: makes

text: quite

text: plain

text: that

text: he

text: was

text: not

text: troubled

text: by

text: any

text: doubts

text: of

text: the

text: constitutionality

text: of

text: Passage

text: of

text: the

text: Wade

text: Davis

text: bill

text: of

text: itself

text: suffices

text: to

text: destroy

text: the

text: notion

text: that

text: the

text: men

text: who

text: drafted

text: the

text: Fourteenth

text: Amendment

text: felt

text: that

text: citizenship

text: was

text: an

text: absolute

text: Twelve

text: months

text: later

text: and

text: less

text: than

text: a

text: year

text: before

text: its

text: passage

text: of

text: the

text: Fourteenth

text: Amendment

text: Congress

text: adopted

text: a

text: second

text: measure

text: which

text: included

text: provisions

text: that

text: permitted

text: the

text: expatriation

text: of

text: unwilling

text: citizens

text: Section

text: of

text: the

text: Enrollment

text: Act

text: of

text: provided

text: that

text: deserters

text: from

text: the

text: military

text: service

text: of

text: the

text: United

text: States

text: shall

text: be

text: deemed

text: and

text: taken

text: to

text: have

text: voluntarily

text: relinquished

text: and

text: forfeited

text: their

text: rights

text: of

text: citizenship

text: and

text: their

text: rights

text: to

text: become

text: citizens

text: The

text: same

text: section

text: extended

text: these

text: disabilities

text: to

text: persons

text: who

text: departed

text: the

text: United

text: States

text: with

text: intent

text: to

text: avoid

text: draft

text: into

text: the

text: military

text: or

text: naval

text: service

text: The

text: bitterness

text: of

text: war

text: did

text: not

text: cause

text: Congress

text: here

text: to

text: neglect

text: the

text: requirements

text: of

text: the

text: Constitution

text: for

text: it

text: was

text: urged

text: in

text: both

text: Houses

text: that

text: as

text: written

text: was

text: ex

text: post

text: facto

text: and

text: thus

text: was

text: constitutionally

text: impermissible

text: Significantly

text: however

text: it

text: was

text: never

text: suggested

text: in

text: either

text: debate

text: that

text: expatriation

text: without

text: a

text: citizen

text: s

text: consent

text: lay

text: beyond

text: Congress

text: authority

text: Members

text: of

text: both

text: Houses

text: had

text: apparently

text: examined

text: intensively

text: the

text: section

text: s

text: constitutional

text: validity

text: and

text: yet

text: had

text: been

text: undisturbed

text: by

text: the

text: matters

text: upon

text: which

text: the

text: Court

text: now

text: relies

text: Some

text: doubt

text: based

text: on

text: the

text: phrase

text: rights

text: of

text: citizenship

text: has

text: since

text: been

text: expressed

text: that

text: was

text: intended

text: to

text: require

text: any

text: more

text: than

text: disfranchisement

text: but

text: this

text: is

text: for

text: several

text: reasons

text: unconvincing

text: First

text: also

text: explicitly

text: provided

text: that

text: persons

text: subject

text: to

text: its

text: provisions

text: should

text: not

text: thereafter

text: exercise

text: various

text: rights

text: of

text: citizens

text: if

text: the

text: section

text: had

text: not

text: been

text: intended

text: to

text: cause

text: expatriation

text: it

text: is

text: difficult

text: to

text: see

text: why

text: these

text: additional

text: provisions

text: would

text: have

text: been

text: thought

text: necessary

text: Second

text: the

text: executive

text: authorities

text: of

text: the

text: United

text: States

text: afterwards

text: consistently

text: construed

text: the

text: section

text: as

text: causing

text: expatriation

text: Third

text: the

text: section

text: was

text: apparently

text: understood

text: by

text: various

text: courts

text: to

text: result

text: in

text: expatriation

text: in

text: particular

text: Mr

text: Justice

text: Strong

text: while

text: a

text: member

text: of

text: the

text: Supreme

text: Court

text: of

text: Pennsylvania

text: construed

text: the

text: section

text: to

text: cause

text: a

text: forfeiture

text: of

text: citizenship

text: Huber

text: v

text: Reily

text: Pa

text: and

text: although

text: this

text: point

text: was

text: not

text: expressly

text: reached

text: his

text: general

text: understanding

text: of

text: the

text: statute

text: was

text: approved

text: by

text: this

text: Court

text: in

text: Kurtz

text: v

text: Moffitt

text: U

text: S

text: Finally

text: Congress

text: in

text: approved

text: an

text: exemption

text: from

text: the

text: section

text: s

text: provisions

text: for

text: those

text: who

text: had

text: deserted

text: after

text: the

text: termination

text: of

text: general

text: hostilities

text: and

text: the

text: statute

text: as

text: adopted

text: specifically

text: described

text: the

text: disability

text: from

text: which

text: exemption

text: was

text: given

text: as

text: a

text: loss

text: of

text: his

text: citizenship

text: Stat

text: The

text: same

text: choice

text: of

text: phrase

text: occurs

text: in

text: the

text: pertinent

text: debates

text: It

text: thus

text: appears

text: that

text: Congress

text: had

text: twice

text: immediately

text: before

text: its

text: passage

text: of

text: the

text: Fourteenth

text: Amendment

text: unequivocally

text: affirmed

text: its

text: belief

text: that

text: it

text: had

text: authority

text: to

text: expatriate

text: an

text: unwilling

text: citizen

text: The

text: pertinent

text: evidence

text: for

text: the

text: period

text: prior

text: to

text: the

text: adoption

text: of

text: the

text: Fourteenth

text: Amendment

text: can

text: therefore

text: be

text: summarized

text: as

text: follows

text: The

text: Court

text: s

text: conclusion

text: today

text: is

text: supported

text: only

text: by

text: the

text: statements

text: associated

text: at

text: least

text: in

text: part

text: with

text: a

text: now

text: abandoned

text: view

text: of

text: citizenship

text: of

text: three

text: individual

text: Congressmen

text: and

text: by

text: the

text: ambiguous

text: and

text: inapposite

text: dictum

text: from

text: Osborn

text: Inconsistent

text: with

text: the

text: Court

text: s

text: position

text: are

text: statements

text: from

text: individual

text: Congressmen

text: in

text: and

text: Congress

text: passage

text: in

text: and

text: of

text: legislation

text: which

text: expressly

text: authorized

text: the

text: expatriation

text: of

text: unwilling

text: citizens

text: It

text: may

text: be

text: that

text: legislation

text: adopted

text: in

text: the

text: heat

text: of

text: war

text: should

text: be

text: discounted

text: in

text: part

text: by

text: its

text: origins

text: but

text: even

text: if

text: this

text: is

text: done

text: it

text: is

text: surely

text: plain

text: that

text: the

text: Court

text: s

text: conclusion

text: is

text: entirely

text: unwarranted

text: by

text: the

text: available

text: historical

text: evidence

text: for

text: the

text: period

text: prior

text: to

text: the

text: passage

text: of

text: the

text: Fourteenth

text: Amendment

text: The

text: evidence

text: suggests

text: to

text: the

text: contrary

text: that

text: Congress

text: in

text: understood

text: that

text: it

text: had

text: authority

text: at

text: least

text: in

text: some

text: circumstances

text: to

text: deprive

text: a

text: citizen

text: of

text: his

text: nationality

text: II

