The occurrence of nosocomial infections remains a health threat to patients and hospital staff. This study applied social-cognitive theory for predicting determinants of nosocomial infections control behaviors in hospital nursing Staff.In this cross-sectional study, 280 nurses and assistant nurses were selected by random sampling from intensive care wards including CCU, ICU, NICU, dialysis of educational hospitals in Mashhad, Iran in 2020. Data were collected using a 5-point Likert scale structural questionnaire based on social cognitive theory constructs. Using the structural equation modeling method, direct and indirect relationships of social cognitive factors on preventive behaviors of nosocomial infections were analyzed via AMOS 23.0.p < 0.001). The constructs of social support, modeling, perceived environment and Task self-efficacy had an indirect effect on behavior and the most impact was related to the constructs of perceived environment (p < 0.05).Our results showed that self-regulation, outcome expectations, and barrier constructs had a direct effect on behavior and the highest effect was related to self-regulation structure (Considering that self-regulation, outcome expectation and barriers have a significant effect on following the preventive behaviors of nosocomial infections in nursing staff. It is suggested that policymakers and planners try to reduce barriers, strengthen behavioral motivation, and empower nursing staff by teaching self-regulatory strategies. Although the quality of health services has been improved and infection prevention and control methods have been developed, the occurrence of nosocomial infections remains a health threat to patients and hospital staff . Due to Nosocomial infections affect many patients around the world. Roughly, 15% of hospitalized patients suffer from these infections. The economic losses from these infections are increasing. The incidence rate in developed countries is about 3.5 to 12%. The prevalence of these infections in underdeveloped countries is about three times higher than in developed countries . In IranTo prevent and control nosocomial infections, it is essential to determine the predictors of preventive behaviors of nosocomial infection. For this end, effective models are needed to improve patient safety and reduce nosocomial infections . Social A study showed that nurses in the intensive care unit need to strengthen self-efficacy as one of the internal factors in order to carry out infection control-related behaviors . AnotherIn previous studies, the effect of social cognitive factors on hand hygiene as one of the measures in the control and prevention of nosocomial infections has been investigated, but the effect of social cognitive factors on compliance with standard precautions for nosocomial infection control is not well understood. In a study that was conducted to identify social cognitive factors affecting on hand hygiene in hospital nurses, subjective norms, attitudes, perceived behavioral control, risk perception and intention were identified as important predictors of hand hygiene . StructuThis study aimed to provide Structural equation model to predict social cognitive theory on behaviors related to prevent and control of nosocomial infections in nursing staff.This study used a cross-sectional, self-reported design in evaluating the predictors of behaviors related to prevent and control nosocomial infections among nursing staff. Data were collected from August to December 2020. A convenience sample of 280 nursing staff were selected for the study. The research sample was selected from the nursing staff (nurse and assistant nurses) working in the intensive care units including CCU, ICU, NICU, dialysis units in academic hospitals in Mashhad, Iran. Inclusion criteria were willingness to participate in the study, employment in intensive care units for more than 6 months. Exclusion criteria was incomplete of the questionnaire by study participants.This study used a self-report questionnaire to collect data. This questionnaire included 2 part; part 1 included demographic characteristics . Part 2 elicited constructs of social cognitive theory including perceived barriers, task self-efficacy, self-regulation, outcome expectations, perceived environment, modeling, social support, and behaviors related to prevent and control of nosocomial infections. This part of questionnaire included 36 items . Each item in this section were scored from 1 to 5 on a Likert scale from completely disagreement to completely agreement.The content validity methods were used to assess the validity of the questionnaire. For this purpose, the opinions of 10 experts in health education, nursing, and infection control on the items of the questionnaire were received and the items were modified or deleted based on their suggestions. Content Validity Index (CVI) and Content Validity ratio (CVR) assessed for each items of structures . The CVR value for the items was between 0.76 and 0.91. Also, the CVI value for the items was between 0.81 and 0.98. The reliability of the instrument was evaluated using test-retest method and Cronbach’s alpha test. For external reliability, 30 nurses and assistant nurses completed the questionnaires twice with an interval of 10 days, except for the study sample, and the data were analyzed by Pearson correlation coefficient. Cronbach’s alpha test was also used to assess internal validity  for evaluating the normality of variables and descripting of statistics. In this study, the principles of social cognitive theory were used to structural equation modeling. The basic conceptual model of behavior predictors based on social cognitive theory , which pP < 0.05.Structural equation modeling is a detailed statistical method for testing models that contain both causal relationship and correlations between observed variable and latent variables. SEM is used in social and behavioral sciences, education, biology, economy, marketing and medicine, which is based on substantial or suggested theories that describe and explain phenomena under investigation. We used R2 and the path coefficients to test the fit of the model. Before carrying out the SEM analysis, the normality of variables was examined . All theThis study was conducted in accordance with the principles of Declaration of Helsinki. All methods were carried out in accordance with relevant regulations and guidelines. This study is based on a research study approved by the ethics committee of Mashhad University of Medical Sciences with the ethical code IR.MUMS.REC.1398.005. Informed written consent was obtained from all participants before start of this study. By completing consent form, participants were informed about the purpose and method of the study. Participants were also informed that the researchers are committed to answering their questions and that their information was kept confidential. In addition, participants were aware that their participation in the study was voluntary and that they could leave the study at any time.Participants had a mean of age 35.42 ± 8.06 years. Fifty-six percent of participants in this sample were men, and most of the samples had a bachelor’s degree. Eighty percent of the samples participated in an infection control-training course (Table 2 = 1184.739 (p > 0.05), df = 572, X2/df = 2.07, CFI = 0.910, RMSEA = 0.062, PNFI = 0.739, and PGFI = 0.811, IFI = 0.910, p < 0.001).Before performing the structural equation model, first, the remote points and the normality of the variables were examined. The remote points were checked with the help of the value of mahalanobis distance of each observation and if necessary, they were removed. In the study of critical ratios of skewness or elongation of variables, the normality of multivariate was confirmed, therefore, the maximum likelihood method was used to estimate the parameters. Then, the structural equation model of social cognitive theory constructs was examined and analyzed. Based on the results of the indicators, the desired model has been accepted) XThe total effect size of social support on perceived environment was 0.502, perceived environment on task self-efficacy 0.264, social support on task self-efficacy 0.550, outcome expectations on self-regulation 0.729, task self-efficacy on self-regulation 0.140, perceived environment on self-regulation 0.037, self-regulation and outcome expectations and barrier on behavior Respectively 0.490/0, 0.780, − 0.211. Most of the direct and indirect causal effects were statistically significant and positive. Most of the direct and indirect causal effects were statistically positive and significant , IFI ≥ 0.90, PGFI ≥0.50, RMSEA ≤0.08, PNFI ≥0.50, and CFI ≥ 0.90 [In this study, the role of social cognitive theory constructs as predictive factors of behavior related to the control and prevention of nosocomial infections in hospital nursing staff was evaluated. Structural equation analysis shows that the theoretical model is suitable for the data and explains the nosocomial infections control behavior in the hospital nursing staff. In the test of goodness-of-fit of the final modified model, the absolute fit indices , the comparative fit indices (IFI and CFI) and parsimonious fit indices (PCFI and PNFI) met the criteria, indicating that the model-fit well with the data. The literature described that a good model is with insignificant χ2  can have a significant impact on compliance with standard precautions by healthcare staff , 44.This study tested the predictive effect of social cognitive theory constructs on a set of behaviors preventing nosocomial infections. While, previous studies have examined factors related to hand hygiene behavior. This study was conducted in all intensive care units in several hospitals, therefore, the generalized findings are appropriate. One of the weaknesses of the study is that the effect of knowledge and demographic factors such as age, gender and education, which have been identified in previous studies as important factors on adherence to preventive behaviors of nosocomial infections, was not examined. This study was also conducted in teaching hospitals that have special conditions in the hospitalization, treatment and nursing-care processes, and therefore it is necessary to examine the interaction of environmental, personal and behavioral factors in other non-teaching and private hospitals.The present study demonstrates that self-regulation, outcome expectations, and barriers have a significant impact on adherence to preventive behavior of nosocomial infections in nursing staff. In addition, current analyzes shows that although self-efficacy is an important precursor to self-regulation, social support was even a stronger predictor. The social support indirectly affected self-regulation through self-efficacy. In addition, social support directly led participants to use self-regulation strategies, and therefore, more compliance with prevention behaviors of nosocomial infections. It is suggested that policy makers and planners try to reduce barriers, strengthen behavioral motivation, and empower nursing staff by teaching self-regulatory strategies such as goal setting, self-monitoring, and planning to promote behaviors that prevent nosocomial infections. In addition, it is recommended that future behavioral psychology models be used in future studies to test the relationship between other variables and preventive behavior of nosocomial infections in other health care providers and non-governmental hospitals.


Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) can be defined as a cluster of sensors with a restricted power supply deployed in a specific area to gather environmental data. One of the most challenging areas of research is to design energy-efficient data gathering algorithms in large-scale WSNs, as each sensor node, in general, has limited energy resources. Literature review shows that with regards to energy saving, clustering-based techniques for data gathering are quite effective. Moreover, cluster head (CH) optimization is a non-deterministic polynomial (NP) hard problem. Both the lifespan of the network and its energy efficiency are improved by choosing the optimal path in routing. The technique put forth in this paper is based on multi swarm optimization (MSO)  together with Tabu search (TS) techniques. Efficient CHs are chosen by the proposed system, which increases the optimization of routing and life of the network. The obtained results show that the MSO-Tabu approach has a 14%, 5%, 11%, and 4% higher number of clusters and a 20%, 6%, 14%, and 6% lesser average packet loss rate as compared to a genetic algorithm (GA), differential evolution (DE), Tabu, and MSO based clustering, respectively. Moreover, the MSO-Tabu approach has 136%, 36%, 136%, and 38% higher lifetime computation, and 22%, 16%, 51%, and 12% higher average dissipated energy. Thus, the study’s outcome shows that the proposed MSO-Tabu is efficient, as it enhances the number of clusters formed, average energy dissipated, lifetime computation, and there is a decrease in mean packet loss and end-to-end delay. Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) can be defined as a network of many cost-effective, efficient, and multifunctional sensor nodes (SNs) working as a package to monitor an area of interest (AoI). The sensors gather data from the AoI and relay them back to a base station (BS), where it is processed. Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) have helped monitor remote environments. It is very effective in collecting data in several inaccessible areas, such as coastguard, forestry, war-prone areas, underwater study, climatic changes, etc. Many sensor nodes are present in WSNs, which are linked with one another and also to a base station. In remote areas, it is impossible to charge and reinstall sensor nodes ,2. ThereThe network’s lifetime is increased by monitoring regions classified into several regions called clusters. Many sensor nodes are found in each cluster. Only one sensor operates as the cluster head (CH), while the remaining work as cluster members. The information is collected from respective sensors in the specified region. During the selection of CH in every region, the node with the increased energy residue compared to other nodes is chosen as CH .To enhance the network’s lifetime, the most crucial part is the selection of the CH. The various steps for this can be grouped as (i) node with maximum power residue, (ii) rotating CH at specific interludes, (iii) CH selection based on the rotation of communication among the sink and CH, (iv) algorithms for optimized CH selection. In cluster WSNs, implementation of routing protocols is done to provide guidance to the choice of CHs and locate the best passage that can save the node’s energy.When the network has multiple clusters, it is called clustering routing; every cluster has a tree structure that consists of several CH and cluster members. The information gathered by cluster members is passed on to CH to be compiled through multi-hop CHs or directly passed on to the BS. The outcome of the clustering routing algorithm in each round of CH selection benefits energy load balancing of the network node; the data that is collected by the member nodes of the cluster is forwarded by CH after a merger to mitigate the energy consumed by the network to transmit data and avoid every cluster member node that forwards data individually ,7. For WThe issue of energy-balanced selection of CH is NP-hard. Many detailed reviews on these are available in the literature ,9. LiterWhen there is an imbalance in the transferring information in the communication channel, an energy hole is created, causing the premature death of the SNs, which decreases the network’s lifetime ,12. ThisThree objectives were put forth by Xu et al.  to tacklPSO-UFC  was put forth by Kaur and Kumar . ImbalanRegional Energy Aware Clustering with Isolated Nodes (REAC-IN) was presented by Varsha et al.  for clusAn enhanced Cuckoo Search (CS) based energy balanced node clustering protocol was put forth by Gupta  using a Similarly, Fish Swarm Optimization (FSO) based multi-hop clustering algorithm to conserve WSN energy utilization was presented by Shanthi and Sundarambal . The resPSO, an algorithm based on swarm intelligence, gains its motivation from the social behavior of a flock of birds, a school of fish, etc., generating optimal solutions. Swarm is the population of particles in PSO. An optimal solution is reached by the flying of particles that are theoretical entities through search space. Multiple probable solutions are maintained simultaneously by PSO. In this section, TS, MSO based clustering, and MSO with TS methods are discussed. Tabu search ,24,25 anx) as the search develops, by effective replacement through another neighborhood N*(x). The move is the operation through which a local or neighborhood search process is guided to attain the solution x′ x) from the solution x x. TS moves towards its closest neighbor at every iteration, even if the objection function deteriorates. This is different from the classical hill-climbing process as it is only permitted to move to the neighbor solution with improvement objective function [A local heuristic search that can discover the solution space ahead of optimality is guided through the metaheuristic TS. A TS strategy is employed that goes beyond local search adapting N, and it is organized in the manner where exploration of space is done. To avoid cycling, certain moves are prohibited by TS from being re-instantiated for a specific period by utilizing a special memory structure that is short-termed called recency-based memory implemented through the Tabu list. By assigning Tabu-active designation, recency-based memory is exploited to choose attributes that take place in Tabu-active designation. Tabu-tenure is the iteration span to which an attributed is maintained as Tabu. Additionally, aspiration criteria are used by TS as a device in overriding the Tabu status of a move, thus offering a flexible performance. TS protocol’s pseudocode is shown below in Algorithm 1 [Algorithm 1 TS protocol’s pseudocode1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10.11.12.13.14.15.16.17.18.19.20.21.22.Special memory structures are used, which is the prime feature of the TS approach that serves in determining N* is a multi-population variant of CPSO. Multi-Quantum Swarm Optimization (MQSO) exploits quantum swarms based on quantum in place of traditional atom objectives.Blackwell introduced CPSO  with thei, In Equation (1), The CPSO velocity update equation is given as (2):i and j is given by (3):The acceleration between particles In vanilla PSO, neutral particles react as they would, whereas convergence of neutral particles around gbest will be exhibited by CPSO. However, the diversity loss problem is addressed by the acceleration term during divergence, where charged particles are repelled, causing increased exploration. Thus, a higher level of diversity is designed by CPSO throughout the rut, which eliminates the linear collapse problem that is reminded with vanilla PSO. Even though there is thorough handling of the diversity issue by CPSO, there is the need for an external strategy to address outdated memory ,33.nB denotes the d-dimensional ball of the swarm n centered on the swarm attractor Multi-modal dynamic problems are dealt with by the MQSQ algorithm. A swarm is divided into sub swarms to exploit various promising peaks in parallel. Diversity is increased and probability decreased in finalizing the search in local optimum. Moreover, such swarms are made up of two types of particles: (i) PSO particles that follow the standard PSO algorithm but try to reach a better position; (ii) quantum particles that orbit around the sub swarm attractor in a radius ss issue . The folThe objective behind MQSQ is that every swarm has a peak, and the peak is tracked alongside the algorithm implementation. To assure that two swarms are not utilizing the same peak, a swarm interaction is done in an elimination system. An easy competition rule is used by the exclusion mechanism between swarms which are nearby . MOOs are quite helpful in solving a number of multi-objective optimization problems (MOPs), where multiple objects are exploited simultaneously with effect to set of restrictions. However, respective optima cannot be attained through multiple objectives in a similar period. Pure and hybrid TS approaches have been set up through new records to discover the optimal solution to problems in production scheduling and planning, network design, allocation of resources, routing, and so on. The technique chosen for quick solution schemes is the TS scheme in hard combinatorial optimization issues.There are many advantages with MSO (multi-PSO), which include greater convergence, resolution of optimization effectively, decreased diversity of population, and directing early convergence to a local optimum ,36. A poStep 1: Initialization of location and energy of nodes and BS.Step 2: Cluster formation take place through computation of the distance between nodes that correspond to the base station and energy level of the nodes.Step 3: Verify the optimal local position through MSO.Step 4: Find out the optimal global position—the global optimal is computed by initializing the Tabu list with MSO solution and Tabu memory entries to zero. Routes are swapped and create an entry in Tabu memory. The limitations are confirmed.Step 5: Find out the subsequent place lest the fitness value exists in the Tabu list, and that fitness value is noted. The optimal solution from the Tabu list with the least hop routing is considered.TM 3020 personal computer with Intel Core i7-4770 3.4 GHz processor along with 8 MB Cache and integrated Intel graphics, 16 GB RAM, 1 TB HDD, and Windows 10 operating system. Matlab R2019a is used as the simulation environment. The parameters of the network used are reported in In this section, the proposed MSO-Tabu approach is critically evaluated by comparing its performance with GA, DE, Tabu search, and MSO based clustering. The numerical experiments are conducted on a Dell OptiplexThe experiments are carried out using 200 to 1200 nodes and 0 to 700 rounds. The number of clusters created, average end-to-end delay in seconds, average packet loss rate, lifetime computation, and average energy dissipated in joules as shown in From From From From From To operate WSNs effectively and reliably, the most important requirement is energy-saving, and for significant technical problems and resource management, much importance is presented in energy consumption. This work’s major aim is to improve the WSN CH selection through a hybrid heuristic system. Thus, an algorithm based on MSO and TS is intended to optimize the routing in WSN and CH selection. The presented method is energy efficient and in response to the network. Effective CHs are chosen by the presented technique and in response to the network. Effective CHs selected by the proposed scheme optimizes the routing and increases the network’s lifespan. Based on the exhaustive comparison of the proposed MSO-Tabu approach with GA, DE, Tabu, and MSO based clustering, the following conclusions are drawnIn terms of the number of clusters formed, the proposed MSO-Tabu approach is on an average 14%, 5%, 11%, and 4% better than GA, DE, Tabu, and MSO based clustering, respectively.MSO-Tabu has lower average end-to-end delay by 11%, 2%, and 7% compared to GA, DE, and MSO based clustering, respectively. However, for the various number of nodes, the average performance of Tabu is better than MSO-Tabu by 4%.In terms of average packet loss rate, the proposed MSO-Tabu approach is 20%, 6%, 14%, and 6% better than GA, DE, Tabu, and MSO based clustering, respectively.MSO-Tabu has higher lifetime computation by 136%, 36%, 136%, and 38% compared to GA, DE, Tabu, and MSO based clustering, respectively.The average energy dissipated by MSO-Tabu is 22%, 16%, 51%, and 12% higher than GA, DE, Tabu, and MSO based clustering, respectively.The key limitation of the proposed algorithm lies in tuning parameters selection, which is not adaptive and is static in nature. Noticeably, the selection of diversity control parameters has a major role in the convergence of the algorithm in the solution space. Improper selection of those parameters results in poor local search capability of the MSO-Tabu algorithm. However, the proposed algorithm provides stable performance concerning changes in other parameters under consideration.


