Cyprinus carpio) in Hungary. The mRNA levels of the genes were measured in 7 different tissues  by qRT-PCR. Correlations between gene expression and element content were analyzed by using linear regression and Spearman rank correlation. In a total of 15 cases, we found a statistically significant connection between gene expression in a tissue and the macro- or microelement content of the spine. In these contexts, the genes Akt1 substrate 1 (3), Collagen type I alpha 2 chain (2), Corticotropin-releasing hormone (4), Insulin-like growth factor 1 (4), and Myostatin (2), the tissue’s blood (3), brain (6), heart (5), and liver (1), the macroelements sodium (4), magnesium (4), phosphorus (1) and sulfur (2) as well as the microelement iron (4) were involved. We also found statistically significant mRNA level differences between healthy and deformed common carps in tissues that were not directly affected by the deformation. Based on our results, genes regulating the nervous system and growth, elements, and tissues are the most associated components in the phenomenon of spinal deformity. With our study, we wish to give direction to and momentum for the exploration of these complex processes.Spinal deformity is a serious economic and animal welfare problem in intensive fish farming systems, which will be a significant unsolved problem for the fish sector. The aim of this study was to determine the relative expression of genes  in different tissues associated with spinal deformity and to determine the macroelement  and microelement  content of spine in healthy and deformed common carps ( Cyprinus carpio) is natively distributed from the Danube River to the Black, Caspian and Aral Sea basins. In Europe, common carp has apparently been domesticated since the Middle Ages and wild populations of the Danube are assumed to be the origin of the cultivated stocks [The common carp (d stocks . The speCarcharias taurus), small-mouthed perch (Micropterus dolomieui) and brown bear (Ursus arctos), often reflecting environmental problems [Fish species may exhibit various kinds of morphological deformities, such as bone and skin neoplasms and spine deformations , dysplasproblems –7. Furthproblems , 9, in aproblems –13. Thusproblems . In 2006problems . Real ecproblems .Many factors may play an important role in the appearance of the spinal deformity disorder, such as non-hereditary congenital disorders , breedinSeveral studies –32 examiExamining the key factors in bone development  and their possible relationships may provide a new approach to research into the phenomenon of spinal deformity. In our work, relative expression level of the following spinal deformity related genes: Akt1 substrate 1 (Akt1s1), Calreticulin (CALR), Collagen type I alpha 2 chain (COL1A2), Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), Chromodomain-Helicase DNA-binding (CHD), Growth hormone (GH), Insulin like growth factor 1 (IGF1), Myostatin (MSTN), Sine oculis-related homeobox 3 (SIX3), Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) were determined in blood, heart, liver, genitals, dorsal muscle, abdominal fat and brain tissues of normal and spinal deformed common carp individuals raised from the same hatchery and kept using the same technology.Akt1s1 gene is the center of a complex signaling pathway that is one of the most intensively studied pathways today , becauseCollagen, the most abundant extracellular matrix protein in the animal kingdom belongs to a family of fibrous proteins, which transfer load in tissues and provide a highly biocompatible environment for cells . MutatioThe corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) is synthesized in the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of the hypothalamus, from where the pituitary portal enters the circulation to coordinate pituitary-adrenal stress responses. Thus, CRH gene is primarily a regulatory gene responsible for stress responses expressed in the brain. In 2008, Kulkarni et al.  examinedGrowth is a polygenic and environmentally regulated trait, whose most influential genes are those encoding the growth hormone (GH) and the insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF1), since these are the center of the hypothalamic-pituitary-somatotropic (HPS) axis . The HPSMycoplasma and Spirochaeta lipoproteins), the peptidoglycan of Gram-positive bacteria, and TLR2 also play an important role in the recognition of endogenous ligands produced during inflammation, such as HSP60 and HSP70 [The SIX homeobox 3 (SIX3) gene is responsible for the normal development of the pituitary gland in mammals and its genetic variation or absence causes hypopituitarism, suggesting that this gene is a potential candidate for association with growth characteristics in animals . TLR2 rend HSP70 , 51.Further analyses were performed on macroelement and microelement contents in the spinal column of the same individuals. Macro- and microelements are essential for the proper functioning of the physiological processes of any organism . The macThe spinal column is an ideal target for examining spinal deformity for two reasons. On the one hand, this osseous tissue is directly affected in the deleterious lesion. On the other hand, one of the most important functions of this tissue type is to deposit macro- and microelements. The ion concentration in bone can reflect the chronic disorders of its metabolism and its distribution in the body. Ion imbalance can affect bone cells and change the structure and function of the skeleton . Thus, eThe research hypotheses were that (1) there are differences between the gene expression levels we planned to study in normal and deformed groups; and (2) there is a correlation between the relative gene expression level of the genes studied and the micro- and macroelement content of their spinal column. When selecting the genes and the micro- and macroelements for the study, we considered how they exert their physiological effects in the tissues. Our results contribute to the study of common carp spinal deformity disease and may provide gap-filling data to explore the development of the disease in order to maintain competitive production.Twelve common carps were purchased from artificial propagation. Prior to the experiment, samples were reared under controlled conditions, with identical feeding and environmental parameters. Thus, external factors that could affect the individual growth differences such as applied diet, feeding rate, stocking density, amount and length of illumination , water t2-, NO3- and NH4+ concentrations were measured using the HACH Lange DR/3900 spectrophotometer . After 260 days post-hatch (dph), a total of 12 common carp individuals with an average weight of 253.95±18.97 g were randomly selected from the population and based on their phenotype and spinal deformity classified into following four groups: scaled common carps without spinal deformity , mirror individuals without spinal deformity , scaled common carps with spinal deformity (deformed), mirror individuals with spinal deformity (deformed).Fish were kept in a recirculation aquaculture system (RAS), provided with mechanical and aerated biofilter and UV lamp. The water volume of the plastic tanks was 350 litres. All individuals were fed three times daily  with commercially available dry feeds; the feeding rate was 2.5–4.0% of the total biomass . UneatenPrior to the further analyses, fish were euthanized with clove oil solution . Sample ® Total RNA Kit II  for brain, abdominal fat and genitals were used by following the manufacturer’s protocol. RNA quality and quantity were measured using a NanoDrop ND-1000 Spectrophotometer . Total RNA (100 ng) was reverse transcribed into cDNA with specific primers , 0.6 μl each of 10 μM forward and reverse primers, 1.3 μl dH2O  and 2.5 μl cDNA (2 ng/μl). For each sample, quantitative PCR was performed in triplicate. Thermal cycling was performed under the following conditions: 95 °C for 10 min, 40 cycles of 95 °C for 15 s and 60 °C for 1 min. Forward and reverse primers for common carp  for blood, E.Z.N.A. Tissue RNA Kit  for heart, liver, and dorsal muscle, and E.Z.N.A. primers  using thmon carp  were des3 (p.a. 65%). Then, 1.0 ml of H2O2 (p.a. 30%) was added to the samples, which were made up to 10 ml with Milli-Q water before the measurement. In total, 11 elements including six macroelements  and five trace elements  were measured by using a 5110 VDV Agilent ICP-OES spectrometer . A standard sample introduction system (Seaspray nebulizer and double pass spray chamber) was used for the measurement. Five-point calibration was used from a multi-element stock solution (Merck IV) and samples were introduced in triplicates. Data sets for macro- and microelements are available in .The largest difference of mRNA levels was observed at Akt1s1 in blood, CALR in blood, IGF1 in brain and SIX3 in genitals. In general, the deformed group was characterized by higher mRNA levels in these cases, except for CALR expression in blood, where a higher value was observed in the normal group, but these differences were not statistically significant (p < 0.05). COL1A2 exhibited the highest significant expression in blood of normal fish compared to the deformed group (p < 0.05). At the same time, the deformed group showed significantly higher mRNA levels in the heart. Despite differences in relative expression levels of the CHD, GH and SIX3 genes, no statistically significant differences were found (p > 0.05). In the case of IGF1 expression, there was a statistically significant difference (p < 0.05) in the heart, where the normal group displayed highly elevated expression levels compared to the deformed group. MSTN mRNA levels in the blood revealed higher values in the deformed group with statistically significant differences (p < 0.05). However, the mRNA levels of the deformed group were statistically significantly lower in the brain.In the deformed group, the relative expression of Akt1s1 in liver and brain was statistically significantly higher than in the normal group (p < 0.05). The TLR2 gene was overexpressed in the deformed group in all tissues, except abdominal fat, where it was equal to the mRNA levels of both groups. However, we measured a statistically significant difference (p < 0.05) for this gene only in the brain.In the case of the CRH gene involved in stress response and the TLR2 gene linked to the immune system, diverse mRNA levels were also observed in different tissues . The mRNp < 0.05). Based on our findings, no significant difference was observed between the deformed and normal groups in regards to their macro- and microelement contents  with Na in the deformed group. Also in the blood, there were a strong positive correlation between the S contents and mRNA levels of the CALR , COL1A2  and TLR2  genes in the normal group. In the heart of deformed fish, the Mg content showed a relatively strong positive correlation  with the IGF1 mRNA level, whereas the same relationship was characterized by a strong negative correlation  in the normal group. The Mg contents were characterized by a strong negative correlation for most genes  in the heart tissue of the normal group. Exceptions were the GH  and Akt1s1  genes, where strong positive correlation and regression were measured. Furthermore, the P  and S  contents also showed a significant correlation with IGF1 mRNA levels in the heart tissue. The Mg contents of liver showed a strong positive correlation with mRNA levels of TLR2 , SIX3 , COL1A2 , CHD , CALR , MSTN  and Akt1s1  genes in the normal group. In the liver tissue of the deformed group, there was a detectable positive linear relationship in the relation of IGF1/Ca . In the dorsal muscle, Mg contents in the deformed group showed a significant positive linear relationship with the mRNA levels of the GH  and CRH  genes, whereas K showed a strong positive correlation with expression levels of MSTN  and COL1A2  genes in the normal group. Finally, only Na content showed a significant linear relationship in the brain for several genes , and this was characteristic of the deformed group in all cases.Based on the results, the expression of the CRH gene in deformed fish is associated with lower Na and Fe contents in the blood. With higher expression of