Its main food applications derive from its effect on particle size, causing a more homogeneous distribution of fluid elements  and favoring the release of intracellular components, and from its effect on the structure and configuration of chemical components such as polyphenols and macromolecules such as carbohydrates (fibers) and proteins . The challenges of the 21st century are leading the processed food industry towards the creation of food of high nutritional quality and the use of waste to obtain ingredients with specific properties. For this purpose, soft and nonthermal technologies such as high pressure homogenization have huge potential. The objective of this work is to review how the need to combine safety, functionality and sustainability in the food industry has conditioned the application of high-pressure homogenization technology in the last decade.Interest in high homogenization pressure technology has grown over the years. It is a green technology with low energy consumption that does not generate high CO In the homogenization process, a fluid is forced to pass through a gap, causing energy transformations that directly affect the dissolved, dispersed or emulsified components. The fluid undergoes mechanical  stress and an increase in temperature  of approximately 2–3 °C for every 10 MPa of homogenization pressure [Initially, homogenization was introduced as a manufacturing step in the dairy industry. This operation reduced the size of fat globules, increasing the stability of the emulsion and, thus, the physical and chemical stability of milk. It had a great impact on the quality of dairy products such as condensed milk, curd or ice cream. The applied pressure was less than 30 MPa and it was applied in one or two steps. However, significant technological developments have occurred since then, having an impact on the design and geometry of homogenization valves, and making it possible to work at higher pressures and with very short processing times (a few seconds) [The existence of valves of different geometries has given rise to the design of equipment that is able to work at pressures higher than 400 MPa. Thus, a distinction is made among standard homogenization for pressures between 0 and 50 MPa, high pressure homogenization (HPH) for pressures between 50 and 300 MPa and ultrahigh pressure homogenization (UHPH) for pressures equal to or greater than 400 MPa. Processing efficiency is modulated by applying various pressure ranges or combining a pressure value with a specific number of passes through the equipment [Nowadays, concern about food functionality and sustainability is driving research interest in increasing the bioavailability and bioaccessibility of active components and probiotics, and in the extraction of macro- and micro- molecules from food byproducts. The challenges of increasing the nutritional characteristics of food must be combined with a reduction in environmental impact and increased food security. In this context, alternative, soft and nonthermal technologies such as high pressures homogenization have huge potential. The objective of this work is to review how the need to combine safety, functionality and sustainability has conditioned the application of high pressure homogenization technology in food. Advances and applications in the last decade have been organized according to the main challenges in the food industry.Conservation and safety by decreasing the microbial load and inactivating enzymes. This occurs as a consequence of the thermal effect derived from mechanical stress or from structural changes in proteins.Recovery and extraction of proteins, fibrous materials and bioactive compounds (mainly polyphenols) and increase of the functionality considered in terms of technological use . Mechanical stresses and hydrodynamic effects induce cell disruption, favoring the release of intracellular content or structural components of the cell wall. Moreover, dispersed particles or fat droplets can be reduced in size and modified in structure.Increase of functionality in terms of health effect . These effects result from favoring the release of bioactive compounds, the modification of biopolymer structures and the development of novel particle interactions and networking. Micro- or nano- capsules have also been developed.Publications in peer-reviewed journals show that the main applications of HPH in food have the following objectives:In order to numerically quantify its evolution, the increase in the number of published scientific articles (in %) was calculated, taking into account the difference in the number of items between the last two decades. The results in each of the considered areas are included in 2 emissions and the fact that it does not require polluting solvents.This increase in research works based on HPH technology is also due to the development of new homogenization equipment that works at elevated pressures  and supports specific conditions. Since the invention of adjustable valves in 1930 , the potHPH treatment for enzyme and microbial inactivation has been used in recent years as an alternative to thermal processes that, in most cases, cause undesirable effects such as nonenzymatic browning, cooked flavor or degradation of valuable components see . It has In general, it has been verified that gram-negative bacteria exhibit greater susceptibility to inactivation by HPH than gram-positive ones, due to the reduced content of peptidoglycan in the cell wall that makes it thinner, and therefore, easier to disrupt. Fungi and yeasts seem to have a susceptibility that is intermediate between gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, probably due to their wall structure, which is thicker but more complex than that of gram-positive bacteria . For theS. cerevisiae 635 inoculated at a level of about 6.0 Log10 cfu/mL in apricot juice and carrot juice. In apricot juice, a significant decrease in the viability of 2.2 logarithmic cycles per mL was obtained with only four repeated passes at 100 MPa. A further increase of the number of passes at 100 MPa did not significantly increase the effectiveness of HPH treatment. Concerning carrot juice, eight repeated passes at 100 MPa were unable to completely inactivate the inoculated cells. They concluded that because of the higher viscosity and sugar content, apricot juice required more passes in HPH treatment to reduce yeast load [Zygosaccharomyces bailii 45 exhibited the same susceptibility to HPH treatment in both juices. Eight passes at 100 MPa resulted in a yeast inactivation higher than 2.5 log CFU/mL, regardless of the juice considered [Significant work has been undertaken on the use of HPH to reduce microbial load in fruit juices. In this type of food, it has been observed that the presence of some aroma compounds and essential oils can greatly influence the effect of HPH treatment. Patrignani et al.  studied ast load . In contnsidered . Neverthnsidered  showed tBesides fruit juices, plant-based beverages are complex dispersions with suspended proteins and oil droplets that require a homogenization stage to stabilize them and extend their commercial life. HPH can be applied at pressures higher than 100 MPa using multiple passes for these purposes, along with microbial cells destruction ,22. ValeBeer is another beverage which may be treated with HPH. Research has established that it is possible to completely inactivate microorganisms in addition to improving the color of beer by HPH at pressures between 200–300 MPa and with 1 to 3 passes. The addition of antimicrobials such as lysozyme enzyme (50 mg/L) had a synergistic effect, reducing the required pressure to 100–150 MPa. However, HPH treatment could result in greater values for turbidity, and it would be necessary to perform another stabilization treatments to minimize the negative effects ,24.HPH treatment has also been used to modulate the activity of various enzymes. This treatment can increase or decrease enzyme activity depending on the processing conditions (pressure and number of passes), homogenizing valve structure, specific enzyme, pH, temperature and food matrix. Since enzymes are a complex type of globular protein, the mechanical forces and cavitation effects associated with HPH treatment result in conformational and structural changes which modify enzyme activity and stability. The main modifications in enzymes are linked to changes in the quaternary, tertiary and even secondary structures. The formation or interruption of hydrogen bonds, Van der Waals, hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions can occur, increasing the number of hydrophobic sites, revealing amino acid and sulfhydryl groups, and thus, accelerating, delaying or impeding enzyme–substrate interactions . FurtherPseudomonas fluorescens protease when HPH at 100–150 MPa was applied to reduce its proteolytic rate [In the case of juices, the main alteration reactions are caused by the polyphenoloxidase, which is responsible for browning and oxidation reactions; it was shown that it was possible to inactivate it with homogenization pressures of 80–150 MPa ,30. On ttic rate .L. monocytogenes after HPH at 100 MPa [On the other hand, HPH can also be applied to enhance enzyme activity. Some authors have applied HPH to increase the activity of enzymes involved in the shelf life or processing of several food matrices. Lysozyme and lactoferrin in milk increased their antimicrobial activity against  100 MPa ,36. Pinh 100 MPa  observed 100 MPa .It was shown that low cost, versatility and performance improvement of enzymatic processes can be achieved when the activity of commercial enzymes is increased by HPH. In particular, Tribst et al.  improvedHPH has been used in recent years to contribute to food process sustainability . In thisFlammulina velutipes. Wu et al. [The main kind of products with which HPH is used to extract fibers, proteins or bioactive compounds are solid byproducts, such as pomace from fruit or vegetable juicing, fruit or vegetable peels, minimal processing waste and vegetal parts of plants or cereal seed hulls; the most important examples are included in u et al.  demonstrHPH reduces the particle size and structure of macromolecules, modifying their solubility, interaction properties, viscosity, or other physic-chemical properties. Saricaoglu et al.  improvedIn the last decade, many studies have been carried out to demonstrate that the application of HPH to liquid foods can modify the bioaccessibility  or bioavailability  of its bioactive compounds. In most studies, an increase in the bioaccessibility of phytochemicals was observed due to their release within the structure of the food in which they were found. In other cases, a modification of biological functionality occurs due to a change in its chemical structure. Zhou  carried HPHs have also been applied, albeit with a much smaller number of published articles, to nondairy, vegetable-based beverages. Although, in some cases, no significant improvements in the nutritional characteristics were detected, in others, such as almond or soy beverages, a reduction in antinutrients was achieved . The denImprovements in the bioavailability of bioactive components by HPH are also possible in solid foods. HPH (10–20 cycles and 100–200 MPa) was used to fabricate an aqueous nanosuspension of fermented soybean powder, favoring in vitro release of isoflavones from nanosuspension .The other way in which HPH can contribute to improvements in the nutritional properties of foods is by using this technology for the encapsulation of bioactive components see . In thisMany studies have investigated the nanoencapsulation of curcumin by HPH at 40–100 MPa. The results showed that the emulsifier type had an influence on the bioaccessibility of curcumin . Frank eL. salivarius spp. salivarius in alginate coatings using HPH at 70 MPa. A positive effect of microcapsules was observed when evaluating the survival of the probiotic strain on simulated gastrointestinal conditions.A great level of interest has been shown in applying HPH as an encapsulation technique