P < 0.001). These results highlight that soil fauna could promote litter decomposition to different extents. Using stepwise multiple linear regression, the effect size of the soil fauna was negatively correlated with the cellulose and nitrogen concentrations of the initial litter material. In Chinese forests, litter decomposition rates were reduced, on average, by 65% when soil fauna was excluded. The impact of soil fauna on decomposition was shown to be closely related to climate and litter quality.Litter quality and climate have been presumed to be the dominant factors regulating litter decomposition rates on broad spatial scales. However, the role of soil fauna on litter decomposition is poorly understood, despite the fact that it could strongly influence decomposition by fragmentation and subsequent modification of the activities of microorganisms.In this study, we carried out a meta-analysis on the effects of soil fauna on litter decomposition rates in Chinese forests, ranging from boreal to tropical forests, based on data from 20 studies. The effects of climatic factors on decomposition rate were assessed by comparing the contribution of soil fauna to litter decomposition from studies carried out at different latitudes.The degree of influence of the soil fauna was in the order tropical (200%) > subtropical (47%) > temperate forest (28%). Comparing the effect size of soil fauna, it was found that when soil fauna was excluded, the decomposition rate, calculated using Olson’s equation, was most affected in tropical forest (−0.77), while the litter decomposition rate both subtropical (−0.36) and temperate forest (−0.19) were also suppressed to varying degrees ( Litter decomposition drives most of the net primary production in terrestrial ecosystems , so undeThe mechanisms through which soil fauna affect litter decomposition include (1) feeding on and fragmentation of litter , and (2)In this contribution, to fill in this knowledge gap, we perform a meta-analysis of the effects of soil fauna on litter decomposition across forests in China. This paper re-analyzes data from experiments on litter decomposition in different forest biomes throughout China, and is aimed at providing a comprehensive analysis of the effects of soil fauna on litter decomposition rates in Chinese forests, by reviewing research data on how climatic factors and litter chemical properties interact with soil fauna to affect the rate of litter decomposition. We tested two hypotheses: (1) the influence of soil fauna on litter decomposition in different forest types at various climates is: tropical forest > subtropical forest > temperate forest; and (2) the effect of soil fauna on decomposition may be related to precipitation, and the concentrations of nitrogen (N), lignin and tannins in the litter.CNKI, http://cnki.net/), Google Scholar (https://scholar.google.com/), and Web of Science . Collection of the relevant research was made in May 2017, with no restriction for publication date. The primary search obtained 100 papers. Overall, 95% of the studies used litterbags with different mesh sizes to exclude soil animals, whereas the remaining 5% of the studies used chemicals for this purpose. With respect to mesh sizes, fine mesh ranged from 10 to 2,000 µm, with coarser mesh ranging from 500 to 5,000 µm. In our analysis, the key papers needed to follow the following criteria. First, the treatments resulting in soil fauna excluded (or reduced) vs. soil fauna present were achieved either by comparing litterbag mesh sizes (fine or coarse) or chemicals . Second, research had to compare litter mass loss between field trials in both the presence and absence of fauna. Third, an important aim of our research was to analyze whether test conditions and experimentally created environment caused different responses of litter to fauna. Among the 100 papers initially selected, we identified 20 suitable papers which satisfied these criteria in the database  and information on the initial litter quality, including concentrations of lignin, cellulose, N, phosphorus (P), and C: N ratios from the papers. In addition, we prioritized those papers providing the most detailed information. To assess the effect of the mesh size of litterbags was tested only at two levels, comparing small  and large  mesh sizes.We collected the available climatic data (k) were obtained by calculating litter mass loss in the papers in the database.In the database were also store data on 64 plant species and 120 different species combinations , M0 is the initial dry litter mass (at time 0), and k is the decomposition rate constant (y−1). For studies carried out over long time scales, the single exponential decay model may not give the best estimate of the decay pattern (k) between bags in the presence and absence of soil fauna.where  pattern , but it  pattern . The metke / ki), where ke is calculated when soil fauna is excluded (or reduced) in litterbags, and ki when soil fauna is present. ES represents a unit-free index, ranging from − ∞ to + ∞, indicating the magnitude and direction of the influence  of the decomposition rate, using ES = ln .If any variables did not approximate to a normal distribution, they were log-transformed to fulfill the assumptions in order to carry out analysis of variance (ANOVA). We compared ES value between chemical P = 0.094). Analysis indicated that mean ES differed among climate types  ranging from −5 °C to 21.5 °C, and mean annual precipitation (MAP) from 428 to 3,100 mm. Other variables monitored included concentrations of N (0.3–3.6%), lignin (8.6–30.5%), P (0.0007–0.34%), cellulose (7.3–25.0%), lignin: N ratio (5.9–95.9), C: N ratio (16.6–172) and N: P ratio (3.6–528.6) of the litter dry weight. The effects of differences in methodology on litter decomposition rates resulted not significantly different  and MAT  explained most of the variation in soil fauna effects  and cellulose concentrations , C: N ratio , N: P ratio  and lignin: N ratio  showed significant positive relationships with ES . The combination of climatic and litter quality factors generated the strongest relationships with ES  when the effects of N concentration, C: N rate and MAP were combined  and mean annual precipitation (MAP) were the most critical climatic variables identified in many studies . The obsThe results showed that the contribution to decomposition of litter by soil fauna depended to some extent on litter quality , Fig. 2.Lignin is generally considered to be a substance recalcitrant to decomposition. It mainly strengthens and waterproofs cell walls in woody plant tissues. Soil fauna will become less likely to feed on resources with a high lignin concentration. On one hand, the decomposition rate of plant litter is negatively related to the resistance of lignin to enzymes . On the Hattenschwiler et al., 2005). The current study also found that an increase in C: N ratio weakened the impact of soil animals on the litter decomposition rate , contain glycosides which increase the water-solubility of compounds such as phenols: In our study, the concentrations of N, P, lignin, and cellulose in the initial litter material were shown to provide an effective indicator of the influence of substrate quality on decomposition rate. However, these factors may not necessarily be the best indicators for predicting soil fauna effects, and other factors in the litter, such as concentrations of magnesium and tannins, should be considered in future studies. Tannins are widely considered to be defensive materials for plant protection to reduce consumption of living plant tissues . They arWe concluded that relatively few studies on soil fauna diversity and litter decomposition were published, making discussion of the limited results difficult. Recent research findings have filled a gap in knowledge about soil fauna biodiversity and abundance. Moreover, there is no consensus on the impact of biodiversity on litter decomposition rate. Many studies have found that the diversity of soil fauna is positively correlated with litter decomposition rate . In geneIn order to control the soil fauna which participated in litter decomposition, researchers used different-sized mesh to restrict the entry and exit of soil animals of different sizes, although some studies included in the database of this study chose to use chemical reagents to suppress the diversity and abundance of soil fauna species in the study area . But theAlthough much research has been carried out on soil fauna and litter decomposition , many isOur meta-analysis shows that the combination of litter quality and climatic parameters can prove to be a good predictor of the contribution of soil fauna to litter decomposition rates in forests in China. The contribution of soil fauna to decomposition plays a key role in soil carbon and nutrient cycling. The results highlighted the effects of climatic factors, such as annual mean temperature and rainfalls, and litter quality parameters, such as N and lignin concentrations and C: N ratio, on the impact of soil fauna on litter decomposition. Understanding the effect of soil fauna on litter decomposition rate will improve our ability to predict global carbon dynamics. In Chinese forest ecosystems, previous studies have largely ignored the impact of soil fauna diversity on litter decomposition. The results from the current meta-analysis should be combined with litter quality and climatic factors parameters to improve our understanding of how soil fauna can influence rates of litter decay at broad spatial scales.10.7717/peerj.12747/supp-1Supplemental Information 1Click here for additional data file.10.7717/peerj.12747/supp-2Supplemental Information 2Click here for additional data file.