COL1A2 gene in the blood of normal fish, the S content also increases. The COL1A2 gene showed lower relative expression levels in heart tissue and thus had a significant negative correlation with Mg content. A strong correlation between IGF1 mRNA level and Mg content in the heart can be hypothesized, which was confirmed by the Spearman correlation in both study groups. On this basis, deformed fish are characterized by lower IGF1 expression associated with higher Mg contents. In parallel with the lower IGF1 mRNA level of the deformed group, a positive correlation with P content and a negative one with S content were estimated. The relative expression of Akt1s1 gene was significantly lower in the liver, and in this context, Mg content showed a strong positive correlation in the normal group. Lower mRNA levels of MSTN and CRH genes in the brain of the deformed group showed a significant linear relationship with Na and Fe contents, whereas the same was associated with higher relative expression levels of the deformed group in the case of the Akt1s1 gene.The present study describes the relative expression levels of different growth- and stress-related genes in connection with the spinal deformity of common carp in normal and deformed groups, in different types of tissues. Furthermore, correlations between mRNA levels and the macro- and microelement contents of the spinal cord were also examined. We found statistically significant connection in 11 out of 15 cases in the deformed group, in which the Akt1s1, COL1A2, CRH, IGF1 and MSTN genes were involved. Grouped by tissue, in six cases the brain, in five cases the heart, in three cases the blood, and in one further case the liver was involved. Finally, the macroelements playing a part in these associations were Na: 4 times, Mg: 4 times, S: twice, P: once, and the microelement Fe: 4 times. In the following, we discussed these relationships in detail.+ [The function of skeletal muscle cells, also known as myocytes, affects the function of Akt1s1, resulting in increased phosphorylation, leading to increased levels of Akt1s1 regulators . Higher + .The Akt1s1 gene and the elements Na and Fe also affect the nervous system, and a relationship between their amounts measured in the brain and the spine has been revealed in individuals with deformities. This suggests a key role for the nervous system in the development of spinal deformity, and raises the possibility of further studies to elucidate the direction and exact mechanism of the relationship.In general, the Mg content of the spine was strongly negatively correlated with the mRNA levels of most genes  in the heart tissues of the normal group. Exceptions were the GH and Akt1s1 genes, where strong positive correlation and regression were measured. Because Mg is primarily present in bones and muscles, it is understood that its concentration is more related to the GH and Akt1s1 genes. The relative expression of Akt1s1 in the liver of the normal group was significantly lower. Furthermore, the Mg content of the spine showed a strong positive correlation with the Akt1s1 mRNA level in the normal group. The liver is a key component of the excretory system. Our results suggest that the expression of Akt1s1 in the liver may have an effect on the accumulation of Mg in the spine and that this regulatory role may also be important in the development of the spinal deformity of the common carp.Danio rerio), because among other things, it participates in the regulation of the organization of the extracellular matrix and the development of the skeletal system [Based on our results, COL1A2 was expressed at significantly higher levels in the blood of normal fish than in the deformed group. Degradation of the ECM (extracellular matrix) leads to muscle damage caused by structural and functional changes to myocytes . Downregl system . The losl system . Thus, tIn our study, expression of COL1A2 gene in the heart tissue of the deformed group was significantly upregulated compared with the normal group. Moreover, there was a very strong negative correlation in the heart of normal fish between the COL1A2 mRNA level and the Mg content of spine. Since both the heart and the spinal bone tissue are also involved in the body’s Mg turnover, it would be worthwhile to further investigate and clarify its direction and exact significance in the development of spinal deformity.In our study we were able to show a significant difference in the CRH expression in the brain and blood of the two groups. In both tissues, the gene had higher activity in the normal group. An interesting pattern was also observed in further analyzes. In both tissues, CRH mRNA levels were associated with spinal Na and Fe content and this was observed in all cases in the deformed group. The levels of both elements measured in the spine were strongly negatively correlated with the mRNA level of the blood. In the brain, these element contents also showed strong regression with CRH expression. As explained above, one of the most important physiological roles of Na is in the transmission of nerve impulses and in membrane transport processes, and therefore Na content strongly influences brain function. Furthermore, iron also has a major effect on the nervous system in the electron transport, the synthesis and packaging of neurotransmitters, their uptake and their degradation into other iron-containing proteins, through which they can directly or indirectly alter brain function . Given tIn the present study, we measured statistically significant differences between the mRNA levels of IGF1 of the two groups, but only in the heart, where the deformed group was characterized by lower gene expression. Skeletal muscle mass depends on the balance between the rates of protein synthesis and degradation. IGF plays a key role in protein synthesis . ProteinThe phosphorus content of the spine was strongly positively correlated with the lower IGF1 mRNA level of the heart in the deformed group, whereas the sulfur content of the spine was strongly negatively correlated in the same group and the same tissue. Based on the above, it is not unexpected that we found a relationship between factors involved in growth and energy turnover and spinal deformation. What was more unexpected, however, was that all of this was identified in the heart. This again justifies the complex background of spinal deformity and its effect on the whole organism.A remarkable result of our study was a strong positive correlation between heart IGF1 mRNA level and spinal Mg content in the deformed group. However, a strong negative correlation characterized the same relationship in the normal group. In the present study, this is the only case where we obtain a statistically significant result in the same relationship in both groups. Structural damage to muscle cells could be linked to magnesium. Correlations between IGF1 concentration and magnesium and lipids could be used as biomarkers for early diagnosis of cardiovascular disease. Patients with diabetes have lower magnesium levels compared to control patients, as IGF1 is able to increase intracellular magnesium levels and also to reverse the dull response of hypertensive cells to insulin . IGF1 siThe MSTN gene was expressed at a significantly lower level in the brain of the deformed group. The role of MSTN in the brain has not been elucidated for a long time. However, in addition to influencing skeletal muscle mass, it also plays a very important role in brain function , 97. MSTThe complete MSTN gene knockout fish showed a shorter body length, the skull structure was smaller, and osteosarcomas were found in the individuals in the experiment reported by . The spiWe found a statistically significant, strong regression between the lower mRNA level of the brain of the deformed group and the Na and Fe content of the spine. Sodium is an essential element for the integrity and functionality of the animal body, because it is the principal cation in extracellular fluids . Fe is rOryzias latipes). Outcome and heritability have been studied in several generations. The body length and weight of the fish also increased significantly, and muscle hypertrophy occurred. Spinal deformities have also developed in some individuals. Because MSTN activates the Smad2/3 pathway, which in turn leads to down-regulation of MRFs (myogenic factors), the expression of Smad2/3-regulated MRFs [Pagrus major). The mutations were created by deletions of the first exon of MSTN, which cause disruption of the C-terminal active domain of MSTN. No high degree of spinal deformity was observed in the individuals during the experiment. In 2022, Shahi et al. [(Cyprinus carpio) without the introduction of external DNA. In their study, sgRNA/Cas9 ribonucleoprotein (RNP) was used to knock out the carp MSTN gene (KO) and subsequently monitored for hatchability, survival, body deformities, and growth performance. Individuals were observed for 90 days after hatching, showed a significant increase in body weight and no deformity. Overall, expression levels of myogenic regulatory factors (MRF), myogenic factor 5 (myf5), and myogenin (myog) mRNA were upwardly regulated in carp. The study shows that CRISPR/Cas9-based RNPs can be effectively used to target the MSTN gene in common carp to increase skeletal muscle mass [Gene knockout experiments may support studies on gene expression. In aquaculture, it is mainly used in connection with the development of skeletal muscle, therefore, validating our results with such methods can be a logical continuation of our study. Such results are not available for many genes, but these are available for example in the case of the myostatin gene, as fast-growing individuals have become important for production. For example, Yeh et al.  used theted MRFs  has beented MRFs . During ted MRFs . In fishted MRFs  the creai et al.  studied cle mass .In the present study, we identified a statistically significant relationship in the group of normal fish in 4 cases and in the group of deformed fish in 11 cases. This suggests serious physiological differences between healthy and deformed fish.The CRH (4) and IGF1 (4) genes were involved in most of the identified contexts. The former plays a key role in hormonal, autonomic responses to physiological and behavioral stress in vertebrates , whereasOf the tissues examined, brain (6), heart (5), and blood (3) occurred most frequently in a significant relationship in relation to gene expression and spinal element content.In the vast majority of cases, the Na (4) and Mg (4) macroelement content of the spine as well as its Fe (4) microelement content were correlated with mRNA levels measured in different tissues. These regression and correlation relationships were always strong and statistically significant. The most important biological functions of these elements can also be related to the functioning of the nervous system.No statistically significant difference was detected between the two study groups in the tissue directly affected by the deformity, in the dorsal muscle, or in the GH gene, which is the fundamental determinant of growth. In any case, this reinforces the hypothesis that the development of spinal deformity may not be based solely on local effects, and its consequences have an impact on the whole organism. For this reason, it is correct to address spinal deformity not merely as an aesthetic defect, but as a negative phenomenon that must be prevented or reduced for both animal welfare and economic reasons.In conclusion, mRNA levels of the genes and elemental levels involved in the regulation of the nervous system and growth were most closely related in individuals with deformed spine. However, our study was only intended to reveal the relationships. Exploring the direction and exact background of the relationships will be the task of further studies. In any case, it seems certain that the regulatory role of several genes and elements is simultaneously involved in the background of the phenomenon. We believe that the present results support our notion that there are complex phenomena behind spinal deformity and their precise exploration requires a holistic approach.S1 Table(XLSX)Click here for additional data file.S2 Table(XLSX)Click here for additional data file.


