Consumers are increasingly choosing organic farming products. Such behavior is mainly dictated by the conviction that organic farms do not use pesticides or antibiotics, and that animals are provided with the best living conditions. This review discusses issues related to the comparison between organic and conventional dairy cattle housing systems in terms of welfare assessment, breed selection, and product quality. It has been shown that cows kept in organic systems usually have better welfare compared to conventional breeding. However, it is worth bearing in mind that conventional farms can also provide better animal welfare through, for example, the use of pasture grazing, which is voluntary in conventional farming, but mandatory in organic farming. The pasture feeding of cows has been shown to affect the taste of milk, but regarding consumer preference, this is a personal preference. Reducing the use of antibiotics in ecology has a positive impact on the technological quality of milk; it is also an additional incentive to use preventive measures to reduce the incidence of mastitis. In the future, it is expected that the proportion of land that is unsuitable for the production of crops for human consumption will increasingly be used for cow grazing.In recent years, there has been rapid development in organic farming. When choosing organic livestock products, consumers are guided by the conviction that animals are provided with the highest welfare standards and access to pasture. The purpose of this article was to trace the principles of organic farming prevailing in the EU with regard to milk production and cattle breeding. The principles of organic production are universal and their application is not limited to certified farms. Organic certification is intended to assure the consumer of the quality and method of production. Due to additional requirements imposed by law, organic cows are usually kept in better welfare conditions compared to conventional cattle, but this is not the rule. The altered taste and texture of organic milk and its products compared to conventional products mainly depends on the presence of pasture greens in the cows’ diet. Therefore, milk from conventionally kept, pasture-grazed cows may have similar characteristics and composition. Organic farms tend to have lower milk yields compared to conventional farms due to the lower consumption of concentrate feed. In the future, it is expected that the proportion of land that is unsuitable for the production of crops for human consumption will increasingly be used for cow grazing. Currently, in the livestock sector, progressively more attention is being paid to ensure that animals have the best possible welfare—which is being achieved by providing better housing conditions and avoiding diseases through veterinary prevention. This trend has led to the rapid development of various types of production standards, the main goal of which is to produce high-quality products, with special attention to animal welfare. One of the most popular standards associated with animal welfare and the production of quality food without antibiotic residues is the organic farming certification.Organic farming is not a new way of producing food. Its development dates back to the early twentieth century in German- and English-speaking countries. This trend was a form of criticism of the industrial revolution prevailing at the time ,2. The mCurrently, both in Europe and around the world, organic farming is in a period of rapid development. The amount of land certified as organic land is increasing every year. In 2019, 72.3 million hectares of land were certified worldwide, which accounted for 1.5% of all crops. In Europe, meanwhile, the percentage of organic land accounted for 3.3% of all crops. In the last decade, the area utilized by organic crops increased by 102.4% worldwide, while in Europe, the increase came to 64.8%. The poultry sectors saw the fastest growth. The total stock of broilers and laying hens increased by 110% between 2010 and 2019. The organic milk sector also experienced dynamic growth. Dairy and beef cattle populations increased by 81% over a similar period [In different countries around the world, regulations for organic farming may vary. Organic products produced in one country may not have an organic status when exported to another country with different legal requirements. Within the European Union, organic farming laws are unified and strictly sanctioned. At the level of community law in European Union, the most important legal document relating to organic production is Regulation (EU) 2018/848 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 30 May 2018 on the Organic Production and Labeling of Organic Products and Repealing Council Regulation (EC) No. 834/2007 . This doMany of the requirements imposed in the organic system are also voluntarily implemented on farms keeping cattle in conventional systems. Measures willingly implemented by conventional farmers include increasing the area available for animals in the barn, access to pasture, and  the use All of the above restrictions aim to ensuring the best possible welfare for the animals, the ability to express their natural behavior, and the production of high-quality food. Such an approach involves making some compromises between animal freedoms, product quality, and production profitability. The purpose of this article was to trace the principles of organic farming prevailing in the European Union with regard to milk production and cattle breeding. The main objectives of organic farming will be described, such as the selection of individuals for the organic system, ensuring high animal welfare, access to pasture, and the impact of this production system on milk. The organic system will be compared with the rules prevailing on conventional farms.The literature was selected based on keywords related to the topic of this paper in several bibliographic databases of the Warsaw University of Life Sciences including Web of Science and Scopus.In both organic and conventional production, ensuring high animal welfare is given priority. In the case of organic production, welfare has been listed as one of the main goals of this farming system. The challenge proves to be measuring welfare, taking into account the needs of different breeds living in different environments. In the past, veterinarians and farmers conceived of animal welfare primarily in terms of animal health and performance, and paid less attention to behavioral aspects . CurrentDiscrepancies in the definition of the term welfare can be seen by comparing the perceptions of consumers and breeders. For the consumer, the conviction of better living conditions for organic animals relative to conventional production is the main reason why they buy the usually more expensive organic products . Consume®, EU-project). To perform this assessment reliably, the person conducting the audit requires adequate knowledge and experience. Nevertheless, drafting a welfare assessment protocol can tell us a lot about the condition of animals. Wagner et al. [® protocol. The averaged results suggest that organic farms did indeed maintain cows at higher levels of welfare, but that there were also farms that were significant outliers in this regard. Similar results were obtained in another study using the same protocol, but the authors noted that the positive effect of pasture grazing may not occur when other animal needs are not met [Various types of protocols have been developed so that the welfare of animals on farms can be assessed. These are questionnaires that broadly assess the welfare of an entire herd by describing health, comfort, social relations, and access to pasture. The protocols currently used on dairy cattle farms are as follows: AssureWel, Farmers Assuring Responsible Management (FARM), and the Welfare Quality Network  2018/848 Annex II to points 1.7.10 and 1.7.8) . OrganicThe dehorning process is very common in conventional herds. According to a study  performeAnother solution for obtaining hornless individuals is the use of genetic engineering methods. Such methods have significant potential for producers and can increase animal welfare , meanwhi2 per cow in the waiting area in front of the milking parlor had a beneficial effect on horned-herd behavior.There remains the question of ensuring the safety of the handlers and the horned animals themselves. The presence of horns changes the behavior of cows in a herd. In hornless herds, the hierarchical structure is mostly influenced by the weight of the cow, which can fluctuate, leading to constant hierarchical changes. The presence of horns means that the dominant cow, regardless of body weight, can maintain its status in the herd . This alOne of the concepts of organic farming is to promote farms that are diversified in their activities. Hence, if a farm is engaged in milk production, it is natural for a separate branch to be beef production based on bull fattening. This is especially justified when choosing local breeds often used for dairy and beef. A castration procedure is associated with beef production. Castrated males (bullocks) exhibit higher meat quality as aggressiveness, sexual behavior, and fights for dominance are reduced after the procedure and thus there is a much lower risk of bruising and injury . In addiCastration can be carried out in several ways: the surgical removal of the testicles, crushing the seminal vas deferens, or cutting off the blood supply to the testicles with a permanently placed rubber band. In addition, there are also pharmacological methods that are not approved for use in the organic system. Several studies have shown that regardless of the choice of method, the castration procedure causes pain ,41,42. TBretschneider  showed tBased on literature reports and the organic farming requirements, it can be concluded that the castration of calves should be carried out at about 4–6 weeks of age, and the application of a rubber ring above the testicles should be chosen method—this approach reduces the suffering of calves to a minimum.It is widely believed that pasture grazing has a positive effect on cow health and behavior ,47. CowsResearch suggests that the cattle’s motivation to stay on pasture is uneven throughout the day. Dairy cows typically prefer to stay indoors during the day, especially when temperatures and humidity are high, and, instead, spend most of their time on pasture at night . A similCattle are herd animals and exhibit complex social behavior and a need to interact with each other. At the very top of the herd hierarchy are one or two dominant cows; while below this is a slightly larger group of sub-dominant cows. The middle part of the social pyramid is occupied by the largest group of subordinated cows. The very last level of the hierarchy falls to marginal individuals, where animals are sick or old. The