Pseudophilothrips ichini is a recently approved biological control agent to control the highly invasive Brazilian peppertree in Florida, USA. Methods for producing large numbers of these thrips are needed to ensure enough are available for field release across the state. Prior to approval for field release in 2019, thrips colonies were kept in small cylindrical cages that fit in limited quarantine space. We developed novel techniques to expand from small colony maintenance to large-scale production. We first quantified the productivity of small cylinders, which each produced an average of 368 thrips per generation. Given the amount of maintenance the cylinders required, we investigated larger cages to see if greater numbers of thrips could be produced with less effort. Larger acrylic boxes produced an average of 679 thrips per generation. The final advancement was walk-in screen cages that each produced an average of 13,864 thrips per generation. Screen cages produced up to 37 times more thrips per enclosure while requiring significantly fewer personnel hours. The large screen cages efficiently produced thousands of thrips weekly, permitting us to sustain mass distribution in the field. The advances made here contribute to the published methods on thrips rearing and are among the few that focus on mass rearing thrips as beneficial insects.Pseudophilothrips ichini is a recently approved biological control agent for the highly invasive Brazilian peppertree in Florida, USA. Prior to approval for field release in 2019, thrips colonies used for host specificity testing were produced and maintained in small cylinders to fit in restricted quarantine spaces. This next segment in the classical biological control pipeline is mass production and distribution of P. ichini. To accomplish this, we developed novel techniques to expand from small colony maintenance to large-scale production. We first quantified the productivity of the small cylinders, each containing a 3.8 L potted plant and producing an average of 368 thrips per generation. Given the amount of maintenance the cylinders required, we investigated larger cages to see if greater numbers of thrips could be produced with less effort. Acrylic boxes (81.5 × 39.5 × 39.5 cm) each contained two 3.8 L plants and produced an average of 679 thrips per generation. The final advancement was large, thrips-proof Lumite® screen cages (1.8 × 1.8 × 1.8 m) that each held six plants in 11.4 L pots and produced 13,864 thrips in as little as 5 wk. Screen cages and cylinders had the greatest thrips fold production, but screen cages required ten times less labor per thrips compared to either cylinders or boxes. The efficiency of these large screen cages ensured sustained mass production and field release capacity in Schinus-infested landscapes. The screen cage method is adapted and used by collaborators, and this will expand the literature on beneficial thrips mass rearing methods. Schinus terebinthifolia Raddi , a woody shrub, often growing as a multi-stemmed small tree, is native to Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay [Schinus, henceforth) invades a wide variety of urban and natural landscapes, the latter including cypress plant communities [Pseudophilothrips ichini (Hood) (Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae) was a promising candidate for Florida populations of Schinus [Brazilian peppertree,  Uruguay ,  feeds gregariously as larvae and adults on newly flushing stems and leaves  produced using cylinders for oviposition and initial larval development. Details on cylinder productivity in other studies pertain to thrips production for specific experimental purposes such as host range testing [A dependable and efficient method for mass producing  studies ,23 or re studies . While se stages ,20,25 ore stages ,26. Cuda testing ,25,26, rBoreioglycaspis melaleucae Moore (Hemiptera: Psyllidae), a sap-feeding agent for Melaleuca quinquenervia S.T. Blake (Myrtaceae), similar in size and feeding behavior to P. ichini, was accomplished, with whole potted plants in mesh bags [B. melaleucae mass production for field release, as nearly 800,000 psyllids were produced in one year , and this served as the basis for the large screen cage method we ultimately developed and adapted for P. ichini. We used various concepts of quality control in mass rearing summarized in Leppla and Ashley [P. ichini biology, process control via environmental monitoring, and evaluation of discrete cohorts.With the shift from maintaining colonies in limited quarantine space to mass production to meet the demand for field release, we explored increasing cage sizes to progress toward large-scale production. Rearing of esh bags  or in scesh bags . Large 1d Ashley  while deSchinus drupes  were collected each winter from wild plants growing in the vicinity of the Invasive Plant Research Laboratory in Davie, FL, USA. To prepare for germination as needed throughout the year, exocarps were removed and seeds were soaked in water for 24 h. Prepared seeds were sewn into germination trays with Fafard® Superfine Germinating Mix . The wells in the germination trays were seeded individually and trays had clear plastic covers over them until germination. Trays were placed on a bench in a rainproof screen house and irrigated with overhead sprinklers supplied with tap water for 45 min twice daily to maintain moisture in the growth medium. Once the first set of leaves fully expanded, seedlings were individually transferred to 1.5 L pots  filled with a 1:1 mixture of Sun Gro Professional Growing Mix  and PRO-MIX BX Growing Medium . Plants were allowed to grow 30–45 cm in height and then trimmed back to ca. 15 cm to stimulate lateral branching with more succulent tips with new leaves for thrips oviposition and feeding as the plants continued to mature. These potted plants were maintained in the rainproof screen house and irrigated in the same fashion as the seedlings.Once basal stem diameters reached approximately 10–15 mm, plants were transferred into 3.8 L pots  containing the 1:1 growth medium mixture described above. The majority of the 3.8 L plants were moved to a larger, uncovered screen house and overhead sprinklers irrigated daily before dawn for 1 h with water from an adjacent retention pond. Plants of optimum quality for thrips, i.e., with 10–20 actively flushing succulent stem tips, were moved outdoors onto ground covered with a black landscaping tarp . Overhead sprinklers irrigated with tap water for 1 h daily. A portion of the plants in 3.8 L pots were transplanted to 11.4 L pots  filled with the 1:1 growth medium mixture to facilitate growth into larger plants to be used in the screen cages. The individual plants in 11.4 L pots were held at an outdoor area on the ground covered in the black landscaping tarp and were hand irrigated once or twice daily for 8 s each using well water. Routine pruning continued for all three pot sizes at all growing locations, which occurred every 4 wk for plants for 1.5 L pots, every 5 wk for 3.8 L pots, and every 16 wk for 11.4 L pots.P. ichini thrips can be produced on plants fertilized at intermediate levels [® 350  as a readily available liquid fertilizer and source of secondary micronutrients, respectively. The liquid blend was applied every 2 wk via backpack sprayer onto the foliage to runoff, and the growth medium surface was dampened. This equated to approximately 2, 5, and 10 s of spray time for 1.5 L, 3.8 L, and 11.4 L plants, respectively. For a slow-release fertilizer, Osmocote® Blend  granules were added to the growth medium surface every 3 mo in amounts based on the medium label rate and adjusted for the size of each pot.All plants were routinely fertilized to accelerate growth and maximize plant quality. Evidence suggests more e levels , but thee levels . RegardlP. ichini when plants were inoculated with thrips. We primarily relied on a weekly foliar spray with a solution of 3.9 mL/L Green Cleaner  and 7.8 mL/L Neem Oil . Each plant was sprayed such that both surfaces of the leaves were wetted to runoff. This method was largely effective against aphids, black vine thrips (Retithrips syriacus Mayet Thysanoptera: Thripidae), red-banded thrips (Selenothrips rubrocinctus (Giard) Thysanoptera: Thripidae), and broad mites (Polyphagotarsonemus latus (Banks) Acari: Tarsonemidae). Given the Green Cleaner/Neem Oil treatment worked as a contact pesticide and can be rinsed off with little residue remaining, plants could be readily available for rearing P. ichini after they dried. However, occasional outbreaks of one or more of the aforementioned pests occurred, and we used foliar spray applications of either acephate  or abamectin  as needed per the label rate for controlling the pest(s) in question. To allow sufficient time for the pesticides to degrade, plants treated with acephate were not used for at least 4 wk [® dishwashing liquid; Proctor and Gamble, Cincinnati, OH, USA) for 3 min. This helped to reduce any pests that may have landed on the plants after the routine foliar sprays. Lastly, plants were rinsed with tap water and allowed to air dry before being added to the thrips colony.Pesticides were used to suppress or eliminate generalist herbivores, thereby maintaining optimal plant quality  and minimizing competition with ast 4 wk , and plaP. ichini production, as it likely provides a more suitable microhabitat for pupae [All rearing activity occurred at the Invasive Plant Research Laboratory in Davie, FL, USA. Initially, we continued to use the 45 cm tall, 15.5 cm diameter clear, vented acrylic cylinders A as thrior pupae . Cylinde® F54T4/865/HO; Sunlite, Brooklyn, NY, USA) held 22 cm above the tops of the cylinders. The photoperiod was set to 14:10 light:dark. Plants were watered two to three times per week by adding approximately 250 mL of tap water to plastic saucers in which each pot was resting. After most of the F1 larval thrips descended from the plants to pupate, plants were trimmed to roughly 15 cm above the moss. We had occasionally seen pupae in dried leaves and we, therefore, left the trimmed material resting on the moss. Emerging adults were collected using a passive trapping technique : Cylinders were replaced with 3.8 L plastic jars  in which the bottoms were cut out and inverted funnels  were glued to the lids with their centers cut out  suspended in the center of a plant. Lighting was provided by four fluorescent grow bulbs , two 20 cm diameter access ports on the sides, 30 × 30 cm doors on the front, and one 20 cm diameter screen ventilation port above each door  . The top® screen   support frames were assembled from inside the cages. Black landscaping fabric was used to line the bottoms to protect the screen. Six 11.4 L plants, each with 20–40 stem tips, and each having 15–20 cm of tender new growth were added to each cage, and each plant was placed in its own plastic saucer. The average height, canopy diameter, and basal trunk diameters of plants used were 72.7, 76, and 2.4 cm, respectively. Plants with saucers were placed onto flat drip trays (54 × 42 × 7 cm)  with drainage holes, and drip trays were covered in a 3–5 cm layer of sphagnum moss. Additional moss trays (54 × 28 × 7 cm) were placed on the cage bottoms while leaving a narrow footpath to access the plants. Moss was also added to the growth medium surface of pots themselves up to just below the tops of the pots. Newly emerged adult thrips from earlier cages were collected via aspirator into six plastic vials and a total of 1500 thrips were added to start each screen cage. Vials were opened and left wedged in plant branches to allow the thrips to disperse onto the plants.With the greater anticipated demand for thrips, we continued to investigate larger-scale production methods. We purchased 1.8 × 1.8 × 1.8 m walk-in style cages made from 280 µm LumiteCA, USA) . The cag1 larvae had descended to pupate, dead plant material was routinely trimmed and scattered on the floor of the cages. Cages were monitored daily until the first F1 adults began to emerge and wander the walls and ceilings of the cages. Some of the emerging F1 adults would aggregate on the trimmed 11.4 L plants where live material remained and that material was routinely harvested. Most thrips were harvested using another passive trapping technique we developed, in which additional fresh plant material was provided to encourage aggregation behavior and facilitate the efficient harvest of the newly emerged adults (Screen cages were placed outdoors in the covered screen house. The floor was fine gravel covered with black landscape fabric. Microclimates within the cages reflected outdoor conditions (see results). Plants were watered three times a week from below by spraying tap water into the saucers to fill each to roughly 5 cm. The moss in the drip trays was also sprayed to help maintain moisture. When most of the Fd adults . At any https://fawn.ifas.ufl.edu, accessed on 17 June 2021). As cage temperature and humidity were not recorded for the entire time period, we used the equation produced from a linear regression between cage microclimate and weather station data from September 2020 to December 2020 to extrapolate the missing microclimate data. We obtained hourly temperature and humidity data for the remaining dates between December 2019 and April 2021 by inputting weather station data into the equation to yield the microclimate estimates. To investigate the correlation between microclimate and fold productivity (the number of F1 thrips harvested divided by the number of F0 thrips introduced) and generation time (time from F0 adults introduced to first F1 thrips harvested), we created temperature and humidity profiles for each screen cage replicate (n = 54) that spanned the time between when each cage was first set up and the date the last F1 thrips were harvested. Within these time range profiles, we determined the mean temperature and humidity. Fold productivity and generation times were modeled as functions of temperature