Information education has been vigorously promoted in various countries, making the application of information technologies in language education popular. The combination of information technologies and Japanese learning can make information technologies a practical tool to promote the thinking and cognitive abilities of students in Japanese learning. Corpus teaching is a kind of information technologies integrated teaching method, which enables students to carry out meaningful Japanese learning and promotes learning performance and learning effect of students. Based on information education, the Japanese learning method under Internet corpus is constructed and applied to practical teaching. This study investigates learning performance and the learning effect of students through a questionnaire. Through the experimental design, Japanese teaching has been conducted on 322 students in a university in Shanghai for 18 weeks (3 h/week) under the experimental Internet corpus. Through the experiment, it is found that various factors affect the Internet corpus learning method, and the linear relationship between the influencing factors is divided. Through the comparison results, it is also found that the Internet corpus teaching method can have a positive impact on the learning performance of students and then promote their learning effect. The application of Internet corpus learning matches the development of text corpus and audio corpus and the support of picture databases. Audio and video corpora can effectively improve the learning performance and the learning effect of students by searching for learning content in the database. Suggestions are put forward that the government should optimize its policies to promote Japanese learning and informal education based on learning performance. Information technologies have become inevitable in modern people’s life. The use of information technologies in language education is getting popular. Governments in various countries are promoting information education greatly. The integration of information technologies into instruction can be referred to as a teaching strategy or teaching model, which combines computer technologies and the functions of the Internet with suitable topics, suitable timing, and distinct subject teaching. Due to the impact of the coronavirus, people have to study and work at home. With the emergence of online teaching and meetings, it is implied that the integration of information technologies and Japanese learning can make information technologies into a practical tool to promote the thinking and cognitive abilities of students in learning Japanese. Through this method, students can enhance their ability to use Japanese, further improve their learning effect of Japanese, and achieve their learning goal of the Japanese curriculum. Therefore, students and teachers in various social phenomena and education fields are in urgent need of the application of corpus in Japanese learning, which can effectively remove the limitation of space and time. Corpus teaching is a method of integrating information technologies into teaching. A Japanese learning corpus could provide Japanese learners with a large number of true language materials, which has become a handy search tool for teachers editing teaching materials or proceeding to teach, and students inquiring and acquiring rich language materials. Currently, it takes merely 1–2 lessons per week to carry out the Japanese curriculum in colleges. A lot of teachers stress Japanese vocabulary, rather than its flexible use, resulting in that students are not able to correctly use Japanese as a communication tool. As a communication tool, the Japanese should be taught with more attention on its flexible use in daily life. One-way learning mode, where teachers lecture and students take notes and memorize knowledge, would make the language lose its functional meaning. Teachers may use the Internet corpus to design teaching content for students. Students can be more quickly and accurately familiar with the usage of sentences, understand their correct meaning, and significantly improve their information exploration ability and performance. Internet corpus linguistics has been developed for a long period. However, there is not sufficient research on the application of corpora to Japanese learning internationally. The positive effect of corpus teaching on Japanese learning requires observation and positive attitude of students to the application of corpora. Besides, its instruction needs further studies. The benefits of information-based teaching mainly lie in the following aspects: student-centered learning can be achieved, and a harmonious and mutually supportive learning environment can be created. In information-based teaching, the dominant position of students has been strengthened, which is beneficial to the learning motivations, learning performance, and learning effect of students. In this teaching model, the knowledge of students is taught not only just by the teacher but also through the network, forums, multimedia resources, and computer software. With the help of teachers, students independently acquire information, analyze information, and process information, thus cultivating their independent learning ability. The modern teaching method is capable to break through the difficulties to inspire the wisdom of students to solve some very abstract problems. Under the demonstration, students can intuitively understand, master, and overcome the blank and fatigue of language expression in the past. Therefore, they can deeply understand the language. Intuitive image demonstration is more likely to stimulate the confidence of students in solving problems so that the key and difficult points in Japanese learning are solved one by one. The lively and interesting problem situation stimulates the desires of students for knowledge. The sound and vivid display can arouse attention of students, stimulate emotional participation of students, and mobilize their enthusiasm for learning, which lays a good foundation for teachers to teach new content. The practice has proved that the best teaching effects are achieved when students have a strong interest in learning content. Only when students form the most ideal learning state can the problems in Japanese learning be easily solved and the thinking ability of students be cultivated. Therefore, the focus is given on the impact of the Internet corpus learning method based on information education on the learning motivation and learning effect of Japanese learning. As a result, the issue discussed here is rather primary for the reference of Japanese teachers and would benefit the governmental policy promotion of Japanese education and the promotion of information education.In the “Literature Review” section, the research results in relevant research fields are referred to discuss the research methods of this study. Then, description is implemented on the relevant knowledge of samples and measurement indicators. Later, the linear structural relationship model is used to analyze the fitting coefficient of the model established in this study. Finally, the results are obtained and the conclusion is drawn.According to (1)Authenticity: Learning is constructed in real activities or simulated situations.(2)Active exploration: With learner-centered, teachers should provide learning activities connected with living situations for students to understand the meanings of principles through the actual operation.(3)Interaction and sharing: Knowledge is learned through peer interaction or scaffolding of experts in the learning process.Learning motivations refer to the inner process of attracting the learning attention of students, maintaining the learning interests, and guiding the learning approach to the learning aims set by teachers . Shi 20. As the (1)Endogenous orientation: This concept indicates that students are interested in challengeable courses, regard learning as a favorite thing, think learning can expand their vision, can actively learn new courses, and regard learning as developing self-potential and fulfilling aims.(2)Exogenous orientation: This concept means that students learn for receiving others’ affirmation, gain better performance, pass examinations or evaluation, display competition, gain appreciation and attention of the elder or the opposite sex, avoid punishment or scolding, avoid the shame of failure, and get into desired schools.In general, the learning effect refers to the evaluation of the learner after a period of learning activities and the achievement of learning activities to expected effects, i.e., changes in knowledge, skills, behaviors, and attitudes of learners after studying . BaharudAccording to (1)Academic effect: It includes test effect, schedule completion time, and term achievement.(2)Academic achievement: It involves what students are satisfied with, what they achieved, and how preferred in learning.As a result, academic effect and academic achievement are used for measuring teaching effectiveness.H1: Internet corpus learning shows significantly positive relations with learning motivations.H2: Learning motivations indicate notably positive relations with the learning effect.With the empirical study on corpora, H3: Internet corpus learning shows notably positive relations with learning effect.When studying the influence of linear factors on a certain effect, it is necessary to use a model of linear structural relationships. According to the results of the hypotheses, With the experimental design, 322 students of a university in Shanghai participate in the 18-week (3 h/week) experimental Internet corpus Japanese learning.Validity is a measurement tool that can be used to truly measure the problem. It usually includes content validity, standard correlation validity, and structural validity. The questionnaire items of this research refer to international researchers. Predictions were made before the formal questionnaire is issued, which has certain content validity. A test is implemented on the dimensions of the Internet corpus learning, learning motivations, and learning effect. The whole structure containing causal relationships is established with a linear structural relations model. The data input is formed with the correlated coefficient matrix of the observed variables above. The results through analyzing the linear structural relationship model show that the integrated model fit achieves a reasonable range, showing good convergence validity and predictive validity. There are five advantages of using the linear structure to construct the model.