in bacteria with probiotic effects. Patrignani et al.  underlinBifidobacterium and Lactobacillus predominated as probiotics, and to a lesser extent Enterococcus, Streptococcus and Saccharomyces [HPH treatments at pressure levels below 100 MPa, considered sublethal pressures, were applied to microbial cultures, i.e., initiators, co-initiators, or probiotics and yeasts, in order to produce cultures with improved functional, technological and sensory properties (some examples are included in aromyces . The bacLactobacillus paracasei A13. Considering that the increase of the unsaturation level is a key mechanism to compensate for the oxidative damages induced by physico-chemical stressors in microbial cells, they concluded that HPH at sublethal pressures is useful to improve the activity of some Lactobacillus species.Siroli et al.  reportedL. acidophilus Dru and L. paracasei A13 when subjected to HPH at 50 MPa. HPH increased the three properties for L. paracasei A13 but reduced them for L. acidophilus Dru; the authors attributed this to the compositional and structural differences in the cellular outer structures, thus suggesting that the HPH effects on macromolecules and their interactions with the gut immune cells play a key role in the probiotic effect. The same authors noted that HPH treated L. paracasei cells modified their interaction with the small intestine of mice, inducing a higher IgA response compared to untreated L. paracasei cells [Lactobacillus salivarius spp. salivarius added to mandarin juice with trehalose when HPH at 0, 20 and 100 MPa was applied.Lanciotti et al.  studied ei cells ,79. Betoei cells  demonstrAlthough in the beginning, the application of high homogenizing pressures was aimed at more efficient homogenizing and increasing the stability of emulsions such as milk, advances in valve design have allowed for an increase in working pressure extending the scope of possible applications.In the last decade, the number of research works related to the implementation of HPH—for extracting bioactive components from agri-food wastes, to improve the bioavailability and probiotic properties of bioactive components and microorganisms, and also as an encapsulation technique—has grown by more than 80%. At the same time, progress has been made in the application of HPH to reduce the microbial load or modulate the activity of some enzymes.The general mechanisms responsible for the effect of HPH are known, but the final effect is largely conditioned by the type of valve, pressure applied, number of passes, the nature of the components and macromolecules, and the food matrix. For this reason, research is needed for each specific application.Results published in the last decade have shown HPH to be a nonthermal technology which is able to accomplish the food industry’s objectives of quality and safety, functionality and sustainability.


From both practical and theoretical perspectives, understanding the health and safety (H&S) implications of the characteristics and foundation upon which the construction industry in developing countries is built and operates is essential for H&S management within the industry. While many studies have provided evidence of factors affecting construction H&S in developing countries, none has fully considered the H&S implications of the industry’s characteristics. The current study thus examined how the peculiar characteristics of the construction industry in developing countries impact on the industry’s H&S management. Data were collected using questionnaire surveys from construction industry professionals in Ghana. Nine distinct characteristics were identified and ranked, as well as their relationships and statistical significance determined through correlation and analysis of variance (ANOVA), respectively. The findings showed that these characteristics of the construction industry in developing countries, particularly the lack of skilled and educated workforce, reliance on labour intensive methods and lack of single regulatory authority, present huge challenges to the management of H&S. Accordingly, this research recommended strategic interventions which are tailored towards the context of the industry’s characteristics. With the construction industry in developing countries exhibiting similar characteristics, the findings of this research can serve as a framework for country-specific study. The study contributes to the broader H&S performance improvement research in developing countries by throwing light on the characteristics of the industry that pose challenges to H&S performance. The construction industry significantly contributes to economic growth and social development of nations. In Ghana, the construction industry is the second largest contributor to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) with 13.7%, just behind crops . Other iHowever, despite the importance of the construction industry for national economy, construction activities sadly pose serious H&S risks to workers, users of construction facilities and the public. A report by the International Labour Organisation (ILO)  acknowleA study by Hamalainen et al.  assertedA plethora of studies have considered factors affecting H&S performance of the construction industry in developing countries ,21,22,23Following this introduction section , the resas an assembly of individual and group beliefs, norms, attitudes and technical practices that are concerned with minimizing risks and exposure of workers and the public to unsafe acts and conditions in the construction environment. The H&S culture paradigm thus constitutes a holistic way of thinking about H&S management to reveal underlying factors affecting H&S performance of a complex system. Typically, culture relates to human experience and interaction, and this means that H&S culture within an industry is concerned with the systems, attitudes, behaviours and environmental factors that influence H&S performance. A study by Zou and Sunindijo [Understanding the foundation and characteristics of the construction industry that impact on its H&S culture is key to improving the industry’s H&S performance. Zou  (p. 12) unindijo  suggestsunindijo  emphasisunindijo  outlinedunindijo . ConsideThe structures, systems, practices and procedures of the construction industry in developing countries remain the same as those that were introduced by the former colonial countries . From obSimilarly, Kheni  investigThe traditional procurement system inherited from the British system is still the most popular form of procurement route for many projects in Ghana. The popularity of this procurement method in the construction industry in Ghana is mainly due to the predominance of the public sector and the demand for openness and public accountability. The clients’ familiarity with the system is another factor that contributes to its popularity. However, despite its popularity, there is a counterargument that shows the problems with using the traditional procurement method, including time-consuming, discourage innovation, decreased buildability and the fragmentation of the project teams ,34. AccoGenerally, the method of project procurement in the construction industry in Ghana has been in the form of competitive tendering. The system was further reinforced by the promulgation of the Public Procurement Act in 2003 (Act 663), which requires all public sector contracts  to be awarded through the process of competitive tendering with a focus on tender price. Competitive tendering, together with the practice of awarding contracts based on the tender cost, results in a fierce competition among the large number of construction businesses in the country. Consequently, this may result in under-pricing by many construction firms in a bid to win contracts and subsequently not being able to perform upon award of the contract . BesidesA study by Smallwood  argued tThe Ghanaian construction industry is divided into two sectors: the organised, “formal”, and the unorganised, “informal” sectors of the industry. The formal sector is based on the institutional arrangement and regulatory systems . The secInformal sector consists of units engaged in construction activities with the primary objective of providing employment and incomes to the individuals involved. These units usually operate on a small-scale basis, with low levels of organisation and with little or no division between labour and capital as factors of production. Labour relations, where they exist, are based mostly on casual employment, kinship or personal and social relations rather than contractual arrangements with formal guarantees . This seAccording to Wells , an incrThese informal sector enterprises are mostly not registered according to national or local governments regulations, and workers fall outside of the framework of labour regulation and do not enjoy any legal protection or entitlement to certain social benefits, such as sick leave, maternity leave and annual leave. Consequently, regulations or legislations, such as those relating to labour, conditions of employment and H&S, for the informal construction workers are generally flouted . AccordiThe construction industry in Ghana is characterised by a multiplicity of small firms  because In another vein, it is acknowledged that small contractors generally do not manage H&S risks as effectively as larger contractors  and, conFurthermore, the industry is known to be complicated and fragmented  involvinAccording to the Commission of the European Communities , over 60Besides the highly fragmentary structure, the other most noticeable feature of Ghana’s construction sector, which perhaps best explains its problems, is the lack of co-ordination and absence of a clear agenda and a central agency to regulate and ensure the continuous development of the industry ,67,68,69According to Ofori-Kuragu et al. , the somThe construction industry in Ghana, like many other developing countries, relies on labour intensive methods. Typical infrastructure, for example, feeder roads, small-scale irrigation systems, buildings, small dams, among others, are constructed using labour-based methods . Labour Construction firms in Ghana like many others throughout the world have only a small core of regular workers while bulk of its field workers are employed on a temporary and casual basis ,40,71. WThese temporary workers often do the same job and carry out the same tasks as permanent employees, but they do not receive the same level of training or work conditions . According to Morrison , temporaA study by Mitullah and Wachira  emphasisThe construction industry in developing countries like Ghana has inadequate supply of skilled, educated and experienced workforce. A survey within the Ghanaian construction industry revealed that among the workforce involved in the sector, 67.2% are unskilled, 24.8% are semi-skilled and 8% are highly skilled . This meIn addition, many of the workers on construction sites in developing countries are barely literate, and these illiterate employees are often difficult to convince on matters relating to H&S . What isWhile the construction industry is hailed as an avenue for employing unskilled labour, this has partly contributed to its negative image of having poor H&S record. Cooper and Cotton  posited This research study adopted quantitative research methodology. Quantitative research is used to verify a theory rather than develop one, by applying the principles of deductive reasoning. Generally, quantitative research comprises the collection and analysis of data through statistical procedures. Mostly, this analysis is done with the aim to determine the truth or otherwise of hypotheses or theory . TherefoThe study included a population of professionals in the construction industry in Ghana who have direct and indirect involvement in H&S management on projects. These participants included contractors, consultants, clients of public projects, trade unions/ associations and suppliers. The participants were from different professional backgrounds in the construction industry including engineering, quantity