The growth of the MoS2 monolayer can be precisely followed by observation of the evolution of the characteristic optical features. Consequently, a strong correlation between the growth rate of the MoS2 monolayer and the temperature distribution in the CVD reactor has been revealed. Our results demonstrate the great potential of real time, in situ optical spectroscopy to assist the precisely controlled growth of 2D semiconductor materials.Real-time monitoring is essential for understanding and precisely controlling of growth of two-dimensional transition metal dichalcogenide (2D TMDC) materials. However, it is very challenging to carry out such studies during chemical vapor deposition (CVD). Here, we report the first, real time, in situ study of the CVD growth of 2D TMDCs. More specifically, the CVD growth of a molybdenum disulfide (MoS Givener scale ,14,16,19Because typical CVD processes used for the synthesis of 2D TMDCs are very complicated, involving gases with pressure in the range between atmosphere and several mbar, the characterization methods based on electron beam techniques are not applicable and the in situ real time study becomes very challenging. On the other hand, each type of 2D TMDC material possesses specific optical properties which are characteristic of their chemical composition, crystalline structure, and number of layers . Their o2 on sapphire substrates [2 on Al2O3(0001) surface. In this case, the normalized difference between the transmittance through the bare substrate and the transmittance after a given deposition time are resolved. By monitoring using DTS during growth, the evolution of the optical properties associated with the MoS2 layer can be revealed spectroscopically. Furthermore, since the sapphire substrate is transparent in the visible range, the change of the reflectance upon the growth of an ultrathin MoS2 layer is directly proportional to its absorption [2 on the transparent sapphire substrate, the DT spectrum can thus be generally associated with the absorption of the adlayer. Consequently, the growth can be monitored in situ and in real time, and the detailed information associated with the kinetics can be deduced from the DT spectra.Differential reflectance spectroscopy (DRS), which measures the normalized difference between the reflectance of the bare surface and the surface covered by thin films, possesses an enhanced sensitivity to the surface modification and ultrathin film growth –26. Thisbstrates . In the sorption . Assumin2 monolayer was deposited, simultaneously, on not only the surface on the front side (face to the Ar flow direction) but also on the back side of the sapphire substrate. This conclusion is based on a thorough ex situ characterization after CVD growth using differential reflectance spectroscopy (DRS), Raman spectroscopy, photoluminescent spectroscopy (PL), optical microscopy (OM), and atomic force microscopy (AFM). Actually, from the first glance at the substrate after CVD  and out-of-plane (A1g) vibration modes of the 2H MoS2 crystal. Most importantly, the interval between these two peaks is ≈ 20 cm−1, which is characteristic for the MoS2 monolayer [′ points of the Brillouin zone, respectively. The broad peak C around 2.95 eV is attributed to the interband transitions transpiring near the critical point of Γ, where the valance and conduction bands are nested [2 layer. In order to check the homogeneity, all the measurements have been performed at several different spots over the substrate surfaces and the results are rather identical. Consequently, a homogeneous MoS2 monolayer has been synthesized on both the front and back sides of the substrate. However, a closer inspection reveals some detailed differences between the morphology at the front and back surfaces regarding the surface coverage and the grain size. The grains grown on the back surface have already coalesced, forming a rather compact monolayer. In contrast, the grains on the front surface are still rather separated. Furthermore, it appears that grain size is relatively large on the front surface. These observations indicate a difference between the front and back side of the substrate regarding the growth kinetics. We attribute the observed distinction tentatively to the possible deviation of the effective deposition rate on each side of the substrate. Actually, the deposition rate could be enhanced on the back surface due to the interruption of the gas flow by the substrate, which may introduce a local turbulence and in turn a higher deposition rate.Following the CVD process described in the Experimental section, an MoS CVD see , it can M images  taken inhe MoSe2 . Due to ubstrate  show theonolayer . The DR e nested . The rel3, and the substrate increased. This observation shows that no thin film was deposited during this period. The second section (section II) starting from the time t = 33 min, transmittance around 2.7 eV decreases  with time. The energy position of the DTS feature at 2.7 eV coincides very well with the absorption peak C of the MoS2 monolayer. The continuous decrease of the optical intensity at this energy indicates the increase of the optical absorption due to the growth of the MoS2 layer on the surfaces of the sapphire substrate. In comparison with the DR spectra of the same sample measured ex situ at room temperature , which starts at about 39 min, the DT signal at a higher energy of 3.2 eV begins to dominate. Based on its energy position, this feature can be attributed to the absorption of MoO3 [3 shows a bandgap around 3 eV. Considering the high temperature of the substrate, we can exclude the possibility that the MoO3 thin films were formed on the substrate surfaces. Actually, we attribute the observed DTS signal to the absorption of the MoO3 thin films which were deposited on the inner surface of the quartz window at the end of the furnace tube. Since the quartz was maintained close to room temperature, it is reasonable to assume that a small amount of the MoO3 molecules carried by the Ar flow from upstream may be deposited on the inner surface of this quartz window. The deposition rate of the MoO3 on the inner surface of the quartz window should be proportional to the product of  in which,  is the concentration of MoO3 molecule above the MoO3 source which depends exponentially on the source temperature  The coefficient p accounts for the transportation efficiency of MoO3 molecules from the source to the inner surface of the quartz window. Although the coefficient p has been minimized, it was not, however, insignificant in this study. Actually, the growth of the MoO3 feature begins already in the second section, where the DT signal increase at 2.7 eV was accompanied by the small increase at 3.2 eV.The evolution of the optical properties during growth can be recognized by a close look at ture see , the peatendency . Therefo of MoO3 –33. As aT/T) spectra plotted in the central column of 2 monolayer, respectively. In comparison with the DR spectra measured ex situ at room temperature, a systematic red shift can be observed for all the three features verifying the influence of the substrate temperature. In addition, the absorption of the MoO3 thin films deposited on the quartz window is also clearly visible at 3.2 eV. Finally, during the section III (2 vanish. The decrease of the transmittance (the increase of DTS) over the low-energy range could be attributed to the increase of the scattering of the MoO3 thin film deposited on the quartz window.The characteristic increments of the DT spectrum during each section can be recognized from the Δ The sulfur source had been being maintained at a temperature above 100 °C for more than 10 min until this moment. (2) The growth of the MoS2 monolayer at a substrate temperature as low as 530 °C has been reported [2 growth to the evaporation of the MoO3 reaching a recognizable rate. Afterwards, the DT signal at 2.7 eV increases monotonically revealing the ongoing growth of the MoS2 layer. Interestingly, although the temperature of the MoO3 source was still increasing, the growth speed of the DT signal at 2.7 eV dropped at around 35 min. With a closer inspection of the temperature curves, the observed decrease of the growth rate at 2.7 eV can be correlated to the declining substrate temperature and the sulfur source temperature. Actually, without going into the details of the kinetics of the reaction, the growth rate r of the MoS2 can be associated with several factors that depend strongly on the temperature of the sulfur source (TS), MoO3 source  and substrate (Tsub), respectively, in the following way:In order to understand the observed evolution of the DT spectroscopy, its correlation with the temperature at the positions related to the sulfur source, MoOreported . We thusk(Tsub) represents the effective reaction rate coefficient between MoO3 and sulfur leading to the formation of MoS2. The k(Tsub) depends strongly on the Tsub as indicated by the Arrhenius equation. Similar to CS(TS) is the concentration of the sulfur molecules over the sulfur source, which depends exponentially on TS. This relation emphasizes the strong influence of the temperature on the growth rate of MoS2. Indeed, the fast rise of the DT signal at 2.7 eV at the initial stage of the section II can be correlated to the increase of the temperature at both the MoO3 source  and around the substrate (Tsub). The decrease in the growth rate of the DT signal at 2.7 eV observed at ≈35 min coincides with the decrease of the temperature around the substrate (Tsub) and at the source of sulfur (TS). The recovery of the growth rate of DT signal at 2.7 eV within section III cannot be attributed to the absorption of MoS2 anymore. Instead, it is induced by the overall decrease of transmittance through the quartz window due to the enhanced coating of the MoO3 layer. Indeed, in contrast to the decrease of Tsub and TS, the MoO3 source temperature  continues to increase even at the beginning of section III ) was selected as the substrate. During deposition, the substrates were inclined with their surface normal 45 degrees off the axis of the quartz tube of the furnace  in tapping mode. A soft cantilever (TipsNano) was employed. The Raman and PL spectra spectra of the MoS2 thin films were collected using a JY Horiba LabRAM Aramis VIS microscope with an excitation wavelength of 532 nm. Measurements were performed in a confocal microconfiguration using a ×100 microscope objective lens and a 2400 grooves mm−1 grating. For DR measurements, an inverted microscope (Nikon Eclipse Ti) was used. A beam from a tungsten halogen white light source was reflected into a ×50 ultra-long working distance objective using a neutral density, achromatic beam splitter and then focused onto the sample surface. The reflected signals from the MoS2 covered areas  and the bare substrate areas (Rsubstrate) were collected by the objective separately and sent back through the beam splitter into the spectrometer. The DRS signals were then calculated by  All ex situ measurements were performed at room temperature.The morphology of the MoSFile 1Additional experimental data.


