The fertility experience in Iran suggests that the family planning programs had an effective role in the fertility reduction. This study aimed to specify patterns of marriage in Iran and especially in a northern city of Iran and to investigate the association between patterns of marriage and contraceptive use before first pregnancy and current contraceptive use.In this cross-sectional study, following the implementation of an expert panel in order to investigate marriage patterns, 880 women aged 15–49 yr old, were selected by multistage cluster sampling and completed the “reproductive practices” questionnaire in Babol City, northern Iran, in 2013. The data were analyzed using IBM SPSS ver.16 and descriptive and analytical parameters.There are three patterns of marriage in the northern part of Iran: Traditional, Mixed and Modern marriage and between different patterns there is no statistically significant difference in the contraceptive use.According to the lack of significant relationship between patterns of marriage and the contraceptives use, which is one of the proximate determinants of fertility, the policy makers should pay attention to other determinants of fertility in order to manage the problems and implications of population decline in the country. Significant changes in various aspects of the family are taking place, for example, the rapid decline in fertility during the years 1985 to 2000 from 6 children to 2 children, increasing the education level of women, the time of marriage and family formation process. One of these changes is related to the patterns of marriage. The attitudes about patterns of marriage are changing –9. The fSeveral studies have examined the consequences of the marriage process , 13, 14.During the final decades, throughout Europe, the fall in the birth rate resulted in the invention of a new term, the Lowest-low fertility rate of 1.3 TFR  or UltraMany factors such as the government’s commitment to the family planning program and the support of the country’s religious leadership, decline in infant mortality, economic pressures placed on families, increased opportunities for education and employment for women may be incentives for couples to have fewer children. An increase in educational opportunities for women may also be associated with greater use of contraceptives .However, the beginning of the decline of fertility in developing countries was after 1965, when better and more modern methods of contraception, such as IUD, various pills and newer methods of sterilization became common and abortion became legal . Now, 62Now, the age pyramid of Iran is in transition from youth to old population and it has been predicted that the Iranian population will be quite old by the year 2050. As a result, the continuity of fertility below the replacement level and increased mortality due to aging population may have both negative population growth and a reduction in workforce, which can affect economic growth and development , 26.The experience of fertility transition in Iran indicates that it was proportionate to the changes occurred in various economic, social and some traditional family aspects, leading to the related changes in patterns of marriage and, ultimately, changes in behavior, ideals and aspirations of the people for childbearing , 26, 28.The dramatic reduction of traditional marriage may have a significant impact on the increased use of contraceptives to limit fertility. Demographers believe that this revolution in the way of marriage will determine the time of first birth . Having Realizing the demographic problems requires the examination of facts and reasons. Since one of the main priorities of developing countries is demographic studies, in particular, studies related to fertility, family planning programs, and the marriage process because of their important role in increasing or decreasing population growth.This study aimed to 1) specify patterns of marriage in Iran and especially in a northern city of Iran and, 2) investigate the association between patterns of marriage and contraceptive use before first pregnancy and current contraceptive use.In this cross-sectional study, after receiving permission from the Ethics Committee of Tehran University of Medical Sciences on 22 Mar 2013 (Ref. 23263-1297), an extensive literature review and several meetings were conducted by the research team to determine the patterns of marriage in Iran. The draft was prepared for the patterns of marriage and a panel of experts meeting was held, attended by 11 experts to finalize these patterns of marriage. The items related to patterns of marriage have been set in this way. Then, the researcher-made questionnaire of “reproductive behaviors” was used to determine the fertility practices of women. The validity and reliability of the tools (women’s reproductive behaviors in patterns of marriage) were examined.For psychometric assessment of the tool, the content validity and face validity  were performed. Test-re-Test with 20 individuals within 2 wk and examined correlations were used to assess reliability. Finally, a pilot study with 80 subjects was conducted.This research is part of a larger study on the reproductive behaviors of married women aged 15 to 49 who were living in rural and urban areas in four geographic areas of six districts of Babol City. This study began in Apr 2013 and completed in Jan 2014.After completing psychometric assessment of tool, interviewers in medical health centers selected 880 eligible women by multistage cluster sampling. The Inclusion criteria of this study was: married women aged 15 to 49; resident of Babol; having at least one child and with no diseases regarding reproduction such as the primary and secondary infertility; a kind of disease that can cause interference in their fertility; and no diagnosed severe mental disability and psychiatric disorders which may cause inability to respond to the questionnaire. The exclusion criteria of this study were the lack of response to a maximum 10% of the questions .In older women, there was probability of recall bias. Due to the randomness of the sampling and the presence of all age groups in all three patterns of marriage, this bias appears not to change because of the study.After completing the questionnaire, data were analyzed using IBM SPSS ver.16 and descriptive and analytical parameters, Kruskal-Wallis, Chi-square and ANOVA Table were used to examine the relationship between patterns of marriage and contraceptive use before first pregnancy and current contraceptive use.The data for 880 eligible women respondents were analyzed. Summarizing the views of the expert panel, eight items related to patterns of marriage were designed. According to the suggestions of expert panel and offered definitions of traditional and modern marriage from different sources , 31, 8 pP=0.01). However, the mean age of the mixed group (34.99 ± 7.81) had no significant difference from the two other groups. The mean age of the spouse of the traditional group (40.33 ± 8.96) (P=0.01) and mixed group (39.33 ± 8.37) was higher than modern group (37.01 ± 8.23) (P=0.006). The mean marriage age (19.42 ± 4.0), the mean of age difference between couples (4.24 ± 4.66) and current employment of subjects indicated no significant difference in the patterns of marriage.The mean age of the subjects in the traditional group (36.23±8.13) was higher than modern group (33.32 ± 8.48)  have been completely observed by the authors.


Studies on daily rhythmicity in livestock under natural conditions are limited, and there is mounting evidence that rhythm patterns differ between chronobiological studies conducted in the laboratory and studies conducted under pronounced natural seasonality. Here, we investigated the influence of cold-dry (harmattan) and hot-dry seasons on daily rhythmicity of rectal (RT) and body surface temperatures (BST) in indigenous sheep and goats under natural light-dark cycles. The RT and BST of the animals, and the ambient temperature (AT) and relative humidity (RH) inside the pen, were measured every three hours for a period of two days, twice on separate days during the hot-dry and the harmattan seasons, respectively. The AT and RH had minimum values of 16°C and 15% recorded during the harmattan and maximum values of 32°C and 46% recorded during the hot-dry season, respectively. A trigonometric statistical model was applied to characterize the main rhythmic parameters according to the single cosinor procedure. The result showed that RT and BST exhibited different degrees of daily rhythmicity, and their oscillatory patterns differed with the seasons (larger amplitude during the harmattan season than during the hot-dry season). The goats displayed greater (p < 0.05) amplitude of BST than the sheep in all seasons. The acrophases were restricted to the light phase of the light-dark cycle. The mesor of RT in goats was not affected by the season, but mesors of BST in both species were significantly higher (p < 0.05) during the hot-dry than the harmattan season. The goats had a more robust RT rhythm (70%) as compared to the sheep (56%). Overall, the results demonstrated that seasonal changes influenced considerably the daily rhythmicity of RT and BST in sheep and goats under natural light-dark cycle. Awareness of these changes may be useful in the improvement of diagnosis, treatment and prevention of diseases, and welfare and productivity of sheep and goats under cold-dry and hot-dry conditions. The rhythmicity of body temperature is an important process to be studied, not only to advance knowledge of the temporal variability of thermal homeostasis, but also as a means to facilitate the study of biological rhythmicity in