surveying, architecture, project management, occupational H&S, building technology, etc.A total of 110 questionnaires were administered to construction professionals working in various construction organizations in Ghana. The choice of participants and distribution of 110 questionnaires stemmed from assurances given by some respondents on one of the researchers’ ongoing studies. To be exact, in an ongoing study by the researchers into H&S performance improvement in Ghana, 110 out of the total respondents in that ongoing study indicated their willingness to participate in this research. This resulted in the convenient choice of the research participants and the distribution of 110 survey questionnaires. Although convenience sampling method may be prone to sampling error and lack of representation of population, these participants are spread across 5 typical regions of Ghana, with different professional backgrounds and varied levels of construction industry experience. In total, 46 complete/valid responses were received, and 3 responses were discarded due to incomplete responses. This represents a relatively high response rate at about 44.5%.The survey questionnaires were designed to seek the views of professionals within the Ghanaian construction industry, on the extent to which some identified characteristics of the construction industry in Ghana affect H&S management within the industry. The questionnaires were made up of two sections. Section one collected details of research respondents including their professional background, number of years of experience in the construction industry and the nature of their organisations. Section one consisted of nine key characteristics of construction industries in developing countries that have been identified through the literature. This section measured the level of agreement of industry professionals on how the identified characteristics affect H&S management. Likert scale was used in the questionnaire with ranges between 1–5, where 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neutral, 4 = agree and 5 = strongly agree. Content validity was achieved by ensuring that analysis was carried out based on issues identified in the literature, which were tailored to match the construction industry in Ghana.3 of concrete per day, a task which could have been done by 3 workers if there was a concrete mixer. As a result, more workers (mostly unskilled and uneducated) are exposed to H&S hazards. Overall, respondents strongly agreed that the lack of skilled and educated workforce within the construction industry has the most negative influence on the management of H&S within the industry. This emphasises the point that many construction site operatives in developing countries are unskilled and/or illiterate and often difficult to manage on matters relating to H&S . RespondMoreover, the lack of a single regulatory authority to oversee the construction industry in Ghana was highly rated by respondents as having a negative influence on H&S management within the industry. There is little enforcement of H&S regulations in the industry partly due to the lack of the single regulatory authority. Similarly, the laxity in enforcement of H&S regulations is partly responsible for the poor H&S performance of the industry. In essence, respondents agreed that enforcement is key to achieving better H&S in the industry, as it ensures compliance with H&S regulations and reduces the risk of work-related accidents and illness to acceptable levels . On the A comparison of the responses given by the various organisations is also shown in An analysis of variances (ANOVA) has been done in order to determine whether the nature of the respondent’s organisation has an influence on their responses. p = 0.047). On the other hand, there were no statistically significant differences in the responses of the organisations in respect of the remaining challenges. Consequently, in order to determine the source and evaluate the nature of the differences between the responses of the organisations in the statistically significant ANOVA, Games–Howell’s post-hoc multiple comparison test  was performed and the results presented in From p = 0.037); however, the responses between consultants and government institutions , and contractors and government institutions  were both not statistically different. The results indicate that consultants and contractors differed significantly in their beliefs about how the fragmented nature of the construction industry in Ghana has resulted in H&S challenges, with contractors showing higher levels of agreement to the challenges posed by the fragmentation (CHA5), much more than consultants did. The post-hoc comparison on CHA5 indicated that the differences between the responses from consultants and contractors were statistically significant . This essentially means that the more experienced the respondent is, the lesser the level of agreement with the H&S challenges posed by the fragmentation in the construction industry. The fragmentation is typically associated with the traditional procurement system, which is the dominant and popular procurement method in the construction industry in Ghana. Therefore, the more one is experienced in the industry, the more the person is familiar with this practice and may not recognize it as a significant challenge to H&S performance within the industry. In p ≤ 0.01), which essentially means that the respondents who agreed that colonial influence within the industry influences H&S performance, also agreed to the challenges posed by the absence of a single regulatory authority and vice versa. It is acknowledged that the construction industry in Ghana is heavily based on the foundations laid in the colonial era [Moreover, there is a positive correlation between colonial influence and lack of single regulatory authority . This shows that a significant number of respondents who expressed higher levels of agreement to the effect of colonial influence on H&S performance in the construction industry did not agree to the H&S impact of the reliance on temporary workforce and vice versa. Admittedly, the presence of a huge number of contractors has resulted in heightened competition for jobs in the construction industry and decreased workload for many contractors. This together with other factors such as restrictive labour and employment regulations have caused many contractors to rely on temporary and casual workforce in recent times [Finally, the matrix shows a negative relationship between colonial influence and reliance on temporary workforce  is necessary for a complete understanding of H&S management within the construction industry in developing countries. Remedying the challenges that these characteristics present is key to managing construction H&S.The findings from the research indicate that significant actions are required to change some of the characteristics of the construction industry in Ghana in order to improve its H&S performance. The study identifies the lack of skilled and educated workforce, reliance on labour intensive methods and lack of single regulatory authority as the top three characteristics that have the highest negative influence on H&S performance of the industry. Unskilled, uneducated and untrained workers on the construction site can easily cause accidents, because this group of workers are often difficult to persuade on matters relating to H&S. Hence, there is the need to train these unskilled construction workers in Ghana in order to provide them with the necessary skills required for efficient and safe performance at construction sites. Consequently, it is recommended that anyone who wishes to work in the construction industry in Ghana must have some level of certification issued by authorised agencies, which will attest to their level of skills and competencies to execute tasks effectively and safely. This can be done after the candidate has gone through some level of training and attained the required level of competence and then registered. For instance, in Hong Kong, no one is permitted to work on a construction site unless he/she is duly registered by the Construction Industry Council (CIC). Adopting this kind of arrangement will ensure that site workers have some level of training and skills. The reliance on labour intensive methods in the construction industry in Ghana directly exposes many site workers to the risks associated with their tasks. Many construction organisations mostly rely on labour-intensive methods because they do not have the requisite plants and equipment, as well as the technology to perform those tasks. While labour intensive construction methods create opportunities for a considerably larger number of unskilled and low-skilled jobs than if equipment-based methods were used, they also expose more workers to hazards, and this has resulted in the poor safety performance of the industry. This study recommends that credit worthy contractors be supported by government to procure plants and equipment to use on their projects. On the other hand, where a project’s contract condition specifies the use of labour-intensive method, it is recommended that the contractor and safety authorities should take effective actions to ensure proper safety implementation through education and enforcement.The lack of a single regulatory authority to regulate the operations of the construction industry has been identified as a major factor affecting the safety performance of the industry. A single authority is important to ensure that activities of the industry are properly streamlined and regulated. It is advocated that this body must be instituted as a statutory authority backed by an Act of Parliament and be well-resourced to carry out its mandate. Following the examples of the Construction Industry Council (CIC) in Hong Kong and the Construction Industry Development Board (CIDB) in Malaysia and South Africa, Ghana can establish its statutory authority with a mandate to regulate the activities of the construction industry and to ensure its continuous improvement in all areas including H&S. To this end, this research joins the call for a single regulatory authority to oversee the construction industry in Ghana.This study contributes not only to academic research on H&S performance improvement in developing countries but also points out the fundamental challenges confronting the construction industry in Ghana to adequately manage H&S. While many previous studies have provided in depth analysis and evidence of factors impacting on construction H&S management in developing countries, none has fully considered the H&S implications of the characteristics and foundation upon which the industry is built and operate. In filling this research gap, this study through literature review and empirical investigation has identified the peculiar structures and characteristics of the construction industry in developing countries and their implications for H&S. The recommendations provide practical insights to government and professionals within the industry to tackle the basic problems that have resulted in the industry’s poor H&S performance. As a case study, data was collected from Ghana; therefore, the results are mainly relevant to Ghana. Nevertheless, the findings of this research could be used as a framework for country-specific studies in other developing countries. Literature has shown that the construction industry in developing countries shares similar characteristics, some of which have been discussed in this research along with their implications for H&S management. Typically, there is little difference in technology, procurement systems, construction methodology, skills training and availability, as well as poor H&S performance among developing countries. Therefore, the findings of this research may be applicable to many other developing countries. Moreover, considering that the characteristics of the construction industry have influence on H&S management within the industry, future research can identify more of these characteristics.