For years we have been observing the exponential trend of the economic growth, energy consumption, mineral resources use and greenhouse gas emissions. The human population is exerting an increasing pressure on the environment, which in the highly industrialised regions has lost its natural ability for bio-capacity. The measurement of the member states’ progress in achieving the sustainable development is an integral part of the European Union strategy. The article deals with methods of measuring the level of sustainable development and presents diversification of the EU member states according to the synthetic indicators, such as: domestic material consumption, import dependency, risky external energy supply, diversity index, ecological footprint and total carbon intensity. These determinants affecting potential of the EU states to maintain the achieved level of development in future. For years we have been observing the exponential trend of the economic growth, energy consumption and mineral resources use and greenhouse gas emissions. The human population is exerting an increasing pressure on the environment, which in the highly industrialised regions has lost its natural ability for bio-capacity. Maintaining the stable economic growth is the primary goal of all world economies, which means the long-term process of enhancement of goods and services in the given country. Classic determinants of the economic growth include: population size, availability of natural resources and efficiency of their use, assets and direct foreign investments, as well as expenses and the level of the budget deficit, globalisation, size and pace of the financial sector development. The economic growth means an increase in consumption of natural resources and increase in electricity consumption, which in turn affects the level of greenhouse gas emissions generated to the atmosphere.The problem of studying these relationships requires a multidimensional analysis. The studies in particular concern the economies of the European Union countries; however, they also contain references to the phenomena on a global scale. On the basis of the conducted analyses it should be emphasized that the current global growth trends should be channelled to the sustainable levels, taking into account the needs of the future generations. Hence, the sustainable consumption and production are currently one of the most important challenges of the EU. Sustainable consumption and production was defined as: the holistic approach aimed at minimising the impact of the social production and consumption systems on the environment. The objective of sustainable production and consumption is to maximise the efficiency and effectiveness of products, services and investments, in order to meet the today’s needs of the society without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their needs. This concept includes three pillars of sustainability: economy, society and environment. The social component is associated with the provision of generation and inter-generation justice and the consumer protection. The economic and environmental dimensions were described in the Kiev Declaration as the need for “eliminating the coupling between the economic growth and the environmental degradation in order to promote both the economic growth and the environmental protection”. Achieving this aim in the pan-European region was called the matter of fundamental importance EEA .The development of humanity depends on the energy consumption, which next to food and air is one of the most important material needs of the man. The main factors influencing the increase in energy demand are: the growing population and economic growth of the world. In the past, the world population was small. In the middle of the seventeenth century the population exceeded 500 million. An increase to 1 billion occurred after almost 200 years, and the increase to 2 billion people was achieved in 1930. Therefore, an increase by 1 billion was achieved in just 100 years. In 1971 the population was already 3.7 billion, and during the last 45 years it has almost doubled, while in the last decades the dynamic increase in population occurred mainly in the non-OECD countries, especially in the underdeveloped countries of Africa, Asia and Latin America. Since 1971, there has been a rapid economic growth of the world—high in OECD countries and much lower in most non-OECD countries. Disparities are significant as the average gross domestic product (GDP) per capita in non-OECD countries was almost six times lower than the average GDP of the OECD countries in 1971 . While in 2011 the distance slightly decreased, as the GDP per capita income in OECD countries was about 5.4 times higher than in non-OECD countries and it was 30,545 USD, and in non-OECD countries it amounted to 5669 USD Gilecki .With the increase in population there is a growth in consumption of goods and services, which increases the demand for the production of goods and services. Thus, for several generations we have been living in the world of unprecedented economic growth. In the twentieth century the world economy increased almost twenty times, at an average rate of 3% per year, which corresponds to doubling its size almost every 25 years. Because of this economic growth, people live longer and a better quality of life in comparison to their ancestors . Crops already represent 70% of the grasslands, 50% of the savannas and once occupied by forests, and 27% of tropical areas. From 1985 to 2005 there was a significant expansion of tropical areas, what has a huge impact on biodiversity, emissions and soil conditions Foley .resources—proved amount in place) are the total amount of the documented reserves of energy resources.Geological resources (proved recoverable reserves) are a part of the resources, which can be extracted in the current technical and economic conditions.Operative resources  indicates the following increase of the operative resources of: coal by 145% (from the level of 476 [BT] in 1974 to the level of 690.5 [BT] in 2013); oil by 204% (from the level of 89.7 [BT] to the level of 182.8 [BT]); natural gas by 324% (from the level of 64.8 [BT] to the level of 209.7 [BT]). A significant increase in resources, especially of hydrocarbon fuels, is the result of new discoveries, technological progress in the search for new resources, exploitation of submarine resources, etc. Unfortunately, this is related to a considerable increase of the fuel extraction costs. The distribution of fossil fuel resources is very uneven in the globe. The largest deposits of coal can be found in the USA, Russia, China and India, and of lignite—Germany, Australia, the USA and China. Rich oil reserves can be found in the Arab countries, especially Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, United Arab Emirates, Libya, as well as Venezuela and the Russian Federation. The largest natural gas reserves are located in the Russian Federation, Iran, Turkmenistan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the USA, the United Arab Emirates and Venezuela. The inspections of the energy resources also contain information on the rich resources of bitumen, i.e., the shale and bitumen sands, and heavy oil. It is estimated that the bitumen resources contain about 1.5 trillion of oil Mg. Particularly important are the resources of tar sands in Canada and the heavy oil in Venezuela. Tar sands in Canada and heavy oil in Venezuela are already operated on an industrial scale, and the costs of obtaining oil from these bitumen are similar to the oil prices in the international trade Gilecki .Sustainable development is a general concept characterized by numerous definitions and many possible interpretations of its meaning. The two most popular approaches will be included in the article. The first approach means development which meets the needs of current generations without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs and aspirations WCED . The secThe sustainable development is a complex and interdisciplinary issue, covering economic, social and environmental aspects, thus there are many concepts of its measurement, since there is no a single universal methodological tool to measure it. Most often aggregated synthetic gauges describing a social, economic and environmental spheres at the same time are used to evaluate the level of the sustainable development, and they should be characterized by the following primary principles: Button . The indThe previous research in the scope of methods of measurement of the level of sustainable development of the countries are mainly focused on the problem of selection and choice of optimal set of indexes and examining their changes in time. This article uses available information in the scope of assessment of the EU states as per the environmental aspects of the sustainable environment indicating the need of a broader assessment, it means including the potential of the EU member states to maintain the achieved development level in a long time prospect, the elaboration of the potential measurement method, first of all, required: identification of the main determinants of the potential to maintain the determined level of the development in a long period of time until their examination of their influence of that potential. Based on the models prepared by international institutions such as: UN Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD), the UN Department for Policy Coordination and Sustainable Development (DPCSD), UNSTAT and the Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment (SCOPE) MSD  the mainThe identified determinants of the sustainable development should be of a measurable character and thus the following set of adequate indexes was chosen for the analysis. The consumption of natural resources was characterized by domestic material consumption (DMC); the energy consumption was expressed by means of the level of energy consumption (EC) and the consumption level in relation to the gross domestic product (EC/GDP) in order to obtain a unit comparable between the states. A critical factor affecting the potential of a state to maintain the achieved development level is securing energy supplies, thus the following indexes were adopted for the analysis: energy efficiency (EE), import dependency (ID), risky external energy supply (REES) and the Shannon–Wiener diversity index (H).The level of the natural environment use was characterized by means of gauge Ecological Footprint whereas the level of the atmosphere pollution was described with gauge Carbon Footprint. All indexes selected for the analysis have a significant influence on the EU member states’ potential to sustain the achieved development level, which was presented in Fig. Domestic material consumption (DMC) includes all materials directly used in economic processes for needs of national economies. DMC is the sum of materials obtained in the country territory