behavior and movement of the herd is most influenced by the most dominant cow. Activities such as foraging, ruminating, or moving around the pasture are initiated by the most dominant cow, which is successively joined by the rest of the herd. Cows mimic the activities performed by herd leaders, even when they physiologically do not feel the need to do so. This mechanism is referred to as allelomimetic behavior. It has been shown that synchronous behavior is strongest in semi-natural systems such as pasture systems. Here, cows have enough space to freely establish a hierarchy and avoid dominant individuals. In buildings, on the other hand, synchronous behavior is much less pronounced , especiaThe behavior of cows, in the absence of struggles for resources, changes depending on the time of day. Cows are crepuscular animals and are particularly active at sunrise and sunset. Hence, periods of increased forage intake fall mainly around sunrise and sunset ,60.However, pasture is not always the best place for forage intake. High-yielding cows that have access to pasture and whole-meal feed (TMR) located in the barn prefer TMR feed . It is mSome authors claim that TMR feed can even endanger animal welfare under certain circumstances. This is related to the natural desire to manipulate the tongue while picking out blades of grass. On pasture, especially one that is diversified in terms of vegetation, cows are able to have a varied diet. On the other hand, in the barn and with TMR feed imposed, the cow cannot, and should not, be able to sort through the feed. This often leads to frustration, increased stress levels , and steThe grazing season largely coincides with a period of high temperatures, which are forecast to get hotter every year . Cows, aThrough evolution, cattle have developed several mechanisms to cope with high temperatures. One that is easily observed is to reduce feed intake. Lower feed intake reduces the intensity of the exogenous fermentation processes occurring in the rumen, which in turn leads to a decrease in performance . It has In an attempt to adapt to the rising temperatures, cows change their behavior by reducing their time lying down in favor of staying upright. The standing position increases the surface area for heat dissipation and minimizes the contact with the heated ground . HoweverDifferent breeds of cows respond differently to elevated temperatures. Pereira et al.  proved tOne of the main tenets of organic farming is to combine local crop production with livestock production. In dairy cow nutrition, European organic standards require the use of roughage at a rate of at least 60% of daily dry matter intake and access to pasture during the summer. The use of feed additives, milk replacers, and hormones is limited. An extension of the organic system is the Bio Suisse standard, in which the main feed base is grass, grass silage, or hay, while concentrated feed can only account for 10% . ConsequDairy cows in organic and conventional pasture systems face constantly changing conditions, both climatic and nutritional. Grazing cattle are exposed to sunlight and high pasture temperatures, and during the summer they travel considerable distances from barn to pasture. Twice a year there is a change in the feed ration (pasture in summer and winter based on hay and silage), which forces a change in the rumen’s microbiome ,81. In aBy comparing the forage base available in organic and conventional systems, it can be concluded that, in organic systems, the energy concentration of forage is much lower than in conventional systems ,85. ThisThis organic model for feeding cattle, although driven by economic reasons, is part of the general principle of linking animals to the land. Cattle mainly use perennial pastures and grasses grown on lower grade arable land. As a result, cows do not compete for acreage with human food production. On the other hand, in order to obtain higher yields, it is necessary to add cereals that can also be used as human food .Maintaining high-yield cows under organic system conditions poses a number of challenges; the most important of which is the provision of high-energy feed during the first phase of lactation. Consequently, there is a high risk of creating a negative energy balance in high-yield cows, which in turn leads to declines in reproductive indices ,90. In aA diet that has limited energy also has an effect on the milk yield of animals, meaning that organic farms tend to have lower productivity compared to conventional farms ,93. ThesFeed conversion is also important in grazing systems. It has been shown that different breeds are able to utilize the pasture forage to different degrees. Prendiville et al.  has showWhen considering the selection of a breed for an organic system, special attention should be paid to the breed’s genetic traits and selection indexes. Due to the nature of organic production, there is the need for animals to be hardy and suitable for grazing on outdoor pasture systems . CurrentThe lack of a separate evaluation for organic animals promotes the use of Holstein Friesian cows, which, due to their popularity and performance in intensive production systems in many countries, are also the dominant breed in organic systems ,104,105.As a result, there are increasing attempts to create a separate index that takes into account genotype–environment interactions. Demonstrating the existence of genotype–environment interactions within a given feature results in individuals of the same genotype behaving differently depending on the environment. This means that the same individual’s index can change depending on the environment. When animals are genetically adapted to certain conditions, they will be more productive and production costs will be lower .In the literature, it is increasingly common to find papers describing the probability of a genotype–environment interaction comparing conventional and organic systems ,110,111.Research does not give a clear answer regarding which traits are correlated with the environment; however, it does indicate that, under certain conditions, such interactions do occur. Zhang et al.  showed tNauta et al.  showed tOrganic production should ensure a high-quality product. Consumers also perceive organic milk to be superior in many respects to conventionally produced milk. The quality of milk can be evaluated in terms of consumer safety, technological quality, and consumer sentiment. There are standards in the legislation that state the minimum parameters that must be met when dairies receive raw material. These include temperature, somatic cell counts (SCC), bacterial counts, and antibiotic residues below the levels specified in Regulation (EC) No 853/2004 .In the context of milk quality, one of the most important and common problems is the health of the mammary gland (mastitis). A direct indicator of udder health is the number of somatic cells per milliliter of obtained milk. The European standard allows a maximum of 400,000 somatic cells per ml of pooled milk (Regulation (EC) No. 853/2004) , but thiIn addition to the legal aspects, udder health affects the technological quality of the raw material. Inflammation causes real economic losses related to milk yield and the veterinary costs incurred for treatment. The effective treatment of the clinical form of mastitis requires the use of antibiotics. A common practice is to administer broad-spectrum antibiotic agents. Such actions contribute to the development of antibiotic resistance in pathogens, which, in the long term, will promote the development of further inflammation that is difficult to treat ,130.When mastitis occurs, it is important to detect it quickly and implement specific treatments. According to Regulation 2018/848 Annex II, Part II, points 1.5.1.3 and 1.5.2.2 , in theiIn addition to veterinary costs, mastitis causes changes in milk composition, especially within the casein protein fraction ; this inMilk quality is significantly affected by how cows are fed. Grass and herbs are important natural sources of fatty acids and vitamins. Milk from pasture-grazed cows has been found to have higher levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) including conjugated linoleic acids, vaccenic acid, and omega-3 fatty acids, compared to animals fed TMR feed ,141. ThiOf course, consumer preferences in terms of taste and eating sensation vary widely. Taste sensations are strongly influenced by the temperature at which the products are consumed: the higher the temperature, the more noticeable the differences in taste and aroma . It shouOrganic and conventional pasture-based farming is expected to continue to grow. This is due to pressure from the public, who perceive grazing as being a necessary element of the welfare of cattle. Based on the studies of cow behavior, however, it should be noted that the increase in average annual temperature and the associated risk of heat stress in cattle is a significant threat.On the other hand, ranchers recognize the economic benefits associated with grazing. Pasture is the cheapest feed base for ruminants, especially at a time of increasing competition for acreage for grain production. The increasing human population needs more and more food and thus acreage for the production of high-energy feed crops may decrease in the future. Some animal species such as poultry and pigs absolutely require cereals to maintain production, while cows and other ruminants can utilize feed that is unsuitable for humans. Therefore, by limiting milk production, cattle can be successfully raised on lower-quality land without competing for acreage for grain production.Holstein Friesian cows, due to their adaptation to high milk yields, may not be the optimal breed for extensive milk production. Based on current research and review papers, it is difficult to find specific factors that predispose any cow breeds for use in organic systems ,149. ThiAn important factor motivating consumers to buy organic products is the belief that antibiotics are not used in breeding. This is not entirely true, because, in the case of an acute disease entity, the health of the animal is paramount and antibiotic treatment should be implemented.The marketing of organic products as coming from animals of indigenous breeds, characterized by high welfare, and the concomitant negative perception of conventional agriculture by some members of the public, have allowed organic to grow rapidly. The continued tightening of regulations related to the use of antibiotics, hormones and pesticides have brought conventional agriculture ever closer to the organic system. In many cases, two well-managed farms do not differ in terms of welfare or product quality, and are only distinguished by the fact that one of them is certified as organic. In the future, it is likely that even stricter standards will develop to make competition with conventional agriculture possible.