This study focuses on the relationship between personality traits, derived from the Big Five model, and performance in the competitive electronic sports (eSports) video game League of Legends (LoL). Data were gathered from 206 LoL players of various in-game success levels, as measured by their position within the competitive hierarchy (division) of the video game. The NEO-Five Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) questionnaire was used to measure personality traits within the gathered sample, which was divided into two groups of higher and lower ranked players. The results indicate that players who reach higher divisions in LoL tend to be less extraverted, less agreeable, but more open to experience. This is one of the few reported links between eSports performance and personality traits, in what is still a nascent yet rapidly developing research topic. The results are discussed within the context of available knowledge on personality and traditional competitive sports performance. According to the Global Games Market Report , there aSimilar to traditional sports, video games have a substantial number of genres (types). Their unique mechanics attract different types of people, as shown by the relationship between personality traits and video games preferences . As in tSome expectations can be formed based on the literature relating to expert performance in traditional sports, although this comparison is a distant one at best due to the understandable focus of that research on the physical aspects of performance. One potential point of overlap, and the topic of this study, is the relationship between performance and personality traits. Participation  and perfNexus, which is the final objective in the enemy’s base. Several sub-objectives must be completed along the way, and players strive to complete them while also defending against the opposite team. Being a team game where players have to be cohesive in the pursuit of a common goal . LoL belongs to the leading genre (in terms of players and watchers) in eSports, namely, Multiplayer Online Battle Arena (MOBA). Despite its popularity , researcmon goal , LoL is mon goal , while imon goal .Although some parallels can be drawn between eSports and traditional sports, forming any predictions about the links between eSports performance and personality traits based on the data available for the latter would be speculative at best. As such, this study provides an exploratory overview of this relationship by measuring the personality traits (as measured by the NEO inventory) of LoL players who vary in their level of in-game performance and achievement. That being said, given the nature of competitive and team-based endeavors, we suspect that lower neuroticism and higher levels of extraversion, conscientiousness, and agreeableness may be predictive of superior performance in LoL.M = 19.99, SD = 1.88), and they held the following levels of education: secondary (35%), primary (25.2%), secondary vocational (21.8%), higher education (8.3%), postsecondary (6.3%), and vocational (3.4%). This study was assessed and approved by the local ethics committee.The study sample was comprised of LoL players recruited via Facebook groups dedicated to the LoL community. An invitation to complete an online questionnaire was posted to these groups. The total amount of records consisted of 1,697 participants, out of which 206  completed the entire questionnaire and were included in the analyses. Prior to providing data, participants were informed of their rights as voluntary subjects (in accord with the Helsinki Declaration), and informed consent was gathered via confirmation on the questionnaire’s landing page. Sociodemographic data were collected in the first part of the questionnaire, including age, gender, and level of education. The age of the participants varied between 18 and 27 years of age . The NEO-FFI questionnaire is a shortened version of the NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI), which is a measure of five personality traits derived from the Big Five Personality Factors developed by n = 102) and “higher” (n = 104) divisions. As we had no respondents from the Challenger division, we created the groups by combining the three lowest  and three highest  divisions that were represented in our data  = 4.24, p = 0.001, ηp2 = 0.097. Players within the lower division group had significantly higher levels of extraversion  and agreeableness  while also having a lower level of openness . However, it should be noted that the effect sizes of these results are relatively small.There was a significant difference between the lower and higher ranked players on dependent variables of neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness: The main purpose of this study was to examine the link between personality traits and success in LoL. Our results indicate that the traits of extraversion, agreeableness, and openness significantly differ between lower and higher ranking LoL players. Due to the team-based nature of LoL gameplay, one may expect that the traits of extraversion and agreeableness relate positively to performance. This was not the case, with the lower ranked players exhibiting significantly higher scores on both of those traits than the higher ranked players. This result is opposite to that reported in research on team-based sports players , althougLower agreeableness and extraversion in the higher division group may be explained by the fact that the ranking is measured by individual performance. It may be possible that players who are highly focused on themselves during the game and do everything to “carry the game” on their own are more successful. Despite the fact that LoL is a team game, teams, and hence coplayers, change with every ranking game. This means that there is a high degree of variance in terms of team performance from match to match, which may mean that a self-centered approach to the game is a good strategy to maximize ranking in the long-term. Openness also differed between our groups, but with higher ranking players scoring higher on the trait than lower ranked players. People with higher levels of openness tend to be more flexible and creative. In the context of LoL, which is a game that is constantly changing over time and hence requires players to adapt, it may be the case that players with lower levels of that trait struggle to adjust to the variable game environment and hence perform worse.The other trait that we expected to differ in our two groups was neuroticism. It is well established that athletes  as well It is important to note that this study is not free from limitations. First of all, given the observational and cross-sectional nature of this study, the inference regarding causality between personality traits and eSports performance is limited. Second, because of the nature of the dependent variables, it was necessary to divide the whole study group into two subgroups based on the division indicator. A continuous indicator of performance such as match-making rating would be preferable, as well as a larger sample size  and the inclusion of Challenger division players into the analysis. In addition, given the paucity of female respondents in our study, the current results cannot be generalized to players of both genders. Furthermore, in the present study, only one game within one particular genre was examined. It would be of great interest to see if the personality correlates of performance differ between types of games. As game genres are generally defined by unique gameplay mechanics, and these mechanics place unique demands on their players, it is likely that different aspects of personality will be most related to performance across genres. Lastly, as LoL is a team game, further research should examine whether professional players and non-professional, high division players differ. Since LoL professionals are part of five person rosters, they may have different characteristics to be able to constantly cooperate in such teams.In summary, we were able to demonstrate a link between performance in LoL and the personality traits of extraversion, openness, and agreeableness. Our results only partly overlap with the sports literature (namely on the traits of agreeableness and openness), which suggests that eSports, as a competitive activity, require or attract a unique set of personality traits. However, this comparison should be interpreted with caution, due to the general paucity of data on eSports performance and personality. To conclude, this study provides the first evidence – to the best of our knowledge – of a link between video game performance and personality in general and thus opens a new avenue of research. We hope that future studies will add to this initial body of knowledge to further elucidate the nature of this relationship.The datasets generated for this study are available on request to the corresponding author.The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by the Institute of Psychology, Polish Academy of Sciences. The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.PM: idea of the study, participants recruitment, data analysis, and main author of the manuscript. PD: extension of research idea, help in the research and data analysis plan, formal and lingual correction of the manuscript. BZ: help in the research and data analysis plan, formal correction of the manuscript. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.


