Capsicum spp.) are an important crop in the USA, with about 32,000 ha cultivated in 2007, which resulted in $588 million in farm revenue. The pepper weevil, Anthonomus eugenii Cano (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), is the most troublesome insect pest of peppers in the southern United States. It is therefore urgent to find different vulnerabilities of pepper cultivars, fruit and plants parts, fruit colors and sizes, and timing to infestation by A. eugenii. Also relevant is testing whether fruit length and infestation state affect fruit numbers, weights, and proportions of fruit that are infested. Counts of A. eugenii adults and marks from oviposition and feeding suggested that C. chinense Jacquin “Habanero” was least susceptible, and C. annuum L. cultivars “SY” and “SR” were most susceptible. Comparison of plant parts and fruit sizes revealed that A. eugenii preferred the peduncle, calyx, and top of pepper fruits over the middle, bottom, leaves, or remainder of flowers. Anthonomus eugenii does not discriminate between green or yellow fruit color nor vary diurnally in numbers. Based on adult counts, medium to extra-large fruits (≥1.5 cm long) attracted more weevils than small fruits (<1.5 cm). However based on proportions of fruit numbers or fruit weights that were infested, there were no differences between large and small fruits. Choice of pepper cultivar can thus be an important part of an IPM cultural control program designed to combat A. eugenii by reduced susceptibility or by synchronous fruit drop of infested fruits. Our results are potentially helpful in developing scouting programs including paying particular attention to the preferred locations of adults and their sites of feeding and oviposition on the fruit. The results also suggested the potential value of spraying when the fruits are still immature to prevent and control infestation.Peppers ( Capsicum spp.; Solanales: Solanaceae) are produced commercially in the USA: Bell (mild) and Chili (spicy) [Anthonomus eugenii Cano (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), is the most problematic insect pest of peppers in the southern United States [A.eugenii is found throughout most of Central America, the Caribbean, and the southern USA from California to Florida, where it became established in 1935 [et al. [Two production classes of peppers ( (spicy) . In 2007 (spicy) . The pep in 1935 . AccordiA. eugenii include the egg (0.5 mm long); three instars ; pupa (~3 mm); and adult (2.0–3.5 mm) [et al. [A. eugenii fecundity , shortest development time (12.9 days), and minimal mortality were obtained at 30 °C, the temperature for maximum population increase.One generation is completed in 20 to 30 days, but 3 to 5 generations are produced annually . A femal–3.5 mm) , which d [et al.  found thAnthonomus eugenii larvae develop only on plants in the Solanaceae, and females oviposit only on Capsicum and Solanum, though adults also feed on Physalis, Lycopersicon, Datura, Petunia, and Nicotiana [A. eugenii females oviposited on all Capsicum spp., but only on some Solanum spp., for example, not on tomatoes. Among vegetables, A. eugenii is most problematic on its namesake and attacks all pepper cultivars (Capsicum spp.). However tomatillo, Physalis philadelphica Lam., is also moderately susceptible, and eggplants Solanum melongena L. grown near peppers are occasionally infested [A. eugenii, including the common black nightshade Solanum americanum Mill. [To initially find food plants, insects use cues varying from general to host-specific, such as volatiles, then short-range, olfactory, mechanical, and gustatory cues help to verify the suitability of the plant for feeding or oviposition ,9. Anthoicotiana ,10. Addeinfested . Among wum Mill. ,10,11. Tum Mill. . Hence, A. eugenii may consume stamens and pollen to complete its life cycle [A. eugenii. Primary damage is caused by larval feeding on seeds and other parts within fruits, which become contaminated with frass, insect parts, and decaying plant tissue often rendering the core brown and moldy [et al. [A. eugenii damage and the amount of internal mold caused by Alternaria alternata (Fr.) Keissler. Secondary fruit damage occurs because of adult feeding and oviposition, which also allows the entry of pathogens [Pepper plants may become infested before flowering, though oviposition begins only after the plants produce buds and flowers . Plants fe cycle , and thefe cycle  found thnd moldy ,4,11,16. [et al.  noted a athogens ,3,4,16. athogens . Both adathogens ,19. On iathogens . Fruit dAnthonomus eugenii is difficult to control with insecticides once populations are established in the field because the eggs are deposited within flower buds and fruits where larvae and pupae are inaccessible to insecticides or natural enemies [et al. [A. eugenii is one adult per 100 plants. Action thresholds of one adult per 400 terminal buds [2 trap captures as many A. eugenii adults as are detected by inspecting 50 buds [ enemies ,20,21. S enemies . Accordi [et al. , an econnal buds . However 50 buds .et al. [Anthonomus eugenii can infest fruit from flowering until the fruit reaches about 35 g [A. eugenii oviposition on fruits. Insecticides such as Actara®  [®  [A. eugenii [et al. [versus non-synchronous fruit production) and compared resistant and susceptible lines. They found that the fruit availability more strongly affected A. eugenii infestation levels than differences in preferences among pepper lines. Hence, synchronous, high pepper production levels and abscission of infested fruits may help to reduce the time available for A. eugenii to infest fruit, permit the removal of dropped fruit, and reduce sorting costs at harvest [A. eugenii while minimizing pesticide use.Berdegue et al.  found thout 35 g . Hence, Zealand)  and VydaDE, USA)  are amon eugenii . However [et al.  investig harvest . These hA. eugenii, host plant resistance is an important component of an integrated pest management program and has proven to be effective in managing agricultural pests [et al. [A. eugenii adults did not exhibit preferences within or between cultivars or lines suggesting no differences in resistance or susceptibilities. However, because peppers have shown resistance to other insect pests, differences in resistance may exist among other pepper lines not yet tested. In the present study, the first hypothesis was that differences in cultivars, fruit and plant parts, fruit colors and sizes, and timing cause differential susceptibilities of peppers to A. eugenii. The second hypothesis was that fruit length and infestation state significantly affect the numbers and weights of fruit and their proportions infested with A. eugenii. Pest management recommendations were made based on the results.To avoid the sole reliance on insecticides to control al pests . Berdegu [et al.  comparedCapsicum spp. including three cultivars, “Hungarian wax”, “Habanero”, “Jalapeño”, and one cultivar group, Bell. The remainder and majority of the tests were in the spring and summer of the second year on nine Capsicum spp. cultivars: C. annuum “Cayenne”, “Cherry”, “Cubanelle”, “Hungarian”, “Jalapeño”, “Milta”, “SR”, “SY” and C. chinense Jacquin “Habanero”.Field and laboratory tests were conducted at the Tropical Research and Educational Center (TREC) and at two nearby commercial fields in the Homestead, FL, area. The soil type was Krome gravelly loam  and was well drained, had a PH of 7.4–8.4, was 34%–76% limestone pebbles (≥2 mm diameter), and had low organic matter content (<2%) ,31. The C. annuum and C. chinense have green stems, green leaves, white flowers, are upright, and 40 to 90 cm tall when mature. In tests 1, 2, 3, and 6, varieties were compared based on numbers of adults or puncture marks and oviposition plugs per fruit. Fruit sizes varied between cultivars or groups of cultivars; hence, the product of fruit length × width (“silhouette area”) was estimated using the above fruit dimensions and placed into the tables to show relative fruit sizes along with results comparing the taxa.Fruits of the Bell group of pepper cultivars have a bell-like, broad shape and are considered “sweet” because they lack capsaicin, a plant secondary compound providing fruits of most other pepper cultivars with a hot taste . The Aus(ca. 1000) with an indication of A. eugenii infestation were collected from “Jalapeno” pepper fields at TREC to perform the tests. The fruits were washed with tap water and air dried to remove excess water from the surfaces. A layer of the dried fruits were placed within a wooden cubicle (30 cm × 30 cm × 30 cm) in the laboratory to facilitate adult emergence and to avoid decomposition, and they were checked daily to collect adults. Hence, adults used in the laboratory tests were 0–24 h old with a male:female sex-ratio of about 50:50. The 6 tests included Test 5 in the first year, Tests 1–4 and 6 in the second year, and eastern standard time (EST) in the USA was the local time for all the tests. Environmental conditions in the initial adult emergence cubicle and in Tests 1–4 (laboratory tests) were maintained at 28 ± 2 °C, 72% ± 3% RH, and at a 14:10 L:D period, whereas tests 5–6 (field tests) were performed under ambient field conditions.Sufficient numbers of fallen fruits A. eugenii adults. After being gathered from the laboratory colony, 100 to 150 A. eugenii adults (0–24 h old) were released at the center of each cage. The experimental period for Tests 1–4 collectively spanned 11 days from 26 March to 5 April: Test 1 was 10 days (26 March to 4 April); Test 2, 3 days (2–4 April); Test 3, 1 day (5 April); and Test 4, 1 day (3 April). Five factors were compared in the analyses: plant parts (mainly fruit), fruit sizes, fruit colors, pepper cultivars, and times of observation. When one factor was compared, data from the other factors were usually pooled to form extra replications. For example, when comparing the five plant parts for each of the eight cultivars, the number of adult weevils found at each of 14 observation times served as a replication (The studies were conducted in a laboratory using three observation cages each housing one or more replications depending on the test and data collected. The cages were rectangular (91 cm × 58 cm area) with the tops of the shorter sides slanting so that the longer sides were 62 cm and 36 cm high on the rear and front, respectively. The cages had wooden frames, glass tops, and 26%–38% of the area of the two longer sides was covered with cloth for ventilation. Each cage contained 2 fruits for each of the 8 cultivars, hence 16 total fruits that were 7-to-9-days old. All fruits were suspended from the opposing shorter sidewalls using four 1-m-long strings; 18 cm separated the centers of four fruits per string from each other and from each sidewall. Strings were elevated about 30 cm above the cage floor, and 12 cm separated adjacent strings from each other and from the longer sidewalls. Four 1.5 cm × 6 cm glass vials were added per cage, one at each corner, and each contained 10% sugar solution with a cotton wick in the center, which was soaked with vial contents to provide additional nourishment for lication .A. eugenii found on each fruit were recorded 20 times with each recording 2–65 h apart and varying from 07:00 to 18:30 EST each day. For 14 of these observations, numbers of adults were also noted at each of five locations including the peduncle, calyx, and the top, middle, and bottom thirds of fruit. The procedure was performed in three cages simultaneously during the 9 days (10-day-spanning) test, and although there were initially 3 replications, because of pooling, most analyses and results involved 6 or more replications. Data were divided into two groups each with a separate initial statistical analysis: individual parts (Test 1a–c) and sum of parts for each cultivar (Test 1d). Individual parts included the peduncle, calyx, and the top, middle, and bottom thirds of fruit. For individual parts, a 3-way factorial (8 cultivars × 5 plant parts × 14 observation times) was initially performed to determine if there were interactions between any of the factors and to find their effects on resulting numbers of adult A. eugenii. Hence, there were the following three two-way factorials: cultivar × plant part with 8 cultivars, 5 plant parts, and 14 observation times (replications) (Test 1a); cultivar × observation time with 8 cultivars, 14 observation