The detection of audio tampering plays a crucial role in ensuring the authenticity and integrity of multimedia files. This paper presents a novel approach to identifying tampered audio files by leveraging the unique Electric Network Frequency (ENF) signal, which is inherent to the power grid and serves as a reliable indicator of authenticity. The study begins by establishing a comprehensive Chinese ENF database containing diverse ENF signals extracted from audio files. The proposed methodology involves extracting the ENF signal, applying wavelet decomposition, and utilizing the autoregressive model to train effective classification models. Subsequently, the framework is employed to detect audio tampering and assess the influence of various environmental conditions and recording devices on the ENF signal. Experimental evaluations conducted on our Chinese ENF database demonstrate the efficacy of the proposed method, achieving impressive accuracy rates ranging from 91% to 93%. The results emphasize the significance of ENF-based approaches in enhancing audio file forensics and reaffirm the necessity of adopting reliable tamper detection techniques in multimedia authentication. In recent years, audio files have become increasingly prevalent in daily life. However, these sound files may be tampered with and distributed via the Internet or submitted to the court as evidence after being maliciously edited. Such scenarios can lead to serious social issues, highlighting the indispensable role of audio file authenticity recognition in the judicial system . TypicalThis project aims to detect the authenticity of audio files by analyzing the Electric Network Frequency (ENF) signal. In most countries, the ENF—which refers to the frequency of the alternating current supply from power generators, transmission, and distribution systems, to household electrical appliances—is fixed at 60 Hz. In areas with alternating currents, the ENF signal can be captured using recording devices. The uniqueness of the ENF signal in the audio file, and its abnormal variation due to editing or tampering, makes it a reliable indicator of the authenticity of the audio file ,3,4,5,6.In the past, there have been studies using ENF signals to identify the authenticity of audio files. It was demonstrated that the ENF signal is an effective tool for verifying the authenticity of audio signals . SubsequThe difference between our method and  is that The experimental procedure of this project is shown in Before experimenting, we searched for information on ENF signals and compiled the following characteristics.ENF (Electric Network Frequency) is the frequency of the AC power supply in the power grid. All generators, transmission and distribution equipment, and users in the same power grid use this frequency. Most countries have a fixed power grid frequency, such as 50 Hz in Europe  and 60 Hz in the US, most other American countries, and Taiwan. In regions with AC power, ENF signals can be captured by recording devices, and because of their uniqueness in the power grid, the frequency changes in multimedia files can be analyzed to identify whether the file has been tampered with ,5,6.The power supply of recording devices can be divided into two types: direct power supply (such as desktop computers and landline phones that directly use household AC power) and battery power supply (such as laptops and mobile phones). It is generally believed that the recorded ENF is related to the internal circuit design and electromagnetic compatibility of the recording device, which is indeed the case for devices with direct power supply . HoweverIn addition to 50 or 60 Hz, multiples of 50 or 60 Hz may also have ENF signals ,18. In aSince the discovery that 50 or 60 Hz electric network frequency (ENF) signals can be captured from recordings , numerouIn FFT, the audio signal is first sampled and N samples are collected into one observation unit called a frame. To avoid drastic changes between adjacent frames, there is an overlap region containing M samples, where M is the product of the number of FFT points N and the overlap rate. Here, the sampling frequency fs is set to 500 Hz, each frame is one second long with an overlap rate of 0.9, and the number of FFT points N is 4096 , meaningn, N is the total number of data points in the window, and If the measured signal is a periodic signal and there is an integer number of periods within the sampling time, the waveform at the two ends in time is continuous. However, if it is for non-periodic signals, FFT will produce some energy distribution that does not exist in the original signal in order to conform to the discontinuous changes at the left and right ends. The boundary of the finite sequence sampled will show discontinuity, causing errors in analysis. Windowing can be used to eliminate the amplitude of the left and right ends of the audio frame as much as possible and reduce the errors generated by performing FFT on non-integer periods. In this case, we use the Hamming window function, which can be represented by the following Equation .(1)w(n)L is Different values of Equation , where tAn ideal bandpass filter only allows signals within a certain frequency band to pass through. In this case, we only want to keep the signals within the 60 ± 0.5 (59.5–60.5) Hz frequency band.f in every frame of the signal, the average value is computed by applying a weighting factor based on the energy S. Here, f. For instance, if the duration of each frame is 1 s, and the frame overlap rate is 0.9, 9 ENF signal values can be computed for 1 s of audio.Our purpose of ENF extraction is to capture abnormal ENF variations rather than precise ENF details. Therefore, we adopt a weighted averaging calculation method proposed in . As depiWavelet decomposition  is used n as the sum of the product of AR coefficients i ranging from 1 to m. The result is then combined with the prediction error As shown in Equation , the Autnth detail ENF signal.ith AR coefficient.i: from layer 1 to layer m (m is set to 14 [et to 14 ).After generating the AR coefficients, the next step is to train the models. This project uses three different models for classification training: Support Vector Machine (SVM) model, K Nearest Neighbor (KNN) model, and Deep Neural Networks (DNN) model.SVM (Support Vector Machine) is a supervised learning algorithm based on statistical learning. It finds a hyperplane that separates two different sets. The general classification goal is to find a dividing line between different data categories. In general, this dividing line is very complex and there are many possibilities. However, SVM aims to find the best solution among these many possibilities. The spirit of the SVM algorithm is to find a dividing line so that the points on the boundary are as far apart as possible, making the model more resistant to noise. The linear SVM finds a line in the plane that maximizes the distance between the line and the data points of different categories.However, in reality, not all data can be separated by linear means. In this case, a kernel function is used to project the data nonlinearly into a higher-dimensional space, making it easier to separate data into different categories. We use RBF   as a nonIn classification problems, the KNN (K Nearest Neighbor)  algorithDNN  is the simplest multi-layer neural network model , includiAs shown in Equation , accuracTo accurately test this, we use the cross-validation method by dividing the data into multiple subsets and alternately using one part as the test set and the rest as the training set. This allows for a more comprehensive evaluation of the model’s performance. Additionally, we ensure the randomness of the test data selection in each trial to ensure the accuracy of the model.This chapter introduces the speech databases, our environmental sound database, and the recording and tampering methods for these databases.Before constructing the Chinese ENF database, we referred to the information from the Carioca 1 database  as a refThe Chinese ENF database in which we recorded a speech database based on the text of TMHINT (Taiwan Mandarin Hearing In Noise Test) consisting of 320 sentences in an anechoic chamber with and without the recording device, an iPad with an external in-ear microphone, connected to the power socket. To minimize ENF signal interference from other electrical devices in the environment, we turned off the lights in the anechoic chamber during the recording sessions, as shown in We created tampered audio files in our Chinese ENF database, using three types. Same-signal tampering includes deletion and copy. Deletion involves removing a segment from the middle of an original audio file and merging the remaining two parts to create a tampered audio file with a splice point slightly shorter than the original. Copy involves copying a segment from the middle of an original audio file and pasting it to the end, creating a tampered audio file with a splice point slightly longer than the original. Different-signal is a tampering based on different power supplies. For exchange based on different recording devices, we exchanged the final segments of two audio files of the same length and recorded them with the same device but with different power supplies, creating two tampered audio files with splice points and lengths identical to the original audio files. This summarizes all the data we used and how to create our setup in our Chinese ENF database.In addition, to ensure the correctness of the experimental process from ENF extraction, wavelet decomposition, and AR model to SVM classification model, we first followed the method of  and compBefore constructing the Chinese ENF database, we first recorded environmental sounds to investigate the existence of ENF in audio and the effect of different factors on ENF extraction in We recorded ambient sounds in two environments: a typical indoor residential area and an anechoic chamber in our university laboratory. We recorded with devices connected and disconnected to power sockets. In To verify the existence of the ENF signal, we compared two devices recording 10 min of ambient sound indoors in a general residential area, one connected to a power outlet and the other not. During recording, we turned off surrounding appliances such as air conditioners and fans that could produce noise, in order to minimize other ENF signals in the recording. The two devices compared were an iPad with an external in-ear microphone and a laptop with a Roland GO: Mixer which was further connected to an audio source cable. For the latter device, the laptop was used as the recording device, and the audio source cable was used as the receiver. As the audio input of the GO: Mixer was connected only to the audio source cable, without any other device connected, the audio was not transmitted through the air, aiming to eliminate as much noise as possible.As the ENF signals and noise strength recorded in different environments are different, the extraction results of audio recorded with the same equipment in different environments were first compared. Since each device has different capabilities in presenting tampering signs, a simple method was used to compare the ENF extraction ability of different devices before establishing the database. The comparison method involved tampering the audio using the same method, with 10 tampering points in the tampered audio. The number of splice points that could be presented by the ENF extraction in recordings from different devices was observed.It can be seen that the effect of extracting ENF from different recording equipment varies greatly. This section attempts to use real human speech in