Given the limited access to clinical material for studying the pathogenesis of Parkinson’s disease (PD), these studies should be carried out on experimental models. We have recently developed a subchronic model of the progressive development of PD with a gradual transition from the preclinical (asymptomatic) stage to the clinical (symptomatic) one. The aim of this study was to evaluate changes in the expression of a wide range of genes in the substantia nigra (SN), the central link in the regulation of motor function, in mice in our subchronic model of PD. We have found changes in the expression of a number of genes encoding enzymes involved in the synthesis and degradation of dopamine as well as proteins involved in the vesicular cycle, axonal transport, protein degradation in the proteasome system, neuroinflammation, and cell death in the SN of our mouse model of the clinical stage of PD. Similar changes in gene expression were previously demonstrated in patients (postmortem), indicating good reproducibility of PD in our model. Further analysis of the gene expression in the SN of mice has shown that the expression of some genes also changes in the model of the preclinical stage, when dopaminergic neurons have not yet died. Thus, this study opens up broad prospects for further evaluation of the molecular mechanisms of PD pathogenesis and the development of a test system for drug screening. Parkinson’s disease (PD) is one of the most common and severe socially significant neurodegenerative diseases affecting more than 16 million people worldwide . A key eBased on the foregoing, one of the most important priorities of neurology is the development of both early  diagnosis of PD, long before the onset of motor symptoms, and preventive neuroprotective treatment aimed at stopping or at least slowing down neurodegeneration. It is believed that such treatment will significantly prolong the preclinical (asymptomatic) stage of PD and, hence, the period of a patient’s comfortable life while maintaining normal social and physical activity. Neuroprotective therapy could also be used at the clinical stage of PD in combination with symptomatic therapy .Successful development of neuroprotective therapy requires deep knowledge of the cellular and molecular mechanisms of neurodegeneration that dominate the preclinical and clinical stages of PD . ConductThe aim of this study was to evaluate the gene expression of proteins involved in DA metabolism and proteins involved in the molecular mechanisms of neurodegeneration in the SN of mice in a recently developed subchronic model of the preclinical and clinical stages of PD using 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) [The subchronic mouse model of PD was reproduced by repeatedly administering MPTP at gradually increasing doses from 8 to 40 mg/kg with a 24 h interval between injections . The anaThe concentration of DA in mice of the 1st group 24 h after two consecutive injections of MPTP at doses of 8 and 10 mg/kg, respectively, was reduced by 52% (46.9 pmol/mg) compared with the control (101.4 pmol/mg) . The conAll genes were divided into clusters by protein function: DA synthesis and degradation, DA reception, axonal transport and microtubules, synaptic vesicle cycle of neurotransmission, oxidative stress, protein degradation, inflammation and glial activation, and cell death. Th, Ddc, and Maob); DA reception (Drd2); the synaptic vesicle cycle of neurotransmission (Syt11); oxidative stress (Gpx1). In other clusters, no changes in genes encoding proteins involved in axonal transport, protein degradation in the proteasome system, or cell death were found  as well as cell death . In the same mice, we found a decrease in the gene expression of proteins associated with DA synthesis and degradation (Th and Ddc), axonal transport and microtubules , the synaptic vesicle cycle of neurotransmission (Syn1), protein degradation (Park2 and Psmc3), oxidative stress (Sod1 and Keap1), and inflammation and glial activation (Akt1)  . The expn (Akt1) .At the first stage of this study, which aimed to assess the expression of genes encoding proteins specific for DAergic neurons as well as proteins involved in the molecular mechanisms of neurodegeneration in the SN as affected by PD, it was necessary to select a PD model that would reproduce the progressive degradation of the nigrostriatal system. Such a subchronic model of PD was recently developed in our laboratory in mice with systemic MPTP administration . In thisThe value of the results obtained from a model of any disease depends on how well the model reproduces the pathological processes that develop in patients. Therefore, in the second stage of this study, we compared the expression of genes encoding proteins specific for DAergic neurons, as well as selected proteins involved in intercellular signaling and neurodegeneration in the SN, in our mouse model of subchronic PD (our results)to that found in patients in the clinical stage of PD (published literature data). In the absence of a preclinical PD diagnosis, postmortem material for such an analysis cannot be obtained from patients at the preclinical stage.According to the research literature, analysis of gene expression in postmortem material was carried out both in the whole SN ,17,18,19Th, Ddc, Map2, Snca, Psmc3, Casp3, and Mapk8). For 13 genes, opposite changes in gene expression were observed . As for the genes with unidirectional expression in the SN in the mouse model of the clinical stage of PD and in patients with PD, they are present in almost all of the selected gene clusters except for “Oxidative stress” and “Inflammation and glial activation”  in the SN in our model of the clinical stage of PD coincided with changes in the expression of the same genes in patients with PD. In both cases, the expression of these genes was reduced [Changes in the expression of genes for proteins of the DAergic phenotype , this question still remains open. Research literature data on this issue are contradictory. However, some studies claim that DAergic neurons die mainly due to apoptosis ,47,48,49poptosis ,51,52. Ipoptosis  and in oTh, Ddc, Ubb, Gfap, Drd2, Mapt, and Tubb3), the same changes in the expression of only four genes  were observed. In addition, it was shown that changes in the expression of the Mapt gene in the SN of non-human primates in the PD model and in the SN postmortem in PD patients coincide, whereas the changes in the expression of Ubb and Gfap genes differ. It follows that both of the above models do not fully reproduce the neurodegenerative changes in the SN that are characteristic of PD patients. Nevertheless, both models of PD are useful and complement each other in studying the mechanisms of the neurodegeneration and neuroplasticity of the nigrostriatal dopaminergic system.There are only a few studies evaluating gene expression in the SN when modeling PD in non-human primates using MPTP . Of the Considering that the SN contains both neurons and glial cells, we have evaluated in the mouse model of the clinical stage of PD genes that are predominantly expressed in neurons. This has made it possible to compare our data with those obtained on neuromelanin-containing cells isolated via microdissection from the SN of PD patients .Drd2, Kif1a, and Kif5a) in the SN of patients, but they do not agree with the data obtained in other similar studies [It was shown that the expression of the five genes characteristic of neurons did not change in the SN in our mouse model of the clinical stage of PD . These d studies ,21,24. A studies ,54. Our  studies ,23,24, w studies ,22,24.Given that there is no data on gene expression in the nigrostriatal system at the preclinical stage in patients with PD due to a lack of preclinical diagnoses, the only way to conduct such studies is through the use of experimental models.The development of a subchronic model of PD, which reproduces the progressive degradation of the nigrostriatal system, has made it possible to evaluate the expression of genes encoding DA-synthesizing enzymes and proteins involved in the molecular mechanisms of neurodegeneration