and from import reduced by the exported materials. The index of domestic material consumption (DMC) is based on Economy-wide Material Flow Accounts, it is coherent compilation of total material amount flowing into the national economies, change of material reserves level in economy and material outflows to other economies or to the environment. For data comparability DMC level per capita was adopted in the analysis.The member states are significantly different as regards DMC index. The lowest level in 2015 was achieved by Italy 6.9 tonnes per capita, Spain 8.3 tonnes per capita, whereas the highest level was achieved by Finland 30.5 tonnes per capita and Estonia 27 tonnes per capita. Moreover, there occur differences in the consumption structure in conformity with main categories, such as: non-metallic minerals, biomass, fossil energy materials and metal ores.The DMC of the aggregated EU-28 economy is dominated by non-metallic minerals making up nearly half of the DMC in 2013 (6.2 tonnes per capita). With 3.4 and 3.1 tonnes per capita respectively, biomass and fossil energy materials each make up approximately one fourth of DMC. Metal ores constitute the smallest of the main categories with 0.5 tonnes per capita. The level of DMC differs greatly among EU Member States, ranging from 8.4 tonnes per capita in Spain to 34.5 tonnes per capita in Finland in 2013. The composition of DMC in each EU Member State is influenced by domestic extraction and by natural endowments with material resources, and the latter may form an important structural element of each economy. The consumption of non-metallic minerals was lowest in the Netherlands (2.2 tonnes per capita) and highest in Finland (19 tonnes per capita). Non-metallic minerals constitute a significant part of DMC in several other EU Member States, notably Romania (16.2 tonnes per capita), Estonia (12.2 tonnes per capita), Ireland and Austria (11.3 and 12.5 tonnes per capita respectively). Consumption of biomass was highest in Latvia (10.7 tonnes per capita), Ireland (9.1 tonnes per capita), Lithuania (7.1 tonnes per capita), Finland (6.9 tonnes per capita) and Sweden (5.6 tonnes per capita). In Ireland, fodder crops and grazed biomass made up the biggest share of this category, while in the other EU Member States with high values forestry played a major role in the economy. Consumption of biomass was lowest in Malta (1.4 tonnes per capita). EU Member States with substantial amounts of fossil fuel consumption included Estonia , Greece (6.2 tonnes per capita), the Czech Republic (5.9 tonnes per capita), Germany  and Bulgaria (5.0 tonnes per capita), Portugal and Latvia reported the lowest consumption among EU Member States for fossil energy materials, each with 1.4 tonnes per capita. Finally, consumption of metal ores was highest in Sweden (5.7 tonnes per capita), Bulgaria (4.0 tonnes per capita) and Finland (4.0 tonnes per capita) because of their metal mining activities. The lowest values among EU Member States were reported in Estonia and Lithuania Energy .The key indicator of the material use efficiency in a specific economy is the resource productivity index describing what level of economic value the economy of this country was able to produce using one kilogramme of the material [euro/kg]. This index is the leading one in the theme of sustainable production and consumption. The level of this index in the EU states in 2015 was the highest for the following countries: UK (4.48); Luxembourg (4.2), Italy (3.9), the Netherlands (3.6) and Germany (2.3), whereas the lowest level was achieved by: Bulgaria (0.3), Romania (0.35), Latvia (0.56), Estonia (0.57) and Poland (0.67) on the grounds of the presented data it can be stated that the highest DMC levels the lowest potential of the country to sustain the achieved level of sustainable development in future, whereas the higher resource productivity RP level the higher the potential of the country.Among 28 EU member states in 24 countries there was an increase in electricity production. The highest increase was observed in Luxembourg 123%, Cyprus and Malta above 110%, Spain, Portugal and Ireland above 80%. The decrease was observed in: Estonia, Romania, Latvia and Lithuania Eurostat .Total production of primary energy for the EU-28 was 789.7 million tonnes of oil equivalent (TOE) in 2013. The EU-28’s major primary energy producers were France (17.1%), Germany (15.3%) the United Kingdom (13.9%) followed by Poland (8.9%) and the Netherlands (8.8%) Energy .The level of electricity consumption in the EU countries is diverse from 1 TOE/capita in Romania to 8.3 TOE/capita in Luxembourg as was shown in Fig. The energy consumption per capita in the EU countries is dependent on the GDP per capita because new member states with much lower income also have a lower energy consumption, i.e., an average citizen of Luxembourg or Norway consumes about three times more energy than an average citizen of Portugal, Greece or Poland.Maintaining a constant economic growth is dependent on the stable access to energy resources. Ensuring an uninterrupted source of supply is a prerequisite for ensuring the energy security of each country.According to the International Energy Agency (IEA) energy security is define as the uninterrupted availability of energy sources at an affordable price. A standard definition of security of supply is a flow of energy supply to meet demand in a manner and at a price level that does not disrupt the course of the economy in an environmental sustainable manner IEA .availability, affordability, technology development, sustainability and regulation , Luxembourg (96.9%), Cyprus (96.4), Ireland (89%), Lithuania (78.3%), Belgium (77.5%) and Portugal (73.5%). In contrast, most independent of energy are: Estonia (1.9%), Denmark (12.3%), Romania (18.6%), Poland (25.8%), Netherlands (26%), Czech Republic (27.9%) and Sweden (31.6%). The broader reference to the issues of energy consumption and the level of dependence of the EU countries in terms of the energy resources can be found in the paper Bluszcz , b.f from country i to country a, a, f from country i to country a, ri—the political risk index of the supplier country, dia—is a measure of a distance between countries i and a, a from fuel f, f in country a.The energy dependence is also connected with the risk of supply, which is measured by the Risky External Energy Supply (REES) index, calculated independently for each energy media separately, i.e., for gas, oil and coal, according to the following formula , Slovakia (10.8), Lithuania (10.2) and Bulgaria (10.4). The risk indicator for the supplies of gas was the highest for Slovakia (39.4), Hungary (33.6), Latvia (21), Lithuania (20.1), Bulgaria (17.5) and Austria (16.7). Risk indicators for the supply of coal are the lowest in the group of energy resources for all member states, and the highest level was noted for Romania (6.4), Denmark (5), Ireland (4.7) and Slovenia (5.4).pi—share of the i-th energy carrier, n—number of energy carriers.Another indicator determining the level of energy security of the countries in terms of the degree of diversification of energy supply is the Shannon–Wiener diversity index (H). In mathematical terms the function is denoted as follows Stirling :3\documeThe higher the value of H the greater the diversity. Figure The EU countries are characterised by the diverse level of supply diversification of energy sources measured by the H index, the lowest diversification level can be observed for Malta and Cyprus, where over 90% of gross electricity generation in GWhe comes from oil (including refinery gas). Poland and Estonia also belong to the countries with a low degree of diversification due to the high share of solid fuels in gross electricity generation in GWhe. Luxembourg and Lithuania are characterised by the highest share of gas in gross electricity generation in GWhe. The highest level of the diversification index in the EU is in Spain, Portugal and Germany.Based on the presented analysis it can be stated that the higher the energy consumption level the lower the level of the country’s potential to sustain the achieved development level. The higher the level of the energy dependency the lower the potential level. The higher the level of Risky External Energy Supply (REES) index the lower the potential level and the higher the level of H index the higher the potential level, which was presented in Fig. The most popular gauge of the natural environment use by human activity is Ecological Footprint. EF identifies six categories of areas measured literally with the unit areas , i.e., agricultural and farm use of the land, forests, fishing areas, urban areas, green areas absorbing carbon dioxide. The ecological footprint shows, above all, to what extent the areas with high industrialisation rely in natural resources located in other parts of the world. For each area we calculate the rate, expressed in area units, in global hectares per person (Gha/person). EF calculations are regularly published in the reports of WWF Living Planet 2012 , Sweden (3.9 Gha/person), Latvia (1.4 Gha/person) and Estonia (1.1 Gha/person). Countries with the highest ecological deficit include: Belgium (6.7 Gha/person); the Netherlands (5.2 Gha/person); Spain, Italy and Greece with the deficit at the same level of 3.8 Gha/person, Great Britain (3.6 Gha/person), Denmark (3.4 Gha/person), Germany and Portugal (3.2 Gha/person). More in Bluszcz .The existing disparities between the individual EU countries in the consumption of natural resources per capita, the electricity consumption and in efficiency their use raise the need to work towards their sustainable use.The analysis of Ecological Footprint index indicates that its increase affects the decrease of the country potential to maintain the achieved sustained development over a long period of time, because nature’s abilities to regenerate are limited.The use of the natural environment to satisfy human needs is linked with phenomena of global climate warming, because people, through their consumption and production decisions emit GHGs. Carbon dioxide is especially important, accounting for around three-quarters of the human-generated global warming effect; other relevant GHGs include methane, nitrous oxide, and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs). These flows accumulate into stocks of GHGs in the atmosphere. It is overall stocks of GHGs that matter, and not their place of origin. The rate at which stock accumulation occurs depends on the “carbon cycle,” including the earth’s absorptive capabilities and other feedback effects. The stock of GHGs in the atmosphere traps heat and results in global warming: how much depends on “climate sensitivity.” The process of global warming results in climate change, affects people, species, and plants in a variety of complex ways, most notably via water in some shape or form: storms, floods, droughts, sea-level rise. These changes