Chinese audio signals for authenticity detection. We aim to verify whether our authenticity detection methods are feasible for more realistic recordings.We recorded our own Chinese voice audio signals using an iPad as the recording device and an external microphone to reduce noise during the recording process. The Chinese ENF database which created ourselves includes recordings from three people to increase the diversity of the experimental data. A schematic diagram of the recording environment as shown in In In Experiment 1, we concluded that using our Chinese ENF database to extract the ENF signal and then decompose it through wavelet to obtain a more robust, detailed ENF signal, entering into the AR model to obtain AR coefficients, and then using machine learning, would improve the accuracy of predicting the authenticity. Our experimental method with our Chinese ENF database can successfully identify the authenticity of Chinese corpus audio files at 91% to 93% accuracy. Sharing the same trend with , our ownIn this study, our primary objectives are to detect audio tampering using the Electric Network Frequency (ENF) signal and to investigate the impact of various factors, such as file length and audio tampering methods, on the authenticity detection of ENF signals. To achieve these objectives, we compare our method with the approach presented in , where tTo address the research gap, we conducted Experiment 1 using our own recorded audio files, following the standard of . We recoThe experiment’s accuracy is presented in In addition, we also considered the differences between tampered and original audio files regarding the number of splice points in a segment of audio. In Experiment 1, we used tampered audio files with only one splice point. However, in real-world scenarios, tampered audio files may have different numbers of splice points, which can affect the complexity of the data and influence authenticity prediction accuracy.To explore this aspect, we conducted an additional experiment using the same recording equipment and three different tampering methods, along with three classification methods to predict authenticity. For each splicing method, tampered audio files with 1, 3, 5, and 7 splice points were created. However, in real life, if there are many splice points in an audio file, it will be intermittent and almost perceptible to the human ear, which is not fair to identify the authenticity of the audio file. Therefore, the final result of this paper is still to use only one splice point.The results of this experiment are presented in However, it is important to consider the practical implications in real-life situations. If an audio file contains many splice points, it may result in an intermittent and almost perceptible signal to the human ear, making it challenging to accurately identify the authenticity of the audio file. Therefore, the final conclusion of this study is to use only one splice point for more reliable and practical authenticity prediction.In this research, we successfully established a comprehensive ENF database comprising Chinese voice recordings and evaluated three distinct tampering methods. The results demonstrated that all tested approaches effectively utilized the ENF signal to accurately predict the authenticity of audio signals. This confirms the feasibility of employing the ENF signal for Chinese audio authenticity identification. Moreover, we examined the impact of file length and the number of splice points on recognition accuracy, revealing that shorter files with more splices tend to yield more reliable tampering determinations. The proposed method holds promise for various applications requiring audio authentication, such as judicial judgments and police investigations. However, it is important to acknowledge that the content and complexity of audio signals can influence authenticity identification outcomes, and further research should address these considerations. Furthermore, it is worth noting that the simplicity of the database used in this study compared to real-life general recordings may limit the generalizability of the findings. Hence, there exists ample room for additional research and exploration in the field of acoustic forensics. To advance the field, future investigations could focus on enhancing the robustness of the ENF-based approach, considering diverse and complex audio scenarios. Additionally, incorporating larger and more diverse databases will aid in strengthening the reliability and applicability of audio tampering detection techniques. By addressing these limitations and pursuing new avenues of research, we can fortify the foundation of acoustic forensics, enabling its broader utilization and significance in real-world audio authentication challenges.


Viruses provided a fascinating snapshot of plant and fungus virus research being undertaken in Australasia during the final year of the official COVID-19 pandemic. Eight papers published from April 2022 to May 2023 were presented in this Special Issue, all originating from Australia and New Zealand.The Special Issue ‘State-of-the-Art Plant Virus Research in Australasia’ in Nicotiana benthamiana. This variable species has an uneven distribution across Northern Australia , but previous sleuthing had indicated the accession used by virologists was unusual in several aspects and originated from a single source at a gold-mining site called The Granites, a remote group of low granite hills located hundreds of kilometres north-west of the nearest large town of Alice Springs. The authors obtained a herbarium specimen of N. benthamiana, collected by Dr John Cleland on a trip he undertook to The Granites in 1936 to study a group of Warlpiri Aboriginal people living there, who still maintained a largely traditional hunter–gatherer lifestyle. The Warlpiri used N. benthamiana as a source of the addictive alkaloid nicotine, yet maintained taboos against young women using it as such. Nowadays, we all know of the damage to the unborn foetus that tobacco use causes, and it seems that back then, the Warlpiri were well aware of the danger too. The 86-year-old herbarium specimen held the same mutation in its RdRp1 gene seen in the laboratory accession of N. benthamiana today, confirming it to be a ‘natural’ mutation. A paper trail of historical records, scientific publications, and new scientific data led from the N. benthamiana population at The Granites in 1936 to Professor Thomas H. Goodspeed at UC Berkeley in 1939, and from there to the Division of Tobacco Investigations in Maryland by 1945, and onwards to its ubiquitous distribution in virology labs today.Obliquely associated with plant virus research, the first paper in the series  providedThe second paper in this series  concerneAnthocercis is a genus of solanaceous shrubs and small trees indigenous to Australia. Yellow tailflower mild mottle virus (YTMMV) is a tobamovirus described from several Anthocercis species. The authors examined its response to the presence of the introduced weed Solanum nigrum, which sometimes grows in physical contact with infected Anthocercis plants. Would YTMMV spillover to S. nigrum? Populations of S. nigrum growing adjacent to and distant from infected Anthocercis plants were examined and found to be infected with YTMMV. The existence of S. nigrum populations growing in suburban locations far from Anthocercis populations suggested seed-borne transmission and spread of YTMMV facilitated by fruit-eating birds. Seed transmission of YTMMV in S. nigrum was then proven in the laboratory. The threat of infection of YTMMV to solanaceous crops such as potato is discussed in light of the export of such crops providing potential opportunities for international travel and spread by YTMMV.The third paper  also desPoleroviruses of peas and other crops and surrounding weeds in Tasmania were the main focus of the fourth paper in the series , althougPaper five in the series  was abouThe authors of paper six  examinedPaper seven  reportedClosterovirus known to infect grapevine. Since 2001, 11,257 vine samples were received, of which 313 tested positive for GLRaV-2, an overall incidence of 2.7%. This incidence rate remained steady over 20 years because this virus does not have a natural vector and spreads mainly through grafts from infected vines. GLRaV-2 isolates exist as six phylogenetic groups based on coat protein and p24 nucleotide sequences, which to some extent reflect their pathogenic properties. The groups are designated PN, 93/955, H4, BD, RG and PT20. Members of PN, which are more prevalent, as well as the 93/955 group, are associated with both leafroll symptoms and graft incompatibility. The BD group appears to be asymptomatic and is rarely associated with leafroll symptoms or with graft incompatibility. The RG group is associated with the graft incompatibility symptoms which only develop following grafting, but it is symptomless in ungrafted vines. Although three different phylogroups of GLRaV-2 were detected in the same vine, no evidence of recombination was observed among them. GLRaV-2 is a debilitating virus, especially in phylloxera-infested regions where the grafting practice is mandatory. The authors propose that in such areas the use of rootstock genotypes sensitive to the virus should be avoided.The final paper  in the sIn summary, there is investment in a broad range of plant virus-related topics in Australasia. From a biosecurity viewpoint, the region has the advantage of a continuous oceanic border around the island continent of Australia and the islands of New Zealand, which forms a barrier to the natural spread of viruses. However, as the international trade in fresh produce and propagules increases, and the climate continues to change, opportunities for viruses (and other pathogens) to jump over oceanic barriers and expand their ranges to Australasia and its crops and flora will probably increase. Similarly, we have a responsibility to keep the viruses that evolved in the region from escaping and establishing in new continents.The indigenous viromes of Australasian floras have largely been ignored to date. This is understandable given the limited sources of funding for research in ‘non-commercial’ plants and fungi. However, we urge that a more thorough knowledge of Australasian viromes be obtained in years to come, not only to forestall future spillover events but also simply to pursue knowledge for the sake of knowledge, a noble scientific endeavour. For the undergraduate student considering undertaking a higher degree in a biological discipline, there are almost infinite choices of virus-based research projects to consider. Additionally, if one decides to study ancient symbiotic interactions between indigenous viruses and their hosts, there is a very good chance the researcher will have the opportunity to describe and understand one or more new-to-science species. We have only scratched the surface of the unique Australasian virome; the adage ‘more research is needed’ is especially true in the flora of this region.This Special Issue provided a snapshot of some of the plant and fungal virological research being conducted in Australasia at the start of the third decade of the twenty-first century. Although much has been discovered, the field remains in its infancy. We are confident that future generations of virologists in the decades and centuries to come will build on what we have started, will endeavour to understand in greater detail the complex interactions between host and virus, between virus and virus, the evolutionary forces that act upon viruses when they jump hosts, as well as building better tools to detect and defeat the viruses that cause us harm.


