AbstractPachastrellidae with four nominal genera Dercitus, Stoeba, Dercitancorina, Halinastra , and Calthropellidae with nominal genera Calthropella, Corticellopsis , Pachataxa and Pachastrissa. Our review of many original specimens and extensive new material demonstrates the existence of considerable morphological similarity in megasclere shape and arrangement, and possible overlap of some microscleres of these sponges: pseudasters in Dercitus resembling euasters in Calthropella, ataxasters and other modified types in Calthropellidae resembling rhabds in a species of Dercitus. Pachastrellid representatives are proposed to be united in a single genus Dercitus, recognizable as (dicho–)calthrops bearing sponges with sanidaster–like microrhabds. Three subgenera, Dercitus s.s., Stoeba and the revived Halinastra are distinguished to accommodate species groups PageBreaksharing additional characters. Dercitancorina is merged with Dercitus (Stoeba), because the type species, Dercitus lesinensis was found to be barely distinct from Dercitus (Stoeba) plicatus. Similarly, the calthropellid representatives are proposed to be united in a single genus Calthropella recognizable as calthrops bearing sponges with oxyasters. Three subgenera, Calthropella s.s., Pachataxa and Corticellopsis are distinguished to accommodate species groups sharing additional characters. The calthropellid genus Pachastrissa is considered a junior synonym of Calthropella s.s. because its type species, Pachastrella geodioides, is barely distinct from the type species of Calthropella, Calthropella simplex. Two species previously assigned to Dercitus or Stoeba  are excluded from the genus Dercitus as they do not fit with the emended and improved definition of the genus. One species assigned to Calthropella, Calthropella digitata, is excluded from that genus and assigned to the ancorinid genus Stelletta. Based on the similarity of the megascleres and their structure-less arrangement, we predict that the two reviewed genera will be found to be closely related and eventually will need to be accomodated in a single family, but independent molecular evidence is awaited before changes in the family classification, including a verdict on the validity of the family Calthropellidae, will be proposed. Our review included 38 valid species among which fourteen species and one subspecies appear to be new to science. Four of these were represented by insufficient material for a proper description, but the remaining ten are described as new species: Dercitus (Stoeba) senegalensis sp. n., Dercitus (Stoeba) verdensis sp. n., Dercitus (Stoeba) fijiensis sp. n., Dercitus (Stoeba) bahamensis sp. n., Dercitus  berau sp. n., Dercitus  japonensis sp. n., Dercitus  arubensis sp. n., Dercitus  sibogae sp. n., Calthropella  xavierae sp. n., and Calthropella (Pachataxa) pyrifera sp. n. The new subspecies, Dercitus (Dercitus) bucklandi lusitanicus ssp. n. is described for southern East Atlantic populations of the nominal species. Several specimens assigned to existing species were found to be deviating to the extent that they are likely members of further undescribed species. These are briefly discussed to facilitate further studies of the diversity of the two genera. Species of both genera and the six subgenera, including deviating or insufficiently characterized specimens belonging to species not yet properly described, are keyed out. Distribution patterns are discussed.We present a review of astrophorid species possessing calthrops megascleres as structural megascleres . Radiating oxeas characteristic of most astrophorids are lacking in such sponges, but auxiliary oxeas are apparently present in some species. These sponges are currently assigned to two families,  Astrophorida (Dercitus Gray (1867) and Calthropella Sollas (1888) and their relatives), that appear or seem to share characters which do not justify their present allocation in different families. The main character shared is the structural position of calthrops megascleres (and derivates thereof) and the absence of structural oxea megascleres. Skeletons built from that megasclere complement lack a radiate structure making member species thickly or massively encrusting or insinuating. Such sponges are easily missed in trawl or dredge surveys and their diversity appears underestimated. Below, known members of these taxa will be reviewed and new members will be described and extensively illustrated.The present study addresses the taxonomy of some genera of the order PageBreak made for a reshuffling of genera and families in the Astrophorida. Such studies are well on the way  is a well-defined order of Demospongiae comprising sponges with the combination of triaene megascleres and aster microscleres, usually complemented with large oxea megascleres. The oxeas and long-shafted triaenes are arranged perpendicularly to the surface providing a radiate structure – at least in peripheral regions - which is shared with members of the order Spirophorida , as recently redefined by respectively Astrophorida, although persistent reports for the occurrence of auxiliary or accessory oxeas of variable sizes are found in the descriptions of several species of these genera (see below).ophorida . Astrophmorphies , insteadPachastrellidae genera Dercitus Gray (1867), Stoeba Dendy (1905), with alleged synonyms Dercitancorina Topsent (1902) and Halinastra de Laubenfels (1936)   and Pachataxa Paratetilla Dendy (1905) (Spirophorida: Tetillidae), Erylus Gray (1867), Caminus Schmidt (1862) (Astrophorida: Geodiidae), Penares Gray (1867), Stryphnus Sollas (1886) (Astrophorida: Ancorinidae), Pachastrella Schmidt (1868), Triptolemma de Laubenfels (1955) (Astrophorida: Pachastrellidae), but in most cases – with some exceptions in Pachastrella – these are accompanied by oxeas as structural megascleres, and generally the structure of the skeleton is radiate or sub-radiate  see , share t-radiate . In pachDercitus  and its closely related ‘sister’genus Stoeba are uncharacteristic Pachastrellidae, with none of the usual streptasters, long-shafted triaenes and long oxeas found in the majority of the genera. The acanthomicrorhabd microscleres are usually considered derivates of sanidasters, and will be further called as such below, but they are characteristically irregular and variable. Small incipient sanidasters appear to be microxea-like with only occasional spines. In addition to these microscleres, Dercitus possesses toxa-like spicules, which are lacking in Stoeba. This is the only known difference between these ‘genera’. Many authors prior to the appearance of the Systema Porifera did not distinguish between Stoeba and Dercitus, because the occurrence of toxas in Dercitus bucklandi was not considered of generic value. There is only a single species with this unique character, and defining separate genera Dercitus and Stoeba is not possible without referring to the absence or presence of this same unique character . Dercitus and Stoeba possess this limited set of calthrops and (dicho-)calthrops megasclere spicules, but some species allegedly have a complement of (rare) oxeas. For such species, the genus Dercitancorina was erected by Pachastrella lesinensis Lendenfeld (1894), but the reexamination of the type specimen of Pachastrella lesinensis did not reveal the presence of oxeas (see below). Possession of oxeas in species of this group is controversial against the possibility that the often broken and variously sized, ‘auxiliary’ megascleres may be contaminations. A further genus Halinastra de Laubenfels (1936) was erected for Dercitus exostoticus (Schmidt 1868 as Pachastrella exostotica) which has peculiar aster-like microscleres hypothesized to be compressed sanidasters , but we demonstrate here that several more such species with ‘compressed’ sanidasters exist, making resurrection at the subgenus level a logical consequence. In summary,PageBreak we propose to employ a modified classification of Dercitus s.l. into three subgenera: Dercitus (Dercitus), Dercitus (Stoeba) and Dercitus .The monospecific genus idasters . It was Calthropellidae  as recently defined have only four recognized genera (Chelotropella Lendenfeld (1907), appears misapplied as a member of Calthropellidae because the family is based on the possession of short-shafted triaenes in combination with euasters, while Chelotropella has long-shafted triaenes and in combination with oxeas forms a radiate skeleton similar to genera of the Ancorinidae such as Stelletta. A further genus that is in dispute is Pachastrissa Lendenfeld (1903), based on a type species, Pachastrella geodioides Carter (1876), that seems to differ from the type species of Calthropella  only in the alleged presence of proper oxeas in addition to habit, skeletal structure and spiculation identical to that of Calthropella simplex. A fourth genus, Pachataxa de Laubenfels (1936) will be demonstrated below to be so close to Calthropella that it is proposed to merge it with that genus. It is defined as having in addition to euasters peculiar irregular microspined silica-bodies, called ataxasters. SEM studies of these ataxasters demonstrate that they are not far removed from hypersilicified aster-derived microscleres found in several Calthropella species. Corticellopsis Bergquist (1968) was erected to replace the preoccupied Corticella Sollas (1888) with type species Corticium stelligerum Schmidt (1868) and subsequently synonymized with Calthropella by Calthropella simplex and Calthropella geodioides: the former has spherasters with tuberculate rays, while the latter has commonplace strongylasters. As a consequence of these observations, the calthropellid genera Calthropella and Pachataxa are proposed to be recognized only at the subgenus level, to which the formerly synonymized Corticellopsis is joined as a third subgenus, resulting in the taxa Calthropella , Calthropella (Pachataxa) and Calthropella (Corticellopsis).d genera , but theCalthropella (Pachataxa) with peculiar ataxaster microscleres and several species of the pachastrellid genus Dercitus with compressed aster-like sanidasters or smooth or faintly acanthose microrhabds (see below) appear to some extent to bridge the gap between the two family groups. Euasters of Calthropella (Pachataxa) appear peculiar in having a thick centre and numerous short and irregular rays, whereas the ataxasters are often malformed and irregularly spined, occasionally smooth.The calthropellid Dercitus and its relatives could be envisaged to reside more comfortably in the same family as Calthropella as a genus devoid of true euasters, but otherwise similar to other genera of that family. Current assignment to Pachastrellidae is not clearly warranted by pachastrellid apomorphies, as the microsclere complement of sanidasters is of astrophorid-wide occurrence including the Ancorinidae. We pose here the question, whether there is sufficient evidence to suggest these genera should be united within the same family. Ultimately, such a decision should be based on independent molecular and morphological evidence, so we refrain from making formal proposals for change and for the time being the family assignment of the genera is left as it appears in the Systema Porifera (Porifera .Triptolemma de Laubenfels (1955) and the thrombid genera Thrombus Sollas (1886) and Yucatania Gómez (2006), despite the fact that these genera all have short-shafted triaenes and lack proper radiating oxeas. Triptolemma is similar to Dercitus and Calthropella in having calthrops in a large size range and the insinuating habit conforms to that of some species of Dercitus. It is not considered very likely that Triptolemma is closely related as it has a dominance of mesotriaene (dicho-)calthrops and its microsclere complement includes true streptasters . Thrombus and Yucatania have their (tricho-)triaenes entirely spined and microscleres are peculiar birotule-like amphiasters.We will not include in our study the pachastrellid genus Dercitus