will potentially transform the physical and human geography of the planet, affecting where and how we live our lives Stern . The lev2In the emission balance in the European Union countries in 2012 the greatest share goes to the following sectors: energy 57.9%, transport 22%, agriculture 10%, industrial processes 6,9%, waste 3%, solvent and other product use 0.2%. In relation to 1990, the highest growth by 7% was noted in the transport sector, the drop by 1.2% in the sector of industrial processes, and the drop by 4.3% in the energy sector IEA CO2.According to the data of the Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency report, the share of the member states in the global emission of greenhouse gases in 2013 was 10.5%, while it should be noted that the level of emission dropped by 8.4% in relation to 1990. Currently, China is the largest emitter, whose level of emission amounted to 29.2% in 2013, and drastically increased by 18.2% in comparison to 1990. The United States account for 15% of the global emission and their share dropped by 7% in relation to 1990. The Russian Federation generates 5.1% of the global emission (decline by 5.5%), Japan 4% (decline by 1.3%), India 5.9% (increase by 2.8%), international transport—an unchanged level of 3.1% NEAA .2 per capita in 2004 (Stern 2 per capita (Gilecki 2 per capita), Estonia (12.9), the Czech Republic (10.6), Iceland (10.4), Germany (10), the Netherlands (9.9), Finland (9.4), Belgium (9.1) and Norway (8.9). Countries with the lowest level of emission of CO2 per capita were: Latvia (3.6), Romania (4.2); Croatia (4.5), Hungary (4.6), Lithuania (4.7) , 47.1% reporting relative-decoupling  and 20.3% seeing absolute-decoupling .The quantile regression shows that the long-run elasticity declines along with the rise of carbon dioxide emission quantile regressions mostly support the feedback relationship between carbon dioxide emissions growth and economic growth.The relationship between these two is steady and feedback in the case of high quantiles.The research results of the dependency between carbon dioxide emissions and economic growth according to Kuan-Min Wang, which were conducted on data from 138 countries in the years of 1971–2000 are as follows:Therefore, the first propriety to combat global warming is to focus on the countries with the high economic growth and high carbon dioxide emissions growth Wang .On the grounds of the conducted analysis it can be stated that the higher the level of economy emission the lower the level of the country’s potential to maintain the sustainable development in future, which was presented in Fig. The analysis presented in this paper demonstrate how much the popularization of initiatives and activities of the member states for changes, among others, in the following scopes is needed: the de-carbonisation initiatives as well as the increase of efficiency of the energy use, growth of the renewable fuels use and the rational use of the non-renewable resources for maintaining the ability to satisfy the needs of temporary and future generations.Permanent economic growth and population growth exert considerable pressure on the environment. The impact of this is not equal on a global scale and in Europe.The production of electricity, the supply of gas, fuel and water, mining, production of metals and industrial minerals, transport and agriculture are the sectors exerting the largest pressure on the environment. Forecasts of the consumption of natural resources have the growing trend up to 2020, which means the urgent need for sustainable development actions. Maintaining the current level of consumption of highly developed countries at the current rate of the population growth already in the near future can lead to the exhaustion and depletion of non-renewable natural resources, and the environment in the areas of countries with the high level of the ecological footprint with the natural opportunity to rebuild . Evans analysis indicates that the wind power is the most sustainable renewable energy technology followed by hydropower, photovoltaic and then geothermal ones. Wind power was identified with the largest relative greenhouse gas emissions, the least water consumption demands and with the most favourable social impacts compared to other technologies, but requires larger land and has high relative capital costs (Evans et al. Another aspect is the sustainable use of resources in the long term, which requires taking into account their availability, ensuring security of supply and protection of ecosystems. At the same time, it is important to maintain the ability of the environment to absorb the emission and pollutants. The improvement of efficiency, adoption of innovative technical and managerial solutions and a better monitoring and control of the environment are required to improve sustainability in production. Measures to ensure the safety of energy resources supply in the dynamically changing geopolitical situation require active search for the reliable and diversified supply of energy resources and changes in the internal energy market in the EU towards their integration.


To determine if a novel analysis method will increase the diagnostic value of the multifocal electroretinogram (mfERG) in diagnosing early-stage multiple sclerosis (MS).NRMSE) between model signals and mfERG recordings was used. Responses of each eye were analysed at a global level, and by rings, quadrants and hemispheres. AUC (area under the ROC curve) is used as discriminant factor.We studied the mfERG signals of OD (Oculus Dexter) eyes of fifteen patients diagnosed with early-stage MS  and without a history of optic neuritis (ON) (F:M = 11:4), and those of six controls (F:M = 3:3). We obtained values of amplitude and latency of N1 and P1 waves, and a method to assess normalized root-mean-square error  was in the superior temporal quadrant.The standard method of analysis obtains further discrimination between controls and MS in ring R3 (AUC = 0.82), analysing N1 waves amplitudes. In all of the retina analysis regions, FBy analysing mfERG recordings and contrasting them with those of healthy controls it is possible to detect early-stage MS in patients without a previous history of ON. The multifocal electroretinogram (mfERG) technique obtains objective and qualitative measurements regarding the functioning of the retina excited with different types of visual stimuli, and was developed for the simultaneous detection of the electrical activity from specific sectors of the retina . A majorIn the mfERG recordings, the retina is divided into a defined number of sectors with hexagonal shape 61 or 103). In the ISCEV standard stimulus array is scaled to elicit comparable response amplitudes from each stimulus sector, resulting in larger hexagons with increasing eccentricity . In the . It is pThe standard stimulus of the mfEGR provides the first-order kernel (FOK), a response to a dark-to-light or light-to-dark stimulus. The response in the FOK comes from the receptor cells and the “on” or “off” bipolar cells in each hexagon .In past studies, the diagnostic measurements most commonly taken in mfERG recordings were the amplitudes and latencies of N1 and P1 waves . It is pMultiple sclerosis (MS) is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by chronic demyelination of the central nervous system and which, as it develops, severely compromises patients’ quality of life. There is no single biomarker which is valid for diagnosis of MS; several are used instead, including clinical diagnosis, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), cerebrospinal fluid data and evoked potentials. MRI can be considered the most important tool to diagnose and monitor multiple sclerosis . HoweverThe aim of this study is to analyse the ability of mfERGs to diagnose MS at an early stage of the disease. Two methods of analysis were investigated; the first one based on standard measures of amplitudes and latencies of N1 and P1 waves; the second method consists of building a signal model from subject control recordings and comparing these under assessment with this model.The study procedures were performed in accordance with the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki, and the study protocol was approved by the local ethics committees [Clinical Research Ethic Committee of Aragon ]. Written informed consent to participate in the study was obtained from all subjects.Recordings were acquired in the Ophthalmology Service of the University Hospital Miguel Servet . mfERG signals of both eyes in 15 subjects (F:M = 11:4) with early diagnosis (inferior to 12 months) without previous history in optic neuritis and 6 healthy controls (F:M = 3:3) were used. The mean age (SD) was 44.47 (8.24) years for the patients and 35.75 (10.57) years for the controls. There was no significant difference between the two groups with respect to age.MS was diagnosed based on the 2010 revision of the McDonald Criteria  confirmeThe participants had no concomitant ocular diseases, nor any previous history of retinal pathology, glaucoma, amblyopia or significant refractive errors , or systemic conditions that could affect the visual system.A complete neuro-ophthalmic examination, including assessment of best-corrected visual acuity using the Snellen and ETDRS charts, contrast sensitivity with CSV1000 test, colour vision with Ishihara, pupillary reflexes, ocular motility; examinations of the anterior segment, intraocular pressure (IOP) with the Goldmann applanation tonometer, and papillary morphology by funduscopic exam was performed in all subjects in order to detect any ocular alteration  that may affect functional vision or mfERG results.The first order mfERG kernel was obtained according to the ISCEV standard  using a 4 and bandwidth 10–200 Hz. The signals have been digitized with a sampling rate of 1017 samples/sg, being 84 the number of samples in each recording (length 82.61 ms).A monocular recording of both eyes was carried out randomly, selecting in first place OD (Oculus Dexter) or OS (Oculus Sinister) in each subject. To improve fixation stability, sessions were broken into 47-s segments and 8 trials were recorded in total. The frame rate was 59.81 Hz, the amplifier gain 102, 1 hexagon), R2 , R3 , R4  and R5  , into five concentric rings centred on the fovea for analysis: R1  , in fourexagons) .In this study, two methods of analysis of the mfERG recordings are compared: a) standard method based on the amplitudes and latencies of N1 and P1 waves’ measuring, and b) method of averaging of the controls database.N1, AP1) and latencies of waves N1 and P1  are calculated according to Hood et al. [LN1} to 50) ms. The definition of the parameters is shown in Using functions we developed in Matlab, the amplitudes  have been used to obtain a model signal of each mfERG averaging signal: sum, rings, quadrants and hemifields. The model signal yM (k) is built averaging M = 6 signals in the temporal