and humidity to examine correlations. A Kruskal–Wallis test was used to test for a difference in fold productivity and generation time among the three cage types and post hoc comparisons were made using the Dunn test. All statistical tests and models were conducted in R version 3.3.3 [Screen cage microclimates were measured from September 2020 to December 2020. In that time, cages experienced the full range of outdoor temperatures and humidity that occurred in Davie, FL, from December 2019 through June 2021 . Acrylic cylinders and screen cages facilitated the greatest fold productivity, while acrylic boxes were the least productive . When considering the number of personnel hours needed to rear 1000 thrips, screen cages were an order of magnitude more efficient than either of the two acrylic cages, requiring roughly ½ h per 1000 thrips . The moss harborage we provided in screen cages was routinely misted, and moss microclimates would not have likely dropped below the ambient minimum of 54.8% we recorded. Nonetheless, future studies on the impact of extremes in humidity would benefit our knowledge of mass rearing small, soft-bodied phytophagous insects such as P. ichini.Internal water balance is another important factor for insect survival owing to their small size and large surface-area-to-volume ratios. Although we did not find a significant correlation between humidity and any production metric, it is possible that extremely low humidity can impact the non-feeding stages of P. ichini allowed us to keep up with stakeholder demand for field release across the invaded range of Schinus in southern Florida—between 24 May 2019 and 2 July 2021, our facility had released 962,896 thrips in 14 counties. The passive trapping method developed here allows the efficient harvest of thrips from the screen cages, minimizing the time spent working inside the cages when working conditions are extremely uncomfortable during the summer months. The greatest numbers of thrips harvested from the outdoor screen cages occurred April through June, with a smaller peak in thrips harvested August through September. Acrylic cylinders and boxes are useful for maintaining small colonies for experiments and allow convenient observation of thrips behavior and development in a comfortable laboratory environment. When upfront costs of the cages versus thrips outputs are considered, cylinders are the best option for small laboratory operations, as they are more cost efficient than acrylic boxes. While most expensive, screen cages are at least four times more cost efficient than either of the two small cage types. Our work highlights the importance of understanding agent biology and stage-specific requirements in adapting existing techniques to meet the demand for beneficial insects used as agents in classical or augmentative biological control. Our methods have transferability to other programs where intact host plants are needed to rear small insects such as thrips.The screen cage method we optimized for mass rearing


Orthopaedic surgeons may utilize caregiver presence on social media as an opportunity to help share accurate information and facilitate informed decision-making. Developmental dysplasia of the hip (DDH) is a common orthopaedic condition affecting newborns. The rapid and vast adoption of social media has changed how we access medical information. The aim of this study was to deepen the understanding of the impact of social media as a tool used by caregivers. A search was performed on the Facebook (FB), Twitter (TW), and YouTube (YT) platforms. Information was quantitatively assessed by category, and number of posts and users. Comments and posts from the social medial platforms were then qualitatively assessed by using a thematic analysis. 16 Facebook pages and groups, 135 YouTube videos, and 5 Twitter accounts related to DDH were identified across 15 countries. A total of 25,471 comments/tweets were recorded. Across the social media platforms, the most common comments theme was “information sharing” (36.1%). Facebook groups had a significantly greater number of comments that were characterized as “social media as a second opinion” in comparison to YouTube videos ( Developmental dysplasia of the hip (DDH) is a common orthopaedic condition affecting newborns, with a worldwide incidence of 11.5 cases per 1000 births . BracingIn 2019, it was estimated that 9 out of 10 adults in the USA use the internet . The rapThe internet has become an avenue for families of children in need of orthopaedic consultation to seek health-related information. Studies have shown that parents and caregivers utilize social media to gather information regarding advice on specific diseases, sharing personal experiences, and gaining knowledge about specific treatment processes ,8,9. AltInstitutional Review Board approval was not obtained or required for this study. Information collected was publicly available information and no personal health information was documented. FB pages, FB groups, YT and TW were searched using the keyword “Developmental Dysplasia of the Hip” and “DDH.” The decision was made to exclude Instagram as there were not a sufficient number of accounts or data points to perform statistical analysis and compare with data obtained from Facebook, YouTube, and Twitter. Google was excluded as it is not considered a social media platform, but rather a search engine. Facebook groups and pages with more than 500 members/likes were selected. YouTube videos with more than 500 likes were selected while excluding duplicated videos, non-English speaking videos and irrelevant content. All Twitter accounts were selected regardless of the number of followers. Facebook groups were split into public and private groups. Access was requested for all private groups. Data points that were collected included the number of members, followers, likes, comments or tweets, country of origin, access status, and year of platform creation. Social media platform membership minimum criteria were used as previously described . Based oIn order to prevent selection bias, a qualitative analysis was performed on all comments, post and post responses on FB, YT and TW. Comments were given a category by two authors (BB and GH) independently. The senior author (FO) resolved any discrepancies. An axial coding system was used to create comment themes . The comp-value for multiple comparisons. The level of significance was set at p = 0.05.Statistical analysis was conducted with IBM SPSS version 27. A non-parametric one-way ANOVA test was utilized to analyze thematic comment distribution between social media platforms. When making multiple comparisons, a multiple-comparison correction was used to adjust the Overall, 156 social media platforms were identified between 2009 and 2019. A total of 25,471 comments were identified from accounts spanning 15 countries. The United States (68.4%), UK (10.5%) and Australia (6.8%) accounted for most accounts. Non-profit (64.3%) and medical institution (16.3%) category types comprised most accounts. A total of 10 Facebook pages were identified, with 44,221 likes ), 2938 posts (mean of 293.8 (range: 49 to 260)), and 11,003 comments (mean of 1100.3 (range: 193 to 2952)). Of the 10 pages identified, 5 originated in Australia (50%), 2 originated in the UK (20%), and the USA, Canada, and Jordan each had 1 page (10%), respectively. The most Facebook pages related to DDH were created in 2015, with three pages created .A total of six Facebook groups were identified, with 26,206 total members [mean of 4368 (range: 1576 to 9380)) and 12,727 comments (mean of 2121 (range: 875 to 3620)). Of the six groups identified, two groups originated in the USA (33.3%), two groups originated in the UK (33.3%), and two groups originated in Australia (33.3%). The most Facebook groups related to DDH were created in 2016, with three groups created . A total of 135 YouTube videos were identified, with 6,035,643 total views ) and 623 total comments (mean of 4.6 (range: 0 to 61)). 85 YouTube videos (63%) originated in the USA. The most YouTube videos related to DDH were created in 2011, with 25 videos created .A total of five Twitter pages were identified, with 3478 total followers (mean of 695.6 (range: 40 to 2017)) and 1096 total tweets (mean of 223.6 (range: 1 to 776)). Two Twitter pages (40%) were created in the USA.One hundred sixty (160) accounts were identified and categorized into five main groups . 25,471 p < 0.0001). Multiple comparison analysis showed that FBgroups and FB pages had significantly higher number of comments across all themes compared to YouTube (p < 0.0001). No significant difference was found in the distribution of comment themes between Twitter and other social media platforms across the majority of themes  total social media accounts. 85 of the YT videos (63%) were created by users from the USA. With 6,035,643 total views and only 623 total comments, there was an discrepancy between viewership and the interactive nature of YT videos. 62 out of 135 videos (45.9%) had zero comments recorded. Furthermore, YouTube videos are often shared on various additional social media platforms, which may elevate the total number of views without giving viewers the opportunity to comment on the video on the YouTube platform and interact with one another. “Appreciation and Success Stories,” “Sharing information and Advice,” and “Information Regarding Technique and Anatomy” were the three most common themes, however Facebook groups and pages still contained a significantly higher number of comments across all themes compared to YouTube . TherefoOur study found that FB was the most interactive social media platform, accounting for 23,730 out of 25,449 (93.2%) of total social media comments; 11,003 comments were shared on Facebook pages and 12,727 comments were shared on Facebook groups. Only a total of 3 out of 16 (18.8%) total Facebook pages/groups were located in the USA. Given that Facebook pages and groups are located in various countries and are heavily used by caregivers of DDH, Facebook may offer a concrete starting point for information distribution by orthopaedists around the world. Twitter contributed a minimal amount of information in terms of social media accounts and comments, contributing merely five accounts (3.1%) and 1096 total comments (4.3%). Two of the five Twitter pages originated from the United States. The character limit of 140 characters per Tweet may limit both orthopaedic surgeons and caregivers from sharing detailed explanations and personal experiences. Additionally, our study found that there were no DDH-related Twitter accounts created after 2015, suggesting that Twitter may have fallen out of favor as a social media platform that can effectively provide caregivers information about DDH .Comment analysis demonstrated that social media platforms provide an informational role . CommentThe personal nature of the comments was dominant, often experiences that simplified caregiver support. This phenomenon can be elucidated by the powerful effect of discourse, which improves the recognition of the child’s needs . “EmotioUpon review of YT comments, “Appreciation and Success Stories” was the dominant theme, accounting for 53.9% of all comments. YouTube viewership was high with 6,035,643 total views, however interactions between viewers were low with only 623 total comments. Word cloud analysis revealed that “Surgery” (37 comments) and “Pain” (21 comments) were among the top 10 most frequently commented words on YouTube .Furthermore, caregivers often utilized Facebook groups as a means of obtaining a second opinion . Under tAnother theme that emerged from our analysis is “Techniques and Anatomy”, where information exchange regarding DDH was predominately technical. The majority of these comments came from Facebook pages and groups that are dedicated to research and address various topics including the surgical correction of DDH. Although this may be a useful tool for doctors to inform parents and spark crucial conversations, it is important to note the possibility of doctors using these platforms for advertisement rather than education. These apprehensions highlight the importance of encouraging orthopaedic societies to increase their online presence to provide accurate, peer-reviewed information that is easily understandable .This study had several limitations. The first limitation included the use of “Developmental Dysplasia of the Hip” and “DDH” as the two keywords to search for DDH-related content, excluding search results that may have differed in terminology. However, the authors are not familiar with alternative nomenclature or words that describe this condition and believe, to the best of our knowledge, that our search was all encompassing. Another limitation is that only English-based content was selected and analyzed, which prevented the analysis of social media platforms in different languages. Access could not be obtained in 4 out of 10 (40.0%) Facebook private groups, which limited this study from capturing different types of discussions taking place in private groups. However, we were still able to analyze 25,449 individual comments across six countries, which provided a large comment base. Word cloud analysis was performed on YT comments could have generated a distribution that does not represent all social media platforms. In addition, word cloud generators analyze word frequency without any consideration for the context in which they were used . FurtherThis study provides an understanding of the use of social media platforms as important tools for information sharing by caregivers of children with DDH. These platforms represent an opportunity for orthopaedic societies to share information supported by peer-reviewed evidence that may lead to improved patient care and superior health outcomes. Surgeons and societies should be encouraged to increase their presence on social media platforms to aid and educate parents and caregivers of children with DDH.