general. In view of the relative ease of monitoring body temperature and the robustness of its rhythm, the rhythmicity of body temperature has been widely used as an indicator of the rhythmicity of the biological clock 23. The m2Assessment of livestock production in the tropics has focused more on the adverse effect of heat stress during the hot-dry season, which is characterized by high ambient temperature and intense solar radiation, and the effect of cold-dry (harmattan) stress on livestock has been poorly investigated . The har78Studies on daily rhythmicity of physiological variables have been conducted mostly on humans and laboratory animals, while the subjects were maintained in a thermoneutral environment or controlled experimental photoperiod 10. While103121314Measurements of body surface temperature (BST) in animals with the aid of infrared thermography (IRT) and infrared thermometry (IRTM), which are non-contact methods of temperature measurements, offer several advantages over contact methods used in veterinary medicine 1718. A c17To date, there is a paucity of information in the available literature on the effect of the harmattan and hot-dry seasons on daily rhythmicity of core body temperature and body surface temperature (BST) of sheep and goats reared in the Northern Guinea Savannah zone. Studies with the aid of IRT for measurement of BST rhythmicity and thermographic standards in indigenous small ruminant species under natural tropical conditions and different photoperiods have not been reported. Such information, if obtained, may be of value to clinicians, researchers and agriculturists in the understanding of biological rhythm, and in enhancing the health status, welfare and productivity of sheep and goats under different natural conditions.The aim of the present study was to investigate the circadian rhythmicity of rectal temperature (RT) and BST, and their characteristics in sheep and goats under different natural photoperiods and seasons.ad libitum. They were routinely dewormed, treated against ticks and vaccinated against most common diseases of small ruminants in the area of study. The health of the animals was assessed a week before the start of the study by screening of their blood samples for haemo-parasites, and by clinical evaluations of their rectal temperature, and respiration and heart rates for three consecutive days.The experiment was conducted during the harmattan (November-December) and hot-dry (March-April) seasons of 2015–2016 at the Livestock Farm of the College of Agriculture and Animal Science, Mando-Kaduna , located in the Northern Guinea Savannah zone of Nigeria. Twenty healthy, mature indigenous goats (Red Sokoto goats) and 20 indigenous sheep (Yankasa sheep), aged 1.5–2 years served as subjects. The animals were kept under a natural light-dark cycle during the hot-dry and harmattan seasons at the small ruminant research pen of the College of Agriculture and Animal Science, Mando-Kaduna, Nigeria. They were housed in individual stands in communal pens, made of concrete floor and cement block wall. The pens measured 2.42 m × 7.39 m wide and 1.12 m high of wire-mesh from the floor, which provided for adequate ventilation. The animals were fed beans husk, maize bran and groundnut hay, and given access to clean drinking water The ambient temperature (AT) and relative humidity (RH) inside the pen, and the RT and BST of the sheep and goats were measured on two separate days at three-hour intervals for two days. Each measurement began at 08:30 h on the first day and ended at 08:30 h the second day. The animals were easily restrained for measurements of RT, recorded from each goat as an indicator of the body temperature by a digital clinical thermometer , inserted at about 2 cm into the rectum via the anus. The readings were taken after an alarm sound was heard, indicating the end of the measurement. Within the same period of RT measurements, BST was also recorded at five different body locations using a digital infrared thermometer  with a resolution of 0.1°C. The locations comprised the inter-digital space, coronary band, mid-head, nose and ear-base regions. The IRT was focused at an approximate distance of not more than 1.2 meters from the site of recording .The dry- and wet-bulb temperature values were obtained concurrently with the RT readings at the experimental site, using a dry- and wet-bulb thermometer . The animals were humanely handled and treated according to Code of Recommendations for the Welfare of Livestock  and as aEach time series was evaluated for rhythmicity by repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA model-3) and by the cosinor procedure 3. CosinorThe AT and RH during the study periods are depicted in Figures The mean, maximum and minimum RT values obtained during the study period in the goats were 38.65°C ± 0.05, 39.5°C and 37.8°C, respectively; and in sheep the values were 38.14 ± 0.05°C, 39.20°C and 37.0°C, respectively.In both seasons the RT of the sheep and goats exhibited a strong and clear daily rhythm Figures  and b. HTable The BST at various regions of the body in both sheep and goats exhibited a daily, but weak rhythmicity Figures , 5, 6, 7The mesors of BST recorded in both sheep and goats were significantly higher (p < 0.05) during the hot-dry than harmattan season Table . In geneThe mean AT and RH recorded in the present study in both seasons were within the thermoneutral zone of 22 – 35°C and 28 – 60%, respectively, established for sheep and goats 524. HowevThe mean RT values recorded were within the normal reference intervals values of 38 – 40°C for sheep and goats in the tropics 8. Howeve4et al. [The application of the periodic model and the fitting of cosinor procedure showed that the RT exhibited a strong daily rhythmicity, while the BST exhibited a weak daily rhythmicity in both sheep and goats in all the seasons. The result agrees with the previous finding of diurnal rhythm in the RT of Comisana sheep  and Red et al. . The oscThe mesors of RT recorded in sheep and goats were consistently higher than those of BST recorded at various sites of the body, which agreed with the findings of Piccione et al. , who sho45The mesors of daily rhythm of BST in both sheep and goats demonstrated that they were modulated by AT; with higher values occurring during the hot-dry season than harmattan season, and the goats had higher mesors in all the body sites as compared to those of the sheep which had cooler BST. In both sheep and goats, the feet  temperatures were cooler than the RT and temperatures in other parts of the body measured, while the highest temperatures recorded in the head, ear and nose showed that these parts of the body were the hottest. The feet temperature in the present study varied compared with the finding of Piccione et al. , who sho3In general, the lower mesor in BST in sheep than in goats may be due to species difference, integumentary variations and body fat. In addition, the white hair-skin colour characteristic of the Yankasa sheep has been shown to influence evaporative cooling and repel heat; unlike the dark-brown colour of the goats’ skin, which may enhance solar absorption and, thus, increase heat load on the skin surface 29.The greater amplitude of RT and BST during the harmattan season may be a result of the adverse effect of cold AT and greater variation of AT on the animals. Greater amplitude of core temperature has been descrbed in mammals reared under cold conditions in temperate regions 63031.630In homeothermy, the limit of variability for amplitude of daily rhythmicity of core temperature is considered to be ± 2°C , which i3The RT during both harmattan and hot-dry seasons in the sheep and goats peaked earlier (17:30–20:00 h) than the acrophase value of 21:38 h reported in sheep . During The relationship between RT and BST of the sheep and goats recorded during the hot-dry season showed that the BST, especially the feet temperature, reached acrophase about six hours before RT, whereas during the cold-dry (harmattan) BST peaked at the same 17:30 h) time as RT (17:30 h). The present result is in contrast with the finding of Picconne et al. 0 h time 38. The f35The maximal robustness of the RT and BST rhythms recorded in the sheep and goats in the present study did not differ between seasons, although the oscillation of BST was less robust than in RT and the goats had a relatively stronger robustness than the sheep. Similar robustness values of 44–70% were reported for goats, sheep, horses 3940 and 39The present result on BST indicates that IRT may be a useful non-invasive and accurate tool to detect the variations in BST in small ruminants, and the differences in BST distribution may be used for diagnosis of diseases; especially diseases accompanied with inflammatory conditions, leg disorders and detection of skin injuries, and topical applications of therapeutic agents. Overall, the present results showed that exogenous environmental cues, including seasonal variations and light-dark cycles, provide important information for adjusting body temperature in sheep and goats towards the maintenance of a stable thermoregulation.In conclusion, the results of the present study demonstrated the effects of seasonal changes on the daily rhythmicity in RT and BST and their special features in indigenous sheep and goats under natural light-dark cycle. The data may serve as additional normal reference values for sheep and goats under different natural climatic conditions, and may be useful for the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of diseases. They may also be beneficial in the evaluation of the welfare and productivity of small ruminants under different environmental conditions.