times, and 5 plant parts (replications) (Test 1b); and plant part × observation time with 5 plant parts, 14 observation times, and 8 cultivars (replications) (Test 1c). For the sum of plant parts (Test 1d), two one-way ANOVAs were initially performed including one with 8 cultivars and 20 observation times (replications) and the other with 20 observation times and 8 cultivars (replications).Numbers of adult All data were taken using fruits, insects, and cages from Test 1 days 8–10 (2–4 April). Test 2 surveyed puncture marks and oviposition plugs made by adults, which were simultaneously counted in Test 1. Each cultivar had two fruits, and to collect data, each fruit was visually divided into the peduncle, calyx, and the top, middle, and bottom thirds. Puncture marks resulting from adult feeding and oviposition on fruit were observed using a 10× hand lens. Three counts (one per cage) of puncture marks and oviposition plugs were taken for each part of two fruits resulting in 6 replications per plant part per pepper cultivar, and the data were total counts for the 3-day test period. Data were divided into two groups each with a separate initial statistical analysis: individual parts (Test 2a) and sum of parts (Test 2b). For individual parts, a factorial was initially performed (5 plant parts × 8 cultivars with 6 replications) to determine interaction, and for the sum of parts, a one-way ANOVA was performed with 8 cultivars and 6 replications.Fruit colors were green and yellow and estimated by casual visual inspection. Locations on fruit included the peduncle, calyx, and the top, middle, and bottom thirds of fruit, and observation times were 3:00 PM, 5:00 PM, and 7:00 PM EST. Large versus medium-sized fruit were also noted but pooled in all analyses. The test was performed using the foregoing three observation cages on a single day. A three-way factorial was initially performed  involving 2 colors, 5 plant parts, 3 observation times, and initially 3 replications. The initial three two-way factorials were Test 3a , Test 3b , and Test 3c .A. eugenii were counted on 4–21 different locations on pepper plants (mostly on fruit), at 8 observation times from 6 AM to 8 PM EST on a single day (3 April). There were four data sets each with a separate statistical analysis beginning with a factorial of 4, 6, 7, or 21 plant parts × 8 observation times and initially 3 replications. The data set with 21 plant parts did not include subtotals for parts, while the sets with 4, 6, or 7 parts included both individual plant parts and parts grouped into selected subtotals. Groups for fruit length included small (<1.5 cm long), medium (1.5–3.4 cm), large (3.5–6.9 cm), and extra-large (≥7.0 cm) fruits. The 21 plant parts (Test 4a) included 5 parts each with medium, large, and extra-large fruit  resulting in 15 plant parts. For small fruits, however, only peduncles and calyxes (2 parts) were examined. The remaining 4 of 21 plant parts included the peduncles, calyxes, remainder of flowers (mainly corollas), and whole leaves. The analysis for 7 plant parts × 8 observation times (Test 4b) considered the following plant parts and subtotals thereof: leaf, corolla, peduncle, calyx, and the top, middle, and bottom thirds of fruit. Using plant parts grouped to form an initial factorial of 6 parts × 8 observation times (Test 4c), the following 6 parts were considered: flowers, leaves, and small, medium, large, and extra-large fruit. Finally, a factorial was performed with 4 fruit sizes  × 8 observation times (Test 4d). It included the fruit totals  at each observation time.Using the previously described 3 observation cages, numbers of adult A. eugenii larvae were removed, counted, and their numbers were totaled by adding the counts from all the fruits of each sample plant. There were 4 replications (plots) for each treatment in Test 5.Two separate commercial pepper fields were employed each with four pepper cultivar groups planted separately in adjoining plots: “Hungarian wax”, “Habanero”, “Jalapeño”, and Bell. Each pepper plot was 46 m × 10 m and consisted of 6 beds each 46 m × 1 m, raised 15 cm, and with adjacent bed centers separated by 0.9 m. Irrigation was provided by two drip tapes , which were placed on the soil surface with one tape on each side and parallel to each bed and 30 cm from its center. Beds were subsequently covered with 1-mil, black-on-white, polyethylene mulch  with the white side facing upward for weed control and to help moderate the soil temperature and moisture. One pepper plant was transplanted into a circular, 10-cm-diam hole in the plastic and 3 cm deep in the soil with holes 40 cm apart in the center of each row. Later, when the crop was fruiting, five plants were randomly sampled per replication, and all fruits for each sample plant were harvested and placed into a plastic container. Each container had a plastic lid with about half its area composed of screen mesh to allow ventilation while preventing the escape of adults, and the fruits were covered with two layers of paper towels to absorb excess moisture. In the laboratory, fruits were dissected and A. eugenii and/or a yellow calyx. The following fruit lengths were used to determine the size classes for “Milta” (Test 6a): small (0–2.0 cm), medium (2.1–4.0 cm), and large (≥4.1 cm). “Hungarian”  fruit sizes were small (0–4.0 cm), medium (4.1–6.0 cm), and large (≥6.1 cm). “Cubanelle” (Test 6d) fruits were small (0–6.0 cm), medium (6.1–10.0 cm), or large (≥10.1 cm). There were 9 bags (9 replications) for Test 6a, 8 replications each for Tests 6b and 6c, and 4 replications for Test 6d. Within each of the four data sets (Tests 6a–d), a one-way ANOVA was used to compare the 3 treatments (size classes of fruit).The same pepper fields and methods described for Test 5 (larvae within fruit) were used. “Milta” (Test 6a) was planted in one field, and the other field had three adjoining plots, two with “Hungarian” , and one with “Cubanelle” (Test 6d). Similar to the previous test for larvae within fruit, for each replication of the present test, five plants were randomly selected with all fruit per plant harvested and placed into a plastic bag. Upon inspection of each fruit, the following were recorded: infestation state (infested or non-infested), and the quantity, length, weight, and resulting size class of fruits. A fruit was considered infested if it had the characteristic exit holes of adult Using fruit dimensions from Reimer Seeds , Johnny A. eugenii found in Test 1a, there was a significant interaction (p ≤ 0.05) between cultivar and plant part . Significant differences in adult counts were found comparing parts within cultivars for “Cherry”, “Cubanelle”, “Hungarian”, “SR”, and “SY”, but differences were not significant within “Cayenne”, “Habanero”, or “Jalapeño”  for cultivar and observation time with plant parts considered separately  between cultivar and plant part based on counts of puncture marks and oviposition plugs . There were significant differences in numbers of puncture marks comparing parts within cultivars for “Cayenne”, “Cherry”, “Cubanelle”, “SR”, and “SY”, but differences were not significant within “Habanero”, “Hungarian”, or “Jalapeño” . Results for color and plant part were insignificant comparing fruit colors with plant parts pooled, but were significant comparing plant parts with colors pooled  between part plant and observation time for numbers of adult A. eugenii in any of the four factorials. These included 21 plant parts without totals, 7 plant parts with pooled fruit sizes, 6 plant parts including leaves, flowers, and four fruit sizes, or only four fruit sizes. Test 4a had 21 plant parts with no parts grouped into totals, and it had insignificant results comparing observation times with plant parts pooled, but significant results comparing plant parts with observation times pooled  of Bell than “Hungarian wax” (80 vs. 30 cm2) suggests that Bell may have lured more weevils by having larger fruit. “Habanero” had the fewest larvae and thus appeared to be least preferred in one of two tests, though it had the smallest cross-sectional fruit area numerically. The initial test in the second year found that plant parts from “SY” and “SR” generally attracted larger numbers of adult A. eugenii than parts from the other six cultivars. Two additional comparisons of cultivars with observation times pooled yielded similar results: “SY” and “SR” attracted the most adults and “Jalapeño” and “Habanero” the fewest. When considering cultivars within individual plant parts or with plant parts summed, similar results were found based on varying numbers of marks from adult oviposition and puncture. With exception of the middle and bottom thirds of fruit, “SY” had among the highest numbers of puncture marks per plant part and “Habanero” had among the fewest. One of the two tests  for varietal preference from the first year and two tests  from the second year provided similar results: “SY” was usually most preferred numerically and “Habanero” least preferred with statistical differences between them in 11 of 13 final ANOVAs that included both cultivars. Thus, our field and laboratory experiments showed that A. eugenii preferred certain cultivars over others with “SY” and “SR” most preferred and “Habanero” least preferred. Seal and Bondari [A. eugenii infestation. “Habanero” may therefore produce higher yields using less pesticides and hence serve as a potentially good choice for management by varietal resistance. “Habanero” is a cultivar of C. chinense, which was apparently more resistant (or less susceptible) than C. annuum to A. eugenii in the present study. The other seven test cultivars were derived from C. annuum. Although fruit-size differences among the varieties were not compared statistically, “SY” fruit areas were about 20 cm2 (4th highest of 8 varieties), “SR” was 2nd highest (72 cm2), and “Habanero” was third lowest (15 cm2). In addition, the limited number of larvae  found per infested fruit, which generally appear able support many more larvae, suggests that a marking pheromone limits the number of oviposition events and eggs laid per fruit. Larger fruits may allow for more eggs than small fruits because of the greater distances between sites of adult feeding and oviposition, which may be marked with the pheromone. Hence, smaller fruits may tend to have fewer adults, puncture marks, and oviposition plugs than larger fruits, and fruit size differences may have affected our results. Nonetheless, Seal and Bondari [A. eugenii than others, and plant breeders may be able to enhance the resistance.The two initial field tests during the first year involved counting numbers of A. eugenii, which helps to reduce the damage compared with lines that shed fewer fruits [A. eugenii [A. eugenii per pepper plant, employing less-susceptible pepper cultivars may enhance the effectiveness of removing dropped, infested fruits as a cultural technique [A. eugenii, in addition to synchronous, concentrated fruit production, can therefore serve as effective cultural components of an IPM program.In addition, some pepper lines have fruit production that is more synchronous and concentrated than others. They readily shed fruit infested with r fruits . Lines w eugenii . In addiechnique . ChoosinA. eugenii adults, similar results were found when comparing parts within cultivars  and when comparing parts with observation times pooled . More adults were generally attracted to the calyx, peduncle, or top third of pepper fruit than to the middle or bottom. Based on numbers of puncture marks and oviposition plugs per plant part from most cultivars with variation, the calyx and peduncle each were preferred over the top, middle, or bottom thirds of fruit. In a third test, no-interaction factorial results for color × part and part × observation time were identical because only plant-part differences were significant and either colors or observation times were pooled. Here, peduncles and top thirds of fruit yielded higher numbers of A. eugenii than calyxes, middle, or bottom thirds with the top third most preferred and bottom third least preferred. The fourth test yielded four factorial analyses with no-interaction results: one analysis was for 21 plant parts that were compared individually and the other three were for 7, 6, or 4 plant parts or fruit sizes with some or all the plant parts grouped. Medium, large, and extra-large fruit were preferred