The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of the rapid palatal expansion (RPE) on the pterygoid process (PP), spheno-occipital synchondrosis (SOS) and sella turcica (ST) in the skull of a patient with transversal maxillary collapse, and identify the distribution of mechanical stresses and displacement, by finite element analysis (FEA).  Cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) was employed to examine the skull of a patient in this study. The patient was a 13-year-old boy, with Class II skeletal relationship due to transverse atresia and maxillary protrusion. The computer-aided design (CAD) geometry of skull was imported into the SimLab v. 13.1 software, to build the finite element mesh. For the simulation, a displacement of 1 mm, 3 mm and 5 mm in a transverse direction was defined at the midpalatal suture, thereby representing the RPE. For the analysis of results, maximum principal stress (MPS) and displacements were evaluated by identifying different nodes, which were represented by the points as per the areas of interest in the study. In MPS, the maximum tensile stress was found at point 2 (366.50 MPa) and point 3 (271.50 Mpa). The maximum compressive stress was found at point 8 (-5.84 Mpa). The higher displacements in the transversal plane and the lateral segment were located at point 1 (2.212 mm), point 2 (0.903 mm) and point 3 (0.238 mm). RPE has a direct effect on PP, SOS and ST in the Class II model skeletal relationship with a transversal maxillary collapse. PP supported a higher tensile stress and displacement. It happens because RPE also affects the deep regions and the neurocranium and viscerocranium. The transmission of mechanical stress produced by the expander appliance during the opening of the MPTS may affect the anatomical structures directly or indirectly,The finite element analysis (FEA) allows the simulation of the system of mechanical forces that act on the human skull during the process of a conventional RPE or MARPE, and analyses the response of such mechanical loads on the neurocranium and viscerocranium.The present research evaluated the effect of RPE on PP, SOS and ST in the skull of a patient with transversal maxillary collapse, in order to identify the distribution of mechanical stresses and displacements at the specific points of these anatomical structures, by the FEA method.The ethics committee of Piracicaba Dental School - State University of Campinas approved this study (Protocol number: 056/2013). Cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) was employed to examine the patient’s skull in this study. The case used is of a 13-year-old male with Class II skeletal relationship by maxillary protrusion, transversal maxillary collapse, complete permanent dentition, posterior dental crossbite and non-ossified SOS. The CBCT images, presenting slice thickness at the intervals of 0.25 mm, were imported in the InVesalius 3.0 software  and segmented through the grayscale threshold, to obtain the three-dimensional (3D) surface of maxilla and skull base . The selected bone structure was converted into a 3D stereolithography (STL) surface.The CAD geometry was constructed in Rhinoceros 5.0 software . The modelling was performed through the STL surface conversion into NURBS surfaces. The MPTS and SOS spaces were filled with solids, thereby corresponding to the connective and cartilage tissues, respectively .,,In order to build the finite element mesh, the CAD geometry of the skull was imported into the SimLab 13.1 software (Altair Engineering). Tetrahedral elements were used for mesh generation, which resulted in a mesh composed by 344,808 elements and 596,966 nodes. The properties of materials were considered to be linearly elastic and isotropic. The structures were assigned according to the properties of bone, cartilage for SOS and connective tissue for MPTS. The properties of each material defined by Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio were used as in previous studies .20,The boundary condition was defined by zero displacement and zero rotation on the nodes along with the foramen magnum margin. Also, the shape and loads were made symmetric around the X-axis (transverse). The activation was only performed by forced displacement for the purpose of the maxillary expansion. In the region of the MPTS, a mathematical condition was specified for symmetry and load, which was reproduced symmetrically on the opposite side. A transversal movement of 0.5 mm, 1.5 mm and 2.5 mm per side was simulated in the model. Due to the symmetry condition, this simulation was equivalent to an activation of 1 mm, 3 mm and 5 mm, respectively. Using the SimLab v. 13.1 software, the displacement and maximum principal stress (MPS) were evaluated by identifying the different nodes, which were represented by points used in previous studies .24The analysis of MPS presented the positive values (tensile stress) and negative values (compressive stress). When a 5-mm expansion was produced, the MPS was found at points 2 (366.50 MPa), 3 (271.50 MPa) and 4 (146.50 MPa). When the expansion was limited to 3 mm, the values of high tensile stress were registered on the same points 2, 3 and 4 . When the 5-mm expansion was produced, higher tensile stress was found on the previous region of SOS at points 4 (146.80 MPa) and 7 (35.14 MPa), as compared with the posterior region at points 5 (21.41 MPa) and 6 (4.36 MPa). The same tensile stress pattern was observed with the expansions of 1 mm and 3 mm. Compressive stress was found in ST for expansion simulations of 1 mm, 3 mm and 5 mm at point 8 with stress of -1.17 MPa, -3.51 MPa and -5.84 MPa, respectively. The tuberculum sellae showed a higher tensile stress at point 9 (39.32 MPa) as compared with the 5-mm expansion Video 1, .When the 5-mm expansion was performed, the higher displacements were registered on the transversal plane (X-axis) at points 1 (2.212 mm), 2 (0.933 mm) and 3 (0.238 mm) with a lateral displacement . The samTransverse atresia of the maxilla is mainly corrected by conventional RPE, which involves the application of lateral forces on the palate and the teeth for opening the MPTS.,,The conventional RPE and the MARPE cause the MPTS opening, and transversal forces may be transmitted to the skull base via a connection between the maxilla and PP.Wolff,,Conventional RPE and MARPE simulation through FEA has been identified as an effective method in the field of orthodontics for the study of the forces produced on the craniofacial structures.In the MPS analysis, tensile stress was found at points 1, 2 and 3 of the medial pterygoid plate, with point 1 showing a lower value. This stress distribution agrees with the findings in the studies of Iseri et al,,It is important to note that tensile stress decreases at points 3 and 4, as compared with point 2, what could be related to the proximity to the SOS cartilage and its ability to absorb the forces.,Although tensile stress reduces its value at point 3 in relation to point 2, it is one of the highest found in this study, and because of its proximity to the base of the skull, it could be transmitting forces on the foramina of the base of the skull with vascular and nervous content, causing bone responses such as microfractures or bone resorption.In addition to the body, that was considered elastic and linear, it can be seen in ,,,,When the 5-mm expansion was performed, the greatest displacements were recorded in the transverse plane in PP at points 1, 2 and 3, which are consistent with the results of previous studies.,Knowing that stress difference found between the skull model is based on morphology, because the geometry is fundamental to the mechanical response,,,The meshes corresponding to spongy bone tissue, teeth, periodontal ligament and circummaxillary sutures were not individualized since, in this study, the beginning of the expansion simulation starts assuming that the initial resistance of these anatomical structures had already been overcome , as described in a previous study.The present study did not compare the effects of conventional RPE and MARPE. Since both have as their main objective the opening of the MPTS, the biomechanical effects are highlighted after the MPTS begins to open.The FEA is a strong tool to create hypotheses in the field of biomechanics, since the results obtained may differ from the actual clinical results, because a computational model cannot reproduce all the biological variables that occur in the real clinical situations. A single finite element model could not represent each and every clinical situation, so future mechanical tests and the analyses of conventional clinical models are required to corroborate the present results. Therefore, this study does not induce to limit the use of conventional RPE or MARPE, but it seeks to know the biomechanical impact of extreme forces on the delicate craniofacial anatomical structures that could occur in adolescents patients. RPE has a direct effect on PP, SOS and ST in a patient with Class II model skeletal relationship with transversal maxillary collapse.The Class II model undergoing RPE supports a higher tensile stress and displacement at PP.The compressive stress on the ST is relatively lower in Class II model.


