Vulpes velox) depended on the historic disturbance regime to maintain open grassland habitat. With a decline in native grasslands and subsequent impacts to prairie specialists, notably the swift fox, understanding the influence of habitat on native predators is paramount to future management efforts. From 2001 to 2004, we investigated the influence of vegetation structure on swift fox population ecology  on and around the Piñon Canyon Maneuver Site, southeastern Colorado, USA. We monitored 109 foxes on 6 study sites exposed to 3 different disturbance regimes . On each site we evaluated vegetation structure based on shrub density, basal coverage, vegetation height, and litter. Across all sites, annual fox survival rates ranged from 0.50 to 0.92 for adults and 0.27 to 0.78 for juveniles. Among sites, population estimates ranged from 1 to 7 foxes per 10 km transect. Fox density or survival was not related to the relative abundance of prey. A robust model estimating fox population size and incorporating both shrub density and percent basal cover as explanatory variables far outperformed all other models. Our results supported the idea that, in our region, swift foxes were shortgrass prairie specialists and also indicated a relationship between habitat quality and landscape heterogeneity. We suggest the regulation of swift fox populations may be based on habitat quality through landscape-mediated survival, and managers may effectively use disturbance regimes to create or maintain habitat for this native mesocarnivore.The relationships between predators, prey, and habitat have long been of interest to applied and basic ecologists. As a native Great Plains mesocarnivore of North America, swift foxes ( Vulpes velox) populations declined and by 1950 they were believed to be absent from much of their historic range Historically, North American grasslands and shrub-steppe systems were maintained through the interactions of frequent, low intensity disturbances such as fire, native herbivore grazing, drought, and soil disturbances While the direct effects of disturbances on native species are often limited, indirect effects mediated through changes in vegetation structure are thought to have a much greater effect 2 of southeastern Colorado grassland for the purpose of mechanized infantry training. Since then, livestock have been excluded from the area, and fire suppression increased. Military training activity commenced in 1985 on the site, primarily in the form of mechanized infantry In 1982 the United States Army purchased 1,040 kmThe objective of our research was to investigate the influence of vegetation structure on swift fox population ecology, principally survival rates and density, on and around the U.S. Army Piñon Canyon Maneuver Site, southeastern Colorado, USA. The abrupt shift in land ownership, the discrete boundaries of the training area, and the patterns of land use within the military parcel coalesced into a natural experiment on the influence of landscape heterogeneity and vegetation structure on swift fox ecology. While there was no true experimental control of treatments in our study, due to the temporal and spatial scale of terrestrial vertebrate research, observational studies following landscape-level changes are often the only available option. We therefore use the term ‘natural experiment’ cautiously; our research was observational yet capitalized on a well-defined change in land use practices and the resulting changes in landscape structure and swift fox demographics.Fieldwork was approved and sanctioned by the United States Department of Agriculture's National Wildlife Research Center, the United States Army – Directorate of Environmental Compliance and Management, and the United States Forest Service. Permission to access land on the Piñon Canyon Maneuver Site was obtained from the United States Army, permission to access land of the Comanche National Grassland was obtained from the United States Forest Service, and permission to access private land was obtained from the landowner.Capture and handling protocols were reviewed and approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees (IACUC) at the United States Department of Agriculture's National Wildlife Research Center (QA-930) and Utah State University (#1060). Permits to capture and handle swift foxes and small mammals were obtained from the Colorado Division of Wildlife . Data were archived with the United States Department of Agriculture's National Wildlife Research Center (QA-930) and is available with permission from the authors.2 Piñon Canyon Maneuver Site (PCMS) located in Las Animas County, Colorado, USA, plus areas on the United States Forest Service Comanche National Grassland, and private ranchland (Bouteloua gracilis), western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), and galleta (Hilaria jamesii) Atriplex canescens) and greasewood (Sacrobatus vermiculatus), plus prickly pear cactus (Opuntia phaeacantha), cholla (Opuntia imbricata), and yucca (Yucca glauca). The remaining landscape was dominated by pinyon-juniper woodlands . Elevation varied between 1,310 to 1,740 m, average temperatures ranged from 1°C in January to 23°C in July, and precipitation averaged 30 cm The study area was on and around the 1,040-kmanchland . The regIn order to deal with the range of spatial scales used by predators and prey, we developed a hierarchical study design. We identified 6 study sites in areas subjected to 3 land use regimes: livestock grazing, mechanized military training, and unused. Unused areas were considered controls despite the fact that ‘no disturbance’ is an unnatural state for grassland ecosystems; these were sites on military property and protected from grazing, yet were not used for training purposes. Two study sites were located in each land use regime and sites were named according to landmarks or historical owners: Private (PRV), Biernacki's (BTS), Pronghorn (PRN), Red Rocks (RRK), Bent (BNT), and Comanche (COM). Each study site was centered around a 10-km trapping transect Swift fox populations on each site were evaluated based on density and survival rates We captured foxes using box traps baited with chicken We located foxes a minimum of 3 times per week, twice during nighttime hours when animals were actively hunting and once during daylight hours to locate den sites. Locations were considered independent when separated by >4 hours Vegetation structure has been defined as the “height, density, biomass, and dispersion of herbaceous and woody vegetation” Following vegetation sampling, we placed 35 Sherman live traps with 10 m spacing throughout the 50×70 m sampling grid. Traps were baited with equine sweet feed . Trapping grids were run for 4 consecutive nights; checked and closed each morning and reset each afternoon. Captured rodents were marked with Sharpie pens on the tail and abdomen allowing for identification of recaptures over the 4-day trapping period We estimated average seasonal survival rates for juvenile and adult swift foxes, as well as an overall survival rate for each of the 6 sites using the known fate model in Program MARK We estimated the number of foxes in each site using the robust model in Program MARK We used Pearson correlation coefficients to identify vegetation variables for final analysis. We selected variables based on their independence and ability to discriminate among study sites. We evaluated seasonal differences in vegetation structure among sites using the GLM procedure carried out in SAS v9.2 and separated sites into statistically significant groupings. Due to the large number of models generated, Tukey's studentized range was used to control for the experiment-wise error rate.We compared seasonal swift fox population parameters to seasonal vegetation variables using both univariate and multivariate techniques. We used linear regression to compare seasonal fox survival and population density with seasonal vegetation variables. We also constrained the above mentioned MARK models using combinations of grass height, shrub density, percent basal cover, and percent litter in order to further evaluate the effect of vegetation structure on fox demographics. The logit link function was used to run constrained models. We used likelihood ratio tests and AIC statistics 2 = 26.6, df = 5, P<0.001), with 86% of all captures occurring on the grazed or military sites , Ord's kangaroo rat (Dipodomys ordii), silky pocket mice (Perognathus flavus), western harvest mice , white-footed mice (Peromyscus leucopus), southern plains woodrat (Neotoma micropus), thirteen-lined ground squirrels (Spermophilus tridecemlineatus), deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus), and spotted ground squirrels (Spermophilus spilosoma) accounted for >99% of all captures. Three species, Northern grasshopper mice, deer mice, and Ord's kangaroo rat, accounted for 76% of all captures. Only one small mammal parameter, relative abundance of Northern grasshopper mice, differed significantly between sites  , or fox survival .Small mammal communities were sampled on 185 trapping grids. Northern grasshopper mice ( = 0.03)  and it w2 (COM) . The remaining 6 vegetation parameters evaluated differed significantly among sites . Groupings varied and did not correspond to the dominant land use  to 2.7 shrubs/100 m2 (COM) . Only onland use .F = 0.01, P = 0.99), by year , by age , or by site   . Only on= 0.721) . Howeverrom zero .2 = 4.38, P = 0.036) and shrub density alone , showed statistically significant improvement over the null, age-structured model based on likelihood ratio tests. These two models were roughly equivalent with ΔAICc values differing by only 0.19, and their combined AICc weight equaled 0.328. Only one additional known fate model, constrained by the interaction of shrub density and percent basal cover, had a ΔAICc value <2. No models incorporating the standard deviation of vegetation variables outperformed the null model.Constraining the known fate survival model, using data on shrub density, consistently improved model performance . HoweverF = 5.78, df = 5, P = 0.004, R2 = 0.385). Season was marginally significant ; however its inclusion in the model raised the R2 to 0.467. One robust population density model, constrained by shrub density and percent basal cover, significantly outperformed all other models as well as the null model , we recorded above average survival and below average population estimates. In the other grazed site (PRV), we recorded the highest population estimate and average survival rates. This may be related to the variation in vegetation structure among sites. In general, military sites were more homogeneous while grazed sites showed greater