text: The

text: evidence

text: with

text: which

text: the

text: Court

text: supports

text: its

text: thesis

text: that

text: the

text: Citizenship

text: Clause

text: of

text: the

text: Fourteenth

text: Amendment

text: was

text: intended

text: to

text: lay

text: at

text: rest

text: any

text: doubts

text: of

text: Congress

text: inability

text: to

text: expatriate

text: without

text: the

text: citizen

text: s

text: consent

text: is

text: no

text: more

text: persuasive

text: The

text: evidence

text: consists

text: almost

text: exclusively

text: of

text: two

text: brief

text: and

text: general

text: quotations

text: from

text: Howard

text: of

text: Michigan

text: the

text: sponsor

text: of

text: the

text: Citizenship

text: Clause

text: in

text: the

text: Senate

text: and

text: of

text: a

text: statement

text: made

text: in

text: a

text: debate

text: in

text: the

text: House

text: of

text: Representatives

text: in

text: by

text: Van

text: Trump

text: of

text: Ohio

text: Measured

text: most

text: generously

text: this

text: evidence

text: would

text: be

text: inadequate

text: to

text: support

text: the

text: important

text: constitutional

text: conclusion

text: presumably

text: drawn

text: in

text: large

text: part

text: from

text: it

text: by

text: the

text: Court

text: but

text: as

text: will

text: be

text: shown

text: other

text: relevant

text: evidence

text: indicates

text: that

text: the

text: Court

text: plainly

text: has

text: mistaken

text: the

text: purposes

text: of

text: the

text: clause

text: s

text: draftsmen

text: The

text: Amendment

text: as

text: initially

text: approved

text: by

text: the

text: House

text: contained

text: nothing

text: which

text: described

text: or

text: defined

text: citizenship

text: The

text: issue

text: did

text: not

text: as

text: such

text: even

text: arise

text: in

text: the

text: House

text: debates

text: it

text: was

text: apparently

text: assumed

text: that

text: Negroes

text: were

text: citizens

text: and

text: that

text: it

text: was

text: necessary

text: only

text: to

text: guarantee

text: to

text: them

text: the

text: rights

text: which

text: sprang

text: from

text: citizenship

text: It

text: is

text: quite

text: impossible

text: to

text: derive

text: from

text: these

text: debates

text: any

text: indication

text: that

text: the

text: House

text: wished

text: to

text: deny

text: itself

text: the

text: authority

text: it

text: had

text: exercised

text: in

text: and

text: so

text: far

text: as

text: the

text: House

text: is

text: concerned

text: it

text: seems

text: that

text: no

text: issues

text: of

text: citizenship

text: were

text: at

text: all

text: involved

text: In

text: the

text: Senate

text: however

text: it

text: was

text: evidently

text: feared

text: that

text: unless

text: citizenship

text: were

text: defined

text: or

text: some

text: more

text: general

text: classification

text: substituted

text: freedmen

text: might

text: on

text: the

text: premise

text: that

text: they

text: were

text: not

text: citizens

text: be

text: excluded

text: from

text: the

text: Amendment

text: s

text: protection

text: Senator

text: Stewart

text: thus

text: offered

text: an

text: amendment

text: which

text: would

text: have

text: inserted

text: into

text: a

text: definition

text: of

text: citizenship

text: and

text: Senator

text: Wade

text: urged

text: as

text: an

text: alternative

text: the

text: elimination

text: of

text: the

text: term

text: citizen

text: from

text: the

text: Amendment

text: s

text: first

text: section

text: After

text: a

text: caucus

text: of

text: the

text: chief

text: supporters

text: of

text: the

text: Amendment

text: Senator

text: Howard

text: announced

text: on

text: their

text: behalf

text: that

text: they

text: favored

text: the

text: addition

text: of

text: the

text: present

text: Citizenship

text: Clause

text: The

text: debate

text: upon

text: the

text: clause

text: was

text: essentially

text: cursory

text: in

text: both

text: Houses

text: but

text: there

text: are

text: several

text: clear

text: indications

text: of

text: its

text: intended

text: effect

text: Its

text: sponsors

text: evidently

text: shared

text: the

text: fears

text: of

text: Senators

text: Stewart

text: and

text: Wade

text: that

text: unless

text: citizenship

text: were

text: defined

text: freedmen

text: might

text: under

text: the

text: reasoning

text: of

text: the

text: Dred

text: Scott

text: decision

text: be

text: excluded

text: by

text: the

text: courts

text: from

text: the

text: scope

text: of

text: the

text: Amendment

text: It

text: was

text: agreed

text: that

text: since

text: the

text: courts

text: have

text: stumbled

text: on

text: the

text: subject

text: it

text: would

text: be

text: prudent

text: to

text: remove

text: the

text: doubt

text: thrown

text: over

text: it

text: The

text: clause

text: would

text: essentially

text: overrule

text: Dred

text: Scott

text: and

text: place

text: beyond

text: question

text: the

text: freedmen

text: s

text: right

text: of

text: citizenship

text: because

text: of

text: birth

text: It

text: was

text: suggested

text: moreover

text: that

text: it

text: would

text: by

text: creating

text: a

text: basis

text: for

text: federal

text: citizenship

text: which

text: was

text: indisputably

text: independent

text: of

text: state

text: citizenship

text: preclude

text: any

text: effort

text: by

text: state

text: legislatures

text: to

text: circumvent

text: the

text: Amendment

text: by

text: denying

text: freedmen

text: state

text: citizenship

text: Nothing

text: in

text: the

text: debates

text: however

text: supports

text: the

text: Court

text: s

text: assertion

text: that

text: the

text: clause

text: was

text: intended

text: to

text: deny

text: Congress

text: its

text: authority

text: to

text: expatriate

text: unwilling

text: citizens

text: The

text: evidence

text: indicates

text: that

text: its

text: draftsmen

text: instead

text: expected

text: the

text: clause

text: only

text: to

text: declare

text: unreservedly

text: to

text: whom

text: citizenship

text: initially

text: adhered

text: thus

text: overturning

text: the

text: restrictions

text: both

text: of

text: Dred

text: Scott

text: and

text: of

text: the

text: doctrine

text: of

text: primary

text: state

text: citizenship

text: while

text: preserving

text: Congress

text: authority

text: to

text: prescribe

text: the

text: methods

text: and

text: terms

text: of

text: expatriation

text: The

text: narrow

text: essentially

text: definitional

text: purpose

text: of

text: the

text: Citizenship

text: Clause

text: is

text: reflected

text: in

text: the

text: clear

text: declarations

text: in

text: the

text: debates

text: that

text: the

text: clause

text: would

text: not

text: revise

text: the

text: prevailing

text: incidents

text: of

text: citizenship

text: Senator

text: Henderson

text: of

text: Missouri

text: thus

text: stated

text: specifically

text: his

text: understanding

text: that

text: the

text: section

text: will

text: leave

text: citizenship

text: where

text: it

text: now

text: is

text: Senator

text: Howard

text: in

text: the

text: first

text: of

text: the

text: statements

text: relied

text: upon

text: in

text: part

text: by

text: the

text: Court

text: said

text: quite

text: unreservedly

text: that

text: This

text: amendment

text: the

text: Citizenship

text: Clause

text: which

text: I

text: have

text: offered

text: is

text: simply

text: declaratory

text: of

text: what

text: I

text: regard

text: as

text: the

text: law

text: of

text: the

text: land

text: already