Then, the compressive strength was tested, and the microstructure analysis of the ready-made lightweight concrete (LWC) was performed. The degree of penetration of aggressive solutions into the cracks of the samples was assessed by means of applying 1% phenolphthalein solution. Changes in the weight of lightweight concrete samples after the test period were estimated. The obtained test results indicate that the decrease in the durability of lightweight concrete can be classified as a long-term process. Concrete with GEGA and GAA showed high resistance to aggressive environments. Moreover, the environment containing chlorides turned out to be the most aggressive, while the environment containing sulfates proved to be the least aggressive. The higher the concentration of the destructive factor was, the faster the corrosion process went. This has been proven by measuring the pH using phenolphthalein and carrying out microscopic examination. Concretes containing aggregates made of foamed glass and sintered fly ash are suitable for use both in traditional construction and in facilities exposed to an aggressive environment .In light of the scientific research, the corrosion of concrete structures is one of the main problems that may reduce their durability due to the negative impact of the natural environment. The paper analyzes the influence of the type of component on the selected properties of lightweight concrete subjected to the influence of aggressive liquids. Four concrete mixes were prepared with a granular aggregate made of foamed glass (GEGA) and aggregate made of sintered fly ash (GAA) with the use of a mineral additive: silica fly ash. The prepared lightweight concrete after one year was exposed for 60 days to the following environments: strong acid—HCl, 1% and 2% concentration, weak acid—CH Concrete is the most popular construction material all over the world, and its production and consumption are constantly increasing . It has 4, Na2SO4, K2SO4, MgSO4, (NH4) 2SO4, and acid—H2SO4. The defense mechanism in the case of sulfate salt penetration into the concrete is mainly based on the buffering effect of the binder components that maintain the alkaline environment of the concrete. The migration of sulfate ions with significant concentration into the concrete structure poses a risk of the formation of corrosive chemicals, in particular: ettringite (C3A·3CaSO4·32H2O) and gypsum (CaSO4·2H2O), as indicated by the authors [Concrete corrosion can be caused by external physical or chemical factors . Sometim authors ,26,27.42−) and the decrease in the pH of the solution in the pores of the concrete result in the lack of durability of the hydrates. In the grout, in the outer layer, exposed to the environment, a solution containing gypsum appears [The increase in the concentration of sulfate ions , and sodium sulfate (VI) (Na2SO4).The aim of the work was to present the problem concerning the durability of lightweight concrete (LWC) exposed to the influence of harmful factors of the external environment. The main task was to link the impact of destructive factors on lightweight concrete in general, and specifically on its durability. For this purpose, four different concrete mixes were prepared containing granular foamed glass aggregate (GEGA) and sintered fly ash aggregate (GAA). The lightweight concrete samples were exposed to aggressive aqueous chemical solutions of 1% and 2% concentrations of hydrochloric acid (HCl), acetic acid  were designed. The concrete composition was designed assuming a variable water/cement ratio and the type of lightweight aggregate. The main parameter considered in the corrosion resistance analysis was the water/binder ratio, which changed along with the content of cement and ash in the recipes and constituted 0.5 (R1), 0.45 (R2), 0.4 (R3), and 0.35 (R4). For all recipes, only artificial lightweight aggregates were utilized. In recipes for R1 and R2, GEGA2 mm and GEGA4 mm were used in the amount of 25% of the total volume of lightweight aggregate and GAA 8 mm in the amount of 50% of the total volume of the aggregates. In the R3 and R4 recipes, only GEGA 2 mm and GEGA 4 mm were used in the amount of 50% of the total aggregate volume. The formulas R1 and R4 contained fly ash as an additive fly ash. A chemical admixture, superplasticizer FK 63.30 , was applied in the lightweight concrete mixtures. The amount of admixture and the amount of mixing water in the four prepared concrete mixes was maintained at 0.8% of the cement weight. The composition of the mixtures is presented in 3 and then the remainder of the water was added. To test the compressive strength and the resistance of lightweight concrete to the influence of aggressive liquids, cubes with the dimensions of 100 mm × 100 mm × 100 mm were formed in accordance with the requirements [The proportions of the particular amounts of concrete components, given in irements . After 2The penetration depth (mm) of aggressive liquids into the structure of the samples was carried out after 30 and 60 days of exposure to aggressive corrosive solutions as required . The pen3COOH and 1% and 2% Na2SO4), were assessed after 30, 45, and 60 days from the moment of immersion in corrosive solutions. Due to the shortened test time—60 days, the concentration of 1% and 2% of aggressive liquids was selected. The choice of corrosive solutions  is conditioned by an attempt to assess the corrosion risk in the case of lightweight concrete including the mechanism of the influence of ions of strong and weak acids and salts, ions occurring in the natural environment .The results of changes in the average absorption of LWC samples, having been previously stored in water and used as a comparative material, subjected to three types of corrosive environments of different concentrations  to the compressive strength of samples stored in water of a constant temperature of 20 ± 2 °C. At the time of commencement of the corrosion resistance tests, the samples were one year old. Earlier throughout the 1-year period, all samples had been stored in a room with a constant temperature of 20 ± 2 °C and air humidity of 95%. The compressive strength test of each LWC type after 30, 45, and 60 days was done by means of an Advantest 9 Controls machine  with a maximum pressure force of 3000 kN, according to [The corrosion resistance of concrete, containing various types of lightweight aggregate, was determined as the ratio of the compressive strength of the samples stored in corrosive solutions . The research was carried out to determine the degree of the damage to the internal structure of the samples including the observation of the precipitated corrosion products. Before assessing the microstructure (SEM) of the selected concrete surfaces with the use of lightweight aggregate (GEGA and GAA), cubic samples with dimensions of 20 mm × 20 mm × 20 mm were cut out. The above-mentioned samples were ground and cleaned of dust.An example of a general view of the fractures of the surface of LWC samples (R1–R4) moisturized with a 1% solution of phenolphthalein, is shown in The penetration depth of corrosive solutions (mm), depending on their concentration in the structure of the test series (R1 ÷ R4), is presented in 3COOH and Na2SO4) with the selected levels of concentration (1% and 2%) and the moisture present in the pores of the concrete, completely immersed in an liquid, the subsurface layer of concrete undergoes a gradual process of penetration by aggressive corrosive liquids. The front of the penetration of aggressive solutions gradually moves into concrete, and the main reaction taking place in this process is the reaction of corrosive solutions with calcium hydroxide dissolved in the concrete pore liquid. As a result of this reaction, Ca(OH)2 leaches out, which reduces the alkalinity of the concrete , which in turn leads to an increase in the degree of the penetration of aggressive liquids into the structure of LWC, depending on its composition.On the basis of the examples , it can 2SO4) to 7 mm (2% HCl). As the w/b index decreased, a decrease in the depth of liquid penetration was also visible. Therefore, for R2 (w/b = 0.45)   the pene = 0.45) . In the  = 0.45) , the pen = 0.45) . The dec = 0.45) a. The hin the R4  mixture It was stated that the penetration depth of corrosive solutions, regardless of their type and concentration, depends on the composition of the designed LWCs . The wat3COOH, and 1% and 2% Na2SO4), were assessed after 30, 45, and 60 days from the moment of immersion in corrosive solutions. The weight of the corrosion-treated samples was compared with the weight of samples immersed in water. In both cases, samples had been dried in the temperature of 105 °C before weighing. The test results for LWC absorption after exposure to corrosive environments are presented in The results of changes in the average absorption of LWC samples, having been previously stored in water and used as a comparative material and samples, subjected to three types of corrosive environments of different concentration , from 8.1% to 9.6% (CH3COOH) and from 9.4%, respectively, up to 10.1% (Na2SO4). In the case of LWCs R3 (0.4) and R4 (0.35) made of GEGA 2 mm and GEGA 4 mm lightweight aggregates, each constituting 50% of the aggregate volume, the LWC R4 composition additionally uses fly ash in the amount of 20% of the cement mass. It was observed that because of the additional amount of fly ash, the water absorption of the R4 samples decreased by about 10%. When analyzing the test results, it can be observed that even though the GEGA aggregates were characterized by a much higher open porosity than the 8 mm GAA aggregate, the absorbability of LWC R3, R4 compared to LWC R1, R2 samples, stored in water and aggressive environments for 60 days, did not differ by more than 1% in any case. The observed differences in changes in the water absorption of the tested concrete samples (R1–R4) with lightweight aggregate depend on the exposure time and concentration of the selected corrosive environments, and on the physical properties of GEGA and GAA aggregates (2 phase). Ca (OH)2 shows the greatest susceptibility to aggressive corrosive environments in the cement matrix. Its dissolution enables the migration of aggressive chemical liquids into the LWC structure. The result of this phenomenon is a relatively high water absorption, which must be compensated by the increased cement content or the addition of fly ash.The obtained results of the tests and the analysis of the average values for changes in LWC absorption indicate an increase in aggressive liquid absorption in all environments compared to the water absorption of samples stored in water. In general, the LWC water absorption remained between 4.1 and 11.6%. The lower water/binder (w/b) ratio of LWC in the tested samples was assumed, and a lower water absorption was observed. In the case of w/b = 0.35, it did not exceed 9.6% in any aggressive environment after 60 days. The positive effect of the fly ash content was also visible, which limits the penetration of both water and aggressive liquids. For example, for LWC samples R1 (0.5) with a mixture of GEGA aggregate  and GAA  and with the addition of fly ash, liquid absorption in most cases was equal to or slightly lower than for LWC R2 (0.45) containing no fly ash and almost the same as for LWC R3 (0.4). This fact draws attention regarding its economic and environmental importance. Due to the limitation of the penetration of aggressive liquids, it is possible to use fly ash as a cement substitute in the amount of min. 20% of cement weight. Regarding the composition of LWC R2 with the mixture of GEGA and GAA aggregates in the same proportions as in the case of LWC R1, the lack of fly ash and an increase in the amount of CEM I 42.5 R by 50 kg/mgregates . GEGA aggregates , GEGA grThe density of LWC, depending on the exposure time to corrosive solutions compared to the density of the samples stored in the air-conditioned chamber, is presented in 3COOH, the weight loss of the samples was noted in the range of 4–11%. On the other hand, the weight loss of the LWC samples treated with 2% Na2SO4 ranged from 6% to 12%.The greatest changes in the mass and, consequently, in the density of the samples were noted when the LWC samples were exposed to a 2% HCl solution for 60 days. In this case, greater weight loss occurred in the LWC R1 and R2 group, and in the LWC R2 group, where the weight loss constituted 15% while in the case