over small fruit, flowers, and leaves. The top thirds of fruits generally were most preferred with the leaves least preferred. Overall, among the four tests comparing plant parts and/or fruit sizes, A. eugenii seemed to prefer the top, peduncle, and calyx over the middle and bottom of pepper fruits. Similarly, Toapanta et al. [A. eugenii produced more feeding punctures on the fruit top than on the middle or bottom, and females deposited more eggs on the top and on or near the calyx than on the middle or bottom. Of the eggs oviposited on pepper fruit, 63%–78% were at the top, 14%–25% at the middle, and 4%–18% at the bottom, but unlike in our findings, A. eugenii preferred smaller over larger fruit sizes [Based on counts of Anthonomus grandis grandis Boheman (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) on cotton Gossypium hirsutum L. preferred the flower squares (buds) over bolls (fruit) for oviposition and feeding [A. grandis larvae to complete development resulting in greater fecundity than smaller buds or fruit, although they fed less often on large buds than on young fruit (5–10 days old) [Anthonomusgrandis and A.eugenii are closely related species with similar life cycles. Hence, A. eugenii may also choose the peduncle, calyx, and top third of fruit over the middle and bottom third, other flower parts, and leaves because of nutritional superiority, fecundity, or fitness advantages.Boll weevils  feeding ,40. Egg  feeding ,42. Reprays old) ,44. Overversus yellow fruit colors were examined in one test with two factorial analyses resulting in no-interaction (color × part and color × observation time), and each found no difference between colors. Observation time was examined in three tests with eight no-interaction analyses. In one test, none of the four analyses with 21, 7, 6, or 4 plant parts yielded differences among numbers of adults that were counted 2 h apart from 6 AM to 8 PM. The other two tests with observation times also found no differences. Apparently, A. eugenii does not discriminate between green or yellow fruit colors nor vary diurnally in its numbers. It occurs or makes oviposition and puncture marks on fruit equally at different observation times and on different fruit colors.Green A. eugenii showed a significant positive correlation with numbers of fruit per plant. These differences suggest that similar proportions of different sizes of “Milta”, “Hungarian”, and “Cubanelle” fruit were infested by A. eugenii. According to Seal and Bondari [A. eugenii adults.Across four field tests and three pepper cultivars for fruit characteristics, total numbers and weights of fruit were each highest for large and lowest for small fruit. “Hungarian” was the only cultivar differing among infested fruit numbers or sizes with higher numbers and weights of infested fruits generally found in large than in small fruits. This is similar to total fruit results, which found greater fruit numbers and weights in large than in small fruit not only for “Hungarian”, but also the other two cultivars. More importantly, among size classes within each cultivar, there were no differences in proportions of fruit numbers or of fruit weights that were infested. Seal and Bondari  similarl Bondari , it infeCapsicum chinense “Habanero” was least susceptible, and C. annuum “SY” and “SR” were most susceptible to attack by A. eugenii based on counts of adults and marks from oviposition and feeding. However, “SY” and “SR” fruits tend to be numerically larger than “Habanero” and this may have affected the results. Anthonomus eugenii preferred the peduncle, calyx, and top of pepper fruits over the middle, bottom, leaves, or remainder of the flowers. There was no discrimination by A. eugenii between green or yellow fruit colors nor diurnal variation in its numbers. Based on adult counts, medium to extra-large fruits (≥1.5 cm long) were preferred over small fruits (<1.5 cm). However, based on fruit inspection, no differences were found between large and small fruits in proportions of fruit numbers or of fruit weights that were infested. Choice of pepper cultivar, preferred locations of adults, and their sites of feeding and oviposition on fruits may therefore be important in IPM programs which combat A. eugenii by reduced susceptibility, synchronous drop of infested fruits, or scouting. These results and suggested control measures may help in developing scouting programs and may best serve when fruits are small and applied insecticides may be preventative.Overall,


Nonmotor symptoms are common among patients with Parkinson’s disease (PD) and some may precede disease diagnosis.We conducted a meta-analysis on the prevalence of selected nonmotor symptoms before and after PD diagnosis, using random-effect models. We searched PubMed (1965 through October/November 2012) for the following symptoms: hyposmia, constipation, rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder, excessive daytime sleepiness, depression, and anxiety. Eligible studies were publications in English with original data on one or more of these symptoms.The search generated 2,373 non-duplicated publications and 332 met the inclusion criteria, mostly (n = 320) on symptoms after PD diagnosis. For all symptoms, the prevalence was substantially higher in PD cases than in controls, each affecting over a third of the patients. Hyposmia was the most prevalent (75.5% in cases vs. 19.1% in controls), followed by constipation (50% vs. 17.7%), anxiety (39.9% vs. 19.1%), rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder (37.0% vs. 7.0%), depression (36.6% vs. 14.9%), and excessive daytime sleepiness (33.9% vs. 10.5%). We observed substantial heterogeneities across studies and meta-regression analyses suggested that several factors might have contributed to this. However, the prevalence estimates were fairly robust in several sensitivity analyses. Only 20 studies had data on any symptoms prior to PD diagnosis, but still the analyses revealed higher prevalence in future PD cases than in controls.These symptoms are common among PD patients both before and after diagnosis. Further studies are needed to understand the natural history of nonmotor symptoms in PD and their etiological and clinical implications.The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/2047-9158-4-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users. Parkinson disease (PD) is the second most prevalent neurodegenerative disease and affects over one percent of the elderly. In addition to motor dysfunction, PD patients also suffer from a variety of nonmotor symptoms (NMS), ranging from hyposmia and depression early-on to dementia and visual hallucination at later stages of the disease. Many of these symptoms adversely affect the quality of life of PD patients , and somIn October and November 2012, NIEHS librarians conducted separate searches for publications on each of the following NMS of PD: hyposmia, constipation, anxiety, depression, EDS, and RBD. We selected these symptoms because of clear evidence that they could develop prior to PD diagnosis. The searches were primarily based on MeSH terms for individual symptoms supplemented with keyword searches in titles or abstracts specifically to identify papers that had not yet been indexed by PubMed. We limited searches to studies that were relevant to PD by applying the MeSH Term/Major paper to “Parkinson Disease” or searching for the keywords “Parkinson’s OR Parkinson OR Parkinsons”. For MeSH terms, we used “olfaction disorders” for hyposmia, “constipation” for constipation, “depressive disorder” or “depression” for depression, “anxiety” or “anxiety disorders” for anxiety, “disorders of excessive somnolence” for EDS, and “REM sleep behavior disorder” for RBD. For the keyword searches, we used “olfact*”, “hyposmia”, “anosmia” or “smell” for hyposmia; “constipat* or “bowel movement” for constipation; “depress*” for depression, “anxiet*” or “anxious*” for anxiety; “daytime sleepiness” for EDS; and “rapid eye movement”, “rapid-eye-movement”, “REM”, or “RBD” for RBD. In addition to these specific symptoms, we also searched for general terms of pre-motor symptoms, using “early diagnosis” as the MeSH term and “non-motor” or “nonmotor”, or “premotor” or “pre-motor” or “prodrom*” as keywords. The search was restricted to original publications on one or more of these NMS by limiting searches to “Humans” and “English language” and by excluding comments, case reports, editorials, reviews, or letters. These searches generated a total of 2,298 entries. These searches were further supplemented with 592 articles from a separate search conducted in June 2011. The 2011 search used a combination of MeSH terms and keywords for PD and a broader range of individual NMS. Combing these two searches, we identified a total of 2,890 references. After excluding 517 duplicates, 2,373 were left for review.Two authors independently screened the title and abstract of each paper and full text if necessary to determine study eligibility. Eligible studies are original publications that either reported prevalence of one or more NMS or provided original data from which prevalence could be calculated. Therefore, studies that only provided risk estimates such as relative risk without numbers of individuals with the symptoms were not eligible. We excluded studies for the following reasons: 1) duplicate populations (n = 22); 2) studies that did not have data on any of the above-referenced NMS ; 3) publications without original data, such as reviews, comments, editorials, or case-reports (n = 438); 4) non-English publications (n = 131); 5) non-human studies (n = 121); and 6) studies that could not be generalized to late-onset sporadic PD (n = 185). The full texts of 332 eligible studies were subsequently reviewed and relevant data were abstracted. For papers that reported data on more than one symptom, we abstracted data for each symptom separately. Similarly, for studies that reported data both after and prior to PD diagnosis, relevant data were abstracted separately. At each step, disagreements were resolved by group discussion and re-reviews. The details of the literature search are shown in Figure Details of symptom assessment in individual studies are provided in Additional file 2 statistics [For the purpose of this meta-analysis, prevalence was defined as the proportion of individuals with a specific symptom among PD patients or among participants without PD (controls). As many clinical studies have a small sample size, rather than using the standard sample proportion to estimate prevalence, we used a Bayes estimator as commonly advocated for such situations . In partatistics . For symatistics .For symptoms after diagnosis, we further conducted meta-regression analyses among cases to examine factors that might have contributed to prevalence in individual studies. In these analyses, we performed logit transformation of the Laplace estimator since they are bounded between 0 and 1 and regression analysis requires unbounded support . Due to As shown in Figure A variety of methods were used in the assessment of NMS across studies and symptoms  to 5.3 (RBD) times higher than the prevalence in controls. Hyposmia was the most prevalent in cases (75.5% vs. 19.1% in controls), followed by constipation (50.0% vs. 17.7%), anxiety (39.9% vs. 19.1%), RBD (37.0% vs. 7.0%), depression (36.6% vs. 14.9%), and EDS (33.9% vs. 10.5%). Similar results were obtained from all three sensitivity analyses . We therefore conducted meta-regression analyses among cases to evaluate potential sources of heterogenity  suggest publication bias for studies that examined the prevalence of anxiety, contipation, depression, and EDS among cases after PD diagnosis, and for depression and hyposmia among controls (Egger test: P < 0.05). The positive Egger’s bias coefficients for these studies suggest that more extreme estimates from smaller studies were more likely to be published than less extreme estimates.I2 = 79.1% to 96.4%, all P < 0.05; controls: I2 = 80.6% to 99.1%, P <0.01) , constipation (20.0% vs. 9.3%), anxiety (18.8% vs. 10.5%), and RBD (17.9% for cases). Because only one study assessed EDS prior to PD diagnosis or RBD among controls, no summary estimates were calculated. Like the post-diagnosis analyses, significant study heterogeneities were observed across symptoms Additional file 1: Table S1: Summary of study characteristics included in the meta-analyses.