Tanzania experiences a burden of maternal mortality and morbidity. Despite the efforts to institute accountability mechanisms, little is known about quality improvement in the delivery of maternal health services. This study aimed at exploring barriers and facilitators to enforcing performance accountability mechanisms for quality improvement in maternal health services. A case study design was used to conduct semi-structured interviews with thirteen key informants. Data were analyzed using thematic analyses. The findings were linked to two main performance accountability mechanisms: maternal and perinatal death reviews (MPDRs) and monitoring and evaluation (M&E). Prioritization of the maternal health agenda by the government and the presence of maternal death review committees were the main facilitators for MPDRs, while negligence, inadequate follow-up, poor record-keeping, and delays were the main barriers facing MPDRs. M&E was facilitated by the availability of health management information systems, day-to-day ward rounds, online ordering of medicines, and the use of biometrics. Non-use of data for decision-making, supervision being performed on an ad hoc basis, and inadequate health workforce were the main barriers to M&E. The findings underscore that barriers to the performance accountability mechanisms are systemic and account for limited effectiveness in the improvement of quality of care. Globally, as of 2020, maternal mortality ratios (MMRs) were estimated at 223 deaths per 100,000 live births, denoting a 38% reduction since the year 2000. Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) accounted for 56% of the global maternal mortality ratio . As for Although accountability in health systems has been seen as instrumental in turning the tide of the MMR, little attention is invested in strengthening accountability. Indeed, most of the studies conducted in the area are much more focused on the general health system domains, human resources for health ,13,14, hThe findings from this study will shed light on the context-specific factors that not only support but also hinder the efficacious implementation of performance accountability mechanisms for maternal and child health services.Despite the existence of performance accountability mechanisms, such as MPDSR, M&E system, clinical meetings, and ward rounds , the MMRWe used a case study design  to exploThe health system in Tanzania performs in a decentralized manner , wherebyWe purposefully selected thirteen key informants (KIs) based on their administrative positions in the hospital, which involved, among others, overseeing performance accountability in their respective units. Thus, we recruited a medical officer in charge; a hospital secretary; representatives in charge of nursing/midwifery, in charge of RCH, in charge of pharmacy, in charge of the laboratory, in charge of the labor ward, and in charge of theatre; a doctor in the labor ward, a doctor in the RCH, an anesthesiologist, a representative in charge of complaints, and doctor in theatre.We interviewed key informants using a semi-structured interview (SSI) guide containing questions exploring the barriers to and facilitators for enforcing accountability mechanisms for the delivery of maternal newborn and child health services. The interview guide was developed in response to the research question: what are the facilitators for and barriers to the implementation of performance accountability mechanisms for the delivery of quality maternal health services in a district hospital? Therefore, the guide had questions about existing accountability mechanisms, how they are implemented, factors enabling their implementation, and challenges facing the implementation of the identified mechanisms. The questions were developed by the first author and reviewed by the other co-authors. The interviews were conducted in the informant’s office or in a room that was found convenient within the hospital, as chosen by the informant. Interviews lasted for approximately 30 to 60 min. The first author conducted the interviews while a research assistant, who accompanied the researcher, took field notes and managed the audio recorder. We conducted interviews and discussions in Kiswahili and audio-recorded the interviews.First, we transcribed all the audiotaped data verbatim and then translated them from Kiswahili to English. Then we used an inductive thematic approach to analyze data ,31,32,33Six steps were followed including familiarization, coding, generating themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming themes, and writing up . The firThe first author and the second author coded meaningful units for the codes that represented facilitators and barriers, and they were coded more than once. We sorted codes into sub-themes and further into themes and made comparisons to check for similarities and differences. A more detailed scrutinization was carried out to review, identify, summarize, and retain patterns, similarities, differences, and emerging themes ,36.To achieve trustworthiness in this study, three issues were taken into consideration, namely credibility, dependability, and transferability . CredibiTransferability has to do with how applicable the findings are in other settings with similar contextual factors ,39, and Dependability refers to the ability of the researcher to account for changes in research over time, including data collection and analysis. With the aid of the interview guide, we ensured consistency and openness to the new insights in the open-ended questions. The insights obtained were taken into account in the subsequent interviews and analysis process ,42.We obtained ethical clearance to undertake this study from the Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences (MUHAS) Institutional Review Board (IRB) before data collection. Permission to collect data was obtained from the regional and local government authorities. We also sought informed consent from the participants, who were given consent forms to read and sign. For the protection of participants, we assured them of confidentiality, privacy, and anonymity. We conducted interviews in suitable places such as the offices of the respondents to ensure privacy and comfort for the participants during interviews. Lastly, we excluded names and other possible identifiers from the data set to ensure anonymity for the study participants.The findings are linked to two main performance accountability mechanisms, namely, maternal and perinatal death reviews and monitoring and evaluation. From the analysis, four themes and their respective sub-themes emerged, as shown in .The analysis illustrated two themes, which include the prioritization of the maternal health agenda by the government and the availability of maternal death review committees at the facility.The participants pointed out that for quite some time, the government of Tanzania has been placing the agenda of women’s and children’s health on its list of priorities. Thus, implementing maternal and perinatal death reviews was in line with implementing the government directives. The respondents claimed that maternal death review reports were submitted to the district and regional commissioners for further follow-ups and implementation. This situation enabled the maternal and perianal death review process to be smooth.Ever since the fourth phase of government led by the former President Kikwete, issues of maternal and child health were taken as priority-political agenda by the ruling party. Even the fifth phase government led by the late President Magufuli spearheaded the agenda by putting more emphasis on the construction of facilities and procurement of medical supplies. Also, the regional and district commissioners were mandated to oversee issues of maternal mortality in their respective administrative areas. (KI_1)The respondents pointed out that the facility had special committees composed of the medical officer in charge of the hospital and all the representatives in charge of each section. The informants reported that the duty of the committee was to make follow-ups, scrutinize all maternal and perinatal deaths that occurred at the hospital, and, thereafter, submit the report to the district commissioner.“There is a maternal death committee composed of all the in-charges of the hospital departments, i.e., the in-charge of nursing, in-charge of the labor ward, the in-charge of the RCH, and the in-charge of the pharmacy. The committee requires all those who were on duty to provide explanations to establish the cause of that particular death. This is in line with the government’s directive which indicates that when a maternal death occurs, it has to be audited within 24 h. Thus, when we receive a maternal death report or perinatal death, we respond very quickly and audit the death using our team, which consists of the in-charge of nursing, pharmacist, lab manager, and a doctor. We conduct the audit to establish the cause, particularly where the problem emerged from and identify a solution.” (KI_2)The informants alluded that sometimes, medical records are poorly recorded/documented due to a lack of sufficient medical recording systems such as a computer server. The informants claimed that handwritten reports were subject to many inconsistencies and incompleteness and thus failed to indicate the action points for implementation. The participants added that with poor documentation, it becomes difficult to have a sufficient follow-up on past scenarios.“Our systems of operation are very challenging; we don’t have enough computers with servers to store the patient’s information including the maternal review reports. Most of our reports are handwritten which are full of errors and inconsistencies and stored in the shelves” KI_4It was reported that facilities suffer from ineffective implementation of the action points identified by review panels; this resulted in frustrations among the providers of maternal care, especially those who are in charge of the specific sections. Due to negligence among leaders, the respondents claimed that some do not fulfill their responsibilities such as making follow-ups on the implementation of recommendations arising from the reviews and convening regular meetings; rather, they wait until there is an incidence of maternal death, after which, they turn up. The informants alluded that the health facility lacks sophisticated mechanisms for keeping patients’ information. The informants claimed that handwritten reports were subject to many inconsistencies and completeness, and thus they failed to indicate the action points for implementation.Maternal death reviews are normally done as part of the routine process, however, the proposals, recommendations and action plans laid down by the committees are either delayed or not implemented at all. Not only that but also, these reviews are not undertaken on time... they may take a month or so to do the review, and in most cases recommendations appear to be out of context, reminding people about things they do not want to hear again! KI_5The informants reported that there are delays in conducting maternal and perinatal reviews due to fear of blame. In addition, sometimes delays occur because the individual who was involved in the management of the diseased may hide some of the data/information or sometimes there is poor documentation of the information related to the deceased. The respondents alluded that delays in conducting reviews are an impediment to the implementation of MPDRs. It was also reported that delays happen because of fear of blame, that is, leaders fear taking action against the healthcare worker who was responsible for the deaths because they fear being blamed. This means that if responsible personnel perform reviews as early as required, it will be easy to uncover the reasons for deaths and propose actions against those responsible. However, when they delay conducting reviews, the implementation becomes difficult since some information might be missing from the files or some persons might have been transferred to other sections. Thus, it has become common that when matters are delayed, it is difficult to come up with strict action points against those who were responsible.It is very challenging when the doctor or nurse/midwife who managed the diseased person is involved in the review process. They always hide important information related to the diseased person or poorly document the information related to the maternal or perinatal death... this leads to unnecessary delays and compromises the whole process. KI_6The facilitators for monitoring and evaluation were conceptualized as aspects that enhance the smooth implementation of this performance accountability mechanism. Accordingly, the analysis revealed three themes that fit as factors for facilitating the implementation of monitoring and evaluation. They include the availability of a health management information system, online ordering for medical supplies, and day-to-day implementation of ward rounds.The informants reported that the most important enabling factor for implementing monitoring and evaluation interventions to manage and analyze aggregate information obtained from health facilities in the district and for enhancing quality improvement in maternal health services was the institutionalizing DHIS-2 . All the health-related data are entered into this system, thus making it easy to track service delivery at the facility. The context of this study implies the district hospital needs to have hospital-based data collection to capture hospital status and health outcomes and to monitor and evaluate performance by tracking indicators closely related to maternal and neonatal mortality. Such indicators include impact indicators such as the number of maternal and newborn deaths, the number of maternal deaths by cause, postpartum hemorrhage, sepsis, obstructed labor, eclampsia, unsafe abortion complications, HIV/AIDS (indirect), TB (indirect), malaria (indirect), and the number of neonatal deaths . The outcome indicators include the percentage of deliveries in the hospital, the number of direct obstetric complications by cause, postpartum hemorrhage obstructed labor eclampsia, unsafe abortion, complications, the number of cesarean sections performed, the number of newborns successfully resuscitated, and the number of infants breastfed within one hour of birth. The output indicators include the number of EmONC, signal functions performed, HIV tests conducted, and PMTCT (prevention of mother-to-child HIV transmission) services provided. The informants alluded that the existence of health information made it easy for the facility to have data that is useful for monitoring and evaluating day-to-day service delivery at the facility.