domain.The signals from OD eyes of 6 control subjects :yM is the averaging signal and y the one whose evaluation is required. In case the fitting is perfect, FNRMSE = 100.In order to characterize a signal in a defined group, it is compared to the model signal of that region using a standardized root-mean-square error  and STATGRAPHICS Centurion XVII. The results were expressed as the mean and the standard deviation. A p value below 0.05 was considered statistically significant.The normality of the results was assessed using the Shapiro-Wilk (W) test. The differences between groups were evaluated using the independent t-test in normal distributions or the U-Mann-Whitney (Wilcoxon) test in non-normal distributions. The differences between methods were evaluated using the dependent t-test in normal distributions (paired-samples t-test).In The mean values of amplitude and latency of N1 and P1 peaks obtained for each database are shown in N1, LN1, AP1 and LP1 present a Pearson correlation positive and significant (p<0.05) among themselves, being the highest correlation r = 0.867 between AN1 and AP1, and therefore being the behaviour in both amplitudes very similar, as it is shown in  and progressively decrease to the exterior  due to the existence of a maximum concentration of cones in the fovea that decreases towards the periphery [The four parameters Ashown in . In the eriphery . Only amThere is no significant difference in any analysis regions between controls and MS in the N1 latency  and P1 amplitude  parameters.P1 presents a value significantly superior in the fovea, progressively decreasing to the parafovea and the perifovea in both MS and controls.The latency of wave P1 only presents significant differences between controls and MS in Ring1  . LP1 preNRMSE values in controls and MS patients. To obtain FNRMSE values in the 6 control eyes, the averaging signal has been built by means of cross-validation in 6 folds . To obtain the FNRMSE values of MS patients, the averaging signal has been implemented with all the eyes of controls (M = 6).NRMSE values in controls exceed significantly    the valuThe capacity of discrimination between controls and MS for the standard analysis method and the averaging method is shown in mean(AUCR2) = 0.71). As best option using the standard method, the maximum capacity of discrimination could be obtained just analysing the N1 amplitude in R3: (In the study of amplitudes and latencies (standard method) and considering the average value in every possible region as criteria for comparability, the most discriminant parameter is the amplitude of N1 wave  the mean value in the standard method.FNRMSE parameter is 0.76 (STANDARD) = 0.60). The greatest discriminant value is obtained in the ST quadrant analysis The mean value of AUC values using FIn this study, the differences in mfERG signals in control subjects and MS patients have been analysed using the standard method of measure for amplitudes and latencies of N1 and P1 waves, as well as a method based on the comparison of recordings with a reference template obtained from control signals.There are few previous studies which analyse mfERG signals in patients with MS, and due to its heterogeneity  the results are contradictory. On the other hand, in our study the most innovative and ambitious aspect is the use of patients with an early diagnosis (less than 6 months from their first symptom) and with no symptoms of visual acuity loss nor optic neuritis, since our aim was to assess the effects of the disease themselves and the existence of axonal degeneration and the affectation of the nerve impulse conduction in the visual canal since the beginning of the pathology. For this reason, we avoided patients with previous optic neuritis, in order to avoid biases including eyes in which inflammation of the optic nerve or visual atrophy can affect the nervous conduction of the visual channel significantly.Gundogan et al  reportedmean(AUCR2) = 0.71). As a general idea, in the standard method the capacity of discrimination is low .In the present study, it can be observed that on average the most discriminant parameter to detect signals from MS patients is the amplitude of the N1 wave (NRMSE in controls is superior to MS patients (p<0.0001). With this new method, we observe that AUC between healthy controls and MS patients increases in most regions of the retina analysis (except in region IN). An advantage of the FNRMSE parameter is that this one models the mfERG signal form through a characteristic that defines the global wave form of the acquired signals, in comparison with the control subject signals.In the second part of our study, the use of an averaging method is proposed to generate a signal template of controls which can be used to verify the degree of fitting, evaluated by means of mean squared error. FNRMSE, we have observed that the greatest discriminating power is produced in the ST region Click here for additional data file.


Aronia melanocarpa L. berries (AE) may protect against oxidative stress in the liver and in this way mediate this organ status. The intoxication with Cd, dose- and duration-dependently, weakened the enzymatic antioxidative barrier, decreased the concentrations of reduced glutathione and total thiol groups, and increased the concentrations of oxidized glutathione, hydrogen peroxide, xanthine oxidase, and myeloperoxidase in this organ. These resulted in a decrease in the total antioxidative status, increase in the total oxidative status and development of oxidative stress  and histopathological changes in the liver. The administration of AE at both levels of Cd treatment significantly improved the enzymatic and nonenzymatic antioxidative barrier, decreased pro-oxidant concentration, and protected from the development of oxidative stress in the liver and changes in its morphology, as well as normalized the serum activities of liver enzymes markers. In conclusion, consumption of aronia products may prevent Cd-induced destroying the oxidative/antioxidative balance and development of oxidative stress in the liver protecting against this organ damage.The study investigated, in a rat model of low-level and moderate environmental exposure to cadmium , whether the co-administration of 0.1% extract from  Nowadays, the growing interest of the scientific community, including nutritionists, has been focused on the possibility of using various compounds naturally occurring in plants, not only in the prevention and treatment of civilization diseases, but also in the protection against the unfavorable outcomes of exposure to environmental pollutants, including toxic heavy metals such as cadmium (Cd) ,3,4,5,6.Cd belongs to the most toxic pollutants in industrialized and developing countries and forecasts show that exposure to this xenobiotic will increase ,7,8. ForThe liver, apart from the kidneys, is the main place of Cd accumulation in the organism and the critical target organ for its toxicity . This orOxidative stress has been recognized as one of the main mechanisms of the toxic action of Cd, including its damaging impact on the liver ,24,25,26Aronia melanocarpa L.  Elliott, Rosaceae). Aronia berries (chokeberries) are a rich source of polyphenolic compounds, which are one of the most powerful and widespread groups of natural antioxidants [2+) [Based on the recent findings of our research team ,28,29,30oxidants ,5,32. Ownts [2+) ,34. AparA. melanocarpa berries (AE) decreased the body burden of Cd  lifetime human exposure to Cd, revealed that a 0.1% extract from en of Cd , includien of Cd  and kidnTaking into account strong antioxidative potential of AE ,5,26 andThe study gained approval of the Local Ethics Committee for Animal Experiments in Bialystok . All procedures were performed according to the ethical principles and institutional guidelines, as well as the International Guide for the Use of Animals in Biomedical Research. 2 × 2½ H2O; POCh; Gliwice, Poland) into the components of the standard Labofeed H diet  and Labofeed B diet (maintenance diet) at the stage of their production by Label Food “Morawski’’ Kcynia. Cd concentration in the fodder was requantified in our laboratory (using the atomic absorption spectrometry method) and it amounted to 1.09 ± 0.13 mg/kg in the 1 mg Cd/kg diet (mean ± standard deviation—SD) and 4.92 ± 0.53 mg/kg in the 5 mg Cd/kg diet [Diets containing 1 and 5 mg Cd/kg (Labofeed H and Labofeed B diets) were prepared by the addition of cadmium chloride (CdCl/kg diet . This me/kg diet .A certified (Certificate KJ 4/2010) powdered AE was provided by Adamed Consumer Healthcare . According to the manufacturer’s declaration the content of polyphenols in the extract reached 65.74%, therein 18.65% of anthocyanins. The polyphenolic profile of the extract is presented in The 0.1% aqueous solution of AE was prepared daily by dissolving 1 g of the powdered extract in 1 L of redistilled water. The total concentration of polyphenols in the 0.1% AE was 0.612 ± 0.003 mg/mL (mean ± standard error—SE) ,29 and tThe investigation was carried out on 192 young (3–4 weeks old) female Wistar rats (Crl: WI (Han)) obtained from the certified Laboratory Animal House in Brwinów (Poland). Throughout the experiment all animals were kept in stainless-steel cages in controlled standard conditions  and had free access to food (the Labofeed H diet throughout the first 3 months of the study and next the Labofeed B diet without and with Cd addition) and drinking water (redistilled water or the 0.1% AE). 