Physically active children have greater motor competence and a faster maturation compared with their sedentary peers. Recent research also suggests that physical activity during childhood may also promote cognitive development and therefore improve academic performance. The aim of this study was to understand if physically active academic lessons may improve academic achievement in primary schoolchildren. A systematic review following the PRISMA  guidelines was conducted. The search was performed on the following database: PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, Education Resources Information Center (ERIC), and PsycINFO (APA). Studies evaluating schoolchildren aged between 3 and 11 years taking part in educational contexts that include physical activity and natural environments evaluating physical fitness and/or educational outcomes were included. A total of 54 studies  were considered eligible and included in the qualitative synthesis. The Effective Public Health Practice Project risk-of-bias assessment revealed a moderate quality of the included studies with only two considered weeks. Despite differences in the retrieved protocols, physically active academic lessons improve the total time engaged in physical activity, motor skills, and/or academic performance. The results of this review suggest that learning through movement is an effective, low-cost, and enjoyable strategy for elementary schoolchildren. Children spend an ever-increasing time in sedentary behaviors such as the ~2 h (children aged 3 years) or 3 h (children aged between 3 and 5 years) per day in television view . SedentaThe key point to limit sedentary behaviors is to propose health promotion programs to promote physical activity since early childhood . PhysicaSchools and teachers are culturally changing, adopting active learning and other kinds of learning methods, but further improvement is required . UnfortuThe systematic review was conducted following the principles outlined by PRISMA  guidelines .The selection criteria of this review were of the PICO-S  design.The population was composed of young children aged between 3 and 11 years of primary/elementary schools. Studies that investigated only a special population such as people with disabilities were excluded because of the possible disability-specific outcomes.The intervention of interest had to be the use of movement and natural environment with educational elements integrated to improve physical fitness and/or educational outcomes. Curriculum physical education, physical activity breaks without educational elements, recess, and after-school interventions were excluded.The comparison and the outcomes of interest comprised physical fitness parameters and education outcomes.About the study design, only English-written original and peer-reviewed studies were considered because of the limitations of the authors with the languages. Intervention, cross-sectional, longitudinal, correlational  studies were also included. Reviews, meta-analyses, abstracts and scientific conference abstracts, citations, opinion articles, books and book reviews, letters, editorials, statements, and commentaries were excluded.The systematic search was performed through the electronic databases PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, Education Resources Information Center (ERIC), and PsycINFO (APA).The following keyword groups were adopted and matched with the Boolean operators AND/OR:child, preschool, infant, toddler, pupil, kindergarten;Group 1: primary school, elementary school, student, education;Group 2: psychomotor education, physical education, kinesiology education, active play, motor play, active learning, nature play, whole school, movement integration, comprehensive school, physical activity break.Group 3: This is a string example:* OR preschool* OR infant* OR toddler* OR pupil* OR kindergarten) AND (“primary school” OR “elementary school” OR student* OR education) AND .. In the first step, duplicates were detected. After this step, two investigators, who worked independently, performed a selection process based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria on the title, abstract, and full-length articles. If the two investigators were in disagreement in categorizing an article, the coordinator of the study was involved and, independently, provided the tie-breaking decision. All investigators were not blinded to the authors or associated institutions of the articles during the selection process.Information related to the sample  and intervention  characteristics, and on physical fitness and educational outcomes was collected. The data were discussed narratively and represented through tables.To detect the risk of bias and the quality of the study, the Effective Public Health Practice Project tool  was adopA total of 17,862 studies were found in the electronic databases searched, and 6,820 of the articles were immediately removed because they were duplicates. The final number of included studies after the eligibility criteria screening has been of 54 (three studies were included in a second moment after the reference checking of the included studies). A summary of the search process is provided in The quality of the studies was overall moderate, with only two studies deemed weak. The mean score for selection bias was 3/3, for the study design 2.5/3, for the confounder 2.4/3, for the blinding of 1.3/3, for the data collection of 2.2/3, and for the dropout of 2.9/3, reaching an overall mean total score of 1.8 out of 3.A summary of the study's characteristics is proposed in n = 22). In Australia, a total of nine studies were conducted. Five studies were conducted in the United Kingdom and Norway. More than one study was conducted in Denmark (n = 4), in the Netherlands (n = 3), in Greece (n = 2), and in Ireland (n = 2). Only one study was conducted in Italy, New Zealand, and Vietnam.The studies were performed in different countries. The majority of the studies were performed in the United States (n = 25). They were followed by quasi-experimental design (n = 13), observational studies (n = 5), intervention studies (n = 4), and pilot studies (n = 3). Other study designs such as mixed factorial, mixed experimental, within subject, and pedagogical experiments were adopted only one time.The majority of the studies were randomized controlled trials . Adopted in three different studies is the Active Smarter Kids intervention. Less adopted assessment methods are provided in Different studies were based on national or international intervention programs. The Comprehensive School Physical Activity Programs was the intervention program adopted majority of times (n = 30) and language (n = 14) learning. Language arts was proposed as integrated lessons in five studies, social studies in only three studies, and two times for geography and history. Other subjects such as reading, handicrafts, science, general health, statistics, biology, and religion were studied only one time. In different studies, no information related to the curriculum subjects studied has been provided (n = 22).Most of the interventions wanted to improve mathematics (n = 10), but other studies proposed only 2 days a week of curriculum-integrated physical activity (n = 7). Five studies proposed more than 3 days a week of intervention (n = 5). Unfortunately, the majority of the studies (n = 32) have not provided this information.The mean length of the intervention was 153.5 days, with a range from 5 to 1,095 days. The mean duration of the integrated physical activity was of 28.5 min, with interventions that were of 10 and others arrived to 60 min. Different studies proposed three interventions a week (The majority of the 29 studies  that incn = 3). In three studies, the authors evaluated them through the “on-task” behavior. Less adopted assessment methods are provided in Academic achievements or cognitive functions were assessed majority of times through the academic outcomes and the time on task (n = 4), Andersen test (n = 2), 20-m shuttle run test (n = 3), and Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run (n = 2). Less adopted evaluation methods are provided in n = 1). Studies adopted also batteries to evaluate physical fitness such as the FITNESSGRAM (n = 2). The most interesting subjective physical activity evaluation methods were the System for Observing Student Movement in Academic Routines and Transitions (n = 3), Physical Activity Questionnaire for Older Children (n = 1), interviews, and observations.Related to physical activity assessment, 29 studies evaluated it through an accelerometer or a pedometer. Some studies evaluated health-related physical fitness characteristics through physical tests such as the Test of Gross Motor Development 2 , and the details on the effect on children's learning and physical fitness are not always provided . It is iDifferences were detected also in the interventions. The movement integration program wants to teach students through the movement. It is well-known that physical activity interventions have a positive effect on cognitive performance and academic performance in children , 88. IntFor those studies that proposed play as an intervention, positive outcomes have been detected. Learning through play forces children to make choices and assuming responsibility having fun at the same time, working on the internal cognitive transactions and intrinsic motivation, determine life habits . Play shOther interventions, instead, were based outdoors. This way of learning can be incorporated within conventional teaching methods ; it incrThe interventions showed improvements in the academic outcomes, motor skills, or amount of physical activity (through step count), but an important point is that they are cost-effective, teachers are not required to prepare them, and they are enjoyable both for teachers and children , making Data obtained from accelerometers were not analyzed because of the limitation of this tool in detecting activities performed with the upper body . FurtherThe study has been focused only on a specific population. It has been suggested by the literature  that chiAll the interventions, despite differences in the protocols, have a common aspect: they improve physical activity and/or academic performance, making this kind of approach ideal in elementary schools.The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.GC and MB: conceptualization. CG: methodology. JB and FR: investigation. DLV: resources. LP: writing—original draft. ET and AS: writing—review and editing. MB: supervision. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.This publication has been funded by Assessorato dell'Istruzione e della Formazione Professionale dlla Regione Sicilia within the Natural Moving project.The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.


