In tire tread applications, achieving enhanced abrasion resistance, wet grip, and rolling resistance is crucial for optimizing overall performance. To realize improvements in these attributes for silica-filled tire tread compounds, it becomes imperative to improve the dispersity of silica filler by investigating the effect of each component in the tire tread compound. In this work, we study the effect of styrene content within solution styrene butadiene rubber (SSBR) on the properties of tire tread compounds. A higher styrene segment within SSBR contributes to increased silica dispersion and crosslink density. Thus, tire tread compounds featuring SSBR with increased styrene content not only improve physical and mechanical properties, but also enhance major characteristics tailored for tire tread applications. These findings provide valuable insights into advancing the reinforced performance of tire tread compounds through the strategic utilization of SSBR enriched in styrene content. The tire tread, which is in direct contact with the road surface, plays a central role within a tire due to its significant impact on crucial attributes. These include abrasion resistance (which affects tire durability), wet traction (which governs stability on wet surfaces), and rolling resistance . These attributes collectively constitute the cornerstone of the “magic triangle” of tire performance ,2,3. EnhTo overcome these challenges, researchers have been exploring methods to reduce rolling resistance by reducing tire weight. In essence, tire weight reduction is achieved by decreasing tread depth. A fundamental approach to achieving this reduction involves enhancing the tread compound’s abrasion resistance. Consequently, it becomes possible to simultaneously utilize both silica and carbon black to improve viscoelastic properties while achieving weight reduction through reduced tread depth. Additionally, research is ongoing regarding modifications to the curing conditions to enhance the rolling resistance performance of tires. These curing conditions significantly impact the physical properties of vulcanizates, and extensive investigations into the effects of temperature on the chemical structure of vulcanizates are being conducted. Generally, lowering the curing temperature leads to an increase in the number of poly-sulfide structures, consequently enhancing viscoelastic properties.In 2012, Europe implemented a tire labeling system that enforces regulations governing rolling resistance, wet grip, and pass-by noise performance. In light of recent concerns regarding tire road wear particles, it is expected that additional regulations addressing wear performance will be introduced. When assessing the qualities of tread compounds, the rolling performance of a passenger car radial tire (PCR) benefits from reduced energy loss. Conversely, wet grip performance improves as energy loss increases. Consequently, most studies on PCR tire tread compounds aimed at enhancing rolling performance have focused on reducing energy loss while minimizing any potential degradation of wet grip performance. The introduction of the silica–silane system has notably enhanced the rolling resistance performance of tread compounds, which are traditionally reliant on carbon black as a filler, and has yielded significant research outcomes that effectively address the trade-off between energy loss reduction and wet grip performance. Furthermore, it is well documented that the formation of composites between inorganic materials such as silica and organic materials results in heightened toughness, rigidity, and thermal stability of these composites ,5,6,7.2 emissions within the EU. Given that the tread of a passenger car tire plays a substantial role in a vehicle’s fuel consumption due to its impact on rolling resistance, the development of novel tire tread formulations assumes paramount importance in the endeavor to reduce the carbon footprint. As of 2021, new passenger cars are required to achieve a 27% reduction in CO2 emissions compared to 2015 levels. Following the advent of the “Green tire,” precipitated silica has emerged as a compelling alternative to carbon black fillers for manufacturing high-performance automotive tires tetrasulfide  was employed as the silane coupling agent. Zinc oxide (ZnO), stearic acid (StA), and polypropylene glycol 4000 (PEG 4000) were used as vulcanization activators. Sulfur, n-cyclohexyl-2-benzothiazole sulfonamide (CBS), and 1,3-diphenyl-guadinine (DPG) were used as crosslinking agents and cure accelerators. The quantitative evaluation of crosslink density was facilitated using toluene (99.8%), acetone (99.7%), tetrahydrofuran , and n-hexane (95%) obtained from Samchun Pure Chemical Co., Seoul, Republic of Korea.Three distinct SSBRs were employed, each with varying styrene content: 6270M, C 6450SL, and 6431H, all of which were provided by Kumho Petrochemical Co., Daejeon, Republic of Korea. Comprehensive information regarding the specific attributes of these SSBR variants is outlined in The compound was prepared through a two-step process, namely the silica master batch (SMB) mixing and the final master batch (FMB) steps. In the initial SMB phase, three SSBR compounds were generated within a closed internal mixer . The process commenced with the introduction of 100 phr of SSBR into the mixer, which underwent mastication for 1 min at a rotor speed of 30–35 rpm while maintaining a mixing temperature of 80 °C. Then, 5 phr of ZnO, 1 phr of StA, and 3 phr of PEG 4000 were introduced into the SSBR, and mixed for another 1 min. Subsequently, 60 phr of silica and 6 phr of silane coupling agent were incorporated, and the mixture was further blended for 13 min. During the compounding procedure, silica and the silane coupling agent were added in four divided portions during this mixing procedure. The detailed compounding formulation and procedure are depicted in To assess the curing characteristics, the sheeted FMBs underwent torque measurement at a temperature of 160 °C for a duration of 30 min. This evaluation was conducted using a rubber process analyzer  with an oscillating frequency of 1.667 Hz, in accordance with ASTM D 2084 standards. The cure curves yielded insights into key parameters, such as the minimum and maximum torque values, as well as the optimal curing time.The dispersion of the silica filler within the SSBR compounds was ascertained through a combination of Payne effect analysis and the observation of morphology on the fractured surfaces using field-emission scanning electron microscopy . Payne effect analysis was executed utilizing the rubber process analyzer with a strain range spanning from 0.1% to 100% and a frequency of 1.0 Hz at a temperature of 60 °C. The assessment involved calculating the difference in storage modulus between the initial and final points to quantify the Payne effect exhibited by the samples.n-hexane, both conducted at room temperature. Subsequently, the samples were air-dried for 48 h at room temperature and then re-weighed post-extraction. These dried specimens were further subjected to a 24 h swelling in toluene, allowing for subsequent measurement of the weight of the swollen specimens, thereby enabling the computation of the crosslinking density. Equation (1) was used to calculate the volume fraction value using the measured weight value.Vr is the volume fraction of rubber in the swollen gel at equilibrium, Wd is the weight of the dried sample, Wf is the weight of the filler in the sample, Ws is the weight of the swollen sample, ρs is the density of solvent, and ρr is the density of rubber.For the quantitative analysis of crosslink density, the vulcanized rubbers were cut into specimens with 10 mm × 10 mm × 2 mm and were initially weighed prior to the extraction process. To eliminate organic components, the samples underwent a 48 h immersion in THF followed by another 48 h immersion in Vr value was used in Equation (2), the Flory–Rehner equation, to determine the quantitative crosslink density [ν (mol g−1) is the crosslink density, MC (g mol−1) is the average molecular weight between crosslink points, Vr is the volume fraction of rubber in the swollen gel at equilibrium from Equation (1), Vs (cm3 mol−1) is the molar volume of solvent, ρr (g cm−3) is the density of the rubber sample, and χ is the polymer–solvent interaction parameter.The acquired  density ,23.