in the SN in mice in models of the preclinical and clinical stages of PD .According to the expression of genes in the SN of mice in our models of the preclinical and clinical stages, these genes can be divided into two groups. The first group includes genes whose expression does not change in the model of the preclinical stage but changes in the model of the clinical stage of PD compared with the control. The second group includes genes whose expression is downregulated in the model of the preclinical stage but does not change in the model of the clinical stage of PD compared with the control. Map2, Tubb3, and Tuba1a), synaptic vesicle cycle and neurotransmission (Syn1), inflammation and glial activation (Gfap), and cell death mechanisms . It should be noted that the decrease in the gene expression of some neuronal proteins in the SN  in mice in the clinical stage model could be due to the death of DAergic neurons rather than downregulation of gene expression [Drd2 (DA reception), Syt11 (synaptic vesicle cycle of neurotransmission), and Gpx1 (antioxidant system) genes in the model of the preclinical stage of PD. Considering that D2 receptors are autoreceptors [Syt11) is a non-Ca2+-dependent protein that regulates endocytosis [In the first case, changes in gene expression indicate the progression of the neurodegenerative process during the transition from the preclinical to the clinical stage. This is characteristic of genes encoding proteins involved in axonal transport  were used in this study. The animals were housed at 21–23 °C in a 12h light–dark cycle with free access to food and water. Experimental procedures were carried out in accordance with the National Institutes of Health Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals  and were approved by the Animal Care and Use Committee of the Koltzov Institute of Developmental Biology of the Russian Academy of Sciences (protocol №50 from 5 August 2021).Two groups of mice were used, which were subcutaneously injected with either MPTP  or 0.9% NaCl (control). In the first group, mice (n = 8) were sequentially injected with MPTP at increasing doses of 8 and 10 mg/kg at 24-h intervals, and in the second group (n = 8), mice were sequentially injected with MPTP at increasing doses of 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 26, and 40 mg/kg at 24-h intervals. Mice in the control groups were injected with 0.9% NaCl according to the same schemes (n = 8 for each control group). Materials for analysis were obtained 24 h after the last injection . Mice from all groups in the experiment and in the control were decapitated under isoflurane anesthesia , and the brains were removed and cut along the middle sagittal plane. The striatum was excised from one cerebral hemisphere from bregma 1.70 to bregma 0.14 in the rostrocaudal direction according to the atlas , and the4  in a solution containing the internal standard 3,4-dihydroxybenzylamine hydrobromide  at a concentration of 250 pmol/mL. This mixture was centrifuged at 2000× g for 20 min.HPLC-ED was used to determine the concentration of DA in the striatum samples of mice from all groups. The tissue samples were homogenized using an ultrasonic homogenizer  in 0.1 N HClOThe separation of DA was carried out on a ReproSil-Pur reversed-phase column, ODS-3, 4 × 100 mm with a pore diameter of 3 µm  at a temperature of +30 °C and a mobile phase speed of 1 mL/min and supported by an LC-20ADsp liquid chromatograph . The mobile phase included: 0.1 M citrate–phosphate buffer, 0.3 mM sodium octanesulfonate, 0.1 mM EDTA, and 9% acetonitrile , pH 2.5. A Decade II electrochemical detector  was equipped with a working glassy carbon electrode (+0.85 V) and an Ag/AgCl reference electrode. Peaks of DA and the internal standard were identified by their release time in the standard solution. The content of analytes was calculated by using the internal standard method as the ratio of the peak areas of DA standards to the peak areas of these substances in a biological sample using the LabSolutions software . Striatum samples were normalized to tissue weight. The extraction of total RNA from the SN samples of mice from all groups was carried out in 1 mL TRI-reagent  by pipetting according to the manufacturer’s instructions. For better RNA precipitation, 1 µg glycogen  was added to each sample. The concentration of total RNA in the samples was determined using Nanodrop 8000 . Total RNA was treated with RNase-free DNase I  to remove residual genomic DNA. 0.5 µg RNA was taken into reverse transcription for cDNA synthesis from the SN samples. Reverse transcription was performed using the RevertAid H Minus First Strand cDNA Synthesis Kit  with random hexamer primers in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions . The reaction continued for 60 min at 42 °C and was stopped by heating for 10 min at 70 °C, which was followed by cooling the samples on ice. –ΔΔCt values normalized to the level of Cyc1 as a house-keeping gene. Formulas (1) and (2) were used for calculating ΔΔCt as follows:Real-time PCR analysis was performed using Open Array technology with TaqMan Open Array RT PCR Custom Format 112 chips  , which aThe results were calculated as the geometric mean of the group  and are Lists of genes and their target names as well as genes not expressed in the SN are presented in https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genbank, accessed on 1 December 2022).The gene names were taken from the National Library of Medicine’s GenBank database . The fight against neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease and PD is one of the global challenges of the 21st century. All attempts to cure these patients have so far been unsuccessful. This is due to the fact that neurodegenerative diseases develop for decades at the preclinical stage without the manifestation of diagnostic clinical symptoms and, hence, without treatment. Therefore, one of the highest priorities in neuroscience is the development of preclinical diagnosis techniques and preventive neuroprotective therapy, which would slow down the death of neurons and, thus, prolong the period of a patient’s comfortable (asymptomatic) life. Success in the development of these technologies depends on our knowledge of the molecular mechanisms of pathogenesis, primarily at the preclinical stage. In the absence of preclinical diagnosis, the mechanisms of pathogenesis can only be studied on animal models but not in patients. Therefore, our study was devoted to the evaluation of some molecular mechanisms of PD pathogenesis on a subchronic model that we developed in mice using MPTP, a neurotoxin of the DAergic neurons that control motor function. This model reproduces the progressive development of PD with a gradual transition from the preclinical stage to the clinical one. In this study, we evaluated the gene expression of proteins involved in the functioning of DAergic neurons and neurodegeneration in the mouse SN, the site of localization of these neurons. We found that in the SN in our mouse model of the preclinical stage of PD, there were changes in the expression of a number of genes encoding enzymes of the synthesis and degradation of DA as well as proteins involved in the vesicular cycle and neurotransmission, axonal transport, degradation of proteins in the ubiquitin–proteasome system, neuroinflammation, and cell death. Similar changes in gene expression were demonstrated in previous studies in patients at the clinical stage of PD (postmortem), indicating good reproducibility of PD pathogenesis in our model. Further comparative analysis of gene expression in the SN in our mouse PD models showed that the expression of some genes changed in the model of the preclinical stage of PD, thereby preceding the death of dopaminergic neurons. Thus, this study of the gene expression of proteins involved in the functioning of DAergic neurons and neurodegeneration in the SN in our MPTP mouse model of PD opens up new opportunities for an in-depth study of the molecular mechanisms of the pathogenesis of this disease and the development of preventive neuroprotective therapies.