N = 277, 172 females) describes the scale creation procedure, factorial validity, and internal consistency. The exploratory factor analysis yielded a five-factor model with 18 items (62.4% of the variance explained). The dimensions were as follows: D1: identification, D2: incorporation, D3: reverberation, D4: separation, and D5: projection. The internal consistency was good . Study 2  examined the validity  of the model and the relationships with sociodemographic variables. The five-factor model showed a robust goodness of fit, χ2 = 240.5, p < 0.001, root mean square residual (RMSR) = 0.05. The fit indices were satisfactory, Non-normed fit index (NNFI) = 0.89, comparative fit index (CFI) = 0.90, mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) = 0.04. The convergent validity analysis showed that, as empathy management increased, so too did the empathy level and emotional intelligence. Some differences by age and sex were found. In conclusion, the Empathy Management Scale is a valid and reliable instrument for analyzing the empathic process that allows vulnerabilities and strengths to be estimated, which could improve professional practice in the healthcare context.The aim of this study was to develop a measure to evaluate the management of empathic capacity. To this end, two studies were conducted. Study 1 ( Over the past few decades, empathy has been widely studied in the context of medicine, nursing, and other healthcare professions. Empathy is necessary for successful professional–user interactions ; it alsoMost scientific studies have focused on defining empathy and explaining the underlying mechanisms and processes ,7,8,9. FStudies have confirmed the importance of the individual’s capacity to handle each of the stages involved in the process of empathy. When alterations in some of the empathic processes occur, such as emotional and social adaptation or regulation of the state of mind, the individual’s control over his or her behavior is reduced. This is particularly relevant for professionals who must empathize with others experiencing intense and negative emotions. When “empathy bridges the gap between self-experience and that of others”  p. 19),,19,20].Because the adaptive use of empathy is highly relevant to individual development, and due to its role in other psychological processes and applications in the field of healthcare, the present study aims to create and validate an instrument to measure the management of empathy.The scientific study and conceptualization of empathy, i.e., the exploration of its nature and the processes involved, started long ago. Such work has given rise to a broad theoretical and empirical corpus, so an overview of the context in which instruments measuring empathy develop is required.A classic study by Rogers  describeThese two dimensions of emotional (feeling the emotion of someone else as our own) and cognitive empathy  are emphasized by Davis . He deviDavis’ contribution is still relevant to the multidimensional approach, and has recently been revived thanks to the neuropsychological research revealing the functional and neuroanatomical bases of emotional empathy (related to mirror neurons) and cognitive empathy (high-level cognitive functions) ,23. HoweSome decades before, Reik 1948) [48 [9] inThus, identification can be considered as the first prerequisite for empathy. Incorporation refers to a deepening of empathy through the addition of emotion sharing, while reverberation and separation concern the awareness of oneself that is essential for psychological wellbeing.When a person can fulfill these phases effectively by identifying her/himself with her/his interlocutor, incorporating the interlocutor’s emotions, understanding that they belong to the other, and, finally, separating themselves while remaining at peace and in a state of wellbeing, we can say that their empathy management process is optimal. It is possible to fulfill certain stages to a greater or lesser degree; for example, a given individual may be better at reverberating and separating than at “joining up”, i.e., incorporating emotions.These four stages also constitute abilities. Another ability crucial for empathy, but is not included in Reik’s model as a stage, is projection, i.e., the capacity to project an emotion. This ability is extensively used by healthcare professionals, although not always consciously. To transmit an air of peace, nurses may hold the patient’s hand to create a feeling inside, which is considered a valued skill in nursing , and is Reik’s theory, later reviewed by Repetto, was introduced decades ago. However, its tenets could be included in current approaches to empathy as a social skill, especially in the healthcare sector, to which it is particularly relevant. In this regard, an appropriate balance among the different stages of the empathy process will be reflected in the professional–client interaction, from the capacity to understand the feelings of others (identification and incorporation) to the ability to maintain a balance between sharing the person’s emotional state and ensuring enough distance to avoid overload (reverberation and separation), ultimately leading to an appropriate intervention.The wide variety of approaches to empathy has given rise to a considerable number of measuring instruments . One of It was not until the creation of the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI)  that empThe instruments described above provide information on the characteristics of empathy and its related processes from the perspective of one of its dimensions  or both (multifactor model). They allow us to establish the level that an individual has reached for each characteristic, as well as how empathetic they are overall. The Scale of Empathic Personality ) , originaIn the context of healthcare professionals, a systematic review was conducted on the tools used for measuring empathy in nurses : the EESSince the 1990s, the emotional ability necessary for interaction with other people has been studied from the perspective of emotional intelligence (EI) . Mayer aFor assessing EI, the Trait Meta-Mood Scale (TMMS)  was the The large variety of approaches used to measure empathy reflects the complex nature of this construct. However, most of them focus on evaluating the level reached by a person in a particular domain of empathy, but do not specifically assess their ability to manage it. Considering that improving empathy skills is essential for nursing students , a measuIn total, 277 participants from Andalucía (Spain) were selected by controlled purposive sampling . Age ranged between 18 and 49 years . All participants were nursing students in their fourth year who had been honing their nursing skills in the hospital setting and had completed more than 80 h of practice when the data were collected.For the creation and validation of the Empathy Management Scale (EMS), the recommendations of Muñiz and Fonseca-Pedrero  were folThe initial 40 items were screened by three experts on empathy  who assessed their appropriateness, clarity, precision, and adequacy. Likewise, experts were requested to analyze the level of representativeness of each theoretical dimension. As a result of this process, nine items were removed due to not having an appropriateness index higher than 80%. Furthermore, the wording of four items was changed. The remaining items were considered appropriate, clear, precise, and adequate. This review resulted in a preliminary cluster of 31 items.A five-point Likert-type scale was chosen to assess the degree of agreement or disagreement with the statements (1 = fully disagree and 5 = fully agree). In order to calculate the scores (weighted means), reverse items were inverted; higher scores indicated more effective empathy management.The present study was approved by the Ethical Research with Humans Committee of the University of Jaen. Participants were provided with information about the research and their rights . Participants could take part only if they signed the informed consent form and were at least 18 years of age. The average time for completion was approximately 15 min.The dimensionality and construct validity were calculated via exploratory factor analysis (EFA) of the main components. The final solution was based on the following criteria: appropriate number of dimensions according to the theoretical background, > 50% of the variance explained, and item loadings of > 0.400. Inter-factor correlations were analyzed, and descriptive statistics were calculated (average and standard deviation). Internal consistency was analyzed with Cronbach’s alpha.The first EFA resulted in a nine-factor model that explained 67.2% of the variance. Items with loadings below 0.400 were subsequently removed, and the EFA was repeated until a final model that met the abovementioned quality criteria was obtained. The final model consisted of 18 items distributed among five factors that explained 62.4% of the total variance . These fThe descriptive statistics and inter-factorial correlations among the five dimensions are provided in Cronbach’s alpha was used to determine the internal consistency (reliability). Factor reliability varied from acceptable to good : D1, ideOnce the preliminary version of the Empathy Management Scale (EMS) containing 18 items had been obtained, Study 2 was necessary to test the five-dimensional model of Study 1. The convergent validity was also explored.In total, 480 participants from Andalucía (Spain) were selected by controlled purposive sampling . They ranged between 18 and 60 years of age . Regarding formal education, most participants were undergraduates (81.4%). Of these, 49.4% were studying degrees in the field of humanities and health sciences  and 50.6% studied social and legal sciences . The remaining participants were distributed as follows: compulsory secondary education, 8.1%; primary education, 4.7%; A levels, 3.4%; unfinished primary education, 1.8%; and post-graduate studies, 0.7%.EPE . This scIRI ; SpanishTrait Meta-Mood Scale (TMMS-24) ; SpanishQuestions about sociodemographic variables were also included in the instrument .In order to study the convergent validity of the EMS, the following instruments were used:The same procedure as Study 1 was carried out. The average time for completion was approximately 30 min.Construct validity was obtained by a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The convergent validity was calculated by analyzing the relations (bivariate correlations) of the variables assessed by the instruments: empathy management (using the EMS), empathic personality (using the EPE), multidimensional empathy (using the IRI), and EI (using the TMMS-24). Finally, in order to obtain other indices of validity of the construct, individual differences in empathy management according to socio-demographics ) were determined.A CFA approach was used to test competing models of the internal structure of the EMS. Two measurement models were tested: (1) a one-factor model including all 18 items and (2) a five-factor model including the identification factor (three items), incorporation factor (three items), reverberation factor (four items), separation factor (four items), and projection factor (four items).2 = 240.5, p < 0.001; RMSR = 0.05. The fit indices calculated were satisfactory: NNFI = 0.89, CFI = 0.90, RMSEA = 0.04. The final instrument in Spanish is provided in the The fit of the models was judged based on the guidelines provided by Hair et al.  for sampThe reliability indices varied from acceptable to good : D1, idep < 0.001; r = 0.483, p < 0.001; and r = 0.304, p < 0.001, respectively). There was convergence between the variables analyzed, where, as the ability to manage empathy increased, so too did the levels of empathy and EI.Bivariate relations of the EMS with the total scores of the other instruments  were significant  subscale and the TMMS dimensions. D3, likewise, showed a positive relationship with the separation subscale, and an inverse one with the “apata” subscale of the EPE. Finally, D5, projection was related to the three dimensions of EI. This dimension of empathy management was also positively related with the feelings subscale, and inversely with “apatas” (EPE). Regarding the IRI, D5 showed a statistically significant relationship with perspective taking and concern.p < 0.001), while incorporation increased .Bivariate correlation analysis of the five dimensions of the EMS and age revealed a significant relationship between age and D1 and D2: as age increased, the initial stage of empathy, that is, identification, decreased  were significant at p > 0.05, i.e., were normally distributed. The mean comparison of participants’ sex  showed significant differences in D1, identification and D2, incorporation (t(475) = −3.35, p = 0.001). Women showed higher scores in both dimensions .Before carrying out the independent sample p < 0.001). The humanities and health sciences students showed