Aim: To assess changes in the developmental trajectory of corticospinal tracts (CST) maturation in children with hemiplegic cerebral palsy (HCP).Methods: Neuroimaging data were obtained from 36 children with HCP for both the more affected (MA) and less affected (LA) hemispheres, and, for purposes of direct comparison, between groups, 15 typically developing (TD) children. With diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), we estimated the mean fractional anisotropy (FA), axial diffusivity (AD), mean diffusivity (MD), and radial diffusivity (RD) of the corticospinal tract, parameters indicative of factors including myelination and axon density. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) was performed as a neurophysiologic measure of corticospinal tract integrity and organization. Resting motor threshold (rMT) was obtained per hemisphere, per patient.Results: We observed a significant AD and MD developmental trajectory, both of which were inversely related to age (decrease in AD and diffusivity corresponding to increased age) in both hemispheres of TD children (p < 0.001). This maturation process was absent in both MA and LA hemispheres of children with HCP. Additionally, the TMS-derived previously established rMT developmental trajectory was preserved in the LA hemisphere of children with HCP  but this trajectory was absent in the MA hemisphere.Conclusions: Corticospinal tract maturation arrests in both hemispheres of children with HCP, possibly reflecting perinatal disruption of corticospinal tract myelination and axonal integrity. Specifically, by TMS, we measure the resting motor threshold (rMT), which reflects motor cortex excitability and the developmental stage of CST myelination, as well as the membrane characteristics and synaptic efficacy of the cortical and spinal motor neurons  and, for direct comparison, 15 age-matched typically developing (TD) children and adolescents . The inclusion criteria were: (i) mild to moderate spastic hemiplegia ; (ii) sufficient cooperation to participate in a neuroimaging study; (iii) no contradiction for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI); i.e. presence of metallic implants, or pumps; and (iv) no severe intellectual developmental disability. The clinical characteristics of participants with HCP are shown in R = 2, echo-spacing of 3.63 ms for a total imaging time of 3:23 min]. The diffusion sequence  used EP readouts .MRI scans were performed in a 3T Magnetom Tim Trio . The imaging protocol consisted of structural and diffusion-weighted sequences. The structural sequence was a T1-weighted magnetization-prepared rapid-acquisition gradient-echo acquisition (MPRAGE), which used volumetric echo-planar (EP) imaging navigators for real-time motion correction . The FOV was set to 256 mm and matrix size was 256 [TR = 3,200 ms, TE = 363 ms, Generalized Autocalibrating Partial Parallel Acquisition (GRAPPA) acceleration The MRI scans were reviewed by a pediatric radiologist (PEG). No structural abnormalities were observed in the MRIs of TD children. A unilateral structural abnormality was seen in 31 children with HCP. In five cases, bilateral abnormalities were observed. The MA hemisphere referred to the hemisphere where structural abnormalities were identified or were more prominent compared to the other hemisphere. For all children with HCP, the MA hemisphere was contralateral to the paretic hand. Each child in the TD group was assigned to have a randomly selected hemisphere (Hem1 and Hem2) to balance out possible inherent differences in the functioning of the right and left hemispheres  and all TD children. Diffusion images were first processed to correct for distortions caused by minor eddy currents and simple head motions using FSL toolsvia a figure-of-eight coil with frameless stereotaxy and TMS neuronavigation software that allows for continuous visualization of the stimulation coil relative to the patient’s individual brain MRI. Real-time stimulus-locked EMG was recorded from pre-determined target muscles, with one common-ground EMG amplifier . Surface EMG electrodes were placed on the right and the left abductor pollicis brevis (APB) muscles, and a ground electrode on the underside of the right forearm. With single-pulse TMS, stimuli were applied to scalp sites overlying the motor cortex, while muscle activity was monitored in real-time with stimulus-locked EMG. Motor evoked potentials (MEPs) were recorded bilaterally from the APB muscles and a hotspot, corresponding to location that produced peak APB MEP amplitudes were identified per hemisphere. Thereafter, rMT was determined as the minimum stimulation intensity  at the APB hotspot that was necessary to elicit a response from the APB, contralateral to the stimulated hemisphere, of 50 μV, on ≥50% of trials. The rMT was determined as percent machine output (MO) and in the corresponding units (V/m) of the induced electric field  underwent motor mapping with TMS. No TD children participated in the TMS motor mapping session. Each participant’s T1-weighted MPRAGE was converted to a 3D head surface and brain reconstruction using Nexstim 4.3 software , and optimal cortical peel depth was chosen based upon individual cortical anatomy. TMS, coupled with surface electromyography (EMG), was delivered p = 0.05/4; for the second strongest at p = 0.05/3; and so forth  were also performed using a linear model. Linear regression analysis with a straight-line model was performed to test for a relationship between rMT and age. To test whether comparisons between slopes of the MA and LA hemispheres in children with HCP are significantly different, analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used. Since no TD children underwent motor mapping with TMS, only comparisons between the two hemispheres within the HCP group were performed for the rMT values. To avoid exclusion of patients with the highest rMTs, for those subjects (n = 3) whose APB rMT was >100% MO, the threshold for activation was estimated, per hemisphere, by sorting APB MEP peak-to-peak amplitudes, and obtaining the average e-field values (V/m) for the top 50th percentile. For all statistical analyses, the level of significance was set at p < 0.05.Statistical analysis was performed using GraphPad Prism Software v.7 . For the diffusion parameters, we compared the mean FA, AD, MD, and RD of the CST with a mixed 2  × 2  analysis of variance (ANOVA), with group being a between-subject factor and hemisphere a within-subjects factor. To compensate for multiple comparisons and control the familywise Type I error rate at 5% in each family of four tests, we applied the Holm step-down criteria, setting the significance threshold for the strongest contrast at F = 9.860; p = 0.003), MD  = 6.492; p = 0.013), AD  = 6.553; p = 0.013), and RD  = 7.578; p = 0.008; ANOVA showed significant differences between the HCP and TD children for the FA (p < 0.05). FA and RD measures for Hem1 and Hem2 show absence of inter-hemispheric difference .In TD children, there is a progressive decline with age for both AD and MD that is essentially identical in both hemispheres . This defference , and neip > 0.05, n.s.) or LA  hemispheres. Though in line with findings for the TD children, neither FA nor RD values change with age in the HCP cohort .In contrast to TD children, the AD and MD parameters in children with HCP have no significant interaction with age in the MA  with increasing age in both hemispheres of TD children. In contrast, we identified a diffusivity increment (increased AD and MD) in the MA hemisphere of children with HCP, and a steady diffusivity across age in the LA hemisphere. In complement to the DTI findings, by TMS, we also found a halted electrophysiological maturation of the CST in the MA hemisphere of children with HCP, which contrasts to a normal maturation in the LA hemisphere of children with HCP  may be interpreted as either delayed or accelerated maturation. That is, the developmental trajectory may be halted because development does not occur, or because development completes prematurely. In our case, the relatively low rMT in the MA hemisphere likely indicates a premature acceleration of CST excitability, corresponding to an early increase in CST excitability, and perhaps an early closure of the critical period for motor development in the injured hemisphere—this electrophysiologic finding may correspond to absent CST myelination that is identified by DTI. Interestingly, while DTI metrics indicate bilateral abnormalities in patients with HCP, TMS found that the maturation trajectory of the rMT was absent only in the MA hemisphere, which may indicate that DTI is a more sensitive instrument for detecting CST developmental compromise. Alternatively, preserved maturation in the contralesional hemisphere that is identified by TMS indicates compensatory cortical or spinal changes that enable normal maturation despite modest abnormalities in myelination or other microstructural elements that are indicated by DTI.A limitation of this study is the lack of TMS data for TD children, and the fact that DTI and TMS data were not available for all participants with HCP given the risk  of seizure or other adverse event associated with TMS, we could not justify administering this to healthy controls. Moreover, the participants with HCP had heterogeneities in the time, size, and location of the injury. Thus, the developmental changes observed in our cohort may not apply to all underlying pathologies of HCP. Finally, there are insufficient data to explain the differences in the changes of diffusion parameters. In particular, diffusion parameter differences may arise from a variety of factors, including differences in myelination, axonal fiber density and caliber, and fiber tract homogeneity, making it difficult to interpret the underlying pathology of the observed differences.We present evidence of disrupted CST maturation in both hemispheres of children with HCP possibly as a result of the perinatal injury using a multimodal neuroimaging approach. Despite its limitations, this cross-sectional study provides detailed insights into the neurophysiological mechanisms of development that follow a perinatal brain injury and may help monitoring the efficiency of interventions during critical periods of life.All datasets generated for this study are included in the manuscript.This study was carried out in accordance with the recommendations of Boston Children’s Hospital Internal Review Board (IRB). All subjects gave written informed consent in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. The protocol was approved by Boston Children’s Hospital IRB .CP, HK and AR contributed to the conception and design of the study. CP and HK contributed to the acquisition and analysis of data. CP and HK contributed to the drafting of figures. All authors contributed to the drafting of a significant portion of the manuscript.The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.