(2)νThe mechanical properties of the vulcanized rubber compounds were evaluated through the creation of dumbbell-shaped specimens, adhering to the guidelines specified by ASTM D 412. The evaluation encompassed the determination of the modulus, tensile strength, and elongation at the point of fracture. Utilizing a universal testing machine  with a 500 N load cell, mechanical tests were conducted at room temperature using a crosshead speed of 500 mm/min. The hardness of the vulcanizate was determined by employing a Shore A durometer  following ASTM D 2240 guidelines. The measurement involved pressing the specimen after overlapping it to a thickness of 6 mm.The evaluation of abrasion resistance was conducted via the DIN abrasion test, in accordance with ASTM D 5963 standard. For this test, cylindrical specimens were prepared specifically for the DIN abrasion test, featuring a diameter of 16 mm and a thickness of 8 mm. The actual test was executed utilizing a DIN abrasion tester , involving the application of an abrasive cloth mounted on the cylindrical apparatus. The specimen underwent abrasion for a distance of 40 m, subjected to a vertical load of 5 N and a drum rotation of 40 ± 1 rpm.g), peak tan δ, and tan δ at 0 °C and 60 ℃ of the vulcanizates were ascertained by gradually increasing the temperature from −80 °C to 80 °C at a rate of 3 °C min−1 and a strain of 0.2%, all while maintaining temperature sweep conditions and employing a frequency of 10 Hz.The dynamic viscoelastic characteristics of the compounds were investigated using a temperature sweep test conducted with a dynamic mechanical analyzer . The glass transition temperature  vs. strain curves and precise values of three tire tread compounds are presented in Direct confirmation of silica filler dispersity was achieved by examining the cross-sectional morphology of the tire tread compound using the SEM. In −4, 1.747 × 10−4, and 1.923 × 10−4 mol g−1, respectively. Notably, the crosslink density values of the three compounds were found to be similar. This observation suggests that crosslink density is influenced more by factors beyond the styrene content present in the SSBR. Nonetheless, specific differences in the values of crosslink density were observed across the compounds. Interestingly, the compound employing SSBR with a higher styrene content displayed an elevated crosslink density value. The observed increase in crosslink density can be attributed to the higher content of styrene groups featuring electron-rich aromatic rings. This outcome implies that a higher styrene content in the SSBR is conducive to enhanced mechanical properties and improved performance of tire tread compound.The crosslink density of the three SSBR compounds is presented in max) and minimum (Tmin) values (∆T) in the compounds based on 6270M, C 6450SL, and 6431H SBR are 1.78, 2.26 and 2.53 N-m, respectively. ∆T is found to be lowest in the compound based on 6270M and highest in the compound based on 6431H. It is established that ∆T correlates with both crosslink density and the dispersion of silica [max and ∆T values exhibit a consistent pattern with the Mooney viscosity of the respective SSBR compounds, as outlined in The cure characteristics of the three SSBR compounds during vulcanization are depicted in f silica ,29,30. F−2, respectively), tensile strength , and tear strength  of the compounds. These improvements in mechanical properties can be attributed to the concurrent increase in the content of the rigid styrene and the elevation in crosslink density.The mechanical properties of the three tire tread compounds are illustrated in 3, respectively. The DIN abrasion performance of tire treads is subject to the influence of numerous factors, including glass transition temperature (Tg), crosslink density, the dispersion of silica particles, and the interaction between the filler and rubber components [mponents ,33,34. Ag of the three compounds  exhibited a decline with the increase in styrene content within the SSBR. This trend can be ascribed to the heightened crosslink density stemming from the presence of the electron-rich styrene group [g of tire tread compounds rather than the styrene content within the SSBR. Consequently, wet grip performance is relatively similar between the 6270M-based and 6431H-based compounds, while distinctly lower values are observed in the compound utilizing C 6450SL SSBR. Conversely, a lower tan δ value at 60 °C is indicative of superior rolling resistance performance within tire tread compounds [ne group . The tanne group ,37. The ompounds ,39. The In summary, this study investigated the impact of styrene content within SSBR on silica-filled tire tread applications. The presence of higher styrene content within SSBR led to marked improvements in both silica dispersion and filler–rubber interaction. These enhancements were attributed to the rigid and electron-rich styrene segment within the SSBR main chain, which was validated through Payne effect analysis and SEM morphology observation. Furthermore, the electron-rich styrene segment contributed to an increase in the crosslink density of vulcanized rubber compounds. Consequently, the tire tread compound incorporating higher styrene content demonstrated enhanced physical and mechanical properties, along with improved performance attributes such as abrasion resistance and rolling resistance. These findings highlight the potential of SSBR with elevated styrene content as a compelling candidate for high-performance silica-filled tire tread applications.


The mechanical behaviors of three distinct lattice structures—Diamond, Gyroid, and Schwarz—synthesized through vat polymerization, were meticulously analyzed. This study aimed to elucidate the intricacies of these structures in terms of their stress–strain responses, energy absorption, and recovery characteristics. Utilizing the described experiments and analytical approaches, it was discerned, via the described experimental and analytical procedure, that the AM lattices showcased mechanical properties and stress–strain behaviors that notably surpassed theoretical predictions, pointing to substantial disparities between conventional models and experimental outcomes. The Diamond lattice displayed superior stiffness with higher average loading and unloading moduli and heightened energy absorption and dissipation rates, followed by the Gyroid and Schwarz lattices. The Schwarz lattice showed the most consistent mechanical response, while the Diamond and Gyroid showed capabilities of reaching larger strains and stresses. All uniaxial cyclic compressive tests were performed at room temperature with no dwell times. The efficacy of hyper-elastic-graded models significantly outperformed projections offered by traditional Ashby–Gibson models, emphasizing the need for more refined models to accurately delineate the behaviors of additively manufactured lattices in advanced engineering applications. Because of their ability to create flexible, lightweight, and deformable structures, soft materials have received recent attention amongst researchers. These materials’ low Young’s moduli at room temperature and strong elongation characteristics make them easily deformable by thermal and mechanical loads. This has allowed a range of novel approaches used in the fabrication of parts paired with additive manufacturing (AM) to create hyper-elastic, flexible, durable, and tunable structures ,3,4,5,6.s) [Scientists characterize lattices by their relative density (ρ*/ρs)  or volums) ,23,24,25s) ,27,28. Ts) . In addis) . Previous) ,32,33. Cs) .s) are calculated through integration of the σ-ε curves and normalization via the material Young’s modulus. This value is plotted against values for normalized peak stress (σp/Es) on a logarithmic scale. The energy absorption capacities of various structures are examined, as well as the energy absorption rates under different compression phases.In this paper, vat polymerization is used to design and fabricate three hyper-elastic iterations of functionally graded TPMS structures. Weight scaling is used to assess printing and manufacturing accuracy. The cell wall thickness is graded in the z direction, resulting in a primary density transition near the base. Compressive cyclic loadings were employed in experimental testing to examine the Young’s modulus, plateau stress, densification strain, and energy characteristics across repeated cycles. Finally, the mechanisms of energy absorption are investigated. Here, the normalized energy absorption values :2.Schwarz Diamond3.Schwarz Primitiveik is the periodicity of the lattice function, with i = x, y, z representing directions and in representing the number of cell repetitions in those directions. iC and iS represent sine and cosine functions, with i again representing the different x, y, and z directions and iL indicating the absolute size of the lattice structure. The variable t is used to regulate the lattice’s volume percent. Lattice structures with an arbitrary number of cells and relative densities can be fabricated using Schwarz Primitive, Diamond, and Schoen Gyroid models. The variable m is used to switch between network (m = 1) and matrix (m = 2) phases, also known as skeleton and sheet TPMS. The Diamond and Gyroid lattices are members of a class of minimum surface equations that lack reflection or rotational symmetry on their primary axis. Equations with just an even term (cosine) exhibit this behavior. Regions with i ≥U 0 are considered solids, whereas regions less than zero are defined as voids. Changing t shifts the solid–void border, resulting in a larger or smaller region to affect the relative density. Cell size and wall thickness changes will be used to produce functionally graded lattice structures with a target relative density of 30% or 0.3.The variable The CAD (computer-aided design) modeling software nTopology was utilized to create three iterations of 16 mm cubes filled with TPMS structures of specified cell sizes. To ensure a controlled wall thickness throughout the structure, a refined voxel grid of 0.1 mm was used during the CAD process, which allows for high-quality mesh creation without the need for further refinement. The ramping function was applied to regulate the wall thickness, smoothly transitioning from a fully dense state at the base (3.5–4 mm to ensure solidity) to about 0.7 mm (printer’s minimum capability) at +4 mm in the z-direction. The samples were exported to STL (Standard Tessellation Language) format, maintaining the integrity of the detailed TPMS structures due to the chosen voxel grid approach.Samples were oriented vertically in the Formlabs 3+ printer using Preform software, employing Formlabs Elastic 50A resin  for vat polymerization. This vertical orientation was maintained to ensure consistent layer build-up during the printing process and reduced the need for additional support material. The 50A resin, whose mechanical