s.l. and Calthropella s.l. have been persistently attributed with the possession of long oxeas as part of the megasclere complement. The report of smaller or longer diactines  in species of Dercitus (Stoeba) is a recurrent point of discussion. Authors either consider them proper but so far have failed to indicate a structural position of such spicules in the skeleton, or they are presumed contaminations. In favor of the latter point of view is that most Dercitus s.l. are either insinuating or consolidating, thus coming into close contact with sediment including loose spicules. Diactines are ubiquitous spicules, produced mostly by Haplosclerida and Halichondrida. Longer oxeas have frequently been mentioned in descriptions of Dercitus and Calthropella alike and such spicules are common in Astrophorida in general, so are more likely to be proper. Nevertheless, it is clear in most cases that they do not take up a structural position in the skeletal architecture, so if they are to be considered proper, they are at best ‘auxiliary’ and are here regarded as vestiges of their astrophorid ancestry. In many cases, authors expressly mention that the long oxeas are invariably broken or rare, which strengthens the assumption they are not proper.Several species of PageBreakSpecies with structural oxeas in a radial position are here excluded and referred to other astrophorid genera.Stoeba from Brazilian waters, suggested in a world distribution map of species of Stoeba that records of the genus would be bsent from the Caribbean region. Strictly speaking this was true, but there were previous records of Dercitus sp. from various parts of the Caribbean (Dercitus s.l. (including Stoeba) will thus remove this distributional anomaly . Similarly, the new assignments of calthropellid genera result in a continuous circumglobal distribution of Calthropella s.l. whereas this was formerly confined to an irregular circum-African pattern plus an outlier in New Zealand  and a disjunct Caribbean – New Caledonian occurrence (Pachataxa).A recent paper by aribbean : BahamasDercitus (Dercitus), Dercitus (Stoeba), Dercitus , Calthropella , Calthropella (Pachataxa) and Calthropella (Corticellopsis) based on lists obtained from the World Porifera Database , and 14 species of Calthropella s.l.Below, we review the species of the (sub-)genera Database .AlthoughZMA) and National Museum of Natural History, Naturalis (RMNH), Leiden) were obtained by various expeditions and individual collectors over a large period of time. Additionally, type and other speciPageBreakmens were borrowed from several institutions, including the Museum für Naturkunde, Berlin (ZMB), the Smithsonian Institution, Washington (USNM), Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard (MCZ), the Natural History Museum (London) (BMNH), the Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris (MNHN), the Landesmuseum Graz, Austria (LMJG), the Zoological Museum of Copenhagen (ZMUC), the Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution, Fort Pierce, USA (HBOI), and the Museu Nacional de Rio de Janeiro (MNRJ). Through the courtesy of Dr. Joana Xavier  we were able to study specimens in her care from Portuguese shallow-water and deep sea localities. Full specimen data are provided with the description of the species.Specimens in the collections of the National Centre for Biodiversity  and the sum of protocladus and deuterocladus length ×1.9 , based on average ratios obtained from random measurements of various specimens. Such artificially standardized data are indicated by an asterisk.The left over part of the spicule suspension was used for light microscopy measurements. Measurements of megascleres include for calthrops cladus length × width, cladome size, i.e. the distance between the apex of a cladus and the imaginary line between two opposing cladi endings; for dichocalthrops, protocladus length × width, deuterocladus length × width, rhabdus length × width and cladome size. Measurements of microscleres include for sanidasters length × width including the spines, for toxa-like microscleres length × width, for euasters greatest diameter including rays. Unless otherwise stated, minimum-In the descriptions and definitions, the word calthrops will be used in singular and plural sense  with calthrops or dichocalthrops as megascleres and possessing irregular acanthomicrorhabd-like sanidasters with a thick central axis relative to the actines; further microscleres may include smooth toxa-like forms and aster-like compressed forms; no structural oxea megascleres.Dercitus and Stoeba, the distinction of which rests entirely on the presence of unique toxa-like microscleres in the type species of the former. The similarities are the shape and size of the calthrops/short-shafted triaenes, the shape of the irregular sanidasters, the absence of any structure in the skeleton, the compressible liver-like texture, and the presence of large cells (60 µm) with inclusions reported for various Stoeba species as well as Dercitus bucklandi. The majority of past authors recognized only Dercitus, but PageBreakwe propose here for practical reasons to lower the status of the genera Dercitus and Stoeba to the level of subgenera. Dercitus being the senior name, the subgenera will be Dercitus (Dercitus) and Dercitus (Stoeba). A third subgenus proposed is the suppressed Halinastra de Laubenfels (1936). The subgenera will be defined below and are keyed out in Many authors have pointed out the similarities of Calthrops are characteristically variable in size (cladi measuring from 25 – 648 µm), and shape, with conical-straight, curved, stunted, deformed, bifid cladi, frequently one of the cladi being longer than the others, sometimes lacking one (‘tripods’) cladus or with one or more reduced cladi, occasionally with five or more cladi. Short-shafted dichotriaenes  are present in twelve of the currently named and recognized species, and in five of these have replaced the calthrops entirely. When both megasclere types are combined in a single species, dichocalthrops are often distinctly smaller than the calthrops and the proportion of the two varies among individuals of the species.Dercitus, viz. methylaplysinopsins from a Belize specimen of Dercitus sp. (cf. Dercitus (Stoeba) bahamensis sp. n. (Dercitus sp.). The furanosesterpene shinsonefuran was reported from Dercitus  japonensis sp. n. (Stoeba extensa).Natural products: three unrelated compounds with biological actitivity, such as anti-tumor or antibiotic activity, have been extracted from species of  sp. cf.  and the SubgenusGray, 1867Dercitus possessing toxa-like microscleres and a single category of irregular sanidasters.Halina bucklandi Bowerbank, 1858Halina bucklandi Hymeniacidon bucklandi ; Dercitus bucklandi ; Pachastrella bucklandi ; Dercitus niger Battersbyia bucklandi ; Battersbyia bucklandi, Hymeniacidon bucklandi), part of holotype BMNH 1877.5.21.142 ; locality presumed to be Abbey Bay, near Torquay, Devon, England (but this is not indicated on the labels).Schizoholotype : NHM collection, Bwbk. 542  BMNH 1895.4.27.1–6 . Cushion-shaped to massive-lobose , 3A, filPageBreakSkeleton: Main skeleton of confused, randomly arranged calthrops, a layer of sanidasters and many toxas occur near the surface, but these also occur in the choanosome. There are many large pigment cells (?) with black inclusions evident in sections.Spicules: Calthrops, toxiform microscleres, sanidasters.218.9–305 × 12–28.1–48 µm, cladomes 120–311.3–480 µm.Calthrops , 3B–C, oSmooth toxiform microscleres , 5a–e, o25.7–31 × 0.5–5.2–7 µm (spines included in width).Sanidasters , 3E relaIn crevices in vertical rock faces in clean water. Particularly common on limestone substrata. From the extreme low water mark to a few meters subtidally in rock pools and caves.British Isles (SW coast of England and N and W coast of Ireland), and France . There is a record from the northern Gulf of Mexico , but thiNamed after Mrs. Buckland of Guernsey, who collected one of the type specimens .Dercitus niger .Sanidasters , rather Encrusting, typically bridging crevices and gaps in the substrate, sublittoral down to 6–38 m.Portuguese main coast, Berlengas Islands, Gorringe Seamount. Furthermore, there are reports from the north coast of Spain ; PageBreakis especially clear in the sizes of the toxiform microscleres: 51–111 × 1.5–3 µm in the subspecies bucklandi, 42–69 × 0.5–1.5 µm in the samples of the new subspecies, compared in bucklandi bucklandi toxas in bucklandi lusitanicus ssp.n. toxas in Dercitus bucklandi, we prefer to recognize only subspecies.The spicule measurements of the present specimens are generally significantly smaller than those provided by most previous authors , which iDercitus bucklandi s.l. are unique in the Astrophorida. They have been called ‘toxa’ because of the similarity in shape to similar microscleres in microcionid and mycalid Poecilosclerida. However, the resemblance is probably superficial and it is unlikely that these are homologous spicule types. There are subtle differences mostly only clearly visible in SEM images, such as the tendency to become apically swollen, and an overall faint ‘polytyly’  suggestion that the toxas are modified asters –, but firm proof for this hypothesis is wanting. Smooth microxeas are relatively common in several ancorinid genera.The toxa–like microscleres of olytyly’ , and – aSubgenusDendy, 1905Dercitus with a single microsclere category in the form of irregular sanidasters.Samus simplex Carter, 1880.Samus simplex Stoeba simplex ; Dercitus simplex ; Stoeba plicatasimplex;   var. Dercitus plicatus var. simplex ; Halina plicata ; BMNH 1931.1.1.31a, Invisible Bank, Andaman Islands, slide only of which it is uncertain whether it represents the present species. Type: Indian Museum Calcutta ? (not seen).(from Carter and Sollas). “Sponge excavating. Spicules: Megasclere dichotriaene, rhabdome 0.210 × 0.042 mm. Microsclere rod-like with numerous small spines 0.0127 mm in length. Habitat: Gulf of Manaar”.The exact properties and variation of this species have not been established so far, so we can only provide a discussion pending a proper revision. The type material has not been reexamined and its precise whereabouts are uncertain.Dercitus (Dercitus) bucklandi. Spicule dimensions provided were: rhabdome of dichocalthrops 150 × 25 µm, cladome also similar in size, sanidasters 9 µm, provided with ‘numerous clear spines’. Thiele also mentions the presence of large (12–35 µm) pigment cells.In contrast to previous descriptions, Dercitus (Stoeba) extensus more than Dercitus (Stoeba) simplex may indeed have been of another species as there is a big difference between the original description of Carter and the Burton and Rao slide in the size of the microrhabds: 12.7 µm in the type, 18–28 × 3–7 µm in the Andaman specimen (251.5–317 × 12–39.8–52 µm) (84.3–117 × 14–39.7–51) and deuterocladi as up to 150 × 35–40 µm (remeasured 15–105.0–157 × 8–29.4–38 µm). Cladomes 128–386.8–492 µm. Small dichocalthrops were rare in the slide.specimen . The rha8–52 µm) . MaldonaIf all these specimens are members of a single species, then it occurs on both sides of the Gulf of Bengal as well as on the islands in the middle of it and to the east into Indonesia. However, specimens need to be reexamined.Corticium plicatum Calcabrina plicata ; Dercitus plicataPageBreak ; Dercitus plicatus ; Corticium plicatum Schmidt 1868 no. 96” ; schizotype BMNH 1868.3.2.1. (slide), labeled “Corticium plicatum Schmidt, 1868, Calcabrina plicata, Algiers 1868”.Holotype MNHN DT 3635, labeled “Additional specimen ZMA Por. 15101a, Banyuls, ‘coralligène’, 42.4833°N; 3.138°E, 10 m, coll. S. Groot, 10 August 1981.The wet holotype  consistsSpiculation of the holotype , Table 2101.0–188 × 3–14.7–29 µm, cladomes 57–154.4–252 µm.Calthrops  are domi22.4–28 × 4–5.6–8 µm, deuterocladi 15–28.0–36 × 2–3.6–6 µm, rhabds 28–45.6–57 × 3–5.6–9 µm, and cladomes 67–86.8–105 µm.Dichocalthrops , relativ14.9–19 × 1–1.65–2 µm.Sanidasters  