‘The government has installed an electronic system (DHIS_2) District Health Information system (version two) which replaced MTUHA books which sometimes lacked complete data or sometimes contained lots of errors... data generated from this electronic system can be easy extracted and being used for planning, monitoring and evaluation of the hospital tasks.’ KI_8The participants claimed that before the enactment of the online ordering/procurement platform, there used to be a paper-based system that was bureaucratic and led to unnecessary delays, and sometimes, the papers would get lost and were difficult to trace. It was also reported that requisitions were not channeled to MSD directly but could go to private vendors. With the online system for procurement, health facilities can openly press orders for the items they want and have access to trace them online if they have reached the MSD or not. The current procurement process that enables facilities to press orders for their medical supplies directly from the MSD has made it easy. The online system makes it easy to hold accountable careless pharmacists who fail to order the needed medications on time. This was reported to improve the M&E process because preceding M&E, reports used to document that most deaths were due to delays in the procurement of medical supplies.The current system of ordering/procuring medical products has been made simple as compared to the previous system, you can press your order online from MSD... when they are out of stock you order from the private vendors/suppliers… if the facility runs out of stock, it implies that the is some negligence based on the current ordering system KI_9The informants reported that weekly major ward rounds constitute part and parcel of performance accountability . This is performed by a senior doctor or doctor in charge of the maternal and newborn units in the presence of subordinate staff doctors and nurses. The team goes around the wards, from bed to bed, checking on the hospitalized patients’ progress. After the ward rounds, steps are taken to fill the identified gaps, thereby strengthening the monitoring and evaluation of the health services to mothers and babies.“We do ward rounds. As doctors, we write prescriptions, but the nurses are the ones who perform or administer the treatment and other clinical procedures. The medical practitioner on duty has to oversee and check to see if the treatment procedures and drug administration are done as prescribed. We also interview patients regarding their treatment progress. After the ward rounds, we write reports or recommendations from what we observe or hear from patients.” KI_10Barriers to the implementation of monitoring and evaluation were conceptualized as aspects that hinder the implementation of this performance accountability mechanism. Accordingly, the analysis revealed three themes that fit as factors that hinder the implementation of monitoring and evaluation. They include the fragmented M&E system, supervision performed on an ad hoc basis, supply chain deficiencies, and human resources for health challenges.The respondents believed that monitoring and evaluation are enforced with regular supervision and monitoring of service providers and health administrators. However, they cautioned that surveillance and monitoring are not regularly performed unless there is an incident, such as a maternal death, and monitoring and evaluation are not rigorously implemented. This was well explained by one of the nurses working in the labor ward.Follow-up and supervision should be done regularly regardless. It happens that only when there is a maternal death then you see HMT members going around for supervision and interrogation … this is not a good practice … we need to institute regular supervision and feedback mechanisms that can be used to monitor the performance of supervisors  has left us with a huge shortage of human resources for health including the removal of healthcare workers skilled in M&E” KI_13This study sought to explore facilitators and barriers to implementing accountability mechanisms for enhancing quality improvement in the delivery of maternal newborn and child health services in Tanzania. The facilitators for maternal and perinatal death reviews were the prioritization of the maternal health agenda and the presence of active maternal death committees at the facility. In terms of barriers, there was perceived negligence among leaders, frustrations due to poor implementation of recommendations made by the committees, and poor record keeping. In terms of the facilitators for monitoring and evaluation, this study found the availability of a health management information system (HMIS), day-to-day implementation of ward rounds, and use of technologies. For the barriers to monitoring and evaluation, this study found the non-use of data for decision-making, ad hoc supervision, and the shortage of human resources for health and supply chain deficiencies.This study found that the prioritization of maternal health agenda by the government likely contributes to the smooth implementation of maternal and perinatal death reviews. This finding is consistent with findings from other studies ,7. The lThis study found that regular schedules for meetings and consistent follow-ups fostered the implementation of maternal and perinatal death reviews. This finding is consistent with a study by Kodan , who conThis finding is in line with that of Said , who argThis study indicated that there is perceived negligence among leaders who were reported not to adequately attend to their duties and responsibilities and, hence, compromised the implementation of maternal and perinatal death reviews. This finding is consistent with findings from other studies that highlighted issues of negligence, incompetence, and carelessness among health practitioners, which tend to undermine efforts to implement action points highlighted by maternal review committees ,17,18There were also frustrations among providers of maternal care due to inadequate follow-up on the action points from maternal death review committees. This study found that there was poor implementation of the recommendations proposed by the review committees. This implies that if the recommendations from the review committees are not implemented, then there is continuity in a vicious cycle . The study by Chrissman 2016  pointed Furthermore, this study revealed that there are delays in conducting maternal and perinatal death reviews. This finding suggests that there are other delays apart from the inconsistencies in the implementation of the action points suggested by the maternal review committees. This signaled a huge health system constraint in the efforts for enhancing quality improvement in maternal health care services. This finding is consistent with findings from other studies ,22, whicThis study pointed out that the availability of a health management information system at the facility makes it easier to track daily records of events and follow-ups on maternal health indicators. This finding implies that in the past experiences of using a paper-based system for recording keeping, there were setbacks such as incomplete data, which was resolved with the installation of HMIS. The study by Mboera  supportsThis study also underscored the viability of day-to-day implementation of ward rounds as a vital tool for enhancing M&E in maternal care services. This finding suggests that day-to-day ward rounds are vital for making follow-ups on the delivery of maternal and newborn care and the progress of the patient’s condition. This finding is consistent with findings from other studies ,28 highlThis study showed that there were bottlenecks that impede the implementation of performance accountability mechanisms, M&E in particular.In terms of a fragmented M&E system, the findings show that the M&E system is not working as required. This suggests that although there is a system for data collection, there is limited analysis to guide planning and decision-making—particularly for local improvement of quality of care. Eventually, the HMIS is reduced to a data collection exercise for transmission to the higher administrative levels within the health system . SimilarFurthermore, this study revealed that ad hoc supportive supervision was a barrier to the implementation of M&E. The findings showed that regular supervision and monitoring of service provision was only performed during adverse events such as maternal deaths. This means that if the supervision is performed on an ad hoc basis, then the identification of risk factors for the occurrence of maternal deaths and implementation of prompt solutions is jeopardized. The aspect of supervision refers to the provision of guidance and feedback on matters of personal, professional, and health promotion, which involves the two-way process of guiding, joint problem solving, training, mentorship, helping, and encouraging healthcare workers to improve their performance in health service provision. At the regional and the council levels, supportive supervision is supposed to be performed quarterly under the leadership of the Regional Health Management Team (RHMT) and Council Health Management Team (CHMT), respectively . Other sFinally, this study found an inadequate health workforce with the capacity for conducting M&E. This suggests that inadequate or lack of staff with knowledge and skills for M&E hinders the development and implementation of the M&E system. Consequently, the M&E of maternal and newborn care cannot be carried out effectively. This finding is consistent with findings from other studies ,33 denotThis study was conducted in one district hospital in the Pwani Region of Tanzania. This may cause a setback in making broad comparisons of the results presented in this study. Nonetheless, this limitation was offset by the depth of information and rigorous analysis using a qualitative approach. Moreover, the fact that health managers from each department/section involved in the provision of maternal health services were involved in the study as informants tended to enrich the quality of the data obtained from the responses to the intended questions. This may cause potential bias in the sense that the researcher’s personal/subjective feelings may influence the case study, but in the study process, the researcher used reflexivity to ensure that his past experiences and subjective feelings would not affect the research process or outcomes.Furthermore, since the researchers work in a public health institution, it might have brought about social desirability ,37,38 frMost of the identified barriers to performance accountability mechanisms—maternal and perinatal death reviews together with monitoring and evaluation—are systemic and may account for limited effectiveness in the improvement of quality of care. The improvement of the quality of maternal and newborn care requires upholding the enablers and eliminating the barriers. Thus, based on the findings of this study, the District Health Management Teams (DHMTs) may institute appropriate corrective measures. For instance, maternal and perinatal death reviews may be strengthened by requiring the DHMTs to demand from leaders of health facilities comprehensive explanations about circumstances leading to every maternal death and measures to reduce the recurrence of similar incidents. The DHMTs may institute penalties against negligent leaders. For monitoring and evaluation, it is prudent that health facilities consider developing a fully functional M&E system that will have more than just collection and feeding of maternal and newborn data into the HMIS, but also perform the analysis and present the analytics to Management to guide planning, decision-making, evaluation of the extent of success, and adoption of corrective interventions.