Introduction: Technology is constantly evolving in a vast number of fields. In this way, cyber victimization is associated with psychopathology, and body appearance is a primary target of cyberbullies. Thus, the literature demonstrates a clear association between bullying and unhealthy eating behaviors in adolescents. However, studies that have examined the association between cyber victimization and eating disorder psychopathology are scarce.Objective: (1) To analyze whether there are differences in the cyber victimization scores depending on the gender, controlling for age; (2) to analyze whether cyber victimization is negatively associated with eating disorder psychopathology; (3) to analyze whether this association is moderated by the level of Appearance Evaluation.Method: Participants in the present study included 676 adolescents, 367 girls and 309 boys from several cities of Spain. The mean age for the overall sample was 14.28 years (SD = 1.65), ranging from 12 to 19. The participants filled out the questionnaires ECIPQ, MBSRQ, and EAT.Results: Cyber victimization was associated with eating disorders psychopathology, Appearance Evaluation, and Overweight Preoccupation. Appearance Evaluation moderated the association between Cyber victimization and the eating disorder psychopathology.Conclusion: It is necessary to assess vulnerability to eating disorders in adolescents who have been victims of cyberbullying. Cyberbullying is a widespread phenomenon among adolescents, and frequency rates range between 6.6% and 44.1%  To analyze whether there are differences in the cyber victimization scores depending on the gender, controlling for age; (2) to analyze whether cyber victimization is negatively associated with Appearance Evaluation, and positively associated with Overweight Preoccupation and eating disorder psychopathology; (3) to analyze whether Cyber victimization is associated with eating disorder psychopathology, with age, gender, and Overweight Preoccupation controlled, and whether this association is moderated by the adolescents' level of Appearance Evaluation.SD = 1.65), ranging from 12 to 19. Participation was voluntary and anonymous, and participants did not receive any compensation for participating in the research. The inclusion criterion was that they had to be male or female adolescents between 12 and 19 years old, with informed consent signed by students and parents. We followed the World Health Organization  the Appearance Evaluation subscale, composed of 7 items, which assesses feelings of satisfaction or dissatisfaction with one's appearance. Each item is scored on a 5-point scale and evaluates agreement (from 1: “Definitely disagree” to 5: “Definitely agree”). Higher scores indicate greater feelings of satisfaction with the figure and body; and (b) the Overweight Preoccupation subscale, composed of four items, which assesses fat anxiety, weight vigilance, dieting and eating restraint. Each item is scored on a 5-point scale and evaluates agreement (from 1: “Strongly disagree” to 5: “Strongly agree”), except the item about the frequency of diets (from 1: “Never” to 5: “Quite often”). Higher scores indicate greater preoccupation about weight and overweight. The score on each subscale consists of the average of the scores on its items (range 1–5). We utilized the Spanish version of the MBSRQ-AS . The ECIPQ has two subscales (cyber victimization and cyber aggression). For our research, we only used the Cyber Victimization subscale, composed of 11 items, which assesses whether the participant has been a victim of specific behaviors such as insults, threats, taking personal information, identity theft, publishing information, intimate photos, retouched photos, and spreading rumors through messages, the Internet, and social networks in the past 2 months. Higher scores indicate greater frequency. The score on the Cyber Victimization subscale consists of the sum of the scores on its items (range 0–33). In this study, we consider that the participant has been a victim of cyberbullying if s/he has experienced at least one of the behaviors mentioned above in the past 2 months. The Spanish version offers adequate reliability (α = 0.83), and in our sample it showed excellent internal consistency (α = 0.87).First, we contacted 20 schools in several cities in Spain by telephone to explain the aim of the study. We asked if they were interested in collaborating in this research, and 12 (60%) schools decided to participate. In each school, a lecture was given to the parents of the students about the consequences of cyberbullying, and then their informed consent was requested for their children's participation in the investigation. The students provided written agreement, and the parents gave written consent for participation in the study. The students filled out the questionnaires during their normal school day at the beginning of the day (9 h). This study received the ethical approval of the University Ethics Committees.To reduce social desirability, the participants were assured that the answers would be anonymous, and the order of presentation of the instruments was counter-balanced. The questionnaires selected for this research  are designed for use in school contexts, and they are commonly used with high-risk populations, showing great reliability and validity in numerous studies  was carried out to compare the participating girls and boys on their Cyber victimization scores, with Age as covariate. Second we performed zero-order correlations for the variables. Third, we performed one hierarchical regression analysis. We used Appearance Evaluation and Cyber victimization as predictor variables, and the eating disorders psychopathology (EAT) as the dependent variable. In the first step, Age, Gender, and Overweight Preoccupation were entered. In the second step, Cyber victimization was entered. In the third step, Appearance Evaluation was entered. In the fourth step, the interaction term between Cyber victimization and Appearance Evaluation was entered. In each step, centered variables were used to avoid multicollinearity  and boys on the Cyber victimization score , when age was controlled.The results indicated that there were no statistically significant differences between girls  although they were below the cut-off point (M = 21) to identify the participants with possible eating disorders, Cyber victimization (ECIPQ) , Appearance Evaluation  , Overweight Preoccupation  . Table Table R2 = 0.40, F = 45.02, p < 0.001]. The proposed model accounted for 40% of the variance in eating behaviors, attitudes, and symptoms associated with eating disorders. Once Gender, Age and Overweight Preoccupation had been entered, Cyber victimization was associated to eating behaviors, attitudes, and symptoms characteristic of eating disorders. When the Cyber victimization variable was added to the model, the percentage of explained variance increased significantly . Values of standardized Beta coefficients of Cyber victimization were positive, so Cyber victimization was positively associated with eating behaviors, attitudes, and symptoms characteristic of eating disorders (EAT). Moreover, as Table F = 4.44, p < 0.001] and when interacting with Cyber victimization, thus supporting a moderating impact of Appearance Evaluation in the association between Cyber victimization and the ED psychopathology (EAT) . Figure As Table = 0.40, F, 650 = 4Regarding our first aim, girls and boys had similar scores on Cyber victimization when Age was controlled. These results suggest that there are no statistically significant differences in Cyber victimization depending on the gender, agreeing with previous studies  It is necessary to assess the psychopathology of eating disorders  in adolescents who have been victims of weight or appearance-based cyberbullying, and prevention programs for eating disorders should offer information about the negative consequences of cyberbullying to parents and educators. Finally, it is necessary to detect and evaluate cyberbullying in people diagnosed with eating disorders.r = 0.10–0.13). Thus, it is possible that other mediating or moderating variables influence this association, for example, the participants' BMI.The present study has some limitations. First, we did not control the BMI of the participants, and body weight is one of the most common reasons that adolescents are bullied at school (Puhl et al., Another limitation of this study is the fact that it is a cross-sectional study means that we cannot talk about causality between variables. Moreover, the study design was retrospective, and so the results obtained can be considered in terms of correlates rather than causal risk factors. Further research is needed to replicate this study using a longitudinal design. Moreover, our sample was composed of non-clinical participants, and future studies should replicate this research in participants with eating disorder diagnoses. Finally, Therefore, these limitations should always be taken into consideration when interpreting the results, which should be considered exploratory.Technology is constantly evolving in a vast number of fields and cyber victimization is associated with psychopathology. Although this is a preliminary study, it is the first study to examine the association between Cyber victimization and eating disorder psychopathology in adolescents, and it indicates that Cyber victimization is associated with eating disorder psychopathology in adolescent girls and boys.In this study the authors complied with APA ethical standards in the treatment of their participants and the research was approved by the University Ethics Committee of Catholic University of Valencia Sant Vincent Martir, Ref. UCV/2017-2018/60.JM designed the research, performed the statistical analyzes, and wrote the article. MT-I collected the sample and wrote the article.The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.