(1)Multiple varieties can be processed concurrently.Structural function analysis can simultaneously analyze and deal with multiple dependent variables. In regression analysis or path analysis, even if multiple dependent variables are shown in the chart of statistical results, eventually, when calculating the regression coefficient or path coefficient, each dependent variable is still calculated in order. Therefore, it seems to be that multiple dependent variables are considered in the chart concurrently. However, the existence and influence of other dependent variables are ignored, when a calculation is conducted on the influence or relationship on a dependent variable.(2)There is an allowance for measurement errors in independent variables and dependent variables.There are always errors in measuring variables such as attitude and behaviors, which can neither be fixed by using a single indicator. Structural function analysis allows certain errors in independent variables and dependent variables. Variables can also be measured by multiple indicators. The correlation coefficient between latent variables calculated by the traditional method may be quite different from that calculated by structural function analysis.(3)The structure and relations between factors can be evaluated simultaneously.It is assumed that to understand the correlation between latent variables, each latent variable is measured with an index or topic. A common practice is to use factor analysis to calculate the relationship between latent variables  and topic  for each latent variable, then obtain the factor score as the observed value of the latent variable, and finally calculate the factor score as the correlation coefficient between latent variables. There are two independent steps. In the structural equation, these two steps are considered simultaneously, i.e., the relationship between factor and topic and the relation between factors and the factor load.(4)It is a measurement model allowing greater elasticity.Traditionally, each topic (index) is allowed to belong to a single factor, but the structural agenda analysis allows more complex models. For example, when the mathematical ability of students is measured by writing mathematical questions in the Japanese language, the test scores (indicators) are subordinate to both mathematical factors and factor load . Traditional factor analysis is difficult to deal with a model with complex subordinate relationships, such as one index belonging to multiple factors or considering higher-order factors.(5)The fitting degree of the whole model can be estimated.In traditional path analysis, an estimation is only made on the strength of each path. In structural function analysis, in addition to the estimation of the above parameters, the overall fitting degree of different models to the same sample data is also calculated to determine which model is closer to the relationship presented by the data.Therefore, in view of the above five advantages, the linear structure model is used for experiments.The total correlated coefficient of items can be used to test the structural validity, that is, reliability analysis, and the total correlation coefficient of the items after calculation can be used to judge the content of the questionnaire. The total correlated coefficient of each dimension is bigger than 0.7, indicating that each dimension in this questionnaire has a measure of structural validity.The content of the online corpus teaching questionnaire is shown in Reliability and validity are further analyzed. The higher Cronbach’s α reveals the better reliability. The formal questionnaire in this study is developed according to the standards, and the measured Cronbach’s α exists in 0.72–0.88, in line with the range of reliability. The linear structural relation (LISREL) model analyzes factors and paths in traditional statistics and adds simultaneous equations to econometrics for the calculation of multifactor and multi-path. The evaluation of model fit can be performed with preliminary fit criteria, integrated model fit, and model internal structure fit. 2 refers to the establishment of assumptions to determine the explicit level a and the freedom degree df. The negative domain threshold can be obtained according to the χ2 table. Using the chi-square test, χ2-value is calculated according to the sample data, and the calculated value of χ2 is compared with the critical value of χ2 . If the calculated value is greater than the critical value, then II0 is denied; on the contrary, II0 is admitted. The following equation accords to the calculation of the chi-square value:χfo expresses the actual times, fc means the theoretical times, and Σ stands for the summing up. The chi-square test is widely used in the correlation tests between categorical and categorical variables, or between categorical and ordinal variables. GFI is the abbreviation of the goodness of fit index; AGFI refers to the adjusted goodness-of-fit index; the residual mean root is shortened as RMR. RMR is the sum of squares of the sample variance and covariance minus the corresponding estimated variance and covariance. Then, the square root of the average is obtained. It is assumed that the model is correct, and thus, the smaller the RMR, the better the fitting . Obviously, the integrated model shows good initial fitting. Therefore, Hypothesis 1 can be verified that there is a positive relationship between Internet corpora learning and learning motivations.In terms of preliminary fitting, the dimensions of the Internet corpus learning  in p < 0.01), learning motivations are significantly positively correlated with learning effect , and the Internet corpus learning is significantly correlated with learning motivations. The promotion of the learning effect  is positive and significant, supporting H1, H2, and H3. Therefore, Hypothesis 2 can be verified that there is a positive relationship between learning results and learning motivations.In terms of internal fitting, Internet corpus learning is significantly and positively correlated with learning motivations , indicating that the model shows a better fit index. Therefore, Hypothesis 3 can be verified that there is a positive relationship between Internet corpora learning and learning results.For the integrated model fitting, the integrated model fitting standard χWhen we use network corpus resources for learning, teachers could make guidance or demonstration for students to operate corpora, where might appear positively unexpected learning effect. In contrast, it could cultivate the autonomous learning abilities of students, allowing students to learn to organize conclusions and points. From the research results, the application of Internet corpus learning could provide Japanese language learners with a large amount of true language learning materials and deduce wrong word spelling and sentence patterns. After keying in words, corpora, as a network search tool, would provide a rapid search function for students deducing and observing the regulations and further finding out the rules and making use of Japanese as well as provide effective search results for the usage of prepositions. The experiment outcomes show that the application of Internet corpora, with the characteristics of a large amount of data, languages being truly used, and rapid search and analyses, could introduce the real use of the environment of a language into the language education so that students could find out the use of words or languages and generate knowledge from seeking solutions for problems. The application of Internet corpus learning matches with the development of written-language corpora and audio corpora and the support of picture databank. Audio-video databank could effectively enhance learning motivations and outcomes of students by searching learning contents in the databank. The current application of Internet corpus to learning is moving toward the refinement of the human-computer interface and text and sentence structure. The match with visual reality could promote Students’ Japanese learning as in real living situations. However, the research level of this study is primary, where only questionnaires are used to investigate students, but feedback of teachers on corpus teaching methods is not required. Therefore, in the follow-up study, teachers, including Students’ parents, will be investigated.From the study outcomes, the following practical suggestions are given:1.Teachers should apply Internet corpus learning, understand the use of Internet corpus, and even compile customized corpora suitable for students to largely reinforce Students’ Japanese learning achievement and enhance the Japanese learning motivations.2.In addition to basic literacy and teaching competency, the initial training and cultivation of teachers should stress the use of Internet corpus, and teaching methods of teachers should match the public needs to establish Internet corpus-related courses and advance teachers’ use of the Internet corpus. In addition to encouraging participation in relevant seminars, the output of works of teachers should be emphasized to have teachers be familiar with Internet corpus teaching methods to enhance the application frequency of Internet corpus to Japanese learning.3.With the application of Internet corpus to teaching, teachers should provide more practice time and positive encouragement and appreciation in the teaching process. Regardless of teaching methods and strategies, it is expected to promote the Japanese learning performance of students to make up for the differences and achieve win-win.The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by the Quanzhou Normal University Ethics Committee. The patients/participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study. Written informed consent was obtained from the individual(s) for the publication of any potentially identifiable images or data included in this article.The author confirms being the sole contributor of this work and has approved it for publication.The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.