AbstractDushia atra. The biodiversity of nemerteans in Colombia seems to overlap with the nemertean fauna from Florida and Brazil, explained by the convergence of the North Brazil Current, Guiana Current, Caribbean Currents and the Panama-Colombia Contracurrent in the sampled region. The results of this work suggest that the Caribbean coast of Colombia is a region with a high diversity of nemerteans, and provide important taxonomic data for environmental assessments and future biological research.A checklist of benthic ribbon worm species from the Caribbean coast of Colombia is presented, including synonyms, distributions, a photographic record, and the main morphologic characters of each species for a rapid identification. This is the first research focused broadly on nemerteans in Colombia. 54 specimens of nemerteans were hand-collected from the rocky littoral of two different localities, and identified according to personal experience and specialist literature. 13 species were found; of which 11 represent new records for the country. These species belong to eight different traditionally used families: Tubulanidae, Valenciniidae, Lineidae, Amphiporidae, Cratenemertidae, Emplectonematidae, Drepanophoridae and Ototyphlonemertidae. The most common and abundant species was  Nemertea, also known as Nemertini, Rhynchocoela, or ribbon worms, comprise a group of bilateral, coelomate and non-segmented worms (ibid.). The proboscis, though structurally independent of the digestive system, is the primary means of prey capture by nemerteans. About 1275 species of nemerteans are considered validly named, most of which are found in marine environments  nemertean species descriptions are inadequate and diagnoses for genera and families often are conflicting or insufficiently diagnostic .PageBreakEnopla and Anopla. The class Enopla is characterized by the synapomorphy of central proboscis armature, as well placement of the mouth, which opens anteriorly either subterminally or joined with the rhynchodeum. In Anopla the mouth characteristically is ventral and post-cerebral and the proboscis lacks discrete central armature. Neither class is supported as monophyletic by recent molecular phylogenies. Within these classes, four orders – Hoplonemertea, Heteronemertea, Palaeonemertea and Bdellonemertea – were recognized for most of the last 100 years, based on disposition of body-wall musculature, nerve cords, blood vessels, and nature of proboscis armature  and Neonemertea, with the latter comprising the Hoplonemertea and the new clade Pilidiophora (= Heteronemertea + Hubrechtellidae) based respectively on absence or presence of a pilidium larva. This proposal was only partially supported by a more recent study , Pilidiophora, and Hoplonemertea  are non-monophyletic  is located in one of the most important touristic centers in the Santa Marta region. Taganga  is a traditional fishing bay where touristic activity has increased in the last decade and SCUBA activities have become economically important.The sites are in the bays formed by the extensions into the sea of the foothills of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (SNSM), which is considered the highest coastal mountain range in the world. The common characteristic of these sites is the presence of a rocky littoral zone formed by metamorphic rocks interspersed with sandy beaches. There are two main climatic seasons – dry from December to April and rainy from May to November – influenced mainly by the Alisios winds . During in vivo, fixed in 10% buffered formalin and finally transferred to 70% ethanol after at least 24 hours of fixation. When necessary, histological sections were done at the level of the head and in the middle region of the body. For this, cross sections of paraplast embedded tissue were made and stained with hematoxylin and eosin. Taxonomic identification was based on Specimens were collected from the rocky littoral zone. Three methods were used to look for the worms: inspecting the surface of rocks, breaking apart rocks when they had crevices, and leaving a portion of coarse substrate in a bowl of sea water so that worms were obligated to go up to the surface as the seawater de-oxygenated. Each specimen was relaxed in 7.5% magnesium chloride, measured and photographed PageBreakthan ideal original descriptions. Nevertheless, the species reported here seem to reflect minimal endemism and some species seem to have biogeographically complex distributions. The influence and combined effects of the North Brazil Current, Guiana Current, Caribbean Current and the Panama-Colombia Contracurrent could favor relatively wide dispersion of planktonic nemertean larvae and juveniles  and the descriptions of the main characteristics, together with photographs of the different species, provide a tool for rapid visual identification of the nemerteans found in this survey of the Santa Marta region of Colombia. That for Palaeonemertea and Heteronemertea . In lineid Heteronemertea  a more or less deep furrow extends longitudinally along each side of the head and often is referred to as a cephalic slit, groove or furrow; the cerebral organ pore opens at its posterior. Cephalic furrows (when present) of tubulanid palaeonemerteans, baseodiscid heteronemerteans and hoplonemerteans are shallow and vertical or oblique, at the sides of the head near the cerebral ganglia, and they may be inconspicuous; the cerebral organ pore opens into the middle of each furrow. These furrows might best be referred to as cerebral organ furrows to distinguish them from a circumferential cephalic groove; a shallow epidermal groove that encircles the body and demarcates the “head” from the foregut region and found in most benthic Hoplonemertea and a very few Palaeonemertea and Pilidiophora. It commonly is post-cerebral and in Hoplonemertea usually takes the form of a dorsal posteriorly directed “V” and a ventral anteriorly directed “V”. The hoplonemertean proboscis when everted reveals a characteristic cylindrically uniform coating of more or less conspicuous epidermal papillae, whereas the anoplan proboscis generally lacks conspicuous papillae and often is bilaterally differentiated. The mid-region of the monostiliferan hoplonemertean proboscis is conspicuously differentiated into a bulb-like structure posteriorly and an anterior diaphragm bearing a basis with stylet and two or more sacs containing accessory stylets : Baseodiscus curtus, Baseodiscus delineatus var. curta, Baseodiscus delineatus var. curtus, Baseodiscus insignis, Borlasia carmelina, Eupolia amboinensis, Eupolia ascophora, Eupolia curta, Nemertes delineatus, Nemertes delineatus, Polia delineata Delle Chiaje, 1825 ((a) je, 1825 , 2014a.Dushia atra : Cerebratulus ater, Lineus ater, Meckelia atra Girard, 1851 ((b) rd, 1851 .Amphiporus cf. ochraceus : Cosmocephala ochracea Verrill, 1873 ((c) ll, 1873 .Nemertopsis bivittata : Eunemertes peronea, Nemerteopsis peronea, Nemertes peronea, Nemertopsis peronea, Omatoplea peronea, Ommatoplea peronea, Polia bivittata Delle Chiaje, 1841; Prosorhochmus bistriatus, Prosorochmus bistriatus ((d) striatus .Ototyphlonemertes lactea Corrêa, 1954: Norenburgia lactea Chernyshev, 1993 ((e) ev, 1993 .Zygonemertes virescens : Amphiporus agilis, Amphiporus virescens Verrill,1879; Nemertes verrilli, Ophionemertes agilis ((f) s agilis .Curranemertes natans Kirsteuer, 1973.(g) PageBreakTaxon classificationAnimaliaPalaeonemerteaTubulanidaeCorrêa, 1954One specimen up to about 30 mm long and 1 mm wide; dorsoventrally flattened, cephalic lobe broadly rounded anteriorly; caudal terminus blunt. Ochre with numerous small dark dots arranged in longitudinal lines, dark brown rings of differing thickness spaced irregularly along body, first four rings thickest. Prominent but short, vertical cerebral organ furrows demarcate head from rest of body. Eyespots lacking. Mouth ventral, just posterior to cephalic grooves. Proboscis pore subterminal. Lateral sensory organ present in fourth ring. Worm secretes and lives in soft tube of honey color.Curaçao ; FloridaTaxon classificationAnimaliaHeteronemerteaValenciniidaeSix specimens up to about 50 mm long, 2 mm wide; dorsoventrally flattened; cephalic lobe broadly rounded. Milky ground color; dorsally with abundant short interrupted reddish to brown longitudinal lines, paler or completely absent on ventral surface. Shallow, cerebral organ furrows post-cerebral, vertical and slightly oblique, with inconspicuous, orthogonally oriented secondary furrows. Numerous ocelli arranged irregularly along antero-lateral margin of head. Mouth ventral, posterior to cerebral organ furrows. Proboscis pore at anterior of head; proboscis short and thin.This species seems to be circumglobal in tropical and subtropical seas .Taxon classificationAnimaliaHeteronemerteaLineidaeFifteen specimens up to about 160 mm long, 2.5 mm wide; dorsoventrally flattened; head elongate, can be pointy; short, slender caudal cirrus present. Black body, lips of cephalic furrows, tip of head and tail grayish or milky white. Deep cephalic furrows form lateral margins of head. Ocelli lacking. Mouth ventral, a large longitudinal slit posterior to cephalic furrows. Proboscis long, yellow, with smooth surface when everted.Curaçao , Gulf ofCerebratulus and Micrura, both considered to have a caudal cirrus as a matter of diagnosis, are known among nemertean specialists to be fraught with taxonomic inconsistencies  in which the white rings are interrupted in the mid dorsal line but in the latter species the rings continue laterally and ventrally”. Notospermus  and transferred to it Lineus geniculatus  of several authors. We agree that the pigment pattern resembles that of Notospermus geniculatus as well as that of a variety of similar worm images available via the internet and attributed to Notospermus geniculatus . We anticipate that Lineus stigmatus is congeneric with Notospermus geniculatus, but this needs to be corroborated with internal anatomy and/or molecular data.Taxon classificationAnimaliaHeteronemerteaLineidaeSchwartz & Norenburg, 2005Two specimens up to about 100 mm long, 3 mm wide; dorsoventrally flattened; head “triangular”, pointed anteriorly and widening posteriorly; posterior end blunt with short and slender caudal cirrus. Orange grading posteriorly to yellowish. Deep cephalic furrows form lateral margins of head. Mouth slit-shaped, posterior to cephalic grooves. Eyespots lacking. Proboscis long, thick and pink; when everted it possesses ruffles.Belize ; CaribbeTaxon classificationAnimaliaHeteronemerteaMonostiliferaVerrill, 1879PageBreak30 µm), supported on cylindrical basis (33 × 8 µm); 2 pouches with 3 accessory stylets each. Mature females with dark or bright gray eggs visible through body wall.Two specimens up to about 20 mm long, < 1 mm wide; dorsoventrally flattened, bluntly rounded at both ends. Pale yellow, with three thin, longitudinal blood vessels made bright red by corpuscles that can be observed flowing through the vessels. Cerebral organ furrows, vertical, not prominent, precerebral. About 6–10 conspicuous, blackish, precerebral ocelli, in single row along each. Rhynchopore subterminal at tip of head; rhynchocoel extends to about middle of body length; proboscis long and thick; armature approximately at center of proboscis; stylet slender  and Washington ; CaliforPageBreakTaxon classificationAnimaliaHeteronemerteaMonostiliferaFour specimens up to about 10 mm long, 0.5 mm wide; dorsoventrally flattened, bluntly rounded at both ends. Variable color, yellowish to milky gray, sometimes with light orange pigmentation in cephalic region corresponding to cerebral ganglia. Cerebral organ furrows vertical, precerebral. About 6-10 conspicuous, blackish, precerebral ocelli, arranged in single regular row, along each lateral margin of head. Rhynchopore