are sligAdditionally, we observed some oxeas of uniform size, approximately 150 × 3–4 µm, assumed to be foreign to the sponge.PageBreakPageBreakµm, deuterocladi 21–33 × 3–8 µm, rhabds 73–95 µm, cladomes 36–45 µm. Sanidasters 11–18 × 1–2.5 µm.Description of the BMNH Schmidt’s type slide , Table 2The only non-type specimen available to us, ZMA Por. 15101 from Banyuls has spiculation closely similar to the type material . Only thEncrusting and insinuating in crevices, large depth range down to 100 m.Originally reported from Algeria. Elsewhere reported with certainty from Banyuls, Naples and the Adriatic. Possibly some of the records from the adjacent North Atlantic  also refPageBreaks from the Alboran Sea lacking dichotriaenes, but provided no further data. It is possible this record concerns Dercitus (Stoeba) senegalensis sp. n. (see below).Spicule dimensions of reported specimens are presented in Dercitus (Stoeba) plicatus is apparently quite variable and this may have led to widespread reports of the species from various East Atlantic localities, but also from Malaysia  plicatus, which led us to assign them to three new species. It is likely that further records from e.g. Indo-West Pacific localities which we could not verify are part of a complex of Dercitus plicatus-like sister species distributed over most of the warmer parts of the oceans.We believe alleged records of this species outside the Mediterranean  need to Dercitus (Stoeba) were synonymized with the present species by various authors, including the type species Dercitus (Stoeba) simplex. In most cases these synonymies are not accepted by us.Several species of Pachastrella lesinensis Dercitancorina lesinensis ; Stoeba lesinensis ; Syntype fragment ZMB 2409, dredged near Lesina, Croatia.Encrusting and insinuating among stones and coralline algae, with oscular elevations. The fragment examined by us was a thin rounded papilla-like extension (probably from the larger of the two type specimens described by Lendenfeld). Consistency slightly rubbery. Colour  orange.Skeleton: at the surface consisting of a dense crust of microscleres, subdermally the skeleton consists of a mass of calthrops, embedded in a fibrous-organic groundmass.Spicules: calthrops, dichocalthrops and sanidasters, no complete oxeas are found in the fragment examined, but a few broken monaxones were present.130.9–165 × 14–21.3–31 µm (Lendenfeld: up to 160 × 40 µm), cladomes 180–210 µm.Calthrops , with ocDichocalthrops , rare, s15.2–18 × 2–2.45–3 µm (Lendenfeld: 12–15 × 1.6 µm).Sanidasters , with shNo data.Adriatic. So far there is only a single record of this species.Stoeba was the reason to accept species with structural monaxone megascleres within the definition of Stoeba. We maintain that such spicules, if they would be proper, are auxiliary, not structural.A major difference with the original description is the lack of giant oxeas (4000 × 70 µm), some centrotylote, reported and pictured by Dercitus (Stoeba) plicatus, but the orange colour has not been reported for that species  plicatus). Based on our observations of the sanidasters, it is possible that these are slightly different from Dercitus (Stoeba) plicatus in spination, with the latter having more profused spines. In view of this, we are forced to retain Dercitus (Stoeba) lesinensis as a valid species for the time being.PageBreakThis species is similar in most respects to Nethea dissimilis Stoeba dissimilis ; None .from . NumerouSkeleton: no data.Spicules: calthrops, dichocalthrops, sanidasters, oxeas (but see discussion).Calthrops with the fourth cladus often shorter, occasionally triactines, cladi 45–175 × 5–21 µm.Dichocalthrops, cladome 77–102 µm, thickness of cladi 3.5–6 µm, no individual proto-, deuteroclad or rhabd measurements provided.Sanidasters, amphiaster-like with spines concentrated on both sides, length 8–15 µm, thickness 3–4 µm (with spines) 0.7–1.5 µm (without spines).Oxeas, extreme size variation, 65–930 × 1.8–21 µm, no indication what their structural position is within the sponge.Habitat. In shallow-water caves.Distribution. Naples, Italy.Remarks. Because no material has been examined and previous authors assigned this to Stoeba we retain this as a valid species of Dercitus (Stoeba) for the time being on account of the reported oxeas. However, apart from the oxeas the description perfectly fits that of Dercitus (Stoeba) plicatus  (see above). Especially the white colour, the Mediterranean occurrence and the combined presence of dichocalthrops and calthrops are telltale signs that they could be conspecific.urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:1243255F-E761-4220-99AA-1CA8C9826132Dercitus plicatusDercitus plicatus sensu  ; Holotype ZMA Por. 21530, off the coast of Senegal, coll. F.P. Vermeulen, 1906, fish trawl.Paratype ZMA 06721, Mauritania, off Banc d’Arguin, 19.0667°N; 16.4167°W, dredged at 12–18 m, coll. R.W.M. Van Soest, R.V.’Tyro’ Mauritania II Expedition stat. 049, 11 June 1988.PageBreakAdditional (non-type) material ZMA Por. 21697, Aegean Sea, fragment of specimen nr. 101 of E. Voultsiadou’s collections., 9A. SpoSkeleton: a confused mass of calthrops with a crust of microscleres at the surface.Spicules: calthrops  and sanidasters.299.8–426 × 8–38.6–55 µm (in holotype) and 36–224.9–480 × 6–28.6–60 µm, cladomes 126–462.6–618 µm (holotype) and 61–300.4–810 µm (paratype).Calthrops , 9B–C, o17.3–21 µm (paratype).PageBreakSanidasters , 9D, relNamed after the locality of the holotype.Consolidating coarse limestone fragments on rubble bottoms.Senegal, Mauritania, possibly (Eastern) Mediterranean.Dercitus (Stoeba) plicatus, but it differs clearly by the much larger upper size of the calthrops and the apparent absence of dichocalthrops. There are some discrepancies between the two type specimens in the average size and thickness of the spicules, but in view of the generally large size variation this is considered intraspecific variation. It is likely that Lévi’s Senegal record of Dercitus plicatus also fits with this species, as it was similarly white coloured, and also lacked dichocalthrops. The size of the cladi of the calthrops were given as maximum 250 × 30 µm which is clearly larger than in Mediterranean Dercitus plicatus and within the range of our new species.The new species was formerly identified as PageBreakThe ZMA collection contains a tiny fragment of a specimen from the Aegean Sea donated by E. Voultsiadou (ZMA 21697) which has calthrops (Dercitus (Stoeba) senegalensis sp. n., especially to the paratype. Apart from the wide geographic separation, this fits with our new species.althrops  with claDercitus plicatus from the Alboran Sea possibly also belongs to this species as it was noted to lack dichotriaenes. However, since no further data were provided this remains undecided.The record of urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:F5098A5C-CED8-43DE-8EF1-A0401AAFE64ADercitus plicatusDercitus plicatus sensu  ; Holotype ZMA Por. 07521b, Cape Verde Islands, São Nicolau, Branco, 16.6667°N; 24.7167°W, dredged from 98 m, coll. R.W.M. Van Soest, HMS ‘Tydemann’ CANCAP VII Expedition stat. 156, 5 September 1986.Chaetodoryx sp. Size of agglutinated mass approx. 4×2 cm.. EncrustSkeleton: a confused mass of dichocalthrops with a thin crust of sanidasters.Spicules: dichocalthrops , sanidasters.48.2–56 × 9–21.6–35 µm, deuterocladi 23–106.8–204 × 4–17.2–29 µm, rhabdomes 71–170.6–252 × 8–21.0–31 µm, cladomes 132–294.6–475 µm.Dichocalthrops  relative13.3–16 µm.Sanidasters relatively small, little variation in spination and ornamentation, 11–Named after the type locality.Deeper water, consolidating coarse sediment.Dercitus plicatus from Boavista also belongs to this species.So far with certainty known only from the type locality. Possibly, Topsent’s 1928 record of Dercitus plicatus, there are two compelling differences with that species: (1) there are no calthrops, whereas these are the dominant spicule in Dercitus (Stoeba) plicatus, and (2) the size of the dichocalthrops, especially the length of the deuterocladi, is up to twice that of Dercitus (Stoeba) plicatus.PageBreakAlthough the specimen was originally identified with Stoeba extensa Halina plicata ; BMNH 1907.2.1.5a, two slides from type, R.N. 167, Gulf of Mannaar, Sri Lanka.. Encrusting extensively over calcareous algae and filling crevices, 4.5×3.3 cm in lateral expansion. Surface smooth, no apertures. Colour pale grey . Consistency tough, fleshy. Dendy mentions the presence of large cells with inclusions (cystencytes) of 60 µm.The two slides contain thin cross sections of the peripheral regions.Skeleton : irregulSpicules: megascleres predominantly dichocalthrops, but also normal calthrops or calthrops with one or two bifid cladi, sanidasters.87.0–123 × 8–14.9–23 µm, cladomes 108–158.9–210 µm.Calthrops , cladi 546.9–54 × 5–15.5–21 µm, deuterocladi 8–37.9–61 × 4–11.1–18 µm, rhabds 24–65.6–124 × 5–15.1–27, cladomes 84–155.2–192 µm.Dichocalthrops , protoclPageBreakSanidasters  pauper Sollas (1902), but the cladi and rhabds of the triaenes in this species are distinctly thinner , precluding synonymy of the two species for the time being, until variation of these features is better established.The spicule complement reminds of Halina plicata of It is likely that the record of Dercitus (Stoeba) extensus.PageBreakSollas, 1902Dercitus pauper None. Holotype specimen, collected by R. Evans from Great Redang Island, Malaysia, could not be found in BMNH (2009).. Sponge encrusting a dead coral fragment, 50×5×1–2 mm, surface smooth, shining; no oscules. Colour pink.Spicules: Megascleres dominated by small dichocalthrops, but there are also small calthrops.Calthrops have cladi of 60–70 × 3 µm (computed cladomes 90–115 µm diameter).Dichocalthrops with protocladi 50–60 × 10 µm, deuterocladi 30 µm and rabdome 80 µm (computed cladomes 160–180 µm in diameter).Sanidasters long and thin, with oxea-like shape: 15–20 × 1 µm.Intertidal, occurring on dead coral fragments.So far only known from Great Redang Island, one of the coral islands of the state of Trengganu at approx. 5°N on the E coast of Malaysia.Dercitus (Stoeba) occultus (see below), but that species lacks calthrops, and details of spiculation appear different (longer protocladi and shorter deuterocladi in Dercitus (Stoeba) pauper). Dercitus  sibogae sp. n. (see below) also has small dichocalthrops, but this likewise lacks calthrops and the microscleres are differentiated in long and thin and short and fat sanidasters, not reported for Dercitus (Stoeba) pauper. All three species are tropical shallow-water sponges occurring in West Pacific – East Indian Ocean waters.By the small size of the dichocalthrops this species appears similar to Hentschel, 1909Dercitus occultus None. The type material collected by Michaelsen & Hartmeyer from Shark Bay, West Australia could not be found in ZMB . Endolithic within corals, filling tubular cavities of 1–2 mm diameter which connect to the outside in only a few places. Colour  a deep brown. The skeleton consists of dichocalthrops and sanidasters.Dichocalthrops relatively small, protocladi 20–28 µm, deuterocladi 50–92 µm, rhabd 86–105 × 12–18 µm (computed cladome diameter 130–230 µm).Sanidasters 13–21 × 1.5 µm. Spines are described as strongly developed and irregular, but only tiny drawings of these spicules are provided, which only show elongated rhabd shapes.An endolithic species from shallow coral reefs (0.5–3.5 m).West Australia, Shark Bay, shallow water.Dercitus  sibogae sp. n. (see below), but that species has both ‘normal’ and compressed sanidasters, and it is epilithic. Details of the cladi lengths of the megascleres are also different.In spicule size this species appears close to Dercitus (Stoeba) from Australian waters, Dercitus (Stoeba) xanthus Sutcliffe et al. 2010, differs sharply from the present species in the absence of dichocalthrops, in stead of which there are exclusively three-claded calthrops megascleres.The only other species of urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:7C305768-7C98-4417-A603-624E25D86FE9Halina plicata ; Holotype ZMUC unnumbered, Fiji Islands, Vitu Levu, Suva Harbour, coll. T. Wolff, 18 May 1965.According to Skeleton: unknown but presumably confused, with an ectosomal cover of microscleres.Spicules: calthrops and dichocalthrops megascleres in approximately equal quantities, sanidasters.222.7–258 × 19–31.2–37 µm, cladome 186–347.1–420 µm.Calthrops , with cl26.5–30 × 13–25.2–42 µm, deuterocladi 55–112.5–192 × 9–20.2–31 µm, rhabdomes 58–84.6–132 × 11–13.6–21 µm, and cladomes 129–248.4–361 µm.Dichocalthrops , with sm16.9–21 × 3–3.6–4 µm.Sanidasters , relativNamed after its type locality.Shallow-water, in crevices in dead corals.Known only from the Fijian type locality.Dercitus (Stoeba) plicatus , but this Mediterranean species has much smaller dichocalthrops (cladomesPageBreak only up to approx. 