text: that

text: every

text: person

text: born

text: within

text: the

text: limits

text: of

text: the

text: United

text: States

text: and

text: subject

text: to

text: their

text: jurisdiction

text: is

text: a

text: citizen

text: of

text: the

text: United

text: States

text: Henderson

text: had

text: been

text: present

text: at

text: the

text: Senate

text: s

text: consideration

text: both

text: of

text: the

text: Wade

text: Davis

text: bill

text: and

text: of

text: the

text: Enrollment

text: Act

text: and

text: had

text: voted

text: at

text: least

text: for

text: the

text: Wade

text: Davis

text: bill

text: Howard

text: was

text: a

text: member

text: of

text: the

text: Senate

text: when

text: both

text: bills

text: were

text: passed

text: and

text: had

text: actively

text: participated

text: in

text: the

text: debates

text: upon

text: the

text: Enrollment

text: Act

text: Although

text: his

text: views

text: of

text: the

text: two

text: expatriation

text: measures

text: were

text: not

text: specifically

text: recorded

text: Howard

text: certainly

text: never

text: expressed

text: to

text: the

text: Senate

text: any

text: doubt

text: either

text: of

text: their

text: wisdom

text: or

text: of

text: their

text: constitutionality

text: It

text: would

text: be

text: extraordinary

text: if

text: these

text: prominent

text: supporters

text: of

text: the

text: Citizenship

text: Clause

text: could

text: have

text: imagined

text: as

text: the

text: Court

text: s

text: construction

text: of

text: the

text: clause

text: now

text: demands

text: that

text: the

text: clause

text: was

text: only

text: declaratory

text: of

text: the

text: law

text: where

text: it

text: now

text: is

text: and

text: yet

text: that

text: it

text: would

text: entirely

text: withdraw

text: a

text: power

text: twice

text: recently

text: exercised

text: by

text: Congress

text: in

text: their

text: presence

text: There

text: is

text: however

text: even

text: more

text: positive

text: evidence

text: that

text: the

text: Court

text: s

text: construction

text: of

text: the

text: clause

text: is

text: not

text: that

text: intended

text: by

text: its

text: draftsmen

text: Between

text: the

text: two

text: brief

text: statements

text: from

text: Senator

text: Howard

text: relied

text: upon

text: by

text: the

text: Court

text: Howard

text: in

text: response

text: to

text: a

text: question

text: said

text: the

text: following

text: I

text: take

text: it

text: for

text: granted

text: that

text: after

text: a

text: man

text: becomes

text: a

text: citizen

text: of

text: the

text: United

text: States

text: under

text: the

text: Constitution

text: he

text: cannot

text: cease

text: to

text: be

text: citizen

text: except

text: by

text: expatriation

text: or

text: the

text: commission

text: of

text: some

text: crime

text: by

text: which

text: his

text: citizenship

text: shall

text: be

text: forfeited

text: Emphasis

text: added

text: It

text: would

text: be

text: difficult

text: to

text: imagine

text: a

text: more

text: unqualified

text: rejection

text: of

text: the

text: Court

text: s

text: position

text: Senator

text: Howard

text: the

text: clause

text: s

text: sponsor

text: very

text: plainly

text: believed

text: that

text: it

text: would

text: leave

text: unimpaired

text: Congress

text: power

text: to

text: deprive

text: unwilling

text: citizens

text: of

text: their

text: citizenship

text: Additional

text: confirmation

text: of

text: the

text: expectations

text: of

text: the

text: clause

text: s

text: draftsmen

text: may

text: be

text: found

text: in

text: the

text: legislative

text: history

text: wholly

text: overlooked

text: by

text: the

text: Court

text: of

text: the

text: Act

text: for

text: the

text: Relief

text: of

text: certain

text: Soldiers

text: and

text: Sailors

text: adopted

text: in

text: Stat

text: The

text: Act

text: debated

text: by

text: Congress

text: within

text: months

text: of

text: its

text: passage

text: of

text: the

text: Fourteenth

text: Amendment

text: provided

text: an

text: exception

text: from

text: the

text: provisions

text: of

text: of

text: the

text: Enrollment

text: Act

text: of

text: for

text: those

text: who

text: had

text: deserted

text: from

text: the

text: Union

text: forces

text: after

text: the

text: termination

text: of

text: general

text: hostilities

text: Had

text: the

text: Citizenship

text: Clause

text: been

text: understood

text: to

text: have

text: the

text: effect

text: now

text: given

text: it

text: by

text: the

text: Court

text: surely

text: this

text: would

text: have

text: been

text: clearly

text: reflected

text: in

text: the

text: debates

text: members

text: would

text: at

text: least

text: have

text: noted

text: that

text: upon

text: final

text: approval

text: of

text: the

text: Amendment

text: which

text: had

text: already

text: obtained

text: the

text: approval

text: of

text: States

text: would

text: necessarily

text: be

text: invalid

text: Nothing

text: of

text: the

text: sort

text: occurred

text: it

text: was

text: argued

text: by

text: some

text: members

text: that

text: was

text: imprudent

text: and

text: even

text: unfair

text: but

text: Congress

text: evidently

text: did

text: not

text: suppose

text: that

text: it

text: was

text: or

text: would

text: be

text: unconstitutional

text: Congress

text: simply

text: failed

text: to

text: attribute

text: to

text: the

text: Citizenship

text: Clause

text: the

text: constitutional

text: consequences

text: now

text: discovered

text: by

text: the

text: Court

text: Nonetheless

text: the

text: Court

text: urges

text: that

text: the

text: debates

text: which

text: culminated

text: in

text: the

text: Expatriation

text: Act

text: of

text: materially

text: support

text: its

text: understanding

text: of

text: the

text: purposes

text: of

text: the

text: Citizenship

text: Clause

text: This

text: is

text: for

text: several

text: reasons

text: wholly

text: unconvincing

text: Initially

text: it

text: should

text: be

text: remembered

text: that

text: discussion

text: of

text: the

text: Act

text: began

text: in

text: committee

text: some

text: six

text: months

text: after

text: the

text: passage

text: of

text: the

text: Relief

text: Act

text: of

text: by

text: the

text: Second

text: Session

text: of

text: the

text: Congress

text: which

text: had

text: approved

text: the

text: Relief

text: Act

text: the

text: Court

text: s

text: interpretation

text: of

text: the

text: history

text: of

text: the

text: Expatriation

text: Act

text: thus

text: demands

text: at

text: the

text: outset

text: the

text: supposition

text: that

text: a

text: view

text: of

text: the

text: Citizenship

text: Clause

text: entirely

text: absent

text: in

text: July

text: had

text: appeared

text: vividly

text: by

text: the

text: following

text: January

text: Further

text: the

text: purposes

text: and

text: background

text: of

text: the

text: Act

text: should

text: not

text: be

text: forgotten

text: The

text: debates

text: were

text: stimulated

text: by

text: repeated

text: requests

text: both

text: from

text: President

text: Andrew

text: Johnson

text: and

text: from

text: the

text: public

text: that

text: Congress

text: assert

text: the

text: rights

text: of

text: naturalized

text: Americans

text: against

text: the

text: demands

text: of

text: their

text: former

text: countries

text: The

text: Act

text: as

text: finally

text: adopted

text: was

text: thus

text: intended

text: primarily

text: to

text: assail

text: the

text: conduct

text: of

text: the

text: British