variation in structural measurements between vegetation grids . ‘GrazedAt this point, extensive information exists on individual swift fox populations scattered throughout their historic range. However, there is a scarcity of information regarding the variation between these populations and what habitat factors contribute to differences in densities or demographic rates. Our results indicated a strong link between vegetation structure and swift fox population ecology, yet this link was not related to prey abundance in our study area. Population estimates were negatively related to mean grass height and adult survival was slightly positively related to shrub density. The relationship with grass height has been hinted at but not documented in previous work. For example, Kamler et al. Lepus californicus), leading to increased risk of coyote predation White et al. Recent experiments have tested the hypothesis that coyote control will result in increased swift fox survival and density with mixed results. Kamler et al. Vulpes macrotis) on Mexican grasslands, where prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus) eradication programs risk long term, indirect harm due to shrubland expansion. Our results support the evidence that swift foxes in our region are a shortgrass prairie specialist despite being capable of exploiting sub-optimal habitats The relationship between grassland vegetation structure and disturbance regimes has been well established. Swift foxes evolved in grassland systems and as a result depend on grassland disturbance dynamics to maintain habitat quality in our region. Disruptions in grassland disturbance regimes have the potential to degrade swift fox habitat through long-term changes in vegetation structure


Aim. To revisit the role of first trimester homocysteine levels with the maternal and fetal outcome. Methods. This was a cohort study comprising 100 antenatal women between 8 and 12 weeks of gestation. Serum homocysteine levels were checked after overnight fasting. Results. There were significantly elevated homocysteine levels among women with prior history of hypertensive disorders of pregnancy and prior second or third trimester pregnancy losses. There was no significant difference in homocysteine levels among women with previous gestational diabetes mellitus, preterm deliveries, or fetal malformations. Homocysteine levels were significantly elevated in those who developed hypertensive disorder of pregnancy, oligohydramnios, and meconium stained amniotic fluid, had a pregnancy loss, or delivered a low birth weight baby. There was no significant difference in homocysteine levels for those who developed gestational diabetes mellitus. Conclusions. Increased first trimester serum homocysteine is associated with history of pregnancy losses, hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, and preterm birth. This is also associated with hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, pregnancy loss, oligohydramnios, meconium stained amniotic fluid, and low birth weight in the current pregnancy. This trial is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov CTRI/2013/02/003441.  Homocysteine is an amino acid which has sprung into prominence in the past few decades . HomocysSerum homocysteine levels in pregnancy have been linked to preeclampsia –6, recurTo correlate the levels of homocysteine in late first trimester of pregnancy (8–12 weeks) with the maternal and fetal outcome of pregnancy, especially with regard to development of hypertensive disorders of pregnancy and gestational diabetes mellitus.To estimate the homocysteine levels in late 1st trimester (8–12 weeks) and to correlate it with prior history of (i) first, second, and third trimester pregnancy losses, (ii) hypertensive disorders of pregnancy and gestational diabetes mellitus, (iii) fetal malformations, and (iv) preterm delivery and birth weight.To correlate the homocysteine levels with the present pregnancy—parameters, namely, (i) hypertensive disorder of pregnancy, (ii) gestational diabetes mellitus, (iii) pregnancy loss, (iv) amniotic fluid volume and meconium staining of amniotic fluid, and (v) birth weight.It was a prospective observational cohort study comprising antenatal women who attended the antenatal outpatient department of a tertiary care—university level health centre. The study was started after obtaining the Institutional Ethics Committee approval and was conducted from August 2009 to July 2011. 110 women were invited to participate in the study and 100 agreed to participate in the study. Ten women refused to participate in the study as they were from distant places from our institute and hence could not come in the early morning in fasting state for the homocysteine test. Subjects were enrolled at 8 to 12 weeks gestation and known diabetics or hypertensives on treatment were excluded. At enrollment, a questionnaire was collected regarding age, period of gestation, parity, abortions with respective period of gestation and whether induced or spontaneous, history of previous fetal malformations, history of hypertensive disorders of pregnancy or gestational diabetes mellitus in previous pregnancies, and birth weight of previous children and whether the previous deliveries were term or preterm births. Venous blood samples were taken after overnight fasting for serum homocysteine estimation and serum separated by centrifugation and sera assayed for homocysteine by chemiluminescence assay technique using a well-calibrated fully automated chemiluminescence assay system—the Advia Centaur CPTM immunoassay system  which is an automated, random access—direct chemiluminescent immunoassay analyzer [t-test for comparison of two parametrically distributed groups of data, unpaired t-test with Welch correction was used for comparison of two parametrically distributed groups of data with unequal variances. Mann-Whitney U test was used for comparison of two nonparametrically distributed groups of data, and one way ANOVA was used for more than two parametrically distributed groups of data. Kruskal-Wallis test was used for comparison of more than two parametrically distributed groups of data. P value of ≤0.05 was taken as significant and ≤0.001 was taken as highly significant.Statistical analysis was done using GraphPad Instat software; using unpaired 2 to 33.2 kg/m2 and the mean was 21.70 ± 6.23 kg/m2. The mean serum homocysteine level was 14.07 ± 7.84 μmol/L. There was no correlation between the homocysteine levels and the age, BMI, the period of gestation, or the number of folic acid tablets taken by the subjects.Of the 100 antenatal women recruited, 10 were lost to follow up thus leaving 90 subjects whose outcomes were analysed. The ages of the subjects were in the range of 21 to 33 years with a mean age of 24.76 ± 2.6 years. The BMI of the subjects ranged from 15.5 kg/mP = 0.0359) among women with prior history of hypertensive disorders of pregnancy. However, the difference in homocysteine levels between those with and without past history of gestational diabetes mellitus was not statistically different (P = 0.054). There was no statistically significant difference of homocysteine levels with history of prior preterm deliveries (P = 0.8348) or with history of previous fetal malformation (P = 0.078)  .P = 0.1687). There was statistically significant elevation of homocysteine levels in those women with history of prior second trimester pregnancy losses (P = 0.0307). There was highly significant elevation of homocysteine levels in those women with history of prior third trimester pregnancy losses (P < 0.0001). Comparing women with no history of prior pregnancy losses in any trimester and those with pregnancy losses in any trimester, there was highly significant elevation of homocysteine levels in the latter group  was then analysed. Of the 90 women, 18 developed hypertensive disorders of pregnancy (HDP) and 7 developed gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM); 2 patients had a fetus with a congenital malformation and 8 patients had a pregnancy loss (including 2 stillbirths). Of the 84 antenatal women whose delivery outcomes were analysed: 18 women had oligohydramnios, 17 women had meconium stained amniotic fluid, and 11 women delivered low birth weight babies (birth weight < 2500 gm).P = 0.0011). The power of the study to detect a difference in HDP was 0.95. There was no significant difference (P = 0.6312) in homocysteine levels between those who developed and those who did not develop GDM. The power of the study to detect a difference in GDM was 0.42  among those who suffered a pregnancy loss when compared to those who had a live birth in the current pregnancy. There was no statistically significant difference in homocysteine levels (P = 0.6621) between those who had a fetus with a congenital malformation and those who had a morphologically normal fetus. There was statistically significant increase in homocysteine levels in women with oligohydramnios on comparing with women with normal amniotic fluid levels (P < 0.001), and women with meconium stained amniotic fluid had higher homocysteine levels than those with clear amniotic fluid (P = 0.0037). The serum homocysteine levels were significantly elevated (P = 0.0224) for those women who gave birth to low birth weight babies than those whose babies weighed above 2500 grams at birth , the number of folic acid tablets taken by the patients after the sample collection during the rest of the pregnancy may be a confounding factor, especially due to the fact that though folic acid is routinely recommended during first trimester, the focus shifts to iron during the second and third trimester, notwithstanding the fact that many iron preparations contain folic acid in addition to iron. Vitamin B12 levels were not estimated and this is a confounder as well. Serum folate and vitamin B12 values were not assayed in the samples. This is a limitation of this study since homocysteine values vary with folate and B12 levels.TheSerum homocysteine levels in late first trimester (8 to 12 weeks) of pregnancy are significantly associated with prior pregnancy losses, particularly in the second and third trimesters and with prior hypertensive disorders of pregnancy. With reference to the current pregnancy, increased serum homocysteine levels are also significantly associated with hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, pregnancy loss, oligohydramnios, meconium stained amniotic fluid, and low birth weight. However, raised homocysteine levels are not significantly associated with body mass index or with gestational diabetes mellitus and fetal malformations, neither in the past pregnancies nor in the current pregnancy.