Cysticercosis is an emerging and neglected tropical disease (NTD) that poses a serious public health concern worldwide. Disseminated cysticercosis (DCC) is an uncommon manifestation of cysticercosis, also found in China.Taenia solium eggs. The intravitreal cysticercus cyst in this patient was completely extracted entirely by 23-gauge pars plana vitrectomy, and the cyst was oval in shape on the flat mount preparation.We report three cases of DCC in patients living in China, with different clinical and radiological presentations. All three patients had DCC with active ocular cysticercosis, including one patient with widespread DCC caused by direct ingestion of The clinical presentation of DCC is highly sophisticated. The diagnosis depended on the typical radiological presentations, biopsy and flat mount preparations of the cyst. Taenia solium. Humans become infected by ingesting T. solium eggs liberated from gravid proglottids. The eggs subsequently develop into oncospheres that can hatch and penetrate the intestinal wall and circulate to the musculature. Although larvae can migrate to any human organ or tissue, the cysts can found in the central nervous system (CNS), eyes, muscles, heart, and subcutaneous soft tissues [Cysticercosis is a parasitic infestation caused by the larval stage (cysticercus) of  tissues . Cystice tissues .Disseminated cysticercosis (DCC) is an uncommon manifestation of the disease, in which the cysticerci spread to various tissues, organs or systems, such as the lesions in the CNS, eyes, muscles, and subcutaneous tissues at the same time. Although over 100 cases of DCC have been reported in the world, most of them originate from India and neighboring countries in South Asia –5.In the current study, we reported three DCC cases that were diagnosed and treated in Beijing Friendship Hospital in China. In addition, we have compared these cases to others that have been reported in the literature from Chinese journals.The clinical and radiological presentations of our patients are summarized in Table An 18-year-old Chinese female student presented at our hospital with a 1-day history of fever (temperature 39.5 °C), severe stomachache and headaches, and gradually diminished vision in the left eye. She had a history of intermittent headaches for 5 months and experienced blurred vision with shadows and floaters on the left eye for 10 days in 2016. Clinical examination in the left eye showed that the best corrected visual acuity (BCVA) was 20/40 (Snellen chart). Ultrasound imaging revealed the presence of a cyst in the vitreous cavity on the left eye. Fundus examination showed a free-floating and semi-translucent vitreous cyst in the mid-vitreous cavity and retinal vasculitis with optic disc edema. The patient underwent a 23-gauge pars plana vitrectomy . The cyst was extracted in whole  with Gd-DTPA as the contrast agent was performed. MRI of the orbits and brain showed well-defined ring-enhancing cystic lesions with eccentric scolexes in the extraocular muscles, brain parenchyma Fig. a, tongueT. solium cysticercal IgG antibodies were detected in the serum and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay . The CSF pressure was higher than 320 mmH2O and biochemical, cytological, and microbiological examinations of the CSF showed 8*106/L WBC, higher protein level , normal glucose level (2.39 mmol/L in the CSF versus 4.31 mmol/L in blood), and negative bacterial culture.Anti-Systemic oral albendazole and steroid treatment were initiated after the ophthalmic operation. In the first course, albendazole at a quarter of the total dose  during the first course with 5 mg of intravenous dexamethasone was given daily. An acute response was observed on the third day, which was attributed to local inflammation due to the larvae death. The intravenous dose of dexamethasone was increased to 10 mg daily until albendazole treatment was discontinued. The patients received albendazole at a total dose of 20 mg/kg body weight daily for 10 days, and another two courses of albendazole equal dose with 3 months treatment interval. Most of cysts, especially intraparenchymal cysts, were disappeared , normal glucose level in the CSF and blood, and a negative bacterial culture.The detection of anticysticercal IgG antibodies by ELISA  was positive in the serum and CSF. CSF biochemical, cytological, and microbiological examinations showed 5*10After the successful ophthalmic surgery, systemic oral albendazole and steroid treatment were initiated. In the first course, the patient received albendazole  with 5 mg of intravenous dexamethasone daily, and the patient had a serious headache on the 3rd day, which was attributed to local inflammation caused by the death of the larvae. Intravenous dexamethasone was increased to 10 mg daily until the albendazole treatment was discontinued. He received two additional courses of albendazole with 3-month intervals. After three treatment cycles, most of the neural cysts were effectively destroyed, and some were calcified.A 42-year-old Chinese male farmer with no medical history was admitted to the Department of Neurology of one institution in the Heilongjiang Province with a possible tonic-clonic seizure witnessed by his family, along with reduction of vision in the right eye since 2015. He had been living in a rural area in Heilongjiang Province for 10 years without traveling to other areas. White tapeworm segments were found in his feces. The brain MRI showed multiple parietal cysts at the vesicular stage with edema in the frontal, parietal, and occipital white matter.MRI of the orbits showed one well-defined ring-enhancing cystic lesion involved the right superior rectus. X-ray imaging of the chest showed multiple nodular calcifications. The detection of anticysticercal IgG antibodies by ELISA  was positive in the serum and CSF. CSF biochemical, cytological, and microbiological examinations showed normal WBCs, normal protein level (23.52 mg/dL), normal glucose level in the CSF and blood, and a negative bacterial culture.After the successful ophthalmic surgery, systemic oral albendazole and steroid treatment were initiated. In the first course, the patient received albendazole  with 5 mg of intravenous dexamethasone, along with an oral antiepileptic drug. The patient had severe epilepsy on the 3rd day, and intravenous dexamethasone was increased to 10 mg daily. At the same time, antiepileptic therapy was given until albendazole treatment was discontinued. The patient received three additional courses of albendazole with 3-month intervals. After four treatment cycles, most of the neural cysts were effectively destroyed.The three DCC cases were all native cysticercosis in three different regions of China, including Beijing, Henan and Heilongjiang provinces. According to the data from the second report on the national survey of important human parasitic diseases in China (2004) , the preAccording to the literature, 13 DCC cases were reported from eight provinces in China from 1982 to 2011 , and one case was a tapeworm carrier. Notably, the first case was infected by direct ingestion of cercosis . A previcercosis . For thicercosis .The clinical manifestation of cysticercosis varies between patients. DCC is the most unusual cysticercosis of all forms, as it involves the brain and can be fatal in some cases. In all of the literature from China and our reported cases –16, all Diagnostic criteria for cysticercosis was based on objective clinical, imaging, immunologic, and epidemiologic data . From thAll DCC patients should undergo surgery prior to medical treatment to remove ocular and intraventricular cysticercosis , given tPrevious studies have shown that conventional-dose albendazole therapy  had limited effectiveness in some cases , and adjIn conclusion, cysticercosis is a severe food-borne parasitic disease, and DCC presents a threat to human health in both rural and urban areas in China. The clinical presentation of DCC is highly complex and variable, including CNS, ocular, and subcutaneous symptoms. The diagnostic criteria need to consider the epidemiologic data, as well as objective clinical findings, imaging data, immunologic studies, and biopsy information. High-dosage albendazole is an effective treatment for patients with DCC.