Stream gauge stations are facilities for measuring stream water levels and flow rates, and their main purpose is to produce the data required to analyze hydrological phenomena. However, there are no specific criteria for selecting the locations and installation densities of stream gauge stations, which results in numerous problems, including regional imbalances and overlapping. To address these issues, a stream gauge network was constructed in this study considering both the transinformation of entropy (objective function 1) and the importance of each stream gauge station (objective function 2). To account for both factors, the optimal combinations that satisfied the two objective functions were determined using the Euclidean distance. Based on the rainfall runoff analysis results, unit hydrographs reflecting stream connectivity were derived and applied to entropy theory. The importance of each stream gauge station was calculated considering its purposes, such as flood control, water use, and environment. When this method was applied to the Namgang Dam Basin, it was found out that eight out of 12 stream gauge stations were required. The combination of the selected stations reflected both the transinformation of entropy and the importance of each station. Unpredictable weather conditions occurred worldwide in recent years. To improve adaptability to such weather conditions and to establish countermeasures, it is necessary to obtain hydrological data by designing reliable hydrometric networks. Among the various structures used to obtain hydrological data, stream gauge stations are important for measuring the water levels of streams and understanding their flow. Thus, stream gauge networks must be designed to achieve an understanding of basin water resources , and empThe concept of evaluating the design and construction of stream gauge networks was established since the 1980s. Stream gauge stations are usually evaluated using entropy theory, principal component regression analysis, and correlation analysis, although the existing stream gauge networks are mainly evaluated using entropy theory ,4,5,6,7.Regarding the other stream gauge station evaluation methods, Kyung et al.  optimizeEntropy theory is applied to various water resource areas. Singh  describeIn addition, attention needs to be paid to the work of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO)  and WahlMany problems frequently occur since the evaluation method does not include clear criteria for the placement of stream gauge stations. The current evaluation method of the stream gauge network is applied on a point-by-point basis. It causes a lot of problems, including the concentration of stations and overlapping observations in some regions due to installation purposes. Many entropy theories were applied in previous studies. This is because the entropy theory can construct a stream gauge network that takes into account the characteristics between the watersheds where the stations are located. Because stream gauge stations have a high linkage between watersheds (upstream and downstream), analysis using only water level data, such as correlation analysis or regression analysis, is inaccurate. In order to apply correlation analysis or regression analysis, variables (water level observation data) must be independent. Due to the independence of data, these methodologies such as correlation analysis cannot be used. Because correlation analysis or regression analysis does not reveal the impact of water level data between watersheds, it is not possible to construct an optimal stream gauge network. However, the evaluation of stream gauge networks using entropy theory assesses such networks only based on the amount of transinformation; it has a limit taking into consideration only characteristics of the observed data and watershed. In addition, previous studies were focused only on selecting the optimal combination of the existing stream gauge networks, and the importance of such networks according to the installation purposes of the stations could not be considered. For example, important stream gauge stations for flood control and water use may be excluded from optimal stream gauge networks because their transinformation of entropy is small. The optimal stream gauge network should account for both the acquisition of data that represent the basin and the installation purposes of the stream gauge stations. In other words, the entropy theory shows the hydrological similarity of water level data between water level stations. In addition, the stage gauge station rating shows the importance of the station.In this study, stream gauge networks were constructed considering both the transinformation of entropy (objective function 1) and the importance of each stream gauge station (objective function 2). To calculate the entropy parameters that reflect stream connectivity, unit hydrographs were derived using actual rainfall runoff data and were converted into a probability density function. Regarding the importance of each stream gauge station, the rating of each station was calculated considering its purposes, such as flood control, water use, and environment, and this method was applied to the Namgang Dam Basin. To include both the maximum transinformation of entropy and the importance of each stream gauge station, the optimal combinations that satisfied both objective functions were determined using the Euclidean distance. The remainder of this report is organized as follows: in X as follows:Entropy is generally known as a measure of disorder or uncertainty, but it is defined as the information capacity of a signal in information theory . When a  X and Y . Based oThus far, the probability density functions that can be applied to the entropy method include the normal, log-normal, and Gamma distributions, and the application of other distribution types is limited. This limitation exists because entropy values are theoretically derived only for the three abovementioned distribution types, and complex multidimensional numerical integration is required for the other types . The con Chapman  defined The optimization of a stream gauge network present in a basin means that the number of stream gauge stations is reduced so that the overlapping information between the stations can be minimized and the information about the basin obtained from the maintained stations is maximized. In other words, the maximum information about the basin must be obtained from the minimum number of stations. Thus, the objective function of optimization can be expressed as follows :(6)MAX [MAX ∑i=1mWahl  evaluateThe work of Wahl  was exteThe most important thing in the optimal combination of two objectives is the weight between the objective functions . If the The optimal combinations that satisfied the two objective functions were determined using the Euclidean distance to consider both the maximum transinformation of entropy and the installation purposes of each stream gauge station. Various optimization techniques, such as genetic algorithms and harmony searches, can be utilized to find the optimal combinations, but the enumeration technique was used in this study to consider all cases. The enumeration technique, which is a local optimization technique, is the most primitive means of finding the optimal solution. The enumeration technique was chosen because the optimal combinations were determined based on rankings and, thus, the combinations of all stations were required.The optimization technique is mainly applied to cases with single objective functions. Although multiple functions can be optimized independently, it is not easy to obtain a solution that simultaneously achieves multiple purposes. This topic is consistently an issue in operations research. The optimal solution for all objective functions basically does not exist in many cases. Therefore, in this study, a distance measurement technique was used to determine the optimal combinations that satisfied the two objective functions. In general, distance measurement techniques are used to represent the degree of similarity between objects quantitatively for cluster analysis, which is a data mining technique. The Euclidean distance is the geometric distance in a multidimensional space and can be calculated as follows:2 and 110 km, respectively. Moreover, the Namgang Dam Basin has the largest area among the basins of Nakdong River, which is a representative national stream of South Korea. The installation locations of stream gauge stations are important for the basin because it is located in the upstream area of Namgang River, which flows into the main stream of Nakdong River. In the Namgang Dam Basin, 12 stream gauge stations are in operation. The Namgang Dam Basin, which was the target area of this study, is located in the southeast of the Korean peninsula and ranges from 35°00′ to 35°46′ north (N) in latitude and from 127°29′ to 128°28′ east (E) in longitude. The basin area and stream length are 2285 kmTo apply entropy theory, a unit hydrograph must be derived for each stream gauge station. In South Korea, Clark’s watershed routing method is mainly used. For the concentration, time, and storage constant parameters, empirical formulas are used, or the values are calculated by analyzing observational data. Joo et al.  comparedThe continuous Kraven (II) formula and Sabol formula were used to obtain the initial values for calculating the parameters of the Clark unit hydrograph, and the Thiessen method  was applied to calculate the average rainfall in the area. The runoff parameters were determined using the rainfall runoff events called event 1 (Rusa) and event 2 (Meami), and the appropriateness of the calculated runoff parameters was verified through the rainfall runoff event called event 3. To construct a stream gauge network by applying entropy theory, unit hydrographs must be derived for each point, and a probability density function capable of adequately expressing the derived unit hydrographs must be determined. In this study, unit hydrographs were derived by analyzing rainfall runoff events, and the probability density function parameters were determined through the optimization process. To construct a stream gauge network using entropy theory, a probability density function capable of adequately expressing the derived unit hydrographs by station must be determined. The probability distribution types used to analyze hydrological data are largely divided into discrete distributions and continuous distributions. Among the discrete distributions, binominal and Poisson distributions are frequently used to determine the time intervals of rainfall or flooding with a certain magnitude or the occurrence probabilities of certain events. Most hydrological phenomena, however, occur continuously and, thus, continuous distribution types are mainly used for the probabilistic analysis of such phenomena. Among the continuous distributions, normal, log-normal, Gamma, log-Pearson, and generalized extreme value distributions are the most frequently used for hydrological analysis ,33,34. EFor the information matrix calculated in The ratings of the stream gauge stations were determined by referring to their installation purposes according to MOLIT . Table 1For the installation purposes mentioned by MOLIT , i.e., fIn this study, each installation purpose was treated equally when calculating the ratings of the stream gauge stations. For example, although a stream gauge station is installed for both flood control and water use purposes, flood control can be more important for some stations. Therefore, when the same weight is assigned to each purpose, issues can arise with accurately identifying the installation purposes of the stream gauge stations. In other words, in the case of the Namgang Dam Basin, although all four purposes, i.e., flood control, water use, environmental purposes, and presence of nation-managed streams, are served at the same time, the weight of each purpose must be classified according to the main purpose of each station. However, evaluation of the installation purposes of each station exceeded the scope of this study.All of the combinations were presented using the enumeration technique to consider both the entropy results that included the transinformation of the observation data and the importance of each stream gauge station according to its installation