We aimed to predict multispectral bands from a low-cost sensor  using artificial neural networks (ANN). We studied a lake located on the campus of Unisinos University, Brazil, using a low-cost sensor mounted on a UAV. Simultaneously, we collected water samples during the UAV flight to determine total suspended solids (TSS) and dissolved organic matter (DOM). We correlated the three bands predicted with TSS and DOM. The results show that the ANN validation process predicted the three bands of the multispectral sensor using the three bands of the low-cost sensor with a low average error of 19%. The correlations with TSS and DOM resulted in R Water quality monitoring involves data and water sample collection in the field and subsequent laboratory analysis. The effectiveness of the monitoring efforts depends on several factors, such as the frequency of sampling and the spatial distribution of parameters considered in the analysis ,2,3. ConThe assessment of water quality based on remote sensing techniques is not new ,6. AccorChallenges to advancing sustainable water quality management practices include the requirement for rapid and accurate monitoring and assessment of water quality in rivers, reservoirs, lakes, and estuaries, as well as knowledge of their spatiotemporal distribution ,11,12. URemote sensing methods measure the changes in the spectral behavior of optically active components (OACs) in a water body, based on the variations in their concentration. OACs can interact with electromagnetic radiation (EMR), influencing the spectral behavior of water with their own spectral signatures, and altering its transparency. Such changes can be identified by sensor systems . These sAlthough satellite remote sensing technologies are effective in estimating the quality of water in large bodies, they still have the following limitations: (a) atmospheric interference in the images, affecting data interpretation and leading to a loss of confidence in the estimated water quality parameters; (b) low spatial resolution, making the detection of water pollution in small areas difficult; and (c) inefficient image review cycles that do not meet the need for rapid monitoring of these environments .Sensors mounted on unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have received increasing attention because they can provide high spatial resolution images, allow for the constant monitoring of the environment , and accUAVs have been used to monitor the concentration of chlorophyll-a ,18,19 anLow-cost compact sensors are currently available on the market (~USD 600), with a modified filter sensitive to near-infrared radiation. This filter does not allow the passage of red-wavelength radiation (approximately between 600 and 700 nm), but it captures all other frequencies, including infrared, generating a charge-coupled device (CCD) with red channels that respond to the infrared band. These sensors have commonly been used in precision agriculture.Thus, (a) to monitor water quality, we need multi/hyperspectral sensors that are sensitive to the electromagnetic spectrum between the visible and near infrared (400 to 800 nm) regions; (b) multi/hyperspectral sensors that can be used in UAVs are very expensive; and (c) low-cost sensors are not sensitive to the bands of the electromagnetic spectrum that are important for water quality monitoring.These issues motivated us to propose an alternative method, based on an expert system for monitoring water quality using UAVs. We established the following hypothesis: it is possible to predict bands in the sensitive spectrum to monitor water quality using a low-cost sensor sensitive to the blue (B), green (G), and red (R) spectral bands. The proposed expert system is an artificial neural network (ANN).NDVI and NDWI images by the ANN; and establishment of mathematical models to correlate the NDVI and NDWI indices with TSS and DOM. The flowchart of the proposed method is depicted in The method that we are proposing can be structured according to the following steps: overflight with the UAV and processing of the acquired images; LANDSAT 8 (OLI) image processing; collection of water samples and laboratory analysis; training and validation of the ANN; generation of 2 and a depth of 4 m at the center. This lake was chosen because the equipment and resources available at the university could be easily accessed for this study.The lake at Unisinos University, South Brazil, was selected as the study site . The lakField sampling was performed in March 2017 and consisted of a UAV flight over the lake and an in situ collection of water samples at 21 sampling points, all occurring on the same day. The samplings were carried out in the superficial layer of water. The laboratory analysis for determination of total suspended solids (TSS) and dissolved organic matter (DOM) were made by the gravimetric method using the solids series . DOM was obtained through the dissolved and volatile fraction of the samples. We sampled 5 L of water at each sampling point (a sample simple for each point), and the TSS and DOM analyses were performed in triplicate .The UAV used for image acquisition was a hexacopter , on whicThe UAV was flown at an altitude of 150 m with an average speed of 5 m/s, generating 46 images obtained with the Canon sensor. To georeference the images, we established a network with six ground control points (GCPs), evenly distributed throughout the study area, and obtained their geodetic coordinates by the real-time kinematic (RTK) method using the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS). We adopted SIRGAS 2000 (Geocentric Reference System for the Americas) as the referencing system in Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) projection, zone 22S.2.Processing of the UAV data was a simple, three-step workflow. In the first step, we created a controlled mosaic and determined the accuracy of the model after applying GCPs. In the second step, we created a point cloud from the pixels of the images using the structure from motion technique . In the b4 (0.64–0.67 μm), b5 (0.85–0.88 μm), and b9 (1.36–1.38 μm) of the LANDSAT 8 (OLI) satellite. The images were acquired from the United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration. We performed atmospheric correction of the images using the method described in [b4, b5, and b9 because they are the most appropriate spectral bands to study water quality in dams and lakes [Neural networks were used in the following two modeling stages: ANN training and validation. Our working hypothesis is that it is possible to structure an ANN capable of predicting the spectral bands used in water quality monitoring in dams/lakes using the three bands of the Canon sensor (blue (B), green (G), and red (R)) as the ANN input. In order to structure the output of the network we used the bands ribed in ,29. We cnd lakes ,19.b4, b5, and b9 LANDSAT 8 (OLI) images were the output. For ANN training, 80% of the pixels were used and, for validation, 20% were used, with randomly-defined data [As the images were georeferenced with the GNSS system, we standardized the pixel sizes of the images from the Canon sensor (0.04 m) based on those of the three bands of the satellite LANDSAT 8 (OLI) 30 m). Each pixel of the ANN input image corresponded to that of the output image. Thus, the B, G, and R Canon sensor images were the ANN input, and the  m. Each The ANN was trained using Adaptive Moment Estimation (Adam), which is an optimization algorithm that can be used instead of the classical stochastic gradient descent procedure to update network weights iteratively. Adam is simple to implement, computationally efficient, requires few memory requirements, has a good convergence rate, and is appropriate for machine learning problems ,32.During this training phase, as in most studies with neural networks , the defAfter determining the topology that provided the lowest mean square error during supervised training, we validated the model with 20% of the data so that we can compare the known levels of intensity of the LANDSAT 8 (OLI) bands with those provided by the ANN.To evaluate the consistency of the results, we studied the correlation between the intensities of the known pixels from the ANN for each LANDSAT 8 (OLI) band. We calculated the coefficient of determination (R²) at a significance level of 5%.2. By introducing the Canon sensor’s images into the ANN with their original resolution, we obtained the b4, b5, and b9 LANDSAT 8 (OLI) 8 images with pixels of 0.04 m2 as outputs. We georeferenced these images and generated the NDVI  (Equation (1)) and NDWI  (Equation (2)):Once the neural network was validated, we re-introduced the three-band Canon sensor images with their original resolution of 0.04 mNDVI was initially developed to evaluate vegetation biomass with higher reflectance in the near-infrared spectral range rather than in the red band. Thus, NDVI values vary between −1 and +1, with negative values corresponding to the presence of water, values close to zero representing exposed soil, and positive values indicating vegetated surfaces . NDWI was developed to measure the spectral characteristics of water using the green band in place of the red band, allowing water to be identified in terrestrial and vegetated surfaces. The NDWI values also vary from −1 to +1, with positive values indicating water bodies and negative values indicating vegetation and soil [and soil .NDVI and NDWI images. Four sample points were considered outliers because they were outside the range of two standard deviations (above or below) of the mean of the set [NDVI and NDWI values obtained from the images generated by the ANN.We plotted the sample points at which we obtained the total suspended solids (TSS) and dissolved organic matter (DOM) concentrations on the georeferenced  the set . They weNDVI and NDWI values obtained from the images generated by the ANN.In this section, we present the results of this research in three sub-sections: the results of laboratory analysis, the results of the ANN processing, and the correlations between TSS and DOM and the The laboratory analysis generated satisfactory results to determine the concentrations of TSS and DOM in water samples. During the training process, using 80% of the pixels of LANDSAT (OLI) 8 and Canon sensor images, we tested different network structures, and varying numbers of intermediate layers, neurons per layer, and training cycles. Such a practical experimentation is common in studies that use neural networks ,34 and tb4, b5, and b9) with those generated by the ANN. We adopted 80% of the data for training and 20% for validation, according to [2 and a lower value for the mean square error (MSR). The results are presented in Once the best topology