The present study evaluated the influence of home motor affordances on motor, cognitive, and social development of young children. The sample consisted of 49 Iranian children, aged 24-42 months. This study was conducted in Qouchan, Khorasan, Iran in 2015. They was randomly selected by multi-stage cluster sampling from a single community. Participant’s homes were assessed using the Affordances in the Home Environment for Motor Development (AHEMD). The motor behavior of young child was measured with the Denver Developmental Screening Test, aspects of cognitive development  were assessed using the Stanford-Binet scale, and finally, social development measured by the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale. P=0.04) for Total AHEMD with total cognitive development (r=0.29), verbal IQ (r=0.29), social development (r=0.33) and (P=0.019), SES (r=0.51) with (P=0.000). There was a significant relationship between the Play Materials subscale of the AHEMD with total cognitive development (r=0.32) with (P=0.024), verbal IQ (r=0.31) and (P=0.029), and social development (r=0.35) with (P=0.012). In addition, there were significant differences between total AHEMD score with parents who had an academic education. Although no statistically significant correlations were found between Total AHEMD scores and motor development, there were significant and positive correlations (Motor affordances in the home can have a significant positive influence on a young child’s cognitive and social development. Motor development is a critical factor in child behavior, being associated with the foundation of cognitive and social-emotional development. In the developing infant, motor behavior is shaped by a combination of environmental, organismic, physiological, and genetic factors. Among those factors, the home environment has been established as a primary agent for learning and developing the foundation for positive lifelong behaviors . In geneFrom another perspective, these critical periods more recently have been referred to as ‘windows of opportunity.’ That is the theory that nature opens certain windows for the experience effect starting before birth and then narrows each opportunity, one by one with increasing age. In theory, a series of windows exist for developing (for example) motor control, vision, language, and feelings. The child who misses an opportunity may not fully develop the brain’s circuitry to its optimal potential for a specific function. Contemporary research in child development suggests quite convincingly that an optimal level of development occurs in a stimulating environment and strong contextual support . ScientiPerspective perceiving and experiencing are the same. The toddler as an active explorer perceives the environmental information and acts on it. The affordances of the environmental challenge the toddler's perception and action . BaffordThe home environment is a rich resource of opportunities that can be conducive to stimulating child development, especially at an early age. For most children, the interior of the home and its immediate surroundings are the first environments they experience throughout their early years. Children spend the majority of their time at home. Inside the home, kids have early interactions with family members and access to resources for learning and playing. Availability of stimulating objects, books, and toys in the home are critical indicators for the overall quality of the home environment . The hom. Events are an affordance-events offer the child opportunities for action  theory. Although the term affordance has been interpreted in several ways, for this study it is one of a more general nature as suggested by Gibson 1979), "The affordances of the environment are what it offers the animal, what it provides or furnishes". In addition to the more clear set of affordances such as toys, materials, apparatus, and availability of space, stimulation and nurturing by parents (and others) produce the additional item of the eventsr action , 9. Usin79, "The r action , 9.Affordances in the Home Environment for Motor Development – Self Report (AHEMD-SR) for ages 18-42 months  characteristics of the family. Our interest in these questions was derived in part from the work which examined the relationship between motor affordances in the home and cognitive development of infants. As new research, we examined the effects of home motor affordances on social development. The significance of this study relates to the need to identify factors that may contribute or constrain motor, cognitive, and social ability in young children. Such information could be helpful in providing opportunities for developmental change earlier in life, especially for young children that are at risk for developmental delays. Moreover, the home and its varied dimensions had a significant relationship with the status of fine- and gross motor skill behavior. SES  was associated with the level of affordances in the home .The sample  selected randomly from the statistical population, using a multistage cluster sampling method. The potential sampling pool consisted of healthy children with average family’s SES  located in Iran. The sample size was determined using the G-power statistical software. This research was approved by the Ethics Medical Board of Islamic Azad University of Shirvan. Affordances in the Home Environment for Motor Development-Self Report (AHEMD)  ; a reliathe home . Denver Developmental Screening Test (DDST-II). The DDST-II is one of the most extensively used screening instruments for children from birth to 6 years of age. The test was standardized on 2096 children with a test-retest reliability of 90% and inter-rater reliability of 80%-95%. The DDST-II assesses children’s development in four general areas: Personal–social (25 items), Fine motor-adaptive (29 items), Language (39 items), and Gross motor (32 items). We used the Persian version of the DDST-II with accepted validity and reliability  which is a test of intelligence/cognitive abilities for individuals ages 2 - 85 yr. The SB-5 was a major revision and purports to measure 10 subtests with five factors, within Verbal (five subtests) and Nonverbal (five subtests) domains. Validity for total and subscales range from 0.84 to 0.98. Inter-rater and test-retest reliability coefficients are higher than 0.75 , eating self-help (SQ), dressing self-help, self-direction, occupation, communication, locomotion, and sociability). This scale estimates the social age and social intelligent quotient  was made. That is, families whose children met the age, health, and cognitive criteria. Contact included a written description of the study and phone communication. Consent forms and the SES questionnaire were distributed to the parents during the visit. The AHEMD questionnaire, Stanford-Binet scale, Denver Developmental Screening Test and Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale were completed by a trained researcher with the help of the parents in their homes. Pearson’s correlation tests were used for calculation of the associations between total AHEMD and subtest scores with cognitive and social behavior . Analysis of variance procedure was used for evaluation of the relation between children’s average verbal intelligence and education levels of parents. All statistical tests were performed at a significance level of α=.05 using the SPSS software version 15 .Overall, 49 young children  (homes) participated in the study. The majority of participants were ‘an only child’ (41%), 45% lived with one sibling, and 14% had more than one sibling. In addition, 65% were not attending day-care and 35% were enrolled. Fifty-five percent lived in apartments and 94% lived in free-standing homes. Seventy-four percent of families had low SES, while 16% were medium, and 10% high. Regarding education, 10% of mothers completed elementary school, 37% high school, and 53% had academic degrees. In reference to fathers, 14% completed elementary school, 37% completed high school, and 49% had academic degrees.r=0.295. Furthermore, there was a positive and significant correlation between total AHEMD score and social development (r=0.335)  .r=0. 31), cognitive development (r=0.32) and social development (r=0.35).P<0.05 and F =7.96, P<0.001, respectively.There was a significant difference between the AHEMD score of children with that their parents had a higher educational level (academic education and children of a parent with versus primary school education). ANOVA results for AHEMD score and mothers and fathers' education levels indicated a significant difference, F =4.40, These results indicate a significant correlation between SES of the family and motor affordances in the home.The present study investigated the effect of home motor affordances on the motor, cognitive, and social development of children ages 24-42 months. In our study, there was a significant correlation between total AHEMD score with cognitive development and verbal IQ. In addition, there was a meaningful correlation between the Play Material subscale with cognitive development and verbal IQ. This information supports other studies showing a strong relationship between the home environment with cognitive ability , 26, 27.Of the findings noted in this study, the most prominent is the positive effect of home motor affordances on the child's social development. This result is the most interesting and unique contribution to the study. Although motor affordances were not included in past studies, there is a hint of support that a strong positive relationship is between the home environment with cognitive and social development ability , 28-30. Obviously, we did not find a significant positive association between the home motor affordances and motor development of our sample. A few possible explanations come to mind. Foremost is the likelihood that the Denver II test was not sensitive enough to detect differences – that is, in our case the test was too easy for the sample. Our finding for that aspect of the study is in opposition to several reports , 31-33. Another finding was significant and positive correlations values between SES with total AHEMD, Physical Space, and Play Material. In line with our results they evaluated the availability of affordances in the home to promote infant motor development and family SES. Results indicated a significant influence of SES indicators on the availability of physical space and play materials. Furthermore, the physical space of the home was influenced by family SES. The Play Materials dimension influenced by all SES indicators .There were significant differences between the AHEMD scores of children with parents who had higher academic education and children of a parent with primary education. Parental education, especially maternal education, could play a significant role in child development -36. For In Conclusion, home motor affordances have a positive influence on the cognitive and social development of young children. Parents and caretakers provide and take advantage of home affordances to promote their child’s development. In regard to study limitations and future work, we suggest using larger sample size and a more stringent assessment of motor development. The Denver II may not be sensitive enough to detect fine- and gross motor as it is associated with home affordances. Exploring the quality of the home environment and its impact on infant development may provide a fundamental clue to understanding the complex nature of human development.