The results indicated that the spatial arrangement of B4C has an impact on the neutrons shielding performance of the composite and the influence changes with neutron energy and B4C content. It can be concluded that the RSA model and the periodic arrangement models can be used in different calculation cases in the future.Particle-reinforced composites are widely applied as nuclear radiation shielding materials for their excellent comprehensive properties. The work aimed to calculate the influence of the functional reinforced particles spatial arrangement on the neutron shielding performance of composites and attempted to explain the influence mechanism by investigating the neutron flux distribution in the materials. Firstly, four suitable physical models were established based on the Monte Carlo Particle Transport Program (MCNP) and mathematical software MATLAB, namely the RSA  Model with particles random arrangement and FCC Model, BCC Model and Staggered Arrangement Model (SA Model) with particle periodic arrangements. Later, based on these four physical models, the neutron transmittance of two kinds of typical B Therefore, in this paper, we focused our attention on B4C-reinforced 316 stainless steel composites and polyethylene composites. Nuclear radiation shielding materials with functional and structural integration can adapt to more severe service environments and they are of great significance to ensure the normal operation of increasingly abundant nuclear facilities . On the operties . The funWhen designing neutron shielding materials, the shielding performance of the designed materials should be evaluated by simulation calculation. At present, particle transport calculation based on the Monte Carlo method is still the main method, and the MCNP program is one of the most common such programs. Traditionally, a Uniform Filling Model (UFM) was established to calculate the radiation shielding performance of particles reinforced composites ,14,15,164C/HDPE (300 nm) had a better thermal neutron shielding performance than micro-B4C/HDPE (300 μm). This model was also applied in Hoda Alavian’s work to study how tungsten’s size influences the shielding property of LDPE/W composites [For the accurate calculation of the shielding property, the models considering enhanced particle structure are becoming a novel orientation. Some models involving particle size and particle shape parameters have also been developed in recent years. As far as investigation is concerned, some researchers built a periodic arrangement model of reinforced particles to calculate the influence of particle size on the shielding performance; e.g., Jaewoo Kim successfully established a model in which a spherical particle is located at the center of a cubic, and he drew the conclusion that nano-Bmposites ,18. Shuomposites ,20. In t4C-reinforced 304 stainless steel composites in earlier studies [However, the problem is that reinforcement particles are usually randomly distributed in the matrix material in the process of material preparation and the above two types of models cannot match simulations and experiments well. In order to make the design more reliable, our group has constructed an RSA Model and GRM Model in which the particles are randomly filled in the matrix in order to study how the particle’s size, the shape and shape parameters influence the radiation shielding property of the composites . We have studies .Another point to question is that difference between simulation results and experiment results is very small in our research study, while in Shuo Chen’s research study, it can be seen that the difference between simulation results and experiment results is large ,20. Ther4C reinforced composites were calculated under different energy neutrons . Among these neutron energies, 0.0253 eV is the thermal neutron, 14.1 MeV is the neutron energy of D-T fusion, the fission spectrum is the most common neutron spectrum, the 241Am-Be spectrum will be compared with the experiment results and 50 eV and 50 keV represent resonance neutron and intermediate neutron, respectively. In addition, for 0.0253 eV neutrons and fission neutrons, the neutron flux distributions at different depths of the 316 stainless steel composites were also obtained and analyzed. The mechanism of the influence of particle spatial arrangement on the neutron shielding performance of the composite was explained by coming up with ‘alternating shielding’ and ‘neutron channels’ and combining with the microscopic cross section.For the foregoing reasons, in this paper, one random model, RSA Model, and three periodic models, FCC Model, BCC Model and SA Model, were established based on the Monte Carlo Particle Transport Program—MCNP (MCNP5)  and the 4C-reinforced 316 stainless steel composites and PE composites were researched because of their extensive applications in neutrons shielding. The components ratio and density of the 316 stainless steel, PE, B4C particle and the composites used in this paper are shown in In this paper, B4C content. In the former composite, the mass fraction of B4C can reach 24.68 wt% and the volume fraction is about 50.67 vol.% [4C in the latter composite is 45.11 wt% and the volume fraction is about 23.65 vol.% [4C in two types of composites are 1 vol.%–30 vol.%. Moreover, we assumed that spherical B4C can be perfectly combine with the matrix material and that there is no gap between them.In the previous study, our group completed the optimization design of a 304 stainless steel matrix composite and the polyethylene composite with high B67 vol.% . The mas65 vol.% . TherefoThe neutron microscopic total cross sections (barns) of main nuclides were obtained from databases  and they4C particles were filled randomly in RSA Model and they are filled periodically in the FCC Model, BCC Model and SA Model.Four different physical models, RSA Model, FCC Model, BCC Model and SA Model, were established based on the MCNP5 code and MATLAB (R2016a). Therein, BThe establishment of RSA Model by MATLAB software and MCNP program can be divided into two steps: (1) According to RSA  means , the pos4C particle was realized by controlling the side length of the cubic unit. The unit side lengths of BCC Model and FCC Model were calculated according to the following formulas:The BCC Model was body centered cubic model, and the FCC Model was face centered cubic model. They were constructed by referring to metal lattice arrangements. The U CARD and FILL CARD in MCNP5 code were used to establish the periodic repetition unit, and MATLAB was applied to write the input files for MCNP. The BCC Model unit and FCC Model unit were first set up as the filling body, and then the units were filled in the entire shield. The volume fraction of the BIn fact, there are two effective spheres in the BCC Model unit and the maximum achievable volume fraction is 68 vol.%, while there are four effective spheres in the FCC Model unit and the maximum achievable volume fraction is 74 vol.%. The established models are shown in The particles in Staggered Arrangement Model (SA Model) were arranged along the direction of particle incidence. The periodic repetition unit was built by U CARD, FILL CARD, TRCL CARD and LIKE BUT CARD in the MCNP5 code and input files were written using MATLAB. The building of repetition unit was mainly divided into two steps: (1) U CARD and FILL CARD were used to build the first and the second staggered layer respectively; (2) TRCL CARD and LIKE BUT CARD were used to copy and move these two layers until the shield was completely filled. The volume fraction of the particle was also achieved by controlling the side length of the unit. The side length of the unit was calculated according to the following formula:The maximum achievable volume fraction was 54%, and the SA Model is shown in 4C reinforced 316 stainless steel matrix composites and polyethylene matrix composites and the neutron flux distributions in 316 stainless steel were also analyzed. In these composites, B4C particles were arranged according to above four models. The entire calculation model is shown in In this paper, neutron transmittance was calculated for B241Am-Be spectrum and 14.1 MeV) and the direction of neutron emission was perpendicular to the front surface of the shield. Among them, 0.0253 eV is the energy of thermal neutron, 14.1 MeV is the neutron energy of D-T fusion, the 241Am-Be spectrum will be compared with the experiment results and 50 eV and 50 keV represent resonance neutron and intermediate neutron, respectively.The radiation source was set as a plane source of neutrons of different energies 4C has an impact on the neutron shielding performance of the composites. The RSA model composites are roughly better than the other three periodic arrangement composites.The spatial arrangement of B(b)4C spatial arrangement on the shielding performance of the composites changes with neutron energies. When the neutron energy is 0.0253 eV and the B4C is 30 vol.