subterminal; rhynchocoel about three quarters of body length; proboscis long; medially constricted basis same length as slender stylet (length: 29 µm); 2 pouches with 2 accessory stylets each.Gulf of Mexico and New England (USA) ; Santa MTaxon classificationAnimaliaHeteronemerteaMonostiliferaCoe, 1951Four specimens up to about 15 mm long, 0.5 mm wide; dorsoventrally flattened, bluntly rounded at both ends; cephalic lobe narrower than foregut region. Dark brown body; with magnification, thick unpigmented margin  appears white. Cerebral organ furrows vertical, precerebral. Row of about 6 ocelli present along each lateral margin of head; visible in squeeze preparation. Rhynchopore subterminal; proboscis large and thick, conspicuous papillae; central stylet slender (length: 42 µm), supported on wide cylindrical basis (34 × 10 µm) at middle of proboscis; two pouches with 2-4 accessory stylets each.Gulf of Mexico and Southern Florida ; CuraçaoTaxon classificationAnimaliaHeteronemerteaMonostiliferaOne specimen up to about 20 mm long; 1 mm wide; rounded at both ends. Yellow milky base color, dorsally with 2 brown to reddish longitudinal lines joined at anterior and posterior ends. Cerebral organ furrows precerebral, difficult to see. Head almost undifferentiated from body. Cephalic grooves not visible. Two pre-cerebral eyes on each lateral margin of head. Rhynchopore subterminal; proboscis small, slender provided with papillae; short central stylet (length: 11 µm), supported on a massive base (27 × 7 µm). Two pouches containing three accessory stylet each.USA East Coast – Florida , South CPageBreakNemertopsis bivittata commonly found sympatrically – one with dorsal stripes that meet anteriorly and the other with lines that do not meet – are genetically isolated. Support includes statistical difference in size of stylets and in DNA sequence differences for mitochondrial cytochrome-oxidase-1 gene – minimum and an a maximum pair-wise difference of 13.6% and 19.9% – . For now, we do not formally distinguish the two here and assign our specimen at Nemertopsis bivittata. 19.9% – . Though Taxon classificationAnimaliaHeteronemerteaMonostiliferaUp to about 12 mm long; < 1 mm wide; according to , small mBrazil ; GuajiraTaxon classificationAnimaliaHeteronemerteaMonostiliferaTwo specimens up to about 3.5 mm long; < 0.3 mm wide; truncated at both ends. Milky white color. Cerebral organs and associated furrows absent. Without ocelli. Two ovoid statocysts present, statolith formed by more than 10 spherical granules. Rhynchocoel short, about one-third of body length; proboscis very short; posterior proboscis vesicular (translucent) with transmitted light; armature at middle of proboscis; stylet slender, helically sculpted (length: 15 µm); basis thin, cylindrical (14 × 2 µm); 2 pouches with 3 accessory stylets each.Brazil ; GuajiraTaxon classificationAnimaliaHeteronemerteaMonostiliferaCorrêa, 1955PageBreakof head; row of about 10 ocelli between brain and each lateral margin of body and reaching post-cerebrally into foregut region. Rhynchopore subterminal; rhynchocoel to about middle of body length; proboscis long and thick with thin papillae; central stylet thin (length: 45 µm); basis smooth, cylindrical (54 × 14 µm); 2 pouches with 2 or 3 accessory stylets each. Epidermis with minute crescent-shaped intracellular spicules.One specimen up to about 12 mm long, 1 mm wide; dorsoventrally flattened, bluntly rounded at both ends. Body vivid pinkish strawberry-red. Cerebral organ furrows shallow, precerebral. Pair irregular rows of 8-13 ocelli each on each side São Sebastião (Brazil) ; Santa MTaxon classificationAnimaliaHeteronemerteaMonostiliferaSix specimens up to about 30 mm long, < 2 mm wide; dorsoventrally flattened, bluntly rounded at both ends. Variable color, from white to yellow or greenish. Cerebral organ furrows shallow, precerebral. Numerous pre-cerebral small ocelli arranged in two pair irregular rows of about 15–20 ocelli each; row of post-cerebral ocelli each side between brain and lateral margin of body, extending far posterior to brain along lateral nerve cord. Rhynchopore subterminal; rhynchocoel wide and almost full body length; proboscis long with small papillae; stylet slender (length: 60 µm) supported on massive and medially constricted basis (112 × 28 µm); two pouches, each bearing 3 accessory stylets. Epidermis with minute crescent-sphaped intracellular spicules.Gulf of Mexico and New England ; CaliforFig. 5A–CDescription. Two specimens about 12 mm long, 1 mm wide; dorsoventrally flattened. White to yellow-brownish color. Cerebral organ furrows shallow, precerebral. Four precerebral ocelli set as corners of a wide rectangle. Rhynchocoel voluminous, extending almost full body length. Rhynchopore subterminal. Proboscis stout; armature far posterior; Stylet (length 45 µm) supported on massive medially constricted basis (110 × 50 µm); two pouches with 2 accessory stylets each.Distribution. Santa Marta, Colombia.Fig. 5D–EDescription. One specimen about 10 mm long, < 1 mm wide; dorsoventrally flattened; head arrow-shaped, tail tapered. Milky white color. Brain appears as a pink PageBreakorange spot in head. Cerebral organ furrows shallow, precerebral. Postcerebral groove inconspicuous, forms dorsal “V”. Two pair ocelli, anterior and posterior separated by cerebral organ furrow. Rhynchopore subterminal. Proboscis stout, densely papillated.Distribution. Santa Marta, Colombia.PageBreakFig. 5F–HDescription. One specimen about 6 mm long, < 1 mm wide; dorsoventrally flattened; head arrow-shaped; tail tapered. Cream to greenish color. Brain region pink. Cerebral organ furrows precerebral, deep. Postcerebral groove forms a “V” dorsally. Two pair ocelli, set as square, anterior and posterior separated by cerebral organ furrows. Rhynchopore subterminal; rhynchocoel extends three fourths of body length. Stylet (length: 70 µm) supported on massive pear-shaped basis (130 × 60 µm).Distribution. Santa Marta, Colombia.Fig. 5I–KDescription. Two specimens up to about 22 mm long, 2 mm wide; tapered at both ends. Uniform bright red color. Conspicuous mid-dorsal cephalic crest. Cerebral organ furrows precerebral, inconspicuous, with few faint ridges orthoganol to furrow axis. About 26 ocelli scattered in four elongate, irregular groups, anterior and posterior separated by cerebral organ furrows. Rhynchopore subterminal. Proboscis long and stout, with dense, large papillae; stylet (length: 120 µm) on short, wide and rounded basis (50 × 48 µm); two pouches containing three accessory stylets each. Worms capable of swimming with strong undulating movements.Distribution. Santa Marta, Colombia.Taxon classificationAnimaliaHoplonemerteaPolystiliferaOne specimen about 17 mm long, < 1 mm wide; dorsoventrally flattened, tapered at both ends. Gray to brown color, darker on head and along mid-dorsal line of body; ventral surface milky gray. Head narrow with respect to body. Cerebral organ furrows wide, postcerebral, subdivided by about 5 longitudinal epithelial ridges (secondary furrows) orthoganol to furrow axis. Numerous large ocelli, precerebral, arranged in four irregular longitudinal rows, outer rows possibly divided into anterior and posterior clusters. Armature normally several stylets supported on a single basis, but not documented by us. Individuals capable of swimming by undulatory movements, leaving mucus behind it.Bahía Mochima (Venezuela) ; Santa MPageBreakPolyschista curacaoensis Stiasny-Wijnhoff, 1925 is known only from three pieces – two heads and a tail – already preserved and strongly contracted when first examined by Stiasny-Wijnhoff; therefore, of dubious value for anatomical study. The heads are described as having a “a well defined brown longitudinal marking on their back” while “the margins are a milky, transparent white and two to three times as broad as the thick [brown] middle part”. The tail is described as being transparent and white. This does not fit well the present species. Curranemertes natans Kirsteuer, 1973 is known only from Venezuela and described as “orange to brownish” dorsally, with the thicker median region of the head being a “darker brownish shade”. Though Polyschista. We are not sanguine that our specimen is either species, though it resembles specimens previously collected by JLN off Belize and Bocas del Toro, Panama and identified as Curranemertes cf. natans.Two named polystiliferan species are known from the region. Curranemertes natans to the phylo-clade Punnettia. Härlin and Härlin (2000) found Punnettia to be paraphyletic but without placing the type species, Punnettia hubrechti. They concluded by discarding Punnettia, in a Phylocode act, with the argument that it is “a messy name” and assigning its species to two phylo-clades but without placing Punnettia hubrechti. Thus, with respect to a Linnean classification, we cannot know which Punnettia species would remain so, because they form a clade with Punnettia hubrechti. Hence, it seems more appropriate at this time to retain Curranemertes natans, pending resolution of Punnettia phylogeny.Direct observations of the nemerteans “in vivo” facilitates collection of information about nemertean species that is more reliable than possible with preserved specimens, and permits photographic records useful for their identification . TaxonomPageBreakDushia atra, representing 30% of the total of collected specimens. It was followed by Baseodiscus delineatus and Zygonemertes virescens at 12% each. The major diversity, in terms of number of species, was observed at Inca-Inca, with 7 species. However, the sampling effort was not the same in all collection sites, so it is not possible to make a reliable comparison of the biodiversity among the stations. Most studies of nemerteans in the Caribbean, and elsewhere, have focused on taxonomy (Although, the purpose of this research was taxonomical, it is worth mentioning that the most frequent species was taxonomy , and theAmphiporus cruentatus, Amphiporus texanus, Dushia atra and Zygonemertes virescens, were found under rocks or in rock crevices. This behavior has been observed before in several species of nemerteans and in some cases may be related with reproduction events (Frequently, aggregations of 3–5 con-specific specimens of n events  but ofteOtotyphlonemertes lactea, all species are new records for Colombia. Among the 36 species reported from the Caribbean region (This study represents the first taxonomic work focused on nemerteans of Colombia, and specifically the Caribbean coast. Except for n region  at least