significantly higher scores in this dimension .Regarding the field of study of the undergraduate participants , differences in scores were found only for D1, identification (t(467) = −4.00, The main goal of this study was to create and validate an instrument (the EMS) to measure the ability to manage empathy. The analyses carried out successfully validated the EMS, which comprises 18 items grouped into five dimensions: identification, incorporation, reverberation, separation, and projection. The psychometric fit of the scale was optimal, with appropriate validity and reliability indices.The inter-factor (D1 to D5) and inter-construct  statistical relations showed similarities with multidimensional models of empathy ,21, ReikThe EMS dimensions describe empathic processes that are mainly activated in a sequential manner, thus revealing the inter-connections of the underlying mechanisms of empathy. The dimensional structure of the scale maintains the original sequence suggested by Reik (1948), and is in line with the subsequent reviews of Repetto . Identification is confirmed as a fundamental variable in the empathy process: in the present study, it had by far the highest scores. However, contrary to what Repetto posited, identifying people’s emotions does not correlate nor overlap with incorporation. They seem, in fact, to be two different constructs. These results are in line with neuroanatomic and functional research on empathy. Emotional aspects of empathy  relate to mirror neurons, while cognitive aspects ) mainly relate to high-level cognitive processes ,57. In tAs previously mentioned, the stage of identification is mainly cognitive, since perceiving and experiencing someone else’s feelings requires understanding their emotions and adopting their perspective. This description is similar to the cognitive processes posited by Davis in his multidimensional model ,10. In fEmpathy management and EI were related. The dimensions of the TMMS pertain to expressing emotions (attention) and understanding (clarity) and regulating them (repair). These processes relate positively with factors from the EMS linked to active control processes and empathy management . The negative relation between reparation (TMMS) and incorporation (EPE) shows that as emotional contagion increases, emotional regulation decreases. These results add nuance to those of studies showing relations between the dimensions of the TMMS and empathy .Regarding the EPE , the anaOverall, the abovementioned results point to the following tendency in the management of empathy. As a professional moves through the stages linked to better management of empathy (separation and projection), the other’s perspective is mentally adopted (identification), while the discomfort generated by the negative experience of others is left behind . Therefore, for a person to be considered as empathic and optimally regulating all of the processes thereof, high levels of identification, low to moderate levels of incorporation, and high levels of reverberation, separation, and projection are needed. Such a professional  would have the ability to follow-up in a reflexive way on his own emotions and those of others, and to distinguish the origin of the emotions. Ultimately, they would be aware of the processes involved in managing empathy effectively. Conversely, high levels of incorporation and low levels of reverberation would make it impossible for the person to move through the various stages and finally obtain a well-balanced empathic process. This approach could explain phenomena such as professional exhaustion due to excessive compassion ,15.According to the analysis of EMS scores according to sociodemographic variables such as sex, age, and field of study, the results matched those of previous research. Regarding sex, a considerable number of studies showed differences of emotional empathy between men and women. Women experience emotional empathy to a higher degree than men (both positive and negative) , as wellThe relationship between age and empathy has been widely studied, and there seems to be agreement that the latter increases progressively from childhood until the teenage years, particularly in terms of emotional regulation . StudiesFinally, the students studying degrees such as psychology and nursing in this study had a greater ability to identify and understand emotional states compared to law and business management and administration students. This result could be explained in various ways. Differences in D1 could be due to differences in individual traits, such as cognitive/motivational determinants or features, such as values or empathy. Alternatively, the differences could be the result of specific training and the core competencies of each university degree. The scarce literature on this matter makes it difficult to compare data, and the few results that are available did not find differences in empathy according to the type of degree studied.This study has certain limitations, potentially including the number of participants, which was relatively close to the minimum advised for this type of research. Likewise, the intentional sampling limits our ability to generalize the results. In addition, the use of college undergraduates may reduce the generalizability of the results, although they are somewhat similar to professionals. Because empathy directly involves other people and occurs in social interactions, it can be measured from an external perspective ; thus, iThe EMS assumes that empathy is a multidimensional construct, and describes empathy processes based on cognitive and emotional dimensions. The sequential stages of the model reflect the inter-dependence of bottom-up processes, or direct perception processes, and top-down processes that imply regulation and control . The sca


Therefore, these results indicate the importance of social media's influence on health-related behaviors. These findings are valuable for health administrators, governments, policymakers, and social scientists, specifically for individuals whose situations are similar to those in Pakistan.Although the role of social media in infectious disease outbreaks is receiving increasing attention, little is known about the mechanisms by which social media use affects risk perception and preventive behaviors during such outbreaks. This study aims to determine whether there are any relationships between social media use, preventive behavior, perceived threat of coronavirus, self-efficacy, and socio-demographic characteristics. The data were collected from 310 respondents across Pakistan using an online cross-sectional survey. Reliability analyses were performed for all scales and structural equational modeling was used to identify the relationships between study variables. We found that: (i) social media use predicts self-efficacy (β = 0.25,  The current COVID-19 pandemic is the most significant public health crisis of this century  . A link to the questionnaire was also posted on the social media pages of various universities in Pakistan. Data was collected during the period April 10–30, 2020. For this study, the age limit was set at 18 years and above. Respondents were briefed about the objectives of the study by means of a cover letter, and informed consent was taken electronically. Participation in the study was voluntary and no incentives were provided to respondents. Each question in the questionnaire was compulsory and the respondent could not submit the form without answering all the questions. If any respondent did not want to answer all the questions, he or she was allowed to exit the survey. Overall, 310 respondents successfully completed the survey. The questionnaire was administered in English, as this is the official working and study language in Pakistan .Information about age, gender, provincial belonging, area of residence , marital status, monthly family income, and occupation of the respondents were collected in order to control for the effects of socio-demographic characteristics on social media use, self-efficacy, perceived threat, and preventive behavior.In order to develop the scale to measure perceived threat of COVID-19, the authors reviewed the existing scales that have previously been developed to assess perceived threat during infectious disease outbreaks. For instance, a scale was developed by Yang  to assesIn earlier studies, a four-item scale was used to measure self-efficacy for MERS ] recommend a series of preventive behaviors, such as hand hygiene, and avoidance behaviors, such as social distancing or (voluntary) quarantine  and for general information. Retrieving or sharing general information on social media included: homebased remedies and the names of herbal medicines useful for boosting immunity in response to COVID-19, the names of tablets or injections being used for the treatment of COVID-19, and religious texts for protection from sickness and ailments. Five items were used to measure medical information received or shared using social media .The reliability analysis revealed that the scales used to measure the study variables  were highly reliable in the Pakistani context. The values of Cronbach's Alpha for perceived susceptibility and perceived severity were 0.815, and 0.762, respectively. The scales used for preventive behavior also showed high reliability. Cronbach's Alpha was 0.751 for handwashing, 0.708 for cough etiquette, and 0.830 for social distancing behavior. The reliability was higher for the scale of medical social media use (0.823) than for general use (0.622). For self-efficacy, it was also satisfactory, at 0.700 .T-tests were used to check differences between genders, social media use, perceived threats, and preventive behavior. The Pearson correlation coefficient was calculated to investigate the roles of age and income in explaining perceived threats related to the coronavirus, preventive behavior, and social media use. Based upon previous research conducted to predict preventive behavior during infectious disease outbreaks  and the majority were unmarried . More than half of the participants were students , leading to an overall young sample. The majority had a combined family income of less than or equal to PKR 100,000 . A considerable number of respondents used social media for more than 4 h a day , and more than half of the participants  relied on social media for information about COVID-19.t-test to determine the effect of gender. Overall, there was no statistically significant effect of gender on perceived threat related to the coronavirus or social media use among the respondents, except for a higher general use of social media among women. Furthermore, women displayed significantly better preventive behaviors on all three scales  and goodness of fit index (GFI = 0.95) demonstrated a good model fit. Moreover, alternate fit indices  confirmed the acceptable fit of the sample.p < 0.005). This result supports the assertion that the two observed variables—perceived susceptibility (β = 0.83) and perceived severity (β = 0.61)—significantly explained the perceived threat of coronavirus. Similarly, the coefficients between preventive behavior and its observed variables are also significant (p < 0.005). This result confirms that the three observed variables—handwashing (β = 0.61), cough etiquette (β = 0.67), and social distancing (β = 0.72)—have a significant positive effect on preventive behavior. In addition, the observed variables medical use (β = 0.88) and general use (β = 0.23) significantly load on the latent variable of social media use among the respondents.R2 = 0.06, p < 0.05), and social media use and perceived threat of coronavirus . In addition, perceived threat of coronavirus  and self-efficacy related to coronavirus  significantly explain preventive behavior related to coronavirus among the respondents .The results  show thaThe COVID-19 pandemic has permanently altered the global landscape. The crippling consequences of the lockdown have been felt in all spheres of life . This study adds to the growing body of knowledge revealing that using social media to disseminate COVID-19 information can influence audiences' perceptions of perceived threat and self-efficacy, as well as their preventive behavior. This means that social media can be used as part of public health communication during outbreaks. Official social media pages for experts and health agencies could share timely and important information with the public, potentially counteracting the negative impacts of other types of media sharing.The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by ethical committee from the International Islamic University Islamabad. The patients/participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.QM, SJ, and SM conceptualized the study. QM and SM contributed to data collection. SJ and FF supervised the work and supported in data analysis. QM drafted the draft. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.