Marshes may be more resistant than resilient to storm impacts; damaged marshes were slow to recover, and only 16% of damaged marshes had recovered 6 months after landfall. Marsh management mattered for resistance and resilience; marshes on publicly-managed lands were less likely to be damaged and more likely to recover quickly from storm impacts than marshes on private land, emphasizing the need to incentivize marsh management on private lands. These results directly inform policy and practice for hazard mitigation, disaster recovery, adaptation, and conservation, particularly given the potential for more intense hurricane landfalls as the climate changes.Characterizing the fragility, resistance, and resilience of marshes is critical for understanding their role in reducing storm damages and for helping to manage the recovery of these natural defenses. This study uses high-resolution aerial imagery to quantify the impacts of Hurricane Michael, a category 5 hurricane, on coastal salt marshes in the Florida Panhandle, USA. Marsh damage was classified into several categories, including deposition of sediment or wrack, fallen trees, vegetation loss, and conversion to open water. The marshes were highly resistant to storm damages even under extreme conditions; only 2% of the 173,259 km Bay, Gulf, and Franklin counties in the Florida Panhandle contain more than 173,000 km2 of coastal salt marsh, largely dominated by Juncus roemerianus Scheele and Sporobolus sp. vegetation2. Salt marshes in Bay, Gulf, and Franklin counties experienced wind speeds greater than 60 m/s and inundations larger than 3 m  damage in the United States8. Wave action and inundation can also cause significant vegetation loss9, edge erosion11, and other marsh degradation, including pond formation12. Understanding how marshes are impacted by major storms is imperative to understanding system-wide coastal resistance and resilience.Hurricanes and other intense storms impact marshes in a variety of different ways. Storms can be a major source of sediment deposition, which in turn increases marsh elevation and resilience to sea-level rise14. In 2012, coastal wetlands reduced inundation levels and thus prevented an estimated $625 million in direct flood damages from Hurricane Sandy in the northeastern United States15. In 2005, Hurricanes Katrina and Rita both caused devastating damage in southern Louisiana. Hurricane Rita was significantly less deadly and costly, despite making landfall at a similar size and intensity. This difference was largely due to travelling over 30–50 km of wetland before impacting a populated center, which accommodated extra surge more effectively than the large lagoons, highly-degraded wetlands, and artificial channels over which Hurricane Katrina traveled16.Salt marshes have long been lauded for their coastal protection ecosystem services, in which marsh vegetation and elevation reduce storm wave heights and surge18. This understanding of how marshes are affected by and recover from major storm events can be incorporated into nature-based and hybrid shoreline stabilization and coastal protection designs. Building this knowledge base is particularly important as climate models suggest that hurricanes will increase in intensity as the climate continues to change19.An understanding of the resistance  and resilience of marshes is critical for understanding their role in reducing current and future storm damages and for identifying incentives for their conservation and resources for their recovery. To understand the consequences of storms for flooding, we must identify the conditions when defenses  fail. Natural and nature-based features (NNBF), including salt marshes, are increasingly being leveraged for coastal protection to build resilience to storms and rising sea levels, conversion to open water, or channel cutting/widening. In addition to quantifying damage, the damage classifications were related to storm and marsh characteristics to determine implications for marsh recovery, resistance, and resilience.This study uses analysis of high-resolution aerial imagery to quantify the impacts of Hurricane Michael on coastal salt marshes in Bay, Gulf, and Franklin counties in northwest Florida within the northern Gulf of Mexico of the continental United States Fig. . Damage 2 of marsh analyzed across Bay, Gulf, and Franklin counties, 3371 km2 were classified as damaged after Hurricane Michael . Across all three counties, 19% of damaged marsh occurred within 1 m of the coast, and 51.6% of damaged marsh occurred within 50 m of the coast (Table p < 0.001). For marshes west of the storm track, 1.5% (666 km2) were damaged. 2.1% (2705 km2) of marshes east of the storm track were damaged.Of the 173,259 km2 (44%) were on private land and 96,333 km2 (56%) were on public land. Of marshes that were damaged, 1633 km2 (48%) were on private land and 1738 km2 (52%) were on public land. The relationship between damage status and land ownership was significant ; damaged marshes were more likely to be on private land, given the difference in proportion of damaged to undamaged marsh on private land (2.1%) vs. public land (1.8%).Damaged marshes were more likely to be on private land. Of all the salt marshes in this study, 76,929 kmThe majority of the marsh damage was due to deposition of vegetation or sediment . There was no significant difference in storm characteristics between undamaged marshes and damaged marshes experiencing deposition (Tables p < 0.05) in marsh grid cells experiencing fallen trees and conversion to open water when compared to undamaged marsh cells  originally damaged from Hurricane Michael was included in the recovery analysis. As indicated in Table 2 (16%) recovered and 1633.5 km2 (84%) did not. Recovery was more likely for marshes damaged within 50 m of the coast  with aerial imagery from April 2019, six months after the landfall of Hurricane Michael Fig. . RecoverTable 2 1% recoverast Fig. . Inclusiast Fig. .Table 3A2 of salt marsh in the recovery study, 373.5 km2 was private land and 1569.6 km2 was public land. Of the private land, 92.7 km2 (14%) recovered and 280.8 km2 (86%) did not. Of the public land, 216.9 km2 (25%) recovered, and 1352.7 km2 (75%) did not. The relationship between recovery and land ownership was significant .Marshes on public land were more likely to recover within 6 months. Of the 1943.1 kmAverage mean maximum wind speeds were not significantly different between recovered and non-recovered groups (mean 35.1 ± 7 m/s) across all damage types and ranged from 22 to 65 m/s Table . Average2 of marsh with deposition damage, 14.6% had recovered by April 2019  maximum wind speeds (33.3 ± 5 m/s) than the marshes that did not recover (34.4 ± 5 m/s). Distributions were similar with marshes damaged from deposition: 26.1%, 61.2%, and 95.9% of recovered marshes were within 1, 50, and 500 m of the coast, respectively (Table p < 0.05); recovered marshes were significantly closer to the coast. Marshes that recovered from deposition were at lower elevations (0.57 ± 0.3 m) than non-recovered marshes (0.64 ± 0.3 m).Of the 1647.9 kmly Table . Of marsly Table . There w2 of marsh analyzed across Bay, Gulf, and Franklin counties, only 1.9% (3371 km2) was classified as damaged after Hurricane Michael. Less than 2% of marshes were damaged in Bay and Franklin counties, and less than 5% of marshes were damaged in Gulf County. This result suggests that the majority of marshes in the study counties can withstand the effects of a category 5 hurricane and continue to provide coastal protection ecosystem services29. This also identifies marshes as more resistant than most other coastal defenses, including bulkheads. While this study did not examine bulkhead failure, similar studies found that 76% of bulkheads surveyed in North Carolina were damaged after Hurricane Irene29, and a large portion of bulkheads in the Florida Keys experienced significant damage after Hurricane Irma32.Based on comparative analysis of aerial imagery, the marshes in the Florida Panhandle were overwhelmingly undamaged by Hurricane Michael. Of the 173,259 km1. The highest hurricane wind speeds are typically associated with the front-right quadrant of the storm and weaken rapidly after landfall, which was also true for Hurricane Michael20. As expected, the majority of damaged marshes (4.3%) were in Gulf County, which is directly southeast of landfall. Given the sizable decrease in wind speed and storm surge as the storm lost intensity over land, about half of the damage  occurred within 50 m of the coast, and the vast majority of damage  occurred within 500 m of the coast.Damage to marshes in the Florida Panhandle from Hurricane Michael was spatially distributed largely due to the storm track. Shortly before making landfall in Mexico Beach, the storm turned northeastward, influenced by the southern edge of mid-latitude westerlies22. The type of damage was also spatially distributed. Marshes in Bay County experienced the highest wind speeds and also experienced t he most damage from fallen trees, a largely wind-driven form of damage. Marshes in Franklin County experienced the largest inundations, as well as the most conversion to open water. Deposition of sediment or vegetation can be influenced by both wind and inundation, whether through aeolian transport23 or overwash12. Therefore, it is not surprising that deposition was both the most common as well as the most evenly spatially-distributed form of marsh damage. Vegetation loss, though less common than deposition, is also largely driven by high-velocity wind-driven currents; a particularly intense flow can pluck or denude a marsh of its vegetation25.The types of damage were consistent with hurricane impacts in the Gulf of Mexico, with sediment deposition and wrack deposits among the most common morphological impacts from hurricane strikes26 or previous physical disturbance27. Given this study’s reliance on visual observations to determine damage, it is important to consider that not all storm-induced marsh damage can be ascertained visually; subsurface processes such as shallow subsidence or expansion can greatly influence the marsh’s elevation and resilience28.Marsh damage is also likely closely tied to physical properties of the marsh, in addition