properties are cataloged in 50a = 0.00102 g/mm3), and were anticipated to weigh around 1.25 g. Post-fabrication, the samples underwent a dual stage washing in 99% isopropyl alcohol (IPA) for ten minutes each, followed by a twenty-minute post-cure at 60 °C under 1.25 mW/cm2 of 405 nm light, a procedure that enhances the mechanical properties by promoting interlayer adhesion [The cell dimensions for the Gyroid, Diamond, and Schwarz TPMS structures were tailored to maintain the target relative density of 0.3. Lattice model volumes, based on the material density provided by the manufacturer . The samples were compressed using a Shimadzu Universal Testing Machine  at room temperature Tamb ≈ 21 °C, with a 10 kN load cell. The parts were placed in the middle region of the bottom base plate for testing. Each test was performed once per sample, where the original, undeformed length and cross-sectional area were used for the stress and strain calculations of each cycle. The displacement and reaction forces were determined by the movement of the upper compressive head and accompanied Trapezium software . These values were then used to determine the engineering stress–strain (σ-ε) diagrams. The engineering σ-ε diagrams were evaluated to determine the following:the experimental Young’s modulus and plateau stress related to predicted values by theoretical models;σ-ε diagrams;energy absorption, recovery, and dissipation extracted from s) vs. normalized peak stress (σp/Es).and normalized energy absorption per unit volume  that comprises the lattice for normalization. This takes the form of the following:In this case, The energy absorbed per unit volume between different lattices for a given relative density per normalized peak stress can be compared using this method. The energy absorption rates under discrete compressive stages are discussed in the following results section, where a more detailed equation is provided.σ-ε diagrams and energy properties of cellular solid samples are investigated in the following sections, using cyclic compressive testing at a constant strain rate. The σ-ε curves for all of the models began with a linear elastic region given up to the point of yield where individual cell walls buckle. After reaching yield, stress reaches a semi-constant value, corresponding to cell layer collapse via cell wall elastic bending, reaching a long plateau. Following cell collapse, opposing walls begin to touch and the densification regime commences. This final regime is recognized as the area following the plateau where the stress starts to increase quickly. Observed data from compressive testing were converted into engineering stress–strain graphs by using Equations (9) and (10) where the engineering stress  diagrams in The σ-ε diagrams were noticed for the lattices after each successive loading cycle where the final unloading strain did not reach 0 exactly but ended near ε = 1 mm/mm. This behavior indicates the presence of some negligible residual stress from testing which may become more apparent at higher cycles. Each compressive cycle begins at a null stress condition before advancing to the maximum stress value indicated by the maximal strain. The loading is then removed at the same rate back to a null stress condition. Because of this, for all of the tests, (σmax/σmin) → R = 0 and indicates that the loading regime is characterized by an absence of tensile stresses in each cycle.All the stress-strain graphs have a linear elastic region at the beginning and ending of the compressive cycles used to establish the loading and unloading of the Young’s modulus. Minor variations in No extensometer was used due to the concern of contact influencing cell collapse and densification behavior, experiment samples undergoing large strain deformation, and expected non-uniform behavior. The predictive moduli for each lattice structure using only the relative density σ*), Young’s modulus (E*), and densification strain (dε) by using the determined relative density and solid material modulus (sE). The corresponding equations were used to determine the upper ((ρ*/sρ) = 0.44) and lower ((ρ*/sρ) = 0.28) limits displayed in −3 MPa, 8.5 × 10−4 Mpa), followed by the Schwarz , and finally the Gyroid . This correlates with previous research that also found the Diamond to have the best stiffness of these tested samples for high strains [σ*, between 0.005–0.008 Mpa, while the Gyroid produced values between 0.001–0.005 Mpa, and the Schwarz generated values between 0.003–0.005 Mpa, higher than the elastic and plastic predictions for the material, using the equations:The Diamond lattice had the highest average loading and unloading modulus . The foundational simplifications and assumptions embraced by these models remain discordant with the diverse realities of materials synthesized through additive methodologies, thus fostering incongruities between prognostications, and exhibited results.These paradigms’ foundational assumptions and simplifications do not align well with the intricate realities of additively manufactured materials, resulting in noticeable variances between anticipated and actual outcomes. Given the precision needed for design and application in advanced engineering fields, there is a pressing necessity for the creation of enhanced, more inclusive models that can accurately represent the diverse nature and behaviors of latticed AM materials. These should consider factors like print orientation, the inclusion of polymer fillers or additives, the formation of interlayer boundaries during printing, and the compositions and cross-linking capabilities, each significantly impacting material performance. For example, optimizing print orientation can improve surface resolution and reduce layer lines, thereby decreasing potential stress concentrators during loading.Furthermore, the selected lattices, known for their sophisticated structures, provide improved surface area-to-volume ratios, isotropy, effective stress and load distribution, and better energy dissipation. To achieve heightened accuracy, it is imperative to embrace more sophisticated modeling methodologies and conduct thorough experimental analyses, taking into consideration the material behavior, fabrication procedures, and lattice configurations. Adopting more refined and nuanced modeling approaches is crucial to understanding the diverse variables in AM, ensuring the development of materials that meet the rigorous requirements of modern engineering.The subsequent sections are directed towards the themes of energy recovery, absorption, dissipation, and error in the context of the studied material and designs. A comprehensive exploration of energy recovery mechanisms is essential, as it provides insight into the efficacy of the model and material in converting and reusing energy. Furthermore, an in-depth understanding of energy properties provides a valuable lens through which resilience and longevity under operational conditions can be assessed. Equally crucial is the precise quantification and analyses of error, ensuring the reliability and validity of the results observed and contributing to the refinement of existing models and methodologies.The area or difference between the loading and unloading areas reflects the energy dissipated, whereas the area under the individual loading–unloading curves indicates the absorbed energy and recoverable strain energy; energy dissipation can then be defined as such:th and 25th percentiles, respectively. The Interquartile Range (IQR) spans between these two quartiles. A hollow square indicates the mean, while the median is marked by a horizontal line within each Diamond. The data exhibit some skewness, which the Gyroid sample clearly demonstrates, due to the unequally spaced distances from the upper and lower bands. Any points outside of the IQR are thought to be suspected outliers. The whiskers at the ends of the bands represent the maximum and minimum values or up to a maximum of 1.5 times the IQR.The integrated values obtained for all loading and unloading cycles per lattice for the given absorption, recovery, and dissipation are shown in 3), recovered the most strain energy (11.12 MJ/m3), and dissipated the most energy (2.42 MJ/m3), with G1 being the major element contributing towards that. During compression, the Diamond lattice absorbed 8.71 J/m3, recovered 7.74 MJ/m3 from strain energy, and dissipated 0.97 MJ/m3. The Schwarz produced the lowest but most consistent energy absorption (2.23 MJ/m3), strain energy recovery (2.00 MJ/m3), and dissipation (0.22 MJ/m3) values. Excluding the influence from G1, the adjusted Gyroid values for energy absorption, strain energy recovery, and energy dissipation become 4.17 MJ/m3, 3.75 MJ/m3, and 0.42 MJ/m3, which were values less than those produced by the Diamond samples, but still higher than the tested Schwarz.The energy absorption has a small spread for the Diamond, a larger spread for the Gyroid due to G1, and almost no spread for the Schwarz. This is generally true across the board for absorption, recovery, and dissipation rates of the printed samples. The Gyroid on average, shown in σ-ε data for several lattices, we may learn more about the relationship between the absorption of energy per unit of volume (vW) and engineering strain (engε) by using normalized energy (W/sE) graphs where:Cellular solids are used for their advantageous qualities in impact protection, and one of the key criteria in their application is their energy absorption behavior. By combining the data integral of vW) is normalized by the solid material modulus (sE) for every given strain during testing. Stress data are then normalized