This paper addresses the grammatical challenges associated with the development of clause complexity, focusing on the performance of a group of monolingual Spanish-speaking schoolchildren with Specific Language Impairment/Developmental Language Disorder (SLI/DLD) in a longitudinal corpus of oral narrative samples. The study examines the presence of interclause relations of subordination and equivalence (hypotaxis and parataxis) in language samples of two groups: an experimental group made up of 24 schoolchildren with SLI/DLD and a control group made up of 24 schoolchildren with typical development (TD). The results show that while both groups use parataxis as the most common relation between clauses in all school grades, there is a significant decrease in paratactic relations and a significant increase in hypotactic relations from first to fourth grade of primary education. Although the development patterns are highly similar, the SLI/DLD group shows greater difficulties in mastering more complex (hypotactic) relations in fourth grade compared to the control group, indicating that it is less sophisticated in the use of these types of complex relations. These findings suggest that focused support on the most complex structures is needed towards the fourth grade of primary education, given the demands of the school academic register from 6 and 7 years of age and the potential problems that the development of clause complexity can cause in school-age children. Specific Language Disorder (SLI) or Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) is a developmental disorder characterized by a set of difficulties that affect language acquisition . This diSeveral studies on sentence complexity across different languages indicate that it poses a significant challenge for children with SLI/DLD ,18,19,20Many studies on morphosyntactic complexity in children with SLI/DLD have focused on analyzing their language samples in terms of simple sentences and those related to coordination and subordination mechanisms. It has been found that compared to coordinated sentences, children with SLI/DLD have fewer problems with simple sentences . FurtherThe analysis of syntactic complexity in children with SLI/DLD considers different perspectives on the concept of complexity. Some studies include coordinated sentences in their description of compound sentences, which they consider as constitutive of complexity. In this regard, it has been observed that children with SLI/DLD use significantly fewer compound sentences than their typically developing peers . Other sThe use of subordinate clauses as a mechanism of syntactic complexity in children’s linguistic development highlights their ability to produce sentences that are dependent on others . TypicalOn the other hand, children with SLI/DLD preferably use simple sentences between 4 and 6 years of age . HoweverDescribing the development of language longitudinally allows, on the one hand, to determine different growth patterns or trajectories that could define characteristics of typical and atypical language ,39,40 anVarious approaches have been utilized to assess complexity in children with typical development and SLI/DLD. These methods offer distinct viewpoints and outcomes, with some focusing on quantitative aspects and others on qualitative aspects. Quantitatively, syntactic complexity has been evaluated based on the average length of specific units, such as sentences, clauses, or utterances. Brown  proposedAn alternative approach to measuring syntactic complexity involves focusing on clauses and their relationships, as proposed by Hunt ,51  is different. In this approach, clauses, which are considered as the central unit of grammatical meaning, are capable of expressing different types of meaning simultaneously and their function is explained by how they work together . The logWhat is the most frequently used type of clause interdependence in both groups?Do children with SLI/DLD exhibit similar patterns of development in different types of clause interdependence compared to children with TD, from a longitudinal perspective?Are there significant differences in the use of clause interdependence relationships between children with SLI/DLD and TD in each grade, from a cross-sectional perspective?This research will use the systemic-functional perspective to characterize the development of clause interdependence relationships in a corpus of Spanish-speaking children with SLI/DLD, compared to a group of children with typical development (TD), from a longitudinal perspective. To the best of our knowledge, this type of analysis has not been previously employed to examine this population. Thus, the findings of this study will contribute to providing information on syntactic complexity from a novel perspective. The following research questions will guide this investigation:Our findings indicate that both groups, throughout all grades of primary education, predominantly utilize parataxis as the primary relation between clauses. However, there is a notable decline in the use of paratactic relations and a substantial increase in the use of hypotactic relations from first to fourth grade. Although the developmental patterns are largely similar, the SLI/DLD group faces greater challenges in acquiring more intricate (hypotactic) relations by fourth grade, in contrast to the control group. This suggests that children in this group exhibit less proficiency in employing these complex types of relations.The language sample analyzed in this study comprised 144 oral narrative texts, which were produced by a total of 48 children, including 24 children diagnosed with SLI/DLD (10 girls and 14 boys) and 24 typically developing (TD) children (10 girls and 14 boys). Participants’ demographic information is shown in Before the study, the parents, caregivers, or legal guardians of all participating children provided informed consent for their children to participate in the study, and the research proposal and consent letter were approved by the Ethics Committee of the School of Medicine of the University of Chile.The participants with SLI/DLD in this study were selected from Chilean schools with Integration Programs designed to facilitate the inclusion of students with special educational needs in regular schools. All these children had previously been diagnosed with SLI/DLD by speech therapy specialists during their pre-school education, around the age of five. The diagnosis was made following the guidelines established by the Chilean Ministry of Education (MINEDUC) at the time of the study , which rThe Screening Test of Spanish Grammar  consistsThe selection process for participants with SLI/DLD in this study was based on their scores on the Screening Test of Spanish Grammar. Scores lower than 26 on the expressive test and 35 on the receptive subtest were considered deficient. The control group was selected from among the classmates of the SLI/DLD group who showed adequate academic performance for their educational level and did not present language or learning difficulties, as reported by their teachers.After forming both groups, their nonverbal cognitive abilities and auditory performance were assessed to rule out any aspects that could influence the diagnosis of SLI/DLD. Nonverbal cognitive abilities were evaluated using the Raven Colored Progressive Matrix Scale, which can be administered regardless of educational level or linguistic abilities. All children in this study scored above the 25th percentile, which is considered within the normal range for this test . HearingIndividual evaluations were conducted in a private room, and each recording session lasted an average of 20 min. The Narrative Discourse Assessment protocol  was utilThe language samples collected were divided into clauses and organized into a matrix to analyze each clause based on the ideational metafunction of the Systemic Functional Grammar in its logical component. This allowed the relationships between clauses in the language sample to be identified. The data were tabulated using the taxis system, which is a system that observes the grammatical articulation of clauses in degrees of interdependence .The corpus clauses were categorized based on their relationship with other clauses within the same clause complex. Simplex type clauses, which are not formally related to any other clause, were distinguished from clauses related to hypotaxis (dominance and dependence) and parataxis . A subtype of paratactic relationship was also identified, which is commonly used in oral narrative texts, in which a series of events with time-related value are integrated within the same sub-sequence. This type of parataxis, typically expressed in the corpus studied through the conjunction “and”, was labeled as “time-related parataxis”. The analysis was conducted by two authors of the study. After the completion of the first round of analysis by one author, the second author reanalyzed 100% of the data. The agreement for identification, segmentation of clauses, and count was 98.8% and 92% for the types of taxis. Discrepancies were resolved by consensus. Once the clauses were labeled, three values were calculated, expressing the number of times each participant used the three types of clauses of interest as well as the total number of clauses produced. These absolute frequencies were then converted to a percentage relative to the total number of clauses produced for each student. Therefore, the measures analyzed represent the percentage of each type of clause with respect to the total number of clauses produced, allowing for the normalization of values for each participant and removal of potential biases caused by varying lengths of their oral productions.The collected data were analyzed and visualized using the statistical software R (version 4.3.0) ,66. As tIn relation to the first question of the study, the results indicate that time-related parataxis is the most commonly used resource by both groups, albeit with some differences. Among children with typical development (TD), all three clause types differ significantly from each other in first and second grade, while by fourth grade, the differences between time-related parataxis and hypotaxis are no longer significant. Among children with specific language impairment/developmental language