text: Government

text: chiefly

text: for

text: its

text: acts

text: toward

text: naturalized

text: Americans

text: resident

text: in

text: Ireland

text: and

text: to

text: declare

text: the

text: right

text: of

text: naturalized

text: Americans

text: to

text: renounce

text: their

text: native

text: allegiance

text: accordingly

text: very

text: little

text: of

text: the

text: lengthy

text: debate

text: was

text: in

text: the

text: least

text: pertinent

text: to

text: the

text: present

text: issues

text: Several

text: members

text: did

text: make

text: plain

text: through

text: their

text: proposed

text: amendments

text: to

text: the

text: bill

text: or

text: their

text: interstitial

text: comments

text: that

text: they

text: understood

text: Congress

text: to

text: have

text: authority

text: to

text: expatriate

text: unwilling

text: citizens

text: but

text: in

text: general

text: both

text: the

text: issues

text: now

text: before

text: the

text: Court

text: and

text: questions

text: of

text: the

text: implications

text: of

text: the

text: Citizenship

text: Clause

text: were

text: virtually

text: untouched

text: in

text: the

text: debates

text: Nevertheless

text: the

text: Court

text: in

text: order

text: to

text: establish

text: that

text: Congress

text: understood

text: that

text: the

text: Citizenship

text: Clause

text: denied

text: it

text: such

text: authority

text: fastens

text: principally

text: upon

text: the

text: speeches

text: of

text: Congressman

text: Van

text: Trump

text: of

text: Ohio

text: Van

text: Trump

text: sponsored

text: as

text: one

text: of

text: many

text: similar

text: amendments

text: offered

text: to

text: the

text: bill

text: by

text: various

text: members

text: a

text: proposal

text: to

text: create

text: formal

text: machinery

text: by

text: which

text: a

text: citizen

text: might

text: voluntarily

text: renounce

text: his

text: citizenship

text: Van

text: Trump

text: himself

text: spoke

text: at

text: length

text: in

text: support

text: of

text: his

text: proposal

text: his

text: principal

text: speech

text: consisted

text: chiefly

text: of

text: a

text: detailed

text: examination

text: of

text: the

text: debates

text: and

text: judicial

text: decisions

text: pertinent

text: to

text: the

text: issues

text: of

text: voluntary

text: renunciation

text: of

text: citizenship

text: Never

text: in

text: his

text: catalog

text: of

text: relevant

text: materials

text: did

text: Van

text: Trump

text: even

text: mention

text: the

text: Citizenship

text: Clause

text: of

text: the

text: Fourteenth

text: Amendment

text: so

text: far

text: as

text: may

text: be

text: seen

text: from

text: his

text: comments

text: on

text: the

text: House

text: floor

text: Van

text: Trump

text: evidently

text: supposed

text: the

text: clause

text: to

text: be

text: entirely

text: immaterial

text: to

text: the

text: issues

text: of

text: expatriation

text: This

text: is

text: completely

text: characteristic

text: of

text: the

text: debate

text: in

text: both

text: Houses

text: even

text: its

text: draftsmen

text: and

text: principal

text: supporters

text: such

text: as

text: Senator

text: Howard

text: permitted

text: the

text: Citizenship

text: Clause

text: to

text: pass

text: unnoticed

text: The

text: conclusion

text: seems

text: inescapable

text: that

text: the

text: discussions

text: surrounding

text: the

text: Act

text: of

text: cast

text: only

text: the

text: most

text: minimal

text: light

text: if

text: indeed

text: any

text: upon

text: the

text: purposes

text: of

text: the

text: clause

text: and

text: that

text: the

text: Court

text: s

text: evidence

text: from

text: the

text: debates

text: is

text: by

text: any

text: standard

text: exceedingly

text: slight

text: There

text: is

text: moreover

text: still

text: further

text: evidence

text: overlooked

text: by

text: the

text: Court

text: which

text: confirms

text: yet

text: again

text: that

text: the

text: Court

text: s

text: view

text: of

text: the

text: intended

text: purposes

text: of

text: the

text: Citizenship

text: Clause

text: is

text: mistaken

text: While

text: the

text: debate

text: on

text: the

text: Act

text: of

text: was

text: still

text: in

text: progress

text: negotiations

text: were

text: completed

text: on

text: the

text: first

text: of

text: a

text: series

text: of

text: bilateral

text: expatriation

text: treaties

text: which

text: initiated

text: this

text: country

text: s

text: policy

text: of

text: automatic

text: divestment

text: of

text: citizenship

text: for

text: specified

text: conduct

text: affecting

text: our

text: foreign

text: relations

text: Perez

text: v

text: Brownell

text: supra

text: at

text: Seven

text: such

text: treaties

text: were

text: negotiated

text: in

text: and

text: alone

text: each

text: was

text: ratified

text: by

text: the

text: Senate

text: If

text: as

text: the

text: Court

text: now

text: suggests

text: it

text: was

text: abundantly

text: clear

text: to

text: Congress

text: in

text: that

text: the

text: Citizenship

text: Clause

text: had

text: taken

text: from

text: its

text: hands

text: the

text: power

text: of

text: expatriation

text: it

text: is

text: quite

text: difficult

text: to

text: understand

text: why

text: these

text: conventions

text: were

text: negotiated

text: or

text: why

text: once

text: negotiated

text: they

text: were

text: not

text: immediately

text: repudiated

text: by

text: the

text: Senate

text: Further

text: the

text: executive

text: authorities

text: of

text: the

text: United

text: States

text: repeatedly

text: acted

text: in

text: the

text: years

text: following

text: upon

text: the

text: premise

text: that

text: a

text: citizen

text: might

text: automatically

text: be

text: deemed

text: to

text: have

text: expatriated

text: himself

text: by

text: conduct

text: short

text: of

text: a

text: voluntary

text: renunciation

text: of

text: citizenship

text: individual

text: citizens

text: were

text: as

text: the

text: Court

text: indicated

text: in

text: Perez

text: regularly

text: held

text: on

text: this

text: basis

text: to

text: have

text: lost

text: their

text: citizenship

text: Interested

text: Members

text: of

text: Congress

text: and

text: others

text: could

text: scarcely

text: have

text: been

text: unaware

text: of

text: the

text: practice

text: as

text: early

text: as

text: President

text: Grant

text: urged

text: Congress

text: in

text: his

text: Sixth

text: Annual

text: Message

text: to

text: supplement

text: the

text: Act

text: of

text: with

text: a

text: statutory

text: declaration

text: of

text: the

text: acts

text: by

text: which

text: a

text: citizen

text: might

text: be

text: deemed

text: to

text: have

text: renounced

text: or

text: to

text: have

text: lost

text: his

text: citizenship

text: It

text: was

text: the

text: necessity

text: to

text: provide

text: a

text: more

text: satisfactory

text: basis

text: for

text: this

text: practice

text: that

text: led

text: first

text: to

text: the

text: appointment

text: of

text: the

text: Citizenship

text: Board

text: of

text: and

text: subsequently

text: to

text: the

text: Nationality

text: Acts

text: of

text: and

text: The

text: administrative

text: practice

text: in

text: this

text: period

text: was

text: described

text: by

text: the

text: Court

text: in

text: Perez

text: it

text: suffices

text: here

text: merely

text: to

text: emphasize

text: that

text: the

text: Court

text: today

text: has

text: not

text: ventured

text: to

text: explain

text: why

text: the

text: Citizenship

text: Clause

text: should