Valorization of lignocellulosic biomass and food residues to obtain valuable chemicals is essential to the establishment of a sustainable and biobased economy in the modern world. The latest and greenest generation of ionic liquids (ILs) are deep eutectic solvents (DESs) and natural deep eutectic solvents (NADESs); these have shown great promise for various applications and have attracted considerable attention from researchers who seek versatile solvents with pretreatment, extraction, and catalysis capabilities in biomass- and biowaste-to-bioenergy conversion processes. The present work aimed to review the use of DESs and NADESs in the valorization of biomass and biowaste as pretreatment or extraction solvents or catalysis agents. The growing demand for eco-benign processes has led to the discovery of new green solvents . Some ioNatural deep eutectic solvents, NADESs, which meet green chemistry objectives and are composed of naturally occurring substances from cellular metabolites , are conIn recent years, an increasing effort has been made to decrease the use of fossil fuels by substituting them with green and sustainable alternatives ,46,47,48A United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization 2011 report estimated annual global food waste to be approximately 1.3 billion tons . Canadia2 emissions by combining chemical methods and photosynthesis [Plant-based biomass is a natural, renewable, organic source of carbon ,77 for cynthesis . The reaynthesis , prevaleynthesis ,91. The Two feasible methods for the valorization of lignocellulosic biomass for bioenergy applications are: (1) fermentation of sugars from cellulose and hemicellulose components to biofuel  or (2) hThe present review consists of the following sections: (1) a brief description of DESs and NADESs and their physicochemical properties; (2) recent research on the uses of DESs and NADESs in biomass and food industry processes—these solvents are categorized based on their role in the process —(3) the recyclability of DESs; (4) the effects of the DESs and NADESs on the structure of biomass components. Finally, after a short concluding statement, the future prospects for the possible application of eutectic solvents in the valorization of real food waste in an innovative process design are discussed.DESs are eutectic mixtures with their eutectic points lower than that of the ideal liquid mixture . DESs arx, and quaternary ammonium salt, Cat+X−, in the general form of Cat+X−zMClx where X− is a Lewis base . However, the number of nonhydrated metal halides appropriate for a low melting point mixture is limited. Type II DESs are made of hydrated metal halides, MClx.yH2O, combined with salts (y refers to the number of H2O molecules). Type III DESs typically contain a combination of choline chloride (ChCl) and HBDs such as alcohols, amides, and carboxylic acids. Appropriate HBDs can be mixed with suitable metal halides to form Type IV DESs. For example, ZnCl2 suitably mixed with several HBDs, including ethylene glycol, urea, acetamide, and 1,6-hexandiol has been reported by Abbott et al. to form eutectic mixtures [DESs are classified in mixtures . Finallymixtures .The term “natural deep eutectic solvent”, NADES, was proposed to represent mixtures formed by cellular metabolites such as alcohols, amino acids, organic acids, and sugars , as showFor preparation of DESs, no solvent is needed and, as no side product forms—except for some ChCl:Carboxylic-acid-based DESs which are discussed in the following section—there is no need for purification of the final product. Most eutectic mixtures are prepared simply by mixing suitably measured components and then stirring at around 80 °C. However, highly viscous sugar-based DESs are difficult to stir. This problem can be overcome by adding extra water into the mixture . Other mThe interest in employing DESs for the biomass and food industries has led to the need for accurate and reliable knowledge of their physicochemical properties. A very important solvent property of DESs is their potential to be tailored. They are task-specific, i.e., they can be tailored to a specific type of chemistry. Compared to ILs, DESs have some superior characteristics: they are recyclable and made of relatively inexpensive components. Many researchers have been intrigued by DESs’ versatile capabilities and have attempted to characterize their physicochemical properties ,5. In thfT, which is defined as:fT is the measured freezing point of a mixture at the eutectic composition and fT is the theoretically predicted freezing point for an ideal mixture  to the HBD, facilitated by hydrogen bond (H-bond) formation  Figure . However− or N–H⋯Cl− interactions which contributed to the DESs stabilization. They showed that charge is mainly transferred from Cl− and Ch+ to HBDs. Bond order (BO) analysis revealed that the sum of BOs between Ch+ and Cl− in DESs is proportional to freezing point of the DESs. The direct correlation between sum of BOs and charge transfer of Ch+⋯Cl− interactions and their straight relationship with the freezing point of DESs clearly demonstrates how the selection of HBDs can affect the physical properties of DESs, such as their freezing temperature. Some mixtures have also been reported to have two eutectic points [− is the central species to form networks of H-bonds, in such a way that its quantity determines the extent of intermolecular interactions and the melting behavior of the mixture. They concluded that the macroscopic features of the DES are governed by the nanointerface of the constituents. A direct relationship between features of H-bond network on the basis of topological analysis and the melting point of 45 DESs was established by Garcia et al. [− to urea in {ChCl:Urea} mixture is negligible and the urea remains uncharged overall. The respective radial distribution functions (RDFs) suggested weaker Cl−⋯Urea H-bonds than those between Ch+⋯Cl−, which clearly explained the lower Cl−⋯urea charge transfer. Therefore, they questioned the assumption that charge spread from anion to HBD is responsible for the decrease in the freezing point of a DES.The strength of the H-bond developed between the HBD and HBA can be correlated with the temperature of phase transition, i.e., the stronger the H-bond, the deeper the reduction in melting point . Perkinsc points ,121. Forc points  studied a et al. . The elea et al.  challengTo lower melting points of eutectic mixtures, Chen et al.  devised −3 range, with the majority falling in the 1.0–1.35 g·cm−3 range at room temperature [2:Urea} mixture at a 1:3.5 molar ratio (1.63 gcm−3) [The significance of density in designing chemical processes is well recognized . Table 2perature ,136, hig3 gcm−3) . This reThe viscosity of DESs has also been a critical parameter for industrial applications. DESs usually have high viscosities, ascribed to their extensive networks of H-bonds, van der Waals forces, and electrostatic interactions between constituents. It has been suggested that adding water may decrease the viscosity of DESs and hence increase their usefulness when low viscosity is important . On the Density, al range ,142,143.ractions ,145, andAdding water decreases the viscosity of DESs remarkably. To further study the effects of addition of water on DES viscosity, excess viscosity, E values ,147. All3, LiCl4, NaClO4, NaSCN, and KSCN. The measurements revealed that the relaxation parameters were dependent on the nature of the electrolytes. Their results suggest that the dielectric relaxation in DESs are similar to those reported for ILs and electrolyte