Sulfa antibiotics are a family of typical broad-spectrum antibiotics, which have become one of the most frequently detected antibiotics in water, posing a great threat to human health and ecosystem. Potassium ferrate is a new type of high-efficiency multifunctional water treatment agent, collecting the effects of oxidation, adsorption, flocculation, coagulation, sterilization, and deodorization. Performance and mechanism of degradation of typical broad-spectrum antibiotics by Fe(VI)-US were further studied, investigating the degradation effect of sulfa antibiotics by single ultrasound, single potassium ferrate, and potassium ferrate-ultrasound (Fe(VI)-US). It was found that Fe(VI)-US technology had a significant role in promoting the degradation of sulfa antibiotics via orthogonal experiments. Factors evaluated included sulfa antibiotics type, pH value, potassium ferrate dosage, ultrasonic frequency, and ultrasonic power, with the pH value and potassium ferrate dosage being affected most significantly. One reason for synergy facilitating the degradation is the common oxidation of potassium ferrate and ultrasound, and the other is that Fe(III) produced promotes the degradation rate. According to the product analysis and degradation pathways of three sulfa antibiotics, ferrate-sonication sulfa antibiotics are removed by hydroxyl radical oxidation. Recently, a certain concentration of antibiotic residues has been detected in surface water, groundwater, drinking water, sludge and soil, and some other environmental media , 2. Nineμg·kg−1, mainly sulfamerazine and sulfamethoxazole. Sulfa antibiotics detection rate in cow dung was more than 90%, the content of which was 1039.4–15930.3 μg·kg−1, mainly sulfamethoxazole and sulfamerazine [−1 [−1. Typical broad-spectrum sulfa antibiotics can be detected both in surface water and drinking water all over the world, which not only explains the serious material pollution now but also declares the fact that the conventional treatment process cannot remove sulfa antibiotics effectively. Fortunately, more and more attention has been given to the research of degradation of antibiotics in water environment. Generally speaking, there are physical, chemical, and biological treatment methods for the removal of antibiotics in wastewaters; all these methods can remove antibiotics effectively with high concentration of antibiotics. However, these methods cannot work well for drinking water sources with low levels of antibiotics. Therefore, much more energy should be devoted to study of the degradation of sulfa antibiotics in order to find out effective control methods, improving water quantity and ensuring water security.As typical broad-spectrum antibiotics, sulfa antibiotics are commonly used in clinical treatment, animal husbandry, and aquaculture. With the rapid development of Chinese animal husbandry, the usage of sulfa antibiotics as veterinary drugs and fishery drugs increased. Some studies analyzed the content and distribution of four kinds of sulfa antibiotics in the dung of 20 scale farms in Guangdong province (China); the results showed that sulfa compounds in dung was 1925.9–13399.5 merazine . Sulfa amerazine . Twenty-42− in aqueous solution, having extremely strong oxidizing with redox potential +2.20 V and +0.72 V, respectively, in acidic and alkaline conditions [The German chemical and physicist Georg Stahl first discovered and reported the ferrate in 1702; since then, the international research of ferrate has never stopped. In recent years, potassium ferrate has gained widespread attention in the field of water treatment for its strong oxidation. It is hexavalent (Fe(VI)) for iron element of potassium ferrate; potassium ferrate exists in the form of FeOnditions . Potassinditions .Potassium ferrate oxidation has a strong selectivity for pollutants, and the oxidation rate and efficiency in different compounds are different. The removal rate of some refractory organics is not high when potassium ferrate is used alone, and potassium ferrate itself is easily decomposed at low pH value, affecting its oxidation efficiency. Therefore, there is a need to research potassium ferrate coupling technique for achieving better treatment effect. Potassium ferrate coupling technique is a hot topic and application direction in the study of potassium ferrate; the existing techniques mainly include potassium ferrate-aluminium, potassium ferrate-ozone, and potassium ferrate-photocatalysis.This study took the typical broad-spectrum sulfa antibiotics as target pollutants, removed by Fe(VI)-US oxidation, studying different impacts of degradation effect of sulfadiazine, establishing the reaction kinetics model, investigating the degradation mechanism of sulfa antibiotics, and providing certain theoretical basis and technical support for drugs polluted water treatment.Sulfadiazine (purity > 99%), sulfamerazine (purity > 99%), and sulfamethoxazole (purity > 99%) were all purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (USA); their physical and chemical properties  were shown in −1 sodium thiosulfate to terminate the reaction. Samples taken were analyzed after centrifugation at 6000 r/min for 10 min; all experiments were performed at room temperature (25 ± 2°C).Degradation of sulfa antibiotics by Fe(VI) took place in 150 mL conical flask. The pH value of reaction solution was adjusted by buffer solution; add a certain amount of Fe(VI) into the reaction solution under the condition of magnetic stirring, take samples at scheduled time, and then add a small amount of 0.1 mol·Lf = 223 kHz), HF-400 (f = 400 kHz), HF-600 (f = 600 kHz), and HF-800 (f = 800 kHz); ultrasonic power can be adjusted ranging from 30 to 100 W, with maximum power density 3 W·cm−2. Ultrasonic reaction was conducted in an open stainless steel cylinder , the bottom of the cylinder was directly connected with the ultrasound transducer, and the joints were sealed with PTFE O-ring. Stainless steel cylinder was placed in a thermostatic water bath system -US samples taken should be added to a small amount of 0.1 mol·L42− when dissolved in water; the solution is purple, with a clear UV-visible spectrum; the absorption curve has been shown in appropriate concentration range (1.41 × 10−5–5.05 × 10−4 mol·L−1) [ε is molar absorption coefficient, reflecting the solution absorption capacity of a wavelength of light, L·mol−1·cm−1; b is cuvette width, cm; c is analyte concentration, mol·L−1.Fe(VI) exists in the form of FeOmol·L−1) ; there ib is 1 cm, Bill Lambert's law is expressed inWhen cuvette width −1 and 0.51 mmol·L−1 of potassium ferrate solution reached maximum at 510 nm wavelength. At the same time, it was documented that reaction products Fe(II) and Fe(III) phosphate would not interfere with the detection at 510 nm wavelength; thus, we can accurately track the Fe(VI) concentration change and adopt the wavelength of 510 nm as the determination of Fe(VI) solution [−1·cm−1 at 510 nm wavelength [3, interfering with the detection results, samples were measured after centrifugation at 6000 r·min−1 for 10 min, and the supernatant was taken for spectrophotometry.Absorbance of 0.25 mmol·Lsolution . Molar avelength . In addi−1, column temperature 35°C, and detection wavelength 270 nm. Under these conditions, sulfadiazine, sulfamerazine, and sulfamethoxazole peaked well and the peak time was 4.081 min, 4.429 min, and 6.015 min, respectively.High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was adopted on three kinds of sulfa antibiotics for quantitative analysis. The concentrations of sulfadiazine, sulfamerazine, and sulfamethoxazole were measured by Waters e2695-2489 HPLC (UV detector) and Waters Symmetry C18 column to column (250 mm × 4.6 mm). Acetonitrile and mass fraction of 0.1% formic acid solution, the volume ratio of 40 : 60, were adopted for mobile phase, with flow rate 0.8 mL·minμL·min−1, the column temperature was 35°C, and the injection volume was 10 μL.HPLC-MS (Waters e2695 Separation Module Thermo Finnigan TSQ Quantum) was adopted for qualitative analysis of sulfadiazine, sulfamerazine, sulfamethoxazole, and their products; HPLC analysis conditions were as follows: chromatographic column was C18 column , mobile phase was acetonitrile, and the mass fraction was 0.1% formic acid solution, using gradient elution mode. Detection time lasted for 30 min, mobile phase flow rate was 300 MS conditions were as follows: full scan mode was employed for analysis of sulfadiazine, sulfamerazine, sulfamethoxazole, and their products; MS spectrometry ionization source was heating type electrospray ionization source (H-ESI), with specific parameters shown in These three sulfa antibiotics could be separated and peaked well in this full scale mode; the peak time of sulfadiazine, sulfamerazine, and sulfamethoxazole was 3.05 min, 4.87 min, and 13.13 min, respectively.−1, the ultrasonic frequency was 800 kHz, the output electric power was 100 W, reaction pH was controlled ranging from 7 to 9, and 0.05 mmol·L−1 of potassium ferrate was added to the reaction solution, studying the removal effect of sulfa antibiotics by Fe(VI)-US. The initial concentrations of sulfadiazine, sulfamerazine, and sulfamethoxazole were all 0.02 mmol·L3+ was added into reaction solution, studying the effect of Fe3+ on degradation of sulfa antibiotics by ultrasonic irradiation, as shown in 3+ had a promoted effect on degradation of sulfa antibiotics by ultrasonic irradiation at the pH of 7–9. The reaction rate increased continuously and the removal effect was obvious with Fe3+ dosage increasing from 0.00 mmol·L−1 to 0.10 mmol·L−1. However, this promotion decreased slightly when Fe3+ dosage reached up to 0.20 mmol·L−1.In the process of oxidizing sulfa antibiotics by potassium ferrate, Fe(VI) turned to Fe(III) finally; the other reason why Fe(VI)-US had synergy might be that the existence of Fe(III) promoted the degradation of sulfa antibiotics. Fe3+ promoting on degradation of sulfa antibiotics by ultrasonic irradiation. First, the addition of Fe3+ increases the ionic strength. Studies [There might be two reasons for Fe Studies  have sho Studies ; thus, i2O2 at a relatively low temperature of cavitation bubbles of gas-liquid interface; H2O2 eventually spreads into the main body solution and performs class Fenton reaction with Fe3+ -US. The pH of reaction solution was adjusted by buffer solution; pH value was ranging from 7 to 9. The initial concentrations of sulfadiazine, sulfamerazine, and sulfamethoxazole were all 0.02 mmol·LAs shown in Different concentrations of potassium ferrate solution was added into the reaction solution, studying the effect of potassium ferrate dosages on degradation of sulfa antibiotics by Fe(VI)-US; the experimental results are shown in −1 to 0.20 mmol·L−1, the initial concentrations of sulfadiazine, sulfamerazine, and sulfamethoxazole were all 0.02 mmol·L−1, the ultrasonic frequency was 800 kHz, the output electric power was 100 W, and reaction pH was controlled at about 7. −1, all these three sulfa antibiotics were removed quickly, with the degradation rate reaching up to more than 98% at reaction time of 5 min. The increase of potassium ferrate dosages enhanced the leading role of oxidation of potassium ferrate in Fe(VI)-US; thus the effect of potassium ferrate dosages on degradation of sulfa antibiotics was consistent with that of oxidized by potassium ferrate.The potassium ferrate dosages ranged from 0.00 mmol·L−1, and the output electric power was 100 W, studying the effect of ultrasonic frequency on degradation of sulfa antibiotics by Fe(VI)-US. Ultrasonic frequency in experiments was 200, 400, 600, and 800 kHz, respectively, the initial concentration of sulfamethoxazole was 0.02 mmol·LIn the study of degradation of sulfa antibiotics by ultrasonic irradiation, the removal rate of sulfa antibiotics increased with the increase of ultrasonic frequency. The increase of ultrasonic frequency increased the number of hydroxyl radicals by ultrasonic cavitation and, in return, strengthens the Fe(VI)-US synergy, promoting the reaction. In addition, the oxidation rate of potassium ferrate decreased as the pH value rose. The higher the pH was, the stronger Fe(VI)-US the synergy was, and the amplitude of degradation of sulfa antibiotics increased with the increase of ultrasonic frequency.