Aedes albopictus and the seasonal sporadic transmission of autochthonous cases of arboviral diseases  in temperate areas, such as Europe and North America, highlight the importance of effective mosquito-control interventions to reduce not only nuisance, but also major threats for public health. Local, regional, and even national mosquito control programs have been established in many countries and are executed on a seasonal basis by either public or private bodies. In order for these interventions to be worthwhile, funding authorities should ensure that mosquito control is (a) planned by competent scientific institutions addressing the local demands, (b) executed following the plan that is based on recommended and effective methods and strategies, (c) monitored regularly by checking the efficacy of the implemented actions, (d) evaluated against the set of targets, and (e) regularly improved according to the results of the monitoring. Adherence to these conditions can only be assured if a formal quality management system is adopted and enforced that ensures the transparency of effectiveness of the control operation. The current paper aims at defining the two components of this quality management system, quality assurance and quality control for mosquito control programs with special emphasis on Europe, but applicable over temperate areas.The recent spread of invasive mosquito species, such as  Aedes species  in Croatia, France, Italy and Spain [Plasmodium parasites in Greece [Culex pipiens) in several countries [Anthropogenic changes at a local, regional and global scale, such as land use change, increasing trade, travel and urbanization, coupled with current and predicted climate changes, accelerate several processes that strongly enhance the incidence and spread of mosquito-borne diseases, not only in tropical but also in temperate areas ,2. In Eund Spain ,6,7, reon Greece  and incrountries .Aedes invasive species, mosquito control programs are being increasingly implemented in Europe. They significantly vary with respect to the objective, target species, ecological situation, scale and available resources. They also exploit and integrate different approaches, from social engagement to reduce mosquito breeding sites, to use of larvicides , or Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis (Bti)), to spraying of adulticide insecticides, to release of sterilized (SIT) or incompatible (IIT) males. Although a complete figure of the costs of public mosquito control in the European region is not available, it has been estimated that Greece invests approximately 7 million €/year, while Emilia-Romagna Region in Italy and the Upper Rhine Valley in Germany spend between 2–4 million €/year each [As a response to the public health threats posed by native and invasive mosquitoes and to the increasing nuisance due to aggressive day-biting ear each ,11,12,13https://www.aedescost.eu/sites/default/files/2020-08/AIMcOSTQuestionnaire_Full_Report_postedV4.pdf (accessed on 25 March 2021).In contrast to management of agricultural insect pests, whose benefit is measured in terms of increased yield, the benefit of protecting people from mosquito bites and increased wellbeing is challenging to quantify. In the majority of cases, private pest control operators (PCOs) selected through public tenders are responsible for the planning of the interventions and the selection of appropriate tools/approaches for an efficient implementation. Most PCOs are certified by the International Organization of Standardization (ISO), which defines only general standards to ensure the quality, safety, and efficiency of products, services, and systems, as well as their traceability. In some cases, public bodies may also undertake mosquito control operations. Whether these programs are cost-effective, efficient and appropriately implemented is challenging to determine. The European Centre of Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) and the World Health Organization (WHO) stress the importance of careful monitoring of the quality of the mosquito control programs ,17,18,19Aedes Invasive Mosquito (AIM) COST Action  framework. The above experts include academics, public officers, animal health officers, as well as representatives from public and private mosquito control companies. We argue that there is an urgency to advocate for external quality management (QM) in mosquito control programs in Europe. This paper summarizes procedures, methods and indicators for the implementation of the two QM components  and quality control (QC)), highlights major challenges and constraints, and indicates who should take the responsibility for funding, planning and execution. The final aim is to induce stakeholders  to become involved in this crucial issue.This paper reflects the view of 15 experts (see authors list) on mosquito biology and control from seven EU countries—networking within the Quality assurance (QA) and quality control (QC) processes are the two components of a QM system, which (a) coordinates and directs all activities, tasks and responsibilities needed to achieve the objectives of a mosquito control campaign; and (b) maintains standards of excellence and continuously improves its effectiveness and efficiency . QualityThe QM system requires establishment of mutually agreed protocols between actors assigning and carrying out control programs. The objectives of mosquito control programs may vary according to the context and political will. For instance, eradication and/or containment might be the ultimate goal in the case of invasion events or recently established invasive mosquito species. On the other hand, routine  interventions aim to reduce mosquito populations and hence decrease nuisance. In public health risk situations, interventions aim to prevent pathogen transmission, eradicate the disease or reduce the size of an epidemic. In any case, activities should be tailored to the size of the area to be treated, the type of land use and the target mosquito species.Currently mosquito control is mainly based on integrated pest management, relying on the combined use of several mosquito control tools selected according to evidence provided by surveillance. The establishment of a consistent, reliable and sustainable long-term surveillance system is therefore a critical component to any successful mosquito control program in order to make informed decisions and respond appropriately to changing mosquito populations. Irrespective of the control methods planned, it is also essential to make sure that surveillance activities also conform to appropriate QM criteria. As with control, these will vary according to the surveillance methods used. The “assessment of the efficacy” must be considered as a deliverable of any mosquito control program and thus considered part of QC and under the umbrella of the QM process.Ae. albopictus control in European and other temperate regions.The body responsible for QM should be independent (not related to the operating pest control actors). An independent evaluation within funding authorities is challenging and needs to be meticulously designed and operated. The external QM bodies could be appointed by the legal act of the country or chosen through the procurement procedure from the qualified public institutions  or private companies qualified for QC and not engaged in mosquito control activities.Considering the operational phase, actions and procedures, and dissemination level, the implementation of QA and QC in mosquito control programs involves four phases that are aligned with mosquito activities  Table 2Table 2. The exploratory phase begins with receiving/filling a demand for a mosquito control program and the associated request for budget and resources. First the goal of the project, tightly connected to resources requested, should be defined. The need for control programs should be supported by epidemiological or surveillance data and risk or nuisance estimates. Public consultation as well as a scientific opinion are also necessary to make decisions on whether the project should be approved and supported or not. The decision-making process may often not be straightforward, involve several legal bodies and may take longer than expected. This has severe consequences for the whole program and may affect monitoring and efficacy assessment.The planning phase might come within the respective municipality’s, region’s or both jurisdictions, depending on the country. It is the administrative authority’s task to engage scientific institution/experts in identifying the actions, objectives, desired outcomes and goals based on local needs as part of the mosquito control plan. This ideally should take into consideration information from local mosquito surveillance, environmental and public health data (in case of outbreaks) . Due to In Europe, depending on the country, mosquito control programs, as public health interventions, constitute a service provided by either public/NGO (not-for-profit) or private (for-profit) organizations. Transparency should be ensured throughout this process and a binding contract must be signed based on specific criteria. For example, if treatments are made by a PCO identified by a public tender, the QC activities should be well described in the contract in order to make the PCO aware of its duties and possible penalties.The QC  of the program have been achieved) is likely to be the most challenging part of quality management. This is because a list of unpredicted factors, such as weather conditions, may dramatically affect mosquito population growth. In addition, internal aspects of the whole operation, such as delays in concluding procurements, shortage of funding and other issues may affect the outcome of the operation. Regardless of the difficulties, the assessment of the efficacy of the mosquito control program should be a central part of QC, should be always included, and could provide important feedback for future activities.A variety of tools and quality indicators (see below) can be used in a thorough QC procedure to be performed by an independent/external evaluator. Intermediate short reports should be regularly submitted to funding authorities and respective administrators in order to take prompt appropriate corrective actions if needed. A final QC report should be produced at the end of the mosquito season, which should be communicated along the stakeholders/actors responsible for the identification of potential gaps and promotion of improvement actions. Intermediate short reports to be submitted to funding authorities and respective administrations are also advisable.Enrollment of the public could be considered to enhance both transparency and provide public administrative authorities responsible for mosquito control programs with feedback on the general satisfaction levels of the residents in an objective way .QA and QC processes may be implemented at different geographic scales and involve a range of actors. First, at the national level, legislation to render quality management compulsory and an integral part of the mosquito control program needs to be established or updated. At the regional or local  scale, authorities should ensure that QA and QC processes are explicitly included in procurements and activities related to mosquito control.To promote objectivity and fair evaluation, all QA and QC processes should be conducted by an independent/external body of actor(s), who are not connected with those making decisions and/or conducting activities. This is crucial, to avoid a conflict of interest with the authorities assigning and/or carrying out control programs.A list of tools to execute the QA is outlined in The QA report is an important document that provides the foundation for the QC. Hence, all tools and approaches required for the implementation of QC  should be listed in the QA report, and a clear procedure for execution should be given. In addition, the QA report should include a section that describes the procedures that should be followed if an amendment is necessary. This means that the QA report is a dynamic (“live”) document that can be updated regularly, considering and incorporating new information on mosquito activity  and vector borne disease outbreaks within the area under control ,24. Any As stated earlier, QC encompasses two elements; first to ensure that all mosquito control activities have been properly conducted and second to evaluate whether the goals of the program objectives  have been met. Based on documents provided by the operator and the QA report, QC actors should perform unbiased monitoring, evaluating if all program activities have been conducted appropriately. Quality control monitoring methods and approaches should be adapted to the type of activities employed. For example, surveillance activities using traps can be validated by checking the presence, condition and function of traps, as well as the frequency of servicing and the quality of data generated. In control activities targeting larvae, mortality rates in treated breeding sites, tests of killing capacity of water sampled from treated ponds in controlled laboratory conditions, as well as adult emergency rates from treated and non-treated sites should be included. Quality control will greatly benefit if timely announcement of treatment planning and real