solutions. The two ionic DESs, {Acetamide:LiNO3} and {Acetamide:NaSCN},were further investigated by Tripathy et al. [The dielectric properties of mixtures have significant effects on their intermolecular interactions . The stay et al.  using diy et al.  performey et al.  employedDESs and NADESs are now viewed as convenient green alternatives to many conventional solvents with vast applications. However, in the following section, we present their use only in biomass and food industry processing.Therefore, DESs or NADESs are usually used for fractionation and pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass for further processing and/or to selectively isolate the desired component(s) from the remaining matrix. DESs and NADESs are also widely used for the extraction of desired chemicals from different materials. Food residues contain considerable amounts of proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates. Nevertheless, despite the widely recognized potential of such solvents for the extraction of chemicals and pretreatment of materials, their application in the food industry is still rather unexplored.The conversion of food residue or biomass to biofuel usually consists of several consecutive stages. Pretreatment, as a key stage in the bioconversion of biomass and food residue, involves the enzymatic hydrolysis, a feasible method for lignocellulosic biomass that reduces the recalcitrance of the biomass ,232. TheA pretreatment process can be used to facilitate solvent extraction. Different pretreatment technologies have been developed in the last few decades , and eacIn a study, Xu et al.  used sevMamilla et al.  preparedPrecentese et al.  pretreatThe fractionation efficiency of lignocellulosic material can be improved when using an additional hydrothermal pretreatment. For instance, in order to increase the efficiency of the {ChCl:Glycerol} DES treatment, a prior hydrothermal pretreatment was applied to reduce the recalcitrance of date palm residues . This pr2O} DES. For one type of the tested biomass , the biomethane yield was improved by as much as 309.0%.Some researchers used in situ prepared eutectic solvents, with one component usually taken from the biomass. For example, Yu et al.  proposedShen et al.  developeIn some cases, water can be mixed in with the eutectic solvent to, for example, improve the viscosity of the media. However, the new aqueous mixed solvent gains new characteristic features. To study the effect of water addition and consequent improved viscosity of {ChCl:Urea} DES for delignification of oil palm fronds, New et al.  pretreat2 solvents, ChCl-based DESs combined with microwaves were used for pretreatment [2.Microalgae-derived lipids are regarded as a sustainable biodiesel feedstock alternative. In order to extract lipids from microalgae biomass using dimethyl carbonate (DMC) and supercritical COreatment . It was 3.6H2O into the DES to design a ternary DES  and the treatment of the residue with 10% NaOH (w/v) [O-malate chitin was up to 98.6%.Shrimp shells are a source of several valuable chemicals that can be extracted by eutectic mixtures. Huang et al.  used a NOH (w/v) . Feng etOH (w/v)  used aciMicroalgae biomass has many bioactive substances. In a study by Mahmood et al.  to evaluv/v) methanol/water. In 2017, Bosiljkov et al. [w/w). Grudniewska et al. used {ChCl:Glycerol} DES for enhanced extraction of proteins from oilseed cakes [Agri-food industrial by-products are also subjected to valorization. In a study conducted by Garcia et al.  a varietv et al.  performeed cakes . First, Fernandez et al.  employedl-carnitine/betaine as HBAs to extract pyrethroid residues from tea beverages and fruit juices. The results indicated that the extraction method based on {l-Carnitine:HFIP} (1:2 molar ratio) solvent had several advantages, such as a short extraction time and high enrichment factor. In 2019, Cao et al. [Deng et al.  synthesio et al.  applied Eutectic mixtures can perform as reaction media as well as extraction solvents for bioconversion of a number of components. For example, Gioia et al.  exploredThe applicability of NADESs for the removal of cadmium from rice flour was examined by Huang et al. . Among t2, which should be removed in the upgrading process. In a very recent study [Anaerobic digestion of biological and food wastes produces biogas, which is considered a renewable energy supply. Biogas’ main impurity is COnt study , the welnt study . In thisp-Toluenesulfonic acid monohydrate} (38.31%) DESs. They found that when using DESs as catalysts and cosolvents simultaneously in the hydrothermal liquefaction of biomass, the selectivity of biocrude could be increased. They also found that DESs containing HBDs preferred to yield aromatic oil via the condensation and hydrolysis of lipids. In another study, {ChCl:p-Toluenesulphonic acid} DES was employed as a catalyst for the co-liquefaction of glycerol and whole Jatropha curcas seed to obtain bio-oil [2CO3-catalyzed liquefaction. The bio-oil yield and oxygen content were higher for liquefaction (32.87% and 28.15 ± 0.88 wt. %) than co-liquefaction (8.99% and 21.58 ± 0.70 wt. %). The higher heating value (HHV) of bio-oil from co-liquefaction (31.73 ± 0.69 MJ/kg) was higher than that of liquefaction (28.80 ± 1.32 MJ/kg). Therefore, it was concluded that the bio-oil yield was decreased with the DES-catalyzed process, but the quality of the product improved. Machmudah et al. [v/v) {Citric acid:Analine} DES as extraction media. Different temperatures (120–160 °C) and pressures (1–10 MPa) in batch and semi-batch systems were applied. They concluded that the higher extraction efficiency in presence of the DES seemed to be due to the role of the DES as a catalyst in the solution. To produce biodiesel from non-edible seed oil, {ChCl:p-Toluenesulfonic acid} DES was synthesized to be used as heterogeneous (supported on silica gel) and homogeneous (without support) catalysts. In the temperature range 273–353 K, the catalysts showed thermal stability. The homogeneous catalyst had a dual role of catalyst and cosolvent, reducing reaction time and enhancing the phase homogeneity. The homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts were recycled for four and seven cycles, respectively. It was concluded that both types of catalysts effectively produced an acceptable quality biodiesel through a single step esterification [In spite of their great potential, the use of DESs as catalysts or cosolvents in hydrothermal liquefaction of biomass has barely been studied. In a study in 2016 , the eff bio-oil . Among ah et al.  extractefication .2O2 as an oxidizer.Under some conditions, a component of the DES can perform as a catalyst in a bioconversion. For instance, in a very recent study, Ni et al.  exploredRecyclability of a solvent is desirable to achieve an economically and environmentally sustainable material extraction or pretreatment process. This usually involves recovery or separation and, if necessary, purification of the solvent, followed by reusing or recycling it. When it comes to eutectic solvents, besides pretreatment or extraction efficacy, recyclability is a significant advantage ,79,236. However, reduction in recycled DES efficiency has been observed in some cases. Shen et al.  found thThe DESs can be recovered with different methods ,243,244.The recovered DESs are sometimes examined to analyze any possible structural changes to their components during the process. For example, FTIR was used to qualitatively analyze the recovered ChCl and ethylene glycol components of the {ChCl:Ethylene glycol} DES after a combined hydrothermal and DES pretreatment . For botDifferent components of the biomass and food residue are chemically influenced by solvents during any specific stage of bioconversion. Depending on the type of the DES and other conditions such as temperature, pressure, and pH of the mixture, the structures of these components may change. For extraction purposes, structural modifications of the isolated species are highly avoided. There are varieties of experimental techniques with which the structural changes of target constituents are revealed upon solvent addition and through the process. Among the experimental methods, XRD and SEM analysis, and FTIR, UV-vis, and NMR spectroscopies are of high importance for structural exploration. Additionally, the use of such techniques may help to identify and prove the existence of the desired components and to study the extraction mechanism.