for the ANN was defined, we validated the ANN using 20% of the data from the pixels of LANDSAT (OLI) 8 and the Canon sensor images and compared the intensity of the known pixels  and introduced the three bands  in the trained and validated ANN, obtaining the three bands, b4, b5, and b9, with a computational cost of 30.5 s that generated NDVI and NDWI images , root mean square error (RMSE), and standard deviation (SD) were from the polynomial regressions.The results of the correlation analysis for 2 values of the correlations between NDVI/NDWI and TSS were around 0.60 [NDVI) and 0.77 (NDWI), respectively. R2 values are higher in our study because our method allows the prediction of spectral bands with the same geometric resolution (pixel with centimetric size) as the resolution of bands R, G, and B used in the ANN input. For the correlations of NDVI/NDWI with DOM, our results are promising, but we did not find any studies with which to compare our results.The results obtained and presented in und 0.60 ,21. In oThe consistency of the values shown in the NDVI and NDWI are commonly used for images with near-infrared bands of approximately 800 to 900 nm [NDVI and NDWI. For example, [NDWI spectral bands ranging from 0.86 μm to 1.24 μm. In our lake, the TSS and DOM average concentrations are smaller than those in previous studies. Based on the work of [NDVI and NDWI using Equations (3) and (4):o 900 nm . Previouo 900 nm  mapped to 900 nm . Howeverexample,  proposed work of  we modifb5 (0.85–0.88 μm) with band b9 (1.36–1.38 μm) and extended the spectral range of the infrared to show the presence of TSS and DOM because mean concentrations of these elements were small (In Equations (3) and (4), we replaced band re small .NDVI and NDWI images shown in Based on the b5 by b9 in NDVI and NDWI equations slightly increased the R² of the correlation of TSS and DOM with NDVI, and slightly decreased RMSE and SD , with values greater than 0.6, and for RMSE (bar chart), with values of approximately 1.7 mg/L. The correlation of TSS with NDWI showed a significant improvement in relation to the NDVI, with an increase of R² (around 0.77) and a decrease in RMSE (lower than 1.4 mg/L), also with similar results for bands b5 and b9. The results related to DOM (NDWI (R2 of 0.60) and a significant decrease in RMSE compared to the correlations with NDVI.We synthesized all these results in NDVI A obtained to DOM B followeNDWI is in agreement with the results of Mohanty et al. [2 values between TSS and NDWI were around 0.6. Our results were higher than those of [NDVI in our study are also higher than those in Masocha et al. [The improvement in the results of the correlation with y et al.  that usethose of  because a et al. . Our resThe water sampling must be performed in periods under good light conditions. This condition is important to obtain high-quality UAV images and spectral bands of satellites without clouds;It can be difficult to obtain orthophotos by UAV for large dams/lakes. Generally, water bodies are quite homogeneous, making it difficult to determine the homologous points between the images during the processing. The homologous points are fundamental for creating a point cloud from the pixels of the images using the structure from motion technique and to transform the point cloud into a digital surface model (DSM) used as the basis for the orthorectification process ;Our approach did not consider the seasonal variation of TSS and DOM. The homogeneity of the physical and chemical conditions of the water is a reflection of the temporal conditions of the bodies of water. Thus, our approach can be improved by incorporating in the neural network input the climate variable characteristics of the study site .Even with the good results found in this article, the proposed method has limitations that are highlighted below:The results of this study demonstrate the applicability of a methodological model that uses an expert ANN system to monitor water quality by UAVs. We corroborate our hypothesis because we were able to predict the bands of a multispectral sensor through the insertion of bands from a low-cost sensor using an ANN validation process.The results indicate that our proposed method for predicting multispectral bands based on an expert system and a low-cost sensor mounted on a UAV may be a useful tool for monitoring water quality for sites with low concentrations of TSS and DOM. Traditional methods of water quality monitoring in dams/lakes are time-consuming, costly, and often impractical in large bodies of water. Thus, the present study provides a better alternative for monitoring water quality using multispectral images.NDVI and NDWI obtained from the spectral bands predicted by the ANN (b4: 0.64–0.67 μm), (b5: 0.85–0.88 μm), and (b9: 1.36–1.38 μm). The correlation coefficient for TSS was higher than that found for DOM and the R2 values were the highest for the correlations with NDWI. For correlations between TSS and the indices, R2 in this study was higher than that reported in the literature. Regarding the correlations with DOM concentrations, our results were consistent, but we could not find any studies to make comparisons.For the water body we studied, the best spectral range to monitor TSS and DOM concentrations was 530–1380 nm. We established the correlations of TSS and DOM with The method described in this article can be applied to monitor other water bodies. With this method, it is easy to mount low-cost sensors on any unmanned aerial vehicle, making it possible to monitor water quality in dams and lakes.


Solubility and permeability of gases in glassy polymers have been considered with the aim of illustrating the applicability of thermodynamically-based models for their description and prediction. The solubility isotherms are described by using the nonequilibrium lattice fluid (NELF) (model, already known to be appropriate for nonequilibrium glassy polymers, while the permeability isotherms are described through a general transport model in which diffusivity is the product of a purely kinetic factor, the mobility coefficient, and a thermodynamic factor. The latter is calculated from the NELF model and mobility is considered concentration-dependent through an exponential relationship containing two parameters only. The models are tested explicitly considering solubility and permeability data of various penetrants in three glassy polymers, PSf, PPh and 6FDA-6FpDA, selected as the reference for different behaviors. It is shown that the models are able to calculate the different behaviors observed, and in particular the permeability dependence on upstream pressure, both when it is decreasing as well as when it is increasing, with no need to invoke the onset of additional plasticization phenomena. The correlations found between polymer and penetrant properties with the two parameters of the mobility coefficient also lead to the predictive ability of the transport model. The analysis of the solubility and permeability of gases, vapors and liquids in polymeric phases is of remarkable relevance for various applications ,2,3,4,5,The intrinsic nonequilibrium nature of glassy polymers requires dedicated modeling tools, as conventional approaches are not appropriate for a nonequilibrium phase. In spite of their need, very few models have been developed for the representation of gas solubility ,8,9,10 aL, and a thermodynamic factor, accounting for the concentration dependence of the penetrant chemical potential. Such a model has been developed in the framework of the nonequilibrium thermodynamics for glassy polymers (NET-GP) [More recently, an alternative approach for penetrant permeability and diffusivity in glassy polymers has been proposed, simply based on the fundamental transport equations . The mod(NET-GP) ,19, whicThe model has been already widely tested with various penetrants, namely, gases ,21, vapoSuch a transport model represents a simple but effective tool for the description and prediction of gas permeability, and for the evaluation of its dependence on relevant process conditions as feed pressure, composition and temperature, required for the design and development of novel membrane materials, as well as for the optimization of gas separation processes.In this work, the model has been described and applied in detail to the case of gas sorption and transport in three relevant glassy polymeric systems: (i) polysulfone (PSf), selected as a traditional and commercial membrane material; (ii) polyimide 2,2-bis hexafluoropropane dianhydride, 4,4-hexafluoro diamine (6FDA-6FpDA), and poly  (PPh), selected as representative of innovative materials.T, p, and composition). It is worth pointing out that the NET-GP approach considers a uniform nonequilibrium metastable polymer phase, without any artificial differentiation among different populations of penetrant molecules, which are in fact all treated as dissolved in the polymer. Such noequilibrium approach has been widely employed as NELF model by using the lattice fluid equation of state (EoS) model by Sanchez and Lacombe [S-shape solubility isotherms sometimes shown by the sorption of alcohols in high free volume glasses [The description of the thermodynamic behavior of polymer and penetrant mixtures in the glassy state can be provided by the NET-GP model, which offers a reliable and accurate method to evaluate the solubility of any low molecular weight species at any temperature, pressure and composition. The model suitably extends to the glassy state the applicability of an equation of state which isappropriate to describe the properties of equilibrium polymeric phases . It is based on the proper use of the actual polymer density as a further state variable, required to account for the nonequilibrium behavior of polymeric glasses, in addition to the usual set of variables  of the equilibrium Sanchez and Lacombe theory, and the mixture properties  are obtained through the mixing rules used in the same model [pVT) data above gT for the polymers, and to either pVT or vapor-liquid equilibrium data for the penetrant.For the NELF model pure polymers and pure penetrants are characterized by the pure component parameters ):ksw can be adjusted virtually on one only solubility datum at high pressure, providing also an estimate of the swelling isotherm of the matrix at all other pressures, through Equation (1).The density of the glassy polymer, y linear ,46, so tThe swelling coefficient can also be also obtained in a completely predictive fashion by means of the model derived by Minelli and Doghieri .2, ω1 is the penetrant mass fraction, and 1y.Of course, the solubility isotherms of penetrant 1 is obtained from the phase equilibrium equation (Equation (2)):J1, in a binary mixture in polymer 2 is