To assess the relationship between urinary albumin excretion and intraocular pressure (IOP) in type 2 diabetes patients without renal impairment.We explored the effects of albuminuria on high IOP in 402 non-glaucomatous type 2 diabetes without renal impairment who participated in the 2011 Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES). Multiple logistic regression analysis was used to assess the relationship between log-transformed albumin/creatinine ratio (ACR) tertiles and an IOP of ≥18 mmHg after adjusting for age, gender, hypertension, body mass index, triglycerides, area of residence, and education level.P = 0.022). The associations between ACR tertiles and high IOP were significant in overweight patients and those with abdominal obesity . In contrast, there were no associations in the subgroup of patients who were not overweight and those without abdominal obesity .Subjects with a high IOP ≥18 mmHg were more likely to be current smokers (P = 0.038), heavy drinkers (P = 0.006), and to have high systolic blood pressure (P = 0.016), triglycerides (P = 0.008), and a higher log-transformed ACR (P = 0.022).In multivariate regression analysis, ACR tertile was associated with the prevalence of high IOP significantly (Urinary albumin excretion is associated with high IOP in the type 2 diabetes population without renal insufficiency. The effect of the albuminuria on IOP was evident in a subgroup of patients with components of metabolic syndrome. Glaucoma is one of the most common causes of blindness, and intraocular pressure (IOP) is the only known modifiable risk factor for glaucoma Microalbuminuria is an important prognostic marker for kidney disease during diabetes or hypertension The Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) is a nationwide, population-based, cross-sectional health examination and survey conducted regularly by the Division of Chronic Disease Surveillance, Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Ministry of Health and Welfare, to monitor the general health and nutritional status of individuals in South Korea. KNHANES was performed in 1998 (KNHANES I), 2001(KNHANES II), 2005 (KNHANES III), 2007–2009 (KNHANES IV), and 2010–2012 (KNHANES V). It consists of a health interview survey, a nutritional survey, and a health examination survey. A stratified, multistage probability sampling design is used to select the households that participate in the survey. KNHANES was performed according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki. All participants in the survey signed an informed consent form. The Institutional Review Board of St. Vincent Hospital, College of Medicine, the Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Korea approved the protocol.The present study is based on data from KNHANES 2011 to estimate the association between albumin excretion and IOP in type 2 diabetic patients without renal impairment. In KNHANES 2011, a total of 8,055 out of 10,589 (76.1%) individuals participated in the survey. 727 subjects with missing estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) or urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio (ACR) data were excluded. A total of 5,349 subjects aged ≥20 years were assessed using laboratory testing and nutritional survey data, and those with diabetes  were included. We then excluded subjects with baseline glaucoma (n = 19), intraocular surgery including vitrectomy or cataract surgery (n = 93), and renal insufficiency with an eGFR <60 mL/min/1.73m2 (n = 53) Blood samples were collected from each participant in the morning following an overnight fast. Samples were processed, refrigerated immediately, and transported in cold storage to the Central Testing Institute in Seoul, Korea. All blood samples were analyzed within 24 h of transportation. The concentration of glucose, total cholesterol, and triglycerides were assessed using a Hitachi automatic analyzer 7600 . The levels of glycated hemoglobin (HbA1C) were measured using high-performance liquid chromatography. The estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) was calculated using the modification of diet in renal disease study equation Demographic variables, including age, gender, area of residence, income status, and education level, were recorded. The region of habitation was categorized as urban or rural. Among the 16 districts of South Korea, eight major cities  were grouped as urban areas, and the remaining provinces  were grouped as rural areas. Participants were categorized in the low-income group if their income was in the lowest quartile. Data pertaining to current smoking (a person who smokes cigarettes daily) were also recorded. For alcohol consumption, a heavy drinker was defined as an individual who consumed four or more drinks per week. Information regarding the duration of diabetes and any prescribed medications was also obtained. Physical activity was measured by self-reporting using the International Physical Activity Questionnaire A specially trained examiner recorded anthropometric measurements. Blood pressure (BP) was measured in the right arm using a standard mercury sphygmomanometer  after 5 min of rest in the sitting position. Systolic and diastolic BPs were measured three times at 30-s intervals; the second and third measurements were then averaged to produce the final BP used for analysis. Hypertension was defined as a systolic hypertension ≥140 mmHg or diastolic pressure ≥ 90 mmHg, or the use of antihypertensive medication. Height was measured to the nearest 0.1 cm using a portable stadiometer  when participants were standing barefoot. Bodyweight was measured to the nearest 0.1 kg on a balanced scale  while participants wore a lightweight gown. BMI was calculated as the individual's weight in kilograms divided by the square of their height in meters. Subjects were categorized as lean (BMI <25 kg/m2) or overweight (BMI ≥ 25 kg/m2). Waist circumference was measured using a measuring tape  to the nearest 0.1 cm in a horizontal plane at the midpoint between the iliac crest and the costal margin at the end of normal expiration. The presence of abdominal obesity, a measure of metabolic syndrome, was recorded based on a waist circumference >90 cm in males or >80 cm in females.Ophthalmologic examinations were performed by ophthalmologists using a slit lamp . The IOP in both eyes was measured using a Goldmann applanation tonometer. Because the IOP in the right and left eyes was highly correlated , only data for the right eyes were used.IOP was categorized as low (IOP <18 mmHg) or high (IOP ≥18 mmHg) Statistical analyses were performed using the SAS survey procedure  to reflect the complex sampling design and sampling weights of KNHANES, and to provide nationally representative prevalence estimates. Procedures included unequal probabilities of selection, oversampling, and non-response so that inferences could be made for all Korean participants.Participant characteristics were described using means and standard errors for continuous variables, and numbers and percentages for categorical variables according to standard error. Logarithmic transformation was used to analyze variables with skewed distribution, such as TG and ACR. General and clinical characteristics were compared between subjects with high and low IOP. The prevalence of subjects with high IOP in different ACR tertiles was also determined. Multiple logistic regression analysis  was used to examine the association between the ACR tertile and the prevalence of high IOP. Next, patient subgroups were analyzed based on those that were overweight (BMI ≥25 kg/m2 or <25 kg/m2) or with abdominal obesity (based on waist circumference). In each subgroup, the prevalence of high IOP was determined across the ACT tertiles. Finally, the odds ratios (ORs) for each ACR tertile and the presence of high IOP were calculated in each subgroup.The study group consisted of 402 non-glaucomatous participants with type 2 DM, but without renal impairment. The mean age of the subjects was 55.43±0.86 years, and the mean BMI was 24.96±0.23 kg/m2. The mean hemoglobin A1c was 7.37±0.11%, and the mean duration of DM was 5.04±0.37 years. A comparison of the clinical and biochemical parameters of subjects with high (≥18 mmHg) and low IOP (<18 mmHg) is shown in In the present study, urinary albumin excretion was associated with a high IOP of ≥18 mmHg, independent of age, gender, hypertension, BMI, dyslipidemia, blood glucose level, region of habitation, and education level. In addition, the association between ACR and IOP was distinct in subgroups of patients with components of metabolic syndrome. Collectively, these findings suggest that albuminuria might be a risk factor for increased IOP in diabetic patients without renal impairment.It is well known that diabetes is associated with elevated IOP The exact mechanism by which albuminuria might be associated with higher IOP is unknown. One reason for the positive correlation between ACR and IOP might be that albuminuria is associated with the presence of metabolic syndrome The presence of albuminuria was associated with biochemical indexes of endothelial dysfunction, such as increases in the serum levels of von Willebrand factor, endothelin, tissue plasminogen activator, and fibrinogen Consistent with our findings, the Singapore Malay Eye study reported that the presence of chronic kidney disease was associated with higher IOP, independent of age, diabetes, and glaucoma Classically, the term ‘ocular hypertension’ is used to distinguish individuals with normal IOP from those with an IOP >21 mmHg. However, in a recent Korean epidemiological study, 77% of the patients with primary open-angle glaucoma had an IOP <21 mmHg The present study is the first to identify the association between albuminuria and increased IOP in type 2 diabetic populations without renal insufficiency. The data have great significance because they used nationally representative data. However, some limitations must be acknowledged. Because of the cross-sectional and retrospective study design, the association between ACR and IOP may not imply a causal relationship. ACR is known to have high intra-individual variation, particularly in the intermittently microalbuminuric patients In summary, this study demonstrated that urinary albumin excretion is associated with high IOP in type 2 diabetes patients without renal insufficiency. The effect of the albuminuria on IOP was evident in patient subgroups with components of metabolic syndrome. These data highlighted a potential role of albuminuria in ocular hypertension in diabetic patients.


Ondatra zibethicus, is a semiaquatic rodent native to North America that has become a highly successful invader across Europe, Asia, and South America. It can inflict ecological and economic damage on wetland systems outside of its native range. Anecdotal evidence suggests that, in the early 1900s, a population of muskrats was introduced to the Isles of Shoals archipelago, located within the Gulf of Maine, for the purposes of fur harvest. However, because muskrats are native to the northeastern coast of North America, their presence on the Isles of Shoals could be interpreted as part of the native range of the species, potentially obscuring management planning and biogeographic inferences. To investigate their introduced status and identify a historic source population, muskrats from Appledore Island of the Isles of Shoals, and from the adjacent mainland of Maine and New Hampshire, were compared for mitochondrial cytochrome b sequences and allele frequencies at eight microsatellite loci. Appledore Island muskrats consistently exhibited reduced genetic diversity compared with mainland populations, and displayed signatures of a historic bottleneck. The distribution of mitochondrial haplotypes is suggestive of a New Hampshire source population. The data presented here are consistent with a human-mediated introduction that took place in the early 1900s. This scenario is further supported by the zooarchaeological record and island biogeographic patterns. This is the first genetic study of an introduced muskrat population within US borders and of any island muskrat population, and provides an important contrast with other studies of introduced muskrat populations worldwide.The muskrat,  Questions regarding the origin, distribution, and maintenance of insular fauna have been central to the study of evolutionary biology since the time of Charles Darwin and Alfred Russell Wallace. Island systems are frequently touted as natural laboratories for the study of fundamental ecological and evolutionary processes The colonization of islands, with or without human mediation, generally involves only a small subsample of the mainland source population. Information concerning initial founding conditions is typically unknown and traditional methods, such as the use of historical or zooarchaeological records, often fail to provide comprehensive resolution. Because morphological evidence of endemism can be ambiguous Ondatra zibethicus inhabiting the Isles of Shoals archipelago in the Gulf of Maine  and New Hampshire (NH) . During This study contrasts two hypotheses of natural colonization that would produce distinctive