to the spatial component of storm conditions. The vast majority (88.5%) of marsh damage occurred at elevations of less than 1 m (NAVD88), consistent with both average marsh elevation and areas of greatest susceptibility to inundation. Localized susceptibility to damage may also indicate differences in marsh soil composition or shear strength33. Deposition of sediment from storm overwash may actually benefit the system, increasing total marsh elevation and counteracting sea-level rise8. While storm-induced sedimentation may increase resilience, deposits that are too thick (> 5–10 cm34) may cause plant mortality and ultimately reduce the stability of the marsh and its resilience to storm impacts.It is also important to consider that, of the ~ 2% of marshes in the Florida Panhandle that were damaged, ~ 80% experienced deposition of sediment or vegetation on the marsh surface, which is a potentially less-permanent form of damage, especially compared to fallen trees or conversion to open water. Hurricanes regularly place thick sediment deposits on marshes in the Gulf of Mexico; short-term sedimentation rates in coastal Louisiana marshes after Hurricane Andrew increased for three months post-storm by 1–3 orders of magnitude compared to pre-storm rates, suggesting that resuspension and deposition continued well beyond the timeframe of the passing storm35. A 1995 study, however, found that only 30% of wrack mats on a New England salt marsh damaged underlying vegetation36, and while wrack mats were a major cause of damaged low-marsh vegetation in a Virginia salt marsh, vegetation typically recovers37. This suggests that even the 2% of damaged marshes in the study area may be more resilient than originally thought.Much of the deposition on the marsh surface was rafted vegetation and wrack mats, which impacts marsh vegetation differently than sediment. This wrack deposition is consistent with past hurricane impacts in the Gulf of Mexico; wrack deposits from Hurricane Andrew completely buried vegetation in coastal Louisiana marshes, and areas of especially thick wrack were slow to recolonize, even a year after landfallThough the vast majority of marshes in the Florida Panhandle were not visually damaged by Hurricane Michael, of the damaged marshes with aerial imagery from six months after the storm, only 16% recovered. Marshes exposed to less extreme environmental conditions during the storm often were more likely to recover; this was the case for the relationship between mean maximum wind speed and deposition recovery, as well as maximum inundation and vegetation loss and conversion to open water.12. This study is limited to 6 months after landfall, which is a relatively short time frame and does not include the spring and summer growing seasons. Given that other studies have shown that it can take over a year to recover marsh vegetation after disturbance (including storms and fire)38, and it is likely that more marsh recovery would be observed a full year after disturbance. Despite these considerations, this study provides important insight into the short-term recovery of vegetation (through recolonizing after plucking or growing through thin layers of deposition).Perhaps unsurprisingly, some forms of damage are easier to recover from than others. More than 45% of marshes experiencing vegetation loss had recovered within six months, whereas only 16% of marshes experiencing deposition of sediment or wrack, the most common form of damage, had visually recovered within 6 months. This is consistent with other studies; marshes in the Mississippi River Delta denuded by Hurricane Camile partially or completely recovered within one growing season, provided the root mat was not destroyed and the area was not permanently submerged12. Since newly formed or widening ponds or channels indicate significant loss of the marsh platform, it is far more difficult for the marsh to both recover elevation and regrow vegetation. Research has shown that ponds created by hurricane impacts could maintain their shape for decades and eventually become a permanent feature39.Once vegetation is substantially disturbed or submerged, however, recovery becomes more difficult, and it is these areas that might be prioritized for more active recovery interventions. Kirwan et al. (2008) found that disturbed areas experience decreased vertical accretion, which in turn causes localized submergence of the marsh platform, as well as potential expansion of channel networks, further destabilizing the marsh. Less than 4% of marsh that had been converted to open water and none of the marsh experiencing channel widening or cutting had recovered within 6 months. This is consistent with damage identified from a survey of hurricanes impacting southern Louisiana over the last 50 years19, at least within the first six months of disturbance. Recovery rates for marshes on public land were significantly higher than private land. This speaks to the benefits of public land management and the need to create better incentives for marsh management on private lands. Additionally, the majority of marshes on public land are within larger wildlife refuges, state parks, or management areas and, as a result, may be less altered and more resilient to storm impacts.This study found that though the vast majority of marshes in Bay, Gulf, and Franklin counties were not visually damaged during Hurricane Michael, of the 2% of marshes that did experience damage, 84% had not recovered within six months. This suggests that marshes may be largely resistant to storm impacts but not particularly resilientFuture damage surveys incorporating on-the-ground assessments and finer-resolution aerial imagery are recommended to fully understand the impacts of intense storms on salt marshes. Since this study, by design, only quantifies damage and recovery visible from aerial imagery, it is important to consider that there may be additional damage to the marshes that may be small, subtle, or belowground and therefore not observable at the scale of the imagery. While this study is specific to the inundation and hydrodynamic conditions associated with Hurricane Michael, the implications about marsh performance and recovery provide an important base for similar future assessments of future storm impacts.31, wrack deposits may damage vegetation37, which in turn must recover by the next growing season to remain resilient to the next hurr icane season. Removing the thickest layers of wrack buildup to prevent vegetation death is a relatively straightforward management activity, which in turn will build the marsh’s resilience to future near-term storm impacts. Cost-effective restoration and recovery efforts should prioritize maintaining vegetation health, particularly in locations where the marsh platform is still intact post-storm. Post-storm wrack removal is a target for recovery funding that may be particularly beneficial.Post-storm management actions may be key to increasing marsh resistance and resilience after storm impacts. As seen in this study, deposition is the one of the most common forms of marsh damage, but also one of the most easily reversible. While storm-induced sediment deposition is often largely beneficial to building marsh elevation32. A portion of damaged marshes also began to recover within six months with few or no interventions, which artificial defenses cannot. Managed marshes on public lands are more likely to be both resistant and resilient to storm damage. Previous work has shown that marshes significantly reduced hurricane damage to property15 and are a cost-effective method of coastal protection40. Combined with our results, which indicate that marshes are highly resistant to storm impacts, these studies identify the need for additional public and private incentives, including insurance incentives and hazard mitigation funding, to conserve and restore marshes for their benefits to both people and property. After a storm, allocation of recovery funds to this natural, national infrastructure is imperative to improving management and recovery trajectories, particularly given the potential for more intense hurricane landfalls as the climate changes19.Results of this study inform policy, funding, and approaches for hazard mitigation, disaster recovery, adaption, and conservation. Very few marshes were damaged or failed during a direct hit from one of the strongest hurricanes to impact the continental United States, and marsh failure rate was generally much lower than that seen for other artificial defenses, even in lower-intensity storms2). Areas of damage were determined visually using aerial imagery from Google Earth, which provided high-resolution aerial imagery from directly after Hurricane Michael’s landfall (11–12 October 2018). Imagery was compared to aerial imagery from prior to Hurricane Michael (October 2015). For parts of Gulf and Franklin county for which aerial imagery from April 2019 was available, marsh cells identified as damaged during Hurricane Michael were assessed for recovery (yes/no) after six months. Google Earth imagery sources are detailed in Table 2 resolution. While damage assessment was performed by one person for the entire study area, multiple authors were involved in the damage determination methodology and agreed on criteria for damage in exemplar imagery. Randomized reanalysis indicates good agreement with the initial identification; repeating damage assessment for the majority of Bay County revealed no misclassified cells.Salt marshes were identified in Bay, Gulf, and Franklin counties using the USFWS National Wetlands Inventory. Marshes were divided into 30 m by 30 m grids  that were not present in pre-storm imagery. Channel cutting or widening were classified as areas where a thinner or no channel existed prior to the storm. Recovery was determined if the grid cell returned to pre-storm imagery in the imagery taken six months after landfall.To determine factors correlated with and likely driving storm damages to marshes, damaged marsh cells were analyzed for various storm conditions, including maximum inundation . Chi-squared tests were used to determine if there was a statistically significant difference between marsh damage and recovery on private and public lands.Supplementary Information.