given by Equation (3):1 is the chemical potential of penetrant 1 and L12 is its mobility coefficient, which is temperature and composition dependent; R and T are the universal gas constant and absolute temperature, respectively. By comparing Equation (2) with Fick’s law in Equation (4):Under isothermal conditions the diffusive mass flux of penetrant 1, D12 is given by Equation (5):12 defined in Equation (5) is the thermodynamic factor.One has that the diffusion coefficient 12 are the pre-exponential factor and the plasticization parameter of penetrant 1 in polymer 2, respectively; they are the only two parameters used in the transport model. It is worth pointing out that the sensitivity factor of mobility versus penetrant mass fraction, 12 alone. Accordingly, significant variations in the mobility coefficient are obtained for relatively high values of the product 12 aloneIn the case of a polymer glass there is no need to arbitrarily consider different types of penetrant molecules, since the phase is macroscopically continuous and homogeneous, just as it was in the case of the solubility calculations. One has to use the suitable expression for the chemical potential which holds for the polymeric phase under consideration, e.g., the NELF model. In addition, the proper dependence of the mobility coefficient on composition must be considered. All the cases inspected thus far ,24,25,26Use of Equations (5) and (6) in Equation (4) leads to the explicit expression for the diffusive mass flux of penetrant 1 in the glassy phase under consideration, provided the nonequilibrium expression for the chemical potential is considered.P12, of species 1 is often considered as a valuable property to represent the membrane performance:The steady state permeability, u and d label upstream and downstream properties, P is pressure and l is the membrane thickness; the molecular mass is introduced since commonly permeability is expressed on a molar basis. According to the transport model presented, the explicit expression for the penetrant permeability at steady state is easily obtained as follows:z1 is the compressibility factor of species 1 in the gas phase. Comparison between experimental permeability data and calculations made by using Equation (8) allows the evaluation of the two parameters of the transport model.In Equation (7), subscripts 12 are correlated to the properties of pure penetrant and pure polymer [The present model is derived on a fundamental theoretical basis, making use of meaningful and physically sound parameters. It has been shown, indeed, that both  polymer .2) depends on the fractional free volume (FFV) of the polymer matrix, which can be evaluated by means of Bondi’s method [In more detail, the mobility coefficient of each penetrating gas L0,COcV [2 as reference penetrant:On the other hand, the mobility of various gases in the same polymer matrix typically scales with the molecular size of the penetrant species, following a power law dependence with respect to the penetrant molar critical volume Vc . A simplVc , conside species  followin lattice .Therefore, Equations (9)–(11) provide a simple tool for the prediction of the mobility coefficient in the limit of infinite dilution, based only on the pure polymer and penetrant characteristics, often readily available and measured in independent experimental tests.0, have been determined [In a previous work, a large portion of the experimental transport data available in the literature has been analyzed, and the values of the model constants introduced above, termined . Hence, 2, N2 and CH4 solubility and permeability in PSf, PPh and 6FDA-6FpDA are considered first, comparing experimental and modeling results for the different glassy polymers examined; then, other penetrants, either light gases  or higher hydrocarbons  are analyzed. Solubility and permeability data were obtained from published works [The solubility and permeability of various gases in glassy polymeric membranes are analyzed and described hereafter by means of the NELF model and of the transport model, respectively. COed works ,57,58,592 solubility at 35 °C in the three glassy polymers considered is reported in k1,2 and swelling coefficients ksw reported in 4 and N2 solubility at 35 °C in the three polymers are reported in The experimental CO2 solubility in PSf and in the other two polymers is attributed mainly to the difference in the fractional free volume (FFV) of the three glassy matrices, being that of PSf quite lower than that of the others two. Interestingly, such an effect is even clearer in the case of light gases, as the penetrant uptake scales very well with the polymer FFV, so that the CH4 and N2 solubilities are appreciably larger in 6FDA-6FpDA than in PPh, and those in PSf are the lowest.The appreciable difference observed between CO2 is able to induce a significant dilation of all polymer matrices, as indicated by the rather large swelling coefficients calculated by the NELF model from the experimental solubility data  and the polymer excess of free volume (described by FFV). Therefore, L0 values of CO2 is appreciably larger than those of CH4 in all glassy systems inspected, while, on the other hand, the lager the FFV, the larger the mobility coefficient, for all gases.The mobility is a purely kinetic property, so that its value in the limit of infinite dilution is related to the penetrant dimensions , and they typically scale with the swelling coefficients calculated from the analysis of gas sorption behavior.Qualitatively, the plasticization of the glassy polymer at high penetrant pressure is related to the swelling induced in the matrix; consequently, βThe sorption and transport behavior of other gases have also been retrieved from the literature, and analyzed by means of the appropriate models recalled above, as a further test of the procedure presented.2, O2 and Ar) have been considered in detail. The experimental solubility data from various sources [ksw are obtained  is practically linear, while a significant downward concavity is observed for the more condensable species C2H6.The solubility and permeability behaviors of O2 and Ar, and the sorption process produces a significant dilation of the polymer matrix, as the swelling coefficient ksw is comparable to that of CO2  in the pressure range investigated; on the contrary, the hydrocarbon solubility curves show a concave behavior towards the pressure axis, typical of glassy polymers and very similar to that of CO2  as it is required by using the DMS model [The permeability behaviors of the same components are reported in MS model ,16.12 are obtained for hydrocarbons  coefficients are strong increasing functions of penetrant concentration. Such an effect can be qualitatively inferred by the analysis of the permeability behavior, which shows an increasing trend for two heavier hydrocarbons. Indeed, quite large plasticization factors βocarbons , especiality see . The mob12 are not simply fitting coefficients in a mathematical expression but have actually a real physical meaning since they are strongly and consistently correlated to the properties of both pure penetrant and pure polymer [As already discussed, the model parameters  polymer .2 versus the FFV of the glassy matrix, showing that the values of the three glassy polymers investigated in this work follow the correlation rather well [The infinite dilution penetrant mobility is correlated with the availability of the excess of free volume in the matrix, a relevant property of glassy polymers, and, for any given penetrant, the larger the fractional free volume FFV, the higher its infinite dilution mobility coefficient. her well ,26.L0. L0 data follow a power law dependence versus penetrant Vc for each polymer system (Equation (10)), leading thus to sieving factors η equal to 13.2, 7.6 and 11.3 for PSf, PPH and 6FDA-6FpDA, respectively.Furthermore, it has been already discussed that the size of the penetrant also affects considerably its mobility coefficient, and the larger the penetrant, the lower is the value of Clearly, the correlations considered appear physically sound although not always very accurate, and some deviations can be observed either in a priori estimate of the gas permeability by means of Equation (12), with no need of any sorption or transport measurements. Such a procedure has been validated for CO2, CH4 and N2 on a quite large number of glassy polymers [The present model approach is able to evaluate the gas permeability at low pressure with a very simple and purely predictive method, exploiting the correlations previously derived  and descpolymers .k12 given by its first order approximation (k12 = 0), as a pure blind prediction, instead of using its actual value obtained from the solubility isotherm.The application of such method to the cases inspected in this work is illustrated in k12 (here considered 0), or the evaluation of one permeability value of, e.g., CO2.As one can see, the model provides a reasonably good estimation of the experimental permeability, especially for PSF and PPh, while poorer results are obtained for 6FDA-6FpDA. It is worthwhile to recall, however, that this is the most simplified approach for the evaluation of gas permeability, in order to be fully predictive. Some improvements are indeed possible in order to increase the accuracy of the estimation, such as the independent evaluation of the binary interaction coefficient 2 and hydrocarbons, have been considered in three glassy polymers of interest for membrane gas separations, PSf, PPh and 6FDA-6FpDA. The solubility isotherms were accurately described by the NELF model in all cases including the presence of significant solute-induced swelling.The solubility and permeability of different penetrants, including light gases, COThe permeability isotherms were calculated through a fundamental general model for binary mixtures, requiring that diffusivity is the product of a thermodynamic factor and a mobility coefficient. The same NELF model was provided for the calculation of the thermodynamic factor, while the mobility coefficient is considered concentration-dependent through a simple exponential relationship, containing two parameters only. The model is able to represent well all the behaviors observed, both when permeability is a decreasing function of upstream pressure as well as when it is an increasing function. The two parameters of the transport model follow general correlations with the properties of pure polymer and pure penetrant, which allow a predictive use of it.Noticeably, in all cases both for solubility and for permeability, the glassy polymeric phase is considered macroscopically homogeneous with no need to artificially differentiate among different populations of penetrant molecules.