genetic patterns  with the anecdotally informed but otherwise untested hypothesis of a human-mediated muskrat introduction in the early 1900s. It aims to illustrate the usefulness of a combined mitochondrial and microsatellite DNA approach and provide a framework of multiple complementary statistics for the detection of a cryptically introduced population. Through this approach, we compare expectations under each hypothesis, including timing of bottleneck, endemism of haplotypes, degree of gene flow, and levels of genetic diversity and differentiation, to distinguish the most likely scenario of muskrat colonization. For example, if muskrats colonized naturally via a land bridge, there would be no signatures of a recent bottleneck, very high levels of genetic differentiation with the mainland, and we would likely find at least one mitochondrial haplotype endemic to AP due to an early divergence followed by isolation over several thousand years. Conversely, recurring natural colonization events would be reflected in low genetic differentiation and a high maintenance of genetic diversity due to continual gene flow. A human-mediated colonization in the 1900s would display different signatures than either natural colonization mechanism, primarily differing in the timing of the population bottleneck, absence of an endemic haplotype, and magnitude of gene flow and differentiation with the mainland.This study was approved by the Cornell University Institutional Animal Care & Use Committee, and operated under IACUC General Operation of the Mammalogy Collection at Cornell University protocol #2006-0156. Samples of AP muskrats were collected on private property owned by the Shoals Marine Laboratory of Cornell University, under Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife, Wildlife Scientific Collection permit #2011-349. All AP samples were collected under strict adherence to American Society of Mammalogy guidelines Muskrats were non-lethally sampled via tail clips (<1 cm) on Appledore Island (AP), Isles of Shoals, ME, from June to July 2011 using Havahart live-traps . MuskratMembers of state trapping associations donated tissue samples (stored in absolute ethanol) from the mainland  and a pre-existing cytochrome b gene sequence, Genbank Accession #AF119277 Taq polymerase, 1 µL PCR buffer, 2 mM MgCl2, 0.2 µM of each primer  and 0.2 mM dNTP. PCR reactions included an initial denaturation at 94°C for 5 minutes, followed by 35 cycles of 94°C for 15 seconds, 50°C for 15 seconds, and 72°C for 1 minute, with a final extension of 72°C for 5 minutes. PCR products were cleaned using ExoSAP-IT and CleanSEQ (Agencourt), and amplified using a Big Dye Cycle Sequencing kit (Applied Biosystems). Sequencing was performed using an Applied Biosystems 3730 DNA Analyzer at the Life Sciences Core Laboratories Center at Cornell University (http://cores.lifesciences.cornell.edu/brcinfo/).A DNeasy Blood & Tissue Kit (Qiagen) was used to extract DNA from a total of 107 tissue samples. Mitochondrial DNA sequences of the cytochrome Oz06, Oz08, Oz22, Oz27, Oz30, Oz41, Oz43, Oz44; http://cores.lifesciences.cornell.edu/brcinfo/).Eight primer pairs were used to PCR amplify autosomal microsatellite loci . Tajima's D r, was calculated to determine the goodness of fit of the data for each expected distribution Amplification resulted in 872 base pairs of cytochrome jModelTest Oz22 was found to have a high frequency of null alleles and was removed from further analysis. Allele frequencies and number, pairwise differentiation (FST), and observed (Ho) and expected (He) heterozygosity were calculated using MSA v.4.05 ST. The measure RhoST is similar to FST, but takes allele size into account and has been suggested to be a more accurate estimate of population differentiation under microsatellite evolution conditions Microsatellite alleles were sized and analyzed using GENEMAPPER v.4 (Applied Biosystems). MICRO-CHECKER v.2.2.3 Population structure was assessed using the Bayesian clustering method STRUCTURE v.2.3 M-ratio. The software BOTTLENECK v.1.2.02 e relative to Heq , is a signal of a recent decrease in effective population size. One thousand independent simulations were run assuming an infinite alleles model (IAM) We implemented two approaches in evaluating past bottlenecks, as commonly used in conservation genetic studies: BOTTLENECK and M-ratio method as implemented in M P VAL M-ratio is defined as M = k/r, the mean ratio of the number of alleles (k) to the size range of those alleles (r) per locus, for a sample of microsatellite loci. The significance of this ratio was determined by comparing the observed M-ratio to a simulated population with the same mutational model and sample size in the program CRITICAL M c, which was set at the lower 5% tail of the distribution. An observed M-ratio that falls below this Mc constitutes strong evidence that a bottleneck has occurred.The c: sp (frequency of single step mutations), Δg (the size of non one-step changes) and θ ( = 4Neμ). The value of sp = 0.88 was taken from c can be sensitive to Δg and Θ, values for Δg were varied between 2.8  parameters is necessary for the calculation of Mb sequence in the 79 individuals analyzed, resulting in 11 unique cytochrome b haplotypes, A–K  corresponded to a model for expected values of demographic stability, as suggested by the small value of r = 0.06 . Converstability .The TCS statistical parsimony network revealed relationships among haplotypes identical to those portrayed by a neighbor-joining tree . DespiteOz22, and this locus was not included in further analyses. Ninety-four alleles were detected at 7 microsatellite loci for 85 muskrats. No significant deviation from Hardy-Weinberg was found (P >0.05 for each locus across each population), and there was likewise no evidence of linkage disequilibrium . The AP population exhibited the fewest number of alleles per locus, lowest He and Ho, and lacked private alleles (P<0.0001). Little pairwise differentiation between ME and NH was found, with FST = 0.028   . Values 001)  M-ratio analyses and simulations produced significant evidence for a historical bottleneck. Estimations of Ne for the current island population drawn from M-ratio values were below the critical simulated value, Mc, when Δg = 2.8 , despite the presence of human artifacts and even Norway rat bones several hundred years earlier The genetic data reported here are congruent with anecdotes suggesting that humans introduced muskrats in the early 1900s for the purposes of fur harvest. Although on their own, these data are not sufficient to unequivocally warrant an “introduced” status, several other lines of independent evidence support such a designation. Morphologically, AP muskrats have slightly narrower crania than mainland muskrats Comparison with other insular mammal populations of land bridge islands in the northern Gulf of ME also supports a human-mediated introduction. From a source pool of ∼33 species of mammals native to the state of ME, only muskrats are present on AP. Crowell Crowell b sequences and microsatellite data of AP muskrats revealed consistently lower levels of genetic diversity as compared to the mainland source. Both ME and NH exhibited levels of heterozygosity comparable to those found for muskrats inhabiting nearby regions of NY, Quebec and New Brunswick, with Ho = 0.68–0.83 o was 0.54 for the AP muskrats.Founder events involve a subsample of the individuals from a source population, resulting in decreased genetic variation and increased divergence between source and founder populations ST values.As evidenced from the lack of phylogeographic grouping within the haplotype genealogies and the STRUCTURE results, muskrats in ME and NH show no evidence of geographic structure, presumably reflecting ongoing gene flow. The Bayesian clustering analysis performed using STRUCTURE suggests that AP is a cluster distinct from the mainland regions, discrediting the hypothesis of recent gene flow that would result from continued migration by swimming. This was confirmed by significant, elevated pairwise Fss and D values for a fur seal population that underwent a known bottleneck in the 19th century due to overhunting. They reported values for Fs of 4.423 and D of 1.35, although neither was significant. These values, derived from a species with a known historic bottleneck, are similar to those reported here for muskrats: Fs = 5.007, D = 1.35. The mismatch distribution for AP resulted in a rejection of a constant population size, as interpreted from a high raggedness statistic Both mitochondrial and microsatellite DNA markers were used to assess evidence for a recent bottleneck associated with a human-mediated colonization of AP. Using mitochondrial markers, we found that Fu's FThe program BOTTLENECK produced ambiguous results. During a founder event, rare alleles are more likely to be lost than common variants e. Heterozygosity excess is a transient signature only detectable for 0.2–4.0(Ne) generations after a bottleneck event eq. Indeed, populations with an explosive growth rate can still experience overall reductions in genetic diversity but not display heterozygosity excess due to a bottleneck The power of BOTTLENECK's analyses is largely dependent on the generation time of the focal species and the size of the effective founding population, NM-ratios, allele frequency shifts, and heterozygosity excess can provide windows into population decline and recovery across different timescales and thus provide a method of comparison for hypotheses of bottleneck timing. Heterozygosity excess and allele frequency distributions recover faster than the M-ratio M-ratio juxtaposed with non-significant heterozygosity excess and allele frequency shifts— this is exactly the result reported here. Conversely, a recent bottleneck, such as if muskrats were introduced very recently in 1990, would show significant signatures in both slowly and rapidly recovering measures A combined approach that includes analyzing Mitochondrial DNA revealed 11 distinct haplotypes found in 79 muskrats, and only 2, F and J, on AP. From haplotypes alone, it is possible that the AP muskrats are either (1) solely from the NH coastline, where both haplotypes F and J co-occur; or (2) from both ME and NH, with the island's F lineage coming from ME (given the high frequency of the F haplotype in ME). The coastal area of NH is the only region sampled that contains the 2 haplotypes also present on AP, making it the most probable source population . In addition, this coastal area is a major shipping, fishing, and naval shipyard , with high levels of boat traffic to the Isles of Shoals. Although we recognize that the distinction between ME and NH is politically and economically, rather than biologically, meaningful, retaining such a distinction between state-lines with different human dynamics  allows us to glean further insight into the human dimension of the muskrat colonization event.An intentional introduction in the early 1900s is consistent with the genetic data presented here. In her observations on the Isles of Shoals' natural history, Celia Thaxter presciently contemplated “how the [Norway] rats came here first is not known; probably some old ship imported them” Figure S1Map of Appledore Island and muskrat sampling locations. Red circles are haplotype J, blue circles are haplotype F, and purple circles are microsatellite data only. Sampling was conducted in thoroughly surveyed muskrat habitat; areas of the island that did not yield samples were occupied by highly aggressive nesting seabirds (which are a significant deterrent to muskrats), lacked appropriate vegetation, or were not in close proximity to fresh water. The results of our habitat use surveys were congruent with those of a 1984 study (TIF)Click here for additional data file.Figure S2Neighbor-joining tree of all haplotypes (872 base pairs of cytochrome b) using HKY85+I parameters, made in PAUP* v.4. Letters correspond to haplotypes, with specimen IDs in parentheses. Geographic information for each specimen can be found in (TIF)Click here for additional data file.Figure S3ΔK plot for STRUCTURE data. The value of ΔK peaks strongly at K = 2 (341.2816), declines abruptly to K = 3 (3.6114), and continues to decline for values K = 4 and greater.(TIF)Click here for additional data file.Table S1List of all specimens used in this study, their mitochondrial haplotype, and their geographic coordinates. * indicates specimen only yielded microsatellite data. See (DOCX)Click here for additional data file.Table S2ST for microsatellite DNA at seven loci.Results of pairwise Rho Mainland is ME and NH combined as a single population.(DOCX)Click here for additional data file.Table S3Results of sign and Wilcoxon sign-rank tests from BOTTLENECK simulations under an infinite alleles model (IAM), step-wise mutation model (SMM), and two-phase mutation model (TPM). A significant P value indicates excess heterozygosity, indicative of a bottleneck. *For TPM, we report only 10% SMM values as illustrative of our TPM results. All results for TPM regardless of proportion of SMM in the model  were P>0.05 and non-significant. a = P<0.05, b = P<0.01, c = P<0.005.(DOCX)Click here for additional data file.