text: so

text: shortly

text: after

text: its

text: adoption

text: have

text: been

text: under

text: the

text: Court

text: s

text: construction

text: so

text: seriously

text: misunderstood

text: It

text: seems

text: to

text: me

text: apparent

text: that

text: the

text: historical

text: evidence

text: which

text: the

text: Court

text: in

text: part

text: recites

text: is

text: wholly

text: inconclusive

text: as

text: indeed

text: the

text: Court

text: recognizes

text: the

text: evidence

text: to

text: the

text: contrary

text: irresistibly

text: suggests

text: that

text: the

text: draftsmen

text: of

text: the

text: Fourteenth

text: Amendment

text: did

text: not

text: intend

text: and

text: could

text: not

text: have

text: expected

text: that

text: the

text: Citizenship

text: Clause

text: would

text: deprive

text: Congress

text: of

text: authority

text: which

text: it

text: had

text: to

text: their

text: knowledge

text: only

text: recently

text: twice

text: exercised

text: The

text: construction

text: demanded

text: by

text: the

text: pertinent

text: historical

text: evidence

text: and

text: entirely

text: consistent

text: with

text: the

text: clause

text: s

text: terms

text: and

text: purposes

text: is

text: instead

text: that

text: it

text: declares

text: to

text: whom

text: citizenship

text: as

text: a

text: consequence

text: either

text: of

text: birth

text: or

text: of

text: naturalization

text: initially

text: attaches

text: The

text: clause

text: thus

text: served

text: at

text: the

text: time

text: of

text: its

text: passage

text: both

text: to

text: overturn

text: Dred

text: Scott

text: and

text: to

text: provide

text: a

text: foundation

text: for

text: federal

text: citizenship

text: entirely

text: independent

text: of

text: state

text: citizenship

text: in

text: this

text: fashion

text: it

text: effectively

text: guaranteed

text: that

text: the

text: Amendment

text: s

text: protection

text: would

text: not

text: subsequently

text: be

text: withheld

text: from

text: those

text: for

text: whom

text: it

text: was

text: principally

text: intended

text: But

text: nothing

text: in

text: the

text: history

text: purposes

text: or

text: language

text: of

text: the

text: clause

text: suggests

text: that

text: it

text: forbids

text: Congress

text: in

text: all

text: circumstances

text: to

text: withdraw

text: the

text: citizenship

text: of

text: an

text: unwilling

text: citizen

text: To

text: the

text: contrary

text: it

text: was

text: expected

text: and

text: should

text: now

text: be

text: understood

text: to

text: leave

text: Congress

text: at

text: liberty

text: to

text: expatriate

text: a

text: citizen

text: if

text: the

text: expatriation

text: is

text: an

text: appropriate

text: exercise

text: of

text: a

text: power

text: otherwise

text: given

text: to

text: Congress

text: by

text: the

text: Constitution

text: and

text: if

text: the

text: methods

text: and

text: terms

text: of

text: expatriation

text: adopted

text: by

text: Congress

text: are

text: consistent

text: with

text: the

text: Constitution

text: s

text: other

text: relevant

text: commands

text: The

text: Citizenship

text: Clause

text: thus

text: neither

text: denies

text: nor

text: provides

text: to

text: Congress

text: any

text: power

text: of

text: expatriation

text: its

text: consequences

text: are

text: for

text: present

text: purposes

text: exhausted

text: by

text: its

text: declaration

text: of

text: the

text: classes

text: of

text: individuals

text: to

text: whom

text: citizenship

text: initially

text: attaches

text: Once

text: obtained

text: citizenship

text: is

text: of

text: course

text: protected

text: from

text: arbitrary

text: withdrawal

text: by

text: the

text: constraints

text: placed

text: around

text: Congress

text: powers

text: by

text: the

text: Constitution

text: it

text: is

text: not

text: proper

text: to

text: create

text: from

text: the

text: Citizenship

text: Clause

text: an

text: additional

text: and

text: entirely

text: unwarranted

text: restriction

text: upon

text: legislative

text: authority

text: The

text: construction

text: now

text: placed

text: on

text: the

text: Citizenship

text: Clause

text: rests

text: in

text: the

text: last

text: analysis

text: simply

text: on

text: the

text: Court

text: s

text: ipse

text: dixit

text: evincing

text: little

text: more

text: it

text: is

text: quite

text: apparent

text: than

text: the

text: present

text: majority

text: s

text: own

text: distaste

text: for

text: the

text: expatriation

text: power

text: I

text: believe

text: that

text: Perez

text: was

text: rightly

text: decided

text: and

text: on

text: its

text: authority

text: would

text: affirm

text: the

text: judgment

text: of

text: the

text: Court

text: of

text: Appeals

text: NOTES

text: Stat

text: as

text: amended

text: Stat

text: U

text: S

text: C

text: ed

text: A

text: person

text: who

text: is

text: a

text: national

text: of

text: the

text: United

text: States

text: whether

text: by

text: birth

text: or

text: naturalization

text: shall

text: lose

text: his

text: nationality

text: by

text: e

text: Voting

text: in

text: a

text: political

text: election

text: in

text: a

text: foreign

text: state

text: or

text: participating

text: in

text: an

text: election

text: or

text: plebiscite

text: to

text: determine

text: the

text: sovereignty

text: over

text: foreign

text: territory

text: This

text: provision

text: was

text: re

text: enacted

text: as

text: a

text: of

text: the

text: Immigration

text: and

text: Nationality

text: Act

text: of

text: Stat

text: U

text: S

text: C

text: a

text: All

text: persons

text: born

text: or

text: naturalized

text: in

text: the

text: United

text: States

text: and

text: subject

text: to

text: the

text: jurisdiction

text: thereof

text: are

text: citizens

text: of

text: the

text: United

text: States

text: F

text: Supp

text: F

text: d

text: Trop

text: v

text: Dulles

text: U

text: S

text: Nishikawa

text: v

text: Dulles

text: U

text: S

text: Kennedy

text: v

text: Mendoza

text: Martinez

text: U

text: S

text: Schneider

text: v

text: Rusk

text: U

text: S

text: In

text: his

text: concurring

text: opinion

text: in

text: Mendoza

text: Martinez

text: MR

text: JUSTICE

text: BRENNAN

text: expressed

text: felt

text: doubts

text: of

text: the

text: correctness

text: of

text: Perez

text: U

text: S

text: at

text: See

text: e

text: g

text: Agata

text: Involuntary

text: Expatriation

text: and

text: Schneider

text: v

text: Rusk

text: U

text: Pitt

text: L

text: Rev

text: Hurst

text: Can

text: Congress

text: Take

text: Away

text: Citizenship

text: Rocky

text: Mt

text: L

text: Rev

text: Kurland

text: Foreword

text: Equal

text: in

text: Origin

text: and

text: Equal

text: in

text: Title

text: to

text: the

text: Legislative

text: and

text: Executive

text: Branches

text: of

text: the

text: Government

text: Harv

text: L

text: Rev

text: Comment

text: Mich

text: L

text: Rev

text: Note

text: Forfeiture

text: of

text: Citizenship

text: Through

text: Congressional

text: Enactments

text: U

text: Cin

text: L

text: Rev

text: Cornell

text: L

text: Q

text: S

text: Cal

text: L

text: Rev

text: But

text: see

text: e

text: g

text: Comment

text: The

text: Expatriation

text: Act

text: of

text: Yale

text: L

text: J

text: See

text: Perez

text: v

text: Brownell

text: supra

text: at

text: dissenting

text: opinion

text: of

text: THE

text: CHIEF

text: JUSTICE

text: dissenting

text: opinion

text: of

text: MR

text: JUSTICE

text: DOUGLAS

text: Trop

text: v

text: Dulles

text: supra

text: at

text: part