In order to estimate the diversity of embryo cleavage relatives to embryoprogress (blastocyst formation), time-lapse imaging data of preimplantationhuman embryo development were used. This retrospective study is focused on thetopographic features and time parameters of the cleavages, with particularemphasis on the lengths of cleavage cycles and the genealogy of blastomeres in2- to 8-cell human embryos. We have found that all 4-cell human embryos havefour developmental variants that are based on the sequence of appearance andorientation of cleavage planes during embryo cleavage from 2 to 4 blastomeres.Each variant of cleavage shows a strong correlation with further developmentaldynamics of the embryos (different cleavage cycle characteristics as well aslengths of blastomere cycles). An analysis of the sequence of human blastomeredivisions allowed us to postulate that the effects of zygotic determinants areeliminated as a result of cleavage, and that, thereafter, blastomeres acquirethe ability of own syntheses, regulation, polarization, formation of functionalcontacts, and, finally, of specific differentiation. This data on the earlydevelopment of human embryos obtained using noninvasive methods complements andextend our understanding of the embryogenesis of eutherian mammals and may beapplied in the practice of reproductive technologies. Ethical norms and legal constraints have put limitations onall but non-invasive methods in the study of conceptus; i.e. only microscopicobservations. As a result of comprehensive phenomenological research, a systemfor the assessment of the morphology and rate of development of early humanembryos ertainty , 2. The ertainty -5. CurreThe first  cleavage furrow of the polarized zygote of placentalmammals begins at the animal pole (in the immediate vicinity of the polar body)and extends from the animal to the vegetal pole -10. CleaThe listed combinations of second divisions of the cleavage have been describedin mouse embryos, with the variants for 4-cell embryos being different inphenotype. In ME and EM divisions, blastomeres form a tetrahedral structure(i.e. they are projected onto the corners of an imaginary tetrahedron). As aresult of EE or MM divisions, blastomeres are distributed in the form of aplate or rosette , 12. AccThe appearance of variants of 4-cell embryos as a result of second divisions ofthe cleavage seems to be a significant event in early ontogenesis. Thedifferences in ooplasmic segregation are associated with the differences in thedynamic pattern of subsequent embryo development , 15, whiBased on the assumptions presented above, the purpose of this study is (1) toconduct a detailed analysis of the topographic features of the second divisionof the cleavage of cultured human embryos; and (2) to analyze the variations inthe time parameters of subsequent stages of embryo cleavage that are differentin the variants of the second cleavage. Comparison of the genealogy ofblastomeres with the sequence of their divisions allowed us to assume the roleof cleavage as predetermining the normal course of the events accompanyingembryo compaction and cavitation.Fig. 2).These measurements allowed us to calculate the duration of thecycles of individual blastomeres as the difference between the division momentsof corresponding mother and daughter blastomeres. Based on these data, one canreconstruct and compare the genealogy of blastomeres before the 16-cell stageusing the duration of blastomere cycles as their marker. The results of themeasurement were analyzed and compared using non-parametric methods ofvariation statistics on the Stadia  and Statistica v6 (StatSoft) software. At the end of the standardcultivation period, the stages of embryo development were diagnosed inaccordance with the established classification[The material used in the study was time-lapse video recordings of 101 humanembryos  obtained under the standard culturing protocol from 20anonymous patients aged 27 to 44 years (average 34.7 years). The orientation ofthe first three cleavage divisions in relation to the animal- vegetal axis ofthe zygote and successive moments of the division of the zygote and eachblastomere until the 16-cell stage of development were determined by viewingimages of time-lapse recording of individual embryos. The genealogy ofblastomeres was traced in parallel. Based on these registrations, 4-cellembryos were classified in accordance with the division variants of the secondcycle of cleavage and the durations of the zygotic period (from fertilizationto zygote division) and the cleavage cycles were estimated: i.e. the differencein the onset time of the third and first divisions of blastomeres (the secondcycle of cleavage), the seventh and third divisions (the third cycle ofcleavage), and the 15th and seventh divisions (the fourth cycle of cleavage).The duration of the periods not accompanied by cell division , and the periods of cell divisions  of the second,third, and fourth cleavage cycles were also calculated, fusion of blastomeres rightafter division, and giant intracellular vacuoles and extracellular cavities in4 to 8-cell embryos. These embryos were excluded from consideration. However,in some cases, measurable parameters of their first cycles were compared withthe corresponding parameters in embryos that developed in the absence oforganic disorders.Relationship between dividing blastomeresFig. 1).As a result of EE or MM divisions, a sort of plate or rosette of blastomeres isformed. In these cases, the sister pairs of blastomeres are shifted into a mutuallyperpendicular orientation. As a result, the plate or rosette also adopts atetrahedron form.Thus, the form of human 4-cellembryos becomes homogeneous regardless of the orientation of previous cleavagefurrows. The displacement of cell pairs is most probably associated with theoptimization of the form of 4-cell embryos as a result of the alignment of themechanical stresses that take place in the limited volume of an embryo afterblastomere divisions. Association of sister blastomeres is probably due to thelong-term persistence of cytoplasmic bridges[EE, MM, ME, and EM variants of blastomere divisions were detected in 10.3,19.1, 27.9 and 42.6 % of all cases where 2-cell embryos had developed withoutstructural abnormalities N = 68). In ME or EM cases, two pairs of sister cellswere oriented almost mutually perpendicular to each other due to theorthogonality of division planes for 2-cell embryo blastomeres, while a 4-cellembryo adopted a configuration close to a tetrahedron. Eventually, thegeometric correctness of such a tetrahedron is improved due to the slowmovements of sister pairs of blastomeres but do notcorrespond to the distribution typical for the latter . This is due to the fact that the proportions ofMM, ME, and EM variants of the second cleavage in the two groups of embryos areidentical .The division frequency in abnormal embryos has a clear tendency to outreach the frequency in normal embryos .Probably, it should be assumed that EE embryos are to a greater extent prone toorganic disturbances in development than embryos with other variants of seconddivisions of the cleavage. The same tendency was noted in mouse EE embryos[The frequencies of appearance of EE, MM, ME, and EM variants in embryos withstructural defects  do notdiffer from the frequencies for embryos that developed without structuralabnormalities .Average time trajectoriesdiffer from each other  between EE and MM, EE and EM, MM and ME, MM and EM variantsequals 0.001; significance of the differences between the EE and EM variantsis 0.002; and 0.023 between ME and EM variants).Variants of blastomere divisions in the second cleavage cycle are essential forfurther development. A smoothed wave-like time trajectory of development istypical for EE embryos, while MM, ME, and EM embryos are characterized by apronounced step-like trajectory(Table 1).MM embryos reach the 16-cell stage after 80.5± 4.85 hours (mean ± standard deviation); EM embryos – after87.7 ± 9.47 h; and ME and EM embryos – after 94.8 ± 11.29 and98.1 ± 5.05 h, respectively ; Van der Waerden test).Differences in the duration of cleavage cycles become apparent in the thirdcleavage cycle and increase in the 4th cycle. EE embryos have the longestcycles, while MM embryos have the shortest cycles, with EM and ME embryosoccupying an intermediate position. Lengthening of the overall cycles ofcleavage is mainly due to the extension of cell division periods. Therefore,the division frequency is maximal for MM and minimal for EE embryos.ME and EM embryos can be subdivided into three groups according to the similarityof trajectories. Average trajectories of development for both ME and EM embryosfrom these groups differ significantly . Embryos of the second group arecharacterized by a longer duration of the cycle. Durations of the cleavagecycles for embryos of the third group can be comparable or exceed the ones forthe first group embryos, and in some cases, for the second group embryos (seedetails in Table 2).The diversity of development trajectories is notably higher among ME and EMembryos than among EE and MM embryos. At the same time, the average trajectoriesof the development of ME and EM embryos of the first, second, and third groupsdo not differ .ME embryos of the first, second, and third groups reach the 16-cell stage ofdevelopment after 85.1 ± 4.28 (mean ± standard deviation), 110.5± 6.10, and 94.6 ± 2.57 h; EM embryos – after 74.9 ± 3.10,102.1 ± 5.20, and 88.8 ± 3.05 h, respectively. The differences inthese values are statistically significant .The first groups included embryos that had formed mature blastocysts (grades 4and 5). The second groups included slowly developing embryos that had reachedthe stage of morula or blastocyst that had initiated cavitation. The thirdgroups were diverse since their embryos had a whole spectrum of blastocysts bythe end of registration, with blastocysts of grades 2 and 3 being the most presented(Table 2).Comparison of alternative distributions(number of embryos that had reached grades 5 and 4 with the number of earlierembryos at the end of the registration period) showed a clear prevalence ofboth ME and EM embryos in group 1 and, thus, the prevalence of embryos withdelayed development in group 2 . The same comparison of groups 1 and 3 demonstrateda significant difference in alternative distributions for EM embryos (P= 0.019) and similarity among ME embryos (P = 0.277).ME and EM embryos of different groups had reached different stages ofdevelopment by the end of the registration period(P = 0.017) but longer than the second value(P = 0.001). The average cleavage trajectory for MM embryos isdifferent from the trajectory for ME and EM embryos of the first groups . Alternativedistribution  in the MM group does not differ from similar distributions in thefirst groups of ME and EM embryos  but differs from the distribution in the secondgroups (P = 0.015 for both comparisons).The period of development for MM embryos to the 16-cell stage occupies anintermediate position between corresponding values for ME and EM embryos of thefirst groups, and is