Gammarus fossarum were submitted to a lower food intake throughout a complete female reproductive cycle (i.e. from ovogenesis to offspring production). For both males and females, amylase activity was inhibited by the diet stress, whereas trypsin activity was not influenced. These results underline similar sensitivity of males and females concerning their digestive capacity. Energy reserves decreased with food starvation in females, and remained stable in males. The number of embryos per female decreased with food starvation. Lower digestive activity in males and females therefore appears as an early response. These results underline the ecological relevance of digestive markers, as they make it possible to anticipate upcoming consequences on reproduction in females, a key biological variable for population dynamics.Digestive enzyme activity is often used as a sensitive response to environmental pollution. However, only little is known about the negative effects of stress on digestive capacities and their consequences on energy reserves and reproduction, although these parameters are important for the maintenance of populations. To highlight if changes in biochemical responses (digestive enzymes and reserves) led to impairments at an individual level (fertility),  The environmental risk of aquatic ecosystems is continuously monitored by the application of chemical and biological tools. In this way, many biological responses to stress have been investigated as diagnosis tools. These measurements are well-known biomarkers used to assess the effects of toxic exposure on organisms. According to Depledge and Fossi , biomarkAmong all the biological responses studied in ecotoxicology, energy-based biomarkers seem to be a relevant tool for investigating the relationships between disturbances at the sub-organismal level and disturbances emerging at higher levels of biological organization , 9. AccoFurthermore, to assess the global energy metabolism, previous processes concerning energy acquisition should be considered. Energy intake depends on feeding and digestion processes. It could affect the energy metabolism and lead to its impairment. In aquatic invertebrates, feeding rates and digestive enzyme activity are usually studied as sensitive responses to environmental pollution –20. ManyGammarus genus is a shredder and a detritus feeder that plays a major role in the processing of organic matter [Gammarus sp. are currently used in aquatic ecotoxicological studies as sentinel species owing to their sensitivity to several toxicants. The reproductive cycle of Gammarus sp. is well described [per year [G. fossarum has been underlined in previous studies [ad libitum. However, in these conditions, clarifying the precocious character of digestive enzyme assays according to responses at the individual level  appears necessary to determine their ecological relevance as biomarkers at the species level.In European freshwater ecosystems, amphipods are usually considered as keystone species due to their high density and their position in the aquatic food web. The c matter  and is pc matter . Therefoc matter . Moreoveescribed , and theescribed , 7. In fescribed , 26. Finescribed , with seper year . Thus, tper year , 29. The studies ), under G. fossarum were submitted to stress throughout a complete female reproductive cycle (i.e. from ovogenesis to offspring production). As males were recommended to use digestive enzyme as biomarkers, the present study was based on the two genders in view to compare their patterns of responses and to define if the measurement in males could be translated in females. Amylase and trypsin activity levels, energy reserves and fertility (number of embryos) were measured at different times. Nutritional stress was used as a means to assess the relationship between energy intake disturbances and the reproductive outcome, regardless of the impacts of chemical stress.In order to assess how monitoring digestive activity and energetic marker levels could be used to anticipate adverse outcomes on reproductive capacities, Gammarids were sampled by members of the Institut national de recherche en sciences et technologies pour l’environnement et l’agriculture (Irstea), which is a French national institute of science and technology for environment and agriculture.G. fossarum is not a protected species and its use in scientific research does not require any specific authorization. Gammarids were sampled at “La Tour du Pin” (E: 5°27'33" N: 45°34'10") and no specific permissions were required for this location. All efforts were made to minimize suffering during laboratory experiments.In France, amphipod research does not require permission, Gammarus fossarum were collected with a hand-held net (2–2.5mm) at La Tour du Pin, upstream of the Bourbre River (France) [ad libitum with alder leaves (Alnus glutinosa) collected from a pristine site and previously conditioned for at least 6 (±1) days in groundwater. Freeze-dried Tubifex sp. worms were added as a dietary supplement twice a week.Male and female (France) , 31. TheG. fossarum. According to Geffard and collaborators [ad libitum).The aim of our study was (1) to define the temporal dynamics (i.e. sensitivity) of digestive enzyme activity and energetic marker responses in case of feeding inhibition, and (2) to determine if monitoring digestive activity and energetic marker levels could be used to anticipate adverse outcomes on the reproductive capacities of female borators , the lenad libitum every day of the week with 2-cm diameter alder leaf discs (Alnus glutinosa) . In the other two conditions, gammarids were fed by supplying alder leaf discs only for 2 consecutive days a week  or only 1 day a week . After each feeding period for the 2/7 and 1/7 conditions, the remaining food was removed from the beakers and kept in a cold room for the next meal.Diet starvation was applied throughout two successive reproductive cycles by exposing concomitantly 70 pairs of gammarids  in each feeding regime. The 70 females were exposed just after they molted (thus initiating a new reproductive cycle). The experiment was carried on over a second cycle  to measure effective reproduction (fertility) under the different starvation conditions. At that time point, marsupium embryos were issued from the fertilization of oocytes developed during the first cycle. According to previous experiments , starvatFemale and male gammarids were sampled after 11 days during the first reproductive cycle to assess energy parameters, and after 43 days during the second reproductive cycle to assess energy and fertility parameters . In accoper female (issued from the first cycle) was determined by collecting embryos from the marsupium and counting them [For each exposure condition, , 6 gammarids  were sampled for energy reserves and 6 pools of 3 gammarids  were collected for digestive enzyme activity assays. In all cases, embryos were collected manually from the marsupium and eliminated before biochemical analysis. Therefore, during the second cycle (after 43 days), the number of embryos ing them  on the fet al. [Amylase and trypsin activity levels were measured according to modified methods from Palais et al.  and Garcet al. , respectper minute and per milligram of protein. Total and cytosolic protein contents in the supernatant were determined according to Bradford [Each enzyme activity level was expressed as micrograms of the final product released Bradford , using bet al. [A method adapted from Van Handel , 36 and et al.  was usedTo measure total lipids in homogenate (A), 200μL of chloroform were added and mixed. After 20 min at 4°C, 100μL of homogenate were transferred into culture tubes and placed in a water bath at 95°C to evaporate the solvent. Then, 200μL of sulfuric acid (95%) were added to the mixture and left at 95°C for 10 min. Finally, the tubes were placed in an ice water bath and 5 ml of vanillin-phosphoric acid reagent were added. After 25 min, the optical density was read at 525 nm. Olive oil (Sigma Aldrich) solubilized in chloroform (1g/L) was used as a standard.To measure sugars in homogenate (B), 200μL of sodium sulphate (2%) were added and mixed. After 20 min at 4°C, the samples were centrifuged . The resulting supernatant (solution 1) and the pellet were respectively used to measure free sugar and glycogen contents. Three hundred μL of supernatant (solution1) were transferred into culture tubes, while each pellet was resuspended in 400μL of distilled water (solution 2) with three stainless steel balls, and shaken for 1 min at 30Hz. Subsequently, 300μL (solution 2) of glycogen homogenate were placed in culture tubes. Finally, 5 mL of anthrone reagent were mixed into every sample (solutions 1 and 2), and the tubes were heated at 95°C in a water bath for 17 min. The samples were cooled for 10 min, and their optical density was measured at 630 nm. Glucose solution (1g/L) was used as a standard.Available energy (Ea) was deduced from the total protein, carbohydrate and lipid contents at each sampling time. Each type of energy reserve was transformed into energetic equivalents using enthalpy combustion  .Statistical procedures were carried out with STATISTICA . NormaliFor the both cycles, food starvation inhibited significantly amylase activity in males  and females  . In femaFood starvation had no influence on trypsin activity levels whether in males (p = 0.262 for day 11 and p = 0.8054 for day 43) or in females (p = 0.5318 for day 11 and p = 0.2291 for day 43) . InverseIn females, food starvation significantly reduced available energy for the both cycle (p = 0.0005 for day 11 and p = 0.0008 for day 43) . From thIn males, food starvation did not affected available energy. In addition, after 11 days, the most severely starved males (fed one day a week) even exhibited significant higher (p = 0.0064 between 1/7 and 7/7 and p = 0.0.039 between 1/7 and 2/7) level of available energy.In contrast, in both males and females and for all diets, available energy significantly decreased between the two sampling times (11 and 43 days). In females, the decrease ranged between 563 mJ/mg of wet weight (2/7) and 1,137 mJ/mg of wet weight (controls) , (2/7) and (1/7) respectively). In males, the energy loss was less conspicuous: it ranged between 171 mJ/mg of wet weight (controls) and 538 mJ/mg of wet weight (1/7) , (2/7) and (1/7) respectively).ad libitum had started their second molting cycle, while 4 and 14% of the females fed 2 days and 1 day a week were just finishing their first molting cycle. These results show that only females at the AB or C1 stage were free of the influence of molting on the responses under study.Male and female survival rates decreased concurrently with starvation length, with average values of 98% and 86.5% after 11 days and 43 days of starvation, respectively . The molper female (i.e. fertility) was counted after 43 days of food stress  [Gammarus pulex under zinc pollution [per female on the other hand. The sensitivity and the precocity of gammarids’ digestive responses, associated with measurements of available energy in females, can be used to assess effects on the reproductive success and to predict potential changes at the population level.The possible consequences of energy-based sub-organismal outcomes on higher levels of biological organization was investigated. Several studies on daphnids exposed to various chemical stressors have already underlined the link between CEA and reproduction criteria  , 13, 54.ve rate) , 56. Morve rate) , 58. Finin situ experiment, amylase activity in male gammarids exposed to different contaminated sites for 15 days dropped by up to 54% compared to gammarids in reference sites [After 11 days, the most severely starved gammarids (fed once a week) exhibited amylase activity levels reduced by 25 and 31% compared to control males and females, respectively. This rapid decrease in digestive capacity induced a drop in energy reserves and embryo numbers (28%) in females. These results underline (i) similar sensitivity of males and females concerning their digestive capacity, and (ii) the ecological relevance of digestive markers, because they can be used to anticipate future consequences on reproduction in females, a key biological variable for population dynamics. As previously mentioned, many studies have highlighted that chemical contaminants can also influence food assimilation through the impairment of digestive enzyme activity . In the ce sites , correspHowever, the potential impact of chemical stressors on gammarids assessed in a caging approach might not reflect the biological responses of native populations submitted to chronic chemical stress. Indigenous populations quite probably develop mechanisms of resistance and adaptation to cope with the effects of toxic stress. Complementary studies about inter-population variability should be implemented to further clarify this issue for ecological risk assessment.S1 TableData obtained in male and female gammarids exposed to 3 levels of food starvation  after 11 or 43 days (n = 6).(PDF)Click here for additional data file.