%, for 316 stainless steel composites, the neutron transmittance of the RSA model composite is about 85.31% smaller than the FCC model composite, while for the PE composite, it is about 82.71% at the same case. However, When the neutron is in the fission spectrum and the content of B4C is 30 vol.%, for 316 stainless steel composites, the neutron transmittance of the RSA model composite is about 3.54% smaller than the FCC model composite, while for PE composite, it is only about 2.63%.The influence of B(c)4C content. In the case of 0.0253 eV neutrons, when B4C is less than 20 vol.%, the neutron transmittance of the SA model composite is smaller than that of the other two models; while B4C is greater than 20 vol.%, the neutron transmittance of the FCC model composite becomes smallest. In the case of fission neutron, the results of 316 stainless steel composites are consistent with the results of 0.0253 eV neutrons. However, for PE composites, the neutron transmittance of the SA model composite is basically smallest.For the three periodic arrangement models, the neutron shielding performance of the composites is related to B(d)The more effective alternating shielding is, the fewer ‘neutron channels’ and the better the neutron shielding performance of the composites.4C- or B-reinforced composites and the proportion of thermal neutrons are not small, and the RSA model is much more accurate and more suitable. Moreover, when it is the millimeter grade of B4C- or B-reinforced composites and the source is a fission spectrum neutron or 241Am-Be spectrum, periodic arrangement models can be applied for materials optimized design and shielding performance calculation because of the small difference between the RSA Model composite and the periodic models composites and their shorter calculation time and higher calculation efficiency.It can be concluded that the selection of shielding calculation models should be conducted with more care because of the influence of reinforced particles and their spatial arrangements on the neutron shielding performance of the composites. When it is at the micron grade, B


Comparing the improved model in this study with three lightweight object detection algorithms: YOLOv3_tiny, YOLOv5-Mobilenetv3small, and YOLOv5-Shufflenetv2, the improved model in this study shows better detection performance. It provides technical support to achieve rapid and accurate identification of multiple foxtail millet ear targets in complex environments in the field, which is important for improving foxtail millet ear yield and thus achieving intelligent detection of foxtail millet.In the foxtail millet field, due to the dense distribution of the foxtail millet ears, morphological differences among foxtail millet ears, severe shading of stems and leaves, and complex background, it is difficult to identify the foxtail millet ears. To solve these practical problems, this study proposes a lightweight foxtail millet ear detection method based on improved YOLOv5. The improved model proposes to use the GhostNet module to optimize the model structure of the original YOLOv5, which can reduce the model parameters and the amount of calculation. This study adopts an approach that incorporates the Coordinate Attention (CA) mechanism into the model structure and adjusts the loss function to the Efficient Intersection over Union (EIOU) loss function. Experimental results show that these methods can effectively improve the detection effect of occlusion and small-sized foxtail millet ears. The recall, precision, F In northern China, foxtail millet is a characteristic miscellaneous grain crop with qualities such as drought and water conservation, a high nutritional value, and environmental friendliness . The demIn recent years, with the rapid development of computers and artificial intelligence technology, target detection methods based on deep learning have been widely implemented in the field of agriculture ,4. In teIn the above deep learning-based crop organ recognition and detection research, the detection accuracy and speed have been improved, but these deep learning models all rely on high-performance personal computer platforms, which are not suitable for embedded devices with limited computing resources. In order to satisfy the deep learning model in practical production needs, it is required to reduce the deep learning model parameters and reduce the model complexity in the first place. At present, there are two approaches to making deep learning models lightweight: model compression and designing lightweight model structures. For example, Researchers propose to use lightweight models MobileNet v3 and MobileNet v2 to replace the original deep learning model of the backbone feature extraction network design lightweight model ,29,30; WIn the natural field environment, the morphological differences among foxtail millet ears, overlapping and shading each other and stem and leaf shading are serious, and these factors will increase the difficulty of detection, and the detection accuracy of foxtail millet ears will be low. To solve the above problems, this study proposes a method of foxtail millet ears detection based on attention mechanism and improved YOLOv5. The advantages of this method are as follows: (1) Aiming at the problem of large parameters of the target detection model YOLOv5, the GhostNet module is proposed for lightweight improvement. This method can greatly reduce model parameters and model complexity. (2) In order to improve the detection accuracy of the lightweight YOLOv5 model, this study proposes to integrate the lightweight coordinated attention (CA) mechanism into the backbone feature extraction network. (3) The EIOU loss function is introduced to accelerate the convergence of boundary box loss. The lightweight model proposed in this study can be applied to mobile devices with low computing power to achieve rapid and accurate recognition of multi-spike targets in the field’s natural environment.The original image of the foxtail millet ear was collected at the experimental base in Shen Feng Village, Shanxi Agricultural University. The shape of the ear of the foxtail millet is cylindrical or nearly spinning, and it is mainly in a pendulous state, as shown in Considering the hardware and GPU performance of the laboratory computer, compressing the image pixels to 1024 pixels × 768 pixels and it will help speed up the model training. LabelImg software was used to manually annotate the datasets according to the PASCAL VOC dataset format and the annotation files were saved in XML format. Small datasets may lead to model-fitting phenomena; therefore, data augmentation is used in this study to expand the datasets. The main methods are flipping, mirroring, luminance changes, and adding noise to simulate the conditions that may occur during the capture of images during detection and to improve the generalization ability of the model. The data augmentation results are shown in The YOLOv5 model is a typical one-stage object detection model. It integrates the classification and localization functions of foxtail millet ears into a neural network. The input foxtail millet ear image only needs one network calculation to obtain the location of the target bounding box and target type in the image. As proven by The input adopts the Mosaic online data augmentation to improve the detection ability of difficult targets, and the adaptive anchor frame can improve the inference speed. The backbone module adopts the CSP1_X structure, where the number of Bottleneck modules determines the depth of the model. The backbone module acts as the backbone feature extraction network for the YOLO v5s model to extract the feature information of the target. The Neck module is formed by the combination of feature pyramid networks(FPN)  and PathGhostNet is a lightweight feature extraction network proposed by Huawei’s Noah’s Ark Lab in 2020 . It adopBased on the lightweight advantage of Ghost modules, Ghost-BottleNeck is constructed by stacking two Ghost modules, as shown in Foxtail millet in the natural environment of the field, with its dense growth, and the problems of overlapping foxtail millet ears and occlusion of stems and leaves often occur, resulting in the loss of model detection accuracy. To address this problem, this study introduces a lightweight CA mechanism  integratC represents the number of channels, H and W denote the height and width of the input feature map, respectively. The CA module consists of two steps: coordinate information embedding and coordinate attention generation, which encodes channel relationships and long-range dependencies