Chondrodactylus turneri GRAY, 1864). Thick-toed geckos are able to maintain attachment and natural locomotion in weightlessness. Different types of mechanoreceptors have been described in the toes of geckos. After flight, neurofilament 200 immunoreactivity in mechanoreceptors was lower than in control. In some motor neurons of flight geckos, nonspecific pathomorphological changes were observed, but they were also detected in the control. No signs of gliosis were detected after spaceflight. Cytoskeleton markers adequately reflect changes in the cells of the nervous system. We suggest that geckos’ adhesion is controlled by the nervous system. Our study revealed no significant disturbances in the morphology of the spinal cord after the prolonged space flight, supporting the hypothesis that geckos compensate the alterations, characteristic for other mammals in weightlessness, by tactile stimulation.Spaceflight may cause hypogravitational motor syndrome (HMS). However, the role of the nervous system in the formation of HMS remains poorly understood. The aim of this study was to estimate the effects of space flights on the cytoskeleton of the neuronal and glial cells in the spinal cord and mechanoreceptors in the toes of thick-toed geckos ( The development of life on Earth took place under the influence of the forces of gravity. Under conditions of space flight, the loads on the musculoskeletal system and vestibular afferentation are changed, and the adaptation of the central nervous system to new conditions is needed. Respectively, the coordination of signals coming from the musculoskeletal system and vestibular organs are restructured ,2. In coHypogravitatational motor syndrome (HMS) is one of the most remarkable manifestations of SAS and one of the deleterious impacts of weightlessness on the body in orbital space missions . HMS is Earlier, it has been shown that the important trigger of HMS is violation of sensory impulses from the skin . For exaIt is also suggested that many of these ensembles are responded to by spinal cord neurons, which can, in turn, realise detailed accommodation of posture and locomotion . MoreoveFor decades, it has been shown that acute changes in gravity have an effect on neuronal systems of human and animals on different levels, from the molecular level to the whole nervous system ,15,16,17In weightlessness, a decreased activity was indicated for spinal ganglia neurons and motoneurons of the spinal cord . In rat musculus Soleus. No changes were observed in the fourth lumbar vertebra, whose motoneurons maintain the musculus Tibialis anterior and musculus Plantaris [In the antiorthostatic head-down rest experiment ) ,21, decrlantaris .pmp2 and pmp22 gene expression coding myelin, which led to demyelination effects, destruction of the myelin sheaths, and axon conduction velocity changes. Moreover, signs of demyelination and decreasing oligodendroglial cells have been shown in mice after 30 days of exposure to microgravity. However, the HUM study revealed no changes in motoneuron apoptotic level or alterations in the quantity of the myelinated nerve fibres in the anterior nerve roots [Lumbar enlargement was shown to decrease after 35 days of antiorthostatic head-down rest experiment, while the square of the transversal serial sections of the cervical enlargement remained unchanged . This deve roots . The datTo test the hypothesis that changes in spinal motor neurons provoke HMS, researchers performed a full genome study of the mice lumbar spinal cord after the 30-day ‘Bion-M1’ mission . Data puCytoskeleton elements, including microtubules, intermediate filaments, and microfilaments, were shown to reorganise in the condition of microgravity ,25. ChanIn general, the best known gravisensitive proteins are cytoskeletal proteins . HoweveChondrodactylus turneri GRAY, 1864) in the prolonged space flight experiment and it would be interesting to study the changes in the spinal cord of these animals. Reptiles are a rather exotic object for space biology research. However, some of reptilian specimens possess a number of advantages not presented by other model animals [Most of the spinal cord research results have been obtained in the ‘Bion-M1’ mice experiment. Nevertheless, the ‘Bion-M1’ program also included a complex study of thick-toed geckos , but perhaps they use head movements for this . In addiChondrodactylus turneri GRAY, 1864) after completion of space flights onboard the ‘Foton-M3’ and the ‘Bion-M1’ satellites , using cytoskeleton markers .In order to confirm this hypothesis, we examined the forelimb toes and cervical part of the spinal cord of the lacertid thick-toed geckos  aged 1.5–2 years were studied. Information about animals and experimental conditions are contained in [The current study was a part of a complex investigation of geckos after the ‘Foton-M3’  and ‘Bion-M1’  space missions. Mature, virgin, female thick-toed geckos : no. 204 of 07/19/07. Experimental animals were euthanised with Nembutal, then decapitated according to American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) standards .The study was approved by the Biomedical Ethics Commission of SSC RF–IBMP RAS  and was conducted in compliance with the AVMA standards . EuthanaIn the experiment ‘Foton-M3’, the second and third right forelimb toes of 5 geckos from the flight (F) group and the same amount from synchronous control (SC) group were cut off. All of these samples were fixed in 4% buffered formalin (pH 7.4), decalcified in nitric acid mixture (6%), and embedded in paraffin; then, serial sections (10 μm) were prepared for 5 F and 5 SC geckos. For each group, the toes of 2 animals were sectioned sagittally and the toes of 3 animals were sectioned frontally. In total, toes of 10 geckos were studied. Two series of sections were made from each toe, using every other section. Mallory staining was used to visualise the internal structure of the toe for one series. Another series of sections was used for immunohistochemistry.In the ‘Foton-M3’ and ‘Bion-M1’ experiments, geckos’ brains (whole) and the cervical section of the spinal cord were removed. All samples were fixed in 4% buffered formalin (pH 7.4) and embedded in paraffin then serial frontal and sagittal sections (10 μm) were prepared. Brain sagittal sections were made for two animals from the F group and for one from the SC groups in the ‘Bion-M1’ experiment. Frontal sections were made for two geckos from the F group and for two from SC groups in the ‘Foton-M3’ experiment, and for five geckos from F group and for four from SC groups in ‘Bion-M1’ experiment. In total, the brains of 16 geckos were studied. Nissl staining of the total neuronal population was carried out. For the Nissl routine histology, series of each 5th section were used in experiment ‘Foton-M3’, and series of each 10th section were used in experiment ‘Bion-M1’.2O2 to block endogenous peroxidase. For immunohistochemical study of gecko brains and toes after completion of space flights, sections were dewaxed, rehydrated, and treated with a 3% solution of H2 formed the end product of dark blue colour, which made it possible to distinguish a positive NF reaction from melanocytes, which had colours from light brown to almost black.Reactions were detected with the UltraVision ONE detection system  with diaminobenzidine (DAB) as the chromogen . To identify neural elements in geckos’ toes, we used DAB with NiCl®488 goat anti-mouse IgG (H + L)  and AlexaFluor®555 goat anti-rabbit IgG (H + L) . Sections were covered using Ultra Cruz mounting medium containing DAPI .Double immunofluorescent labelling to TUBB3 and GFAP was also applied to analyse the distribution of neurons and glial elements in the spinal cord. For immunofluorescent labelling, dewaxed and rehydrated sections were incubated with blocking solution consisting of 10% normal goat serum  in Tris-buffered saline plus 0.1% Tween 20  for 30 min at room temperature. Primary antibodies were diluted in 1% normal goat serum in TBST and incubated at 4 °C for 24 h. The following primary antibodies and dilutions were used: mouse monoclonal antibodies to GFAP  and rabbit polyclonal antibodies to TUBB3 . Secondary antibodies were diluted in TBST and incubated at 37 °C for 2 h. The following secondary antibodies and dilutions were used: AlexaFluorNegative control sections, in which the primary antibody was omitted, were used for each case in each immunostaining run. Reactions on samples of adult human brain were used as positive controls.Depending on the applied method, sections were analysed with a light microscope AxoiImager A1  or DM 2500  equipped with a digital camera  and McrA-View 7.1.1.2 software , or a fluorescent microscope  equipped with a digital camera and its corresponding software .In the experiment ‘Foton-M3’, serial sections of the geckos’ toes and cervical spinal cord were studied only on the qualitative level. In the experiment ‘Bion-M1’, quantitative and qualitative analysis on the serial sections of the cervical spine stained using Nissl and IHC were run. Four series (each 10 sections) were examined: the first series was stained according to Nissl, the second—IHC with anti-TUBB3 antibodies, the third—IHC with anti GFAP antibodies, and the fourth—immunofluorescence with anti-TUBB3- and anti-GFAP antibodies. Spinal cord  sections applied with cresylviolet according to Nissl or with immunoperoxidase labelling were digitised with Mekos-C2 system (Russia) on the base of AxoiImager1 and kept as Aperio files.For experimental neuroanatomical studies of the reptilian spinal cord, a detailed subdivision of the grey matter is necessary. The most widely adopted scheme for the subdivision of the spinal grey matters stems from cytoarchitectonic studies in cats ,42. The Digital serial sections of the gecko spinal cord were analysed with Aperio Image Scope, Version 12.3.3.5048. On the Nissl-stained sections, motor neurons of the IX zone were calculated. Motor neurons, cut through the nucleus with visible nucleoli, were included in the analysis. Motor neurons with structural abnormalities  to the total number of motor neuron proportion was evaluated. On the adjoining sections applied with anti-TUBB3, immunoreactive cells were calculated. The proportion of TUBB3-immunoreactive motor neurons was calculated as the ratio of their number to the total number of motor neurons taken as 100%. On the serial section applied with anti-GFAP, astrocyte quantity was calculated in the inferior horn. TUBB3-immunopositive motor neurons to astrocyte ratio was also calculated.U nonparametric tests to search differences between two groups. The p-value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.A statistical software package was used . Data were compared with Mann–Whitney In the ‘Foton-M3′ experiment, abundant toe innervation and multiple sensory endings were detected in both groups . Free neAll types of mechanoreceptors varied in size, structure, and localisation in both groups. PC is an evolutionary ancestor of the Pacinian corpuscle of mammals including humans. Functionally, they are rapidly adapting low-threshold mechanoreceptors, sensitive to pressure changes and vibration . VariabiMLCs can be distinguished by size, structure, and number of included cells. CSOs were revealed in dorsal and ventral scales of phalanges at considerable distance from one another. Their cilia direct forwards to the distal part of the toe. In some cases, CSOs are located on the dorsal side of the scansor, or on its rostral border. On the dorsal side of the scansors, CSOs are found much less frequently than on the dorsal or ventral scales of the phalanges; however, 1–2 CSOs were found in almost all scansors. CSOs located on the scansors are distinguished by a significantly longer cilium length (about 70 mkm) compared to CSOs in scales (15–20 mkm).Innervation of muscles is extremely variable in both groups. Receptor-like structures of the different size and morphology were described within muscle fascicles f. In allThus, innervation morphology was generally the same between flight and control groups. Immunoreactivity of the neurofilaments was revealed in both groups. Nevertheless, in the flight group, there were lower or fractionally immunoreactive fibres or immunonegative ones, but