purpose. In total, there were 4095 possible combinations of the 12 stations in the study area .The Euclidean distance was employed to select the optimal stream gauge network combinations. For this purpose, the total transinformation and the importance according to installation purpose were calculated for all combinations of stations, and re-scaling was performed to normalize the calculated values to the range of 0 to 1, as shown in Equation (10).x-axis) and that of the importance according to installation purpose (y-axis) were expressed for each combination, each combination had its own coordinate values, and 4095 points were obtained in total. Moreover, the total transinformation rankings did not overlap because the amount of entropy information selected according to the number of stations did not overlap. On the other hand, the importance rankings according to installation purpose did overlap depending on the combinations of stations because the importance was classified using four ratings . When the two objective functions were integrated using the Euclidean distance, however, the optimal network evaluation could be performed without any significant problems because the entropy rankings were different even though the importance rankings according to installation purpose were identical. These issues will be considerably reduced if the installation purpose ratings are diversified in the future. For the one-station combination, station 4 was selected when only entropy theory was applied, but station 8 was selected when two objective functions were applied. Station 4 was not selected when both objective functions were applied because it was given the third rating even though it showed the maximum transinformation. Station 8, on the other hand, was selected as the optimal stream gauge station when both objective functions were applied because it was given the second rating even though it had the second ranking in terms of transinformation. Regarding the combinations of 8–10 stream gauge stations in the category of the optimal stream gauge network, station 5 was selected when only entropy theory was applied, but station 5 was removed and station 11 was selected for all corresponding combinations when both objective functions were applied. It was found that a station with a lower rating was replaced with a station with a higher rating, considering that station 5 with the third rating was replaced with station 11 with the second rating, indicating that the use of two objective functions properly reflected the ratings of stations in constructing the optimal stream gauge networks. The use of only entropy theory did not yield a large difference with the use of both objective functions in terms of constructing the optimal stream gauge networks. If stream gauge networks are evaluated using the proposed methodology for different basins, however, the results will be different.However, some limitations of this study should be noted. For instance, the same weight was assumed for both objective functions . There are cases in which the stream gauge station purposes of flood control and water use are more important than producing stable hydrological data, depending on the basin. In such cases, it is necessary to assume different weights for different objective functions, as well as to quantitatively identify the factors that determine the importance of installation purposes through various methodologies. As the purpose of this research was to develop a method of evaluating stream gauge networks that satisfy various purposes by integrating objective functions, the evaluation of each stream gauge station was outside the scope of this study. If each stream gauge station is evaluated in the future by investigating the characteristics for various basins, the weights of the objective functions will be more objective. It is also necessary to perform further studies of various factors for determining the importance of stream gauge stations.In this study, stream gauge networks were evaluated with the focus of constructing a stream gauge network capable of providing the maximum transinformation of entropy and the importance of the stream gauge stations according to installation purpose. To this end, unit hydrographs were derived pointwise by analyzing runoff observation data, and they were applied to entropy theory through conversion into a probability density function. Moreover, the ratings of stream gauge stations presented by MOLIT  were useWhen stream gauge networks were evaluated using the proposed methodology, different networks were constructed compared to when only entropy theory was applied. This is a better result that reflects the importance of the stations according to their installation purposes. It was found that eight out of 12 stream gauge stations are required for the Namgang Dam Basin, which was the target basin. This result reflects both the importance of each stream gauge station according to its installation purpose and the characteristics of the data. In the future, it will be necessary to consider various factors related to the installation purposes to determine the importance of each stream gauge station. Moreover, to evaluate the importance of each station, detailed examinations of the various installation purposes of the stations, their accessibility, and the flood hazard zones, as well as further research regarding their weights, are required. The methodology employed in this study confirmed that entropy theory is not just an information theory; rather, it can be utilized for basin management. It is expected that the results of this study will facilitate the construction of optimal stream gauge networks that can serve various installation purposes.


One heated argument in recent years concerns whether requiring real name supervision on social media will inhibit users’ participation in discoursing online speech. The current study explores the impact of identification, perceived anonymity, perceived risk, and information credibility on participating in discussions on moral/ethical violation events on social network sites (SNS) in China. In this study, we constructed a model based on the literature and tested it on a sample of 218 frequent SNS users. The results demonstrate the influence of identification and perception of anonymity: although the relationship between the two factors is negative, both are conducive to participation in discussion on moral/ethical violation topics, and information credibility also has a positive impact. The results confirmed the significance of risk perception on comments posted about moral/ethical violation. Our results have reference value for identity management and internet governance. Policies regarding users’ real names on the internet need to take into account the reliability of the identity authentication mechanism, as well as netizens’ perceptions of privacy about their identity and the necessity of guaranteeing content and information reliability online. We also offer some suggestions for future research, with a special emphasis on applicability to different cultures, contexts, and social networking sites. The complex integration of the internet and the real world means that in both the West and China, cyberspace has become the most convenient place for free expression, which is constrained by social norms and conformity . Online In the most recent couple of decades, many researchers have regarded anonymity as directly enabling free expression on the internet as well as being the root cause of anomie . The sysIn 2015, the State Internet Information Office of China issued a regulation named Rules on Account Name of Internet Users, which requires all users to submit real-identity registration information when using the internet. With the precondition that internet regulators can confirm users’ identities, users have the right to use virtual names in online public speech spaces, which should be respected . The reaChina’s enforcement of the online real-name registration system sparked widespread and fierce disputes, focused on its impact on netizens’ freedom of expression. Supporters of the regulation argued that the system is conducive to creating a credible online speech environment and encouraging people to be responsible for their own speech. For those who are willing to speak frankly, real-name speech can also improve personal credibility and give weight to their words . OpponenPublic concern about things that affect the majority of society is an important force in implementing oversight and promoting social progress. In China, Weibo and WeChat, with 500 million and 1 billion active users respectively at the beginning of 2020, have become the two most important SNS for people to express public opinion, offering different kinds of platforms for open and critical debate .In recent years, China has experienced many public opinion incidents online, with some incidents (both online and offline) sparking a great deal of online reaction and widespread discussion. The vast quantity of views freely expressed online by the public on specific topics has promoted social regulation offline, including efforts to promote the optimization of the social system and to combat corruption . This plRQ1: Does the traceability of network identity information inhibit public participation in discussions on moral/ethical violation topics by internet users in China?Anonymity in cyberspace is an important way of protecting private information  and is cIn the current cyberspace environment, absolute anonymity does not exist . The issRQ2: Does the perception of anonymity on the internet help drive netizens’ public participation in discussions on moral/ethical violation topics in China?Based on the understanding of the issues described above, we synthesized the existing literature to build a theoretical model, as well as referring to the theories of the social identity model of deindividuation effects (SIDE) and Borden’s communication ethical rules. Empirical research was conducted to test the hypothesis and theoretical model. The current study makes two principal contributions to the literature. First, it reveals that identification and perception of anonymity are opposite aspects of the influence mechanism of online participation in discussions on moral/ethical violation topics, and encouraging such participation needs to take into account underlying aspects of identification and the psychological perception of anonymity at the surface. Second, it confirms the role of risk perception and information credibility in participation in discussions on moral/ethical violation topics.The remainder of the paper consists of the following sections: Section 2 reviews the theoretical foundation, and Section 3 proposes our research model and hypotheses. Section 4 explains the methodology, while Section 5 presents the results and related analysis. Section 6 discusses the results of the current study, together with the theoretical and practical limitations and potential avenues and implications for future research.Anonymity means a lack of identification of one’s real identity . As a reIn the 1990s, use of cyber-based communication technology facilitated an anonymous communication environment, but this positive outcome is no longer the case . This isThe importance of online opinion, also called online word of mouth (e-WOM), has been confirmed . DespiteMany studies have demonstrated a positive relationship between internet use, online speech, and political participation . In ChinChina is in a social transformation period, bringing a high degree of uncertainty to people’s lives. The prevalent practice of concealing their true views for self-protection makes Chinese netizens present more complex mentalities and more diversified modes of behavior than before the construction of cyber identity . This alThe development of global media brings urgency to intercultural communications on ethics-related topics . CyberspMedia participants should follow three ethical rules: truth telling, privacy, and fairness . In someIn cyberspace, netizens participate in discussion of an event to supervise and condemn behavior which violates norms of ethics and morality . The powStudies of risk perception examine the judgments that people make when they are asked to characterize and evaluate hazardous activities and technologies . PerceivPerceived risk has an impact on people’s