through precise location information, and the structure of the CA attention mechanism is shown in The CA mechanism is a computing unit that can enhance the feature expression ability of the network. It can take any intermediate feature tensor When the size of the input feature map is c-th channel with height h; c-th channel with width r is the downsampling ratio, and The loss function part of the target detection model mainly calculates three loss functions viz., bounding box loss, classification loss, and object confidence loss In the YOLO v5 model, CIOU Loss is often used to calculate the loss of the bounding box to make the prediction box more consistent with the true box. The principle of CIOU Loss is as follows:w and h are the height and width of the prediction box; Nevertheless, there are still some problems with CIOU Loss, for example, it does not take into account the difference in the aspect ratio of the bounding box during the regression, that is, it does not truly reflect the relationship between  and w/h . As a re and w/h  to calcuThe structure diagram of the improved YOLOv5 model is shown in This study is based on the improvement of the YOLOv5s model, and the experimental run environment is shown in The batch size of the model is four, and the number of iterations is set to 500. The initial learning rate is 0.01. The loss values of the model training are shown in P), recall (R), mean Average Precision (mAP), and In this study, the precision  are used to measure the network complexity of the model, with smaller values indicating a lower network complexity of the model.The FTo obtain the best detection model, the CA module was fused to different positions of the model and the influence of the CA module on the YOLOv5s-Ghost model when in different positions was investigated. The CA module was incorporated into the Ghost bottleneck of the backbone and neck sections of the lightweight model YOLOv5s-Ghost to generate three new models and the test results are shown in To verify the validity of the improved model in this study, this study used the self-built foxtail millet ear dataset for ablation experiments. The specific results of the ablation experiments are shown in 1 scores of the YOLOv5s model and the YOLOv5s-Ghost model increased by 0.17% and 3.00%, respectively. The mAP and F1 scores of the improved model in this study are 96.60% and 95.38%, which are 0.2% and 0.43% higher than the original YOLOv5s model. The model size is 8.12 MB, which is 2.33 MB lower than the original YOLOv5s model, and the parameters and floating-point operations are also significantly reduced. The results show that although the detection time of the improved model increases, the complexity of the model decreases significantly while maintaining better detection accuracy.The detection accuracy of YOLOv5s model and YOLOv5s-Ghost model using the CA module alone is 0.1% and 1.3% higher than that of YOLOv5s model and YOLOv5s-Ghost model without the CA module, respectively. The results show that the CA module can improve the feature extraction ability of the model backbone feature extraction network, can add more attention to the objects of interest, and suppress the information of useless objects. The detection model using the CA module can improve the model detection performance. The EIOU loss function is used to reduce the loss of bounding boxes during regression. When the CA module and EIOU loss function are applied simultaneously, the performance of the model is improved in all aspects. By applying both the CA module and the EIOU loss function to the model for improvement, the performance of the model has improved in all aspects. The F1 score of YOLOV3_tiny, YOLOv5-Mobilenetv3small, and YOLOv5-shufflenetv2 were 77.17%, 86.36% and 88.64%, respectively, while the F1 score of the improved YOLOv5s model in this study was 95.81%, which was higher than that of YOLOV3_tiny, YOLOv5-mobilenetv3small and YOLOv5-Shufflenetv2 by 18.64%, 9.45%, and 7.17%, respectively. In terms of detection accuracy, the mAP of the improved YOLOv5s is 96.6%, which is higher than that of YOLOv3_tiny, YOLOv5-Mobilenetv3small and YOLOv5-Shufflenetv2. In respect of time, the detection time of the improved YOLOv5s for each image has slightly higher than that of the other three models, achieving good detection accuracy at the expense of losing less is detection time. Considering the detection accuracy and detection speed comprehensively, the improved YOLOv5s is more suitable for completing the detection task of foxtail millet ears in complex field environments.The YOLOv5s model improved by the lightweight network Mobilenetv3small and Shufflenetv2 and the lightweight model YOLOV3_tiny model were compared with the improved model in this study under the same configuration environment. The results are shown in 1 scores of the improved model were 97.90%, 93.80%, 96.60%, and 95.81%, respectively. The model size was 8.12 MB, and the average detection time per image reached 0.0181 s. The experimental results showed that the improved YOLOv5 model can effectively improve the detection effect of difficult samples while ensuring the model size and detection speed of the lightweight model. The parameters and floating-point operations of the improved YOLOv5 model were reduced by 24.51% and 34.72% compared with the original YOLOv5s model. The improved YOLOv5s model was compared to three lightweight models, YOLOv3_tiny, YOLOv5-Mobilenetv3small, and YOLOv5-Shufflenetv2, which had the highest mean accuracy and a faster mean detection time of 0.0181 s. Therefore, this research provides a new idea for intelligent monitoring and automated harvesting of foxtail millet ear growth, and has a positive impact on the scientific and intelligent agricultural production activities of agricultural workers.This paper proposed an improved lightweight model to detect foxtail millet ears in complex field environments. The traditional lightweight detection model pair used for identifying difficult samples of foxtail millet ears, such as small foxtail millet ears, highly dense foxtail millet ears, and shaded foxtail millet ears had low accuracy and poor robustness. In this research, we established a foxtail millet ear detection model based on an attention mechanism and lightweight improved YOLOv5. In the improved model architecture, to realize the lightweight improvement of the model, the original YOLOv5 model was improved by using the lightweight GhostNet module. To identify blocked foxtail millet ears and dense foxtail millet ears, the CA module was fused into the Ghost-BottleNeck module in the backbone structure, and the EIOU loss function was introduced to accelerate the convergence of the bounding box. According to the proposed improved model, the recall, precision, mAP and F


The causes of varicose recurrence showed that it was caused by: a) high fusion of the anterior accessory great saphenous vein (AAGSV) with great saphenous vein (GSV) directly in the saphenofemoral junction (SFJ), which was not revealed by preoperative ultrasound (1.7%); a long stump of the GSV after the RFA (7.8%); progression of varicose disease with the small saphenous vein (SSV) and formation of new reflux associated with insufficiency of the saphenopopliteal junction (SPJ) (4.7%); d) insufficiency of perforating veins of the tibioperoneal group , as well as Gunter (3.8%); e) neovascularization with dilation of small vessels in the area of the saphenofemoral junction (0.97%). A comparative assessment of the quality of life (QL) after different surgery methods 3 years after implementation was carried out. Thus, QL in all patients who underwent surgery significantly improved than before surgery. However, after the RFA GSV+AAGSV, the patients had better QL by all scales than those who underwent only RFA GSV. Operations performed simultaneously on GSV and AAGSV have better functionality than GSV-only RFA.There are problems of postoperative relapse of veins after radiofrequency ablation (RFA). The study aims to analyze the causes of postoperative recurrence of veins after RFA. 928 patients with varicose veins of the lower extremities, clinical classes C Low trauma and cosmetic effect of radiofrequency ablation (RFA) is now a priority in treating varicose vein disease of the lower extremities in outpatient care –5. The sIt should be noted that due to the introduction of new treatments for the varicose disease of the lower limbs, in particular endovasal thermal vein ablation, the REVAS recommendations for postoperative recurrence of VD have no relevance any more , 9. TherCurrent research emphasizes postoperative reflux of GSV and small saphenous vein (SSV) and lesser reflux from the perforating veins of the thigh and lower leg. At the same time, the significance of the anterior accessory great