text: I

text: of

text: opinion

text: of

text: Court

text: Nishikawa

text: v

text: Dulles

text: supra

text: at

text: concurring

text: opinion

text: of

text: MR

text: JUSTICE

text: BLACK

text: For

text: a

text: history

text: of

text: the

text: early

text: American

text: view

text: of

text: the

text: right

text: of

text: expatriation

text: including

text: these

text: congressional

text: proposals

text: see

text: generally

text: Roche

text: The

text: Early

text: Development

text: of

text: United

text: States

text: Citizenship

text: Tsiang

text: The

text: Question

text: of

text: Expatriation

text: in

text: America

text: Prior

text: to

text: Dutcher

text: The

text: Right

text: of

text: Expatriation

text: Am

text: L

text: Rev

text: Roche

text: The

text: Loss

text: of

text: American

text: Nationality

text: The

text: Development

text: of

text: Statutory

text: Expatriation

text: U

text: Pa

text: L

text: Rev

text: Slaymaker

text: The

text: Right

text: of

text: the

text: American

text: Citizen

text: to

text: Expatriate

text: Am

text: L

text: Rev

text: Annals

text: of

text: Cong

text: Annals

text: of

text: Cong

text: et

text: seq

text: See

text: e

text: g

text: Talbot

text: v

text: Janson

text: Dall

text: Annals

text: of

text: Cong

text: Id

text: at

text: Although

text: some

text: of

text: the

text: opponents

text: believing

text: that

text: citizenship

text: was

text: derived

text: from

text: the

text: States

text: argued

text: that

text: any

text: power

text: to

text: prescribe

text: the

text: mode

text: for

text: its

text: relinquishment

text: rested

text: in

text: the

text: States

text: they

text: were

text: careful

text: to

text: point

text: out

text: that

text: the

text: absence

text: of

text: all

text: power

text: from

text: the

text: State

text: Legislatures

text: would

text: not

text: vest

text: it

text: in

text: us

text: Id

text: at

text: The

text: amendment

text: had

text: been

text: proposed

text: by

text: the

text: th

text: Cong

text: d

text: Sess

text: See

text: The

text: Constitution

text: of

text: the

text: United

text: States

text: of

text: America

text: S

text: Doc

text: No

text: th

text: Cong

text: st

text: Sess

text: Id

text: at

text: It

text: is

text: interesting

text: to

text: note

text: that

text: the

text: proponents

text: of

text: the

text: bill

text: such

text: as

text: Congressman

text: Cobb

text: of

text: Georgia

text: considered

text: it

text: to

text: be

text: the

text: simple

text: declaration

text: of

text: the

text: manner

text: in

text: which

text: a

text: voluntary

text: act

text: in

text: the

text: exercise

text: of

text: a

text: natural

text: right

text: may

text: be

text: performed

text: and

text: denied

text: that

text: it

text: created

text: or

text: could

text: lead

text: to

text: the

text: creation

text: of

text: a

text: presumption

text: of

text: relinquishment

text: of

text: the

text: right

text: of

text: citizenship

text: Id

text: at

text: The

text: dissenting

text: opinion

text: here

text: points

text: to

text: the

text: fact

text: that

text: a

text: Civil

text: War

text: Congress

text: passed

text: two

text: Acts

text: designed

text: to

text: deprive

text: military

text: deserters

text: to

text: the

text: Southern

text: side

text: of

text: the

text: rights

text: of

text: citizenship

text: Measures

text: of

text: this

text: kind

text: passed

text: in

text: those

text: days

text: of

text: emotional

text: stress

text: and

text: hostility

text: are

text: by

text: no

text: means

text: the

text: most

text: reliable

text: criteria

text: for

text: determining

text: what

text: the

text: Constitution

text: means

text: Cong

text: Globe

text: th

text: Cong

text: st

text: Sess

text: et

text: seq

text: See

text: generally

text: Flack

text: Adoption

text: of

text: the

text: Fourteenth

text: Amendment

text: Representative

text: Jenckes

text: of

text: Rhode

text: Island

text: introduced

text: an

text: amendment

text: that

text: would

text: expatriate

text: those

text: citizens

text: who

text: became

text: naturalized

text: by

text: a

text: foreign

text: government

text: performed

text: public

text: duties

text: for

text: a

text: foreign

text: government

text: or

text: took

text: up

text: domicile

text: in

text: a

text: foreign

text: country

text: without

text: intent

text: to

text: return

text: Cong

text: Globe

text: th

text: Cong

text: d

text: Sess

text: Although

text: he

text: characterized

text: his

text: proposal

text: as

text: covering

text: cases

text: where

text: citizens

text: may

text: voluntarily

text: renounce

text: their

text: allegiance

text: to

text: this

text: country

text: id

text: at

text: it

text: was

text: opposed

text: by

text: Representative

text: Chanler

text: of

text: New

text: York

text: who

text: said

text: So

text: long

text: as

text: a

text: citizen

text: does

text: not

text: expressly

text: dissolve

text: his

text: allegiance

text: and

text: does

text: not

text: swear

text: allegiance

text: to

text: another

text: country

text: his

text: citizenship

text: remains

text: in

text: statu

text: quo

text: unaltered

text: and

text: unimpaired

text: Id

text: at

text: Proposals

text: of

text: Representatives

text: Pruyn

text: of

text: New

text: York

text: id

text: at

text: and

text: Van

text: Trump

text: of

text: Ohio

text: id

text: at

text: While

text: Van

text: Trump

text: disagreed

text: with

text: the

text: opponents

text: as

text: to

text: whether

text: Congress

text: had

text: power

text: to

text: prescribe

text: a

text: means

text: of

text: voluntary

text: renunciation

text: of

text: citizenship

text: he

text: wholeheartedly

text: agreed

text: with

text: their

text: premise

text: that

text: the

text: right

text: of

text: expatriation

text: belongs

text: to

text: the

text: citizen

text: not

text: to

text: the

text: Government

text: and

text: that

text: the

text: Constitution

text: forbids

text: the

text: Government

text: from

text: being

text: party

text: to

text: the

text: act

text: of

text: expatriation

text: Van

text: Trump

text: simply

text: thought

text: that

text: the

text: opponents

text: of

text: the

text: proposal

text: failed

text: to

text: recognize

text: that

text: their

text: mutual

text: premise

text: would

text: not

text: be

text: violated

text: by

text: an

text: Act

text: which

text: merely

text: prescribed

text: how

text: the

text: rights

text: of

text: citizenship

text: might

text: be

text: relinquished

text: at

text: the

text: option

text: of

text: the

text: person

text: in

text: whom

text: they

text: were

text: vested

text: Cong

text: Globe

text: th

text: Cong

text: d

text: Sess

text: Id

text: at

text: Representative

text: Banks

text: of

text: Massachusetts

text: the

text: Chairman

text: of

text: the

text: House

text: Committee

text: on

text: Foreign

text: Affairs

text: which

text: drafted

text: the

text: bill

text: eventually

text: enacted

text: into

text: law

text: explained

text: why

text: Congress

text: refrained

text: from

text: providing

text: a

text: means

text: of

text: expatriation

text: It

text: is

text: a

text: subject

text: which

text: in

text: our

text: opinion

text: ought

text: not

text: to

text: be

text: legislated

text: upon

text: T

text: his

text: comes

text: within

text: the

text: scope

text: and

text: character

text: of

text: natural

text: rights

text: which

text: no

text: Government

text: has

text: the

text: right

text: to

text: control

text: and

text: which

text: no

text: Government

text: can

text: confer

text: And

text: wherever

text: this

text: subject

text: is

text: alluded