−1, the ultrasonic frequency was 800 kHz, the effect of ultrasonic powers on degradation of sulfa antibiotics under different pH conditions was shown in Ultrasonic power was regulated, respectively, to 33, 66, and 100 W, studying the effect of ultrasonic powers on degradation of sulfa antibiotics by Fe(VI)-US. The initial concentration of sulfamethoxazole was 0.02 mmol·LThe number of cavitation bubbles produced increased per unit with the increase of ultrasonic powers, so did the cavitation effect, and the Fe(VI)-US synergy was enhanced at the same time. Oxidation rate of potassium ferrate declined with the increase of pH, and the synergy of Fe(VI)-US was more obvious with higher pH values. The larger the ultrasonic power was, the more significant the amplitude of degradation effect was.The main identified intermediates of sulfa antibiotics oxidized by Fe(VI)-US were analyzed by LC-HESI-MS-MS, main products of sulfadiazine, sulfamerazine, and sulfamethoxazole were listed in All of sulfadiazine, sulfamerazine, and sulfamethoxazole could be degraded by ultrasound well, and the reaction process was in accordance with pseudo-second order reaction kinetics. As ultrasonic irradiation time extended, the degradation rate of sulfa antibiotics increased continuously, and the removal rate of sulfadiazine, sulfamerazine, and sulfamethoxazole reached 77.46%, 82.46%, and 82.46% after reaction time 30 min, respectively.Compared with the degradation of sulfa antibiotics oxidized by potassium ferrate or ultrasonic irradiation, Fe(VI)-US technology has a significant role in promoting the degradation of sulfa antibiotics. The synergy of Fe(VI)-US mainly includes two aspects: one is the common oxidation of potassium ferrate and ultrasound, and the other is that Fe(VI) finally turns into Fe(III) in the process of degradation of sulfa antibiotics oxidized by potassium ferrate, and the existence of Fe(III) promotes the removal effect of sulfa antibiotics by ultrasound.Degradation of sulfa antibiotics by Fe(VI)-US are influenced by different sulfa antibiotics, pH values, potassium ferrate dosages, ultrasonic frequencies, and ultrasonic powers, and orthogonal experiments are performed to study the above five factors on degradation of sulfa antibiotics and the influence of primary and secondary order of reaction rate. The effects of pH values, potassium ferrate dosages, and sulfa antibiotics type on the reaction rate are the most significant, with the pH values being the maximum. Thus, pH values and sulfa antibiotics dosages should be controlled reasonably in experiments in order to ensure economy while achieving optimal removal effect.


The dot-cross configurations also varied in how readily the dot position could be lexicalized. In harder-to-name trials, crosses formed a “+” shape such that each quadrant was associated with two discrete lexicalized spatial categories . In easier-to-name trials, both crosses were rotated 45° to form an “×” shape such that quadrants were unambiguously associated with a single lexicalized spatial category . In Experiment 1, participants were more accurate when discriminating categorical information between easier-to-name categories and more accurate at discriminating coordinate spatial information within harder-to-name categories. Subsequent experiments attempted to down-regulate or up-regulate the involvement of language in task performance. Results from Experiment 2  and Experiment 3  suggest that the observed spatial relation type-by-nameability interaction is resistant to online language manipulations previously shown to affect color and object-based perceptual processing. The results across all three experiments suggest that robust biases in the visual perception of spatial relations correlate with patterns of lexicalization, but do not appear to be modulated by language online.We investigate the effect of spatial categories on visual perception. In three experiments, participants made same/different judgments on pairs of simultaneously presented dot-cross configurations. For  Do spatial categories like “left” and “above” penetrate perception? Although it has been demonstrated that space can influence how we perceive other domains as varied as time Categorical relations refer to discrete spatial relations frequently lexicalized by locative prepositions like “left”, “right”, “above”, and “below.” Coordinate relations are finer-grained metric relations, such as analog distances. Categorical representations specify abstract, equivalent classes of spatial relations, whereas coordinate representations specify the exact locations of objects in space: information critical for reaching and navigation To directly test the effect of spatial categories on visual perception the present study makes use of a well-known neuropsychological distinction. Kosslyn above vs. left) should be easier than discriminating between two perceptually different spatial relations that share a common spatial category between them (above-left vs. below-left). Conversely, insofar as lexicalized distinctions are associated with more common categories more difficult to make coordinate judgments when discriminating between two perceptually different spatial relations within easier-to-name spatial categories compared to more ambiguously lexicalized categories. In short, we predict that “nameability” will have opposite effects on categorical and coordinate discriminations. Better nameability will make locations between spatial categories more distinctive, while making locations within spatial categories more alike.  lexicalized. That is, discriminating between two perceptually different spatial relations that are discretely lexicalized . Participants in all experiments were right-handed, native English speakers and gave written informed consent. The Institutional Review Board of the University of Pennsylvania approved all experimental protocols.Participants made same/different judgments on pairs of dot-cross grids presented simultaneously for 200 ms to the left and right of central fixation . The parcategorical trials the dots occupied different quadrants, but maintained the same distance  from the origin in each grid (displayed to the left and right of fixation). On coordinate trials, the dots occupied the same quadrant, but were located at various distances from the origin . Nameability was instantiated by a simple rotation of the display. In harder-to-name trials, crosses were composed of intersecting vertical and horizontal lines forming a “+” such that each quadrant was associated with two spatial prepositions (e.g. above AND right). In easier-to-name trials, both crosses were rotated 45° to form an “×” such that each quadrant was unambiguously associated with a discrete spatial preposition (e.g. below OR right). (See On ht). See . , t(9) = 3.09, p = .01.6, p<.01 . PlannedReaction Time. Analysis of RTs revealed a congruent pattern of results, with no evidence of a speed-accuracy tradeoff. . There was a main effect of spatial relation-type showing a highly reliable advantage for categorical trials, F = 13.60, p = .005, and a main effect of nameability showing a slight advantage for easier-to-name trials, F = 5.94, p = .038. As with accuracy, the pattern of RTs showed a reliable nameability × spatial relation-type interaction, F = 10.28, p<.01.p<.0005. For coordinate relations, RTs were faster on harder-to-name trials by 17 ms, CI , though this difference was non-reliable, t(9) = 1.17, p>.20.Planned comparisons show that for categorical relations, participants responded faster to easier-to-name trials by 47 ms, CI , t(9) = 5.43, These results suggest that there is a relationship between discretely lexicalized spatial categories and perceptual processing of categorical and coordinate spatial relations. Even though the observed results were obtained without the explicit use of any particular category labels, it is possible that the perceptual processes involved in making the same-different decision are modulated, online, by implicitly activated verbal labels To investigate whether the online engagement of verbal representations is critical in producing the effects observed in Seventeen adults participated for pay or course credit . All participants were right-handed, native English speakers.Participants performed a same/different judgment task on pairs of dot-cross configurations as in  with conPerformance on Interference Tasks. Participants made more errors on the visual match/nonmatch task  than the verbal task ; main effect of interference type, Fp = .044. There is therefore some reason to believe that the visual-interference task was more difficult than the verbal-interference task, particularly for the 15% of trials requiring a match response; response type (match vs. nonmatch) × interference-type  .Accuracy on Main Task. Unsurprisingly, interference reduced overall accuracy: as revealed by a reliable effect of experiment (Exp. 1 vs. Exp. 2), F = 6.05, p = .015  = 19.12, p<.0005  = 6.47, p = .02].Although more errors were made on the visual match/nonmatch task , verbal-interference led to poorer overall accuracy on same/different judgments in the main task (mean accuracy  = 68.9%) as compared to performance on same/different judgments during concurrent visual-interference (mean accuracy  = 73.6%)   = −1.23, p>.20. For coordinate relations, performance was 14.2% less accurate on easier-to-name trials, CI , t(16) = 5.28, p<.001. With verbal interference, performance on categorical trials was boosted by 6% on easier-to-name trials, CI , t(16) = 3.22, p = .005. For coordinate trials, performance was 14.9% less accurate on easier-to-name trials, t(16) = 5.08, p<.001, CI   compared to coordinate (M = 518) trials, F = 7.73, p<.013. The effect of nameability was not reliable, F<1. As in F = 8.49, p = .01, which was also reliable separately for visual-interference and verbal-interference trials. The three-way interaction with interference type included was not reliable, F = 2.63, p = .13. Planned comparisons for nameability effects on coordinate and categorical trials showed a very similar pattern to F<1. (Nor was this interaction reliable comparing Exp. 1 to the two interference conditions of Exp. 1 separately.)general role in the perception of spatial categories. However, we did not find any selective effects of verbal interference on discrimination performance for either accuracy or RTs. That is, there was no evidence of a reduction in the difference in accuracy/RTs on the easier-to-name (x) and harder-to-name (+) trials, nor an interaction with trial-type . This pattern of results is not consistent with the prediction that performance on the categorical trials and/or easier-to-name trials is critically dependent on the online recruitment of verbal labels.Verbal interference affected overall accuracy on the same/different task more than visual interference, despite the arguably greater demand characteristics of the visual interference task. This finding suggests that language may play some up-regulating the involvement of specific labels via a short training session. Requiring participants to explicitly associate locations with distinct labels strengthens existing associations and tends to exaggerate categorical effects on perception  with the eight spatial categories—corresponding to the harder-to-name (+) and easier-to-name (×) quadrants used in Fourteen adults participated for pay or course credit . All participants were right-handed, native English speakers.Before performing the same/different judgment task, participants were trained to explicitly associate the eight spatial regions from above, below, left, or right) whereas each of the four positions corresponding to the “+” partition was valid for two labels . . .amplify the effects by exerting a selective influence on spatial perception between trial types. That is, for the easier-to-name (×) trials, categorical judgments would be predicted to become easier, and the coordinate judgments more difficult as compared to the identical judgments without prior training  to a dot presented in the four locations corresponding to the “×” quadrants compared to the four locations corresponding to the “+” quadrants from M×  = 399 ms, M+  = 449 ms, t(13) = 7.63, p<.0005]. This confirms our initial assumption that the “×” partition demarcates categories that are indeed “easier-to-name” than quadrants demarcated by the “harder-to-name” “+” partition.Accuracy on Main Task. As evident in F = 81.92, p<.0005. The main effect of nameability was not significant. Overall accuracy did not differ significantly