by (sE) to provide the relation between normalized peak stress (pσ/sE), and normalized energy absorbed per unit volume (W/sE) of a lattice, as illustrated in Wv-engε curves, the energy absorbing rate for the graded Diamond lattice increases smoothly until it reaches a strain interval of 50%, before surging. Degradation and weakening are observed between each compressive loading and recovery. When the load is removed, the energy rates rapidly decrease from a peak of 6.74 MJ/m3, 8.14 MJ/m3, and 11.46 MJ/m3 for D1, D2, and D3, respectively, before reaching a steady state that lasts until the end of compressive testing. All of the Diamond samples exhibit similar behavior, with the D3 sample producing the highest peak energy values and D2 producing values slightly higher than D1. Ashby et al. [W/sE) and (pσ/sE). The curve serves as an illustration of a lattice structure that absorbs the necessary force by reducing stress.The previously collected energy data  to (1.4 × 10−4) at the conclusion of testing for D1. All three samples exhibit this shift, corresponding to the strain hardening of the material after load application. Within region I, there are horizontal peaks that signify the collapse of individual cells before the collapse of cell layers. Region II shows the complete collapse of the structure with a significant increase in energy absorbed with minimal stress increase before sharply turning for the next regime. The structure begins to densify in area III, showing a steady slope toward the end of the loading cycle. The slope accelerates at a much more moderate rate as the stress increases. The strain energy recovery and unloading process is represented by region IV. The slope from peak (W/sE) and (σ/sE) inside this region gradually decreases to a constant value until the testing is complete. Sample D3 shows a more vertical slope, following compressive stress at greater relative density. The distance between the shoulder points and strain recovery phases is closer for relative densities of 0.33 and 0.36 than at 0.37 for the Diamond sample. It is also clear that the D3 sample has a different behavior leading to the should-point than the D2 and D1 samples.According to changes in slope, the curves are separated into four regions, with each region reflecting the energy characteristics associated with compressive stages. The first region describes the elastic buckling of the lattice with only a little quantity of energy absorbed during compression. The first cycle displays a Diamond lattice with a steadily ascending slope compared to the successive cycles, which, for D1, present the same slope as the initial cycle, but for D2 and D3, a more vertical slope is present. The initial normalized peak stress value for D1 shifts from , tend to show higher normalized energy values across all samples. This could imply some minor form of strain hardening after successive loadings. The closeness of the successive cycles  for each sample demonstrates the materials’ excellent recovery with limited residual deformation. The largest difference amongst the lattices occurs in the plateau and densification regimes, suggesting that the internal architecture of the lattices influences these absorption and dissipation of energy. This might be useful in the design of soft robots, impact protection, actuators, and light weighting. Future study should focus on dynamic loadings, cell topology optimization in multiple planes, variance in strain-rate loadings and dwellings, and effects of temperature variations. Cell wall thickness, cell dimensions, and grade direction could each be investigated. Finally, recent research has largely invested in using rigid materials and cartesian cell mapping, whereas soft materials, cylindrical, and spherical mapping has been largely underreported.The relative error of prints was calculated using this equation:This provides the magnitude of deviation from the CAD design. Calculations were based on the measured mass and the predicted CAD mass of samples for a relative density of 30%. The density of the material, provided by Formlabs, was imported into the material properties of the TPMS structures during the creation of the STL models. The printed models were weighed by calibrated mass scales and the obtained values are shown in Techniques such as X-ray Computed Tomography (CT), Neutron Tomography (NT), magnetic resonance imaging, Small Angle X-ray Scattering (SAXS) tomography, or digital volume correlation (DVC) in conjunction with micro-CT could be used to enhance error analyses pertaining to manufacturing for the examination of internal deformations under varying load conditions. These methodologies can deliver high-resolution imaging, apt for revealing insights into the intricate microstructural nuances, imperfections, or inconsistencies present within the fabricated lattice.Vat polymerization could produce complicated TPMS samples with adequate precision that compare favorably to the intended designs.σ-ε graphs, The Schwarz primitive sample presents a bending-dominated behavior, whereas the Diamond and Gyroid samples show stretching dominance. The Gyroid (adjusted for G1) and Schwarz Primitive lattices came in second and third, respectively, with the graded Diamond lattice producing the greatest modulus and plateau stress values. Energy attributes also somewhat align in this manner.In the All the tested samples show some resistance to permanent deformation; however, the Schwarz shows larger variation in early strain intervals compared to the Gyroid or Diamond, likely due to the stretching dominance, but remains the most consistent during loading. Because of this, the Diamond and Gyroid sheet TPMS are recommended, as they function well under high strains with desirable energy characteristics. The Schwarz primitive lattice demonstrated the lowest energy properties but was consistent. This could imply that, for applications where consistency is more critical than the total energy amount absorbed, the Schwarz primitive lattice may be preferred. The Schwarz primitive and Gyroid lattices show similar strain recovery rates that differ from the Diamond, likely due to the cell wall orientation. Selecting the optimal lattice structure for specific energy absorption requirements is fundamental in applications like crash-resistant structure or protective gear, where energy dissipation can be lifesaving.A discernible discrepancy exists between the stiffness and plateau stress as forecasted by the Ashby–Gibson models, with the Additively Manufactured (AM) materials markedly surpassing the projected parameters. This divergence could potentially be attributed to the oversimplified assumptions of the models and their consequent neglect of several pivotal factors intrinsic to AM materials. Specifically, considerations pertaining to print orientation, lattice geometry, the incorporation of fillers and additives, the formation of layer boundaries, the meticulous composition of polymers, and cross-linking dynamics are notably absent in the existing predictive frameworks, potentially contributing to the observed discrepancies in performance. This underscores the need for refining and enhancing models to align with advancing engineering technology, especially to bridge the gap between theoretical predictions and real-world performance metrics.σ-ε diagrams reveal variations in material properties for different lattice structures through consecutive loadings. This infers that lattice structures exhibit varied mechanical responses. This results in a demand for engineering design to consider these variations for the structural integrity of prolonged periods. Careful consideration of manufacturing parameters and procedures is crucial for leveraging the full potential of AM technology.Large variations in Densification and thickness of lattices influences the deformation and collapse of the cell walls and the strain where opposing walls meet. This can impact structural integrity and performance. Designing lattices with appropriate relative density and wall thickness can provide enhanced structural stability and resilience against collapse while removing excess weight. The results obtained can guide the design and manufacturing process, enhancing the performance of samples in real-world applications.In this study, vat polymerization was used to create mathematically modeled, functionally graded Schwarz Primitive, Schoen Gyroid, and Schwarz Diamond structures. During cyclic compressive testing, the mechanical properties, the energy absorption, recovery, and dissipation properties along with the printing accuracy of the lattices were examined, yielding the following research conclusions:Advancements in the additive manufacturing of lattice structures have revealed limitations in existing theoretical models, demanding the development of refined models and methodologies that can accurately capture the complexities of real-world behaviors of AM materials. Hyper-elastic AM materials demonstrate the capability of recovering from large strains, allowing for the opportunity to capture more strain recovery data. This work highlights the nuances in mechanical performance between the lattices. The variations in mechanical and energy properties among the different lattice structures highlight the requirement for meticulous design and optimization, considering the specific conditions of the end application. The conclusions drawn from this study can significantly influence future research directions, the development of complex structures, and innovative engineering applications, particularly in fields where material performance, precision, and reliability are paramount.