time reporting of activities by service provider  and by the QC actor are conducted.To evaluate the outcome of the control activities, indicators regarding mosquito abundance and nuisance on humans should be employed. A meticulously designed system to monitor spatial and temporal trends of mosquito populations in treated and, if possible, non-treated control areas (otherwise data on mosquito population before and after treatment could be used) should be established. This system should allow a thorough statistical analysis of mosquito population dynamics and the quantification of possible external and stochastic events. Gathering and archiving historic data of mosquito populations in an area can provide the foundation for evaluating the efficacy of implemented actions in a contemporary and future timeframe. Likewise, a thorough analysis of nuisance reported  used to improve some aspects of existing programs or (b) considered in planning future programs. The reduced availability of effective conventional vector control strategies and biocides, the increasing cases of resistance to insecticides and the necessity to reduce the impact of chemicals on the environment and non-target species, reinforce the importance of adoption of routine QC activities in all vector control programs.The establishment of consensual thresholds for larval and/or adult population reduction under different entomological and epidemiological scenarios is quite challenging and should often be case specific. However, it is essential to develop practical methods to determine the rate of success of the mosquito control program . TherefoAedes mosquito species, such as Ae. albopictus, in order to prevent reduced accessibility to private properties for surveillance and control activities and an overall low participation in source reduction campaigns. The difficulties in implementing effective public engagement strategies can seriously affect the QA process of mosquito control programs especially when targeting invasive urban Aedes mosquito species.Community participation is particularly relevant in the case of control programs targeting invasive urban QA and QC are both complex and demanding processes that might be proportionally “expensive” in control programs of medium/small size. However, since it is absolutely essential for all programs regardless of their size, an adjustment should be done for smaller surveillance and control programs that does not jeopardize their main goals.Quality management, including quality assurance and quality control, should become an essential pillar of any mosquito control campaign regardless of whether the target of the campaign is nuisance reduction, disease prevention, outbreak control or eradication/containment of an invasion event. This is strongly supported by a clear majority of medical entomologists, public health officials and vector management professionals participating in a recent survey within the frame of the AIM-COST project. Interestingly, the specific role of QA and QC is unclear to many of these professionals and therefore requires consideration and inclusion in all legal and other related documents.Herein, we used the term “quality management” as the overall monitoring of the control interventions. “Quality management” is divided into “quality assurance” to verify the operational approaches followed and the efficacy of the procedures, and “quality control”, which deals with the implementation of the planned actions and the validation of the outcome that is directly related with the aims of the project. In addition, QM should include processes to evaluate decision making at all levels of administration and different actors. Significant delays in control program implementation, especially for routine treatments, are frequently due to deferrals in decision making, procurements and “negotiations”, at different levels of administration. Delays in the implementation of the mosquito control programs negatively affect their efficacy, since the initial stage of mosquito population development is not managed in a timely manner.There are generic and specific subjects that require special approaches when a QM strategy is adopted. Herein, we outline the basic procedures and elements see , genericThe need for an independent/external QM unrelated to those making decisions or implementing the actions. Often, quality checks are performed either by the funding organizations or the operators. These activities cannot replace the external evaluation of the whole program.The transparency of the whole operation is assured by independent evaluation and frequent communication of the evaluation reports to the public. This facilitates a strong public support and involvement in mosquito control campaigns.Ensuring an appropriate budget within each mosquito control program is dedicated to QA and QC processes is fundamental for achieving the above goals. Hence, a proportion of the budget should be allocated for this purpose—anticipated in the initial proposal—and specific procurements for independent experts should be included.Implementation of the periodic and final reporting of evaluation of the efficacy of actions. It is important to identify whether the program goals have been met and eventually what corrective measures need to be taken in the next mosquito control season.Four elements need to be specifically stressed:In conclusion, a QM system should not be seen only as a monitoring mechanism to identify weaknesses and define responsibilities but mainly as a dynamic tool to increase efficacy of mosquito control programs, at a cost effective, and environmentally and socially sound manner. As such, QM should become a major instrument to improve on-going and future programs.


This paper estimates the potential distributional consequences of the first phase of the COVID-19 lockdowns on poverty and labour income inequality in 20 Latin American and Caribbean (LAC) countries. We estimate the share of individuals that are potentially able to remain active under the lockdown by taking into account individuals’ teleworking capacity but also whether their occupation is affected by legal workplace closures or mobility restrictions. Furthermore, we compare the shares under the formal (de jure) lockdown policies assuming perfect compliance with the shares under de facto lockdowns where there is some degree of non-compliance. We then estimate individuals’ potential labour income losses and examine changes in poverty and labour income inequality. We find an increase in poverty and labour income inequality in most of the LAC countries due to social distancing; however, the observed changes are lower under de facto lockdowns, revealing the potential role of non-compliance as a coping strategy during the lockdowns. Social distancing measures have led to an increase in inequality both between and within countries. Lastly, we show that most of the dispersion in the labour income loss across countries is explained by the sectoral/occupational employment structure of the economies. To prevent the spread of the COVID-19 pandemic, governments around the world have imposed social distancing measures which have had an asymmetric effect on the labour market. While some sectors have been considered essential and thus essential workers have continued to go to work and to receive their wages, other sectors have had to close or have been affected by mobility restrictions because of the high risk of transmission of the virus that these activities entail. Among the individuals that have been asked to stay at home, some have been able to remain active due to the task content of their occupations  countries. To do so, this study relies on two data sources. First, we gather detailed information from national laws, decrees and press releases on the strictness and the duration of the first phase of the lockdown in each LAC country.Second, this paper conducts a novel ex-post assessment of the potential implications of the COVID-19 lockdowns on poverty and inequality, thus departing from the strategy of simulating ex-ante impacts under different scenarios of lockdown. To carry out the analysis, we partly follow Palomino et al.  and Duma5Third, this paper contributes to the existing literature by comparing the formal (de jure) lockdown policies when perfect compliance is assumed with de facto lockdowns when there is some degree of non-compliance. The difference is likely to be important in the context of LAC countries for several reasons  index which captures individuals’ ability to work during the lockdown. We propose two measures of the LWA index: the first measure assumes perfect lockdown compliance and takes into account individuals’ teleworking capacity but also whether individuals’ occupation is affected by workplace closures and mobility restrictions, while the second measure allows additionally for some degree of non-compliance.This study uses rich household surveys from the IADB covering 20 LAC countries: Argentina, the Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Jamaica, Mexico, Nicaragua, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay and Venezuela. For each country, we use the most recent harmonised survey that is available.It should be noted that the information collected for Argentina and the Bahamas is only representative of the urban areas. Therefore, the results for these two countries are not directly comparable to the ones for the other countries. Indeed, the feasibility to work from home is usually higher in urban compared to rural areas .Second, for individuals who work in sectors that are closed, we assume that they can no longer work and therefore do not receive their salary. This might not be the case for all individuals. Some workers might have continued to receive their salary, regardless of the fact that their occupation is affected by legal workplace closures, either because of the rigidity of their contracts or because they are able to perform certain tasks from home. In this case, they would have received the totality or part of their salary.To proceed with the estimation of the LWA index, we need to classify the economic activities into three categories: (i) the activities that are explicitly stated as closed, (ii) the activities that are explicitly stated as open and (iii) the remaining activities affected by mobility restrictions. We gather detailed information from national laws, decrees and press releases for each country in our sample. The decisions to close down or leave open specific economic activities have been taken at the sectoral level. Therefore, we conduct this classification at the sectoral level. The only available variable for sectors that has been harmonised by the IADB in the household surveys is at the 1-digit level. This gives us nine different sectors.We now proceed with the classification of the sectors into open and closed activities. Since countries in the LAC region have implemented different lockdown policies, it is important to identify in each country which sectors are open and which are closed, as well as the duration of the first phase of the lockdown.Figure 20We find strong differences across countries in the type of lockdown that was implemented. Nicaragua is the only country in our sample that did not implement a lockdown. Therefore, all the workers in Nicaragua are potentially able to remain active. Paraguay and Uruguay have the lowest proportions of workers in sectors that are closed. Yet, Paraguay has imposed a stricter lockdown than Uruguay. As a result, almost all the workers in Uruguay are potentially able to remain active under the lockdown, whereas in Paraguay, it depends additionally on the capacity of individuals to work from home. On the other extreme of the spectrum, the Bahamas and Argentina have the highest proportions of individuals that are working in closed sectors (28% and 29% respectively). Countries such as the Dominican Republic, Barbados or Peru also have a high proportion of workers that are unable to work (around 17–18%). Lastly, the highest proportion of workers in sectors that are affected by mobility restrictions is found in El Salvador with 49% of the workers required to work from home. Therefore, the ability to remain active for these workers rests essentially on their capacity to perform their job from home. There are also strong differences across countries in terms of the duration of the first phase of the lockdown. In this respect, Guatemala has implemented the longest lockdown at the national level (132 days).Based on the sectoral classifications and on individuals’ teleworking capacity, we can now construct the LWA index. Figure We examine further how this share varies within countries across occupations, economic activities and specific population groups. The share of individuals able to work under the lockdown differs across occupations  compiled by the University of Oxford as well as Google workplace mobility data.It should be noted that the GMI is reported at the regional level for each country. However, the OSI is reported at the national level for all LAC countries . Therefore, in order to compute the degree of compliance at the regional level in each country, we have to assume a common stringency index across regions. Following Yeyati and Sartorio , we norm22The level of compliance generally varies over time in