text: to

text: in

text: the

text: Constitution

text: it

text: is

text: in

text: the

text: declaration

text: that

text: Congress

text: shall

text: have

text: no

text: power

text: whatever

text: to

text: legislate

text: upon

text: these

text: matters

text: Id

text: at

text: Stat

text: R

text: S

text: Some

text: have

text: referred

text: to

text: this

text: part

text: of

text: the

text: decision

text: as

text: a

text: holding

text: see

text: e

text: g

text: Hurst

text: supra

text: Rocky

text: Mt

text: L

text: Rev

text: at

text: Comment

text: Mich

text: L

text: Rev

text: at

text: while

text: others

text: have

text: referred

text: to

text: it

text: as

text: obiter

text: dictum

text: see

text: e

text: g

text: Roche

text: supra

text: U

text: Pa

text: L

text: Rev

text: at

text: Whichever

text: it

text: was

text: the

text: statement

text: was

text: evidently

text: the

text: result

text: of

text: serious

text: consideration

text: and

text: is

text: entitled

text: to

text: great

text: weight

text: Of

text: course

text: as

text: THE

text: CHIEF

text: JUSTICE

text: said

text: in

text: his

text: dissent

text: U

text: S

text: at

text: naturalization

text: unlawfully

text: procured

text: can

text: be

text: set

text: aside

text: See

text: e

text: g

text: Knauer

text: v

text: United

text: States

text: U

text: S

text: Baumgartner

text: v

text: United

text: States

text: U

text: S

text: Schneiderman

text: v

text: United

text: States

text: U

text: S

text: It

text: is

text: appropriate

text: to

text: note

text: at

text: the

text: outset

text: what

text: appears

text: to

text: be

text: a

text: fundamental

text: ambiguity

text: in

text: the

text: opinion

text: for

text: the

text: Court

text: The

text: Court

text: at

text: one

text: point

text: intimates

text: but

text: does

text: not

text: expressly

text: declare

text: that

text: it

text: adopts

text: the

text: reasoning

text: of

text: the

text: dissent

text: of

text: THE

text: CHIEF

text: JUSTICE

text: in

text: Perez

text: THE

text: CHIEF

text: JUSTICE

text: there

text: acknowledged

text: that

text: actions

text: in

text: derogation

text: of

text: undivided

text: allegiance

text: to

text: this

text: country

text: had

text: long

text: been

text: recognized

text: to

text: result

text: in

text: expatriation

text: id

text: at

text: he

text: argued

text: however

text: that

text: the

text: connection

text: between

text: voting

text: in

text: a

text: foreign

text: political

text: election

text: and

text: abandonment

text: of

text: citizenship

text: was

text: logically

text: insufficient

text: to

text: support

text: a

text: presumption

text: that

text: a

text: citizen

text: had

text: renounced

text: his

text: nationality

text: Id

text: at

text: It

text: is

text: difficult

text: to

text: find

text: any

text: semblance

text: of

text: this

text: reasoning

text: beyond

text: the

text: momentary

text: reference

text: to

text: the

text: opinion

text: of

text: THE

text: CHIEF

text: JUSTICE

text: in

text: the

text: approach

text: taken

text: by

text: the

text: Court

text: today

text: it

text: seems

text: instead

text: to

text: adopt

text: a

text: substantially

text: wider

text: view

text: of

text: the

text: restrictions

text: upon

text: Congress

text: authority

text: in

text: this

text: area

text: Whatever

text: the

text: Court

text: s

text: position

text: it

text: has

text: assumed

text: that

text: voluntariness

text: is

text: here

text: a

text: term

text: of

text: fixed

text: meaning

text: in

text: fact

text: of

text: course

text: it

text: has

text: been

text: employed

text: to

text: describe

text: both

text: a

text: specific

text: intent

text: to

text: renounce

text: citizenship

text: and

text: the

text: uncoerced

text: commission

text: of

text: an

text: act

text: conclusively

text: deemed

text: by

text: law

text: to

text: be

text: a

text: relinquishment

text: of

text: citizenship

text: Until

text: the

text: Court

text: indicates

text: with

text: greater

text: precision

text: what

text: it

text: means

text: by

text: assent

text: today

text: s

text: opinion

text: will

text: surely

text: cause

text: still

text: greater

text: confusion

text: in

text: this

text: area

text: of

text: the

text: law

text: It

text: is

text: useful

text: however

text: to

text: reiterate

text: the

text: essential

text: facts

text: of

text: this

text: case

text: for

text: the

text: Court

text: s

text: very

text: summary

text: statement

text: might

text: unfortunately

text: cause

text: confusion

text: about

text: the

text: situation

text: to

text: which

text: e

text: was

text: here

text: applied

text: Petitioner

text: emigrated

text: from

text: the

text: United

text: States

text: to

text: Israel

text: in

text: and

text: although

text: the

text: issue

text: was

text: not

text: argued

text: at

text: any

text: stage

text: of

text: these

text: proceedings

text: it

text: was

text: assumed

text: by

text: the

text: District

text: Court

text: that

text: he

text: has

text: acquired

text: Israeli

text: citizenship

text: F

text: Supp

text: He

text: voted

text: in

text: the

text: election

text: for

text: the

text: Israeli

text: Knesset

text: in

text: and

text: as

text: his

text: Israeli

text: Identification

text: Booklet

text: indicates

text: in

text: various

text: political

text: elections

text: which

text: followed

text: Transcript

text: of

text: Record

text: In

text: after

text: years

text: in

text: Israel

text: petitioner

text: determined

text: to

text: return

text: to

text: the

text: United

text: States

text: and

text: applied

text: to

text: the

text: United

text: States

text: Consulate

text: in

text: Haifa

text: for

text: a

text: passport

text: The

text: application

text: was

text: rejected

text: and

text: a

text: Certificate

text: of

text: Loss

text: of

text: Nationality

text: based

text: entirely

text: on

text: his

text: participation

text: in

text: the

text: election

text: was

text: issued

text: Petitioner

text: s

text: action

text: for

text: declaratory

text: judgment

text: followed

text: There

text: is

text: as

text: the

text: District

text: Court

text: noted

text: no

text: claim

text: by

text: the

text: petitioner

text: that

text: the

text: deprivation

text: of

text: his

text: American

text: citizenship

text: will

text: render

text: him

text: a

text: stateless

text: person

text: Ibid

text: See

text: generally

text: Tsiang

text: The

text: Question

text: of

text: Expatriation

text: in

text: America

text: Prior

text: to

text: Roche

text: The

text: Expatriation

text: Cases

text: Sup

text: Ct

text: Rev

text: Roche

text: Loss

text: of

text: American

text: Nationality

text: West

text: Pol

text: Q

text: Roche

text: The

text: Expatriation

text: Cases

text: Sup

text: Ct

text: Rev

text: Although

text: the

text: evidence

text: which

text: consists

text: principally

text: of

text: a

text: letter

text: to

text: Albert

text: Gallatin

text: is

text: rather

text: ambiguous

text: Jefferson

text: apparently

text: believed

text: even

text: that

text: a

text: state

text: expatriation

text: statute

text: could

text: deprive

text: a

text: citizen

text: of

text: his

text: federal

text: citizenship

text: Writings

text: of

text: Albert

text: Gallatin

text: Adams

text: ed

text: His

text: premise

text: was

text: presumably

text: that

text: state

text: citizenship

text: was

text: primary

text: and

text: that

text: federal

text: citizenship

text: attached

text: only

text: through

text: it

text: See

text: Tsiang

text: supra

text: at

text: Gallatin

text: s

text: own

text: views

text: have

text: been