Establishment of conservation priorities for primates is a particular concern in the island archipelagos of Southeast Asia, where rates of habitat destruction are among the highest in the world. Conservation programs require knowledge of taxonomic diversity to ensure success. The Philippine tarsier is a flagship species that promotes environmental awareness and a thriving ecotourism economy in the Philippines. However, assessment of its conservation status has been impeded by taxonomic uncertainty, a paucity of field studies, and a lack of vouchered specimens and genetic samples available for study in biodiversity repositories. Consequently, conservation priorities are unclear. In this study we use mitochondrial and nuclear DNA to empirically infer geographic partitioning of genetic variation and to identify evolutionarily distinct lineages for conservation action. The distribution of Philippine tarsier genetic diversity is neither congruent with expectations based on biogeographical patterns documented in other Philippine vertebrates, nor does it agree with the most recent Philippine tarsier taxonomic arrangement. We identify three principal evolutionary lineages that do not correspond to the currently recognized subspecies, highlight the discovery of a novel cryptic and range-restricted subcenter of genetic variation in an unanticipated part of the archipelago, and identify additional geographically structured genetic variation that should be the focus of future studies and conservation action. Conservation of this flagship species necessitates establishment of protected areas and targeted conservation programs within the range of each genetically distinct variant of the Philippine tarsier. Biodiversity-rich tropical forests are being degraded worldwide, and the pace of forest destruction is exceptionally rapid in insular Southeast Asia Traditionally, taxonomy and conservation have been inextricably linked and most conservation strategies have targeted formally named taxonomic units: species or subspecies Despite being the focus of a disproportionate number of intensely focused studies, multiple lines of evidence suggest that numerous primate taxa await discovery and formal taxonomic description. For example, between the 1975 and 1999 nocturnal primate species diversity grew worldwide by 2.85-fold increase In the Philippines, many morphologically indistinguishable yet genetically differentiated “cryptic” species We assessed the conservation genetics of Philippine tarsier to determine (1) how many distinct evolutionary lineages can be identified, (2) whether genetic structure conforms to biogeographical predictions and/or (3) expectations derived from current taxonomy (three subspecies). Due to limited natural history data or consensus from other sources of information , we argue that genetic data should be used to distinguish evolutionarily distinct tarsier population groups as objective, empirically defined conservation priorities.T. syrichta was nondestructively sampled (ear and tail-tip biopsies) from throughout as much of the species' range as feasible  Genetic material from 5′–TCACAACGTCTTGCTCAACC–3′ and Tars12s_AJB.R2, 5′–TTGAGGAGGGTGACGGGCGG–3′); ND2 ; CytB . We used the following thermal profiles for the mitochondrial fragment amplification: 1 min at 95°C followed by 38 cycles of 94°C for 30 sec, 30 sec at the primer specific annealing temperature , and 72°C for 1 min, and a final extension phase at 72°C for 10 min.Genomic DNA was extracted from tissues following Fujita's guanidine thiocyanate method Amplified products were visualized on 1.5% agarose gels and PCR products were purified with 1 µL of a 20% dilution of ExoSAP-IT  on the following thermal profile: 30 min at 37°, followed by 15 min at 80°. Cycle sequencing reactions were run using ABI Prism BigDye Terminator chemistry , and purified with Sephadex Medium  in Centri-Sep 96 spin plates . Purified products were analyzed using an ABI Prism 3130xl Genetic Analyzer (Applied Biosystems). Sequence contigs were assembled and edited using Sequencher 4.8 .Sequencing proved highly problematic for our many degraded tissue samples and approximately half our samples would not amplify for any targeted gene regions. Of the half that could be amplified for >2 target regions, initial sequence alignments were produced in Muscle Tarsius syrichta across the southern Philippines. Each locality was represented by 1–27 individuals (mean = 3.88). DNA was extracted using QIAGEN DNeasy extraction kits and we used nine microsatellite makers previously developed for Tarsius syrichta: T5, T6, T22, T34, T35, T43, T69 Tarsius spp.: T42, T50 We sampled a total of 66 individuals from 17 localities of Partitioned Bayesian analyses of the combined dataset were conducted in MrBayes v3.1.2 Partitioned maximum likelihood (ML) analyses were conducted in RAxMLHPC v7.0 To generate an ultrametric phylogeny for our Generalized Mixed Yule-Coalescent (GMYC) analysis, we ran a strict clock divergence time analysis of the mtDNA data, partitioning the data by gene, and fixing the mean substitution rate to 1.0 in BEAST v1.7.5 Tarsius syrichta spans the Mindanao PAIC in the southern Philippines. As an initial starting point, our a priori hypothesis of population structure, given our understanding that all these islands are part of the same faunal region T. syrichta samples, as well as infer the probabilities of individuals belonging to each of the estimated populations. We considered individuals with q values between 0.10 and 0.90 to be admixed a priori knowledge of inter-locus relationships, analyses were run under the correlated allele frequency model and the admixture ancestry model K, to range from one  to seven . We ran each analysis for 10 million iterations, with a burn-in of 500,000. The rate of change of K (ΔK) was evaluated in Structure Harvester (Web v0.6.93) Distruct v1.1  eastern and (b) western subclades; substantial genetic divergence was found among groups  Bohad hoc ΔK test of the results of Structure analyses of microsatellite loci preferred a K of two , suggesting an initial estimate of only two distinct populations as defined by our nuclear data alone. All individuals were assigned to one of these two genetic clusters with q values above 0.90. With the exception of populations from Dinagat Island and the northeastern peninsula of Mindanao Island .We anticipate future studies will further refine the known distribution of the Dinagat-Caraga tarsier and extend its range to nearby Siargao Island. Additionally it is not clear if the Surigao del Norte  samples identified here occur naturally on Mindanao or are the result of Dinagat and/or Siargao island animals confiscated from smugglers by regional wildlife enforcement and subsequently released on Mindanao , prioritization of populations for conservation action follows the recognition of named taxonomic units, i.e., species and subspecies. In the face of differing taxonomic arrangements, biogeographic expectations, and differing geographic patterns of nuclear versus mitochondrial genetic variation, how should the Philippine tarsier be prioritized for implementation of applied conservation measures? Currently, one tarsier sanctuary has been established on Bohol Island and another is under consideration for construction on Leyte. Would these two, and only these two efforts adequately conserve genetic components of Philippine tarsier diversity? We argue that they would not. Would establishment of conservation programs based on current tarsier taxonomy  properly conserve the genetic variation we have documented? Similarly, we argue that such an approach would fail to conserve the genetic variation elucidated here.Tarsius syrichta. Hill (1955) recognized T. s. syrichta/carbonarius/fraterculus as a poorly defined subspecies, perhaps synonymous, with T. s. syrichta. Museum specimen variation seemed insignificant to Niemitz (1984), but an inadequate basis for judgment, according to Musser, and Dagosto (1987).” Our study sheds some light on the uncertainty of Brandon-Jones et al. T. syrichtaBrandon-Jones et al. A number of genetic and social system phenomena could conceivably account for the differences in lineage-specific support we have inferred between mitochondrial and nuclear loci. Possibilities include persistence of genetic polymorphism, lineage sorting, nuclear gene flow between distinct mitochondrial lineages, sex-biased dispersal, mitochondrial gene sweeps, or an undocumented Philippine tarsier mating system. Given the present sampling, we are unable to distinguish between these possibilities, which may provide intriguing questions for future research. However, from a practical and applied conservation perspective, we argue that a single, clearly optimal, and objective solution results from the combination of patterns observed here in mitochondrial and nuclear gene loci.combined results of our variable sources of information that likely will have the best chance of maximally preserving genetic variation in the Philippine tarsier. As such, we advocate a multi-tiered conservation program involving conservation programs and protected areas in the ranges of each distinctive population lineages identified here, minimally including (1) Bohol-Samar-Leyte, (2) Dinagat-Caraga, and (3) Mindanao. Until a comprehensive taxonomic study using multiple lines of evidence  can be undertaken, we find that the existing evidence provides an inadequate basis for distinguishing between taxonomic alternatives. Instead, we emphasize that the archipelago's tarsier populations are partitioned into at least the three genetic variants, which we have empirically defined here for practical conservation purposes. We caution primatologists from taking taxonomic action until multiple lines of evidence converge on a meaningful solution Given our variable inferences, we advocate a combined, cumulative approach towards identification and recognition of tarsier evolutionary lineages for conservation planning. Thus, we argue that in order to maximally preserve genetic variation, it is the Appendix S1Review of Philippine tarsier taxonomy.(PDF)Click here for additional data file.Appendix S2Vouchers, locality data, GPS coordinates, and Genbank numbers for included samples.(PDF)Click here for additional data file.