We tested a novel methodological approach to examine associations between characteristics of autistic children and outcomes for siblings. Cluster analysis was used to define five groups of children with autism (n = 168) based on autism symptoms, adaptive behavior, pro-social behavior, and behavior problems. Primary and secondary parent carers, and siblings themselves, reported on sibling relationship quality and psychological adjustment. Siblings of autistic children with a mild symptom profile, high levels of adaptive skills, but high internalizing and externalizing problems had the highest level of these problems themselves and more conflict in their relationship. Siblings of autistic children with the most complex support needs  reported lower warmth relationships but not elevated internalizing and externalizing problems. Recent review and meta-analytic evidence suggest that siblings of children with autism (hereafter referred to as autism siblings) are more likely than other siblings to experience behavioral and emotional problems  and then compared sibling outcomes and sibling relationships across the resulting groups. In keeping with a call to examine data from different reporters about siblings , being either the mother or primary female carer; fathers or male carers equated to 5.4% of the total. Primary parent carers were aged between 26 and 64 years, with a mean age of 42.17 years (SD = 7.12). 163 (97.0%) of the parents described themselves as White British, White Irish or Other White, with the remaining five parents describing themselves either as White and Black Caribbean, Asian/Asian British-Pakistani, Black/Black British Caribbean, Asian/Asian British Indian or another Asian background. With regards to marital status, 142 primary parent/carers (84.5%) were married and living with their spouse and 26 (15.5%) were divorced, separated, single or widowed and not living with their partner. 78 (46.4%), were educated to a postgraduate or undergraduate degree level, and 64% of parental primary carers worked outside of the home; 30 full-time, and 77 part-time.Secondary parents/carers from 129 of the 168 families took part in this research with the majority being the father or male carer (96.9%) and the remainder being mothers or secondary female carers. Secondary carers were aged between 27 and 63 years, with a mean age of 43.71 years (SD = 5.60). 123 described themselves as White British, White Irish or Other White with the remaining two describing themselves as either Any Other Mixed Background or Any Other Black background. In terms of marital status, 98.4% of the secondary parents/carers were married and living with their spouse/partner was and 0.8% were divorced, separated, single or widowed and not living with their partner. 43 (43.4%) were educated to an undergraduate degree, or equivalent, level, and 94.6% of secondary parents/carers worked outside of the home; 113 full-time, and 9 part-time. To reduce participant burden and encourage participation, only one sibling measure was completed by secondary carers.The children with autism from the 168 families were 137 boys (81.5%) and 31 girls (18.5%), aged between five and 17 years, with a mean age of 10.43 years (SD = 2.85). Based on primary caregiver report (no independent diagnostic information was available), 102 (60.7%) children had a diagnosis of autism, 64 (38.1%) had a diagnosis of Asperger’s syndrome, and 2 (1.2%) children were diagnosed with PDD-NOS . 60 children (35.7%) had an additional condition, including one child with Down Syndrome, 18 with ADHD or hyperactivity, and 41 with another, unspecified, additional diagnosis. 25 (14.8%) of the children attended a mainstream school with no support, 90 (53.6%) children attended mainstream school with support, 9 (5.4%) children attended a specialist unit within a mainstream school, 35 (20.8%) children attended a special school, and 9 (5.4%) children attended other educational services.The 146 autism sibling participants  were chosen by the primary caregiver as the child closest in age to the child with autism, and the siblings were typically developing . The rated siblings ranged in age from 5 to 17 years . 77 were brothers, and 69 were sisters. 73 (50.0%) were younger than the child with autism, 68 (46.6%) were older, and 5 (3.4%) were twins. 57 (39%) of the siblings attended the same school as their brother or sister, and 86 attended a different school (missing data n = 3).The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire Goodman  is a 25-The Vineland Adaptive Behavior Rating Scales 2nd Edition  include: conversation, ‘Do you have a to and fro “conversation” with her/him that involves takings turns or building on what you have said?’ and imaginative play, ‘Does she/he play any pretend or make-believe games?’. Reciprocal social interaction (15 questions) include: interest in children, ‘does she/he seem interested in other children of approximately the same age whom she/he does not know?’. The Kuder Richardson Coefficient for the individual domains in the current study was 0.74 for Reciprocal social interaction; 0.61 for restricted, repetitive and stereotyped behavior; and 0.60 for Communication.The Social Communication Questionnaire  to assess the dimensions of the sibling relationship : SDQ internalizing, externalizing and pro-social behavior; VABS communication, socialization, and daily living skills; and SCQ reciprocal social, communication, and restricted behavior scores. All scores were z transformed before being entered into the analysis since different scoring ranges and scales are used in each measure. The squared Euclidean distance was used as a measurement of proximity, and Ward’s method to merge the clusters. A dendrogram was examined and suggested four potentially viable cluster solutions (ranging from four to seven clusters). A series of K-means cluster analyses were then applied extracting between four and seven clusters. The five-cluster and six-cluster solutions were retained as they led to more coherent groupings of needs.Comparison of the cluster means (for the variables used to cluster the autistic children), in both the five and six cluster group solution, was conducted using analyses of variance (ANOVA) to determine which of the solutions gave the clearest classification of the data. These ANOVA results, combined with cross tabulation of membership of clusters from the two different solutions, suggested that the five-cluster group solution was the most comprehensive and concise of the solutions, demonstrating clear delineation of the groups whilst retaining the individual detail within the clusters. To further examine the five and six cluster solutions, demographic data for age and gender were analyzed using chi-squared tests, cross tabulation, and ANOVA to highlight potential further differences between the cluster groups. Balancing all available data, the five cluster-group solution provided both the best homogeneity within, and the greatest separation between, the subgroups. The cluster group statistics for the five-cluster solution were compared across the clusters for the nine variables used to derive the clusters. Mean scores for primary carer ratings of their autistic children according to these nine variables are presented in Table The autistic children in Cluster 1 (n = 37) had an overall profile of relatively high levels of internalizing difficulties, but fewer autism symptoms. They had a mean age of 10.57 years and were 81% male. This cluster was characterized by elevated externalizing behaviors alongside increased anxiety and emotional adjustment .Cluster 2 (n = 43) represents a group of autistic children with multiple complex needs. Their profile includes elevated autism symptoms and self-help needs potentially requiring a high level of support. They showed significant problems across of all of the primary parental caregiver ratings, scoring the highest of the five clusters on the SCQ for reciprocal social, communication, and restricted repetitive behavior domains. VABS subdomains, including communication, daily living skills and socialization, showed that this group had significant learning and adaptive behavior needs. Cluster 2 was the oldest of the groups with a mean age of 11.33 years, and was 84% male.Cluster 3 (n = 40) can be described as displaying moderate autism symptom severity and moderate adaptive skill needs This group had a relatively high internalizing and externalizing problems profile. Children in this group had a mean age of 10.16 years, and 78% of them were male.Cluster 4 (n = 20) is the smallest of the groups, with relatively fewer autism symptoms and restrictive and repetitive behaviors that were similar to the multiple complex needs group in Cluster 2. They showed relatively high independence and self-help skills, though also had elevated levels of externalizing problems, and a low prosocial SDQ score. Cluster 4 represented the youngest of the groups (M = 9.36 years) and was 90% male.Finally, the autistic children represented by cluster 5 (n = 28) showed the highest levels of adaptive skills across all of the VABS domains. They displayed fewer autism behaviors and low levels of behavioral and emotional problems. The group was the second youngest with a mean age of 10.01 years and was 79% male.Following the development of groups of autistic children informed by cluster analysis, the main analysis focusing on the study research question, explored group differences between the clusters in terms of their siblings’ outcomes using a series of one-way ANOVAs. Post-hoc Tukey HSD tests were used to identify the cluster groups differing from each other on a sibling outcome when the overall ANOVA showed a statistically significant difference across the cluster groupings. Mean scores for outcomes as rated by primary carer, secondary carer, and autism siblings are presented in Tables For SDQ scores, there were a number of overall group differences for siblings as reported by the primary parent/carer including on internalizing F = 3.343, p = 0.012 and externalizing F = 2.8873, p = 0.025 problems. Primary carer ratings of internalizing problems in siblings whose autistic brothers and sisters were in cluster 3  were higher than for siblings who had autistic brothers and sisters in cluster 5 . This group difference was mirrored in the primary parent/carers’ ratings of externalizing problems: siblings of autistic children in cluster 3 had higher scores than the siblings of the children in cluster 5 .There were also overall cluster group differences for primary carer reported sibling relationship ratings of warmth and closeness F = 7.741, p = < 0.001, relative status/power F = 4.471, p = 0.002, and conflict F = 11.752, p = < 0.001; and for sibling self-reported conflict F = 4.425, p = 0.003. For the SRQ warmth/closeness domain the primary carers of the siblings whose autistic brothers and sisters were in clusters 4  and 5  reported that there was more warmth/closeness in the relationship than for the siblings with brothers and sisters in cluster 1  and 2 . Primary carers reported that the siblings of brothers and sisters in cluster 3  demonstrated lower status and power in the sibling relationship than the siblings whose brothers and sisters in cluster 2 .In terms of the SRQ conflict score, primary carers of siblings whose autistic brothers and sisters were in cluster groups 1  and 3  reported more conflict in the sibling relationship than for siblings whose brothers and sisters were in cluster groups 2 , 5  and 4 . Siblings themselves whose autistic brothers and sisters were in cluster group 3  also reported more conflict in their relationship than siblings whose brothers and sisters were in cluster groups 2  and 4 .We hypothesized that multi-dimensionally defined needs of children with autism  across a range of indices would be associated with siblings’ psychological adjustment and sibling relationship quality. From a sample of children with autism across the 5–17 years age range, we successfully derived five meaningful clusters with varying levels of associated strengths and needs. These groups ranged from a complex needs group to a group of autistic children who may be perceived as more able on some measures  but with high levels of internalizing and externalizing problems.Whilst it was important for the methodology of the current study to identify clusters of children with autism, the primary aim was not to identify autism cluster groups per se. Previous research has also identified clusters by autism symptomology  displayed lower internalizing and externalizing problems compared to siblings of children in cluster groups 1, 3 and 4. Autism siblings of children in Cluster 2 also benefitted from a sibling relationship that was relatively free from conflict, as reported by primary carers and self-reports, compared to siblings of children in cluster groups 1 and 3; although they did also have lower levels of warmth and closeness in the sibling relationship according to the primary carer reports. In addition, siblings of children with higher levels of adaptive skills, fewer autistic traits, and lower levels of internalizing and externalizing problems (cluster 5) also had relatively more positive outcomes. This group of siblings had the highest parent/carer reported warmth and closeness scores, low parent/carer scores for sibling conflict and the lowest reported levels of internalizing and externalizing behaviors as reported by parent/carers. The siblings who were reported as having the highest levels of problems themselves were those of the autistic children with a relatively mild autistic profile but higher internalizing and externalizing problems and lower levels of prosocial skills (cluster 3). Siblings of children in this cluster had more internalizing and externalizing problems than siblings of children in cluster 5, who displayed the highest levels of adaptive skills, fewer autism behaviors and low levels of internalizing and externalizing problems.In addition to the possibility that the patterns of needs of the children with autism are directly related to the sibling outcome group differences found here, the group differences may have been driven indirectly. Specifically, parental stress might also vary by cluster group and this could have an effect across the family unit, including on siblings  have been shown to have elevated levels of autistic traits and more social communication impairments, lower cognitive abilities and more internalizing problems than typically developing children (Georgiades et al. The use of a multi-dimensional approach using multiple respondents gives a comprehensive view of sibling outcomes. By utilizing both primary and secondary carer reports alongside those of the sibling themselves we were able to have a better understanding of how the siblings not only feel about their relationship with their brother or sister with autism, but also how they feel about themselves. Even the different patterns of findings related to different respondents can in itself present an opportunity to understand individual siblings’ functioning (Rankin et al. Several limitations should be considered in this study. First, the range of variables that could affect siblings and the measures available to evaluate sibling adjustment and the quality of relationships is extensive in previous research (Shivers et al. The current research focused on one sibling in the family. However, autism families may include multiple siblings (Stanford et al. Overall, the current study has shown the feasibility of a new methodological approach to exploring whether or how the characteristics of children with autism may be related to sibling outcomes. The results are of interest directly, but replication and extension of this approach is needed.