200 µm) in a lower quantity than the calthrops, and is white in colour. Tendal’s measurements of the spicules differs slightly from our measurements. We did not see any sanidasters thinner than approx. 3 µm, whereas Tendal mentions 1–4 µm in thickness and protocladi of the dichocalthrops were never longer than 30 µm, whereas Tendal gives 24–66 µm. Possibly, the limited size of our fragment and the few spicules we could measure explains the differences. Even with Tendal’s measurements included, the differences with Dercitus (Stoeba) plicatus in the size of the dichocalthrops and calthrops remain clear. Furthermore, Tendal stressed that the deuterocladi are always longer than the protocladi and gave an excellent drawing of the characteristically shaped dichocalthrops. Thus the differences with Dercitus (Stoeba) plicatus are distinct and unambiguous.The distinctive feature of this new species, apart from details of spicule sizes, is the characteristic shape of the larger dichotriaenes with very short protocladi and long conical deuterocladi  fijiensis sp. n. is probably Dercitus (Stoeba) extensus from Sri Lanka. Colour and other macroscopic features appear similar, as is the shape PageBreakof the microscleres. Calthrops and dichocalthrops are slightly smaller  fijiensis sp. n.). The characteristic shape of the dichocalthrops of Dercitus (Stoeba) fijiensis sp. n. is not found in Dercitus (Stoeba) extensus.The species closest to Dercitus (Stoeba) occultus Hentschel (1909) has its dichocalthrops shaped rather similarly to Dercitus (Stoeba) fijiensis sp. n. but cladome size is distinctly smaller; moreover this species lacks calthrops.Dercitus (Stoeba) lesinensis, Dercitus (Stoeba) dissimilis, Dercitus (Stoeba) pauper, Dercitus (Stoeba) reptans, and Dercitus (Stoeba) bahamensis sp. n. likewise differ in (dicho-)calthrops size and shape.Other species with a complement of both calthrops and dichocalthrops, Desqueyroux-Faúndez & Van Soest, 1997Dercitus reptans Holotype USNM 43170, Galapagos Islands, Albemarle Island, 0–3 m, 0.25°S; 91.4833°W, coll. Anton Bruun Cruise 16–66139, 25 May 1966 . Paratype ZMA Por. 11215, three fragments from the same locality.from . CreepinSkeleton: thick ectosomal crust of microscleres. Choanosomal skeleton confused mass of megascleres.Spicules: calthrops, dichocalthrops, sanidasters. Some spicule types are remeasured to provide additional data and to correct a remarkable error in the original description.484–648 (remeasured 39–648) x 16–27–50 µm (remeasured 6–50 µm) . The smaller calthrops category reported here is rare.Calthrops robust, variable in size, cladi 344–164–170 µm (remeasured 141–154.5–180 µm), individual cladi up to 90 × 8–9 µm .Dichocalthrops, or short-shafted dichotriaenes, small, cladome 156–12.8–16 × 1–1.9–2.5 µm, which is also in accordance with the size and shape of the figured sanidaster (fig. 52).Sanidasters: short and slim, with blunt apices. Remarkably, they were quoted to be 15–74 × 2–8 µm in size, but this is an obvious error. Remeasured they appear to be highly uniform in size and shape: 9–Shallow water.Only known from the Galapagos Islands.Dercitus species with a complement of small dichocalthrops. None of the extant species are morphologically close.PageBreakBy its large calthrops this species stands out among urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:AC0937B4-F5ED-406D-A4DC-E6DF6E331202Dercitus  sp.; Holotype HBOI 23–VIII–85–1–49, (HBOM 003.00040), with schizoholotype fragment ZMA Por. 07782, Bahamas, New Providence Island, NW of Goulding Cay, 25.025°N; 77.583°W, 210 m, coll. K. Rinehart in the Johnson SeaLink submersible, 23 August 1985, don. S.A. Pomponi and M.C. Díaz.PageBreakfragment of 7×6 cm (not examined). Colour bright red when alive, darker red in alcohol. Consistency gum-like, easy to cut.Slippery smooth encrustation on dead coral ; the preSkeleton: a confused mass of short-shafted triaenes and sanidasters.Spicules: calthrops-like short-shafted triaenes, dichocalthrops and sanidasters.166.7–186 × 12–22.5–28 µm, cladomes 207–266.4–330 µm in diameter, rhabds 230–245.9–270 × 24–27.2–30 µm.Calthrops  showing 29.0–35 µm and deuterocladi 57–68.1–105 × 12–14.1–18 µm, rhabdomes 70–141.0–180 × 12–20.7–30 µm, cladomes 143–197.9–266 µm.Regular symmetrical dichocalthrops  occur le13.3–15 × 2–2.85–3.5 µm.Sanidasters  have an Named for its type locality.Collected by submersible at 210 m depth.Known only from the Bahamian type locality.Dercitus (Stoeba) species similar to Brazilian Dercitus (Stoeba) latex  in shape, colour and consistency. It differs clearly in possessing dichocalthrops and larger unequal-claded calthrops, and the sanidasters are also clearly shaped and sized differently (long and thin with simple spines in Dercitus (Stoeba) latex). The Bonaire Dercitus (Stoeba) specimen described below differs in being insinuating, lacking dichocalthrops and also having thin sanidasters with undivided rays. Dercitus  lutea  is yellow, lacks dichocalthrops and has compressed sanidasters in its spicule complement. Dercitus  arubensis sp. n. (see below) differs from the new species in lacking dichocalthrops and possessing thick smooth microrhabds.This is a Stoeba latex None.MNRJ 8559, Belmonte Islet Wall, São Pedro e São Paulo Archipelago, Brazil, 0.9167°N; 29.35°W, 30 m depth, coll. F. Moraes, 15 July 2004.from . ThicklySpicules. Calthrops 42–212 × 7.5–25 µm. Sanidasters 10–15 × 1 µm.Vertical walls and overhangs, 4–30 m.PageBreakOffshore archipelagoes to the NE of Brazil.Dercitus (Stoeba) bahamensis sp. n., but this has dichocalthrops and the spicule sizes are also different. Below we report an undescribed Dercitus (Stoeba) spec. from Bonaire for which insufficient material was left after making preparation. It differs in habit (insinuating) and spicule size . Cladi of calthrops of the Bonaire material are frequently bifid and some ?auxiliary oxeas were present in the slides. Nevertheless, similarities are close enough to reckon with the possibility that the two are conspecific members of a variable species.The red colour is shared with De Laubenfels, 1930Dercitus syrmatitus Stoeba syrmatitus ; None.USNM 21438, United States, California, Laguna Beach, coll. M.W. De Laubenfels, 26 March 1929.. Consolidating sandy substrate, shape ‘amorphous’, colour ‘drab’, surface smooth, consistency slimy. Size of parts containing the characteristic spiculation 0.2–2 mm. Skeleton of interior ‘packed’ with megascleres and microscleres.Spicules: calthrops and sanidasters.65–80 × 3–8–10 µm.Calthrops, small, often reduced to ‘tripods’, cladi 25–Sanidasters variable in spination, often concentrated in two areas of the microsclere to approach an amphiaster condition, but many are irregular, endings blunt, 8–12 µm.Intertidal.California.Dercitus (Stoeba) xanthus, but in that species there are no normal calthrops, only three-claded ones, and the sanidasters are considerebaly longer.Sutcliffe, Hooper & Pitcher, 2010Dercitus xanthus None.QMG329976 (SBD513022), south of Rock Cod Shoal, off Gladstone, Great Barrier Reef, 23.725°S; 151.6647°E, 34 m depth, epibenthic sled, coll. FRV ‘Lady Basten’, 20 September 2004.from . A thin Spicules: three-claded calthrops and sanidasters.Calthrops small, divisible in two size classes with means of approximately 25 and 72 µm. Only 20% of the 163 specimens recorded possessed calthrops, usually in high densities, in the remaining 80 % these spicules were lacking. Sanidasters universally present in all specimens, displaying a wide variation in length and width, 10–20 × 1–2.5 µm, densely spined with relatively short spines up to 1 µm.Sandy bottoms between 16 and 86 m depth.Great Barrier Reef, occurring over the entire range.Dercitus s.l. species that is similar, viz. Dercitus (Stoeba) syrmatitus, sharing the possession of three-claded calthrops, the small size of the calthrops and the agglutinating habit. The differences are nevertheless quite clear and compelling, the rarity of the megascleres, the lack of normal fourc-claded calthrops and the distinctly larger sanidasters.As Dercitus (Stoeba) occultus, from West Australia, differs sharply in having exclusively dichocalthrops megascleres.The only other Australian record of the genus, Stoeba  sp. ? None.from . EncrustSpicules: calthrops, sanidasters, ?strongyles.Calthrops with irregular cladi, 50–250 × 15–25 µm.Sanidasters short and fat, 12.5 × 2.5 µm.Strongyles, probably foreign, long and thin 375–400 × 3–5 µm.Shallow reefs.Known only from the Tuléar area, Madagascar.Live colour and the details of the spicules make it likely that this is an undescribed species. The strongyles are considered foreign as the authors themselves suggested.Dercitus  sp. PageBreakZMA Por. 08985, Netherlands Antilles, Bonaire, W coast, near Kralendijk, in reef caves, 12–43 m, 12.15°N; 68.278°W, 1984, coll. D.R. Kobluk.Dercitus) was made. Properties of the sponge and structure of the skeleton cannot be accurately described. The skeleton is a confused, dense mass of calthrops megascleres on the outside covered by a layer of microscleres. These are also common throughout the sponge body. Spicules are simple calthrops and sanidasters.Insinuating in coral crevices, in reef caves between 10 and 40 m depth. The available sponge material has been ‘used up’ entirely for the initial slides from which the genus identification  latex  in habit (encrusting in latex), and spicule size . Dercitus (Stoeba) bahamensis sp. n. likewise is encrusting and it has dichocalthrops and thicker sanidasters (see above).SungenusDe Laubenfels, 1936Halinastra Dercitus with clear subdivision of the sanidaster microscleres into longer, thinner irregular sanidasters and shorter, fatter, compressed, often aster-like forms.Pachastrella exostotica Schmidt, 1868 .Pachastrella exostotica Calthropella exostitus  (sic); Pachastrella (Pachastrella) exostotica ; Halinastra exostotica ; Stoeba exostita  (sic); Holotype, ZMB 287, Eritrea, Dahlak Archipelago, near Perim Island, Red Sea, 16.75°N; 40.05°E, 52 m, coll. Siemens.Black mass  of 3×3×0.5 cm . SurfaceSkeleton: a confused, dense mass of calthrops with a cover of microscleres at the surface. A few oxeas of widely different sizes were noted by Keller, but these were limited between approx. 100–120 × 2.5 µm of a typical haplosclerid type, in the slide examined by us.Spicules: calthrops, sanidasters, compressed sanidasters (pseudasters).128.2–275 × 5–18.2–35 µm.Calthrops , general23.1–27.5 × 2.5–5.3–7.5 µm.Sanidasters , variabl10.5–12.5 µm in diameter.Compressed sanidasters (pseudasters) , globulaDeeper water, beyond the reefsKnown only from the Southern Red Sea.Pachastrella monilifera grading into a statement on the Red Sea specimen), but the drawings of the microscleres show a sanidaster and a globular aster. Keller claims to have had access to Schmidt’s type specimen, but he faithfully reports that there is a discrepancy between Schmidt’s original label and the label of his redescribed specimen, e.g. the original collector was stated to be Ehrenberg by Schmidt, but Keller states it is Siemens, which is probably the correct one.PageBreakPachastrella exostotica to the genus Stoeba and declared Halinastra a junior synonym of that genus. However, he possibly overlooked that Pachataxa lutea possesses similar spiculation as Pachataxa exostotica (see below). With at least two species sharing the peculiar aster-like compressed acanthorhabds,  there is good reason to maintain Halinastra as a distinct taxon, proposed here to be a subgenus.urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:6960CBF1-D287-4513-A1C9-1777580A67F2Holotype RMNH 4256, Indonesia, Kalimantan, Berau region, Derawan Islands, depth 10 m, coll. N.J. De Voogd, field nr. BER105/140808/055, SCUBA, 14 August 2008.Haliclona). Oscules prominent on the summit of lobes, approx. 