saphenous vein (AAGSV) in the development of recurrence has not been sufficiently studied, especially in the absence of reflux . It should be emphasized that multicenter research points out possible recurrence in AAGSV in the late postoperative period (in 1–3 years). Unfortunately, we have not found in the literature any clear information on the "exclusion" of AAGSV from the bloodstream in the absence of reflux, the optimal location of the ClosureFast catheter for RFA in the proximal part of GSV, as well as the parameters of the COVIDIEN device, produced by Medtronics, in the mouths of more than 13–16 mm. We are convinced that these issues are significant for reducing the number of postoperative recurrences of varicose disease.2–C4 according to the CEAP classification were treated using RFA. Clinical classes C2–C4 comprised: class C2 – 346 patients, class C3 – 304 patients, and class C4 – 278 patients  infectious and inflammatory diseases of the soft tissues of the lower extremities; b) deep vein thrombosis of the lower extremities; d) trophic ulcers of the lower extremities at the time of the study; e) obliterating diseases of the aorta and arteries of the lower extremities.All patients underwent ultrasound examination to establish phlebo hemodynamic disorders in the limb. Ultrasound of the venous system of the lower extremities was performed using the Mindray Z5  with a sensor frequency of 5–14 MHz and the corresponding standard software package by this company for venous investigations. The patients were examined in the afternoon in vertical and horizontal positions. To determine the strategy and tactics of radiofrequency vein ablation using ultrasound, we studied: a) the patency of deep veins and the state of their valvular apparatus; b) the presence of reflux in the saphenofemoral and sapheno-popliteal junction, its duration, c) the presence of reflux in the upper, middle and lower third of the thigh, its duration; e) the diameter of the GSV under the valve, as well as the diameter of the GSV trunk; f) anatomical and topographic features of the sapheno-femoral junction; g) features of the location of the anterior tributaries of the GSV and the presence of reflux in them; g) the state of the perforating veins in the thigh and lower leg. It should be emphasized that duplex ultrasound for patients with varicose disease should always be included in the AAGSV investigations before surgical treatment.st group – the presence of AAGSV reflux in the competent sapheno-femoral junction (SFJ); the 2nd group – reflux in incompetent SFJ and AAGSV; the 3rd group – reflux only in SFJ and GSV in competent AAGSV. In our opinion, such an ultrasound examination is very important for choosing tactics in VD treatment.If the presence of venous reflux was determined after sonography of the sapheno-femoral junction area, the patients were divided into three groups: the 1To eliminate the vertical shunt, the RFA was used according to the VNUS – ClosureFAST method, using a COVIDIEN device by Medtronics. In 242 (26.1%) patients, the RFA of the initial segment of GSV was performed at a diameter of 16±0.4 mm.st group – 115 patients who underwent only RFA GVS; the 2nd group – 131 patients who underwent simultaneous RFA GVS and AAGSV.The effectiveness of the surgeries was evaluated using clinical and ultrasound pictures before the surgery, in 3, 6, 12 months, and in 1, 2, 3 years after it. The clinical severity of venous diseases was determined by the venous clinical severity score (VCSS), venous segmental disease score (VSDS), and physical activity by the venous disability score (VDS). Objective assessment of the severity of chronic venous disease was performed by the venous severity scoring (VSS). To objectively assess the impact of VSS surgeries and quality of life, the patients were divided into 2 groups: the 1The quality of life (QL) was assessed using the general quality of life questionnaire SF-36 (the Short Form-36). It allowed assessing the dynamics of recovery of patients' physical, psychological, and social functioning after surgery. This test consisted of 36 questions that formed 8 scales: physical functioning (PF), role-physical functioning (RP), bodily pain (BP), and general health (GH): vitality – (VT), social functioning (SF), role emotional (RE), mental health (MH). The patients filled in the questionnaire 3 years after the surgery. The answers to the questions were evaluated by a nominal scale from 0 to 5 points, and then the overall score for each statement was determined.The obtained results were statistically processed using the package of statistical functions of the Microsoft Excel 2010 computer program on a personal computer by the statistical variation method of analysis. The arithmetic mean (X), the standard error of the arithmetic mean (m), the normal deviation (t), and the correlation coefficient (r) were calculated. The probability level (p) was established by testing hypotheses on the equality of the centres of distribution of two samples (t – Student's t-test), the normal-Laplace (NL) distribution, and the sign test. In other cases, the Mann-Whitney U-test  was used.2, the average diameter of the vein was 9.1±2.3 mm, C3–C4 -12.9±2.8 mm (375 – 40.4%), and C5–C6 -14.3±3.5 mm in 162 (17.5%) patients, respectively. This is important for choosing thermal energy power in laser or radiofrequency vein ablation to prevent a postoperative recurrence.According to the ultrasound examinations, the diameter of the GSV at the mouth area in case of terminal valve failure directly depends on the clinical stage of varicose disease. Thus, in 391  patients with clinical stage CUltrasound diagnosis of the AAGSV location is equally important for preventing VD recurrence. It should be noted that AAGSV is not only a tributary of the sapheno-femoral junction but one of the subcutaneous trunks located in the subcutaneous thigh lateral to the GSV. AAGSV ultrasound was performed for the patients standing. According to our studies, the AAGSV was located laterally from the GSV and medially to the wall artery. It flowed into the GSV up to 1.0±0.5 cm distal to the SFJ. The ultrasound examination of the AAGSV from the groin to the lower third of the thigh showed the GSV more medial and evidenced below the knee, while the AAGSV was short and was detected anteriorly and laterally from the GSV, mid to distal thigh. The length of the AAGSV was 5–25 cm (median – 13.2). According to examination results, the competent AAGSV had a diameter of 3.1±0.1 mm, and 5.2±0.6 mm at reflux in the AAGSV.st group of patients); in 53% of cases (n=492) – combined valvular insufficiency of SFJ and AAGSV was revealed (the 2nd group of patients); in 35% (n=325) patients (the 3rd group) – valvular insufficiency only of SFJ and GSV  had isolated valvular insufficiency of the AAGSV . During the radiofrequency ablation (n=38), a tumescent anesthetic was administered. The average length of the coagulated AAGSV was 10.4±5.2 cm. In cases of varicose veins in the projection of the AAGSV, the RFA  was accompanied by the Varadi mini phlebectomy (n=31) or foam sclerotherapy with 1% foam polidocanol (n=28). In cases when it was impossible to pass a catheter into the AAGSV , ultrasound-guided foam sclerotherapy (UGFS) was performed (14 patients).In combined valvular insufficiency of the SFJ and AAGSV (n=492), two introducers were located at distal points, and reflux was determined in the GSV and AAGSV. Radiofrequency ablation was performed alternately using infusion with a tumescent anesthetic, first for the GSV and then for the AAGSV (according to the technique described). In cases of insufficiency of only the SFJ and GSV (n=325), a standard RFAwas performed, placing the introducer at the distal point of reflux.st year of the follow-up, a post-procedure ultrasound examination of the veins revealed recurrence of VD in AAGSV in 5 (4.5%) patients from the 1st group. However, two years later, 23 (20.7%) patients had a visual recurrence of AAGSV VD, mainly in the middle and lower third of the thigh. In our opinion, it was caused by insufficiency of the oscillation valve and valves in the GSV in 17 (15.3%) patients. In 6 (5.4%) cases, the recurrence was caused by the progression of varicose disease in the SSV. Postoperative recurrence was eliminated by RFA GSV and SSV in combination with the Varadi mini phlebectomy and varicose vein puncture sclerotherapy with 0.5% polidocanol solution.During the 1nd group of patients (reflux in the incompetent SFJ and AAGSV), the recurrence of varicose disease due to AAGSV failure was observed in 12 (2.4%) patients. After 2 years, partial recanalization of the GSV in the lower thigh occurred in 20 (4%) of 492 patients. After 2 years, new reflux in the AAGSV was evidenced in 11 (2.2%) cases and after 3 years – in 19 (3.9%) patients. After 