most of the countries. An increase in non-compliance can be observed when the level of stringency of the lockdown policy was higher than the drop in work mobility. Overall, lockdown compliance has steadily decreased in many countries over the period of the pandemic. Towards the end of the first phase of the lockdown, most of the countries experience a decrease in compliance. The highest drop in compliance is registered in Brazil and Venezuela (− 58% and − 57% respectively). Furthermore, the drop in compliance seems to be faster in some countries than others as time passes by. As previously mentioned, there are many potential reasons behind these differences in the level of compliance across countries.Therefore, assuming perfect compliance is likely to lead to a biased estimation of the potential share of individuals who are able to remain active. In order to allow for some degree of non-compliance, we modify the expression of the Lockdown Working Ability measure as follows:where To include non-compliance in our LWA estimation, we use the lockdown compliance index presented in Fig. We now compute the LWA measure under de facto compliance Fig. . The proWe find large differences across countries since LAC countries exhibit very different levels of compliance; yet, when we take non-compliance into account, the potential ability to work during the lockdowns increases in all countries. Non-compliance is the lowest in countries such as Costa Rica and Uruguay. Among other reasons, this is likely due to the type of lockdown policy that was implemented. Costa Rica and Uruguay did not implement a strict lockdown compared to other LAC countries, thus decreasing the need and urge for individuals not to comply. In the opposite, countries such as Brazil and Venezuela have higher levels of non-compliance. As a result, the additional share of individuals potentially able to remain active due to a scenario of imperfect compliance is higher in these countries. Overall, by taking into account the possibility that individuals do not comply with the social distancing rules, we find that the proportion of individuals potentially able to remain active varies from 54% in Argentina to 96% in Uruguay.We examine further how the incremental shares differ within countries across occupations, economic activities and specific population groups. This exercise also allows us to examine the characteristics of potential non-compliers. The increase in the share of individuals potentially able to work under the lockdown due to de facto compliance differs across occupations  were implemented during the pandemic in the LAC region can be informative for our study. Therefore, we provide a summary of the programmes which were explicitly targeting informal workers or aiming at having an effect on the labour income of formal workers in the Appendix, Table To examine the changes in poverty and inequality, we calculate a series of measures which we define, before presenting the results. First, we calculate the loss rate in the labour income of every worker caused by the lockdown, i.e. Then, we calculate the Foster-Greer-Thorbecke indices which are a family of poverty metrics. These indices are derived by substituting different values of the parameter where With respect to changes in labour income inequality, we calculate the Gini coefficient (G) and the Mean Logarithmic Deviation (MLD) index. The Gini coefficient can be expressed as follows:where We compute the absolute and relative changes in labour income inequality measured by the MLD index which will be denoted by We first examine the LIC curves for each LAC country of our sample. Figure When assuming perfect compliance, the picture differs across countries. Indeed, there is a lot of heterogeneity across countries in terms of the levels and the slopes of the incidence curves. First, not all parts of the labour income distribution are affected similarly in all countries. For instance, in Argentina, the Bahamas, Barbados, Brazil, Colombia, Dominican Republic and El Salvador, the bottom percentiles are the most affected. By contrast, in Belize, Chile, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Jamaica, Paraguay and Uruguay, all parts of the labour income distribution suffer relatively similar losses. Furthermore, when the bottom percentiles are affected, they are not affected in similar proportions in all countries. They are more disproportionately impacted in Argentina and in El Salvador compared to those in the Bahamas, Barbados, Brazil, Colombia and Dominican Republic. In Mexico, Paraguay and Peru, there is an increase in the labour income polarization since the most affected are individuals in the middle part of the labour income distribution.When comparing de jure with de facto lockdowns, labour income losses are higher when assuming perfect compliance. However, the differences depend on the level of non-compliance. Not all countries have a significant degree of non-compliance; and therefore, for these countries, we do not observe significant differences. This is the case for Barbados, Belize, Bolivia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Jamaica, Paraguay and Uruguay. By contrast, the differences between de jure and de facto lockdowns are more striking in the case of Argentina, Brazil, El Salvador, Guatemala, Mexico, Peru and Venezuela. This is potentially due to differences in the informal employment rate — it is above 70% in El Salvador, Guatemala and Peru. In all these countries, we can see that non-compliance attenuates the labour income losses of those that are the most affected.Lastly, as mentioned previously, we do not include social assistance programmes that were implemented during the pandemic in the LAC region. However, since we know that the emergency transfers target primarily the poorest individuals, we can expect the labour income loss rate to be reduced in the lower part of the total labour income distribution.To identify the potentially most affected individuals in the population, we estimate the mean loss labour income rate under perfect compliance across occupations, economic activities and population groups. Among all occupations  compared to under imperfect compliance (0.6 pp increase for the Gini coefficient and 1 pp increase for the MLD index). Across countries, the highest increase in the Gini coefficient under perfect compliance is observed in El Salvador with a 1.8 pp increase. This increase is reduced to 1.2 pp under imperfect compliance. Lastly, the highest increase in the MLD index under perfect compliance is in Brazil with a 2.5 pp increase. However, due to the high level of non-compliance in Brazil, this is no longer the case under imperfect compliance. The highest increase in the MLD index observed under de facto compliance is in El Salvador with a 1.5 pp increase. Overall, the inclusion of non-compliance attenuates the increase in poverty and inequality, and this effect is higher in countries with a higher level of non-compliance.We decompose overall inequality into a between-countries and a within-countries component Table . Our betThe fact that inequality between countries increases more than inequality within countries underlines the fact that the main changes in labour income inequality due to social distancing have happened between LAC countries.When non-compliance is taken into account, our results on the decomposition of overall inequality differ in magnitude. Indeed, there is a smaller increase in both inequality between and within countries. This is not a surprising result since, within countries, the potential non-compliers are more likely to be among the poorest individuals, thus reducing the increase in inequality. Similarly, the countries that have lower levels of compliance are, in general, also the countries with lower levels of development and weaker institutionality  the lockdown policy and (ii) conditional on the implementation of a lockdown, the sectoral/occupational employment structure of the economy in explaining the observed labour income losses and leave aside non-compliance to understand better the role of the first two components. More specifically, we conduct a series of counterfactual exercises under the scenario of perfect compliance. Our counterfactual exercise consists of assigning to all countries the same lockdown policy, which was implemented in the country that we select as the benchmark. We do this 19 times to subsequently select each country’s lockdown policy (in terms of strictness and duration) as the benchmark.This measure compares what the 90th to 10th percentile ratio would be in the counterfactual world with common lockdown policy, to the actual value. In other words, it calculates the dispersion of the labour income loss in all the countries under the same social distancing measures, the only difference left being the sectoral/occupational employment structure. This allows us to analyse the impact of each parameter separately: (i) the changes in labour income losses due to the lockdown policy and (ii) conditional on the implementation of a lockdown, the changes in labour income losses due to the sectoral/occupational employment structure of the economy.We compute the inter-percentile ratio using wage losses adjusted by the purchasing power parity (PPP 2011 USD) factor conversion from local currency units to international dollars. The values we get for the inter-percentile ratio range from 70 to 84%, the simple average being 75%.To prevent the spread of COVID-19, countries around the world have put in place broad social distancing policies. One of the implications is that many individuals have been unable to work during the lockdown. This study sheds light on the potential distributional consequences of the first phase of the lockdowns on poverty and labour income inequality in 20 Latin American and Caribbean countries. Besides, this study provides an informative comparison of the effects between de jure and de facto lockdowns. While the former assumes perfect compliance, de facto lockdowns are characterised by some degree of non-compliance.Our results show a sizeable potential increase in poverty in almost all LAC countries. Under perfect compliance, the highest increase in the headcount poverty index is observed in Guatemala with a 6 pp increase. We also find that labour income inequality increases for the Gini coefficient and the MLD in almost all countries. The highest increase in the Gini coefficient is observed in El Salvador, reaching a 1.8 pp increase. Similarly, the highest increase in the MLD index is in Brazil with a 2.5 pp increase. The changes in poverty and labour income inequality are still positive when examining de facto compliance. However, the changes have been reduced, thus revealing the potential role of non-compliance in LAC countries as a coping strategy during the lockdowns.Our results also highlight that lockdown measures are likely to worsen inequality in Latin America and the Caribbean both between and within countries. Our decomposition exercise shows that between-countries inequality increases by 19.8% under perfect compliance (9.9% under imperfect compliance) and within-countries inequality increases by 3.7% under perfect compliance (1.8% under imperfect compliance). The observed increase in between-countries inequality is due to the fact that countries with lower levels of development have been hit relatively harder. This is still the case under imperfect compliance even though it is a lower increase since poorer countries have lower levels of compliance. Similarly, within-country inequality increases since the lower part of the labour income distribution has been affected the most in most of the countries. This increase is attenuated under imperfect compliance though since the potential non-compliers are more likely to be among the most vulnerable individuals.A number of factors can explain these observed differences in the changes in poverty and inequality across countries. First, the sectoral employment structure of each country plays an important role in explaining the impact of the shock on employment equilibria. Indeed, these differences in sectoral employment structures lead to differences in teleworking capacity. Countries with higher shares of teleworkability are better prepared to affront lockdowns and workers are relatively more protected against unemployment and labour income drops. These differences in terms of teleworking capacity across countries can be exacerbated by technological change: over the period of the pandemic, countries have probably shifted towards higher teleworking capacity.Yet, additional factors matter to explain why the impact of the pandemic differs across countries. Our results indicate a different mapping of the shock under imperfect compliance compared to the situation in which there is perfect compliance. The level of development, level of informality in labour markets and government effectiveness are factors that can explain this observed cross-country heterogeneity. However, we acknowledge that our partial approach does not capture the full set of mappings that this exogenous shock has had in the labour markets; in particular, we assume that there are no changes in the demand for labour not related with the lockdowns. Yet, there might be other potential factors influencing the full set of new equilibria.