The overall migration behavior and the disintegration under composting conditions of films based on plasticized poly(lactic acid)/poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PLA-PHB) blends were studied, with the main aim of determining the feasibility of their application as biodegradable food packaging materials. The role of composition in the disintegration process was evaluated by monitoring the changes in physical and thermal properties that originated during the degradation process. PLA and PHB were blended in two weight ratios with 15 wt% of tributyrin, using a Haake mixer and then compression molded into ~150 μm films. We found that the migration level of all of the studied blends was below check intended meaning retained in non-polar simulants, while only plasticized blends could withstand the contact with polar solvents. The disintegration of all of the materials in compost at 58 °C was completed within 42 days; the plasticized PHB underwent the fastest degradation, taking only 14 days. The presence of the TB plasticizer speeded up the degradation process. Different degradation mechanisms were identified for PLA and PHB. To evaluate the annealing effect separately from bacteria degradation, the influence of temperature on materials in the absence of a compost environment was also studied. With the increasing time of degradation in compost, both melting temperature and maximum degradation temperature progressively decreased, while the crystallinity degree increased, indicating that the samples were definitely degrading and that the amorphous regions were preferentially eroded by bacteria. The incentive around the packaging industry to create both recyclable and compostable packaging, and the need to find solutions that provide good performance at a reasonable cost, are increasing day by day. To resolve this, much attention has been paid to the development of biodegradable polymeric materials. In this way, blends of poly(lactic acid) (PLA) and poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) have been extensively studied over the last two decades for packaging applications ,5,6,7. TOne of the great advantages of the development of biodegradable materials based on renewable resources is the reduction in plastic waste and, consequently, the reduction in environmental impact. In this sense, the study of the biodegradation process of these new biodegradable materials is of primary importance. Biodegradation is the degradation of the materials into environmentally acceptable products, such as water, carbon dioxide, and biomass, by the action of naturally available microorganisms, such as bacteria, fungi, and algae, under environmental conditions. In order to be meaningful, the biodegradation process must be linked to a duration comparable to the human scale, and specific biodegradation conditions. That is why it is more appropriate to define this type of material not only as biodegradable but also as compostable or biodegradable under composting conditions . Thus, tThe enzymatic biodegradation of a material depends on the pH value, temperature, moisture, and also on its glass transition temperature and crystallinity degree ,12,13,14The biodegradation process of PLA starts with a water absorption stage followed by hydrolysis and random cleavage of the ester bonds in the main chain of the polymer, thus a reduction in molar mass to oligomers and lactic acid is observed . The outPHB can be degraded by a wide variety of ubiquitous microorganisms in many ecosystems, both under aerobic and anaerobic conditions, without the formation of toxic products. These microorganisms are not necessarily accumulators of PHB, but rather use PHB as an exogenous carbon source . The larThis article aims to investigate the behavior of plasticized PLA/PHB blends by evaluating the role of composition and the factors affecting the kinetics of the disintegration under composting process. Even if the functional properties of plasticized PLA/PHB blends have been investigated by other authors ,4,5,6,7,−1, PDI = 3.3, 96 wt% l-isomer) was provided by NatureWorks®  and poly(3-hydroxybutyrate)  was kindly supplied by PHB Industrial S.A. . Tributyrin plasticizer  and all of the chemicals were purchased from Sigma–Aldrich®.poly(lactic acid)  and plasticized with TB (15 wt%), following previous results . Masterb−1 flow) of polymer solution (4–5 mg mL−1). The polymer was detected at 5.75 μm with a Miran 1A infrared spectrophotometer detector. A molecular weight calibration curve was obtained using poly(methyl methacrylate) as standard.Molecular weight was determined by size exclusion chromatography (SEC) at 25 °C, using an LKB-2249 instrument. A series of μ-Styragel columns, pore sizes 106, 105, 104, and 103 Å, were used with chloroform as an eluent (0.5 mL minv/v) (simulant A) and isooctane (simulant D1). Specifically, simulant A is designated for food products that have a hydrophilic character; instead, simulant D1 is designed to simulate the behavior of food products that have a lipid character. The test consisted of the total immersion of samples having a surface area of 25 cm2 in 25 mL of simulant. Films were kept in ethanol 10% (v/v) and isooctane for 10 days at 40 °C and 2 days at 20 °C, respectively, according to EU regulation No. 10/2011. After the incubation period, samples were removed and simulants were totally evaporated to obtain the residue, which was weighed in an analytical balance Mettler Toledo model AB (degree of accuracy of 0.1 mg). A blank test for each simulant without a sample was also run. The overall migration (OM) was calculated as the mass of migrant per dm2 of film surface, according to Equation (1).s is the mass residue obtained after evaporating the simulant that has been in contact with the sample, Mb is the mass residue of the blank test, and As is the surface area of the sample.Overall migration tests were performed following the European Commission Regulation EU No. 10/2011 . Two sim−2 , being im and rm the initial and residual dry weight of samples, respectively. Photographs of specimens were taken for visual comparison during the different days in compost. Parallelly, specimens of each formulation were stored at 58 °C in absence of composting soil, to evaluate the effect of the temperature and humidity conditions separately from the bacteria degradation. These specimens were called ‘Annealed samples’, to differentiate them from the ‘Composted samples’ buried in compost and monitored at the same time intervals.Composting degradation experiments of PLA and PHB-based materials have been performed by using mature compost kindly provided by HerAmbiente S.p.A.  in a laboratory-scale test. Specimens of about 15 × 15 mmThe microstructures of the PLA and PHB-based materials’ fractured surfaces were investigated through field emission scanning electron microscopy . Films were broken in liquid nitrogen and coated with a thin gold foil. The surface modifications of the film samples were also examined after composting tests.−1). The samples were subjected to a first heating ramp from −70 to 200 °C at 20 °C min−1 (I scan), followed by an isothermal step of 3 min and a cooling ramp to −70 °C at 100 °C min−1, and finally to a second heating ramp from −70 °C to 200 °C at 20 °C min−1 (II scan). Incubated samples under annealing and composting conditions were subjected to a first DSC scan after different test times. Glass transition temperature (Tg) was taken as the midpoint of the heat capacity increment ΔCp associated with the glass-to-rubber transition. Crystallization temperature (Tc) and melting temperature (Tm) were determined as the maximum and minimum peaks of the crystallization exotherm and melting endotherm, respectively, with the corresponding ΔcH and ΔmH enthalpies calculated from the area under the peaks. For this purpose, the software OriginPro 8.5 was used. The degree of crystallinity (χc) was evaluated as:mH and ΔcH being the melting and crystallization enthalpy from DSC I scan, ΔmH0 is the melting enthalpy of PLA or PHB 100% crystalline  . Wh. Whg, sut moving . Simultam but as the hydrolysis process proceeds, the formation of less perfect crystalline structures, that melt at lower temperature and in a less homogeneous way . After four weeks (time 28d) of storage, the melting peak of annealed PLA films shifted to a lower temperature (around 17 °C) and became notoriously wider. This behavior was less noticeable in the composted PLA film (melting peak decreased around 8 °C) since the shortest chains produced by water hydrolysis are those preferentially attacked by microorganisms. Moreover, the samples exposed to composting conditions suffered both annealing recrystallization and bacteria degradation of the polymeric amorphous phase fraction, which explains the higher increment in endotherm melting areas  and the strong embrittlement and fragmentation of composted samples , remained practically unchanged under both conditions (increments of only 9 and 2% were registered for ΔmH at time 28d). This was as well revealed by WAXS , 8% for PLA/PHB(6:4), 7.6% for PLA/PHB(7:3)/TB and 6.4% for PLA/PHB(6:4)/TB). Tm of both polymers decreased, while only PLA heat of melting considerably increased with testing time, for both annealed and composted materials, indicating an increase in its crystallinity degree. PHB-phase melting enthalpy remained almost invariant. The increment in crystallinity in blends may suggest that the PLA chains in the amorphous region of the composted blend samples residues are more restricted by the crystalline regions of both PLA and PHB domains and, therefore, are more hydrolysis-resistant [g values decreased over time for the unplasticized blends, while they increased for the plasticized ones, indicating the loss of TB.However, it is possible to accelerate the hydrolytic degradation of PHB by adding plasticizers or other polymers easily hydrolyzable, which disturb the PHB high crystallinity . Concernesistant , which cThe samples were also studied by wide-angle X-ray scattering. As an example, in Typical PHB crystalline diffraction peaks at 2θ = 13.45° and 16.85° were found [The thermal stability of annealed and composted samples was investigated by TGA before and after 28 days of incubation. The analysis was performed for those formulations characterized by sample residues after 4 weeks of incubation in compost, i.e., PLA, PHB, and PLA/PHB-PLA/PHB/TB blends. Thermogravimetric (TG) and derivative thermogravimetric (DTG) data are reported in max), and slightly increased (about 1–6 °C) that one for PHB. Furthermore, the plasticization of blends compromised the initial thermal stability of PLA/PHB/TB formulations, reducing (about 38–50 °C) their initial degradation temperature (T0) when compared with unplasticized blends. This can be explained by the presence of TB, which degrades at lower temperatures, and it is consistent with the faster composting disintegration rate found for the plasticized films. Both degradation temperatures decreased with annealing and composting time. In general, the reduction in T0 was larger for the annealed samples, since the low-molecular weight chains produced by hydrolysis degrade at lower temperatures. Under composting conditions, these chains are preferentially attacked and eliminated by bacteria. While a slight decrease (around 10–15%) was observed for T0 of neat PHB after 28 days, confirming the low change of PHB structural integrity, neat PLA films showed the highest reductions (around 33–34%). Unplasticized blends showed intermediate reduction values (around 13–16% in PLA/PHB(7:3) and 15–18% in PLA/PHB(6:4)). Notably, the T0 of plasticized blends did not change, or it even was raised, for PLA/PHB(7:3)/TB and PLA/PHB(6:4)/TB composted formulations after 28 