disorder (SLI/DLD), the three types of clauses are significantly different from each other in second and fourth grade, but not in first grade, where the production of hypotactic and paratactic relations does not differ significantly. Additional details on the mean differences and their grouping can be found in Regarding the second question of the research, post-hoc contrasts revealed that the evolutionary pattern of time-related paratactic relationships is highly similar between the two groups. In both cases, the use of these relationships decreases significantly from a high level in first grade to a lower level in fourth grade (with a slightly more marked decrease in the case of children with TD). For hypotactic relationships, identical mean clusters were observed for both groups. However, in contrast to the findings for time-related paratactic relationships, the percentage of production significantly increased between first and fourth grade. Finally, no substantial differences were observed between the groups in terms of paratactic relationships, with a low percentage of production in both groups and a slight difference in second grade.p = 0.01) and fourth grade . Significant differences in the use of paratactic relations were only observed in second grade , while significant differences in hypotactic relationships were only observed in fourth grade .In relation to the third research question, the results of the Wilcoxon tests indicated that there were statistically significant differences between the SLI/DLD and TD groups in terms of time-related paratactic relationships in both second  in both groups. However, significant differences were observed between the two groups in the changes observed throughout the school grades in the percentages of production of time-related paratactic relationships and hypotactic relationships. In both groups, significant changes were observed in the percentages of production between first and fourth grade, indicating an increase in the production of more complex relationships and less use of simpler relationships. Nonetheless, children with SLI/DLD showed greater difficulties in mastering more complex relationships compared to TD children, as significant differences were shown for both types of clauses in fourth grade. Therefore, the results suggest that although the developmental patterns are highly similar, the performance of children with SLI/DLD does not reach the same level of sophistication as children with TD in fourth grade.In relation to the first question of this study, which concerns the type of clause interdependence relationship that occurs most frequently in each group, a clear predominance of paratactic relationships can be observed among clauses related in a time-related manner through the conjunction “and”. This predominance begins to diminish as hypotactic relationships increase towards the fourth grade in both groups, although parataxis remains the type of relationship with the greatest presence in the examined corpus. The high presence of the conjunction “and” in children’s speech can be attributed to its functionality as a predominant coordination link, which serves to express various types of relationships . This feHowever, since both groups show the same pattern of use, it is important to question how much of this result is directly linked to the content of the stories used and, as posed by Winters et al. , how speIn relation to the second question of this study, it was possible to corroborate that children with SLI/DLD and TD follow a similar developmental pattern in the different types of clause interdependence relationships from first to fourth grade, although the results of the SLI/DLD group remain below those of the control group. This finding is significant, as there is insufficient information about how the grammar problems of these children evolve over time . It shouThrough a longitudinal analysis of the data from both groups, two key aspects have been identified: (1) the similarity in the pattern of development between the SLI/DLD and control groups, and (2) the within-group advances that enable the detection of significant changes from one school grade to the next. In relation to the first aspect, previous research has noted that the development pattern of the SLI/DLD group is similar to that of the control group, although there is a gap in each of the measures analyzed. This finding is consistent with other studies that have reported lower competence and slower development in children with SLI/DLD compared to typically developing children ,41,72. TSecondly, the longitudinal view allows us to observe significant changes from one school grade to the next, particularly in relation to time-related paratactic and hypotactic relationships. The results indicate that there is significantly less use of time-related parataxis and significantly more use of hypotaxis towards fourth grade within each group. However, a statistically significant difference is observed in the TD group’s transition from second to fourth grade, which is different from the behavior of the SLI/DLD group. These results are consistent with previous research, which suggests that children with SLI/DLD demonstrate an early emergence of some aspects of syntactic complexity, but their performance in terms of competence is lower compared to control groups, and their rate of development is different . These dOn the other hand, the explosive increase in hypotactic relations in children with TD from second to fourth grade is related to their increasing capacity to produce complex and diversified sentences with age during childhood ,35. The In summary, this longitudinal intra-group perspective enables us to appreciate more subtle changes and differences, such as those that occur with SLI/DLD children in their transition from second to fourth grade.On the other hand, when considering the possibility of significant differences between groups in each school grade, the most relevant results reveal two interesting findings: (1) both groups behave similarly in first grade according to the measures analyzed, and (2) by fourth grade, the SLI/DLD group tends to use significantly more simple interclausal relationships (such as time-related parataxis), while the TD group tends to use more complex interclausal relationships (such as hypotaxis). On the other hand, a specific pattern emerges in second grade. While the SLI/DLD group shows similar hypotactic relationships compared to the TD group, they differ in their use of simpler relationships. It has been suggested that by this age, typically developing children fully develop their grammatical skills . A longiConsidering the evidence presented, it can be concluded that the SLI/DLD group exhibits a developmental pattern similar to that of the control group in all aspects analyzed across their transition from first, second, and fourth grades , but a distinct one when comparing the groups with each other in each school grade. The most significant result from this latter perspective pertains to the SLI/DLD group’s tendency, in fourth grade, to continue using simpler interclausal relationships, as compared to the TD group, which shows significantly more complexity in the way it interrelates clauses at the same school grade.The problems that clausal complexity can cause in school-age children can be related, from a functional perspective, to the academic demands that they must comprehend and produce when they enter school . The incIn summary, the findings presented in this study regarding the development of clause complexity in Spanish have important implications for educational practice, particularly considering that grammatical abilities play a crucial role as foundational tools for various challenging school activities faced by children with SLI/DLD. This longitudinal study provides valuable and novel insights into the developmental trajectory of children with SLI/DLD compared to typically developing children in their utilization of more complex structures, specifically hypotactic relations. It is observed that children with SLI/DLD exhibit a similar developmental pattern to their TD peers in the use of these structures; however, they consistently perform significantly below the control group, particularly by fourth grade.Based on these findings, it is crucial for grammatical interventions in educational settings to consider two key aspects. Firstly, during first grade, children with and without SLI/DLD exhibit similar usage of interclausal relations; however, this similarity does not guarantee subsequent adequate performance. Therefore, educational support at this stage should ensure an equal level of content for all students while also providing targeted preventive attention to children with SLI/DLD, even if their performance does not yet significantly differ from that of their TD classmates. This support could be implemented through the utilization of more implicit teaching techniques, as metalinguistic abilities are still underdeveloped at this age. Frizelle et al.  illustraSecondly, given the significant differences observed by fourth grade, it is essential to address the challenge faced in both educational and clinical practice: providing specialized support to address these difficulties before children with SLI/DLD reach this stage. These findings also raise questions about the effectiveness of current support offered to students with DLD during the initial years of schooling and, more importantly, challenge the prevailing theoretical notion of SLI/DLD as a temporary condition, which in some countries limits institutional support beyond the age of 9.In conclusion, it is important to acknowledge the limitations of this study. Firstly, due to financial and administrative constraints, we were unable to obtain language samples in the third grade, which limits the comprehensive nature of our findings. Secondly, there are challenges and limitations regarding the generalizability of our results across diverse settings. These factors hinder our ability to provide universally applicable conclusions. Nonetheless, despite these limitations, this study provides valuable insights within its specific parameters, highlighting the potential for further inquiry to enhance the understanding of applicability in diverse linguistic and cultural contexts.