between Experiments 1 and 3 (F<1).t(13) = 2.24, p = .04. For coordinate relations, performance was more accurate on harder-to-name trials by 7.0%, CI , t(13) = 2.90, p = .01.Planned t-tests show that for categorical relations, performance was more accurate on easier-to-name trials by 4.6%, CI , F = 12.07, p = .004]. As evident from comparing F = 0.0.As in Experiments 1 and 2, participants in Reaction Time. Overall, the RTs in the present experiment were faster than in NO TRAINING  = 603 ms, MVERBAL TRAINING  = 498 ms, . The decrease in RTs is most parsimoniously explained as a practice effect resulting from increased exposure to the spatial locations during training. In addition to the main effect of training on RT, there was, as in Experiments 1 and 2, a very reliable categorical-trial advantage , F = 18.88, p = .001. The main effect of nameability was not significant. The spatial relation type × nameability interaction for RT was in the same direction as in the earlier experiments, but not reliable, F = 1.18, p>.20. The three-way interaction between spatial-relation type, nameability, and experiment (Exp. 1 vs. Exp. 3) was marginal, F = 3.77, p = .06.Together, Experiments 2 and 3 suggest that online down-regulation using verbal interference (Exp. 2) or up-regulation using verbal training (Exp. 3) does not alter the degree to which lexicalized spatial categories selectively influence the discrimination of categorical and coordinate spatial relations.To investigate top-down effects of spatial categories on perception, we developed a sensitive task capable of detecting the influence of nonverbal semantics on spatial discrimination. Our basic finding is that the discrimination of spatial relations is strongly influenced by spatial categories. Compared to categories associated with multiple lexical items , categories associated with simple labels  partition space more effectively as evidenced by superior between-category discrimination  and poorer within-category discrimination . This pattern of results proved to be remarkably robust, resisting the influence of manipulations intended to either disrupt or enhance the influence of language: down-regulating via verbal interference (Exp. 2) and up-regulating via explicit label training (Exp. 3).both interference and training manipulations in Experiments 2 and 3 argues against such an interpretation. At the very least, Experiments 2 and 3 reflect a “good effort” to test the hypothesis that the original effect was modulated on-line by verbal labels One interpretation of the pattern of effects observed in both categorical and coordinate spatial information. While these spatial categories are marked in language, we found little evidence to suggest that the observed selective effects for categorical and coordinate processing are under online control of language. This pattern may indicate that perceptual systems are predisposed towards marking some critical spatial boundaries prior to language exposure , and that verbal labels reflect these spatial categories. This interpretation does not rule out the idea that our habits of using particular prepositions and attending to the spatial relations they denote produces biases in spatial categorization The overall pattern of results suggests that spatial categories lexicalized by English prepositions are deeply entrenched and influence the perception of Furthermore, we found that lexicalized categories predicted performance in a perceptual task that did not always require participants to make a categorical discrimination. That is, the relative difficulty on easier-to-name coordinate trials is especially notable because it provides evidence that lexicalizable categorical information more than ambiguously lexicalizable categorical information influences the perception of continuous, metric spatial information. This finding suggests that high-level categorical information penetrates perceptual representations schemas may play a role in representing meaningful patterns of basic spatial relations meaningful, encoding the basic semantics contained within asymmetrical figure-ground relations. But a schematic level of representation is also distinguishable from language in that it is relatively more analog. Whereas words are digital, with their relations to the entities they denote being largely arbitrary, schematic representations maintain the generalized topographic structure of the percept. With respect to the current study, a schematic representation (or image schema) can serve the purpose of representing lexicalized meaning nondigitally. While the theoretical construct of an image schema is widely influential in cognitive linguistics and conceptual metaphor theory, few experimental studies have lent them empirical support. In line with this theoretical construct, the present data suggests that meaningful analog spatial representations exert an influence on perception, and are not easily modulated by verbal interference or training. Consistent with the findings of two recent studies, the present data also suggest that meaningful schematic spatial representations because it serves such a fundamental role structuring our larger, more abstract conceptual system in an analog manner.More speculatively, these data suggest that mental structures like Kosslyn ception. Our findings are consistent with the general view that verbal, conceptual, and perceptual representations share a parallel structure Nearly twenty years after coining the distinction between categorical and coordinate spatial information Kosslyn


Objective. Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and Sjögren's syndrome (SS) share clinical and immunogenetic features and may occur together. We undertook this study to determine the risk of primary SS among SLE-unaffected relatives of SLE patients and whether or not primary and secondary SS tended to occur in the same families. Methods. We collected clinical and serological data on 2694 SLE patients, 7390 SLE-unaffected relatives of the SLE patients, and 1470 matched controls. Results. Of the 2694 subjects with SLE, 548 had secondary SS, while 71 of their 7390 SLE-unaffected relatives had primary SS. None of the 1470 controls had SS as defined herein (p = 5 × 10−5 compared to SLE-unaffected relatives). Of the 71 SLE-unaffected relatives with primary SS, 18 (25.3%) had an SLE-affected family member with secondary SS, while only 530 of the 7319 (7.2%) SLE-unaffected relatives without SS did so (p = 1 × 10−8). Conclusion. Among families identified for the presence of SLE, primary and secondary SS tend to occur within the same families. These results highlight the commonalities between these two forms of SS, which in fact correspond to the same disease. Sjögren's syndrome (SS) is a chronic autoimmune disease that characteristically affects salivary and lacrimal glands such that patients have severe dry eyes and dry mouth . PatholoIn most of the cases, SS occurs without any other inflammatory, autoimmune illness. In this case, the disease is still termed primary. Meanwhile, SS can also occur in association with another autoimmune disease , the most frequent being autoimmune thyroid disease, rheumatoid arthritis (RA), and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) . When thAmong those with SLE, about 20% of patients have secondary SS. SLE and SS can share clinical features such as nondeforming, inflammatory arthritis, photosensitivity, and lymphopenia . In addiRisk of SLE and SS clearly has a genetic component . HoweverWe have collected a large cohort of patients with SLE and have data concerning the presence of sicca symptoms, autoantibodies, and a past diagnosis of SS in both the SLE patients and their SLE-unaffected relatives. Thus, we undertook this study to determine whether there is a familial relationship between putative “primary” and “secondary” SS.We collected data and biological samples from families with SLE for over two decades. The methods of this resource have been presented in depth . BrieflyAll subjects underwent serological testing for SLE-associated autoantibodies in the Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation Clinical Immunology Laboratory, a CLIA-approved facility. For purposes of the present study, this included determination of anti-Ro60 and anti-La by double immunodiffusion , 18.SS was defined in part by the presence of dry mouth and dry eye symptoms. All subjects, both SLE patients and their SLE-unaffected relatives, were asked the following questions: (1) have you had daily, persistent, troublesome dry eyes for more than three months?; (2) do you have a recurrent sensation of sand or gravel in the eyes?; (3) do you use tear substitutes more than three times a day?; (4) have you had a daily feeling of dry mouth for more than three months?; (5) have you had recurrently or persistently swollen salivary glands as an adult?; (6) do you frequently drink liquids to aid in swallowing dry foods?; and 7) have you ever been told by a doctor that you have Sjögren's syndrome? The first six questions allow classification as to presence or absence of the American-European Consensus Group SS classification criteria for subjective dry eyes and dry mouth  have you. Thus, Sp value less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant.Categorical data were compared by a chi square analysis. A A total of 2694 subjects meeting the ACR SLE classification criteria , 16 wereχ2 = 16.8, p = 0.00004).Among the 2694 SLE patients, there were 548 (20.3%) who had dry eyes, dry mouth, and anti-Ro, that is, putative “secondary” SS as we have defined it. Of these, 507 (92.5%) were women. A plurality, 228 (41%), was white Americans, with 218 (39.7%) black, 3 (0.5%) Asian, 45 (8.2%) Hispanic, and 35 (6.3%) Native Americans. Among the 7390 SLE-unaffected relatives, there were 71 who met our criteria for putative SS. None of the 1470 unrelated controls met these criteria, which was less common compared to the SLE-unaffected relatives . Thus, SLE patients with “secondary” SS were about ~1.5 times more likely to have a family member with “primary” SS, compared to those SLE-affected subjects without “secondary” SS, but this difference did not reach statistical significance.We then considered the distribution of “primary” and “secondary” SS among the subjects with SLE as well as their SLE-unaffected relatives. Of the 548 with “secondary” SS, 18 had a relative with “primary” SS. Meanwhile, of those with SLE but no “secondary” SS, only 53 of 2146 had a non-SLE-affected relative with “primary” SS . Thus, SLE-unaffected relatives with “primary” SS were almost 5 times more likely to have a SLE-affected relative with “secondary” SS than were those relatives without “primary” SS  had a relative with “secondary” SS, while, among 7319 lupus-unaffected relatives without SS, 530 (7.1%) had a lupus-affected relative with SS (” SS see .SLE and SS are autoimmune diseases that share clinical and serological features. The majority of Sjögren's patients have anti-Ro and about half of these same patients have anti-La antibodies. Both anti-Ro and anti-La also occur in those with SLE with less frequency, but anti-La is associated with lack of renal and central nervous system disease . The disWhile much less research has been done on SS, thus far at least, the genetics of these two diseases are similar . We founWe have defined SS in this study by the presence of dry eyes, dry mouth, and anti-Ro. This definition, of course, does not meet the usual research classification criteria  and is tOur data also demonstrate that “secondary” SS among the SLE patients and “primary” SS are found within the same families such that individuals with “primary” SS were 4.4 times more likely to have a lupus-affected relative with “secondary” SS than were those without “primary” SS . The dat