P = 0.047) and concentration of isobutyrate (P = 0.037) and tended to affect total VFA (P = 0.085) and acetate (P = 0.071) concentrations. The interaction between the plane of nutrition and the health status tended to affect butyrate concentration (P = 0.058). These data support the conclusion that coccidiosis infection impacted on rumen fermentation in a manner independent of the plane of nutrition; however, the translation of these rumen level impacts did not translate to the production responses.The objective of the present study was to investigate the interaction of plane of nutrition and naturally occurring coccidiosis on finisher lamb growth performance, FAMACHA score, and rumen volatile fatty acid profile. The study included 30 Suffolk, Dorset or Suffolk x Dorset lambs and were divided into 2 groups based on their initial body weight and assigned to 2 feeding groups differing in dietary energy intake to create lambs representing divergent growth curves due to differing nutritional management. Lambs with naturally occurring coccidiosis and healthy lambs were present in both feeding groups making a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement of treatments, (a) high plane of nutrition (HPN) lambs with no clinical coccidiosis diagnosis (HPNH), (b) HPN lambs with clinical coccidiosis (HPNC), (c) low plane of nutrition (LPN) lambs with no clinical coccidiosis diagnosis (LPNH), (d) LPN lambs with clinical coccidiosis (LPNC). Body weight and FAMACHA scores were recorded once every 2 weeks. On d 65 of feeding, lambs were slaughtered, and rumen fluid samples were collected and analyzed for volatile fatty acid concentrations. All response variables were analyzed statistically using a linear mixed effects model with fixed effects for plane of nutrition, health status, and a random effect for initial body weight nested within the pen. The total and average weight gain were not associated with planes of nutrition, health status, or the interaction. Health status had an impact on FAMACHA© score ( Per capita lamb consumption in the U.S. is at a 20-year high, reaching 0.62 kg in 2021 . FailureMeeting adequate nutrition requirements of young lambs with high potential for live weight gain , howeverEimeria spp. protozoan that commonly infects the small and large intestines of sheep  at the Smithfield Farm, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA. Prior to initiating the experiment all lambs were dewormed using fenbendazole  and Levamisole Hydrochloride , per standard industry management and veterinary recommendation. Deworming occurred 3 weeks prior to the start of the experiment and was not expected to interfere with the experimental measurements. Lambs were between 04 and 06 months of age at the start of the study. The lambs were classified by initial body weight targeting different finishing weights to cater market demands: low (28.4 ± 4.31 kg) and high (36.1 ±2.37 kg). Lambs were fed either (1) a low plane of nutrition (LPN) diet targeting 100 g/d weight gain or, (2) a high plane of nutrition (HPN) diet targeting 200 g/d weight gain. Due to market preferences, there is considerable variation in production systems regarding rates of lamb growth in the U.S . The study included 30 commercial wethers  that were group fed in a standard production feedlot . Animals did not have a history of anticoccidial treatment prior to entering the feedlot.Across plane of nutrition groups, lambs averaged 32.1 ± 4.5 kg body weight at the beginning of the experiment. After introduction to the feedlot environment, animals were naturally infected with ad libitum grass hay and a commercial concentrate  supplement and were fed twice daily at 0900 h and 1700 h. Lambs in the LPN group received 0.45 kg of concentrate per lamb and 0.90 kg of concentrate per lamb in the HPN group. Target was to provide two levels of energy to achieve two different ADG. Both groups had access to fresh, clean water and mineral supplements throughout the day.Out of 30 lambs, 04 lambs died  during the experimental period and those lambs were excluded from the data set. From the 26 lambs that completed the trial, 9 lambs were diagnosed with clinical coccidiosis and recovered after treatment . The low nutritional group consisted of 14 lambs of which 6 lambs were diagnosed with coccidiosis. The HPN group consisted of 12 lambs, of which 3 lambs were diagnosed with coccidiosis. The resulting 4 treatment groups were (a) HPN lambs with no clinical coccidiosis diagnosis (HPNH), (b) HPN lambs with clinical coccidiosis (HPNC), (c) LPN lambs with no clinical coccidiosis diagnosis (LPNH), and (d) LPN lambs with clinical coccidiosis (LPNC). Diets in both groups were consisted with Haemonchus species, the tool has been used as an anemia indicator caused by a wide range of gastrointestinal parasites including Eimeria species . The inlet was 150°C, the flame ionization detector was 180°C, and the oven temperature was 175°C. Each run was 18 min long to separate acetate (retention time: 1.6 min), propionate (3.0 min), isobutyrate (5.2 min), butyrate (6.8 min), pivalic acid , 2-methylbutyrate (11 min), isovalerate (12.9 min), and valerate (16.1 min). To prevent carryover effects between samples and to maintain similar conditions, between each sample distilled H2O was injected. Feed samples were dried for 24 h at 55°C in a forced-air oven  and ground to pass through a 1 mm screen of a Wiley mill . Proximate analysis of feed samples was done by an external laboratory . Analyses included DM  equipped with a glass packed column  with Nluded DM , 30, N  vs. those differences based on the nutritional treatments. Due to a failure in sampling of rumen fluid, data from 2 animals from HPNH group were not used for the statistical analysis.where Yij is the dependent variable, μ is the overall mean, Ni is the fixed effect of the plane of nutrition, Hj is the fixed effect of health status, NHij is the interaction effect, BWk is the random effect of initial body weight of individual lamb nested within the pen, and eijklm is the residual error. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed for each variable and estimated marginal means were calculated using the emmeans package . SignifiP = 0.047) and lower values were associated with healthy groups irrespective of the plane of nutrition, with numerically higher FAMACHA© scores were associated with coccidiosis conditions.The effects of the plane of nutrition and health status on growth performance and FAMACHA© score of lambs are presented in P = 0.037) and tended to alter the concentrations of total VFA (P = 0.085) and acetate (P = 0.071). The interaction effect of the plane of nutrition and health status tended to affect butyrate concentrations (P = 0.058). Molar proportions of individual VFA were not affected by the plane of nutrition, health status or the interaction. Numerically, concentrations of total VFA and individual VFA in HPNH, HPNC and LPNH groups were quite similar to one another, while the LPNC group had the lowest reported values.Concentrations and molar proportions of individual VFA are presented in P < 0.001) at weaning and by 14.9 kg at slaughter. Indeed, standard understanding of energetics also supports the expectation that lambs fed greater energy content diets should grow more rapidly. Although we observed numerically higher total weight gains and ADG in the HPN group compared with the LPN group, the variability induced by the added health challenge, and the small number of animals used in each group may help explain why these numerical differences did not approach statistical significance. Indeed, our numerical differences are sensible given the basic understanding of nutritional energetics and concur well with other previous work . The highest FAMACHA© score was observed in the LPNC group and is indicative of anemia due to the impaired ability of host to absorb nutrients caused by coccidiosis infection. In agreement with our results, the severity of coccidiosis in previous studies showed a significant correlation  with FAMACHA© score  resulting lowest concentration in LPNC group, and both observations suggest modifications to butyrate in the rumen. Alterations in butyrate production make sense given its role in functional development of rumen epithelium  and consequently how it will impact overall rumen function later in life. This will be helpful to develop clinical and nutritional interventions to support animals that have been exposed to coccidiosis and other related infections.The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.The animal study was reviewed and approved by Virginia Tech Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (Protocol #20-175).SS and RW: conceptualization and design of the study. SS and BR: performed the experiment. SS, BR, ME, and EH: collection of samples. SS: sample preparation, formal analysis, manuscript writing, and editing. RW: statistical analysis and editing the manuscript. HS: animal care and animal health consulting. All authors contributed to the editing of the final version of the manuscript.