Iron deficiency anemia is still common in children under five years of age and may impair their growth and cognitive development. Diarrhea is the second most common reason for seeking medical care for young children in Nepal. However, neither screening programs nor effective preventive measures for anemia and iron deficiencies are in place among children with diarrhea in many developing countries. The aims of this study were to determine the prevalence of anemia and iron deficiency and explore their associations with clinical, socioeconomic, and anthropometric parameters in Nepalese children. This was a cross-sectional study based on 1232 children, six to 35 months old, with acute diarrhea participating in a zinc supplementation trial. The mean (SD) hemoglobin was 11.2 g/dL (1.2). Anemia was found in 493 children (40%); this estimate increased to 641 (52%) when we adjusted for the altitude of the study area (hemoglobin <11.3 g/dL). One in every three children had depleted iron stores and 198 (16%) of the children had both depleted iron stores and anemia, indicating iron deficiency anemia. The prevalence of anemia among children presenting with acute diarrhea was high but the degree of severity was mainly mild or moderate. Iron deficiency explained less than half of the total anemia, indicating other nutritional deficiencies inducing anemia might be common in this population. Iron deficiency (ID) is still a common nutritional deficiency in developing countries responsible for more than 50% of total anemia cases in children under 5 . Iron deChildren, particularly young ones, are more susceptible to anemia and ID because of high iron requirements during growth, low intake of iron from complementary foods, and frequent episodes of infection . Breast Due to its simplicity of use in field settings and low cost, anemia detected by only hemoglobin (Hb) measurement has been widely used as a proxy for detection of ID and IDA . AlthougIn Nepal, there is not a regular screening program for anemia and ID in children and population-based data on anemia, including ferritin concentration in children, are still scarce. Detection of anemia is usually done when a child is attending a health center for other illnesses. Diarrhea is, after fever, the main presenting symptom in young Nepali children visiting health centers . This paThe study participants were residents of Bhaktapur municipality, which is a semi-urban city in Kathmandu valley. Bhaktapur is situated approximately 1400 m above sea level. There are approximately 80,000 inhabitants in Bhaktapur municipality and most people have agriculture as their main occupation. The municipality is one of the most densely populated areas in Nepal with 11,058 people per sq km . The hou. Anemic children got extra attention from a study physician and, if required, were treated with iron and anti-helmenthic drugs according to the national guidelines.This was a cross-sectional study where we collected blood samples between June 1998 and September 2000 from 1792 children. Children aged six to 35 months with acute diarrhea were recruited through weekly surveillance or spontaneous visits to a field hospital. This was the only pediatric hospital in the community and during the study period we had regular weekly household surveillance visits so we believe that we picked up most of the diarrheal illness in the communityWe weighed the children with minimal clothes at enrollment using a scale with 100 g sensitivity  and measured length or height using a locally made wooden board, which read to the nearest 0.1 cm. We collected baseline blood from the cubital vein into heparinized polypropylene tubes  irrespective of feeding status. The Hb concentration was analyzed immediately after blood collection with HemoCue  according to the manufacturer’s guidelines. The heparinized blood was centrifuged for 10 minutes and plasma was separated. The specimens were transported to Norway on dry ice and stored at −70 °C for 3–4 years before analysis. The plasma ferritin and C-reactive protein (CRP) were analyzed by a turbidimetric immunoassay  on a Hitachi 917  at the Laboratory of Clinical Biochemistry, Haukeland University Hospital in Bergen, Norway. We analyzed Hb from 1419 children as Hb measurement was not possible in the first ~300 enrollments because of logistical problems. Some of the samples did not contain enough volume to obtain reliable estimates of ferritin and CRP concentration. The analyses and statistical tests were thus based on the 1232 children for whom results for CRP, ferritin, and Hb are available.According to the WHO, Hb concentration <11 g/dL in younger children is defined as anemia and severe anemia when Hb was lower than 7 g/dL . The Cent-test or Chi-square tests were used to determine the difference between Hb and ferritin with clinical or other baseline features. Anemia and depleted iron stores were used as dependent variables in crude and in multiple logistic regression analyses to determine its relation with other variables. As we enrolled children with acute diarrhea, possible confounding factors like the baseline number of diarrheal stools and dehydration as well as CRP concentration were adjusted in the multiple regression analyses. Based on their associations and relevance, a total of five variables  were selected for the final model in the logistic regression analyses. We considered p-values of less than 0.05 to represent statistical significance. The z-scores of weight for age, length, or height for age were calculated using the WHO growth chart [®, version 10.1 .The Hb concentrations were symmetrically distributed. The distribution of plasma ferritin was skewed towards higher values. The descriptive statistics included means, medians, interquartile ranges, and 95% confidence intervals as appropriate. Student th chart . The stan = 494) were infants (n = 634) were from joint families. The age of the mothers of the enrolled children ranged from 17 to 45 years (mean ± SD = 25 ± 4.6) and 16% (n = 201) were 20 or younger. Nearly half of the children’s mothers (n = 599) had no formal education and another 20% (n = 241) had just primary level or informal education. Most of the women (n = 665) were not engaged in any formal job but one in every three spent more than 5 h per day working away from home, particularly in agricultural work. Although most of the children (95%) below one year of age were introduced to semi-solid foods, particularly rice, only one-third of parents reported giving animal or formula milk to their children.A total of 1792 children were enrolled in the study and analysis of Hb and ferritin was based on 1232 children. The mean age was 15.4 months (SD 7.7) and 40% . However, there were no apparent associations between Hb with proportion of children with blood in stool, dehydration status, and post-enrollment diarrheal durations.Underweight (low weight for age) was the most common form of malnutrition affecting almost every second child (46%), followed by stunting (low height or length for age) and wasting (low weight for height or length). The mean duration of diarrhea before enrollment was 2.2 (SD 1.1) days and the mean number of stools was 8.7 (SD 3.9) times during the preceding 24 h prior to the enrollment. Approximately one in every 10 children had blood in the stool or some signs of dehydration. The mean total number of stools 24 h prior to the enrolment was 9.0 among children who were anemic and 8.6 among non-anemic  or axillary temperature >99 °F  was significantly higher than in children without blood in the stool or temperature ≤99 °F, respectively. Children with a higher CRP (>10 mg/L) also had significantly higher plasma ferritin concentration  but there were not significant differences in Hb concentration .The mean plasma ferritin concentration among children with blood in the stool (21.1 μg/L n = 493) and after adjusting for the altitude of the study area (1400m), it became 52% (n = 641). Among the infants below one year of age, the anemia prevalence was 54% (n = 267), which is substantially higher than the 31% (n = 226) prevalence in older children (p = 0.0001). The overall prevalence of depleted iron stores (plasma ferritin <12 μg/L) was 33% (n = 407), but when we restricted the analyses to those with CRP concentration of <10 mg/L (n = 867), it increased to 39% (n = 340). The mean ferritin concentration was not significantly different between infants and older children. Out of a total of 1232 children, 43% (n = 530) had normal Hb and ferritin concentrations, 17% (n = 209) were iron deficient but not anemic, probably indicating a transient stage of iron deficient erythropoiesis, and 24% (n = 295) were anemic but not iron deficient, possibly due to other causes of anemia. A total of 198 children (16%) were found to be both anemic and ID, which is according to our definition considered as IDA. Severe anemia was found in only one child, indicating that most of the anemia in this population was of a mild and moderate type.The mean values and 95% CI of Hb and ferritin concentrations are presented in p = 0.0001) and age . Most of the infants (84%) were enrolled during spring or summer and post-monsoon months as compared with winter months (October–January), but the prevalence of anemia or depleted iron stores was not significantly associated with seasons. In the multiple logistic regression analysis, the odds of having anemia were lower in older children and in those who came from families that owned a piece of land (p = 0.1); among children with depleted iron stores it was 87% .Spearman’s rank order correlation analysis showed a positive association between Hb and plasma ferritin , which is twice the prevalence of anemia and may be a true reflection of ID in this population. Another limitation of our study was that we did not measure zinc protophorphyrin, MCV, RBC, or plasma-soluble transferrin receptor, which can identify iron-deficient erythropoiesis as an early stage of ID and is not affected by infection [Most anemia in developing countries is probably due to ID, though other nutritional or hematological abnormalities or parasitic infestation may also cause it . The hignfection ,41.The 16% prevalence of IDA, which explained less than 50% of the total anemia prevalence, indicates that other causes of anemia could also be prevalent in this population. Notwithstanding iron, several other nutrient deficiencies like folate, B12, zinc, vitamin A, vitamin D, and selenium have also been found to be associated with the development of anemia ,44,45,46We used a portable Hemocue photometer for estimating Hb. This method has been widely used for the estimation of anemia prevalence in developing countries and is well validated for this purpose. The use of Hemocue on venous blood was recommended for the estimation of anemia in a hospital setting as estimation from capillary blood tends to give values that are 0.5 g/dL higher on average . The timTraditionally, when the prevalence of anemia exceeds 40%, it is regarded as a serious public health problem, prompting interventions including fortification or universal iron supplementation without screening . HoweverMonotonous rice or other cereal-based complementary foods are predominantly used in Nepal and other developing countries and also have high phytate levels, leading to further inhibition of already compromised iron absorption ,58. Our The proportion of anemia in children presenting with acute diarrhea was high but mostly mild or moderate. Iron deficiency anemia explained less than half of the total anemia burden, suggesting that other nutritional deficiencies inducing anemia might be common in this population.