0.5 cm in diameter. Consistency firm, compressible. The preserved specimen is broken into two similar sized masses ; a few oxeas are present, but these belong to the encrusting 151.4–280 × 5–17.2–35 µm.PageBreakCalthrops , general29.1–42 × 1–5.1–10 (spines 0.5–2.2–4.5 µm).Sanidasters  of extre11.4–15 µm.Compressed sanidasters (pseudasters) , globulaNamed after the Berau region, East Kalimantan.Shallow open reef localities.So far known only from the type locality E of Kalimantan.Dercitus  exostoticus (Red Sea) and the present locality, there are compelling similarities in shape, colour and spicule sizes between the new species and exostoticus. The major difference between the two is the length and robustness of the sanidasters  berau sp. n. against max. 27.5 µm in Dercitus  exostoticus). We also believe that the habit and the choanosome pigmentation will prove to be distinct in the PageBreaktwo, but the absence of observations of living Dercitus  exostoticus precludes definite conclusions.Despite the long distance between the locality of Dercitus  berau sp. n. differs from Dercitus  japonensis sp. n. (see below) in the more robust condition of the sanidasters, the more oval, not completely euaster-like condition of the compressed sanidasters of the Japanese specimens. Also the length of the calthrops cladi appears less in the Dercitus  japonensis sp. n. See also urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:FF7DBEA7-C1DE-429A-A309-743FAAF8068FStoeba extensa ; PageBreakHolotype ZMA Por. 17646  Japan, near Anami-oshima Island, 157–161 m, 28.873°N; 129.5532°E, coll. N. Fusetani, dredge, field nr. S01–111, 7 November 2003.Paratype ZMA Por. 19889 , Japan, Kagoshima Prefecture, Ooshima-shinsone, 150 m, 28.8667°N; 122.55°E, coll. Y. Nakao, dredge, field nr. S01–118, 16 July 2001.Holotype  is a blaSkeleton: at the surface a crust of microscleres, overlying a dense confused mass of calthrops.Spicules: calthrops, sanidasters, compressed sanidasters (pseudasters).170.8–223 × 14–20.7–28 µm (cladomes 182–286.3–365 µm); of the paratype (177.2–252 × 5–23.9–37 µm (cladomes 63–319.0–451 µm).Calthrops of holotype  equianglparatype , equiang28.8–31 × 2.5–3.9–4.5 µm; of the paratype  berau sp. n. The two species appear generally similar, but sanidasters are shorter and slimmer than in Dercitus  berau sp. n. and the compressed sanidasters are few and consist mostly of oval rather than globular shapes. Combined with the clearly deeper occurrence and the considerable geographic distance we believe it is justified to consider both distinct at the species level. The two are obviously closely related to Dercitus  exostoticus Pachataxa lutea ZMA Por. 10100, Netherlands Antilles, Curaçao, Boca Sami, 20 m, 12.142°N; 69.007°W, coll. P. Willemsen nr. C92 A20, July 1992.ZMA Por. 14080, Netherlands Antilles, Curaçao, near Carmabi, in reef cave, 10 –20 m, 12.124°N; 68.974°W, coll. I. Wunsch nr. 84, January 1999.ZMA Por. 21692 (ex MNRJ 6678), Brazil, Das Rocas Atoll, Fenda, 3.8584°S; 33.8057°W, coll. E. Hajdu, M.V. de Oliveira & U.S. Pinheiro.PageBreak Live colour bright yellow, in alcohol dark brown. The preserved specimen shows a darker outer rim of 1–2 mm in thickness over a lighter coloured choanosome. This is not evidence of a cortex, it merely shows that the post-mortem discolouration does not penetrate evenly throughout the sponge. Our specimen conforms in all macroscopical aspects to Pulitzer-Finali’s type. The second specimen is smaller and thinner, approx. 1×1×0.2 cm, dark glistening red, with a slightly bumpy surface. The Brazil specimen is sized 4×4×4 cm, cut off from a much larger sponge.The larger specimen (10100) is a thick liver-like mass  with flaSkeleton: the ectosome has a dense layer of sanidasters and ‘spherasters’ carried by a similarly dense mass of calthrops. In the choanosome the calthrops and sanidasters are less densely and confusedly distributed. There is no zonation or other structural arrangement of the skeleton.Spicules: calthrops, sanidasters and compressed spheraster-like sanidasters (pseudasters).PageBreaked, irregular, unevenly curved. No dichocalthrops. Cladi 60–120.2–174 × 9–14.9–21 µm (measurements of both specimens combined), cladomes 102–193.9–264 µm.Calthrops  are ofte19.6–26 × 1–2.3–4 µm.Sanidasters  highly v7.7– 9 µm.Compressed sanidasters  are pecuOpen substrate in deeper parts of the reef, more shallow in caves.Widespread Central West Atlantic: Puerto Rico, Southern Caribbean, Northeastern Brazil.PageBreaklogy and spicules. Pulitzer’s material measures 7×5×1.5 cm, turning from light yellow to dark brown in alcohol. Consistency was described as fleshy, firm, compressible. Cladi of the calthrops were given as 70–180 µm , sanidasters  were given as 8–26 × 3–6 µm . Compressed sanidaster size was not given by Pulitzer but from his drawings can be estimated to be about 7–8 µm .The Curaçao material appears indistinguishable from the Puerto Rico type material  in overall morpho82–123 × 4–7.5–11 µm. Sanidasters    5–7.2–9 ‘Pachataxa’ lutea does not belong to Calthropella (Pachataxa) for two reasons : (1) it possesses sanidasters, (2) there are no ataxasters, and (3) the spherasters do not resemble true euasters, they are compressed derivations of the irregularly spined sanidaster-like acanthomicrorhabds. In any case, they seem to be morphologically very close to the Red Sea species Dercitus  exostoticus Schmidt (1868 as Pachastrella) (see above).urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:90683880-683F-4EDB-B392-1B759B1AEDE3Holotype ZMA Por. 08984, Netherlands Antilles, Aruba, Lagoon Boekoeti, underneath coral rubble, 0–1 m, coll. P. Wagenaar Hummelinck, nr. 1004, 29 December 1948.Small soft patches of a brown-red colour insinuating in three coral fragments , occupyiSkeleton: Confused mass of calthrops and microscleres, no explicit structure.PageBreakSpicules: Calthrops, sanidasters and microrhabds.119.2–174 × 9–14.9–21 µm, cladomes: 96–192.7–264.Calthrops  with gra20.8–26 × 1–2.1–3.5 µm.Sanidasters  variable7.7–9 × 3–4 µm. The microrhabds very likely derive from the sanidasters as there are some stages triaenes and various types of streptasters such as amphiasters and spirasters. Calthropella (Pachataxa) species  have ataxasters which may look similar in shape, but in addition these possess euasters (see below).The microrhabds are unique among species of the genus urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:24C3A89D-99AE-4C39-B1DB-E028D9516826Holotype ZMA Por. 02220, Indonesia, Papua, 32 m, 1.7083°S; 130.7916°E, coll. Siboga Exped. Stat. 164, dredge, 20 August 1899.Thin leathery-rubbery encrustation  cementinSkeleton: an ectosomal crust of microscleres overlying a mixture of microscleres and dichocalthrops embedded in largely organic choanosome with relatively low spicule density.Spicules: dichocalthrops, sanidasters and compressed fat sanidasters.26.5–30 × 5–8.0–11 µm; deuterocladi variable in length, 12–26.1–39 × 3–5.6–9 µm; rhabd short and pointed, 36–75 × 6–9 µm; cladome 75–101.1–144 µm.Dichocalthrops  relative13.9–16 × 1.5–2.05–3 µm, short-compressed sanidasters 7–11.0–13 × 4.5–5.6–7.5 µm.Sanidasters in two categories, long-and-thin  and shorNamed after the Dutch naval vessel HMS ‘Siboga’ which was instrumental to the 1899–1900 collection of a rich deep sea fauna from South East Asian waters.Dredged from a sandy bottom with small limestone rubble and shells.Known only from the type locality in Eastern Indonesia.Stoeba extensa, but habit and colour differ from that of Dendy’s species, whereas the spicules are significantly smaller. Stoeba extensa has a dense mass of dichocalthrops but also calthrops which are absent from the present new species. The density of megascleres is also much different. The dichocalthrops appear similar to those of Dercitus (Stoeba) occultus (see above), and also the colour matches. However, that species has an endolithic growth form and the sanidasters are apparently not divisable in two shapes. The membership of Halinastra of this species rests on the differentiation of the sanidasters into two shapes, but proper PageBreakpseudasters are not found. If the spicular variation of Dercitus (Stoeba) occultus and Dercitus  sibogae sp. n. will be demonstrated to overlap in a future study it might turn out the two are conspecific, but for the time being the emphasis is put on the differences.The present specimen was identified by Maurice Burton  as Lebwohl, 1914Dercitus loricatus Pachastrella monilifera ; PageBreakNone.Discodermia) and partly overgrown by Pachastrella tenuilaminaris. Colour brownish yellow. Consistency compact in dry condition. Surface covered by dirt, serpulids, foraminifera and bryozoans, amidst two openings with diaphragms supposed to be oscules. Surface skeleton a thick crust of microrhabds and metasters. The interior is a mass of calthrops interspersed by metasters.. Encrusting a lithistid . Since no sanidasters nor euasters were described, we exclude this material from our review as a pachastrellid of uncertain affinity. Pachastrella monilifera, but there is insufficient evidence for this.This is a dubious description as it was partly overgrown by a Burton, 1926Stoeba natalensis None.Stelletta specimens. Dry condition. Skeleton made up by radially arranged dichotriaenes with rhabd (720 × 54 µm) approx. twice as long as the cladome (approx. 360 µm), making them long-shafted triaenes rather than dichocalthrops. Microscleres are called ataxasters ‘passing into tuberculate microrhabds’, 5–8 µm long.. Encrusting on Deeper water.Natal coast, South Africa.Dercitus (Stoeba) species and it needs redescription. Probably it should be assigned to an ancorinid genus.This is a dubious GenusSollas, 1888Calthropella Pachastrissa PageBreakPachataxa Corticellopsis Calthropellidae with calthrops or short-shafted triaenes and their dichotriaene modifications as megascleres, supplemented in some species with auxiliary thin oxeas. Microscleres euasters and in some members aster- or rhabd-derived microspined forms.Calthropella simplex Sollas, 1888.Calthropella species are diverse in megasclere and microsclere composition reflected in several generic names currently in use or considered synonyms. We propose to reassign Calthropella species as here employed, to three subgenera, including Corticellopsis, formerly a synonym, but now revived to encompass those Calthropella species having only ‘normal’ euasters, Pachataxa, formerly a valid genus, to encompass species with deformed microspined polyangular microscleres (‘ataxasters’) along with normal oxyasters, and Calthropella s.s. for species having globular asters with characteristically tuberculated rays next to normal asters. Several new species of all three subgenera have been found in various parts of the world and will be described below.Comments: Pachastrissa is subsumed into the subgenus Calthropella  because the type species, Pachastrella geodioides (cf. below) differs only from the type of Calthropella, Calthropella simplex, in possessing an unstable complement of single oxeas, without structural position in the skeleton, often broken, and occasionally absent. Below, we maintain separate species Calthropella  simplex and Calthropella  geodioides, because we did not examine the type of the former, but Sollas’ description of it makes it