of LWC R1, it was only 13%. Lower weight loss in the case of LWC R2 resulted from the use of CEM I with the addition of fly ash. In this case, the ash was a cement substitute in the amount of 20%. Although in the case of LWC R1, the w/b ratio = 0.50 was higher than in the LWC R2 w/b = 0.45, and the weight loss in the HCL environment was 2% lower. In the case of LWC R3 and R4, whose w/b were 0.4 and 0.35, respectively, lower weight loss was recorded for the LWC R4. The results of the tests were influenced by the low w/b ratio = 0.35. In the case of LWC R4, fly ash was an addition of 20% to the cement mass. For the LWC R3, the weight loss constituted 11%, while for the LWC R4, the weight loss for the samples stored in 2% HCl reached 8%. When LWC samples were stored in the environment of 2% CHcm, cube) of the three single test results  defined in the adopted research terms.The compressive strength of LWC (R1÷R4), depending on the exposure time to corrosive solutions compared to the compressive strength of the samples stored in the air-conditioned chamber, is shown in 3COOH for 60 days, the weight loss of the samples was in the range of 28–38%. On the other hand, the decrease in compressive strength of LWC samples in 2% Na2SO4 ranged from 15% to 34%. The obtained test results of the average compressive strength in a function of time and the impact of selected corrosive environments, despite the lower ratio (w/c and w/b), suggest dissolution of the cement paste covering and filling the pores of light aggregate grains, and as a result, enable crystallization (including penetration) of corrosive compounds (The greatest decrease in LWC strength (R1 ÷ R4) was noted when the LWC samples were exposed to a 2% HCl solution for 60 days. In this case, greater decrease in weight concerned the LWC R1 and R2 groups, and, in particular, the LWC R2, where the decrease in compressive strength constituted 43%, while in the case of LWC R1, the compressive strength decreased by 41%. Lower weight loss in the case of LWC R2 resulted from the use of CEM I with the addition of fly ash. The sealing of the structure limited the influence of the aggressive liquid and the damage to the cement matrix. In the case of LWC R1, the ratio w/b = 0.50 was higher than LWC R2 w/b = 0.45, and the decrease in compressive strength in the HCl environment was 2% lower. In the case of LWC R3 and R4, whose w/b were 0.4 and 0.35, respectively, the decrease in compressive strength of the samples stored in 2% HCl for 60 days was the same in both cases and amounted to 38%. In the case of LWC R4, with an addition of 20% fly ash to the cement mass, the compressive strength increase was not observed. In the case of the LWC, the main factor influencing the strength of the LWC was the crush strength of the LWA. When the LWC samples were exposed to 2% CHompounds  in the vGraphical interpretation of the corrosion resistance coefficient of LWC (R1 ÷ R4) in the given corrosive solutions based on weight loss and compressive strength in environments of 2% concentration after exposure for 60 days is presented in 3COOH) with a concentration of 2%, the decrease in compressive strength for LWC R1 and R2 was from 28% to 38%. Exposure of LWC to a salt solution—sodium sulfate (VI), after 60 days, caused a decrease in the strength of LWC R1 and R2, and constituted respectively 31% and 34%, while in the case of R3 and R4, the decrease in compressive strength was observed at the level of 15% and 20%, respectively. The analysis of the test results proved the significant influence of the components used on the mechanical properties of LWC.The greatest decrease in the compressive strength of the LWC was visible after 60 days of exposure to 2% solutions of aggressive liquids described in this study. A summary of the test results is presented in Examples of microscopic images (SEM) of concrete samples (R1 ÷ R4) with LWA (GEGA and GAA) after 60 days of exposure to the corrosive environment are shown in 4) were visible. Their amount depends on the composition of the LWC. For example, after 60 days of exposure to a 2% HCl solution, changes in the microstructure in terms of the amount of precipitated ettringite in LWC R1 with the participation of the GEGA aggregate  and GAA  were visible, both in the case of the utilization of fly ash for LWC R2 with GEGA 2 mm, 25%, GEGA 4 mm, 25%, and GAA 8 mm, 50% and without the addition of fly ash  with the participation of different amounts of LWA (GEGA and GAA) suggest that in all cases, corrosion products  with cement and mineral additive such as fly ash allows a higher compressive strength of LWC over a long-term period (365 days) to be obtained compared to concrete with cement alone.The level of penetration of aggressive corrosive solutions depends on the open porosity of lightweight aggregates and the type of mineral additives.The presented test results for resistance to aggressive environments for LWC (R1 ÷ R4) with an aggregate (GEGA and GAA), modified with the addition of fly ash , indicate the influence of the LWC composition on the average compressive strength, even though the samples had been previously cured for a year (365 days) under standard conditions (temperature 20 ± 2 °C and humidity ≤95%). After a one year period, the samples were exposed to aggressive environments.The use of GAA aggregate in the amount of 50% of the total aggregate volume in LWC increased the strength of concrete by approx. 50%.LWC containing 100% of the total aggregate volume in the concrete is characterized by a higher resistance to corrosive environments by 8%.In general, the corrosion resistance decreases as the water/binder ratio increases.The introduction of silica fly ash or a mixture of fly ash as a partial replacement for cement causes significant changes in the chemical composition of the pore solution phase in the concrete structure with the use of lightweight aggregates.Microstructure tests (SEM) show that the type of mineral additive affects the degree of corrosion resistance of LWC. The highest corrosion resistance, considering the change in the average compressive strength after 60 days of exposure to a corrosive environment, is demonstrated by the concrete with a mixture of lightweight aggregate (GEGA and GAA) and fly ash.Concrete with lightweight aggregate (GEGA) and fly ash has a higher effect of corrosion resistance. The observed phenomenon may be the result of a slow pozzolana reaction as well as a slow process of filling the voids in the concrete structure with the products of the binding reaction.The appropriate durability of LWC subjected to a corrosive environment depends on the composition of the concrete: the type and amount of cement, the value of water/cement ratio, the type of aggregate, the type and number of concrete additives, and water/binder ratio. The selection and the right proportion should ensure a tight matrix in the LWC. Shaping the tightness of concrete in a particular LWC  should primarily result in limiting the capillary porosity of the cement grout. Based on the tests carried out for LWC and presented in this work, the following conclusions can be drawn:In the initial stage of concrete maturation, it results in a decrease in compressive strength, but in later stages, compressive strength gradually increases.10.The use of lightweight aggregates (GEGA and GAA), regardless of their mixing ratio and grain size, enables the migration of aggressive corrosive solutions, resulting in the precipitation of corrosive products such as ettringite. Its amount probably depends on the degree of sealing of the interfacial transition zone and the matrix as well as the lightweight aggregate absorption mechanism.


As part of ribonucleoprotein complexes, the CPEB proteins participate in mRNA transport and localization to different sub-cellular compartments. The CPEB proteins are evolutionarily conserved and have similar functions in vertebrates and invertebrates. In the nervous system, the CPEB proteins are involved in cell division, neural development, learning, and memory. Here we consider the functional features of these proteins in the nervous system of phylogenetically distant organisms: Drosophila, a well-studied model, and mammals. Disruption of the CPEB proteins functioning is associated with various pathologies, such as autism spectrum disorder and brain cancer. At the same time, CPEB gene regulation can provide for a recovery of the brain function in patients with fragile X syndrome and Huntington's disease, making the CPEB genes promising targets for gene therapy.Posttranscriptional gene regulation includes mRNA transport, localization, translation, and regulation of mRNA stability. CPEB ( The functioning of the nervous system is based on the ability of neurons to perceive, transmit, and store information encoded in electrical and chemical signals. The molecular basis for this function in response to stimulation includes alterations in the intracellular distribution of proteins and RNAs and changes in the number and quality of membrane receptors in synapses. One of the most important mechanisms underlying changes in the intracellular architecture of both an individual neuron and entire brain networks is the activation of translation of localized mRNAs mediated by cytoplasmic polyadenylation. Critical regulatory elements that encode signals for transport, anchoring and translational regulation including signals for regulating cytoplasmic polyadenylation (cytoplasmic polyadenylation elements: CPE) are present in the 3′-untranslated region (3′UTR) of mRNA. CPE sequences are recognized by CPEB family proteins, which are widespread in the animal kingdom and show extensive homology among different organisms.Xenopus laevis , a U/GU-rich downstream sequence element, and a cleavage site positioned at a distance of 15–30 nt from the hexamer [Drosophila [The position of CPEs in the 3′UTR of mRNA influences the efficiency of CPEB function. In vertebrates, a polyadenylation site (PAS) is located at the end of the 3′UTR. PAS consists of several  hexamer  , CREB1, CREB2, MAPK (Mek1/2 in mice), and CPEB—perform similar functions in other animals, such as Drosophila and mice [Short-term and long-term memory are distinguished based on the duration of information storage. At the molecular level, the distinction is that activation or inhibition of gene expression is required for long-term memory, but not for short-term memory . Synaptiand mice .Aplysia, serotonin is released in response to stimulation of the presynaptic terminal of a sensory neuron  and induces the synthesis of cAMP from ATP [In from ATP . cAMP acfrom ATP . Thus, ofrom ATP . Repetitfrom ATP , triggerfrom ATP ). The nefrom ATP . Using afrom ATP . The synfrom ATP , 39. Profrom ATP .One potential problem with the mechanism that involves protein synthesis in synapses as a basis for maintaining long-term memory is how this memory could be stored for days or years if protein decay would occur within a shorter period of time. In 1998, Peter Tompa and Peter Friedrich proposed a prion theory of memory . The theDrosophila brain is 100 times higher than the concentration of Orb2A required for a local regulation of translation [Both neurogenesis and the normal functioning of the brain require the transport and localization of mRNAs from the cell body of neurons to dendrites and axons Fig. a. The innslation , 46.Fig.Drosophila, Orb2A is phosphorylated and stabilized during synaptic activation by protein kinase LimK, which thus causes a local increase in Orb2A concentration near synapses [The mRNAs that are transported and localized by CPEB-containing RNP complexes are in a translationally dormant state. For example, mouse mRNAs are localized in P-bodies, which contain monomeric CPEB3 . CPEB3 isynapses . An incrsynapses .Drosophila ortholog of Neurl1  is also required for the formation of long-term memory [Like Orb2A, CPEB3 forms aggregates in response to neuronal stimulation. CPEB3 interaction with the actin cytoskeleton is required for prion formation, while CPEB3 oligomers activate translation of actin mRNA . The resm memory . The actm memory , 54. Them memory . Conditim memory . Moreovem memory . Since aDrosophila. Li et al. [Drosophila resulted in a significant increase in the rate of acquisition of long-term memory. Evidence that the maintenance of memory also requires Orb2 comes from studies on a fly strain carrying an orb2 gene that contains recognition sequences for tobacco mosaic virus protease [de