The purpose of the study is to analyze the impact of vaccination against SARS-CoV-2 on anxiety and depression scores in patients with different modalities of chronic kidney disease. One hundred and seventeen renal patients  were evaluated for depression, anxiety, health-related quality of life (HRQOL), and perceived fears and resources with standardized ) and self-reported questionnaires. The measure points were before vaccination and 15 days after vaccination. The main finding of the study was that there was a decrease in the global mean of normal scores for anxiety and depression symptoms in chronic kidney disease patients post-vaccination. We did not find statistically significant differences in depression or anxiety scores, nor any HRQOL differences between the treatment groups. The three main fears reported by the participants at baseline were those of adverse effects, not getting the vaccine, and lack of information. These findings highlight the potential interest of assessing psychological variables related to the impact of vaccination against SARS-CoV-2. New studies will be required to assess the impact of comprehensive vaccine coverage and its psychological impact. The COVID-19 pandemic has caused a notable impact on the mortality and quality of life of billions of people all over the world, and those with chronic diseases such as chronic kidney disease have been especially affected. It is natural that protection of the physical integrity of the population has been the focus of efforts thus far. The pandemic, however, also represents a current and future threat to the mental health status of many individuals  (IQR)). Of the participants, 78 were male and 39 female (67 and 33%)—all of whom received complete vaccination. Details of the sociodemographic characteristics and clinical profile of the sample are summarized in Only 87 participants answered the survey 15 days after vaccination; this is the population in which the analysis was carried out.In the depression subscale, the results were similar; the percentage of people with scores in the normal range was also higher after vaccination. However, both before and after vaccination, most patients presented results within the normal range. We were not able to assert that these results were directly related to vaccination because the study was not designed to confirm this hypothesis; there was no control group and we are aware that many other personal circumstances may act as a bias.p = 0.05). The comparison of scores in the form of a continuous variable for both anxiety and depression, however, showed a significant improvement and benefit before and after vaccination  patients . It is noteworthy that the highest anxiety scores were presented by patients who were in the youngest quartile. In addition, the highest depression scores were found in the range of 56 to 64 years, although they were within the normal range , and after vaccination 7.4 ± 1.7, median 7 (IQR: 6–8.75). p = 0.12 (ANOVA test), but it is of note that kidney transplanted patients presented better results pre-vaccination  decreased post-vaccination. To our knowledge, this is the first study to report such findings for patients with CKD.Although most patients presented scores that fell within the normal range on the anxiety subscale before vaccination, we found 8% of patients with scores above 11 points or suggestive of a clinical problem. After vaccination, the percentage decreased to only 1%. Similar results were obtained on the depression subscale, but in this case, the percentage of patients with results compatible with a clinical problem was very low (2% and 1%) both before and after vaccination.Commonly, kidney patients present a decrease in their perception of their health and an increase in anxious−depressive states . Some ofThe World Health Organization has highlighted the importance of studying the consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic on the general population’s mental health. Some studies have found that elderly people demonstrated better psychological responses . In our We did not find differences in anxiety or depression scores between modality groups, but there were interesting tendencies. Patients on hemodialysis barely changed their results in either anxiety or depression scores. It is of note that their scores were lower than those of other groups, especially before vaccination. Patients with advanced CKD not on dialysis presented the highest scores both for anxiety and depression. It is clear that more effort is needed in the promotion of wellbeing in those pre-dialysis patients .No significant differences were found for depression, anxiety, and health-related quality of life (HRLQOL) scores among the different groups of patients before and after vaccination. It seems positive that patients on any renal replacement treatment program in our study scored their HRQOL between 7–8 points at the basal measure. Nevertheless, patients who had not yet started the program  scored lower at 6.8–7. There is good evidence that the area of pre-dialysis education is an appropriate scenario in which to manage preventive psychological strategies regarding emotional states in order to assist patients in coping with uncertainty in the lead-up to complex and invasive dialysis treatments .The three main fears reported by the participants at baseline were adverse effects, not getting the vaccine, and lack of information. This is in line with the hypothesis that the vaccine has a protective emotional effect against stress and the serious threats derived from the global situation of quarantine and the pandemic, as documented in other studies . In addition, renal patients report that personalized, friendly, and close communication of updated information delivered by professional healthcare teams helped them to cope.Our data, in addition to that from previous literature, support the importance of a renal multidisciplinary team, therapeutic communication, and emotional support strategies as ways to help patients deal with the stress derived from having a chronic health condition, by improving patient health outcomes and promoting wellbeing . It is iLow vaccine acceptance among the general population is a serious threat to successful COVID-19 vaccination, as previous research has shown ,24. It iIt must be noted that the size of the sample, recruited using convenience sampling and lacking a control group, is a limitation of this study. This is, however, the first study of its kind in Spain. Another limitation is the fact that not all the patients who started the study gave a second round of responses. This was due to the circumstances of the pandemic and the difficulty in making hospital visits. These limitations may be offset by some of the strengths of the study, such as the opportunity to test patients before receiving the SARS-CoV-2 vaccine, a situation that will no longer be easily repeated, as well as the inclusion of various modalities of chronic kidney disease. Despite all the obstacles, the study was successfully carried out during the time of the pandemic—a situation that made any kind of study difficult.The psychological impact of the situation created by the appearance of new SARS-Cov-2 mutations, the need for a supplementary dose of vaccine, and the effect of all these factors on the prognosis of patients with CKD remains to be defined. New studies will be required to assess the impact of comprehensive vaccine coverage and further psychological impacts.Nevertheless, these results are a stimulus for further consideration of the contrasted multidimensionality of the individual and of the value of teamwork. They also emphasize the enormous wealth generated by collaboration and cooperation during times of pandemic. In short, they reflect the benefits offered to renal patients of such an approach and the highly likely greater satisfaction it rewards to healthcare professionals.We conducted a pre−post design study to assess the impact of vaccination against SARS-CoV-2 on anxiety and depression scores in patients with different modalities of chronic kidney disease in Spain. Vaccination improved psychological distress in renal patients with clinical scores. No significant differences were found in depression, anxiety, and health-related quality of life (HRLQOL) scores among the different groups of patients before and after vaccination. The findings of the present study could provide health practitioners with an empirical base from which to design a strategy that better promotes psychological wellbeing for future vaccination campaigns.