clear that it differs from Calthropella  geodioides in two doubtful features, lack of dichocalthrops  geodioides) and oxeas  geodioides, see below). Especially the shape of the globular asters in both is so similar that conspecificity is likely. Likewise Pachastrissa pathologica , and Pachastrissa inopinata  are returned to Calthropella , close to Calthropella  geodioides.The genus Pachastrissa as Calthropella does not extend to Pachastrissa hartmeyeri Uliczka (1929) and Pachastrissa nux  as Jasplakina, both of which fit better in the ancorinid genus Penares on account of the structural oxeas and the presence of ectosmal microxeas in these species.The junior synonymy proposed for Calthropella is distinct from Dercitus s.l. in the possession of true euasters, the lack of sanidasters, the lack of large darkly pigmented cells with inclusions, and in the harder less organic texture of most species (except subgenus Corticellopsis). Calthrops are the dominant megasclere type, varying widely in size and shape (cladi 40–800 µm), with dichocalthrops so far known only from Calthropella  geodioides and its Indonesian ‘variety’. Asters are basically oxyasters, but they are often variable in shape with a strikingly high frequency of spheroxyasters with irregular shapes culminating in peculiar globular silica balls ornamented with tuberculated protrusions in some species. The subgenus Pachataxa has asymmetrical,PageBreak deformed microspined siliceous microscleres which are derivatives of asters or microrhabds . Differentiation in two aster types is usual. Like with several Dercitus species, oxea megascleres are reported in several descriptions, with widely different sizes and usually in broken condition. The oxeas may be foreign, but the persistent reports of their presence in some species indicate otherwise. In any case they do not have a structural position in the skeleton and are here considered ‘auxiliary’.The newly defined genus SubgenusSollas, 1888Calthropella Calthropella with tuberculate spherasters.Calthropella simplex Sollas, 1888.Sollas, 1888Calthropella simplex None. Type material could not be found in the Natural History Museum (query in 2009).from . MassiveSpicules: calthrops, globular spherasters and ‘normal’ oxyspherasters.Calthrops, of widely different sizes, according to Sollas divisible into larger (cladi dimensions 800 × 90 µm) and smaller (150 × 20 µm).PageBreakSpheroxyasters, considered a young stage of the tuberculated asters by Sollas, but identified as a proper separate aster-type by Topsent; no size given by either authors but according to Topsent the same size as the truncated asters, so 12–24 µm in diameter.Globular spherasters with tuberculated rays, variable, often irregular, in a wide size range, possibly divisible in two size categories, 24 µm and 12 µm.Deep water, on gravel/sand bottom. Sollas provides no depth data, Topsent’s material came from 454 –861 m.Cape Verde Islands , Azores (38–39°N 30°W).Calthropella  geodioides in the lack of dichocalthrops  geodioides) and oxeas PageBreak geodioides). Apart from Calthropella simplex and Calthropella geodioides might be synonyms), no records of this species have been published. It is also closely similar to a new species from Indonesia, Calthropella  xavierae sp. n. (see below). durissima’ for specimens with globular spherasters becoming entirely irregularly rounded in some specimens; these specimens are here assigned to a separate species of Calthropella  (see below).This species differs from the closely similar Pachastrella geodioides Calthropella geodiides  (sic); Corticella geodioides ; Calthropella geodioides ; Pachastrissa geodioides ; ZMA Por. 21666, EMEPC/G3–D03A–Ma012, Azores, Terceira Island, 38.4265°N; 26.8206°W, 1201 m, coll. J. Xavier, 18 May 2007.Specimens provided by Dr Joana Xavier, as yet unregistered: EMEPC/G3–D01–Ma005, Azores, São Jorge Island, 38.48°N; 27.798°W, 1222 m, 17 May 2007; EMEPC/G3–D02–Ma006, Azores, Terceira Island, 38.5530°N; 26.7083°W, 744 m, 18 May 2007; EMEPC/G3–D33A–Ma011a, S of Azores, Cruiser Seamount, 32.2570°N; 27.553°W, 643 m, 4 June 2007; EMEPC/G3/08.30, S of Azores, Atlantis Seamount, 33.916°N; 30.171°W, 1132 m, 30 October 2008.Flat mounds  and thicSkeleton: with a dense crust of microscleres carried by triaene megascleres, with scattered bundles of oxeas, which appear mostly broken and are sometimes entirely absent.Spicules: calthrops, dichocalthrops, (broken) oxeas, tuberculated spherasters, oxyasters.350.9–705 × 11–51.5–128 µm, cladomes 150–471.4–1050 µm, possibly divisible in two categories (cladi lengths 102–180 and 434–705 µm).Calthrops , with coDichocalthrops  , few  and in the other samples they were invariably single, not forming bundles or radiating towards the surface and appeared to be broken generally in all sections and spicule mounts. Possibly this was artefactual. Dichocalthrops were rare to extremely rare in all studied samples. PageBreakDichocalthrops that were encountered were all in the small size class of triaene megascleres (less than 200 µm cladome size) and often were not ‘complete’, i.e. only one or two of the cladi were forked.simplex and geodioides could very well be the same species and could eventually be merged, but we will await further studies including molecular sequencing.We believe that the two species Calthropella geodioides from Ambon (Indonesia) is not close to the present species. It shares the presence of oxeas and dichocalthrops with Calthropella geodioides but calthrops are much smaller (200 µm) and thick–centred euasters are only 10–12 µm. It is redescribed in Topsent’s (1897) variety of Topsent, 1892Calthropella simplex var. durissima Specimen provided by Dr. Joana Xavier, as yet unregistered: EMEPC/G3/08.30, S of Azores, Atlantis Seamount, 33.916°N; 30.171°W, 1132 m, 30 October 2008.in litteris) reports the existence of a slide, MNHN DT 883.Not examined. Dr. P. Cárdenas , smaller with cladi in the range 61–198 µm are usually normal calthrops, larger with cladi in the range 297–697 µm are predominantly tripods.Calthrops  variableOxeas , few in 13.7–18 µm; larger spherasters  is here raised to species rank because of the peculiar modification of the tuberculated asters into small irregular silica-balls, which are also larger than those of Calthropella  simplex and Calthropella  geodioides. Topsent’s type material was more extensive  and the surface more elaborate . In 1904, Topsent retracted his variety durissima as he had become convinced that the lumpy asters were derived from the tuberculated asters and probably subject to considerable variation. Having PageBreakexamined the variation of these asters, we disagree with the retraction of durissima and Topsent’s assignment of it to the variability of Calthropella  geodioides. The predominance of three-claded calthrops and the absence of dichocalthrops combined with the presence of the lumpy entirely spined ‘spherochiasters’ is sufficient evidence for specific distinction.Topsent’s variety Stelletta pathologica Calthropella pathologica ; Pachastrissa pathologica ; Lectotype (designation herein), MNHN DT 753, Coast of Algiers, Expédition Scientifique de l’Algérie, nr. 66, 1842. Paralectotype MNHN DT 754, from same locality.. Two specimens are present in the Schmidt collection of the Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, the largest (MNHN DT 753) of which is 4.5 cm in widest size and 2–2.5 cm high, here chosen as the lectotype. The smaller specimen (MNHN DT 754), here designated paralectotype, size 1×3 cm (now apparently reduced to 1×1.5 cm) was examined by us and we made SEM photos of the spicules. Both specimens have a rough surface . AccordiSpicules: Calthrops, tuberculated spherasters, oxyasters.Calthrops : AccordiThe megasclere complement also comprised thin oxeas of 15 µm thickness . Cross sPageBreakAsters  occurred24.9–27 µm.Lightly spined oxyasters  with swo10.2–12 µm.Small, smooth oxyasters , often sCalthropella  geodioides the rays were relatively long; sizes highly variable, but overlapping without clear separation in smaller and larger asters, diameter 9–18.4–24 µmTuberculated asters with ornamented rays ; compareDeep water, and in caves in more shallow water, depth occurrence at least 13–250 m. Off the coast of Algeria, no further data; Cassidaigne, Marseille region; Sicily-Tunis region; Alboran Sea, 39°N –3°W; Rhodos, Aegean Sea, 36°N; 28°E.Calthropella geodioides but differ in the tendency of the calthrops to develop extra PageBreakcladi. In addition the tuberculated asters of that species have shorter rays . Oxeas are stated in in litteris) appear to indicate these oxeas are proper to the sponge. Possibly, they are a remnant of ancestral radiating oxeas.Pulitzer-Finali, 1983Calthropella inopinata None.MSNG 47158, off Camogli, N Italy.from . IrregulSpicules: calthrops, oxeas, strongylasters to spherasters, oxyasters.Calthrops, extremely variable in shape, with many reductions and malformations, size variation also considerable, 34–600 µm (no thickness given).Oxeas, with extremely elongated, flexuous points, all broken in the slide, but at least 2000 × 15 µm.Oxyasters, without centre, with two to six microspined rays, 8–17 µm.Strongylasters to spherasters, variable in shape, irregular with tuberculated rays or lobate, 5–22 µm.Trawled from 60 m depth.Known only from the type locality off the coast of Genoa, 44°N; 9°E.Calthropella pathologica in most aspects. Oxeas are stated to be all broken, so chances are they are not proper or only auxiliary. Nevertheless their great length and peculiar endings are the main reason to distinguish this species as separate.This species is similar to Calthropella geodioides, Calthropella simplex, Calthropella pathologica and his new species Calthropella inopinata could be all members of the same species. For us, this suggestion has merit, at least as far as a possible synonymy of Calthropella pathologica – Calthropella inopinata and Calthropella simplex – Calthropella geodioides is concerned. A further North Atlantic species, Calthropella  durissima differs clearly in having peculiar silicified microscleres derived from the tuberculated asters.Pulitzer (l.c.) suggests that urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:CFED089B-4226-4FEA-84C2-71481A291F48PageBreakHolotype ZMA Por. 11376, Indonesia, E of Komodo, 8.4867°S; 119.6167°E, depth 138 m, dredge, coll. R.W.M. Van Soest, Snellius II Exped. Stat. 095, 19 September 1984.Lobate mass , size 6×Skeleton: a dense crust of asterose microscleres at the surface covers a dense mass of calthrops. Asters are also crowded in the choanosome. The skeleton is densely confused and there are few canals or cavities; some broken monaxone spicules were present.Spicules: calthrops, globular tuberculate asters, oxyspherasters, oxeas?.238.2–587 × 5–40.8–101 µm, cladome 62–344.3–820 µm.Calthrops  in an exBroken monaxonic spicules (oxeas?) measured up to 700 × 10 µm.16.9–21 (8 rays) and smaller (9.7–10 µm (12–14 rays), but some overlap is present.Oxyasters , with a  smaller  with morPageBreakGlobular tuberculated spherasters .Calthropella  resembling the type species Calthropella  simplex in all but the finer details of spicule sizes and shapes. The habitus is more elaborately globular and has pinkish brown colour  in contrast to more flattened pale yellow–grey Calthropella  simplex; there appear to be two distinct size categories of oxyspherasters in the new species.This is a clear Calthropella geodioides var. from Ambon Bay, Indonesia .from . This isShallow reefs.Ambon Bay, Indonesia.Calthropella geodioides, and ‘normal’ oxyasters are apparently not present. In addition, the localities and habitats are widely separated .PageBreakIt is likely that the Ambon material belongs to an undescribed species, as the length of the cladi of the calthrops and the diameter of the tuberculated asters are much smaller than in the type of Subgenusde Laubenfels, 1936Pachataxa Calthropella with ataxasters.Pachastrella lithistina Schmidt, 1880 .Pachastrella lithistina Pachataxa lithistina ; Holotype MCZ 6384, Blake Exped. 