Traditional Polynesian medicine for children has been poorly documented, and few data are available on their efficacy and safety. In this context, the aim of this study was to identify traditional practices used for treating children and then assess the efficacy and safety of the most cited remedies by reviewing the literature.In 2022, a semi-structured survey was carried out on five islands from the Society archipelago . A total of 86 participants were interviewed including 19 experts in herbalism. A thorough literature review was performed on the most cited plant species to gather the relevant ethnobotanical, pharmacological, and clinical data of each remedy.Annona muricata, Gardenia taitensis, and Hibiscus rosa-sinensis were the main plants reported. Regarding the safety of cited remedies, one plant (Microsorum grossum) showed high risk of toxicity, and its use should be avoided in infants and children.Participants mentioned using 469 remedies to treat 69 health disorders. The most represented health categories were digestive system, skin disorders, infectious diseases, and respiratory system. A total of 67 plant species (representing 731 use-reports) were mentioned and Our survey confirms the importance of traditional medical practices for children in the Society Islands. A lack of data in children for most cited remedies demonstrate the need for more pharmacological and toxicological research on Polynesian medicinal plants. Finally, the potential risk of toxicity for some cited plant species reported calls for a better information of traditional medicine users and healers.The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13002-023-00617-0. In French Polynesia, traditional medicine is still used today by the population. These practices are still alive because it is part of their heritage and culture just like Polynesians tattoo, dance, and music. It is also important in addressing a lack of access to healthcare in some remote islands. Traditional medicine in Polynesia encompasses rituals, manipulative practices such as massage, bee venom therapy, and the use of remedies mainly based on plants –3. So faIn a recent survey, we have noticed that a large part of the traditional medicine from six Polynesian islands were dedicated to infant and children. In this study, childhood illnesses represented the second most cited category of disorders for which traditional medicine was used after musculoskeletal disorders . In anotWhile traditional Polynesian medicine seems to be mainly used for children, some reports of death and poisonings by herbal remedies and traditional practices were already published. From 1966 to 1972, 183 cases of poisonings (including 56 deaths) due to the use of herbal remedies were recorded in children . More reAs compared to adults, infant and children are more susceptible to the adverse effects and toxicity of traditional practices especially herbal medicines. This vulnerability is due to differences in physiology, immature metabolic enzyme systems, dose per body weight, and a developing central nervous and immune systems .Because the use of herbal remedies for infants and children in French Polynesia is frequent and toxicity events already occurred, we decided to perform a survey aiming to document the traditional practices used to treat children (from 0 to 12 years old). Based on this data, we provided an evaluation of the efficacy and potential toxicity of the most cited practices and herbal remedies.Our study focuses on five islands from the Society Islands because case reports of poisonings mainly came from these places, and also because these represent the most densely populated islands from French Polynesia.2. The Society Islands have the largest population from French Polynesia with about 242,726 inhabitants representing 88% of the total population of French Polynesia. Tahitian and French are the two main languages spoken in the area. Administratively, the Society archipelago is subdivided into two groups: the Windward islands (Îles du Vent) and the Leeward islands (Îles Sous-le-Vent). The Windward islands include four islands  and one atoll (Tetiaroa) which represent 1200 km2 of land area in total. The Leeward islands include five islands  and four atolls  which cover a land area of 408 km2 . Only scientific articles and reviews published in journals with impact factor above 1 and present in the Scimago database  were from the Windward islands, and 50 (58.1%) were from the Leeward islands  and stopped their education before high school . The most represented religion was Protestantism with 49 participants (56.9%).In our study, a high proportion of women were interviewed. Most ethnobotanical studies in French Polynesia have already found this predominance of females over males , 2, 5. IMean age of non-specialists was 50.4 years old, 55.5 years old for knowledgeable, and 57.9 years old for specialists. The mean age of specialists was significantly higher than the mean age of non-specialists p = 0.031). Similar results were obtained in a previous study where specialists were significantly older than the two other groups  (29 UR), Gardenia taitensis [flowerbud or leaf] (28 UR), Saccharum officinarum  (19 UR), and Microsorum grossum [leaf or rhizome] (11 UR).A total of 50 unique remedies were cited for treating Annona muricata. This preparation is boiled in water  and mainly used  for bathing the babies and children. In addition to the bath, five (23.8%) participants also added massages, five (23.8%) administered orally one or two teaspoons of the decoction, three applied the decoction locally on the fontanel, and two sprayed the decoction on the child’s face. Five participants reported using 30 leaves, four participants use 1 full hand of leaves, and two participants use about 12 to 15 leaves. Eight (38.1%) participants give the remedy for 3 days, and five (23.8%) participants use it once a day. This remedy was cited as having a sedative effect on children by two participants. It was also cited to dry out the skin (1 participant), clean up the body (1 participant), and soothe the bath (1 participant).The most cited remedy  was composed of one ingredient: the leaves of A. muricata leaves were already reported to be used as a sedative in the Caribbean, in the Guianas, in Martinique, in Peru, in West Africa, and in the West Indies. Other related ethnobotanical uses included anxiety, anticonvulsant, antispasmodic, hypotensive, and smooth muscle relaxant  in children  (7 UR), Saccharum officinarum [stem] (7 UR), Cordyline fruticosa [leaf or leafbud] (3 UR), and Leucas decemdentata  (3 UR).A total of 30 unique remedies were cited for treating Rosa sp. flowers mixed with brown sugar. This remedy was crushed, then put in a cloth, and pressed to get the juice . It was either taken orally (3 participants), applied locally (2 participants), smelled (1 participant), or taken orally and applied locally (1 participant). Four participants mentioned using this remedy for 3 days. One participant mentioned using 1 flower, another one mentioned mixing 3 flowers with 1 teaspoon of brown sugar, a third one mentioned using 1 to 3 flowers, and the last one reported mixing 6 flowers with 1 teaspoon of brown sugar.The most cited remedy  was composed of Rosa species were already reported to be used in Raiatea and Tahaa for treating sinusitis  (8 UR), Heliotropium arboreum [leafbud] (5 UR), Morinda citrifolia [unripe and/or ripe fruit] (4 UR), Spondias dulcis [unripe fruit] (4 UR), and Psidium guajava [leafbud] (3 UR).In our work, a total of 17 unique remedies were mentioned to be used for treating ranula. Up to three ingredients were combined in these remedies. Ten plant species belonging to 10 different botanical families were reported to be used for treating ranula. The most cited plant species were Heliotropium arboreum leafbuds mixed with brown sugar. This remedy is crushed, put in a cloth, then pressed to get the juice, and taken orally (4 participants). Two participants use 6 leafbuds, one participant uses 3 leafbuds, and another one uses 2 leafbuds. Two participants mentioned administering the remedy for 3 days.The most cited remedy  was composed of H. arboreum leafbuds were already reported to be used for treating arero ma'a  (6 UR) and Cordyline fruticosa [leaf] (4 UR).A total of 10 unique remedies were reported to be used for treating teething including eight plant species belonging to eight botanical families. Up to three ingredients were mixed in these remedies. The most cited plant species were Heliotropium arboreum leafbuds mixed with brown sugar. This remedy was crushed, put in a cloth, and then pressed to get the juice (5 participants). It was either applied locally on the teeth (3 participants) or administered orally (2 participants). Two participants mentioned using 3 leafbuds but did not precise the quantity of brown sugar to be used, one participant reported using 3 leafbuds and one spoon of brown sugar, another one mentioned using 6 leafbuds and one teaspoon of brown sugar, and the last one reported using 6 leafbuds and two teaspoons of brown sugar. Only two participants detailed the posology and indicated that they use it for 3 days.The most cited remedy  was composed of As mentioned previously, the ethnobotanical and pharmacological data available on this species confirmed its activity on inflammatory disorders and swellings, but the presence of hepatotoxic compounds calls for a better evaluation of its safety in children.Cordyline fruticosa leaves. The leaves are either boiled in water (2 participants) or rub in water (2 participants). All participants reported using the remedy for bathing. One reported also massage the babies/children, and another one rubs the teeth with the remedy. One participant mentioned using 10 big leaves, another one 8 leaves, and the third one 6 leaves. Two participants mentioned using this remedy for 3 days, among which one precised employing it 3 times a day.The second most cited remedy  was made of C. fruticosa were already reported for treating toothache  (12 UR), Citrus x aurantiifolia [fruit] (3 UR), Gardenia taitensis [flowerbud or leaf] (3 UR), and Heliotropium arboreum [leaf or leafbud] (3 UR).In total, 15 unique remedies were cited to be used for treating