novo Orb2 expression when the memory is recalled. However, activation of the protease before or during training, with its subsequent inactivation, was found to disrupt memory formation. This suggests that Orb2 is also necessary for the formation of memory [The most detailed experiments to confirm the role of the CPEB proteins in long-term memory were carried out on i et al.  found thprotease . When thf memory .The CPEB proteins were also found to regulate expression and the functioning of AMPA receptors. The CPEB2 protein activates translation of mRNAs encoding the endosomal protein GRASP1, implicated in recycling and maintaining the surface level of the AMPA receptors . The numAs indicated in Table Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a polygenic disease in which variants of hundreds of genes are involved, each making a minimal individual contribution to the development of the disease. ASD is a developmental disability that manifests itself in childhood and is characterized by a persistent deficit in the ability to initiate and maintain social interaction, as well as limited interests and often repetitive behaviors. A recent study on humans and mice showed that the disorder correlates with impaired CPEB4 mRNA splicing . The amoKip1, activating its translation. CPEB1 competes for binding sites in the p27Kip1 3′UTR with the oncogenic miR-221 and miR-222 microRNAs which repress translation of the p27Kip mRNAs [The CPEB family proteins play an important role in cell proliferation and differentiation; therefore, they are involved in the development of tumors, which makes them potential targets for gene therapy. Expression of the CPEB1 and CPEB4 genes influences the formation of gliomas in the brain. Glioblastoma multiforme, the most common and aggressive brain tumor, has a significantly reduced level of CPEB1 gene expression as compared with normal brain cells , 65. Indip mRNAs . The difXenopus cyclin B1 3′UTR (AdCPE virus), which contains two consensus CPEs and one nonconsensus CPE. This combination of CPEs provides translational repression of the transcript by unphosphorylated CPEB1 and activation upon binding with CPEB4. Intravenous injection of the AdCPE virus in mice resulted in a significant reduction in tumor growth and was less toxic than injection of the AdWT virus. The levels of the pre-mRNA of the AdWT and AdCPE viruses were the same in healthy animal cells, while the mature mRNA level was reduced in cells infected with the AdCPE virus, suggesting a destabilizing effect of CPEB1 on the E1A mRNA [Unlike with CPEB1, expression of CPEB4 is increased in gliomas –68. A deE1A mRNA .FMR1  gene underlies fragile X syndrome and results from an increase in the number of CGG repeats in the 5'UTR of the gene [FMR1 gene is a translational repressor. The inactivation of FMR1 is accompanied by a 20% increase in protein synthesis in the hippocampus [FMR1 knockout), mutations of the CPEB1 gene was found to reduce the pathological processes associated with the syndrome [FMR1 and CPEB1) occurs at the level of RNA stabilization. In the cerebral cortex of FMR1 knockout mice, the synthesis and maturation of mRNA remain at the same level, while an increase in the rate of mRNA degradation is observed for about 700 genes [Aplysia while the synapses are inactive, thereby participating in the maintenance of synaptic plasticity [A current trend is to study the CPEB proteins for potential use as a target for gene therapy. Fragile X syndrome (Martin–Bell syndrome) is an inherited genetic disorder that manifests itself in intellectual disability and is associated with a mutation in one gene located on the X chromosome . Inactivthe gene . The RNApocampus . When mosyndrome . Recent 00 genes . A CPEB100 genes . Studies00 genes . miR-22 asticity .huntingtin (htt). In a pathological process, the number of glutamine coding triplets in htt varies from 36 to 180 [Drosophila cell culture revealed absorption of the Orb2A protein on the surface of HttQ138 aggregates [Drosophila mortality rate at the pupal stage in the presence of HttQ138, increasing the number of hatched flies from 4.8% to 60 and 51% . The amount of HttQ138 aggregates did not decrease, but the balance of protein synthesis in cells was restored [Huntington's disease is a chronic neurodegenerative disease associated with progressive death of brain cells . The cau6 to 180 . The polThe functioning of the CPEB family proteins is essential at all stages of ontogeny. CPEBs play an important role in the formation and maintenance of cell polarity, participating in mRNA transport and localization, translational repression or activation of target mRNAs , 81–83. The CPEB proteins participate in the translational control of a wide range of mRNAs and, therefore, are involved in pathologies of the nervous system. Moreover, disturbances in the functioning of the CPEB proteins cause other pathological processes, including carcinogenesis, tumor invasion, and angiogenesis. In the case of rectal cancer, breast cancer, and gliomas, the expression levels of several CPEB proteins change simultaneously, which is indicative of interactions between them in the oncological process , 84–86. Thus, investigation of the role of the CPEB proteins is an extremely important fundamental task that opens up prospects for understanding the molecular mechanisms of the formation and functioning of the nervous system and other body systems, as well as for finding ways to treat a wide range of diseases.


Five porcine vertebrae were tested in compression up to 6500N inside a micro computed tomography scanner. For each specimen, images were acquired before and after the application of the load, before and after the introduction of the artificial lesions. Principal strains were computed within the bone by means of digital volume correlation (DVC). All intact specimens showed a consistent strain distribution, with peak minimum principal strain in the range -1.8% to -0.7% in the middle of the vertebra, demonstrating the robustness of the method. Similar distributions of strains were found for the intact vertebrae in the different regions. The artificial lesion generally doubled the strain in the middle portion of the specimen, probably due to stress concentrations close to the defect. In conclusion, a robust method to evaluate the redistribution of the strain due to artificial lesions within the vertebral body was developed and will be used in the future to improve current clinical assessment of fracture risk in metastatic spines.The spine is the first site for incidence of bone metastasis. Thus, the vertebrae have a high potential risk of being weakened by metastatic tissues. The evaluation of strength of the bone affected by the presence of metastases is fundamental to assess the fracture risk. This work proposes a robust method to evaluate the variations of strain distributions due to artificial lesions within the vertebral body, based on  The spine has high incidence of bone metastases , 2. The Different studies have evaluated the effect of metastatic lesions on the vertebral mechanics, in order to prevent fractures. Experimental tests were performed on healthy vertebrae with artificial lesions  –7 and veWhile detailed experimental measurements can provide important insights on the biomechanical stability of the vertebrae with lesions, they suffer of two main limitations: the intrinsic inability of testing the same vertebra with/without lesions, and the lack of an approach to evaluate their effect on local deformations in the internal structure of the vertebral body in mammals.Equivalent efforts to evaluate the effect of metastatic lesions on structural and local properties were made by means of finite element (FE) models. Generic , 11–13 oThereby, a reliable experimental procedure able to generate reproducible loading conditions and to measure and analyse the 3D strain field in the whole vertebral body would be an invaluable tool to understand the strain redistribution associated to the features of the metastasis. The DVC approach has been intensively used to evaluate the biomechanical properties of the vertebrae –20 and tin situ mechanical testing and DVC measurements, to evaluate the local strain distribution within the whole vertebral body and in specific subregions when an artificial lesion was introduced.The aim of this study was to develop a reproducible experimental methodology, based on Porcine spine segments were tested in a step-wise loading within a micro computed tomography (microCT) scanner. Images were acquired with the specimens unloaded and loaded, before and after an artificial lesion was induced. A global DVC approach was used to experimentally measure the effect of the lesion on the displacement and strain fields.Five thoracic spinal segments (three vertebrae each) were isolated from two spines of female pigs (nine months old and approximately 100kg in weight) killed for alimentary purposes: two T8-T10, two T10-T12 and one T12-T14. The ligaments, muscles and posterior arches were removed from the spines. When not prepared or tested the specimens were stored frozen at -20C. The segments were aligned as reported in . The cauArtificial mechanical lesions were induced to simulate what happens in case of a vertebra with lytic metastatic lesions. The lesions were reproduced in the mid-transverse plane of the middle vertebra of each segment, as holes involving the trabecular bone and cortical shell , 25–27.A pillar drill with a diamond core tool 8mm in diameter was used to produce the hole under constant water irrigation to avoid overheating the bone. Two lesion locations were selected to evaluate the procedure in different scenarios: the anterior side  or the right side . In both cases, lesions with approximately half cylindrical shape were created . The posA custom-made loading device equipped with a 10kN load cell , a 20 mm linear variable differential transformed (LVDT) transducer , and an external Perspex tube was used to axially compress the specimen inside a microCT scanner . Each sp3 density [Every scan was acquired with the following parameters: current 114mA, voltage 70kVp, integration time 300ms, power 8W, isotropic voxel size 39μm. The images were reconstructed using the manufacturer software with a beam hardening correction based on a phantom with 1200 mg HA/cm density . A similThe middle vertebra of each spine unit  condition. This scan was used together with Scan1 to evaluate the DVC strain measurement uncertainties;“Scan1” and “Scan2”: scans of the intact vertebra in preloaded  and loaded  conditions, respectively. These scans were used to evaluate the strain field in the intact vertebral body;“Scan3” and “Scan4”: scans of the vertebra with artificial lesion in preloaded  and loaded  conditions, respectively. These scans were used to evaluate the strain field in the vertebral body with the lesion.The scanning time was approximately 66.7 min for the entire vertebral body, and 13.3 min for the middle portions of the vertebra (Scan1-pre). A portion of the Scan1 (Scan1-crop) with the same size and position of Scan1-pre was extracted and used for evaluating the DVC measurement uncertainties.https://imagej.nih.gov/ij/, 1997–2018). For each couple of preloaded and loaded images, a mask created by merging the masks obtained from the images of the vertebra in the preloaded and loaded conditions was used for the DVC analyses (registration only within the mask). The preloaded mask was used for visualising only the results within the vertebral body.To evaluate the strain distributions in the same location and with the same orientation of the vertebral body, in both tests with and without the lesion, Scan3 was rigidly registered  to Scan1 (later referred to as Scan3-R). A similar procedure was used to rigidly register the images before and after the load for the elastic registration: Scan2 and Scan4 were registered to Scan1 and Scan3-R, respectively (later referred to as Scan2-R and Scan4-R). This procedure enabled to align all specimens to Scan1, improving the rigid registration between images with similar features (i.e. the drilled holes) before and after the load. Binary masks  were created for each image using a low threshold value, followed by dilation (3 voxels) and by filling the internal holes  was used to measure the strain field inside the vertebrae with and without the created lesions, given the microCT images acquired in the preloaded and loaded conditions. The operating principles of