these differences should be defined only as a tendency. If the control is dominated by PCs with immunopositive fibres, then in geckos from the flight group, PCs are even more difficult to detect due to the fact that the central fibre is weakly coloured or there is no staining at all. Another difference was revealed in PC morphology: the PC capsule from the control group had well-defined laminar structure, while the PC capsule structure from the flight group was unclear (laminated structure was poorly visible). Moreover, we can say that there are fewer free nerve endings in F than in SC. This may have been due to their reduction but is more likely due to the fact that, with a small diameter, they turn out to be almost unstained and indistinguishable in flight animals.At first, the program of the comprehensive study of the state of geckos after the ‘Foton-M3′ flight did not include the study of the spinal cord. Nevertheless, spinal cord serial frontal sections at levels C1–C5.6 of the two geckos from flight and two geckos from synchronous control groups were at our disposal. As a result of the preliminary research, no visible differences between groups were detected.In the ‘Bion-M1’ experiment, in general, the histological appearance of the spinal cord was also normal in all groups of geckos. In the thick-toed geckos , theThe grey matter of the reptilian cord shows a clear division into ventral and dorsal horns. The dorsal horn receives a dorsal root input; the ventral horn contains the motoneurons. A large intermediate zone remains between the dorsal and ventral horns, which consists mainly of interneurons. The dorsal horns separate off a portion of the white matter, the so-called dorsal funiculus. The remainder of the white matter can be subdivided into lateral and ventral funiculi .Tupincarbis nigropimatatus [Tupinambis [In the dorsal horn of the thick-toed geckos, four more or less distinct cellular areas can be recognised, the first three of which show a distinct laminar arrangement a as in timatatus . On the pinambis , areas VChondrodactylus turneri, such as in Tupinambis [Areas VII–VIII contained numerous medium-sized polygonal cells (20–30 μm) with round and distinct nucleoli. Large neurons with a fine granular Nissl substance were found, particularly in the medial ventral horn. Round to oval, small cells with round nuclei and distinct nucleoli occurred. In pinambis , at leasArea IX, i.e., the motoneuron area a,b, consmarginal or edge cells, demonstrated in a wide variety of reptiles [Area X, which surrounds the central canal, can be distinguished throughout the spinal cord. This area, also called substantia grisea centralis, was composed of very small (4–6 mkm), round cells with round nuclei and indistinct nucleoli. In addition, the reptiles , were lap > 0.05). In addition, the relative number of the TUBB3-immunopositive motor neurons was the same in both groups (p > 0.05).Nonspecific heterogenetic changes, such as chromatolysis, vacuolisation, and hyperchromatosis c,d, werePodarcis and Anolis sagrei [Clear GFAP immunopositivity with thin, radial-oriented immunopositive processes evident throughout the cross-sectioned spinal cord of thick-toed gecko e,f, as is sagrei ,48, was p > 0.05).In the spinal cord, star-shaped astrocytes coexisted with radial glia. Star-shaped astrocytes were evident in the ventral horns at the boundary between white and grey matter e,f. No sNervous system integration is necessary for movement control, sensory navigation, and terrestrial locomotion of Earth species, including humans. It maintains muscle contraction, allowing animals to react against gravitational force and controlling motions. One of the most fundamental nervous circuits is a classic reflex arch. Spinal reflexes are the simple neuromuscular reaction of proportional magnitude to the input stimulus. In addition, sensory inputs from the vestibular, visual systems, and proprioception integrate by the central nervous system (CNS) to control posture and movement .Geckos are mainly small insectivorous lizards of warm climates. Their ability to scale walls and to run upside down across ceilings depends partly on the presence in most species of extremely sharp recurved claws: geckos rely on their claws to maintain purchase on rough, steeply inclined surfaces . HoweverThus, on the one hand, there is an extensive literature on adhesion mechanisms in geckos. On the other hand, structure and function of reptile cutaneous mechanoreceptors were deeply investigated using electrophysiological, morphological, histological, and electron-microscopical methods in the years 1960–1970 and beyond ,64,65,66NF 200 is proposed as the most useful marker for the mechanoreceptors and other neuronal structures of the thick-toed gecko research after a series of immunohistochemical experiments with a wide marker panel: antibodies to protein S-100, NSE, neurofilaments , PGP9.5, neuron-specific beta-III-tubulin, GAP-43, NCAM, SNAP-25, synaptophysin, and G-proteins were tested. In most cases, there was no positive reaction, or an extremely weak specific staining was observed. Maybe it was because previous decalcification of gecko toes. Clear positive reactions were obtained only with antibodies to NF 200.Several new points of toe innervation patterns were revealed with anti-NF 200 in the geckos. Various types of mechanoreceptors have been discovered, and CSO on scansors of thick-toed geckos has been described. It is known that CSOs have not only mehanoreceptive functions but they also may be potentially involved with additional sensory modalities. At the same time, their location on the scales’ and scansors’ margins and the direction of their bristles to adjacent scales shows that CSOs are important for proprioreception during toepad deployment .Differential NF 200-immunoreactivity and unstained areas in the nerve fibres were observed in both groups; however, more low- or partly immunoreactive or completely immunonegative nerve fibres were revealed in the flight group. Fewer free nerve endings were detected in the F group than in the SC one. In the gecko PCs of the F group, the layered structure of the capsule was not visible or weakly expressed, and the central fibre was immunonegative or partially immunoreactive and much thinner or hypertrophied and empty, in contrast with geckos from the SC group.Thus, even after a short-term 12 day space flight, some changes in the nervous system of the toes were observed. NF 200-immunoreactivity pattern alteration could be led from destruction, synthesis changes, and/or rearrangement of neurofibrillae. According to video records, geckos from F group retained attachment to the walls of the container in weightlessness and their behaviour did not differ significantly from SC. Further investigation is needed to clarify mechanisms and functional value of the changes revealed in mechanoreceptors of gecko toes. The role of nervous system in geckos’ adhesion and locomotion call for further space and terrestrial studies.Spinal cord changes with increasing complexity of animal locomotion—terrestrial quadruped animals have cervical and lumbar enlargements. However, relatively limited data are available on the physiology of the reptilian CNS. Thus, any functional correlations with mammal spinal cord should be made very carefully. Since area IX plays a leading role in the formation of movements, we conducted a study of the cytoskeleton of motor neurons in this area. Area IX is a primary motor area with somatotopic organisation. In quadrupedal reptiles, in addition to a medial column related to the neck, trunk, and tail musculature innervation, a lateral column is added in the area of cervical and lumbosacral enlargements. The motoneurons of lateral column innervate the limb muscles .Motoneuron swelling, central and segmental chromatolysis, and hyperchromatosis were revealed in flight group geckos. These morphological alterations are nonspecific and possessed under different nonpathological statements, including functional loading and pathogenetic disturbances, such as trauma, ischemia, intoxication, and chronic stress. Such changes revealed in the motor neurons of the flight group geckos were insignificant in comparison with control group. There were also no changes in the TUBB3 immunoreactivity distribution.Syp and Dlg4). Both microgravity and the simulation of microgravity induced structural changes in the large neurons of lumbar spinal ganglia and motoneurons of the lumbar spinal cord [However, in many studies of immunoexpression in mice spinal cord in the ′Bion-M1′ program, the expression of some proteins was decreased. Thus, Porseva et al. ,72 showenal cord .At the same time, the number of calbindin-positive neurons increased; motoneurons, expressing neuronal NO synthase and caspase 3 appeared, while Ki-67 was not detected in the spinal cord of the mice after the ‘Bion-M1’ space flight. Cytoplasmic vacuolisation was seen in motoneuron staining with thionine and immunoreactive for calbindin ,72. AccoIn general, morphological and immunohistochemical changes in motoneurons reflect adaptive mechanisms to the conditions of space flight .Space flight influence on the glial cell populations is poorly studied. GFAP is an intermediate filament protein of certain glial cells—typical star-shaped fibrous or protoplasmic astrocytes, Bergmann glia, periependymal radial glia, and tanycytes. GFAP is a stable protein by its molecular and antigenic characteristics throughout vertebrate species ,48. The Neuron–astrocyte system alterations influence neuronal structure and function up to stable motoneuron disturbances, leading to cell degeneration and death. Astrocytes specifically react on the damaging factors for nervous system protection and recovery. Increasing of the astrocyte perikaryon and ramification, activation of the protein synthesis, including S100B, cytoskeleton antigens such as glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), vimentin, and nestin appear due to stress or damaged factors . IncreasThe pattern of the glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)-immunopositive staining in the gecko brain was also studied in the ‘Foton-M2’ and ‘Foton-M3’ experiments. Immunoreactivity in the medial and media-dorsal cortex was lower in the brain of flight group geckos after ‘Foton-M2’ and ‘Foton-M3’ than in the brain of control group geckos in these experiments . The finAt the same time, severe functional impairment of postural and locomotor musculature was obtained in mice after the 30 day spaceflight on board the ‘Bion-M1’ biosatellite ,76. MotoHowever, no locomotion disturbances were revealed in geckos in the experiments. In our previous studies, we focused on the prolonged spaceflight effects on the cerebellum ,34 and cOtherwise, supporting inputs play a key role in the postural-tonic system regulation. Gravitational loading influences both electric activity and transversal stiffness of muscle fibres. The initial point of the atony development is slow motor unit inactivation, leading to consecutive sarcomere protein destruction and actin–myosin interaction reduction . Seven dThe study results provide evidence that proprioceptive signals may compensate altered sensory afferentation and negate the HMS effects .These data are also supported by the human experimental results. It has been shown that pressure on the feet of astronauts with the help of special shoes enhances neuromuscular activation and modifies its phasic features when lifting the arm . The preRecently, zu Eulenburg et al.  showed tSensorimotor impairments occurring under the altered gravity limit a space mission duration. Sensorimotor function plays a crucial role in maintenance during space flight and after landing, including lengthy recovery or rehabilitation after returning to Earth ,11,16.Some neuromuscular changes in astronauts are closer to the certain pathognomonic patterns observed in skeletal muscles in patients with spinal or peripheral nerve disorders . The cerOur results confirm the compensatory theory  and the