cough. These remedies were composed of 1 to 6 ingredients. In these remedies, 12 plant species belonging to 10 botanical families were used. The most cited plant species were Spondias dulcis. The fruits were grated, put in a cloth, and pressed to get the juice (10 participants). This juice was either used alone , mixed with brown sugar (2 remedies), or mixed with brown sugar and coconut water (1 remedy). Eight participants (80%) reported administering the remedy orally, one participant mentioned using it orally and applying it on the forehead and the chest, and another one reported gargling the remedy. Seven participants (70%) reported using this remedy for 3 days, among which one precised giving two teaspoons twice a day, another one precised using it 3 times a day, and a third one once a day. Another participant mentioned using the remedy until healing. To prepare the remedies, three participants used three fruits of Spondias dulcis, one employed five fruits and one coconut, another one employed two fruits, and a last one used one fruit. One participant mentioned that this remedy helps to clear out the lungs and throat, and another one it helps to get the mucus out.The most cited remedy  was composed of the unripe fruits of S. dulcis immature fruits for cough have been found in the literature from French Polynesia. However, young shoots have been reported to be used for treating sore throat  (5 UR), Coleus scutellarioides [leaf] , and Davallia solida [rhizome] (4 UR).A total of 14 unique remedies were reported to be used for treating Coleus scutellarioides. The leaves were either crushed, put in iced water, then applied locally (2 participants), or boiled in water and used for bathing (2 participants), or crushed, put in a cloth, pressed, mixed with monoi, and applied locally (1 participant). Only one participant gave more details on the quantity and posology to be used and mentioned using 1 full hand of leaves and applying the remedy 1 time a day.The most cited remedy  was made of the leaves of C. scutellarioides leaves were reported to be used for treating sores  (6 UR) and Thespesia populnea [fruit] (4 UR).A total of 14 unique remedies were reported to be used for treating fever. Up to four ingredients were combined to prepare these remedies. Overall, 12 plant species belonging to 11 botanical families were reported. The most cited plant species were The most cited remedy  was coconut water alone. Three participants mentioned employing a coco of green color. Regarding the method of preparation, three participants reported using the coconut water without any preparation, while one mentioned leaving it to ferment in a bottle for 2 months. Regarding the method of administration, three participants indicated drinking the water, of which one also reported applying it locally, and another one massaging the babies/children. Another participant only mentioned applying it locally. One participant reported that this remedy helps to lower the temperature.In French Polynesia, coconut water is widely employed in food and medicine. It is frequently used as a substitute of water and for helping diuresis . In the Thespesia populnea fruits. All participants reported collecting the seeds , then crushing the seeds to get the sap, and mixing it in water. One participant reported bathing the babies/children, another one mentioned applying the water on the skin, and the last one reported both methods of administration. One participant mentioned using this remedy two times a day for three days, and another one reported using it many times a day.The second most cited remedy  was composed of Thespesia populnea seeds crushed in coconut water, and administers orally the remedy two times a day for three days.Of note, one participant reported that he uses a combination of T. populnea seeds and coconut water was reported for treating fever  (10 UR), Citrus x aurantiifolia [fruit] (7 UR), Syzygium malaccense [leaf] (6 UR), Cocos nucifera [coconut water] (5 UR), and Morinda citrifolia [fruit] (3 UR).A total of 13 unique remedies were mentioned to be used as detoxifying agents. From 2 to 17 ingredients were combined in these remedies. Overall, 22 plant species belonging to 18 botanical families were cited. The most cited plant species were Syzygium malaccense, the rhizome of Curcuma longa, lime juice, and brown sugar. All participants reported crushing the ingredients together, filtering the preparation, and then administering it orally. One participant mentioned using 21 rhizomes of Curcuma longa, 12 leaves of Syzygium malaccense, 500 g of brown sugar, 12 limes, and 5 L of water. Another participant reported mixing 8 rhizomes of Curcuma longa, 24 leaves of Syzygium malaccense, 1 kg of brown sugar, and 12 limes. A third participant mentioned using 1 rhizome of Curcuma longa, 30 leaves of Syzygium malaccense, and 12 limes. The last participant mentioned using 12 rhizomes of Curcuma longa, 12 leaves  of Syzygium malaccense, 1 kg of brown sugar, and 12 limes. Two participants advised to drink the remedy until finishing the bottle, and two others advised to drink the remedy like water.The most cited remedy  was composed of four ingredients: the leaves of he’a, and two ingredients  constituted the core of these recipes. In Tahiti, C. longa rhizomes and S. malaccense leaves were combined with Pandanus sp. roots and coconut for treating he’a  ranks first in terms of citations (9 UR), followed by Syzygium malaccense [leaf] (6 UR), and Citrus x aurantiifolia [fruit] (6 UR).A total of 7 unique remedies were reported to be used for treating vaginal and urethral discharge. From 1 to 7 ingredients were combined in these remedies. Overall, 9 plant species belonging to 8 botanical families were reported. Syzygium malaccense, the rhizome of Curcuma longa, lime juice, and brown sugar. All participants mentioned using the same method of preparation and administration. They mix ingredients together, crush them, and filter them in a cloth to get the juice. This remedy is administered orally. Two participants mentioned that they advise to drink it like a juice every day, and two others reported administering one glass per day. Regarding the used quantity, one participant mentioned mixing 32 leaves of Syzygium malaccense, 1 rhizome of Curcuma longa, and 6 limes; another participant reported using 30 leaves of Syzygium malaccense, 4 rhizomes of Curcuma longa, and 5 limes; a third one reported using 30 leaves of Syzygium malaccense, 24 rhizomes of Curcuma longa, 24 limes, 1 kg of brown sugar, and 10.5 L of water; and the last one mentioned mixing 12 leaves of Syzygium malaccense, 12 rhizomes of Curcuma longa, 12 limes, 1 kg of brown sugar, and 1 gallon of water. Three participants reported that this remedy helps to clean up/detoxify the body, of which one added that it acts on genital cysts and menstrual bleeding. One participant mentioned that Curcuma longa should be used in children after 12 years old, and another participant reported that this remedy should be avoided in pregnant women. Of note, this remedy was not specific to vaginal and urethral discharge, but was also indicated for other disorders related to the he’a category .The most cited remedy  was composed of four ingredients: the leaves of The main remedy used for vaginal and urethral discharge is similar to the one used as a detoxifying agent. We invite the readers to refer to the latter section for a thorough analysis of the efficacy and toxicity of this remedy.Asthma was cited by 13 participants and represented 11 UR (two participants did not mention any remedies). Participants referred to this disorder by employing the Tahitian term “ahopau” or the French word “asthme.”Cocos nucifera  (6 UR), followed by Cordia subcordata [leaf] (3 UR), and Gardenia taitensis [flower or flowerbud] (3 UR).A total of 11 unique remedies were cited to be used for treating asthma. Up to 10 ingredients were combined in the remedies. Overall, 14 plant species belonging to 12 botanical families were used. The most cited plant species was All remedies were cited only one time, so we did not discuss them here.Furuncles, abscesses, and other disorders with pus exudation were cited by 13 participants, and it represented 12 UR (one participant did not mention any remedies). In Tahitian, it was defined as “tui” by 8 participants.tui. Up to five ingredients were used. Overall, 15 plant species belonging to 12 botanical families were reported. The most cited plant species was Phyllanthus tenellus [aerial part or whole plant] (3 UR), Cocos nucifera [coconut milk] (2 UR), and Thespesia populnea [fruit] (2 UR).A total of 11 unique remedies were reported to be used for treating Phyllanthus tenellus (moemoe) whole plant. The two participants mentioned using one full hand of plant to be boiled in water and used for bathing. Among them, one participant also added massage and water spraying. The other participant also reported that the remedy can be used until healing. One participant clearly mentioned that this plant is specific for treating tui.The most cited remedy  was composed of Phyllanthus spp.) for treating furuncles or suppurative otitis has already been described. However, the vernacular name “moemoe” corresponds to different Phyllanthus species including P. amarus Schumach. & Thonn., P. debilis J.G.Klein ex Willd., P. virgatus G.Forst., and P. urinaria L.  was the most cited plant species (3 UR), followed by Cocos nucifera [coconut milk or coconut water] (2 UR), Morinda citrifolia [fruit] (2 UR), and Zingiber officinale [rhizome] (2 UR). Besides the use of plants, monoi  was reported by seven participants for treating otitis. It was either used in combination with plants (4 UR) or mixed with a centipede (2 participants), or used alone (1 participant).A total of 13 unique remedies were reported to be used for treating otitis. Up to four ingredients were used in these remedies. Overall, 11 plant species belonging to 10 botanical families were reported. Phyllanthus tenellus whole plant and monoi. The plant was crushed, put in a cloth, pressed, then mixed with monoi, and applied on the affected ear. One participant reported using one full hand of plant.The most cited remedy (2 UR) was composed of The main remedy used for otitis is similar to