1 group and Cd5 group, respectively), while the next two groups received the diet containing Cd (1 or 5 mg Cd/kg) and 0.1% AE simultaneously (Cd1 + AE group and Cd5 + AE group) for 3, 10, 17, and 24 months. The last group, maintained on redistilled water (containing < 0.05 µg Cd/L) and standard Labofeed diet (without the addition of Cd), served as a control. The experimental model has been described in details in our previous reports [After 5 days of acclimatization, the rats were randomly allocated to 6 experimental groups of 32 animals each. One group received 0.1% AE as the only drinking fluid (AE group), two groups were exposed to Cd via diet at the concentration of 1 and 5 mg Cd/kg . Throughout the whole investigation, no statistically significant differences in the consumption of food and drinking water, or body weight gain were observed among the experimental groups . AlthougAt termination, after overnight fasting, the rats were subjected to barbiturate anesthesia . The whole blood was collected by cardiac puncture with and without anticoagulant  and various organs and tissues, including the liver, were dissected after macroscopic examination. A portion of the whole blood taken without anticoagulant was centrifuged after coagulation and the serum was separated. Immediately after collection, the liver was rinsed with a cold physiological saline and next it was gently dried on filter paper and weighted . The left lobe of the liver, dissected from all animals, was separated for morphological examination. The remaining part of the organ and the serum were stored frozen at −80 °C for further studies. g for 20 min at 4 °C, whereas the second was centrifuged at 20000× g for 30 min at 4 °C [Preweighted slices of the liver tissue were homogenized in a cold potassium phosphate buffer , and distilled water) with the addition of butyl-hydroxytoluene as an antioxidant  by using a high-performance homogenizer  to obtain 10% homogenates (1 mg of the liver tissue was used per each 9 mL of the potassium phosphate buffer). All homogenates were divided into two portions: one of them was centrifuged  at 700×  at 4 °C . After t2O2), xanthine oxidase (XOD), and myeloperoxidase (MPO) were evaluated as well. SOD, GPx, and GR were quantified in the aliquots separated after centrifugation at 20000× g, whereas other parameters were assayed in the aliquots separated after centrifugation at 700× g [In order to evaluate the oxidative/antioxidative status of the liver, numerous biomarkers of enzymatic  and nonenzymatic  antioxidative barriers were determined. Moreover, the concentration of oxidized glutathione (GSSG) was measured in order to evaluate the ratio of GSH/GSSG. The total antioxidative status (TAS) and total oxidative status (TOS) of the liver were assayed, and the oxidative stress index (OSI = TOS/TAS) and the concentration of malondialdehyde , as indicators of the intensity of oxidative stress, were evaluated. The concentrations of hydrogen peroxide (Ht 700× g . 2·-) generated by XOD and hypoxantine. Determination of CAT activity was made according to the spectrophotometric method by Aebi [2O2  degraded by CAT. The vanishing of H2O2 was tracked spectrophotometrically at 240 nm. The activity of GPx was assayed by using the Bioxytech GPx-340 kit by OxisResearch . In the assay, GPx is used to catalyze the oxidation of GSH to GSSG initiated by the addition of tertbutyl hydroperoxide. Next, GSSG is reduced by GR and during this process the reduced form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) is transformed into its oxidized form—NADP+, which is accompanied by a decrease in the absorbance at 340 nm. The rate of the decrease in the absorbance is directly proportional to the activity of GPx in the sample. The activity of GR was estimated with the use of the Bioxytech GR-340 kit by OxisResearch . The method leans on the oxidation of NADPH to NADP+ in the process of GSSG reduction catalyzed by limited concentration of GR. One molecule of NADPH is utilized for the reduction of one molecule of GSSG. The depletion of GSSG is determined by the measurement of NADPH consumption and demonstrated as a decrease in the absorbance at 340 nm. The activity of total SOD  was measured by using the commercial kit purchased from Cayman Chemical Company . The assay utilizes a tetrazolium salt for detection of superoxide radicals  of 5-thio-2-nitrobenzoic acid (TNT), as the product of the reaction between GSH and 5,5’-dithio-bis-2-nitrobenzoic acid (DTNB). Quantification of GSSG was accomplished by first derivatizing GSH with 2-vinylpyridine. The liver concentration of TSH was determined with the method by Ellman  based on2O2 was assayed using the Bioxytech H2O2-560 kit by OxisResearch  based on this compound-induced oxidation of ferrous iron (Fe2+) to ferric ion (Fe3+). The liver concentrations of GST, Trx, XOD, and MPO were determined with the use of specific Rat(GST), Rat(Trx), Rat(XOD), and Rat(MPO) double-antibody sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits by SunRed .The concentration of H2O2 by antioxidants present in an investigated sample. The residual H2O2 generates products which absorb at 450 nm. The value of TOS was determined with the PerOx (TOS) ELISA kit by Immundiagnostik AG based on the measurement of total lipid peroxides present in the investigated sample in the reaction with peroxidase at 450 nm. The concentration of MDA in the liver was evaluated by using Bioxytech LPO-586 kit by OxisResearch . The assay is based on the reaction of a chromogenic reagent, N-methyl-2-phenylindole, with MDA at 45 °C resulting in the formation of a stable chromophore with maximal absorbance at 586 nm. The liver TAS was assayed using the ImAnOx (TAS) ELISA kit by Immundiagnostik AG . The method is based on the reaction of elimination of added H800, Winooski, USA) and U-3010 spectrophotometer by Hitachi . The quality control of all measurements , formalin (CHEMPUR), and acetic acid (CHEMPUR)) for 24 h, dehydrated in different concentrations of ethyl alcohol (POCh), cleared with xylene (POCh), and embedded in paraffin (CHEMPUR). Sections of the liver tissue (4–5 µm thick) were prepared by using rotary microtone . Next, the sections were stained with hematoxylin  and eosin , and examined under a light microscope  for pathological changes. A semistatistical evaluation of the changes in the liver morphology was performed. The following criteria were used to scoring the presence or absence of the changes: +++, a change was found in most of the lobes, in all animals of a group; ++, a change was found in some lobes, in all animals of a group; +, a change was found in some lobes in a majority of animals of a group ; ±, a change was sporadic in a group ; and -, a change was absent in all animals of a group; aspartate transaminase (AST) in the serum were measured with the use of diagnostic kits by BioMaxima .The activities of the main liver enzymes markers such as alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and p < 0.05). At the beginning, ANOVA was performed to determine whether there were statistically significant differences among the six experimental groups, and when the differences occurred, Duncan’s multiple range post hoc test was performed to determine which two means differed (p < 0.05). In the figures, statistically significant differences in relation to the control group, the respective group receiving Cd alone (Cd1 + AE vs. Cd1 and Cd5 + AE vs. Cd5), the group receiving AE alone , and the respective group exposed to the 1 mg Cd/kg diet alone or with AE (Cd5 vs. Cd1 and Cd5 + AE vs. Cd1 + AE) are marked. In the case when the post hoc analysis revealed any influence of the co-administration of Cd and AE on the investigated parameter, the possible interactive and independent effects of Cd and AE action were evaluated with the use of a two-way analysis of variance . F values having p < 0.05 were taken to indicate a statistically significant effect. Moreover, in order to estimate the dependence between the liver burden of Cd and the extent of destroying the oxidative/antioxidative balance in this organ, the relationships between the main indices of oxidative stress measured in this study , as well as enzymatic markers of the liver function (ALT and AST) and the concentration of Cd in the liver . A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with Duncan’s multiple range post hoc test was carried out for comparisons between individual groups and to determine if the differences between these groups were statistically significant  and/or their interaction with this metal , especially under the higher exposure to Cd  after 3–17 months, while the activity of CAT was declined (by 50%) only after 24 months . The adm 5 group . The ANOre to Cd . Howeverre to Cd  on the avariance . 1 + AE group after 24 months was higher compared to the control group (by 72%) and Cd1 group  and/or its interaction with this toxic metal  only after 17 months of the intoxication (1 + AE group was even lower (by 35%) compared to the control group (1 group (by 100%) after 10 months  than in the control group, whereas the GSH/GSSG ratio was higher (from 42% up to 2.7-fold) throughout the study compared to the control group, except for 10 months  and an increase (by 29–57%) in the concentration of GSSG after 10, 17, and 24 months of the treatment . The ratxication . The conxication . The co-xication . After 2ol group . Moreove0 months . Apart fol group . The expol group . The sup0 months .F = 4.752–81.91, p < 0.05–0.001) and/or their interaction with this metal  than in the Cd1 group, while the concentration of GSSG after 3 months was higher (by 39%) than at the low-level exposure (5 + AE group was lower (by 30%) after 10 months and higher (by 32%) after 17 months compared to the Cd1 + AE group , but even compared to the control group  and their interaction with this metal after 10 and 17 months of the study , except for 24 months, where this effect was the result of independent action of chokeberry extract  compared to the Cd1 + AE group after 3 months of the study , while the co-administration of AE totally prevented against this effect of Cd action  and/or their interaction with Cd .A positive correlation was noted between HThe concentrations of MPO and XOD in the liver were not influenced by the consumption of AE alone . 1 + AE and Cd5 + AE groups after 17 months was even lower  compared to the control group  and/or their interaction with this heavy metal , except for lower (by 22%) concentration of XOD in the Cd5 group compared to the Cd1 group after 10 months and higher (by 36%) value of this parameter in the Cd5 group after 17 months . Moreover, the extract intake completely protected against the increase in the value of OSI  and/or their interaction with this heavy metal  than in the Cd1 + AE group (5 group was higher (by 62%) compared to the Cd1 group  than in the Cd1 + AE group. Furthermore, the value of TOS in the Cd5 group after 24 months was higher compared to the Cd1 group (5 group after 17 months was lower than in the Cd1 group (by 37%), while after 24 months oxidative stress in the Cd5 group and Cd5 + AE group was more severe (by 60% and 24%) than in the respective groups maintained on the diet containing 1 mg Cd/kg alone or with the extract  and OSI , as well as the concentration of MDA  in this organ. Positive correlations were noted between Cd concentration in the liver and TOS , all the changes were observed in all rats or in at least 5 animals, whereas in the respective groups co-administered with AE and Cd (Cd1 + AE and Cd5 + AE groups), the changes were noted in at least five animals or were sporadic .In the rats receiving AE during the exposure to Cd the changes in the liver morphology of the same type, but of different intensity as in the animals treated with this metal alone, were observed . The conThe administration of AE alone had no impact on the activities of ALT and AST in the serum, except for a decrease (by 33%) in the activity of ALT after 10 months of the experiment . The intoxication with the 1 mg Cd/kg diet for 10, 17, and 24 months resulted in an increase in the activities of ALT (by 30–53%) and AST (by 27–75%), while the co-administration of AE provided complete protection against the impact of this xenobiotic except for ALT activity after 10 months and AST activity after 17 months . In the F = 11.32−28.52, p < 0.01−0.001) and their interaction