−1 after pretreatment by {ChCl:Carboxylic acid} and {ChCl:Polyalcohol} was ascribed to the rupture of the ether bonds between hemicellulose and lignin. Furthermore, the decrease of the band at 834 cm−1 after pretreatment was indicative of delignification. In another study, FTIR and NMR spectroscopies were used to explore the molecular structure of lignin, isolated from wheat straw biomass, before and after pretreatment with {ChCl:ZnCl2} at a 1:2 molar ratio [13C-NMR analysis also suggested that the DES used had little impact on the amount of aromatic ring substitution.In a study, delignification of corncob was performed with three ChCl-based DESs as pretreatment solvents . XRD, FTar ratio . The FTIβ-O-4 linkages in lignin, which facilitated the solubilization of lignin. This clearly showed the importance of the acidic protons in the DES [In another study, a 2D NMR experiment on the lignin extracted from switchgrass via {ChCl:Ethylene glycol} pretreatment revealed the cleavage of  the DES . Huang e the DES  employed−1 assigned to C–O, C=C, C–C–O, and C–O–C groups of cellulose, were reduced when pretreated by {ChCl:KOH}, confirming the cellulose removal from the biomass sample. Furthermore, the disappearance of the two peaks at 1215 and 1270 cm−1, attributed to C–C and C–O vibrations of the lignin aromatic ring, indicated lignin removal from biomass upon {ChCl:Oxalic acid} pretreatment. Considering the hydroxyl stretching region, the peak of lignin is usually wider and that of cellulose is deeper. In −1 is broader for {ChCl:KOH} and deeper for {ChCl:Oxalic acid} DESs, indicating that the hydroxyls were from phenols (lignin) and cellulose molecules, respectively.A series of strongly basic DESs was used to pretreat wheat straw for delignification . XRD ana13C-NMR, FTIR, and TGA of oil cakes (RC and EC), biomass residues (RCBR and ECBR), and precipitates (RCP and ECP) after biomass pretreatment with {ChCl:Glycerol} to investigate any structural change of the biomass and characterize the proteins in the precipitates.The FTIR and UV-vis spectroscopies were examined for collagen peptides extracted with DESs from cod skins . The str13C-NMR analysis, the spectra revealed signals of cellulose and other structural polysaccharides for the oil cakes and biomass residues. The spectra also signified a broad peak attributed to the carbonyl groups of proteins, hemicellulose, and lignin. The intensity of the carbonyl group of the biomass residues, compared to that of oil cakes, decreased and the signal features of cellulose increased. For the precipitants (RCP and ECP), the intensity of carbonyl group increased, while cellulose C1 signal disappeared (ECP) or diminished (RCP). This also happened to polysaccharide sugar units where C2, C4, C5, and C6 signals decreased compared to oil cakes. In both precipitates, the signals at 65–48 ppm and 56–54 ppm were attributed to α-carbons found in the proteins and CH3O in lignin.Regarding only the In this article, we reviewed DESs and NADESs in state-of-the-art technologies for biomass/biowaste valorization, where DESs and NADESs were used as reaction media, pretreatment or extraction solvents, catalysts, or as multifunctional solvents. A variety of multipurpose eutectic mixtures can be prepared with properties superior to those reported for ILs; the eutectic mixtures can be made to be less toxic, more biodegradable, and quicker and easier to prepare. Their unfavorable properties can be surmounted by tailoring them, for example by changing the nature of the salt or its molar ratio to HBD, adding appropriate cosolvents, or simply by changing temperature or pressure. If the DES or NADES suffers from high viscosity, adding water in measured amounts works well. In biomass and food waste valorization, materials can be pretreated to enhance enzymatic hydrolysis and selectively solubilize the desired components or catalyze the thermochemical processes. They can also be used as reaction media for chemical and biochemical processes. In some cases, the efficiency of the all the above-mentioned functions of DESs or NADESs could be increased if combined with another technique. For example, the pretreatment power of the solvents improved when coupled with microwave or ultrasonic irradiation or hydrothermal methods. Eutectic solvents can, however, have serious impacts on the structures and functional groups of biomass components.The existing routes for the bioconversion of biomass and food residue should be optimized, with the possibility of taking full advantage of the features and advantages of eutectic solvents. We looked into the future prospects of the use of DESs and NADESs for valorization of real food waste, and the feasibility of a successive two-step process for biofuel and bio-oil production through sugar fermentation and hydrothermal liquefaction, where DESs and NADESs have the potential to be employed as multifunctional agents. There are three aspects of future study that we think are important.i. Using real food waste instead of only lignocellulosic biomass, single-component biowaste, or even food waste models for production of chemicals, biofuel, and bio-oil: Food waste can provide free biomass from many sources, including households, restaurants, and food processing industries. There are several methods able to transform biomass, single-component wastes, or multi-food waste into liquid, solid, or gaseous fuels ,65,68. Hii. A successive two-step process for biofuel and bio-oil production via sugar fermentation and hydrothermal liquefaction: Food waste can be first pretreated and enzymatically hydrolyzed to produce fermentable sugars, after which biofuel is obtained through microbial fermentation. The unhydrolyzed residue usually contains undigested recalcitrant carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins, and can be transferred to hydrothermal reactors for further processing. Hydrothermal processes involve thermochemical conversion of material using high-pressure and high-temperature water to decompose the polymeric material structures. Depending on the type of the hydrothermal analysis, bio-oil, biochar, or biogas is produced by hydrothermal liquefaction, carbonization, and gasification, respectively. The efficient conversion of unhydrolyzed residue into bio-oil, biochar, or biogas fuels enhances the overall efficiency of food waste conversion. Employing DESs or NADESs in (co)solvent-requiring or catalyst-requiring stages is believed to be a major step towards building a sustainable bioeconomy.iii. For this type of successive two-step process, DESs or NADESs should be employed as (co)solvents or catalysts. This requires innovative design of highly efficient eutectic solvents.