the one used for furuncles, abscesses, and other disorders with pus exudation. We invite the readers to refer to the latter section for a thorough analysis of the efficacy and toxicity assessment of this remedy.ex-aequo) most cited remedy (2 UR) was composed of monoi and a centipede. The centipede is placed alive in a bottle full of monoi, the mixture is kept for some weeks, and then, the liquid can be applied on the ear. One participant applies 1 drop 2 times a day for 2–4 days. The remedy was said to stop exudation and earache.The second .Saccharum officinarum [stem] (6 UR), followed by Cocos nucifera [coconut water] (4 UR), Citrus x aurantiifolia [fruit] (3 UR), and Cordyline fruticosa  (3 UR).A total of 13 unique remedies were mentioned to be used for treating lower abdominal disorders. Up to four ingredients were combined in these remedies. Overall, 11 plant species belonging to 11 botanical families were reported. The most cited plant species was All remedies mentioned by participants were mentioned only one time each. Of note, one participant reported administering sugarcane juice, and another one mentioned administering coconut water. The latter one also reported that coconut water help to clean the urine. Overall, the remedies used for treating lower abdominal disorders were mainly based on the use of beverages made from coconut water, sugarcane, or lime juice. This is in accordance with the symptoms cited that are mainly related to urinary infections, and the fact that these types of infections require an increase in diuresis and therefore drinking a lot of water. Moreover, coconut water, sugarcane, and lime juice are also used as food and so are generally recognized as safe.he'a) were mentioned by 12 participants and represented 11 UR (one participant did not mention any remedies). All participants referred to this disorder by employing the Tahitian term “he'a,” and by precising its skin localization.Skin disorders (associated with he'a). Up to seven ingredients were used in these remedies. Overall, 13 plant species belonging to 11 botanical families were reported. The most cited plant species was Cordia subcordata [leaf] (5 UR) followed by Saccharum officinarum [stem] (5 UR), Citrus x aurantiifolia [fruit] (3 UR), and Ficus tinctoria [fig] (3 UR).A total of 11 unique remedies were mentioned to be used for treating skin disorders .Although none of the remedies were cited more than one time, we can note that the leaves of F. tinctoria and C. subcordata are widely known in French Polynesia for dying textiles. To prepare the dying solution, the same preparation mixing the juice of F. tinctoria figs and the leaves of C. subcordata is employed. This might indicate that the remedy used in medicine originated from the dying preparation. In the literature, C. subcordata leaves were already reported to be used for treating infected wounds in Tahiti  (4 UR), followed by Saccharum officinarum [stem] (4 UR), and Gardenia taitensis  (3 UR).A total of 7 unique remedies were mentioned to be used for umbilical cord care. Up to four ingredients were combined in these remedies. Overall, 7 plant species belonging to 7 botanical families were reported. The most cited plant species was Persicaria glabra stem, Gardenia taitensis flowerbud, and sugarcane. All participants reported crushing the plant species, mixing them together, and administering the remedy orally for 3 days. One precised using 3 tablespoons a day. The other also mentioned applying the remedy on the navel. Regarding the posology, one participant reported using 2 stems of Persicaria glabra, 2 flowerbuds of Gardenia taitensis, and 1 internode of Saccharum officinarum stem.Only one remedy was cited more than one time. This remedy was cited by two participants and was composed of G. taitensis flowerbuds and P. glabra stem either prepared separately or mixed together were found in the literature from Polynesia for treating umbilical cord care. Also, records of medicinal uses for P. glabra stem are limited in the Polynesian literature. However, Pétard mentioned a remedy using P. glabra leaves for cutaneous mycosis  (7 UR), followed by Annona muricata [leaf] (2 UR), and Hibiscus tiliaceus [flower] (2 UR).A total of 5 unique remedies were reported to be used for treating chickenpox. All remedies were composed of only one ingredient. Overall, five plant species belonging to four botanical families were reported. The most cited plant species was Calophyllum inophyllum. The plant is either rubbed in water (4 UR), crushed (2 UR), or boiled in water (1 UR). All participants reported using the remedy for bathing the children. Of the four participants mentioning the quantity of leaves used, two reported using 30 leaves, one reported using 20 leaves, and another one mentioned 5 leaves. One participant reported that this remedy helps to cicatrize, and a second one mentioned that it softens the skin and helps heal the wound.The most cited remedy (7 UR) was composed of the leaves of Calophyllum inophyllum leaves are widely used in Polynesia for treating skin ailments. In the Society Islands, the leaves are boiled and prepared for bathing patients presenting herpes, eczema, itches, or intertrigo canophyllic acid being the most active one  (2 UR), followed by Ocimum basilicum [aerial part] (2 UR).A total of 7 unique remedies were used for treating this disorder. Up to three ingredients were mixed in this remedy. Overall, nine plant species belonging to eight botanical families were reported. The most cited plant species was The most cited remedy (2 UR) was composed of the coffee tree leaves. This remedy is boiled in water and either used as a steam bath or for bathing. No quantity of plant materials to be used and no posology was specified by the participants. One participant mentioned that this remedy can help eliminate cold sweat.C. arabica leaves for similar disorders  in Polynesia. In the Marquesas Islands, C. arabica leaves were mentioned to be used for treating diabetes and gout [C. arabica leaves taken orally or applied locally was reported to be used for treating headache. In Mexico, the leaves prepared into a poultice are used to treat fever. In Nicaragua, C. arabica leaves are used externally for headache [C. arabica seeds but it is also present in leaves [C. arabica leaves, and this compound possesses anti-inflammatory properties [C. arabica leaves infusion as a traditional food, and they did not report any safety risks for the population, except one case of allergic reaction [C. arabica leaves present ethnobotanical and pharmacological evidence of efficacy in migraine and inflammatory conditions. Although allergic reactions can occur, the use of C. arabica leaves as a bath or steam bath seem safe at reasonable doses, but data in children are lacking.To the best of our knowledge, no reports were found on the use of and gout . In Haitheadache . Not onln leaves . Caffeinoperties . The EFSreaction . Overallex-aequo) most cited remedy (2 UR) was composed of the aerial part from basil. One full hand of aerial parts is collected, then boiled in water, and used as a steam bath. One participant mentioned using it one time a day for three days.The second . Eugenol and linalool were described as responsible for this activity. Anti-inflammatory effect was also demonstrated in several in vitro and in vivo models, and this activity was attributed to compounds such as α-bergamotene, α-cadinol, estragole, eugenol, linoleic acid, methyl cinnamate, and methyl eugenol. Antibacterial activity of O. basilicum essential oil was demonstrated in vitro, and α-terpineol, 1,8-cineole, estragole, eugenol, and linalool were identified as bioactive compounds. A broad spectrum of antiviral activities was also shown using the crude aqueous extract and ethanolic extract of O. basilicum. Apigenin, eugenol, linalool, and especially ursolic acid were identified as responsible for this activity [O. basilicum. A safety analysis showed that O. basilicum is safe for humans at recommended doses [O. basilicum steam bath inappropriate to children under 3 years old [In the Marquesans islands, e throat . In the fections . In Tahi someone , 20. In  someone . In Mexiat fever . In Colomon cold . Analgesactivity . The preed doses . Howeverears old .In this article, we present the results of an ethnobotanical survey that was designed to document the remedies used for children in the Society Islands. We then performed a thorough bibliographic search to assess their efficacy and safety.Microsorum grossum (metuapua’a) present clear past clinical evidence of toxicity in children, and its use should be avoided for children, and even for adults in the absence of safety data. Also, brown sugar is frequently used to improve the taste of the remedy but this can induce health disorders if administrated too frequently and for a too long period of time. It is worth mentioning that this efficacy and risk assessment was mainly based on the results of preclinical studies  and thus might not be the reflection of human responses.Out of the 29 plant uses evaluated, 8 presented ethnobotanical evidence of efficacy only, 1 presented pharmacological evidence of efficacy only, 18 presented ethnobotanical and pharmacological evidence of efficacy, and 2 could not be evaluated due to the lack of studies. Regarding their toxicity, 3 had a good safety profile, 8 presented a potential risk of toxicity, one presented a high risk of toxicity, and 17 could not be evaluated due to the lack of studies. In conclusion, more researches  should be performed on the plants mentioned in this study as most of them have been poorly studied in children. Also, dedicated programs should be performed in French Polynesia to communicate about the benefits and risks of using traditional remedies in children.Additional file 1: Table S1. Informant Consensus Factor for health conditions cited more than 10 times.Additional file 2: Table S2. Fidelity Level for plant species cited more than five times.Additional file 3: Table S3. Summary of the efficacy and toxicity assessment of the most cited plants associated with their main uses (based on a bibliographic review).Additional file 4: Table S4. Overview of the number of ingredients per remedy for the most cited children illnesses.