with this heavy metal  than in the Cd1 group, while its activity in the Cd5 + AE group was lower (by 36%) compared to the Cd1 + AE group  and AST .Positive correlations occurred between Cd concentration in the liver and the serum activities of ALT  leading to leakage of hepatic marker enzymes into the bloodstream [The Cd-caused destroying the oxidative/antioxidative balance resulted in a decrease in TAS and an increase in TOS of the liver and development of oxidative stress reflected in an elevated value of OSI and enhanced lipid peroxidation resulting in the pathological changes in the morphology of this organ. The accumulation of Hodstream ,41,44,45odstream ; based oodstream ,41,44,452O2 in this organ. It is important to underline that although the impact of Cd on the values of OSI (reflecting the intensity of oxidative stress) differed, depending on the duration and the level of exposure, the extract co-administration was capable of completely protecting the liver from the development of oxidative stress irrespective of the intensity of intoxication with this xenobiotic. What is more, the beneficial effect of AE was reflected in a decrease in the liver concentration of MDA and the serum activities of ALT and AST, as well as in its ability to protect from these metal-induced changes in this organ morphology.The present research provided new and important data on Cd hepatotoxicity; however, our interest was focused first of all on the possible protective impact of prolonged consumption of AE on the oxidative/antioxidative status of the liver under chronic low-level and moderate treatment with Cd. Furthermore, the study allowed us to estimate the influence of the extract intake on the oxidative/antioxidative balance in this organ at very low exposure to this xenobiotic resulting from its trace, but unavoidable, presence in the standard diet . DetThe influence of AE on the liver under the treatment with Cd may be explained by a direct effect of the extract resulting from its strong antioxidative potential ,5,26 and2O2 and MDA, allow for the conclusion that the favorable effects of AE may also be explained by the ability of chokeberry ingredients to reduce the body and liver burden of Cd by decreasing this xenobiotic absorption from the gastrointestinal tract and increasing its urinary excretion. The presence of -OH groups and carbonyl groups in the structure of polyphenols, especially the occurrence of 3’4’-dihydroxyl groups in the B ring, simultaneous occurrence of 5-hydroxyl group in the A ring, and 4-carbonyl group in the C ring as well as the 3-hydroxyl and 4-carbonyl groups in the C ring, enables polyphenols to bind ions of metals, including Cd2+ [Our previous reports on the impact of AE on the body burden of Cd , togetheing Cd2+ ,34,51.The present paper is the only data on the influence of chokeberry extract on the oxidative/antioxidative balance, morphology, and functional status of the liver under the conditions of low-level and moderate exposure to Cd. However, some experimental investigations revealed the preventive effect of rich in polyphenolic compounds extracts from green tea, strawberry, blueberry, ginger, and olive oil ,53,54,55A. melanocarpa L. berries in protection of the organism from detrimental effects of the exposure to Cd. The results of this investigation together with the previously reported findings suggest that consumption of chokeberry products may provide protection for the target organs of this metal toxicity. These reports have not only scientific value but also an important practical application, since the consumption of aronia berries is widely recommended due to their multidirectional health-promoting properties [The present study is a part of comprehensive researches evaluating the possibility of using operties ,5. MoreoWe are aware not only of the accomplishments, but also of the limitations of our investigation. Since women are more susceptible to Cd toxicity than man, the experimental model used in this study consists with female rats, therefore our results refer to the female liver. Thus, further research involving an evaluation of AE on the male liver is needed. Moreover, it is necessary to examine to what extent chokeberry extract can protect against oxidative damage to the liver and explain the involvement of antioxidative properties of the extract in the mechanisms of its protective action on this organ at the conditions of low-level and moderate chronic exposure to Cd. We have undertaken research in this direction and their results will be published soon. A. melanoccarpa L. offers protection from the development of oxidative stress in the liver and improves this organ morphology in rats at low-level and moderate treatment with Cd reflecting the environmental exposure of humans. The protective action of AE may be explained by high occurrence of numerous beneficial compounds, mainly polyphenols, able to scavenge FR and ROS, and suppress the activity of oxidases, as well as by the presence in the extract of ingredients possessing the ability to chelate Cd2+. Although further studies have to be undertaken in this subject, based on the results of this investigation, it can be concluded that aronia berries and their products may be very promising natural agents to be applied in the protection from oxidative damage of the liver in humans exposed to this toxic metal. This is the most important and practically useful, but not the only achievement of our research. Very significant and also of practical usefulness finding of the study is revealing the risk of the development of oxidative stress and the liver injury even at low-level repeated exposure to Cd, as well as providing evidence that prolonged enhanced consumption of AE under exposure to only trace amounts of this metal do not create a risk of destroying the balance between antioxidants and pro-oxidants.In conclusion, this study demonstrated, for the first time, that the extract from the berries of


This article presents regional-level data that can be used for comparative territorial studies on innovation dynamics. The dataset covers a series of 50 indicators grouped into a matrix of 5 elements of regional innovation system  and 5 components of innovation security . This complex set of interrelated data enables to grasp the catalyst and inhibitor factors that have a significant impact on the sustainable development of a particular regional innovation system. The innovation security approach used enables to consider the locus of innovation processes, account for the relationship between individual components of regional innovation systems and acknowledge for the unique properties of the regions. The database includes statistics for a total set of 85 regions of the Russian Federation over a period of 2015 and 2016. Spatial differentiation is made on to coastal and inland regions. This enables to identify the development patterns as influenced by the global trend of coastalization. The coverage data period is 2015–2016. The data are grouped: 1) by components of innovation security: economic, scientific and technological – S&T, social, political, geoecological; 2) by elements of regional innovation system: human resources – HR, infrastructure, research & development sector – R&D, innovative milieu, framework conditions); and 3) by types of regions, selected on the basis of their economic and geographical position: coastal, inland.Innovation security assessed using 50 indicators. A number of factors determine the choice of indicators. Firstly, the comprehensiveness of the research – the need to evaluate all components of innovation security: economic, S&T, social, political, geoecological in their relationship with the components of RIS: HR, infrastructure, R&D sector, innovative milieu, framework conditions. Secondly, the implementation of the principle of sufficiency – 2 major indicators are used to assess each component of innovation security in each of 5 aspects  characterizing the development of regional innovation system (RIS) components. Thirdly, the availability of dynamic data series for all subjects of the Russian Federation in order to conduct annual monitoring of innovation security.The original series of aggregated macroeconomic data for innovation security matrices are available in separate Excel spreadsheets .The economic component of innovation security was most efficiently implemented in 2015 in 43 administrative units of the Russian Federation, of which 9 are coastal . Thus, the value of the index of the economic component of innovation security in these regions is higher than the median value for all regions of the Russian Federation . In 2015, the top-10 included 3 coastal regions: St. Petersburg, Nenets Autonomous Area, and Chukotka Autonomous Area. In 2016, the Yamal-Nenets Autonomous Area was also added.In 2015, the coastal regions of the Russian Federation were characterized by partial economic security of the RIS subsystems. Of the 23 coastal regions, only 7 regions have economic security indicators above national average by 3 or more RIS subsystems . These rIn 2016, there were some changes in the innovation security systems of coastal regions compared to 2015 . St. PetThe majority of coastal regions of the Russian Federation have favourable economic framework conditions for conducting innovation activities and for realizing human potential for the development of innovations. However, in general, the remaining major RIS subsystems  have weak economic development.The S&T component of innovation security was most efficiently implemented in 2015 in 43 administrative units of the Russian Federation, of which 12 are coastal . Thus, the value of the index of the S&T component of innovation security in these regions is higher than the median value for all regions of the Russian Federation . In 2015, the top-10 included 2 coastal regions: St. Petersburg and Primorye Territory. In 2016, the St. Petersburg and Khabarovsk Territory, while Primorye Territory was ranked 11th place.In 2015, the coastal regions of the Russian Federation were characterized by partial S&T security of the RIS subsystems. Of the 23 coastal regions, only 9 regions have S&T security indicators above national average by 3 or more RIS subsystems . The mosIn 2016, there were some changes in the innovation security systems of the coastal regions compared to 2015 . The YamThe social component of innovation security was most efficiently implemented in 2015 in 43 administrative units of the Russian Federation, of which 16 are coastal . Thus, the value of the index of the social component of innovation security in these regions is higher than the median value for all regions of the Russian Federation .In 2015, the top-10 included 6 coastal regions: St. Petersburg, Magadan region, Yamal-Nenets Autonomous Area, Chukotka Autonomous Area, Kaliningrad region, Kamchatka Territory . In 2016In general, in 2015–2016 coastal regions of the Russian Federation