significantly shorter than the first value .Averaged parameters of cleavage (and thus the trajectories of developmentduring the cleavage period) for ME and EM embryos of the first groups, as wellas for MM embryos ,are in good agreement with prognostic criteria for successfully developingembryos . The shortest cycles are typicalfor MM embryos; the longest – for EE embryos. ME and EM embryos, thecycles of which for corresponding blastomeres are sufficiently similar to each other, have an intermediate position(see Table 3).The blastomere cycles of the first groups of ME and EM embryos are shorterthan the corresponding cycles for embryos of the second and third groups.The duration of blastomere cycles in 4- and 8-cell embryos with differentvariants of the second cleavage are different in general is the event that structures blastomere divisionperiods in each cleavage cycle and the trajectories of the whole cleavage.Due to the genealogical hierarchy, the division period of any blastomere iscomposed of a period of dividing blastomere cycle and the periods of the cyclesof blastomeres preceding it. Inequality of the cycles of sister blastomeresallows one toidentify the diversity of the cycles of individual blastomeres within variousembryos. The distributions connecting the division frequencies of blastomeresof similar origin with the sequence of their division in the third and fourthcycles of cleavage trajectories are significantly different from thecorresponding equality probabilities for both 4-cell EE, MM, ME, and EM embryos equals 16.09) and 8-cell MM, ME, and EM embryos. The distribution for 8-cell EE embryos does not differ from theequiprobable distribution ,which is due to the small sample size of such embryos.Substitution of the time parameters of the cleavage trajectory with thesequence (order) of blastomere divisions , while the same value forblastomere 2 : 2 is 84.2 % .Blastomeres 1 : 1 : 1, 2 : 2 : 2, and 1 : 2 : 2 are significantly more likelyto divide in the eighth, 15th, and 14th row . Blastomeres 1 : 1 and 2 : 2 in 72.4 and 65.5 % of EM embryos arethe fourth and seventh to divide ; blastomere 1 : 1 : 1 is the eighth and ninth to divide, blastomeres 1 : 1 : 2 and 2 : 2 : 2 are the 14th and 15th .In MM embryos, the first and the last to divide are blastomeres 1 : 1 and 2 : 2 andblastomeres 2 : 2 : 1 and 2 : 2 : 2 .In 4-cell ME embryos, blastomere 1 : 1 divides before the others in 78.9 % ofcases , appear and increase in number during thethird and fourth cycles of cleavage in the embryo. The two blastomeres are thefirst and last to successively divide in the vast majority of 4-cell embryos,while the division sequences of the two other blastomeres vary. In 8-cellembryos, the probability of early or late successive divisions of blastomeresis reduced. However, the number of blastomeres increases; the division momentfor them varies among different embryos. If such a tendency is preserved in thefifth and sixth cleavage cycles, the division sequence for all blastomeres, 16-and 32-cell, will become stochastic. Since the embryos, some of them earlierand some of them later, had reached the final stage of development(blastocysts), it can be assumed that the discussed phenomenon is one of themanifestations of the regulatory aspect of blastomeres and embryos in general,which increases during cleavage. An increase in the regulatory aspect, bydefinition, involves an expansion of the spectrum of potential differentiationpathways. Therefore, one can expect the expansion of potential abilities todifferentiate in blastomeres of 8-cell and, particularly, 16- and 32-cellembryos.It is traditionally believed that oocytes and zygotes are totipotent. However,according to cytologic criteria, oocytes and zygotes inheriting the structureof oocyte are highly specialized cells. In addition to their characteristicmorphology and specific syntheses, zygote specialization is manifested inpolarization with uneven volumetric distribution  of cellular organelles and the complex of specificregulatory macromolecules  et al.. In placental mammals, unlike in lower vertebrates, polarization (pre-mapping)of zygote is sufficiently labile, which determines the diversity of timeparameters in the early development and, in the case of imperfection orinsufficiency of this pre-mapping, a rather high level of early developmentanomalies. As a result of the realization of all possible combinations ofmeridional and equatorial furrows, four variants of 4-cell embryos are formedduring the cleavage of 2-cell human embryos . The blastomeres of embryos thatbelong to different variants include significantly different parts of zygotes,thus acquiring different “doses” of determinants. Segregation ofzygotic cytoplasm and determinants continues during further cleavage divisions.This, in turn, is reflected in the significant diversity in time parameters in thenext cleavage rounds of each variant of 4-cell embryos. The diversityassociated with the degree of “perfection” of zygote organizationinterferes with the diversity provided by way of its segregation, which ismanifested in cleavage trajectories. An example of this is the developmenttrajectories for ME and EM embryos with significantly different cleavage rates. According to preliminary estimates, theformation frequencies of implantation-competent blastocysts tracing to each ofthe variants of 4-cell embryos are different. Thus, the variant of a 4-cellembryo formation should be taken into account during early prognosis of theprospectivity of each individual embryo.Substitution of time parameters by ordinal characteristics  allows one to reveal anotherform of diversity associated with the characteristics of the cleavage processitself – the diversity in the moment of entry into the next cleavagecycle for blastomeres of similar origin within various embryos. We suggest thatthis phenomenon may be explained by the gradual decrease in the effects ofdeterminants as a reflection for consecutive elimination of the specificorganization of zygote in its fragments (i.e. blastomeres). A dedifferentiationof blastomeres achieved in this way precedes and, possibly, enables their ownexpression, regulation, and, finally, their own differentiation. Greater orlesser success in blastomeres’ dedifferentiation defines a time shift for the events of asymmetric divisions andcompaction, which in turn may influence the ratio of inner cell mass to muraltrophectoderm in blastocysts.


Artemisia scoparia L. plants of 1–3 age classes were sampled and measured once every 18 days. The nutrient storage capacities and activity rhythms of plant root components of the three age classes were analysed quantitatively. Among the A. scoparia population in northeast China, the nutrient storage capacities of 1a/2a plant root collars and 2-year old roots were generally large, whereas those of 3a plant root collars and 3-year old roots were significantly reduced. As for changes in the WSC content in the root system at the 18 day resprouting stage, the decline rates in the root collars of the 1a and 2a plants were 102 and 109 times those of the 3a plants, respectively. The decline rate in the 2-year old roots of the 1a plants was 1.8 times that of the 2a plants and 29.6 times that of the 3a plants. When nutrients were most active, all root components of the 1a plants entered into the resprouting stage, but the 2/3-year old roots of the 2a plants lagged behind. All the root components of the 3a plants generally lagged. At the vegetative growth stage, the WSC contents in all root components of the 1a plants declined logarithmically. For the 3a plants, the content in the root collars decreased linearly with that in the 3-year old roots. The older root components (3-year old roots) of the 2a plants and all root components of the 3a plants exhibited signs of aging.The root system of perennials is composed of the roots of different growth years. The nutrient storage capacities and activities of roots are an important basis for judging root components and plant senescence. In this research, changes in the contents of water-soluble carbohydrate (WSC) were used as indicators of the nutrient storage and activity of roots of different life years. From the early resprouting stage to the rapid growth stage,  Roots are important organs for plants to absorb moisture and mineral nutrients, and they also function as vital nutrient storage organs for perennials to achieve overwintering regeneration , 2. For Water-soluble carbohydrate (WSC) are an important active substances in plant physiological metabolism , 5, and Artemisia scoparia is a member of degraded grassland plant communities in the Songnen Plain, and it is a pioneer species in the succession of plant communities of abandoned farmland [A. scoparia is widely distributed in temperate regions of China, and on the basis of the Flora of China, its individual life history is diverse, such as annuals, biennials and perennials [A. scoparia population in frequently disturbed habitats is composed of 1-year, 2-year and more than 3 -year older plant individuals. Most of those in grazing habitats are perennial. Previous studies on A. scoparia reported seed weight and germination characteristics [A. scoparia is a taproot type, and grows many new lateral roots from the taproot every year. Every individual varies with settling time, and its root system is composed of roots at different ages. Therefore, differences among the root components of the A. scoparia population plant individuals of different age classes in the WSC content, and the changing rate at the vegetative growth stage, were studied. Such differences were associated with material storage, activity and aging. Their activity rhythms were modelled and quantitatively characterised. The significance of the above items is in the new ideas and methods of investigating the root system of perennial herbaceous plants. The WSC content of different age class was broadened, providing a theoretical basis for a thorough understanding of the life plasticity of A. scoparia individuals and the physiological changes in root senescence.farmland . A. scoprennials . Accordieristics , 29, seeeristics , root greristics , biomasseristics , leaf moeristics , 34, generistics , intrasperistics , alleloperistics , 38 and eristics . The rooLeymus chinensis  at the Songnen Grassland Ecological Research Station of Northeast Normal University in the Stud Farm of Changling County, Jilin Province, in the southern Songnen Plain. There were no specific permissions required for the study area as our institute were authorized to run and manage the research station. The A. scoparia population is diverse and well distributed. The early growth stage in which the plot demonstrates community succession with low coverage was set as the sampling site with an area of 600 m2. In the plot, L. chinensis, Hierochloe glabra, Kalimeris integrifolia, Arundinella hirta, Calamagrostis epigeios, Carex duriuscula and other perennial clonal plants were distributed in a small patchy pattern and mixed with numerous annual plants, such as Setaria viridis, Chloris virgata, Digitaria chrysoblephara