moral judgments Subjects in a high-risk treatment group exhibited significantly harsher ethical judgments than those in a low-risk treatment group . ReputatThe framing of risk depends on the media used to perceive it . In seekThe current study constructs a model to examine how the factors of identity perception, real names, and perceived anonymity affect the intention to participate in SNS discussions on moral/ethical issues in China. In addition, the current study also explores the influence of risk perception and information credibility on participation in social media discussions on moral issues in China. The research model is depicted in User identifiability and perception of anonymity are not two sides of the same factor. Although they have opposing properties, they are two different factors. The ability to identify internet users refers to the process and the potential for identifying the true identity of users in cyberspace; this is not just a legal concept but also a technical means of identity detection with the help of publicly available methods . In cybeH1a: User identification has a negative impact on their perception of anonymity in discussing moral/ethical violation topics on Chinese SNS.Identity is perceived as a social process that aligns with internal self-identification and external identity classification . IdentifH1b: User identification has a positive impact on comment intention in discussing moral/ethical violation topics on Chinese SNS.H1c: User identification has a positive impact on sharing intention in discussing moral/ethical violation topics on Chinese SNS.Perception of anonymity refers to the indiscernibility of the identity of the user, which leads to self-awareness of identity anonymity, that is, that one cannot be tracked in cyberspace . In an aH2a: Users’ perceived anonymity has a positive impact on comment intention in discussing moral/ethical violation topics on Chinese SNS.H2b: Users’ perceived anonymity has a positive impact on sharing intention in discussing moral/ethical violation topics on Chinese SNS.Perceived risk has been conceptualized in terms of the expected negative utility of actions . Risk diH3a: Users’ perceived risk has a positive impact on comment intention in discussing moral/ethical violation topics on Chinese SNS.H3b: Users’ perceived risk has a positive impact on sharing intention in discussing moral/ethical violation topics on Chinese SNS.Trust in technology is constructed in the same way as trust in people . InformaH4a: Users’ information credibility has a positive impact on their comment intention in discussing moral/ethical violation topics on Chinese SNS.H4b: Users’ information credibility has a positive impact on sharing intention in discussing moral/ethical violation topics on Chinese SNS.The internet is an ideal medium for collecting data from different groups . The curThe current research is based on a heated event which provoked discussion all over the world, in which a scientist named He Jiankui announced his work on editing the genes of a fetus. Scientists and authoritative academic institutions from different countries gave their opinions, arguing that He Jiankui had seriously violated academic morals and the code of conduct. What he did also caused an outcry in the international community . His behPeople’s Daily, which is the most authoritative official media source in China, and the Beijing News, which has a wide influence and is based in Beijing. The reports  described the development of the event up to December 18, 2018, providing the objective facts calmly and without emotional appeals. The third part required the participants to complete a survey about the gene-editing situation and their feelings about it.Data were collected for the current study at the point in time when this gene-editing of a fetus had just occurred, which had attracted the attention of the whole world and had become a heated topic on various SNS. This was important for focusing the participants’ attention on the research issues, and to obtain a clearer understanding on the event. The administered questionnaire consists of three parts, the first of which is a privacy and protection statement and informed consent declaration. The participants read the information carefully and confirmed it. The second part consists of two news reports about the gene-editing fetus event from At the preliminary stage, the current study tested the research model through an investigation of frequent SNS users in China. The aim was to answer the research questions about how users’ identity impacts participation in online speech on moral/ethical violation topics on SNS. According to the relevant institutional and national guidelines and regulations, ethics approval was not required. First, the data collection of the current study did not involve implication, drugs, or mental manipulation, as the participants were only required to report their experiences and behavioral tendency according to their SNS use conditions. Thus, no issues with respect to safety, health, or protection of rights and interests were involved. Second, the data collection required no identity concealment, as no privacy or sensitive issues were involved. Third, the questionnaire for collecting the data in the current study includes an informed consent statement, and the participants were only requested to answer questions according to their SNS use conditions. The data were only to be used for scientific research, without influencing the privacy, reputation, living conditions, or health of the participants. Fourth, the potential participants were offered anonymity; they were fully aware of this option before, during, as well as after giving their responses. Fifth, the current study did not store or use the private information of participants, and any information that may lead to identity risks (only the IP address) was removed during the analysis and submission for scientific review.The data were collected with a questionnaire using a sample service provided by an online survey platform (wjx.cn/sample/service.aspx). This is the largest online survey agency in China, providing 2.6 million sample banks consistent with the demographic distribution of China’s netizens. The survey employed a purposive sampling method focused on the frequent users of Chinese SNS. Based on user requirements, the platform sends the invitation email to randomly selected potential participants from the sample banks. The survey would begin once the potential participants clicked the URL in the email. First, they were asked to read a news article about the topic, and then they were asked to fill in a questionnaire online. To identify frequent users of social networking platforms for the study and to confirm the quality of data, we included screening questions and limited the response time as a filter, which yielded a total of 218 valid questionnaires out of 345 responses. The service provider was paid 1 USD for each valid sample. We used the SmartPLS to conduct empirical research. One of advantage of using SmartPLS is the sample size, Some SEM based methods need samples of at least 200 samples or more, but SmartPLS is suitable for sample sizes of less than 200 . Table 1The sample had a reasonable demographic distribution. Referring to the data in reports published by affiliated companies Sina and TenCent on Weibo and WeChat in 2018, the age distribution characteristics of the sample were basically consistent with those of Weibo and WeChat users. In the sample, respondents with a bachelor’s degree or above accounted for 77.5% of the total; the education level was slightly higher but within a similar range to that of Sina Weibo users in the reports, 70.8% of whom had university degrees. In WeChat  and Weibo , the proportion of male users was higher than that of female users. Although the gender distribution of samples may generally lead to bias in the results, gender differences do not affect research on general online sharing behaviors, as confirmed by some related studies on gender distribution differences . In addiT-value, mean, and standard deviation (SD) of the measure items used in the current study.All measures were adapted from well-established scales, the validity of which had been confirmed in the relevant existing literature. Multi-item measures were applied to ensure the validity and reliability of the study. To ensure comprehension by Chinese users, we translated the scale into Chinese and then back-translated it into English. We asked two researchers to verify the consistency of the terms used in the scale to ensure that the translation and terms were consistent. The scale was modified slightly to fit the SNS context. A seven-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree) is used in all measures. We used a structural equation model to verify the research model and performed statistical analysis using the partial least squares method (PLS). In addition, we used Smart PLS version 3  to test In the next sections, we analyzed the data in two steps: first, the measurement and data were tested for reliability and validity, and then we drew conclusions about the structural relationship based on the measurement instruments with desirable psychometric properties.As shown in Ensuring discriminant validity requires a low correlation between measures and other structural measures . In TablT-values on the structural model and the deterministic coefficients (R2) are illustrated in Before testing the hypotheses, multicollinearity regarding the structure of the data was tested and was in accordance with the requirements. We then examined the structural model by analyzing the significance of the path coefficients and the R2 variance for the dependent constructs based on the hypothetical research model. The path and its importance for the structural model, the coefficients of each related structure, as well as their p < 0.05, except for H3b. In this section, we discuss how each construct in our theoretical framework influences the two types of participatory behaviors. Regarding identifiability, we found that identification has a strongly negative influence on perceived anonymity . This finding is consistent with results in the previous literature; those people who are objectively identifiable will not perceive themselves to be anonymous. Thus, H1a is supported. The results also show that identification leads to participatory behaviors in discussion on moral/ethic violation topics, both in terms of comment intention  and sharing intention . In the SNS context, the more personal the information is that is disclosed, the more likely the user is to attend to the discussion and carry out moral/ethical supervision. Therefore, H1b and H1c are supported. Perceived anonymity also leads to participation in discussion on related topics, both in terms of comment intention  and sharing intention . Perceptions of anonymity also declaim importance in participation in related activities. Therefore, H2a and H2b are supported. Furthermore, the coefficient of the path from identification to sharing intention is greater than that from identification to comment intention. However, the coefficient of the path from perceived anonymity to comment intention is greater than that from identification to sharing intention. Sharing related information is helpful for the user’s image, while making comments carries less interpersonal pressure. This finding suggests that identification and perceived anonymity both have a positive impact on participation in discussion on moral/ethic violation topics, but through a different influence mechanism.For the full model, most proposed hypotheses are strongly supported by empirical evidence with significance at p < 0.01), which is in line with the altruistic punishment mechanism of human behavior. Thus, H3a is supported. However, perceived risk has an impact on sharing intention with a significance level of p = 0.067, suggesting that H3b is not supported in the current study, while the direction of the impact is consistent with H3b. We can say that at the test standard of p < 0.05, the empirical research cannot significantly support H3b. Regarding perceived risk, people are more willing to comment on ethical and moral violations than to share information. From actual experience, the degree of exposure to information sharing in social networks is higher than that of commenting