Background: Self-determination theory distinguishes three basic human psychological needs: competence, relatedness, and autonomy. The measurement of these needs in populations of older adults has been limited and inadequate. Yet, results from such an assessment are likely to be valuable in policymaking, specifically toward the goal of healthy aging.Aim: The objective of this study was to test the reliability and validity of the Chinese version of the Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction Scale (BPNS) based on self-determination theory with older adults.Methods: A total of 809 older adults were invited to participate in this study. We examined the item analysis, internal reliability, factorial validity, criterion validity, and measurement invariance across sex of a Chinese translation of the BPNS.Results: The findings demonstrated that the scale had a good factorial validity, criterion validity, and satisfactory internal reliability. All the items were qualified according to item analysis (p < 0.001). The Cronbach’s α coefficient for the total scale was 0.877. The coefficients of three subscales were 0.826 (autonomy), 0.807 (competence), and 0.847 (relatedness). Exploratory factor analysis indicated three factors that explained 75.12% of the total variance. Confirmatory factor analysis showed measurement fit exceeded the recommended criteria in all the cases. Measurement invariance analysis manifested that the factor loadings, factor variances and covariances, and residuals to measurement structure were invariant across the male and female participants.Conclusion: The Chinese version of the BPNS based on self-determination theory was proven to be reliable and valid. The usability of the scale to assess the satisfaction of the basic psychological needs of older adults in China was demonstrated. In the 1980s, American psychologists Scholars have compiled and revised relevant scales to measure these three basic psychological needs. For example, 2) (24) = 40.360, degrees of the freedom (χ2/df) = 1.68, goodness of fit index (GFI) = 0.940, comparative fit index (CFI) = 0.970, normed fit index (NFI) = 0.940, incremental fit index (IFI) = 0.970, and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) = 0.070]. The scores of three subscales positively correlated with life satisfaction, positive affect, affect balance, and subjective well-being, while negatively correlated with negative affect. The total Cronbach’s α coefficient is 0.86 and three subscales are 0.82 (autonomy), 0.86 (competence), and 0.80 (relatedness). It indicated that the scale is sufficiently homogeneous and item discrimination and presented good reliability, construct validity, and criterion validity used for Chinese college students.Chinese researchers have introduced and revised different versions of the SDT scale. None of mentioned above Chinese versions of the scales has been applied in older adults as subjects. As it is not yet clear if existing questionnaires are suitable for measuring satisfaction of the older adults with their needs, it is valuable to test their reliability and validity with that population. This study selected the Chinese version of the BPNS revised by A total of 809 convenience sample was recruited from parks, communities, and wards of a tertiary hospital in Fuzhou, China, between October 2020 and May 2021. The inclusion criteria included age older than 60-year-old, living in an urban community 12 months or more, clear cognition, ability to express and comprehend simple Chinese characters, and willingness to complete questionnaires. The exclusion criteria were hearing impairment, speech impairment, cognitive impairment, mental illness, and severe or terminal ill.1.It is generally accepted that a minimum sample size of 300 is required for EFA , while aThe BPNS  translatSatisfying the three basic psychological needs could increase happiness . The MHQBefore the collection stage, the Ethical Review Committee of Fujian Medical University approved this study. The investigators consisted of three graduate students and several undergraduates in Fujian Medical University. In the preparation stage, the investigators had been uniformly trained, emphasized the application of uniform instructions, and underwent one or two preinvestigation trainings. Before the formal investigation, the investigators informed participants of the study purpose, significance, usage, privacy rights, etc., signed the informed consent, and then conducted one-to-one questionnaire surveys. If participants were illiterate or did not understand the content, investigators explained on the spot and asked for permission to fill out the questionnaire. After finishing the questionnaire, investigators immediately checked it. If the questionnaires were missing items or had obvious logical errors, the participants filled in or modified them on the spot. After checking again, the investigators withdraw the questionnaire. Finally, participants were usually able to fill in the Chinese version of the BPNS  in 5–10 p > 0.05) in After collecting data, researchers used rigorous numbers instead of names to mark the questionnaires. Questionnaires and their identity information were saved separately and the numbers corresponding to identity information of the participants. All the researchers were required to ensure the confidentiality of identities of the participant. Researchers could not disclose their identity information to anyone without the permission of the participant. Identity information was kept in a locked filing cabinet, which can only be accessed by researchers. When necessary, members of government management departments or ethics committees could consult the identity information in the research unit according to regulations. The demographic characteristics of the participants are shown in t-test, distinguishing the degree of discrimination of the items. The standard advice was to eliminate each item whose item-scale correlation was <0.30  greater than 0.50 and the result of the Bartlett’s test of sphericity were considered as eligible to perform EFA , CFI, Tucker–Lewis index (TLI), NFI, standardized root mean square residual (SRMR), and RMSEA. Model fit was deemed acceptable as the following values were met: χ2/df < 5, GFI > 0.90, AGFI > 0.90, CFI > 0.90, TLI > 0.90, NFI > 0.90, SRMR < 0.08, and RMSEA < 0.08  was used for assessing the Chinese version of the BPNS  about itas <0.30 . Scores o groups  for itemo groups ; and (3)o groups . Before form EFA . The folform EFA . Then, Cform EFA  used to A < 0.08 ; (4) CriA < 0.08  and dimeA < 0.08 . The Peap < 0.001), suggesting that each item was sufficiently homogeneous and need not to be eliminate. Factor correlation coefficients are given in The Pearson correlation analysis assessed item-total correlations . Resultst-test evaluated the difference between two groups for each item. Results showed that the statistical value of each item was statistically significant differences (p < 0.001) and that items had good discrimination. The results of the independent samples t-test are shown in The Chinese version of The Cronbach’s α coefficient of the total scale was 0.877. The Cronbach’s α coefficient of three subscales were 0.826 (autonomy), 0.807 (competence), and 0.847 (relatedness).Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin value obtained was 0.860 and the significance of the Bartlett’s test of sphericity was less than 0.001 . These results support the appropriateness of the factor analysis. Principal component analysis with Varimax rotation assessed the underlying construct of the items  to obtain a three-factor structural equation model. Results are shown in r = 0.376, 0.394, 0.429, and 0.481; p < 0.001), indicating good criterion validity (p < 0.001) and a negative correlation with negative emotions with statistically significant differences (p < 0.001) correlation coefficient as shown in The Pearson correlation analysis was used to assess the relationship between the Chinese version of the BPNS  and the validity . They alvalidity  with sta2 (48) = 74.620, p < 0.05, CFI = 0.984, TLI = 0.976, and RMSEA = 0.037]. Then, to test the invariance of the factor loadings across gender, factor loadings were constrained to be equal across two groups. Multi-sample analysis revealed that model 2 was acceptable . Also, the χ2 difference test between baseline model and constrained model was not significant , suggesting that factor loadings of both the gender groups were invariant. In addition to the factor loadings, factor variances and covariances were also constrained to be equal across two groups. Multi-sample analysis showed that model 3 was acceptable . Moreover, the χ2 difference test between two constrained models was not significant . It suggested that, aside from the factor loadings, factor variances and covariances were also invariant across gender. Finally, besides the constraints mentioned above, residuals were also constrained to be equal across two groups. Multi-sample analysis revealed that model 4 was acceptable . Additionally, the χ2 difference test between two constrained models was not significant . Therefore, all these results revealed that the factor loadings, factor variances and covariances, and residuals were invariant across gender, as shown in Since the two baseline models for each gender were the same, multi-sample analysis was then conducted. First, multi-sample analysis with the unconstrained model (model 1) showed an acceptable baseline model for both males and females [χt-test showed that two groups had statistically significant differences in the scores of three dimensions and the total scale (p < 0.001). The three basic psychological and overall needs of older adults were satisfied. These levels were higher than those of college students.Comparing the total score and three subscales scores of basic psychological needs satisfaction between older adults and college students  is shownIn this study, the simplified Chinese version of the BPNS  is suffip < 0.001). Compared to interactions with colleagues and acquaintances, interacting with family members and friends usually inspires feelings of relatedness and autonomy (With increasing age, people tend to value intrinsic goals more than extrinsic goals . Compareautonomy . In thisautonomy . In thisThere are multiple versions of the BPNS at home and abroad, but those used to assess older adults in China have been lacking. This study revealed that the Chinese version of the BPNS  was factThis study had some limitations. Firstly, it did not investigate groups of older adults with varying characteristics. Future researchers could consider conducting based on these differences such as illness or not. Secondly, Fuzhou is a coastal city within certain regional and urban–rural differences reflected in the psychological needs of older adults of that region. Future study could adjust the sample coverage to reflect wider characteristics and a more diverse range of older adults in China to assess satisfaction with basic psychological needs. In addition, although the aim of this study was to examine the application of the BPNS with elders in a Chinese context, this study did not provide evidence across various cultures or languages within mainland in China neither it provide evidence for the equivalence of the BPNS between China and the western cultures. Future study is encouraged to explore the BPNS across cultures and/or languages within China and between China and the west to examine the equivalence of the BPNS and enhance cross-cultural comparison and application of self-determination theory.The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.This study involving human participants was reviewed and approved by the Ethics Review Committee of Fujian Medical University. The participants signed their written informed consent to participate in this study.YuY was responsible for recruitment, data collection, analysis and interpretation of the data, and drafting the manuscript. MY, YoY, and QY was responsible for recruitment, data collection, and critical review of the manuscript. TL was responsible for the study conception and design, supervision of the study, provision of administrative and material support, analysis and interpretation of the data, and drafting and critical review of the manuscript. All authors have contributed significantly and in agreement with the content of the manuscript.The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.