days, evidencing the plasticizer early degradation, as already evidenced by the DSC analysis.PLA and PHB samples suffered a single-step thermal degradation, PLA being more thermally resistant than PHB, while PLA/PHB blends were degraded into two steps, each one corresponding to the degradation of the individual polymers. The blending of the two polymers reduced (about 5–12 °C) the PLA maximum degradation temperature  and PLA/PHB(6:4)/TB blends , accordingly with their similar disintegration weight loss degree after 28 days  were registered for PHB in PLA/PHB(7:3) blend, which could be explained by the material morphology of small, dispersed, and difficult-to-attack PHB domains in the PLA matrix (The reduction in T 28 days . On the A matrix .v/v)) food contact materials. The synergic effect of the polymer hydrolysis process and the plasticizing effect of TB, which increases the free volume and chain mobility, caused the OML to exceed in the polar simulant. The thermal annealing of samples in absence of compost but at the same composting temperature revealed that PLA undergoes a much more aggressive hydrolysis process than PHB and that the hydrolytic degradation of the latter can be accelerated by blending with TB or PLA. PHB presented higher susceptibility towards disintegration in composting than PLA, losing gravimetric weight at a faster rate. The degradation process was indeed accelerated with the incorporation of plasticizer. Blending PLA with a PHB content of around 25–40 wt%, enhanced the degradation rate of PLA during the first three weeks, but it prolonged the total disintegration of one week compared to pure PLA. It was observed that PLA significantly increased its crystalline content in all samples containing a PLA amount higher than 50 wt% during the composting test, due to the erosion and bacterial attack of the amorphous parts. Finally, the study underlined the successful and tunable compostability of PLA-PHB-based materials as a sustainable end-life option and their suitability for prospective application as fatty food packaging material.Fully natural and bio-based PLA-PHB blends were investigated based on their overall migration behavior under food simulants and their biodegradation in thermophilic composting conditions. The total migration values of all film formulations immersed in a fatty (isooctane) food simulant were below the limit indicated in the current legislation. However, plasticized films containing 15 wt% of tributyrin were determined as inappropriate aqueous (ethanol 10% (


It is typically recommended that panelists should refrain from wearing personal fragrances, such as perfume or cologne, prior to sensory evaluation. Interestingly, no study has been reported as to whether panelists’ perceptions of test samples could be affected by personal fragrances worn by themselves. The objective of this study was, therefore, to determine the effect of such a personal fragrance on olfactory performance. Nineteen untrained participants were screened, recruited for, and underwent the Sniffin’ Sticks test designed for measuring olfactory performances that included the odor threshold, discrimination, and identification (TDI). The olfactory performance tasks were conducted under three fragrance level conditions: (1) control (no fragrance), (2) just-about-right (JAR), and (3) excessive, with a preliminary study used to identify both the JAR and excessive fragrance levels. The results showed that the odor discrimination, odor threshold, and combined TDI performances were significantly lowered in the two conditions with the perfume fragrance, while the odor identification performance exhibited no significant differences across all three conditions. These findings provide empirical evidence that even low to moderate levels of personal fragrance can significantly reduce individuals’ olfactory capabilities, possibly subsequently altering the perception of test samples during sensory evaluation. There is a commonly held belief that participants should not wear any sort of fragrance prior to the sensory evaluation of test samples. Although this condition, to have participants refrain from wearing personal fragrances such as perfume or cologne, is specifically mentioned in foundational texts ,2; thereAs the sense of smell plays a key role in flavor perception and food acceptance ,9,10, thThe Sniffin’ Sticks battery is a well-validated measurement tool for addressing olfactory capabilities with respect to the odor threshold, odor discrimination, and odor identification ,13. ThesAn important caveat to consider in this area of research is the presence of individual differences with respect to odor sensitivity. Previous research has revealed numerous factors contributing to variation in odor sensitivity, including demographic profiles  ,18, hungIn view of all these factors, the over-arching goal of this study was to identify the impact of personal fragrance on individuals’ olfactory performances, especially the threshold, discrimination, and identification, as functions of fragrance presence  and the fragrance intensity level . These findings provide current and future researchers with specific evidence and support as to why participants should be prevented from wearing a fragrance in sensory testing.The protocol (No. 1808138603) used in this study was approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the University of Arkansas . Prior to participation, the experimental procedure was explained to all participants, and an informed written consent indicating voluntary participation was obtained from each participant.The main study considered three perfume fragrance conditions: no fragrance (control), just-about-right (JAR) intensity, and excessive intensity of fragrance. To determine the amounts of the perfume needed to achieve both the JAR and the excessive levels of fragrance, preliminary testing was conducted prior to the main study. During the preliminary testing, it was determined that one spray of perfume fragrance was equivalent to a mass of 0.054 g (standard deviation (SD) = 0.003 g). It was also determined that fragrance levels of 3  and 10  sprays were perceived as the JAR and excessive levels of fragrance, respectively.Participants were initially screened and recruited from the Northwest Arkansas community through the University of Arkansas Sensory Science Center  consumer profile database. Participants with known food allergies or clinical histories of major diseases  were not included in this study. Participants were also screened for self-reported olfactory abilities, with any individuals reporting any difficulties or diminished smelling capabilities being excluded from the study. A total of 20 participants were recruited, with all but one completing the entire study. Due to the incomplete dataset, the drop-outs data were not included in the analysis or its results, leaving a total of 19 participants  with a mean age of 33 years (SD = 9 years). A power analysis was conducted that supports a sample size of 19 within this study, while maintaining a minimum power level of 0.80. All participants were asked to refrain from eating, drinking, or cigarette smoking for two hours prior to each test, and were also instructed not to wear any fragrances of their own to the test sessions. Data were collected from October to November 2019 .In all three sessions: no fragrance, JAR fragrance, and excessive fragrance, participants were asked to wear a black, wait-staff style apron  for the duration of the study. The perfume was applied at the JAR (3 sprays) and excessive levels (10 sprays) on the chest areas of the aprons in a separate room directly before each session. To reduce the potential variation between the researchers, with respect to the possible mixture of the perfume fragrance and body odors ,27, the Each participant completed three separate test sessions, one week apart. The sessions were conducted in a balanced and randomized order across the participants. Multiple testing-rooms were used to provide one-on-one sessions between the researcher and a participant. All the rooms used for testing were in air-conditioned and ventilated environments, with additional time of one hour allotted after each session to allow for further ventilation. Once a participant had been seated for her/his test session, the researcher provided an overview of the session procedure and how to perform the desired olfactory tasks using the Sniffin’ Sticks battery . The researcher then prepared the corresponding apron–fragrance treatment combination in a separate room, and then instructed the participant to wear it for the duration of the session. The researcher then initiated the Sniffin’ Sticks testing in the order of the threshold, discrimination, and identification tasks, with the participant being blindfolded during the odor threshold and discrimination tasks . The thrp < 0.05.Data were analyzed using JMP Pro 16 software . A two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), treating “fragrance condition” and “participant” as fixed and random effects, respectively, was conducted to determine whether olfactory performances, such as the odor threshold, odor discrimination, and odor identification, might differ under the three fragrance conditions. If a significant effect was identified, post hoc multiple pairwise comparisons between fragrance conditions were conducted using Tukey’s Honestly Significant Difference (HSD) tests. A statistical significance was defined to exist when F = 14.23, p < 0.001) and the discrimination scores . More specifically, for the odor threshold task, the mean (±SD) score under the no fragrance condition (7.89 ± 3.58) was significantly greater than the mean score under the JAR fragrance condition (5.95 ± 3.37), and both were significantly greater than the mean score under the excessive fragrance condition (3.67 ± 2.38). For the odor discrimination task, the mean (±SD) score under the no fragrance condition (12.00 ± 1.45) was significantly greater than the mean score for the excessive fragrance condition (10.26 ± 2.54), while the mean score for the JAR fragrance condition (10.68 ± 1.92) was not significantly different from that under either the no fragrance or the excessive fragrance condition. However, for the odor identification task, there were no significant differences in the mean scores among the three fragrance conditions : no fragrance (13.16 ± 2.19), JAR (12.42 ± 1.84), and excessive fragrance (12.63 ± 1.89).F = 20.15, p < 0.001). As shown in The mean comparisons of the combined TDI scores revealed similar trends among the three fragrance conditions  can directly utilize these findings. It is crucial for future research to understand how this effect occurs within more realistic consumer-sample situations, while also considering additional variables that may interact with personal fragrance and influence not only olfactory capabilities, but also the overall perceptual capabilities of consumers when interacting with test samples. Specifically, additional studies can offer further insight into how other individuals within the environment are impacted by an individual wearing personal fragrance, how these findings apply to settings outside of a sensory lab when participants can apply their own fragrance, or the impact of personal fragrance on retro nasal olfaction. Researchers should also consider that aprons were worn in the current study and that changing the application area or clothing item  worn by participants could impact how they perceive the applied fragrance and, subsequently, how their olfactory abilities are impacted by the fragrance. Separately examining each of these topics would further add to the understanding of how personal fragrance can impact human olfactory perception and performance.