1878–79, Grenada, 160 m. Further type material: schizoholotype fragment MZUS P0095 (not examined) and two type slides in ZMB, nr. 6870 (not examined).Thick plate , size 9×Skeleton: a confused mass of calthrops with at the periphery a dense mass of ataxasters, which are also strewn in the interior.Spicules: calthrops, spheroxyasters, ataxasters.315.5–705 × 14–46.1–94 µm, cladome 144–460.2–990 µm.Calthrops , highly 9.7–12 µm.Spheroxyasters , with thPageBreakuniformly microspined; size (length of longest axis × length of shortest axis) 9–28.7–48 × 4–18.1–34 µm.Ataxasters, of many different shapes and sizes  from simDeep water, 160 m.Only known from the type locality, off Grenada.Calthropella (Pachataxa) lithistina differs from both other Pachataxa species in the shape  and in the large variations in ataxaster shapes and sizes.The type material was assigned by Lévi & Lévi, 1983Pachataxa enigmatica PageBreakHolotype MNHN DCL 2805; paratypes DCL 2895 , both from New Caledonia, 22.8°S; 167.15°E, depth 355–360 m.Massive with rounded flattened lobate outgrowths . Size ofSkeleton: confused, with a crust of microscleres carried by the triaene megascleres. A few broken oxea-like spicules were present in the slides made from the largest paratype.Spicules : Calthro215.4–450 × 13–30.6–54 µm, cladomes 120–311–510 µm.Calthrops , occasio8.7–12 µm diameter .Spheroxyasters , called PageBreakAtaxasters  lithistina in overall spicule size and particularly in the small size of the oxyasters; that species is much larger and has a plate-shape. Calthropella (Pachataxa) pyrifera sp. n. (see below) differs likewise in having larger oxyasters up to 24 µm diameter and asymmetrical pear-shaped ataxasters.PageBreakThe New Caledonian species differs from the Caribbean urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:F2A5D208-1076-45F4-95EE-EA57D4C2C028Holotype HBOI nr. 12–XI–86–1–14, with fragment (schizoholotype) ZMA Por. 07726, Ecuador, Galapagos Archipelago, NE coast of Santa Cruz, Rocas Gordon, 0.546°S; 90.116°W, depth 506 m, coll. K. Rinehart, Johnson SeaLink submersible, 12 November 1996, don. S.A. Pomponi & M.C. Diaz.Type material available to us has a flattened , roundedPageBreakSkeleton: an irregular mass of large triaenes covered at the periphery by a thick layer of ataxasters / microrhabds, which are also strewn in the interior. Loose oxeas of widely different sizes present in moderate quantities, considered foreign.Spicules: calthrops, spheroxyasters, ataxasters.412.3–708 × 15–37.4–71 µm, cladome 233–626.8–1180 µm.Calthrops  variable18.1–24 µm (centre approx. 10 µm diameter).Spheroxyasters , thick-cPachataxa lithistina is nevertheless obvious; size 7–20.5–31 µm, measured along the longest axis.Ataxasters , typicalFrom the Greek pyros = pear and fero= carry or bear, referring to the possession of the pear-shaped microscleres.Deep water, 506 m.NE of Santa Cruz Island, Galapagos, East Pacific.Calthropella (Pachataxa) on the basis of its spiculation. Size and shape of the calthrops is similar to Calthropella (Pachataxa) lithistina, but these differ clearly in the diameter of the spheroxyasters  pyrifera sp. n. are twice as large and these are also twice as large as those of Pachataxa enigmatica, see above). Especially the shape of the ataxasters renders this species distinct from the other two Calthropella (Pachataxa).The species is assigned to SubgenusBergquist, 1968CorticellaCorticella Calthropella with ‘normal’ euasters (oxyasters and/or strongylasters).Corticium stelligerum Schmidt, 1868 (by subsequent designation herein).Corticium stelligerum Corticella stelligera ; Corticellopsis stelligera ; Calthropella stelligera ; Type fragment of LMJG 15352 from Sebenico, Northern Adriatic (slide in ZMA). There are further fragments, not examined, BMNH 1867.7.26.14, 45, 104, BMNH 1910.1.1.863, MZUS P0005, and slides BMNH 1868.3.2.5 and ZMB 6563).From Skeleton: densely spiculous at the surface, organic with few spicules in the interior. No definite skeletal structure.Spicules: calthrops, euasters.288.2–356 × 16–25.6–33 µm (cladomes 212–436.0–570 µm), Topsent gives cladus lengths 130–400 × 12–30 µm.Calthrops  or short20.2–22 µm in diameter .Corticella Sollas (1888) replaced by Corticellopsis Bergquist, 1968 . The species has been reported recently from the Canary Islands .from . Thin enSpicules: calthrops, oxeas, strongylasters , oxyasters.Calthrops in a large size variation and many showing abnormal or assymmetrical cladi (the latter distinguished as a separate category by Pulitzer), cladi 85–220 × 7–17 µm.Oxeas straight or curved, in a large size range, 100–1200 × 7.5 µm.Strongylasters, 8–12 rays, variable, 9–16 µm.Oxyasters, six thin rays, 40–50 µm.Collected at 12 m.Mediterranean (Naples region).Calthropella (Corticella) stelligera. By its possession of oxeas, assuming they are proper, this species would appear to be valid, but the possibility that it is Calthropella (Corticella) stelligera cannot be excluded.The oxeas are explicitly stated as part of the spicule complement, but were not represented in the spicule drawings. It remains doubtful whether they are proper. Corticella novae-zealandiae Corticellopsis novaezealandiae ; None.from , 1968. ESkeleton: no data.Spicules: calthrops, strongylasters, oxyasters.Calthrops, occasionally with five or six cladi, 120–210 × 26–38 µm; “occasionally with dicho-modifications”; the 1968 illustration  shows at least one proper short-shafted dichocalthrops.PageBreakStrongylasters, rather irregular in shape, with stunted rays, but not with a thickly silicified centre, 11 µm.Oxyasters, 50–70 µm (5–7 rays).Sublittoral fringe.Rangitoto Island, northern New Zealand.The drawings and photos of the asters are limited to the rather irregular strongylasters, whereas no illustrations are available of the oxyasters. It is assumed these were regular and unremarkable.ZMA Por. 10525, Seychelles, Mahé, Cap Maçons & Anse de Forbans, 4.7667°S; 55.5167°E, 0–6 m, NIOP Expedition stat. 612, coll. R.W.M. Van Soest, nr. 612/20, 12 December 1992.Cartilaginous crust on a piece of dead coral, surface smooth, size 2×1×0.5 cm. Greyish black alive, pale brown in alcohol.Skeleton: with low spicular density, predominantly consisting of calthrops.Spicules: Calthrops, euasters in two categories.99.2–195 × 4–8.4–11 µm, cladomes 46–128.7–255 µm.Calthrops  small, o12.3–18 µm.Oxyspherasters , multira7.6–11 µm.Small oxyasters , approx.Encrusting dead corals in shallow water.Known only from a single locality south of Victoria, Mahé.Calthropella s.l. The oxyspherasters were quite rare, and they could not be detected in any of the thick sections, whereas the small oxyasters were only marginally less rare, so there is a possibility that they are not proper to this sponge. The cartilaginous nature and low spicular density of the specimen reminded of Dercitus rather than of Calthropella, but we did not find sanidasters.We refrain from naming this material due to the rarity of its microscleres. By its small sized calthrops this is a distinct species, as no matching descriptions appear in literature dealing with Pulitzer-Finali, 1993Calthropella digitataPageBreak None. Holotype MSNG 48290Branching mass of 5×3 cm. Confused skeleton in which giant oxeas (2700 × 9 µm) predominate. Next to this there are large dichotriaenes with cladomes of 400–550 µm wide and similar sized rhabdomes of 400–650 × 35–45 µm. Spherasters of 8–14 µm comprise the microscleres.Deep water, 120 m.North Kenya Banks, E Africa.Calthropella as it has a dense skeleton with confusedly arranged oxeas. This species is best assigned to Stelletta s.l..This is in all probability not a Dercitus s.l. and Calthropella s.l. has been made plausible, notwithstanding a clear separation in microsclere complement, shape and texture. The assignment of these two genera to different astrophorid families appears unnecessary, because Dercitus, although lacking euasters, does not possess clear pachastrellid streptasters other than acanthomicrorhabd-like sanidasters. Several Calthropella species, although possessing euasters, have heavily silicified microscleres similar to some Dercitus species. These microspined silica bodies can be morphologically derived from euasters  or from microrhabds . The ovoid microspined microscleres of Dercitus  arubensis sp. n. appear to bridge the gap between Dercitus  and Calthropella (Pachataxa).From the above presented data a close relationship of PageBreakcurrently recognized families is not unequivocal. Calthropella at present is a member of the small family Calthropellidae, which – with the above proposals of generic synonymy – is reduced to virtually a single genus . Dercitus s.l. could be assigned as a second genus to Calthropellidae, but defining such a modified family is problematic in view of the fact that Triptolemma shares similar skeletal structure but has undoubted pachastrellid characters in the form of genuine streptasters . Similarity of Triptolemma to Dercitus s.l. appears to be considerable because next to (dicho-)mesotriaene megascleres this genus also has calthrops and acanthomicrorhabds. Some species of the type genus of Pachastrellidae, Pachastrella, although having a skeleton with structural oxeas, appear close again to Triptolemma in sharing calthrops, dichocalthrops, mesotriaenes, streptasters and acanthomicrorhabds. This could mean that the above observed similarities are homoplastic rather than homologous, demonstrating independently acquired losses possibly induced by adaptations to the crevice-agglutinating-endolithic habitat. Thus, our results seem ambiguous for eventual changes in the classification. We will await further independent evidence for a revised classification of astrophorid genera.Assuming that the similarities will be found to be homologous and that the two considered groups will be found to be closely related, family assignment to one of the Dercitus and Calthropella that likely concern distinct species in need of further description and differentiation before they can be properly named:Including the three unnamed species described above, there appear to be at least seven records of Dercitus (Stoeba) sp. from Bonaire– Dercitus (Stoeba) sp. from Madagascar– Dercitus (Stoeba) sp. aff. plicatus sensu – Dercitus (Stoeba) sp. aff. plicatus sensu – Dercitus  sp. aff. luteus from offshore Brazil– Calthropella  sp. aff. geodioides var. from Ambon– Calthropella (Corticellopsis) sp. from Seychelles– On the other hand, there are at least six species suspected to be junior synonyms:Dercitus (Stoeba) extensus with possible synonym Dercitus (Stoeba) pauper,– Dercitus (Stoeba) plicatus with two possible synonyms Dercitus (Stoeba) lesinensis and Dercitus (Stoeba) dissimilis,– Calthropella  geodioides with possible synonym Calthropella  simplex,– Calthropella  pathologica with possible synonym Calthropella  inopinata– Calthropella (Corticellopsis) stelligera with possible synonym Calthropella (Corticellopsis) recondita.– Dercitus (Dercitus) bucklandi sensu Dercitus sp. sensu PageBreakA further two records (Demospongiae (Van Soest 1994) indicated that a circum-global temperate and warm water occurrence is the most common pattern. Dercitus and Calthropella are probably following this pattern closely. Dercitus s.l. (Dercitus (Stoeba) bahamensis sp. n., Dercitus  sibogae sp. n., Dercitus  japonensis sp. n.). The subgenus Dercitus (Dercitus) has PageBreakan oddly limited distribution in the Celtic Seas and South European Atlantic shelf marine ecoregions. Subgenus Stoeba is the most widespread, occurring over almost all provinces mentioned above. Subgenus Halinastra, although less common, likewise is represented in provinces encircling the globe. It is lacking so far in the Eastern Pacific and Eastern Atlantic provinces.Previous analysis of generic distributions of tus s.l.  occurs iCalthropella s.l.  and Calthropella (Corticellopsis) so far are not known from the Caribbean. Subgenus Pachataxa is lacking from the Eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean. It is likely that these distribution patterns will turn out to be less disjunct when more information on the distribution of members of this genus is collected.PageBreaklla s.l.  is less