demonstrate a good level of social security component of their RIS. In 2015, all 5 RIS subsystems in the context of the social component of innovative security were developed in coastal regions of Rostov region, Kaliningrad region, St. Petersburg. Another 5 regions , Magadan region, Kamchatka Territory, Khabarovsk Territory) have good social indicators for 4 RIS subsystems with the exception of the R&D subsystem.For a number of regions, the social component of innovation security is represented by the development of 3 RIS subsystems . The LenThe political component of innovation security was most efficiently implemented in 2015 in 44 administrative units of the Russian Federation, of which 16 are coastal . Thus, the value of the index of the political component of innovation security in these regions is higher than the median value for all regions of the Russian Federation . In 2015, the top-10 included 4 coastal regions: Yamal-Nenets Autonomous Area, Leningrad region, Sakhalin region, Sevastopol. In 2016, top-10 regions by this indicator also included 4 coastal regions: apart from the Yamal-Nenets Autonomous Area and Sakhalin region, these are Chukotka Autonomous Area, Republic of Sakha (Yakutia).In 2015, all 5 RIS subsystems in the context of the political component of innovative security were developed in 2 coastal regions – the Leningrad region and Murmansk region . AnotherThe rest of the coastal regions have a poorly developed political component of innovation security, including in 2 regions being developed only in the context of 1 RIS subsystem: in the Rostov region it is an innovative milieu and the Krasnodar Territory – R&D. In 8 regions, 2 RIS subsystems are the pivot for ensuring the political component of innovation security. One of them is the framework conditions, which is supplemented in the Kamchatka Territory, the Chukotka Autonomous Area, the Magadan region, the Nenets Autonomous Area – HR subsystem; Sakhalin region and Primorye Territory –innovative milieu; and in the Khabarovsk Territory – R&D subsystem. The Republic of Kalmykia has a unique combination of developed HR and R&D subsystems in the context of indicators of the political component of innovative security.In 2016, 6 coastal regions were able to strengthen the political component of their innovative security while 7 regions became more vulnerable . The KhaThe geoecological component of innovation security was most efficiently implemented in 2015 in 43 administrative units of the Russian Federation, of which 13 are coastal . Thus, the value of the index of the geoecological component of innovation security in these regions is higher than the median value for all regions of the Russian Federation . In 2015, the top-10 included 3 coastal regions: Chukotka Autonomous Area, Yamal-Nenets Autonomous Area, Leningrad region. In 2016, the top-10 included 4 coastal regions: Nenets Autonomous Area, Chukotka Autonomous Area, Leningrad region, Magadan region.In 2015, only 1 coastal region – the Chukotka Autonomous Area, had all 5 RIS subsystems developed in the geoecological context . AnotherIn 7 regions, the geoecological component of RIS is represented by the development of 3 RIS subsystems, primarily framework conditions, supplemented by the HR subsystem , the infrastructure subsystem , the R&D subsystem , innovative milieu . The rest of the coastal regions is poorly developed in the geoecological component of RIS, including in 12 regions in the context of 2 subsystems: R&D sector in combination with HR (Sevastopol), in combination with infrastructure , in combination with innovative milieu , in combination with framework conditions ; HR in combination with the innovative milieu (St. Petersburg) and in combination with the infrastructure , innovative milieu in combination with the infrastructure (Arkhangelsk region) and in combination with the framework conditions (Khabarovsk Territory). The weakest geoecological component of RIS in 2015 among the coastal regions was in the Kaliningrad region.In 2016, 5 coastal regions were able to strengthen the geoecological component of RIS; 7 regions, on the contrary, became more vulnerable . The Kra2The data covers a sample of 85 regions of the Russian Federation, coverage period is 2015–2016. These macroeconomic data are collected from several reliable sources, such as the Federal Service of State Statistics of the Russian Federation (Rosstat), Scopus database, SciVal, Scientific Research Institute – Federal Research Centre for Projects Evaluation and Consulting Services (SRI FRCEC), Single portal of the budget system of the Russian Federation (Electronic budget), Scientific and technological infrastructure of the Russian Federation – Centers for collective use of scientific equipment and unique scientific installations (Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation), Association of Accelerators and Business Incubators of Russia, Information and communication support system for young innovators (ICS). When building a database, comparability of indicators by size units is ensured. Standard data extrapolation method is performed whenever possible to construct a complete data series in case of missing values.1)collection and analysis of indicators for selected groups, followed by their measurement;2)formation of a statistical base of indicators for each of the regions of the Russian Federation for 2015 and 2016 based on official data;3)normalization of indicators by the linear scaling method in order to bring all the calculated values to a single scale in the interval , where 0 is the minimum and 1 is the maximum value of the attribute. The following formula is applied for normalization of the raw data for indicators characterizing a positive attribute:ij – normalized j-value for i-region;The evaluation algorithm includes 6 stages:The following formula is applied for normalization of the raw data for indicators characterizing a negative attribute:•degree of depreciation of fixed assets in a full range of organizations;•proportion of the population not using the Internet for security reasons;•share of the total number employed in manufacturing industries working in unhealthy and hazardous conditions;•payment for excess emissions of pollutants per organization;•concentration of pollutant emissions from stationary and mobile sources.4)calculation of integral indices for each cell of the matrix by the arithmetic mean method;The following indicators are considered to be of a negative attribute:ij – normalized j-value for i-region;Z5)calculation of structural indices in rows and columns of the matrix as arithmetic means of integral indices (3);6)calculation of the final (closing) total index of innovation security level as the arithmetic mean of the structural indexes of rows and columns of the innovation security matrix of a region . Furthern – number of indicators in the subgroup (in this case n = 2).•Human resources: I1, I2 – the level of investment of economic entities in people – holders of implicit knowledge, the effectiveness of the use of human potential;•Infrastructure: I3, I4 – the conditions for creating an information environment and establishing inter-organizational interactions with the subsequent exchange of explicit and implicit knowledge through personal and/or remote contacts;•Research and development: I5, I6 – the level of interaction between the scientific and entrepreneurial sectors ;•Innovative milieu: I7, I8 – inclusion of enterprises and organizations in the innovation system of the region;•Framework conditions: I9, I10 – favorability of regional environment for conducting high-risk innovation activities.Firstly, there are indicators of the economic component of the regional innovation security, which made it possible to assess the security status of a region in 5 aspects :•Human r•Human resources: I11, I12 – the quality of human resources in the field of research and development, the demand of the economy in the labor resources of the corresponding profile;•Infrastructure: I13, I14 – conditions for creating innovation through the involvement of scientists and researchers in entrepreneurial activities;•Research and development: I15, I16 – competitive potential of the regional research and development sector;•Innovative milieu: I17, I18 – the level of technology transfers, the degree of technological self-sufficiency;•Framework conditions: I19, I20 – distribution of new knowledge, including of a tangible nature in the form of scientific articles, new equipment, and technology.Secondly, there are indicators of the scientific and technological component of the regional innovation security, which made it possible to assess the state of RIS security by 5 aspects :•Human r•Human resources: I21, I22 – the quality of human resources and the potential of their reproduction;•Infrastructure: I23, I24 – conditions for the formation of exchange knowledge flows and information exchange between the actors;•Research and development: I25, I26 – the growth rate of new scientific knowledge;•Innovative milieu: I27, I28 - the receptivity of the population to novelties, innovative culture;•Framework conditions: I29, I30 – favorable conditions for inflow or/and reduction of outflow of qualified specialists to or/and from the region.Indicators of the social component of the regional innovation security, which made it possible to assess the state of RIS security by 5 aspects :•Human r•Human resources: I31, I32 – the degree of interaction between the authorities and the educational sector;•Infrastructure: I33, I34 – the level of implementation of new technologies and innovations in the public sector with a consequent increase in the efficiency and transparency of its functioning;•Research and development: I35, I36 – interest of public authorities in the results of intellectual activity of research organizations in the region;•Innovative milieu: I37, I38 – conditions for creating an atmosphere of innovative entrepreneurship;•Framework conditions: I39, I40 – institutional framework for the socio-economic and innovative development of the region.Indicators of the political component of the innovation security of a region, which allowed to assess the state of RIS security of a region in 5 aspects :•Human r•Human resources: I41, I42 – localization of labor resources, environmental and technological safety of working conditions;•Infrastructure: I43, I44 – the level of modernization of the production infrastructure, the development of environmental services;•Research and development: I45, I46 – the level of creation of new knowledge in the field of environmental protection and environmental management;•Innovative milieu: I47, I48 – the presence of a culture for ecological innovation;•Framework conditions: I49, I50 – environmental quality and potential for improvement.Indicators of the geoecological of the innovation security of a region, which allowed to assess the state of RIS security of a region in 5 aspects :•Human r