on information released by others. Without any doubt, information credibility leads to comment intention  as well as sharing intention . Trust in source information leads to confidence in a user’s participation in discussion on related topics. The results imply the importance of information credibility even in moral/ethical violation topics. Therefore, H4a and H4b are supported.Regarding the conditions for participation, perceived risk has a significant impact on comment intention  of the variance in perceived anonymity, 24.4% (r2 = 0.244) of the variance in comment intention with a significant impact from identification, perceived risk, information credibility, and perceived anonymity, and 20.8% (r2 = 0.208) of the variance in sharing intention with a significant impact from identification, information credibility, and perceived anonymity.The independent variables explain a substantial portion of the variance in the dependent variables. In the current model, identification explains 31.7%  and the Normed Fit Index (NFI) may assess the model fit. For SRMR, the recommended value should be lower than 0.08; NFI values between 0 and 1 are recommended. For the current model, SRMR is 0.067 and NFI is 0.781. The goodness of fit value of the model is 0.577, which is significantly higher than the standard of substantial fitting, in which 0.36, 0.25, or 0.1 can be described as, respectively, substantial, moderate, and weak . The indT-values of each effect are given in p < 0.01. Among the direct influences on sharing intention, identification has the largest influence (DE = 0.365), followed by information credibility (DE = 0.263), and perceived anonymity has the smallest influence (DE = 0.205), but is still significant at p < 0.05.The results of direct effect (DE), total effect of each construct, and the results of indirect effects existing in the model, as well as the standard error and Two significant total indirect effects have been identified in the model. If the sign of indirect effect is opposite to that of direct effect, the total effect will be suppressed . The supIn the current study, we examined user participation in discussions on moral/ethical topics on Chinese SNS. To do so, we constructed a model to describe the influence of identification, perceived anonymity, perceived risk, and information credibility. The measurement model has been confirmed, with acceptable convergent and discriminant validity, path coefficients, and model fit.Identifiability and perceived anonymity of SNS user identity are not two sides of an organic whole but, rather, two different elements . IdentifWhen users have control over their identification, perceived anonymity contributes to user participation in discussion on moral/ethical violation topics; when users have control over their perceived anonymity, identification also contributes to participation in discussion of moral/ethical issues. High user identifiability is advantageous in building a sense of identification with the social network identity and enhancing the credibility of the opinions expressed at the same time. The influence of perceived anonymity on speech behavior varies in different application scenarios; there is evidence of a negative influence on the perceived autonomy of sharing behaviors in cyberspace , whereasThe current study also shows the positive effect of perceived risk on users’ intention to post comments on moral/ethical topics on SNS in China: in the face of an event that raises common ethical concerns, when the level of risk perceived by users is higher, so too is their intention to post comments, as shown by the supportive result for H3a. Reducing cybersecurity risk increasingly depends on information sharing . This reWe also found that information credibility significantly affects participation in discussions on moral/ethics violation topics. This has a positive influence on both posting comments and sharing intention on moral/ethics violation topics, with supportive evidence for H4a and H4b. This result is in accordance with the outcomes from research studies on the impact of information credibility on involvement in discussion and sharing . The perThe current study offers some implications that facilitate future research on participating in discussion on moral/ethical violation topics. Public concern and discussion about moral/ethical violation topics is important for regulating negative behaviors and maintaining social justice. User discussions of this kind of behavior on Chinese SNS in recent years plays a dominant role in promoting the advancement of social institutions and governance by drawing the public attention and letting the government know some information. Therefore, investigation into this kind of behavior can lead to a deeper understanding of theories on reputation, altruistic punishment, and regulation of public speech related to social cooperation.The current study further clarifies the relationship between identifiability and speech behavior. We confirmed the positive impact of identification and perceived anonymity on participation in discussions on moral/ethics-related events on SNS. This lays a foundation for further exploration of the influence of online user identification on behavior. In the current study, unlike previous studies, online participation in moral/ethical violation topics in cyberspace is divided into commenting and information sharing, which are affected differently by the perception of risks in discussions on moral/ethical violation topic. This means that comments on specific events might not necessarily be seen by a user’s social contacts, but information sharing enables user opinions to be seen by a wide range of social contacts. Our research offers a new perspective for viewing the differences between them.The results have practical implications for policy makers, content moderators, and operators of online platforms. Online identification and anonymity perception influence participation in and speech about moral/ethical violation topics, which can have a significant reference value for identity management and internet governance. A network identity policy needs to take into account the reliability of user authentication mechanisms as well as user perception of privacy. This kind of network environment encourages user participation in discussions on sensitive topics. Policy makers should also note that the sense of risk does not necessarily inhibit behavior. In the current study, perceived risk is found to encourage user participation in discussions about moral/ethical violation topics. Successful information efforts require commitment, trust, cooperation, and a clear sense of value . CorrectBesides, the reliability of the topics is very important to the users’ participation in commenting and information sharing. It is necessary to guarantee the reliability of content and information in cyberspace for the network operators and network information providers. It is necessary to regulate the information sources and provide information authentication mechanisms to identify and eliminate false information and rumors and standardize the expression form of information, etc., to promote the discussion and spread of topics.The current study has the following limitations, which open up some avenues for further research.First, the research study and survey participants only used Weibo and WeChat in China, neglecting the difference embedded in contexts across China and the West. A trial study aimed to what was being studied, which needs further confirmation. Future research is needed to examine how and to what extent contextual and cultural differences affect the research questions and model. Second, the research provides no empirical support for H3b, which means we failed to confirm a positive impact on users from perceived risk about their sharing intention in discussing moral/ethical issues on Chinese SNS. Although differences between posting comments and sharing information are indicated in our discussion, the reasons and mechanisms should be further explored. Third, although the sample size meets the requirements of PLS SEM research with a degree of representativeness to some extent, the limitations of the study caused by the small and non-representative sample still remain; the size and representativeness of the sample need to be expanded in future research, which will contribute to the generalizability of the findings. In addition, the research sample failed to properly consider differences in age, gender, vocation, economic status, education level, and SNS use; therefore, more variables should be taken into consideration in a future study to enhance the representativeness of the research sample.People’s participation in discussion on violations of morality and ethics on the internet is taken as a crucial form of public collective activity in the criticism and supervision of society. One of the doubts about the internet real-name system is whether identifiability will impede such power. In the current study, empirical evidence was provided on the positive effects of identification, perceived anonymity, risk perception, and information credibility on users’ participation in discussions on unethical topics in Chinese SNS, with a view to providing a reference point for subsequent academic studies, information management of SNS, and the governance of society.The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/Ethical review and approval was not required for the study on human participants in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. Written informed consent from the patients/participants or patients/participants legal guardian/next of kin was not required to participate in this study in accordance with the national legislation and the institutional requirements.XC performed the theory analysis and design, and contributed to drafting the manuscript. CH analyzed the data and improved the empirical analysis. YC collected data and improved the conclusions. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.


Transposable element (TE) has the ability to insert into certain parts of the genome, and due to this event, it is possible for TEs to generate new factors and one of these factors are microRNAs (miRNA). miRNAs are non-coding RNAs made up of 19 to 24 nucleotides and numerous miRNAs are derived from TE. In this study, to support general knowledge on TE and miRNAs derived from TE, several bioinformatics tools and databases were used to analyze miRNAs derived from TE in two aspects: evolution and human disease. The distribution of TEs in diverse species presents that almost half of the genome is covered with TE in mammalians and less than a half in other vertebrates and invertebrates. Based on selected evolution-related miRNAs studies, a total of 51 miRNAs derived from TE were found and analyzed. For the human disease-related miRNAs, total of 34 miRNAs derived from TE were organized from the previous studies. In summary, abundant miRNAs derived from TE are found, however, the function of miRNAs derived from TE is not informed either. Therefore, this study provides theoretical understanding of miRNAs derived from TE by using various bioinformatics tools. Drosophila melanogaster that have the ability to adjust their position and replicate in host genome that categorizes into two large classes with different mechanisms . Th. Th15]. reptiles . The disreptiles ,86,87.Approximately half of the genome is covered in TEs for mammalians and zebrafish, and over 10 percent for chicken and C. elegans and these highly distributed TEs are capable of generating miRNAs and TFBSs ,31,34,87The human disease and cancer related miRNAs derived from TE were analyzed with TFs. TransmiR database provides the information on TFBS that regulates or correlates with miRNAs. First, the examination of all 34 human disease and cancer related miRNAs derived from TE from The aim of this study was to introduce the basic bioinformatics tools used for TE and miRNAs derived from TE studies. The evolution and human disease-related miRNAs derived from TE were identified by published papers and they were analyzed with bioinformatics tools. Abundant miRNAs were derived from TEs and they have a close relation with primate and evolution and human disease and cancer. Here, fundamental information of miRNAs derived from TE by using several of the bioinformatics tools are analyzed.