3 years, the number of recanalized GSV increased in 34 (7%) patients.During the first year after surgery in the 2rd group of patients (reflux only in the SFJ and GSV in competent AAGSV), after 3 months, there was a recurrence of VD due to AAGSV failure in 5 (1.5%) cases, after 6 months – in 9 (2.8%) patients. Subsequently, a year later, the failure of AAGSV caused VD recurrence in 12 (3.7%) patients, after 2 years – in 17 (5.2%) patients, and after 3 years – in 21 (6.5%) cases. It is noteworthy that VD recurrence occurred not only in the AAGSV. Conglomerates of varicose veins were observed in the GSV in the lower third of the thigh and the SSV in 34 (10.5%) patients due to vertical and horizontal reflux. To eliminate the causes of VD recurrence in this group of patients, a set of minimally invasive surgeries depending on clinical and sonographic examinations were performed. In particular, exclusion of the AAGSV from the bloodstream was performed according to the method described as well as the RFA for thermal ablation of the SSV, mini phlebectomy of dilated venous inflows. Treatment of failed perforants was carried out by foam ECHO-sclerotherapy with 1% solution of polidocanol, and obligatory preliminary tumescence and washing of the perforating vein area with physiological solution cooled to +1–3°C for its angiospasm or by perforating vein RFA with a stiletto electrode 6 Fr (2.0 mm) according to the standard techniques.In the 3The analysis of the causes of varicose disease recurrence showed that it was caused by: a) high fusion of the AAGSV with GSV directly in the SFJ , which wst group), and 131 patients (the 2nd group) who underwent both RFA GVS and AAGSV (nd group of patients (3.18±0.12), compared to 4.0±0.2 in the 1st group. A year later, there was a difference in the VSS in both groups of patients. Thus, it was established that the severity of chronic venous disease was reduced in the 2nd group of patients than in the 1st group. In 3 years, this difference was significant: (4.8±0.2) compared to (6.4±0.3) points (p<0.001). This statistically significant difference in the VSS between the groups of patients who underwent surgery can be explained by the predominance of the number of VD recurrences in the patients who underwent only RFA of GSV and associated clinical manifestations of recurrence.The effectiveness of surgeries was evaluated involving 115 patients, who underwent only RFA GVS , this percentage was 11.5%. We favor "aggressive" treatment of VD recurrence in the early stages of its development to prevent its progression. Thus, if in dynamic ultrasound, in 2–3 months after the surgery, the signs of insufficiency of the AAGSV or GSV tributaries are revealed, delayed surgery should be performed: introduction of foam sclerosant in cases of the AAGSV diameter of up to 3–4 mm, or cases of the RFA diameter of more than 4–5 mm. Varicose transformed GSV tributaries are eliminated by miniphlebnetomy according to the Varadi method or foam sclerotherapy. The need for delayed surgery should be discussed with the patient before treating varicose disease.We agree with other research that real data on recurrence in the GSV and AAGSV after radiofrequency ablation can be attained after long-term clinical and ultrasound follow-up of patients who underwent surgery , 29. ThuWe understand that treatment of postoperative recurrence of varicose disease is quite challenging. Therefore, in case of late recurrence of varicose disease, a set of minimally invasive surgeries should be applied according to the obtained clinical and ultrasound findings. It should be taken into account that the main factors of recurrence of VD after surgery are perforating veins, recanalized GSV, new AAGSV reflux, SSV reflux associated with SPJ insufficiency, and reflux in the perforating veins of the leg, thigh. Our results correspond with the conclusions of other authors on the factors of VD recurrence .Furthermore, simultaneous thermal ablation of the AAGSV and GSV combined with other minimally invasive interventions significantly reduces the percentage of postoperative recurrence of varicose disease. Therefore, there is a debatable issue of great significance that is the implementation of simultaneous RFA AAGSV, GSV/SSV aimed at "anticipating" development of recurrence of VD; or should RFA GSV/SSV be followed by dynamic sonographic monitoring of the AAGSV and collateral veins to perform delayed surgery for signs of venous insufficiency? Unfortunately, the answers to these questions have not been presented in the available literature, and they are a matter for further research.The authors declare no conflict of interest.The study was approved by the Meeting of the Bioethics Commission of I. Horbachevsky Ternopil National Medical University of the Ministry of Health of Ukraine (No. 66a/November 01/2021).Written informed consent was obtained from the participants in the study.VG contributed to conceptualization, visualization, supervision, writing, reviewing, and editing.US contributed to the methodology, software, and guarantor of the study. OP contributed to data analysis and interpretation. BM contributed to formal analysis and investigation.


GPCRs represent the most important targets in modern pharmacology because of the different functions they mediate, especially within the brain and peripheral nervous system, and also because of their functional and stereochemical properties  1A and 2A receptors, cannabinoid CB1 receptors, muscarinic M2 receptors, histaminergic H3 receptors, μ opioid receptors, κ opioid receptors, and σ1 receptors. They also discuss the pros and cons of using agonists vs. antagonists in using those radiotracers to indirectly study the release of the neurotransmitter (competing with the radiotracers) in vivo .Radioligands have been used for years to study the distribution of GPCR in the CNS. The possibility to follow the binding of radiotracers in vivo is in part imposed by the protein partners. It has been shown that in addition to the canonical G protein (and β-arrestin) - dependent signaling pathways, GPCR are able to couple to and activate additional signaling molecules, in a G protein- and arrestin-independent manner .The state of activity of GPCRs Papon et al. report work on GABAB receptors, a heterodimeric GPCR, at the level of the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. The authors propose that fibulin-2, a protein of the extracellular matrix, inhibits the activity of GABAB receptors by interacting with the B1a subunit of the receptor. Fibulin-2 reduced the inhibitory impact mediated by the stimulation of GABAB receptors in cell culture. In a model of neuropathic pain in rats, fibulin-2 is overexpressed. Its inactivation by molecular strategies like si-RNA in vivo augmented the antinociceptive effect induced by the intrathecal administration of the GABAB receptor agonist baclofen. These results highlight the complexity of GABAB receptors .The interactome of GPCR includes intracellular and intramembrane partners as well as proteins or factors of the extracellular matrix. De Deurwaerdère et al. report behavioral and neurochemical effects of the preferential CB1/2 receptor agonist WIN 55,212-2. Using quantitative and Temporal pattern (T-pattern) analyses, they reported that the agonist was anxiolytic in NEC rats but was sedative in GAERS rats. The balanced behavioral effects of WIN 55,212-2 between GAERS and NEC were associated with distinct levels of monoamine tissue content mainly in the output regions of the basal ganglia (substantia nigra and entopeduncular nucleus) and hippocampus out of the 14 brain regions analyzed. The epileptic status is possibly associated with changes of endocannabinoid system and hypersensitive responses to CB receptors converging to the basal ganglia. At least, as far as monoamines are concerned, the effects of WIN 55,212-2 are regionally restricted and maybe due to local and specific actions of CB1 receptors .It has been previously described that the several GPCR systems [e.g., 5-HT2A/C receptors (Venzi et al., in vivo. The interactome is likely cell dependent and additional data could go in that way in order to understand regional responses to drugs. These discoveries will inform drug discovery efforts on how to optimally steer receptor signaling in a given patient population to provide maximal efficacy with minimal side effects and provide exciting opportunities for the treatment of CNS orders.In conclusion, the new tools have the promise to provide unprecedented insights into the biology and circuitry underlying numerous CNS diseases. It might start with pertinent tools to address the state of activity of GPCRs All authors listed have made a substantial, direct, and intellectual contribution to the work and approved it for publication.