Optimization of process conditions includes aqueous pH, extractant concentration, phase ratio, and stripping. Comparison of Al extraction efficiency with 0.45 M extractant concentration for TOPS 99, PC 88 A, and Cyanex 272 at an equilibrium pH of 2.23 was 81.8%, 98.6%, and 75%, respectively. The corresponding coextraction of Ni was 0.65, 0.6, and 0.9. Among the three extractants screened, PC 88A showed better extraction efficiency for Al at lower pH values than the others. Using 0.45 M PC 88 A, extraction isotherm was obtained at an aqueous-to-organic (A : O) phase ratio of 1 : 1–3 and O : A ratio of 1 : 1–5, which predicted possible separation of Al in 2 stages at A/O ratio of 2. Quantitative stripping was achieved by H Nickel is primarily used as an alloying metal. The other uses of Ni are in electroplating batteries and as catalysts. Sulfidic, oxidic nickel ores and various nickel bearing secondary materials, such as super alloy scrap, spent batteries, and catalysts are potential sources for Ni production. Preparation of Ni-based catalysts generally involves either an alloy of Ni-Al, impregnation of Ni over the oxide supports of Al, Si, Mg, in the matrix of Al-Mg as hydrotalcites. Ni-based catalysts are widely used in petroleum, petrochemical, and pharmaceutical industry. After the usage of catalyst for a certain period of time, its activity reduces, at this stage, it is considered as spent. Spent catalysts are harmful to the environment due to the presence of soluble/leachable organic and inorganic compounds , 2.2SO4 as leaching reagent. Other authors like Loboiko et al. ) where Vaq  and Vorg  are the volumes of aqueous and organic phases, respectively, and separation factor (β = DAl/DNi) was calculated. at an equilibrium pH 2.23 . From thBased on the data obtained from the McCabe-Thiele plot on Al extraction with 0.45 M PC 88 A in kerosene, a two-stage counter current extraction simulation test at A : O 2 : 1 ratio (single stage: 98.2% Al extraction) was carried out at equilibrium pH 2.23 in order to confirm the Al extraction isotherm prediction data. The raffinate and loaded organic outlet streams were collected after the second cycle onwards and analyzed for metal values. The loaded organic (L.O) contains 6.47 g/L Al. The raffinate contained 0.03 mg/L Al corresponding to 99.1% extraction efficiency. Loss of Ni was 1.46% only .3, and H2SO4 in the range 0.1–1.0 M at unit phase ratio. The results are presented in 2SO4 is the most effective acid for Al stripping followed by HCl and HNO3. Further, the effect of different O : A phase ratios on Al stripping efficiency and number of theoretical stages required for quantitative stripping are presented in 2SO4. By increasing the O/A ratio to >1, the stripping efficiency decreased and the numbers of stages are required for quantitative stripping increased as expected.Stripping is the reverse of the extraction, so it should be promoted by these factors that effect extraction negatively, such as acidic, basic, and salt media. Al stripping from loaded organic (L.O) 0.45 M PC 88 A containing 6.47 g/L Al, was investigated using various stripping agents such as HCl, HNOThe Al containing organic phases were stripped with acidified distilled water at an equal phase ratio. The stripped organic phases were again washed with distilled water for 2-3 times. The regenerated stripped solvents were reused after washing with deionized water for the determination of extraction efficiency of Al for 5 cycles , and fou2SO4 by operating stripping at O/A ratio of 1–1.5. Finally, the present methodology can yield high pure Ni LL suitable for production of hydrated NiSO4 by evaporation and crystallization.Solvent extraction studies of Al from sulphate solutions by organophosphorus-based extractants establish the dependence of Al extraction on equilibrium pH of the aqueous phase. The results demonstrate that among the phosphoric, phosphonic, and phosphinic reagents, phosphonic acid, that is, PC 88 A is the better reagent for the separation and recovery of Al from Ni from sulphate leach solution of Raneynickel catalyst. Al extraction efficiency of >99% is achieved in two stages at an A : O phase ratio of 2 : 1 and equilibrium pH of 2.23 with PC 88 A. Quantitative Al stripping can be achieved in single stage from loaded organic phase using 1.0 M H


Glutathione S-transferase P1 (GSTP1) is thought to be involved in the detoxification of reactive carcinogen metabolites. Numerous epidemiological studies have evaluated the association of GSTP1 Ile105Val polymorphism with the risk of prostate cancer. However, the results remain inconclusive. To derive a more precise estimation, a meta-analysis was performed.P = 0.50; Val/Val vs. Val/Ile+Ile/Ile: OR = 1.07, 95% CI = 0.91–1.25, P = 0.44). In subgroup analyses by ethnicity and prostate cancer grade, the similar results were observed. However, in stratified analysis by clinical stage, we found a significant association with low-stage prostate cancer . Moreover, there was no statistically significant evidence of multiplicative interactions neither between the GSTP1 Ile105Val polymorphism and GSTM1, nor between smoking status and GSTP1 on prostate cancer risk.A comprehensive search was conducted to identify the eligible studies. We used odds ratios (ORs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) to assess the strength of the relationship. The overall association was not significant (Val/Val vs. Ile/Ile OR = 1.06, 95% CI = 0.90–1.25, This meta-analysis showed that GSTP1 Ile105Val polymorphism might not be significantly associated with overall prostate cancer risk. Further stratified analyses showed a significant association with low-stage prostate cancer. Several risk factors for prostate cancer have been identified, such as age, hormones, dietary factors and so on Prostate cancer is the sixth most common cancer in the world, the third most common cancer in men, and the most common cancer in men in Europe, North America, and some parts of Africa Glutathione-S-transferases (GSTs) are phase II enzymes which have been thought to be responsible for catalyzing the biotransformation of multiple electrophilic compounds GSTP1 is thought to play an important role in susceptibility to prostate cancer. In prostate tissue, it is predominantly expressed in the basal layer of the normal prostate epithelium. Although these normal prostate secretory cells do not routinely express GSTP1, they still retain the capability to express this enzyme P = 0.002) P = 0.049) and further confirmed it by MDR  permutation testing (P = 0.001). However, other studies A single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in the coding sequence at codon 105  of GSTP1 was reported to lower enzymatic activity in vitro On the whole, the results about the association between GSTP1 Ile105Val polymorphism and prostate cancer risk were conflicting and inconclusive. To derive a more precise estimation, we performed a meta-analysis.PubMed (1956 to 20 June 2013), EMBASE (1974 to 20 June 2013), HuGENet (2000 to 20 June 2013), and Chinese National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) (1978 to 20 June 2013) database searches were performed using the following terms: “GSTP1”, “polymorphism”, and “prostate”. The references of the retrieved articles were also screened. In case of studies with overlapping data, we selected the study with the largest number of subjects. The studies included in the meta-analysis should meet the following criteria: (a) evaluate the association of GSTP1 Ile105Val polymorphism with prostate cancer risk published in English or Chinese language, (b) use a case-control design, (c) provide the sample size, distribution of alleles, genotypes or other information that contribute to infer study characteristics, and (d) the distribution of GSTP1 genotypes in controls being consistent with Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (HWE).Two authors independently collected the information and reached consensus on all items. The following characteristics were extracted from eligible studies: name of first author, year of publication, country, ethnicity, numbers of genotyped prostate cancer cases and controls. Different ethnic descents were categorized as Caucasians, Asians, and Africans. If a study did not state the ethnic descendent or was not possible to separate participants according to their phenotype, the group Two studies The strength of the association between GSTP1 Ile105Val polymorphism and prostate cancer risk was measured by ORs with 95% confidence intervals (CIs). We first estimated the effects of the Val/Val and Val/Ile genotypes on the risk of prostate cancer, compared with the wild-type Ile/Ile homozygote, then evaluated the effects of “Val/Val+Val/Ile vs. Ile/Ile” and “Val/Val vs. Val/Ile+Ile/Ile” on the risk, in dominant and recessive models, respectively. Subgroup analyses were also performed based on clinical stage, grade, ethnicity, smoking status, and GSTM1 null/present genotype.P<0.10 was considered significant) P<0.05 was considered significant. Funnel plots and Egger’s linear regression test were used to evaluate publication bias Between studies heterogeneity was evaluated with the Q test based on the Chi-square distribution .Publications were retrieved based on the search criteria. Study selection process was shown in GSTP1 105Val allele frequencies in the cases and controls were calculated. The frequency of the 105Val allele was 30.12% (95%CI = 26.87–33.38%) in the cases, which was not significantly higher than that controls .P = 0.50; Val/Ile vs. Ile/Ile: OR = 1.02, 95% CI = 0.89–1.16, P = 0.83; Val/Val+Val/Ile vs. Ile/Ile: OR = 1.03, 95% CI = 0.91–1.16, P = 0.63; Val/Val vs. Val/Ile+Ile/Ile: OR = 1.07, 95% CI = 0.91–1.25, P = 0.44; P<0.001; Val/Val vs. Val/Ile+Ile/Ile: OR = 2.14, 95% CI = 1.38–3.33, P = 0.001; P = 0.22; Val/Val vs. Val/Ile+Ile/Ile: OR = 1.40 95% CI = 0.69–2.85, P = 0.35; We performed a meta-analysis of the GSTP1 Ile105Val polymorphism overall, and in subgroups of ethnicities, clinical stage, and grade (Gleason scores) under various genetic models . OverallIn subgroup analyses by ethnicities, the Ile105Val polymorphism was not associated with prostate cancer risk in Caucasians and Asians .In this study, a cumulative meta-analysis was also performed, in which the studies were added one at a time according to year of publication. We found that the pooled ORs did not change according to year of publication (data not shown).P = 0.56; The gene-gene and gene-environment interactions were assessed in our analysis. GSTM1 null/present genotypes have been identified P = 0.43; When the data were analyzed in subgroups of subjects stratified by smoking status, we did not find that GSTP1 Ile105Val polymorphism was significantly associated with prostate cancer risk among smokers . In stratified analyses by clinical stage, significant heterogeneity was observed for low-stage prostate cancer under one genetic model . In stratified analyses by smoking status and GSTM1 null/present genotypes, there was no evidence of heterogeneity.The heterogeneity was reckoned between each of the studies using the Q-test. Overall, the significant heterogeneity was detected .P = 0.82; Val/Ile vs. Ile/Ile: P = 0.69; Val/Val+Val/Ile vs. Ile/Ile: P = 0.98; Val/Val vs. Val/Ile+Ile/Ile: P = 0.90, Begg’s funnel plot and Egger’s test were conducted to assess publication bias. The shape of funnel plots did not show any evidences of asymmetry. The Egger’s test did not provide any statistical evidence of funnel plot symmetry Click here for additional data file.Table S2Stratified analyses of the GSTP1 Ile105Val polymorphism on prostate cancer risk.(DOC)Click here for additional data file.