the DVC are reported in details elsewhere [p1 and minimum principal strain εp3) is obtained differentiating the displacement field with an FE software package  [A global DVC approach  . To do sYS, USA) . This DVYS, USA) , porcineYS, USA) , mouse tYS, USA) , human sYS, USA) , proximaYS, USA)  and femoYS, USA) ). While YS, USA) –33, 40. YS, USA) , the strp1 and εp3 were measured for the intact vertebrae (Scan1 vs Scan2-R) and for the vertebrae with artificial lesion (Scan3-R vs Scan4-R). Frequency plots (histogram) and the range of median of the εp1 and εp3 was calculated to assess the repeatability of the loading condition and strain distribution for the intact vertebrae. Strain distributions and histograms for the εp1 : top, middle, and bottom, where the top and the bottom ROIs contained the respective cranial and caudal growth plates while the middle ROI was the region with/without the lesion. Each ROI was divided in 9 subregions of interest (subROIs). The lesion mainly involved one single subROI, but adjacent subROIs might be affected, as well. Histograms were reported for each ROI of the intact vertebrae and of those with lesions to evaluate how the lesion affected the strain distribution in the different regions of the bone.p3 absolute values in the same subROIs, before and after the introduction of the lesion: positive differences were reported in red, negative differences were reported in blue, differences below the sum of the systematic and random errors for the εp3  and εp3 (-0.72% to -0.33%). Similar median strain values among the specimens were found also in the different ROIs for εp1  and εp3  (p1 in every region were found for two specimens (#1 and #2) compared to the others.The values of principal strains within the intact vertebral bodies showed consistent distributions for all specimens, with similar median values of εtom ROI) . Neverthp3 (p3 <-2%) localized in correspondence of the top and bottom ROIs, that include the growth plates, and quite uniform strains (εp3 of approximately -0.25%) in the middle of the vertebral body. While the εp3 over the vertebral body reached peaks of approximately -6%, localised in the top or bottom ROIs, the peak deformation in the middle ROI was lower (approximately -1.8%) (The distributions of εp3  within ty -1.8%) .3 and 994mm3, corresponding to the 0.8% and 4.6% of the volume of the vertebral body, p3 within the whole vertebral body reached approximately -4%. Conversely, the specimens that failed showed larger εp3, approximately -8% and -20%, for the specimen #2 and #3, respectively. In both cases the strain concentration, and the consequent failure, localised close to the lesion, in the midplane of the vertebral body  due to the lesion, with decreased deformations in the top and bottom ROIs and increased deformations in the middle ROI with respect to the intact condition . DiffereThe number of nodes in each subROI varied from 45 (“AL” subROI in the middle ROI of the specimen #3) to 378 . The differences in subROIs strain, before and after the introduction of the lesions, confirmed the observations on the ROIs: increased strains were observed in most compartments of the middle ROIs, with higher values in the regions adjacent to the created lesions . ConversThe aim of this study was to develop a novel methodological approach to experimentally evaluate the effect of artificially induced lesions on the strain field inside the vertebral bodies tested in compression. An analysis to evaluate the differences in the strain pattern before and after the lesion was proposed for the whole vertebral body and in specific compartments.in situ mechanical testing, microCT imaging and DVC analysis was developed to test porcine vertebrae, and a protocol was developed to identify changes in local strains over the entire vertebral body or in different compartments, due to a focal lesion.Most studies in the literature that have analysed the effects of lytic metastasis on the spine stability were performed with artificial lesions and simplified loading conditions (i.e.: compression or a combination of compression and flexion). While reduction in apparent strength and stiffness , 6, 8 anThe robustness of the method was confirmed by the low measurement uncertainties, in line with previously reported results for different bone types and image resolutions , and theThe creation of artificial focal lesions dramatically redistributed the strain pattern for all specimens, reducing the localised strain concentrations in the growth plates. In some cases, the lesion reduced dramatically the strength of the vertebra and led to failure. This could be explained considering that the lesions were in the region (mid height of the transverse plane) with the higher shell load fraction, and that the ratio of the removed cortical/trabecular bone can affect the failure . In the This study has some limitations. First, the method was proposed on porcine vertebrae, of different spinal levels for their low inter-variability compared to human specimens. In fact, the porcine vertebrae have a denser tissue compared to human vertebrae  , 49. WhiIn conclusion, the proposed experimental methods based on DVC measurements allowed to identify the changes in the 3D strain distribution inside the vertebral body associated to the introduction of artificial lytic-like lesions. This procedure, once applied to a large number of human vertebrae with a factorial design of the metastatic features, can improve our understanding of the effect of lesion properties on the vertebral failure behaviour and validate FE models of vertebrae with artificial lesions or real metastases.S1 AppendixThe procedure to identify the best compromise between the measurement uncertainty and the measurement spatial resolution is reported. In addition, preliminary study to select the most relevant loading magnitude.(PDF)Click here for additional data file.S2 AppendixThe maximum principal strain maps and the histograms for each specimen, both intact and with lesions, are reported.(PDF)Click here for additional data file.


The mTORC1 pathway was activated upon exposition to CoCl2, while HD suppressed this pathway, as it happens during real trophoblast hypoxia. Thus, effect of CoCl2 on BeWo cells can be a model of severe hypoxia with activation of apoptosis, while HD mimics moderate hypoxia.Choriocarcinoma cells BeWo b30 are used to model human placental trophoblast hypoxia using cobalt (II) chloride and hydroxyquinoline derivative (HD) as chemical inducers of hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF). In this study, it was shown that both substances activate the hypoxic pathway and the epithelial–mesenchymal transition and inhibit the pathways of cell proliferation. However, CoCl During normal development of the placenta, on days 9–10 day after fertilization, cytotrophoblast cells migrate into the uterine spiral arteries and replace the endothelium, forming vessels with a high flow, which are resistant to vascular tone regulators. Disturbance of the trophoblast invasion into the vessels due to hypoxia and other factors leads to impaired blood supply, endoplasmic stress, and increased apoptosis of trophoblast cells [Studies of the biology of the placenta during pregnancy in humans is limited for ethical reasons, and the placenta after normal delivery or caesarean section does not reflect the early stages of placental development, which are important for the pathogenesis of preeclampsia. Animal models of the placenta differ from human models both at the anatomical and molecular levels . In thisThe central factor in the hypoxic pathway activation is the accumulation of hypoxia-inducible factor 1 alpha (HIF-1α). During normoxia, HIF-1α is hydroxylated by HIF-prolyl hydroxylases (PHD), which creates conditions for the attachment of the von Hippel–Lindau protein (pVHL) and triggering ubiquitinylation and proteasome degradation of HIF-1α . Under c2 is achieved by replacing Fe2+ ions in the active site of PHD with Co2+ ions. CoCl2 also induces the oxidation of ascorbates, which are important cofactors of PHD, binds to HIF-1α, thereby preventing the interaction with pVHL, and inhibits asparaginyl hydroxylase FIH, which inhibits HIF. The mechanisms of action of CoCl2 are described in more detail in the review [2 only partially overlap with those under oxygen deficiency, which can be explained by the effect of CoCl2 on other enzymes and signaling pathways in the cell [Hypoxia induction with CoCle review . It shouthe cell  and brin2+ ion in the active site of PHD, but not other known enzymes of this family, can also be used for the chemical simulation of hypoxia, which leads to inhibition of HIF-1α hydroxylation, its accumulation in the cell, and activation of the hypoxia pathway [2 [It was previously shown that hydroxyquinoline derivatives (HD), which bind the Fe pathway . Substitthway [2 , 10.2 and HD on BeWo b30 choriocarcinoma cells.The aim of this study was to compare the changes in cells at the transcriptome level under the influence of CoCl2 or 5 µM HD 4896–3212. Under control conditions, the culture medium was replaced with a fresh one. After 24 h of incubation, we assessed the metabolic activity of cells in the MTT test and the activity of caspases 3 and 7 as an indicator of the effector phase of apoptosis using the Abcam Caspase-3 Assay Kit.Choriocarcinoma cells BeWo b30 were grown in 6-well plates in DMEM medium with L-glutamine and glucose (4.5 g/L), supplemented with 10% One Shot fetal bovine serum, 1% 100x MEM NEAA, and 1% 100x Pen Strep. After reaching 80% confluence, the cell medium was replaced with a medium containing 300 µM CoClTotal RNA was isolated by guanidine thiocyanate–phenol–chloroform extraction  using thp value for the Student’s t test with the Benjamini–Hochberg correction for the multiplicity of comparisons was less than 0.05 [Next-generation sequencing was performed on an Illumina NextSeq 500 with the preparation of libraries using the Illumina Stranded mRNA Library Prep Kit. The change in gene expression was considered significant when the multiplicity of differences was more than 2.0 and the han 0.05 . Activat2, the activation of apoptosis in cells is more pronounced, which imitates the more severe hypoxia of the trophoblast as compared with HD. The absence of differences in the results of the MTT test between the two treatments indicates that both substances have practically no significant effect on the activity of cell mitochondria as a response to the hypoxia pathway activation.Severe hypoxia, oxidative stress induced by reactive oxygen species (ROS), and endoplasmic stress can cause activation of the internal signaling pathway of apoptosis. The effector phase of apoptosis is associated with the activation of caspases 3 and 7, which determine the main processes of apoptotic transformation of cells . The rel2 and HD for 24 h led to a statistically significant more than twofold change in the expression of 3030 and 1030 genes, respectively; the expression of 287 genes changed unidirectionally in both cases. With both types of exposure, the hypoxia pathway and the epithelial–mesenchymal transition were activated, and the activity of the pathways associated with the transcription factors of the E2F family and the G2M checkpoint  was inhibited. This coincides with the effects of hypoxia on the placenta in vivo: activation of HIF-1α in trophoblast cells suppresses division and stimulates cell motility, which leads to migration of trophoblast cells and their invasion into uterine vessels [Incubatation of BeWo b30 cells with CoCl2, indicating the activation of the same HIF-1α targets. The analysis of the genes whose expression significantly changed uniquely under the influence of CoCl2 revealed the activation of the apoptosis pathway and the response to ROS. This confirms the data that cobalt can induce ROS accumulation, causing DNA damage and leading to apoptosis [poptosis .Among the genes whose expression changed only upon exposure to HD, activation of these pathways was not observed. DDIT3 gene, which triggers apoptosis [DDIT3 did not change significantly; however, the incubation with CoCl2 increased the expression of DDIT3 3.9 times (p < 0.001). 