Due to its suitable band gap, strong chemical stability, durability, and easy synthesis, it is expected to become a new hot spot in the field of photocatalysis in the near future. This mini-review presents a comprehensive summary of the modulation strategies to effectively improve the photocatalytic activity of ZnIn2S4 such as morphology and structural engineering, defects engineering, doping engineering, and heterojunction engineering. This review aims to provide reference to the proof-of-concept design of highly active ZnIn2S4-based photocatalysts for the enhanced hydrogen evolution reaction.Photocatalysis is a potential strategy to solve energy and environmental problems. The development of new sustainable photocatalysts is a current topic in the field of photocatalysis. ZnIn The key to catalytic hydrogen evolution lies in the development and utilization of catalysts , ZnIn2S4 has more excellent photoelectric characteristics, physical and chemical stability, and environmental friendliness and has greater durability in photocatalytic reactions.Among the semiconductor photocatalysts currently studied, ZnIn2S4 is the only AB2X4 series compound with a layered structure, non-toxic, and has a convenient synthesis process; the unique cone structure has a huge surface area for the photocatalytic reaction and also provides plenty of active sites, which makes ZnIn2S4 have greater application value in the field of energy conversion  the specific surface area of ZnIn2S4 can be increased; 2) it promotes mass transfer and light capture; 3) it is beneficial to expose more active sites on the surface that can participate in redox reactions; 4) it shortens the migration distance and accelerates the migration speed of photogenerated carriers. Therefore, researchers have explored different morphologies of ZnIn2S4 as a photocatalyst to improve its photocatalytic performance, including nanosheets, nanoflowers, nanowires, nanorods, nanorings, and nanotubes  doping can regulate the valence band to promote the migration of holes and adjust the conduction band to enhance the reduction ability of photogenerated electrons  are also increasing (Defects engineering is applied to photocatalysts to improve the separation efficiency of photocarriers. The introduced defects can be used as a center to capture photocarriers and prevent their recombination, thus improving charge separation and exposing more active sites. Vacancies in photocatalysts are typical point defects, which play an important role in improving photocatalytic performance due to their regulation of physicochemical and photoelectrochemical properties such as photocarrier migration, light absorption, surface acidity and alkalinity, surface active sites, adsorption properties, solubility properties, and electronic structure. In recent years, with the increasing interest in ZnIncreasing .2S4 microspheres with S vacancy defects through solvothermal and low-temperature hydrogenation reduction strategies. Due to the formation of S vacancy defects on the surface, the band gap of ZnIn2S4 microspheres was reduced to 2.38 eV, which has good visible light response activity. Experimental results and density functional theory calculations showed that the surface S vacancy caused by the surface field potential difference promotes the spatial separation of electrons and holes, thus improving the performance of the photocatalyst and greatly deepening the surface defects engineering understanding of how to affect the separation of light raw charge and to find other efficient and stable metal sulfide photocatalysts which provides a new train of thought. 2S4 particles. With the increase of Zn vacancy concentration, the band gap of ZnIn2S4 decreases from 2.17 to 2.06 eV. Under the optimum Zn vacancy concentration, the photocatalytic hydrogen evolution rate of ZnIn2S4 is 2.7 times higher than that of pure ZnIn2S4, and the photocatalytic process of ZnIn2S4 is stable without any degradation through cyclic experiments, showing good stability. The existence of Zn vacancies reduces the charge carrier transfer resistance, improves the charge separation rate, and prolongs the emission decay life (cay life .2S4 stacking structure, Zn or S atoms exposed to the surface are easily desorbed, resulting in Zn or S defects. However, due to steric hindrance, the atoms located in the middle layer of a sandwich structure are difficult to be removed, so it is difficult to form in-layer defects. Zn or S defects promote the directional migration of photogenerated electrons but have little effect on hole regulation. 2S4 nanosheets with an abundant [InS]6 intermediate layer and perfect [InS]4 and [ZnS]4 surface layer by controlling the crystal growth of ZnIn2S4 with the rapid heating and hydrothermal method. The in vacancy induces the redistribution of orbitals near the maximum value of the valence band, separates the oxidation and reduction sites on both sides of the ultra-thin ZnIn2S4 nanosheet with in vacancy, and increases the density of states between the valence band and the conduction band. The electrons around indium vacancy are delocalized, which is conducive to the interlayer charge transfer and improves the conductivity of the ZnIn2S4 nanosheet.In the sandwich ZnIn2S4 have been successfully constructed, and their photocatalytic properties in energy and environmental applications have been studied (In order to overcome the inherent shortcomings of the high electron–hole recombination rate and low utilization rate of a single unmodified semiconductor photocatalyst, the construction of heterojunction by coupling two semiconductor materials is generally considered to be an effective strategy . The con studied .The Type 1 heterojunction is a kind of semiconductor heterojunction in which the valence band and conduction band of one semiconductor are located between the valence band and conduction band of the other one. Under the irradiation of incident light, the conduction band to the electronic from high to low conduction band direction and the hole from low to high with direction, in the process of a photocatalytic oxidation–reduction reaction, will be two semiconductor materials to bring to the lower conduction band and a high price . Differe2S4 such as morphology and structural engineering, defects engineering, doping engineering, and heterojunction engineering. Although a large number of promising results have been achieved in photocatalytic HER for ZnIn2S4, there are still many untapped areas to be investigated to realize their full potential. Branched flower-like nanostructures with atomically thin petals are usually obtained by liquid-phase synthesis. This morphology is very favorable for catalysis because it maximizes exposure of active sites, rather than planar stacking like 2D nanosheets. The next key challenge lies in understanding the nucleation stage in the liquid phase so that the platelet topography can be controlled reliably. Further work should be able to develop more precise crystal growth methods and gain full control of defects/doping elements/functional groups to identify, quantify, and ultimately develop active sites. At the same time, complementary advanced characterization techniques, such as nanoscale STM, XAFS, HAADF-STEM, positron annihilation spectroscopy, and ultrafast transient absorption spectroscopy, also need to be developed in parallel to probe the reaction kinetics at the atomic or molecular scale. With the synergistic development of robust and novel ultrathin 2D materials, catalytic hydrogen evolution technology is expected to achieve greater breakthroughs (This review presents a comprehensive summary of the modulation strategies to effectively improve the photocatalytic activity of ZnInthroughs .