text: described

text: as

text: essentially

text: states

text: rights

text: see

text: Roche

text: Loss

text: of

text: American

text: Nationality

text: West

text: Pol

text: Q

text: See

text: Annals

text: of

text: Cong

text: et

text: seq

text: The

text: discussion

text: and

text: rejection

text: of

text: the

text: amendment

text: are

text: cursorily

text: reported

text: at

text: Annals

text: of

text: Cong

text: The

text: sixth

text: section

text: is

text: set

text: out

text: at

text: Annals

text: of

text: Cong

text: The

text: bill

text: is

text: summarized

text: at

text: Annals

text: of

text: Cong

text: Annals

text: of

text: Cong

text: Annals

text: of

text: Cong

text: Ibid

text: Roche

text: describes

text: the

text: Congressmen

text: upon

text: whom

text: the

text: Court

text: chiefly

text: relies

text: as

text: the

text: states

text: rights

text: opposition

text: Loss

text: of

text: American

text: Nationality

text: West

text: Pol

text: Q

text: Annals

text: of

text: Cong

text: Annals

text: of

text: Cong

text: Annals

text: of

text: Cong

text: Ibid

text: Annals

text: of

text: Cong

text: Similarly

text: the

text: Court

text: can

text: obtain

text: little

text: support

text: from

text: its

text: invocation

text: of

text: the

text: dictum

text: from

text: the

text: opinion

text: for

text: the

text: Court

text: in

text: United

text: States

text: v

text: Wong

text: Kim

text: Ark

text: U

text: S

text: The

text: central

text: issue

text: there

text: was

text: whether

text: a

text: child

text: born

text: of

text: Chinese

text: nationals

text: domiciled

text: in

text: the

text: United

text: States

text: is

text: an

text: American

text: citizen

text: if

text: its

text: birth

text: occurs

text: in

text: this

text: country

text: The

text: dictum

text: upon

text: which

text: the

text: Court

text: relies

text: which

text: consists

text: essentially

text: of

text: a

text: reiteration

text: of

text: the

text: dictum

text: from

text: Osborn

text: can

text: therefore

text: scarcely

text: be

text: considered

text: a

text: reasoned

text: consideration

text: of

text: the

text: issues

text: now

text: before

text: the

text: Court

text: Moreover

text: the

text: dictum

text: could

text: conceivably

text: be

text: read

text: to

text: hold

text: only

text: that

text: no

text: power

text: to

text: expatriate

text: an

text: unwilling

text: citizen

text: was

text: conferred

text: either

text: by

text: the

text: Naturalization

text: Clause

text: or

text: by

text: the

text: Fourteenth

text: Amendment

text: if

text: the

text: dictum

text: means

text: no

text: more

text: it

text: would

text: of

text: course

text: not

text: even

text: reach

text: the

text: holding

text: in

text: Perez

text: Finally

text: the

text: dictum

text: must

text: be

text: read

text: in

text: light

text: of

text: the

text: subsequent

text: opinion

text: for

text: the

text: Court

text: written

text: by

text: Mr

text: Justice

text: McKenna

text: in

text: Mackenzie

text: v

text: Hare

text: U

text: S

text: Despite

text: counsel

text: s

text: invocation

text: of

text: Wong

text: Kim

text: Ark

text: id

text: at

text: and

text: the

text: Court

text: held

text: in

text: Mackenzie

text: that

text: marriage

text: between

text: an

text: American

text: citizen

text: and

text: an

text: alien

text: unaccompanied

text: by

text: any

text: intention

text: of

text: the

text: citizen

text: to

text: renounce

text: her

text: citizenship

text: nonetheless

text: permitted

text: Congress

text: to

text: withdraw

text: her

text: nationality

text: It

text: is

text: immaterial

text: for

text: these

text: purposes

text: that

text: Mrs

text: Mackenzie

text: s

text: citizenship

text: might

text: under

text: the

text: statute

text: there

text: have

text: been

text: restored

text: upon

text: termination

text: of

text: the

text: marital

text: relationship

text: she

text: did

text: not

text: consent

text: to

text: the

text: loss

text: even

text: temporarily

text: of

text: her

text: citizenship

text: and

text: under

text: the

text: proposition

text: apparently

text: urged

text: by

text: the

text: Court

text: today

text: it

text: can

text: therefore

text: scarcely

text: matter

text: that

text: her

text: expatriation

text: was

text: subject

text: to

text: some

text: condition

text: subsequent

text: It

text: seems

text: that

text: neither

text: Mr

text: Justice

text: McKenna

text: who

text: became

text: a

text: member

text: of

text: the

text: Court

text: after

text: the

text: argument

text: but

text: before

text: the

text: decision

text: of

text: Wong

text: Kim

text: Ark

text: supra

text: at

text: nor

text: Mr

text: Chief

text: Justice

text: White

text: who

text: joined

text: the

text: Court

text: s

text: opinions

text: in

text: both

text: Wong

text: Kim

text: Ark

text: and

text: Mackenzie

text: thought

text: that

text: Wong

text: Kim

text: Ark

text: required

text: the

text: result

text: reached

text: by

text: the

text: Court

text: today

text: Nor

text: it

text: must

text: be

text: supposed

text: did

text: the

text: other

text: six

text: members

text: of

text: the

text: Court

text: who

text: joined

text: Mackenzie

text: despite

text: Wong

text: Kim

text: Ark

text: The

text: various

text: revisions

text: of

text: the

text: proposed

text: amendment

text: may

text: be

text: traced

text: through

text: Annals

text: of

text: Cong

text: Ames

text: The

text: Proposed

text: Amendments

text: to

text: the

text: Constitution

text: of

text: the

text: United

text: States

text: during

text: the

text: First

text: Century

text: of

text: Its

text: History

text: Ann

text: Rep

text: Am

text: Hist

text: Assn

text: for

text: the

text: Year

text: Ames

text: supra

text: at

text: speculates

text: that

text: the

text: presence

text: of

text: Jerome

text: Bonaparte

text: in

text: this

text: country

text: some

text: few

text: years

text: earlier

text: might

text: have

text: caused

text: apprehension

text: and

text: concludes

text: that

text: the

text: amendment

text: was

text: merely

text: an

text: expression

text: of

text: animosity

text: against

text: foreigners

text: Id

text: at

text: The

text: clause

text: provides

text: that

text: No

text: Title

text: of

text: Nobility

text: shall

text: be

text: granted

text: by

text: the

text: United

text: States

text: And

text: no

text: Person

text: holding

text: any

text: Office

text: of

text: Profit

text: or

text: Trust

text: under

text: them

text: shall

text: without

text: the

text: Consent

text: of

text: the

text: Congress

text: accept

text: of

text: any

text: present

text: Emolument

text: Office

text: or

text: Title

text: of

text: any

text: kind

text: whatever

text: from

text: any

text: King

text: Prince

text: or

text: foreign

text: State

text: Roche

text: The

text: Expatriation

text: Cases

text: Sup

text: Ct

text: Rev

text: Ibid

text: Richardson

text: Messages

text: and

text: Papers

text: of

text: the

text: Presidents

text: See

text: e

text: g

text: the

text: comments

text: of

text: Senator

text: Brown

text: of

text: Missouri

text: Cong

text: Globe

text: th

text: Cong

text: st

text: Sess

text: Lincoln

text: indicated

text: that

text: although

text: he

text: was

text: unprepared

text: to

text: be

text: inflexibly

text: committed

text: to

text: any

text: single

text: plan

text: of

text: restoration

text: he

text: was

text: fully

text: satisfied

text: with

text: the

text: bill

text: s

text: provisions

text: Richardson

text: Messages

text: and

text: Papers

text: of

text: the

text: Presidents

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