2 mimics a more severe form of hypoxia in comparison with HD. It was shown that another HD, known as adaptachine, prevents the activation of apoptosis through the branch of the response to unfolded proteins PERK/ATF4/CHOP [Hypoxia, which is accompanied by the production of ROS and cytoplasmic stress, leads to disruption of proper protein folding and activation of the unfolded protein response. This pathway leads to the adaptation of the cell to hypoxia; however, severe hypoxia, exceeding the compensatory capabilities of the cell, leads through this pathway to the accumulation of the transcription factor CHOP, encoded by the poptosis . Under tTF4/CHOP , which iAnalysis of the genes whose expression significantly changed uniquely for the effect of HD revealed a decrease in oxidative phosphorylation, which is a normal response of trophoblast cells during the transition from aerobic to anaerobic metabolism during hypoxia .2 causes its activation. It is known that hypoxia suppresses the mTORC1 signaling pathway [2, the expression of the RHEB gene increased 1.9 times and the expression of the TSC2 gene decreased 2.5 times. However, the expression of these genes under the influence of HD did not change significantly, which may explain the activation of the mTORC1 pathway under the influence of CoCl2, in contrast to HD.It should be specially noted that, according to the analysis of signaling pathways in BeWo b30 cells, the exposure to HD suppresses the mTORC1 signaling pathway, whereas the exposure to CoCl pathway . Under t2 on the TSC2 and RHEB genes.2—revealed activation of the hypoxia signaling pathway and the epithelial–mesenchymal transition in the trophoblast, as well as suppression of cell proliferation under both exposures. However, the exposure to cobalt activated the genes that are involved in the apoptosis signaling pathway and more significantly increased the activity of caspases 3 and 7 in comparison with the control conditions and the exposure to HD. CoCl2 activated the pathway of the unfolded protein response and mTORC1, whereas HD suppressed the mTORC1 pathway. All this indicates that the model of chemical hypoxia induced by HD reflects the effect of moderate hypoxia on trophoblast cells, whereas CoCl2 has a damaging effect accompanied by pronounced apoptosis. From a clinical point of view, the differences in the activation of signaling pathways in moderate and severe hypoxia may indicate the necessity for different approaches to the treatment of these conditions. Apoptosis and impaired invasion of the trophoblast into the mother’s vessels in severe hypoxia may be a prerequisite for the development of a severe complication of pregnancy, preeclampsia [Thus, the comparison of two chemical models of hypoxia—exposure to HD and CoClclampsia . The res


Several factors can influence the belt grinding process of flat surfaces of metals, such as cutting speed and pressure. In this work, the importance of pressure in the belt grinding was investigated in terms of technological and experimental aspects. The grinding experiments were performed on structural alloy steel 30KhGSN2/30KhGSNA, structural carbon steel AISI 1045, corrosion-resistant and heat-resistant stainless steel AISI 321, and heat-resistant nickel alloy KHN77TYuR. The performance of the grinding belt was investigated in terms of surface roughness, material removal rate (MRR), grinding belt wear, performance index. Estimated indicators of the belt grinding process were developed: cutting ability; reduced cutting ability for belt grinding of steels and heat-resistant alloy. It was found that with an increase in pressure  To satisfy the customer demands in terms of cost production and high-quality products, there is a huge need for developments in mechanical engineering, especially in the manufacturing sector ,2. In grThe above studies indicate that the majority of previous publications on belt grinding were devoted to machining, especially on the grinding of stainless steels ,25 and aResearch studies reported by S.N. Korchak , S. MalkAn analysis by Aurich and Kirsch , Yang etTherefore, this work aims to improve the belt grinding of flat surfaces of metals and alloys using fabric grinding belts. The specific aim here is to enable manufacturers to use technical rationale when choosing belt pressure for surface grinding of steel and nickel alloy. To achieve this, the current study investigates and establishes dependences of efficiency indicators, such as surface roughness, material removal rate (MRR), grinding belt wear, and performance index, on the pressure during belt grinding of flat surfaces of steels and alloys.5–3.0∙105 Pa to be suitable for finishing machining of carbon steel, and proposed 2.0∙105–4.0∙105 Pa for rough machining. Hamdi et al. [An analysis of belt grinding pressures showed the data are insufficient and often contradictory. Reznikov et al.  consideri et al.  studied i et al.  showed ti et al. , Cubicuti et al. , and Alui et al. ,46 with p) of the tool and workpiece for flat belt grinding [yP is the cutting force directed along the normal to the machinable surface ; L is the contact length in the direction of belt movement; B is the contact width; and Kj is the coefficient depending on the deformation of the contact roller, material workpiece properties, the size of the stock, deformation of the belt and other factors. Comparable quantitative processing characteristics were selected, which reflect roughing and finishing operations as an interaction between contacting surfaces, for example, reduced cutting ability (performance index) p=Py⋅) (qPer) ,30,47:(2The surface roughness (Ra) was chosen as a comparable quantitative characteristic because it is applied in the evaluation of a large number of scratches to a workpiece surface ,49,50,51It was assumed that the other test conditions were entirely and accurately reproduced: cutting speed, workpiece speed, characteristics of the workpiece being processed, the value of the initial roughness, and others, which ensured the comparability of the developed estimated indicators.Tool quality and pressure—which are some of the key factors of the effectiveness and efficiency of the belt grinding process—were chosen as the objectives of the research. According to the revealed dependences of performance on the pressure during grinding, it is a requirement to apply grinding belts with certain properties for specific processing operations. Therefore, the requirements for the comparability of the estimated performance characteristics of the abrasive tool and the pressure test conditions were determined.cv = 25 m/s; workpiece speed wv = 0.058 m/s; vertical oscillation frequency osw = 200 mm−1; the value of the vertical oscillation Aos = 3 mm. A cloth-backed sanding belt with grade 15A brown aluminum oxide was used in the current study, with a grain size F60, on a synthetic bond according to GOST 27181 (Russian Standard) and on a hide  bond according to GOST 5009 (Russian Standard). The tests were carried out under controlled conditions with a change in the radial clamping force or the contact area of the tool and the workpiece; all other factors remained constant. The tests were carried out with clamping forces The grinding belts were tested by simulating flat belt grinding with a contact roller see . An IS-7a) was measured using a surface roughness profilometer with a unified electronic AP system, model 263 .The surface roughness , μm; 3/min; 3; and 3/mJ) of 14AF60C sanding belt from pressure  when grinding different metals: steels 30KHGSN2, 45, and Kh18N10T and alloy KhN77TYuR.Q and MRR increase more significantly (2.0–5.2 times) when processing 30KHGSN2 and 45 steel than when processing KH18N10T steel and KHN77TYuR alloy (1.1–3.0 times). Moreover, Q and MRR increase more significantly (2.0–5.2 times) when processing 30KHGSN2 and 45 steels than when processing grade KH18N10T steel and grade KHN77TYUR alloy (1.1–3.0 times). Moreover, the index of belt wear Δ when grinding steels of grades 30KhGSM2 and 45 (steels with better machinability) is far less (0.73–1.5 g) than when grinding steels and alloys of inferior machinability—Kh18N10T and KhN77TYuR (1.15–2.7 g). With an increase in pressure, the wear of the belt increases slightly less when grinding well-processed metals compared to difficult-to-machine ones: the curves of the wear dependence for steels of grades 30KhGSM2 and 45 are flatter than the curves of the dependence of wear for metals of grades Kh18N10T and KhN77TYuR  on the roughness of the machined surface after the first In the investigated range of modes, it was established that the influence of the clamping force ( Ran see a is rathnd M see a. It waslity see a.Changes to the cutting ability lity see .τ), described by the exponential for three values of the applied pressure values: p = 0.1 MPa, p = 0.2 MPa and p = 0.4 MPa:Equations (3)–(5) establish the functional dependences of the cutting capacity , belts on a synthetic bond are significantly more efficient: Depending on the characteristics of the sanding belt, the pressure ranges during grinding can be determined by the nature of the tool wear. Tool wear increases with the increase in the grain size of the belt. Moreover, tool wear increases when changing from a natural to a synthetic bond , and decrease with the transition from preliminary grinding to final grinding. The pressure ranges were also established considering the listed factors (characteristics of the grinding belt and the type of processing) for different groups of machinability of steels and alloys. It was found that increasing the pressures led to a complication in the machinability of the alloys.The set sanding pressure range itself has three zones according to the wear pattern of the sanding belt with grit sizes F150 to F16. The first range of grinding pressures is characterized mainly by the bluntness of abrasive grains. The second range is characterized by the phenomena of self-sharpening of grains and shedding of the working layer of the belt. The third range of pressures during grinding is characterized by tearing of grains from the bond, destruction of the working layer of the belt down to the backing, and failure of the tool due to a cut through the base or belt breakage. The limits of the values of the grinding pressure for each of the ranges differ based on the characteristics of the belt and depend on the material and the requirements for processing quality.An analytical model was developed to determine the contact pressure between a tool and a workpiece for flat belt grinding. The model takes into account the contact between the tool and the workpiece, deformations of the contact roller, properties of the processed material, stock size, deformation of the grinding belt, and other factors.The empirical dependence of the operating indicators (cutting capacity of the belt) on the grinding time was calculated. The calculations, selection, and application of performance indicators for assessing the belt grinding process have been determined. In addition, collected statistics of performance indicators for the dependences of pressure during grinding on the characteristics of the grinding belt, on the type of processing, and the substrate were reported. The experiments allowed the determination of the empirical dependences of pressure during belt grinding for groups of machinability of steels and alloys with a grinding belt on the characteristics of the grinding belt and the type of processing. These dependencies were assessed. The error of approximation of the established dependences is no more than 3.3%–5.7%. The pressure value for belt grinding is set to tool wear, which is described by exponential dependencies. Adequate sensitivity and distinguishability of estimates has been achieved. The stability of the results obtained is at the required level and does not exceed 5%–6%.p, Pa) depending on the type of processing , on the group of metal machinability (from easy-to-machine to hard-to-machine), and the main parameters of the characteristics of the sanding belt .It was evident that the belt performance is influenced by the grinding pressure. Recommendations were given for choosing the appropriate pressure  is calculated. Based on the established empirical dependencies of pressure, we developed recommendations for the selection and application of belt grinding pressure in the ranges covering the processes of surface grinding and for the machinability groups of steels and alloys. The recommendation here is to consider the chosen material workpiece, the main characteristics of the tool, and the operating parameters of the equipment used. The recommendations are of significant practical importance and can be applied by abrasives enterprises and consumer enterprises.