and Salsola collina. The soil is alkalised meadow soil [Samples were collected from a fenced meadow of degraded dow soil , 42.A. scoparia is well developed and the lateral roots are clear. In the frequently disturbed and degraded grassland of the Songnen Plain, 1-3-year old plants are ubiquitous in the A. scoparia population, and individuals that are at least 2 years old develop new thick lateral roots in the middle and late growth season every year. For plants of different age classes, the roots of the year are fleshy and white. With the growth and development of the aboveground aerial parts after resprouting in the following year, the fleshy roots are gradually lignified, turning from white to pale yellow and to deep yellow. The degree of lignification increases with the years of life, and the colour also deepens. Thus, obvious differences exist between the roots formed in different years in the colour, but the root systems of the plants of different age classes have components of the same year , SC is the sample concentration (mg/ml), SV is used to measure solution volume (mL) of the samples, SDM is sample dilution multiple, and SM is sample mass (g).In each sample accurately weighing 0.05g, added 20 ml deionized water in the glass tube for 30 min, and then heated to boiling water (100°C) 1h, then take it after extraction of the sample of the centrifugal clear liquid was used to measure analysis. Each sample repeated three times. Under A 96-well, flat-bottomed, polystyrene microplate reader , and the absorbance recorded at a wavelength of 490 nm, phenol-sulfuric colorimetry was adopted for determining the WSC contents in the s plants , 46. TheA. scoparia were compared via ANOVA and Duncan’s multiple-range test based on the same components among the plants of three age classes at the same stage. The average WSC contents of the same root components of different age class plants were compared by ANOVA and Duncan’s multiple-range test based on the different components at the same time. The change rate in the WSC content in the root components of the plant of different age classes at different stages of vegetative growth is calculated by the following R represents the change rate , C represents the WSC content and Di represents the sampling time t+1 and interval (days) t. Five times in total sampling time was 73 days, as calculated from April 10, the first time sampling on the start date of growth until June 21, the last time sampling. Using the linear, logarithmic and exponential functions, regression analysis and significance test were performed for the measured WSC contents (n = 4×5) in the root components of the plants of the three age classes and their respective averages of different age class (n = 3×5), average of all of the components (n = 5) and the growth time. SPSS17.0 statistical software package was used for all statistical analyses. All statistical analyses were performed with SPSS 17.0 statistical package.The WSC contents in the root collars, as well as the two- and three-year roots, of A. scoparia in grasslands of northeast China, the WSC content in the root collars of the 2a plants in early April of the early resprouting stage was the highest, whereas that of the 3a plants was the lowest, thereinto, the 3a plants was significantly lower(P<0.05) than the 1a or 2a plants. In late April, the 2a plants was significantly higher than the 1a and 3a plants; entering into the vigorously growing stage in mid-May, insignificant differences (P>0.05) were found among the plants of the three age classes  among the plants of the three age classes, but the 1a plants (−1.1026%·d-1) was roughly the same level as the 2a plants. The decline rates of the 1a and 2a plants were 101-fold and 108-fold, respectively, higher than that of the 3a plants. From the 2-year roots, the decline rate of the 1a plants was the highest (−1.1733%·d-1) and 1.8-fold and 28.6-fold compared with those of the 2a and 3a plants, respectively. From the root collars and 2-year old root within 19–37 days, the decline rate of the 2a plants was the highest, but the plants of the three age classes slightly changed. The coefficients of variations of the root collars and 2-year old roots were 13.8% and 14.1%, respectively.During the vegetative growth stage of egularly . The minAs shown at the growth stage in A. scoparia plants of the three age classes reached extremely significant level with the growth time(days) (p < 0.01). Based on the coefficient of determination (R2), the logarithmic functions of the root collars and 2-year old roots of the 1a and 2a plants were the highest, the linear functions of the 3-year old roots of the 2a plants and the root collars and 3-year old roots of the 3a plants were the highest and the exponential function of the 2-year old roots of the 3a plants was the highest. According to the change rules revealed by the best-fit equation with the highest coefficient of determination, the WSC contents in all root components of the 1a plants declined logarithmically during the vegetative growth stages of the A. scoparia population. The 2-year old roots of the 3a plants declined exponentially, whereas the other two components decreased linearly. The root collars and 2-year old roots of the 2a plants declined logarithmically as the root components of the 1a plants, and the 3-year old roots of the 2a plants also logarithmically decreased with the 3-year old roots of the 3a plants.Regression analysis and significance test  were conIn all the equation parameters fitted in A. scoparia population, the absolute values of the natural logarithmic equation parameters (a and b) of the 2-year old roots were greater than those of the root collars. In particular, ‘a’ increased by 36% and b increased by 33.9%, indicating that nutrient storage and activity of the 2-year old roots of the 1a plants at the vegetative growth stage were greater than those of the root collars. For the 2a plants, the 2-year old roots was also greater than the root collars, but a only increased by 8.5% and b did substantially the same, indicating that nutrient storage of the 2-year old roots increased compared with the root collars, but the activity was the same. In the root components of the 3a plants, the absolute values of the linear equation parameters (a and b) of the 3-year roots were the highest, followed by those of the 2-year old roots, whereas those of the root collars were the lowest. These findings indicated that the 3-year old roots in the root components of the 3a plants still had relatively higher storage and activity. However, compared with the 2a plants, the storage and activity in different root components of the 3a plants decreased to varying degrees. From the early resprouting stage in early April to the vigorously vegetative growth period in late June, the observed values of the WSC content in the root components the plants of different age classes at different growth stages and the best-fit curve of its variation with time are shown as Figs As shown in A. scoparia population, the 1a plants were juvenile, the 2a plants were young and the 3a plants were old. The aging signs which were indicated by the WSC contents and the change rates in different root components were consistent with the fact situation.The WSC contents in different root components and their variation are important indicators for plant nutrient storage capacity and the physiological metabolism activity , 47. In A. scoparia is a light-demanding plants [A. scoparia population, the 1a and 2a plants occupied the top positions in the population or the community, respectively, exhibiting strong competitive advantages. However, the competitiveness of the 3a plants was disappointing.New shoots from the root collars, as well as growth before leaf photosynthesis, require large consumption of the nutrients stored . A. scopg plants , and nutA. scoparia individuals grow out more branches after removing the top growth within the growing season, such that only when the aboveground part gets old and dies at the end of the growth season appear development of the aerial parts on the root collars. Therefore, the A. scoparia root collar resprouting only forms a new generation every year. According to the generation computing for the happening resprouting on root collars, autumn-born seedlings can be overwintering with the rosette plant-type and their growth point of the root collars in the following year can continue to grow. So, the next spring, the root collars and the roots of the 1a plants (the lst generation) actually lived 2-year (two growing seasons). By contrast, the root collars and the taproots of the 2a plants (the 2nd generation) and the 3a plants (the 3rd generation) already lived through 3year and 4-year, respectively. In this way, the life spans of the root collars and the taproots can be evaluated from the age class of A. scoparia plants [A. scoparia population while sampling, their sample size was still insufficient. Therefore, the maximum life span of individuals of the A. scoparia population is 5 years in grasslands of northeast China.Dicotyledonous perennial herbaceous plants of the taproot type to maintain their perennial features mainly rely upon the resprouting or the vegetative propagation of the root collars year after year. Similar to the other apical dominance plants, a plants , 44. In Artemisia scoparia in grasslands in northeast China, the nutrient storage capacity and the activity of the root collars and 2-year old roots of the 1a and 2a plants were larger, whereas that of the root collars of the 3a plants and all 3-year old roots was significantly decreased. During the period in which nutrients of A. scoparia root components were the most active in all root components of the 1a plants at the resprouting stage, partly lagged in the 2-year and 3-year old roots of the 2a plants, and generally lagged in all root components of the 3a plants. As a whole, the change rates in the WSC contents in A. scoparia root components of plants of three age classes were negative before mid-May, and the rates were generally relatively large. In the early stage of the growing season, all the individual storage nutrients and the new products of photosynthesis were used to the overground plant growth and organ development, so as to improve the competitive ability of the population in the community.With regard to A. scoparia population regulated from logarithmic rule to linear rule with the growth process. In the root system of A. scoparia, the old root components (the 3-year roots) of the young plants (2a) demonstrated aging signs, whereas all the root components of the old plants (3a) already aged. There is finiteness on the resprouting, namely vegetative propagation generations of A. scoparia individual root collar, seed germination or sexual reproduction will be the main way to maintain the population.From the early resprouting stage in early April to the vigorously vegetative growth stage in late June, the transport of nutrients in the root components of the juvenile plants (1a) and old plants (3a) of the S1 Fig(PDF)Click here for additional data file.