Several methods have been recently proposed to calculate configurational entropy, based on Boltzmann entropy. Some of these methods appear to be fully thermodynamically consistent in their application to landscape patch mosaics, but none have been shown to be fully generalizable to all kinds of landscape patterns, such as point patterns, surfaces, and patch mosaics. The goal of this paper is to evaluate if the direct application of the Boltzmann relation is fully generalizable to surfaces, point patterns, and landscape mosaics. I simulated surfaces and point patterns with a fractal neutral model to control their degree of aggregation. I used spatial permutation analysis to produce distributions of microstates and fit functions to predict the distributions of microstates and the shape of the entropy function. The results confirmed that the direct application of the Boltzmann relation is generalizable across surfaces, point patterns, and landscape mosaics, providing a useful general approach to calculating landscape entropy. The calculation of configurational entropy of landscapes has emerged as a topic of considerable recent interest, as appreciation of the connections between thermodynamics and landscape processes becomes more apparent ,2. SeverThe Boltzmann relation is potentially a foundational method for computing configurational entropy for several reasons. First and foremost, it is the original, classic, and iconic formulation expressing the entropy of the system in terms of the arrangement of its particles. The concept of entropy being proportional to the logarithm of the number of microstates in a macrostate is a transformative idea in science. It provides an elegant and profound understanding of order and disorder in relation to the probability distribution of different states. Second, as a framework for computing the configurational entropy of landscapes, the Boltzmann relation is particularly appropriate given the direct analogies between particular arrangements of landscape elements and microstates in the Boltzmann system and measured spatial attributes of a landscape pattern as the Boltzmann macrostate. Cushman ,4 applieThe essence of the Cushman ,4 approaCushman  showed tThese results seem to suggest that the simple, direct application of the classic Boltzmann relation to calculating landscape entropy is theoretically fully consistent with classic formulations of Boltzmann entropy with no modification, and is fully thermodynamically consistent. To be a fully generalized method, however, the approach must be shown to be applicable to all kinds of spatial patterns, including surfaces and point patterns, in addition to landscape mosaics. This paper presents simulations to show that the Cushman approach to calculating Boltzmann entropy is equally applicable to surfaces, point patterns, and landscape mosaics, and in each case is fully thermodynamically consistent.I build on the simulation framework used in  in whichIn this generalization of the Cushman method of calculating Boltzmann configurational entropy, I use landscape dimensionality of 32 × 32 pixels across the same levels of H (10 steps from 0.1 to 1.0). Instead of a binary, two class landscape, however, I use QRULE to generate surfaces and point patterns. To generate a surface, I specified 10 cover types each with 10% cover extent. This produces a surface which has the same fractal aggregation as the binary map, but in which the 10 cover types represent sequential “heights” of the surface .Point patterns were similarly generated using the H parameter in QRULE. This was done by selecting the centroids of pixels with value 10 from the multiclass fractal maps used to produce surfaces. This produces fractal gradient of point aggregation across the 10 steps of H aggregation parameter from 0.1 to 1.0 .The Cushman approach to directly apply the Boltzmann relation to calculate configurational entropy is highly consistent when applied to landscape mosaics, surfaces, and point patterns . The appThe application of the Cushman  method tFollowing the same procedures as in , I spatiThere was a perfect match between the distribution of mean slope of permuted surfaces and a normal distribution, as expected if the method is generalizable to surfaces . At 1,0010) and the relationship was a perfect fit to a parabolic relationship (power 2), explaining 100% of the variance in the logarithm of the number of microstates in every level of the macrostate of mean slope (I computed the entropy function of this distribution of microstates across macrostate-space as in  by compuan slope .I computed the entropy (lnW) for the 11 surface patterns  the entThird, in each case the number of microstates across the distribution of macrostates is normally distributed. Fourth, this analysis confirms the entropy function is parabolic. Fifth, it also confirms that maximum that entropy is reached at spatial randomness, for any kind of spatial pattern, including surfaces, point patterns, or patch mosaics. Sixth, the parabolic entropy function and the values of entropy calculated for the simulated landscape patterns confirm that entropy is minimized in extreme aggregation or dispersion.Based on its consistency with fundamental theory , its full thermodynamic consistency , and itsIt is often said that science should produce theories that are as simple as possible, but not simpler. Parsimony is an important principle of science and reflects fundamental attributes of nature. The simplest theory that explains the data is usually the best, not only in terms of heuristic value but also in matching ontological reality . The astOf course, the development of a generalized metric for calculating configurational entropy of a landscape is an evolutionary rather than revolutionary advance; it is hardly a Copernican moment. However, I strongly believe that putting landscape ecology into a theoretical framework based on thermodynamics and entropy will prove to be revolutionary and transformative, and that quantitative methods to robustly calculate configurational entropy of any landscape model are essential to that effort. The connections between calculating landscape configurational entropy and classic thermodynamics are at several levels. First, conceptually using entropy relation to describe patterns in terms of entropy is a useful foundation for exploring more formal thermodynamic pattern–process relationships at the landscape level. Second, this method does not demonstrate that landscape pattern entropy is directly linked to formal thermodynamic processes, such as energy flow, emergence, and maintenance of dissipative structures. However, generalized and consistent methods of computing landscape configurational entropy are the foundation for taking this next step to explore linkages between energetic entropy and structural entropy at landscape scales.There have been many efforts over the last five decades to link ecological theory with thermodynamics and entropy . In the An important topic for further exploration is that not all microstates of landscape configuration are likely to be equally probable, given constraints on landscape evolution due to gravitational, tectonic, erosive, hydrological, and vegetative processes, and anthropogenic factors. This suggests future work should explore modifications of the direct application of the Boltzmann relation to consider the unequal probability of different microstates, using, for example, Gibbs entropy instead of the Boltzmann relation. The challenge then becomes estimating the different probabilities of all possible microstates, which requires understanding and simulating complex space–time processes, which is a vastly more difficult task than using the assumption of equal probability of microstates and the Boltzmann relation as a null model.One of the areas in which applications of entropy methods and concepts have been most widely developed in recent years is in work related to the Maximum Entropy Theory of Ecology , which iThe emergence of structure and order at a landscape scale is produced through the dynamics of dissipative structures ,18,19. I


Background and aims: The COVID-19 pandemic has dramatically changed life circumstances for adolescents worldwide. With schools being closed and regular activities being cancelled, gaming and social media use are activities that might gain in importance. There is a risk that these online behaviours have negative effects on other important activities, such as being physically active, sleeping, and studying, as well as general well-being. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on gaming and social media use, and its effects on the well-being of adolescents. Methods: A total of 1232 adolescents  participated in an anonymous web survey containing questions on gaming, social media use, and perceived negative consequences of gaming and social media use during the COVID-19 pandemic. The results were analysed with a quasi-Poisson regression model. Results: The results indicated an increase in gaming and social media use, which was associated with negative consequences and perceived well-being. A majority of adolescents reported that they used social media more than they felt comfortable with. There were large differences between boys and girls, with girls being more negatively affected across measures. Discussion: The increase in gaming and social media use during the COVID-19 pandemic might have negative effects on the well-being of adolescents, and on other activities that are important to health. Our interpretation of the findings is that gaming and social media use might partly function as coping mechanisms to deal with stress and/or boredom resulting from COVID-19 restrictions. There is a risk that these coping strategies become maladaptive over time. Conclusions: The restrictions from the COVID-19 pandemic have resulted in an increase in the amount of time adolescents spend gaming and on social media, which might have negative effects on their well-being. This study highlights the urgent need to consider adaptive and healthy coping strategies for adolescents given the pandemic may mean that daily living could continue to be altered in the near future. During the initial phases of the COVID-19 pandemic, the behaviour patterns of billions of people around the world changed dramatically. Health authorities urged individuals to stay at home to help prevent the spread of the virus, and as a result a wide range of activities were either prohibited, severely limited, or markedly altered. Sweden gained some attention for its government's decision to impose relatively mild measures, compared to many other similar countries. Nevertheless, during the initial phases of the COVID-19 pandemic, from the end of March 2020 and onwards, the Swedish government imposed travel restrictions within and outside the country, limited the number of people allowed in large gatherings, advised all universities and high schools to pursue home-based online schooling, as well as urging everyone who could to work from home and avoid unnecessary social