Taking the Quickbird optical satellite imagery of the small watershed of Beiyanzigou valley of Qixia city, Shandong province, as the study data, we proposed a new method by using a fused image of topography with remote sensing imagery (RSI) to achieve a high precision interpretation of gully edge lines. The technique first transformed remote sensing imagery into HSV color space from RGB color space. Then the slope threshold values of gully edge line and gully thalweg were gained through field survey and the slope data were segmented using thresholding, respectively. Based on the fused image in combination with gully thalweg thresholding vectors, the gully thalweg thresholding vectors were amended. Lastly, the gully edge line might be interpreted based on the amended gully thalweg vectors, fused image, gully edge line thresholding vectors, and slope data. A testing region was selected in the study area to assess the accuracy. Then accuracy assessment of the gully information interpreted by both interpreting remote sensing imagery only and the fused image was performed using the deviation, kappa coefficient, and overall accuracy of error matrix. Compared with interpreting remote sensing imagery only, the overall accuracy and kappa coefficient are increased by 24.080% and 264.364%, respectively. The average deviations of gully head and gully edge line are reduced by 60.448% and 67.406%, respectively. The test results show the thematic and the positional accuracy of gully interpreted by new method are significantly higher. Finally, the error sources for interpretation accuracy by the two methods were analyzed. Gully erosion is a major contributor of sediment in streams and needs serious attention –5. As a A gully is a relatively deep, recently formed eroding channel existing on valley sides and on valley floors where no well-defined channel previously occurred , 8. GullV component data were summed with linear surface roughness ϖ′ and 1 − ϖ′ as weights, respectively, to build a new component V′. Then it was retransformed from HSV color space into RGB color space to construct fused image integrating remote sensing image spectral information with three-dimensional topographical information which accord to the human visual perception. Based on the topographic gradient threshold values field measured along gully thalweg and gully edge line, the slope data were segmented by thresholding to get gully thalweg and gully edge line threshold vectors, respectively. Then gully thalweg threshold vectors were amended based on visual interpretation in combination with gully thalweg threshold vectors, terrain, and fused image. Combined with amended gully thalweg vectors, slope gradient data, and fused image, gully edge line threshold vectors were amended. Lastly, a testing region was selected in the study area to make field measurements along gully head and gully edge line, and kappa coefficient and overall accuracy of error matrix and deviation were selected as evaluation indices to assess the thematic accuracy of the gully and the positional accuracy of gully head and gully edge line interpreted by both the method of interpreting remote sensing images only and fused image. The quantitative analysis showed that fused image improved 24.080% and 264.364% in overall accuracy and kappa coefficient compared with interpreting remote sensing images only. The average deviations of gully head are 2.202 m and 5.566 m, respectively, reduced by 60.448%. The average deviations of gully edge line are 3.271 m and 10.036 m, respectively, reduced by 67.406%. The identification rate and the position accuracy of gully edge line and gully head produced by the new method are significantly higher than that by the traditional method of interpreting remote sensing images only. The results of this study provide a new method for gully erosion research based on remote sensing images.The paper, taking the small watershed of Beiyanzikou valley of Qixia city, Shandong province, China, as the study area, proposed a new method to interpret gully edge line based on the fused image of terrain information and remote sensing images. Firstly, in the HSV color space, the simulated northwest illumination SRM data and 2 , is located in northwestern suburb of Qixia city, about 3 km from Qixia city proper, with drainage area of 7158258.088 m2 . The are2 , saturation (S), and value (V). The hues produced are in the range of 0 to 360 degrees  and saturation and value in the range 0 to 1 (floating-point). Value ranges from approximately 0 to 1 with higher numbers representing brighter colors [HSV , also known as hexagonal pyramid model (Hexcone Model), is a kind of color space created by Smith according to the intuitive nature of color . HSV colr colors .H, S, and V components. And simulated northwest illumination SRM is built according to solar elevation angle and azimuth at the imaging time and DEM data. Then linear standardization terrain roughness ϖ′ is taken as simulated northwest illumination data SRM weights and 1 − ϖ′ as V component weights to build a new color brightness value V′ based on their summation, which is retransformed to RGB color space . The specific steps for the technique are as follows.ϖ′ can be calculated:ϖ) is ϖ's maximum value; ϖ′ is valued , which The Quickbird visible imagery is registered to the aerial orthographic DOM image (image-to-image registration) and is resampled to have a spatial resolution of 2.5 m by using the nearest neighbor method. The root-mean-square error (RMS errors) of the control points selected was 2.1344 pixels, exceeding 0.5 m, with large geometric registration error . The DEM data with spatial resolution of 5 m was resampled to 2.5 m in accordance with the Quickbird visible imagery.The simulated northwest SRM based on DEM data of the study area is calculated and integrated into the remote sensing images. Since the topographic information compliance with visual habits of human visual perception is integrated into the remote sensing images, the three-dimensional information of the gullies is clearly shown in the fused image .During April 2008, field measurement of slope gradient along gully thalweg and gully edge line with 2.5 m spacing was conducted and obtained the slope gradient data of 2,208 gully thalweg measuring points and 5,286 gully edge line measuring points. Statistics show the gully thalweg average gradient was 7.411° with standard deviation of 2.000° and gully edge line average gradient was 13.103° with standard deviation of 4.631°.Calculate slope gradient data of the study area using Slope program of Topographic Modeling tools of ENVI4.8 software  based onCombined with the fused imagery and gradient data, the gully thalweg threshold vectors were amended and 150 gullies with length greater than 30 m and bottom width greater than 5 m were interpreted ultimately, of which 46 gullies were interpreted in the test region. With comprehensive use of amended gully thalweg threshold vectors, fused image, gradient data, and gully edge threshold vectors, the edge lines of the 150 gullies were interpreted precisely.A total of 52 gullies see  were intThere are 49 gullies distributed in the field survey test region . Reference points are selected in the vicinity of the gully head and around the gully edge line of the interpreted gullies to build gully class and non-gully class reference data. The confusion matrix was calculated.The overall accuracy and user accuracy of gully interpreted using remote sensing images only are 61.207% and 52.632%, respectively. By using the fused image, overall accuracy and user accuracy are 97.414% and 100%, respectively. Since gully class reference sample points are randomly selected in the vicinity of the interpreted gully heads, they have certain statistical significance. 40 of the 52 gullies interpreted by interpretation using remote sensing image only are correctly interpreted and 12 are misinterpreted. Hence, overall accuracy and user accuracy are not high. The 46 gullies interpreted by using fused image are all correct by field verification, so the user accuracy can reach up to 100%.Kappa coefficient of interpreted remote sensing only and fused image is 0.946 and 0.260, respectively, increased by 264.364%.There is an obvious difference for the overall accuracy between the two methods because the fused image not only contains feature spectral information but also has simulated northwest illumination topographical information. Thus it can more accurately interpret gully topographic features and the interpretation omission accuracy of gully is 0 while interpretation error rate reached up to 18.367% by using remote sensing imagery only. In addition, since the adopted resolution of the DEM and remote sensing imagery is 2.5 m, gully bottom with an average width less than 5 m and gully edge line with an average gradient of less than 7.411° cannot effectively be interpreted.In the assessment with uncertainty of sampled data properties, sample data quality has significant impact on the error matrix. The sample size and sampling schemes are two important factors affecting the quality of the reference data. Sample size includes sampling unit and the number of samples. On the one hand, in order to be statistically significant, the sample size should be as large as possible. On the other hand, the size of the sample should be as small as possible to reduce the cost. A large number of accuracy assessments have been conducted by using a single pixel as the sampling unit . In the The field measurements along gully head and gully edge line were conducted to form gully edge line measuring point data and to calculate the minimum nearest distance, maximum nearest distance, and average distance between the gully head and gully edge line interpreted by the two interpretation methods and field measuring points using the Near tool of ArcGIS Desktop 10.0 software. The results are as shown in Compared with the method of using remote sensing images only, the average positional deviation of gully head and edge line interpreted by using the fused image of topography and remote sensing images is 2.2 m and 3.271 m, respectively, increased by 60.448% and 67.406%, respectively. Statistics show that positional accuracy of gully head and gully edge line interpreted by using fused image of topography and remote sensing images is significantly higher than that of using remote sensing images only.Spatial resampling (2.5 m) leads to spectral distortion of Quickbird optical images, and the spectral information of land between gullies covered with grass is easily confused with gully area. In addition, remote sensing two-dimensional images generally have FTPP , 31; theMoreover, the results show that positional accuracy of gully edge line and gully head interpreted by using remote sensing images only is closely related to land use type between gullies. The position error is larger in areas between gullies where land use types are shrub fields or forest land while smaller in areas between gullies where there is farmland. Measuring points with deviation more than 20 m are mostly distributed in a, b, c, d, e, and f areas in In the test, the location of gully edge lines (including gully head) interpreted by using optical satellite images only and by using fused image of topography and optical remote sensing images is not completely consistent with the field measuring points. There are mainly five reasons. (1) As the mosaic horizontal coordinate precision of the DOM image used is 1.2 m and mosaic tolerance is 0.4 m, thus the coordinate error of DOM used for geometric correction is greater. (2) The controlled point root-mean-square error (RMS errors) is greater than 0.5 m in Quickbird image geometric register process; thus DOM data coordinate error and image registration error are the main errors of the study. (3) Because the sensor image plane is flat and the earth has relief such as hills and ravines, the impact of topography on remotely sensed imagery is the most important cause of positional error . (4) UncV component  with linear surface roughness ϖ′ and 1 − ϖ′ as weighting, respectively. Then they were retransformed into RGB color space to achieve FTPP removed shaded relief data and were integrated into the remote sensing images to enhance and enrich terrain information in the image. Then field measurements of gully edge line and gully thalweg topographic slopes were conducted to obtain gully edge line and gully thalweg average gradient threshold values. We calculated the gradient based on DEM data and segmented the gully edge line and gully thalweg to obtain gully edge line and gully thalweg threshold vectors. Gully thalweg threshold vectors were amended to extract the gully thalweg with high precision based on fused image of topographic information and remote sensing data in combination with gully thalweg threshold vectors. Then gully edge line was interpreted based on the amended gully thalweg vectors, fused image, and gully line threshold vectors. To assess the accuracy of the method, a testing area was selected in the study area. Accuracy assessments of the gully interpreted by both the traditional simple interpreting using remote sensing image only and using fused image of topography and remote sensing imagery were performed through field spot measurements of gully head and gully edge line in the testing region by taking deviation, kappa coefficient, and overall accuracy of error matrix as the indices to evaluate the accuracy of the interpreted gully information . The results show that overall accuracies are 97.196% and 78.333%, respectively, increased by 24.080%; kappa coefficient is 0.946 and 0.260, respectively, increased by 264.364%; gully head average deviations are 2.202 m and 5.566 m, respectively, reduced by 60.448%; gully edge line average deviations are 3.271 m and 10.036 m, respectively, reduced by 67.406%. The test results indicate that, compared with traditional simple remote sensing image visual interpretation method, the accuracy of interpreting gullies and gully edge line by using the new method is significantly higher. This result provides a new approach to the study of gully erosion based on remote sensing images.Of all measuring techniques for monitoring the initiation and development of gullies, remotely sensed image-based techniques have become one of the important means. However, due to the impact of factors such as spatial resolution scales, uncertainty of spectra information, and false topographic perception phenomenon (FTPP) in remote sensing imagery, it is difficult to achieve high precision interpretation of gully edge lines by using optical satellite imagery only. This paper, taking the small watershed of Beiyanzikou valley of Qixia city, Shandong province, as the study area and taking Quickbird remote sensing images as experimental data proposed a method of using terrain information with spectral information of remote sensing image fusion technique. The technique based on HSV conversion established new value components by summing up simulated northwest illumination shaded relief data (SRM) and