contact. While high school students were instructed to study from home, schools for younger children were largely kept open. However, all after-school and extracurricular activities were to a large extend cancelled. Data from telephone companies tracking mobile phone signals indicated that the movements of the general public decreased by approximately 20%, and up to 35% in the bigger cities, during the months of March and April 2020 .A number of studies have investigated the adverse effects on mental health due to the COVID-19 pandemic . While tWith many other social activities coming to a halt, activities available at home, such as gaming and using social media, saw an upswing during the initial stages of the pandemic. For example, online gaming in the US increased 75% during initial stay-at-home directives , and ForThere is, however, a possible downside to an increase in the time spent gaming or using social media. Several studies  have fousedentary screen use . Furthermore, certain platforms, such as Twitch and Discord, blur the lines between social media and gaming since they offer both gaming and social interaction. Recent years have seen an increased scientific interest in the relationship between different types of screen activities, such as gaming or social media use, and various health outcomes, as well as possible consequences for school results, physical activity or relationships to others. The most substantial outcome of these studies is perhaps the creation of a new diagnosis in International Classification of Diseases 11th Revision (ICD-11): gaming disorder  were adolescents aged 13–18 years. Adolescents aged 13–15 years usually attend junior high school, which is compulsory, and adolescents aged 16–18 years usually attend high school, which is not compulsory but still initiated by 99% of students in Sweden . The participants were not offered any reimbursement for their participation. The data were collected from 5 June to 10 August 2020, corresponding to the first wave of the pandemic.The survey consisted of 40 questions on demographics such as age, gender, and living conditions, consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic , gaming, social media use, and perceived negative consequences of gaming and social media use. See In the analytical part of the study, the outcome was degree of negative consequences. The question was answered by the adolescents on an ordinal scale ranging from 1  to 5 (completely), which makes it suitable to analyse with a Poisson regression model after recoding the scale to range from 0 to 4 points. However, overdispersion occurs in Poisson regression when the observed variance of the outcome is larger than would be predicted by the Poisson distribution. If overdispersion is present and not accounted for in the analysis, the resulting standard errors are too small. The presence of overdispersion was tested by calculating the ratio of the residual deviance to the residual degrees of freedom and if this ratio was substantially larger than 1, overdispersion was on good ground assumed and a quasi-Poisson approach was used instead . For allThe study procedures were carried out in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki . The study was reviewed by the Swedish Ethical Review Authority (file number 2020-02556), and deemed not to require ethics approval since the data in the study cannot be directly or indirectly linked to an individual.No filter question was present for the part about social media use, assuming that all adolescents use social media, since most of the participants were recruited through social media. While this assumption turned out to be true , the use of social media and the consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic on its use were much more present among the girls. Nearly 62% of the girls felt that they had used social media more than they felt comfortable with, while the corresponding percentage among boys was 36. The most common social media platforms used were Snapchat, used by 97% of participants, Instagram (96%), YouTube (92%), Facebook (82%) and TikTok (80%).Questions on negative consequences from gaming and use of social media were asked in the survey, and Been gaming more than felt ok/Used social media more than felt ok and being a boy are dichotomous exposures and the RR values then imply that it is more than three times higher risk  for those who have played more than felt ok to have been affected negatively compared to those who have not been gaming more than felt ok. The consequences of having used social media more than felt ok have a value of RR = 1.88 (p < 0.001), which means there is an 88% higher risk of being affected negatively. Boys have a lower risk for the outcome by 1–0.69 = 0.31 * 100 = 31 per cent in the model for the variable opinions own gaming and 1–0.54 = 0.46 * 100 = 46 per cent in the model for the variable opinions own social media use. However, age is on a continuous scale and the interpretation of the RR value is the increase in RR for one standard deviation increase in age and is 1.09 (p = 0.041) for the variable opinions own gaming and 1.06 (p = 0.001) for the variable opinions own social media use.As the outcome in our analyses, we used the question of the extent to which gaming and use of social media had affected the adolescents’ mood/well-being. We initially tried a Poisson regression model for the data but found that the outcome was highly overdispersed, and instead we therefore used a quasi-Poisson model for our analyses. Besides sex and age, three measures of gaming and use of social media with increasing sharpness were used as independent variables: frequency, increase in use during the pandemic, and whether the use was on a higher level than the adolescent felt comfortable with. The sharper the question was asked on grade of gambling or/and social media use, the higher the relative risk (RR) of negative consequences from gambling and social media use compared to those who had not increased their gambling or/and social media use during the COVID-19 pandemic. The RR for negative consequences from gambling and social media use between ages was negligible, although statistically significantly higher with increasing age, while there was a noticeably lower RR for boys compared to girls. The RR , compares the risk of some event (positive or negative) for one group often called “exposed” to a “non-exposed” group by dividing the incidence proportion or attack rate among the exposed with the risk in the non-exposed group. If the RR value is above 1, the risk is higher for the exposed and if the RR value is below 1 the risk is lower for the exposed and finally, if the RR is exactly 1 then the risk is the same in the two groups. However, there is a difference in interpretation of the RR estimate, dependent on whether the exposure is dichotomous or on a continuous scale. For instance, in The results of this nationwide study in Sweden show that the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic has led to an increase in gaming and social media use among adolescents. The results also point to an association between an increase in these digital behaviours and negative consequences. Furthermore, the adolescents in the study report that they had been gaming and using social media more than they would have wanted, and that their social media use had to some extent affected their well-being negatively.In this study evaluating the effects of the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic on adolescents’ use of gaming and social media, a majority of adolescents used social media more than they wanted to, and a little more than a fifth of adolescents who game felt they had been gaming more than they wanted to. This greatly increased the risk of experiencing negative consequences from social media and/or gaming. Gaming and social media were found to negatively affect behaviours that are intrinsic in promoting mental health resilience, such as getting enough sleep and being physically active. Several other behaviours that are important to mental health in this age group were restricted during the first wave of the pandemic, such as meeting friends and participating in organised sports. This makes it concerning that gaming and social media use might to some extent further limit what healthy behaviours the adolescents would otherwise partake in.The current study highlights a possible link between gaming, social media use and mental ill-health in this age group, but the results need to be interpreted with caution. The COVID-19 pandemic has, for many of the included adolescents, affected life in multiple ways. It is likely that some of the negative consequences associated with gaming or social media are in reality related to consequences of the pandemic, such as school closings, restriction in extracurricular activities, health concerns or economic stress for the family. Although the current study did not pose questions on the time parents spent with the adolescents, the increase in gaming and social media can also be related to dramatic changes within the home environment as a result of this pandemic, such as parents working from home and juggling other responsibilities.Some specific results are worth further consideration. Across measurements, being male seemed to be protective of experiencing negative consequences related to gaming or social media use. This could be due to a selection bias, since the vast majority of adolescents who volunteered to take part in the study were female. It could reflect a tendency among young males not to reveal their vulnerability or to deny any problems connected to gaming, in line with previous research findings on male problem denial and reluctance to seek treatment for psychological problems . Howeverincrease in social media use was associated with more negative consequences. It is possible that a high overall social media consumption also indicates a high level of social interaction with friends .The question regarding time spent on social media could for some have been understood as a question regarding all screen time.Gaming and social media use are a mainstream form of recreation across age groups, and specifically among adolescents, and the risk of problematising the behaviour is high. The COVID-19 pandemic has led to rapid changes and restrictions in the lives of adolescents, which also provided an opportunity to study their engagement in gaming and social media during these circumstances. Our results highlighted that within a large community sample, there is a subgroup of adolescents who tended to spend excessive time gaming and consequently also experienced a decline in their mental health and well-being. Excessive time spent gaming and using social media may be a coping mechanism for adolescents to deal with the stress and/or boredom resulting from the restrictions. It is therefore prudent that the parents recognise the warning signs and monitor their children to help them identify adaptative coping strategies to deal with the challenges arising due to the COVID-19 pandemic.