In South Korea, population aging is advancing at a more rapid rate in rural areas than urban areas, leading to a particularly high percentage of rural-dwelling older adults.The aim of this study was to examine and compare health promoting behaviors, depression, and life satisfaction between rural-dwelling older adults who live, respectively, in group homes and at home.n = 80) and at home (n = 80) in Gyeonggi province, South Korea. The Health Promotion Lifestyle Profile-II was used to examine health promoting behaviors, the Korean Geriatric Depression Screening Scale was used to examine depression, and the Life Satisfaction Index was used to examine life satisfaction. Data were analyzed using SPSS Version 21.0.A cross-sectional descriptive study design was employed. Study participants included 160 older adults aged 65 years and older who were living in group homes , depression , and life satisfaction .The data showed significant differences between the two groups in terms of health promoting behaviors (The mean scores for health promotion behaviors and life satisfaction were higher, and the mean score for depression was lower in the group-home group than the at-home group. The findings from this study may be employed as basic data for establishing residence-appropriate nursing intervention protocols for older adults living in rural areas. The average life expectancy of South Koreans was 82.4 years old, and the older adult population (≥ 65 years old) accounted for 13.7% of the total population in 2016 . In 2026Current South Korean housing may be roughly divided into two types: “silver towns,” which are expensive senior residential facilities, and free nursing homes, which are populated primarily by older adults from low-income families . Both tyIn South Korea, region-friendly, small-scale older adult group homes were established after the government enacted the Long-Term Care Insurance Act in July 2008 . In mostAs noted above, South Korea’s older adult population is growing faster in terms of percentage in rural areas than urban areas. “Economic problems” is the greatest difficulty reported by urban older adults, whereas “heath problems” is the greatest difficulty reported by rural older adults . Urban aMost studies addressing this topic have compared older adults living in facilities such as nursing homes and silver towns with older adults living at home. Few studies have addressed older adults living in the abovementioned new group homes. However, the group homes program for older adults is a rising trend in rural areas . Thus, fThe purpose of this study was to examine and compare the health promoting behavior, depression, and life satisfaction of older adults in rural areas in South Korea who, respectively, live in group homes and at home.n = 80) or at home (n = 80) in Gyeonggi province, South Korea. The participants were recruited using convenience sampling. Eligibility criteria included being at least 65 years old, understanding the purpose of this study, providing informed consent to participate, having no cognitive impairment , and having complete verbal communication ability in Korean. One hundred seventy questionnaires were issued, and 163  were returned, with 160 accepted as valid and included in the final data set and three rejected because of incompleteness.A cross-sectional descriptive study design was employed. Participants included 160 older adults aged 65 years and older who were living either in group homes (n = 64 in each group) was assed using an F test, and G*Power 3.1 analysis software was used, based on an alpha level = .05, a medium effect size = 0.3, and power = 0.8  were used. A Scheffe test was used for the post hoc test, and ANCOVA statistics were used to control the baseline differences between people living in group homes and at home. The level of statistical significance was set at .05.Data were analyzed using the SPSS Version 21.0 . Descriptive statistics, chi-squared test, independent This study was approved by the institutional review board of a university in Seoul, South Korea . Participants were informed that they could voluntarily take part in this study and that they could also withdraw from participation at any time. Moreover, they were informed about the anonymity and the confidentiality of the data they would provide. The researchers obtained completed, written consent forms from the eligible subjects before their participation.In terms of gender, 60.0% of the older adults living at home were female and 40.0% were male, whereas 65.0% of the older adults living in group homes were female and 35.0% were male. In terms of ages, the total mean age was 79.51 ± 4.32 years, the mean age of those living at home was 79.94 ± 4.46 years, and the mean age of those living in group homes was 79.08 ± 4.17 years. Nearly two fifths (38.8%) of the elderly people living at home had a spouse (61.2% did not), whereas only 13.8% of the older adults living in group homes had a spouse (86.2% did not). In terms of perceived health status, 59.9% of the at-home group indicated that they were not healthy and 40.1% indicated that they were, whereas 55.0% of the group-home group indicated that they were healthy and 45.0% indicated that they were not. Thus, more in the group-home group self-perceived as healthy. No significant differences were identified between the groups in terms of general characteristics, with the exception of having a spouse, living with another person, and perceived health status. Presence of spouse, living with another person, and perceived health status were controlled using ANCOVA , level of depression was significantly lower in the group-home group than in the at-home group , and life satisfaction was significantly higher in the group-home group than in the at-home group , educational level , having a spouse , living with another person , and perceived health status . With regard to the health promoting behaviors of the group-home group, significant differences were identified in terms of age , educational level , religion , having a spouse , and perceived health status  for the at-home group and in terms of gender  and having a spouse  for the group-home group , educational level , having a spouse , pocket money , living with another person , and perceived health status  for the at-home group and in terms of age , having a spouse , and perceived health status  for the group-home group . On the basis of the criteria of the depression scale, the group-home group had “moderate depression” and the at-home group had “severe depression.” In Furthermore, the group-home group reported a higher satisfaction with life than the at-home group. In another study that compared the life satisfaction of older adults living in a senior citizen welfare town with that of older adults living at home, although no difference was found in overall life satisfaction, the town-dwellers scored higher in several subdimensions, including emotional support and experience satisfaction, which supports the findings of this study . The reaIn the impact on the at-home group of having a spouse on life satisfaction, health promotion, and depression, it was more positive in terms of health promoting behaviors and life satisfaction than in the their at-home peers without a spouse. This finding echoed that of previous studies . On the This study is limited in terms of the representativeness and generalizability of the sample population. The samples used in this study were recruited only from K rural areas in South Korea, which limits the characteristics of the resultant data. However, the essential aim of this study was not to generate generalizable results but rather to provide information on which to frame future research.The findings from this study may be used as basic data to establish nursing interventions to improve the prospects for healthy aging and life satisfaction by accurately identifying the needs and health problems of older adults living in rural areas, categorized by residence type. Especially, the incidence of depression was lower among older adults living in group homes than among older adults living at home. However, both groups self-reported as having moderate–severe depression. On the basis of this, a nursing intervention plan needs to be prepared to reduce the depression of older adults in the rural areas. Systematic and intensive management is required for older adults as well as adults throughout the human lifecycle. Health policies must focus on the health issues of older adults, especially those in rural South Korea. In terms of policy implications, a government agency should formulate health policies that encourage group-home facilities to be built throughout rural areas in South Korea.In conclusion, health promotion behaviors and life satisfaction were higher and the incidence of depression was lower among older adults living in group homes than among older adults living at home in rural South Korea. Therefore, more group home facilities should be built in rural areas where the older adult population is rapidly increasing. Further studies are necessary to characterize the lives of the older adults living in group homes in rural areas by comparing their life before admission to the group homes and after their admission. Studies to investigate the impact of having a spouse on older adults living at home and the impact of relationships with fellow friends on older adults living in group homes in rural South Korea are also needed. In this study, we assumed that interactions and greater social support are two key factors that explain why people living in group homes rated all three variables better. These assumptions should be further studied in the future. Furthermore, in-depth, qualitative studies are required to understand and analyze the inner world and life experiences of older adults living at home and in group homes in rural areas.


Objective: To describe the prevalence of metabolic syndrome (MetS) in adolescents and its association with several MetS-related biochemical markers. Methods: A cross-sectional analysis was carried out and data were extracted from the Nutrition and Health Surveillance in Primary and Secondary school students of Beijing (NHSPSB) 2017. Participants were aged 10–15 years old. MetS was diagnosed using the recommended criteria for Chinese adolescents. The associations among MetS, biochemical biomarkers, and socioeconomic status were estimated by multivariable linear regression. Results: The prevalence of MetS in adolescents in Beijing was 3% in the total sample, 4% in boys, and 2% in girls. Moreover, the prevalence of MetS in the overweight and obesity populations were 5% and 12% respectively. The prevalence of MetS remained higher in boys than in girls. The concentrations of alanine aminotransferase (ALT), serum uric acid (SUA), low density lipoprotein (LDL), and C-reactive protein (CRP) were higher in the MetS children in comparison with non-MetS children (All p < 0.05), while the high-density lipoprotein (HDL) concentration was lower in MetS children. After adjusting for socioeconomic parameters in the multivariable regression model, MetS was strongly associated with ALT, SUA, HDL, and LDL. The five components of MetS indicated that abdominal obesity and a high serum triglyceride (TG) concentration were tightly linked with ALT, SUA, LDL, and CRP; while a low HDL concentration and elevated blood pressure were related to enhanced ALT, UA, and CRP. Additionally, impaired fasting glucose was only related to increased ALT. Conclusion: The epidemiological issues of MetS in Beijing adolescents should be known across socioeconomic classes. Early intervention strategies, such as dietary pattern interventions and physical excise, should be designed for that population to reduce the disease burdens of cardiovascular disease (CVD), Type 2 diabetes (T2D), and steatohepatitis in adulthood. Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is a cluster of several interrelated abnormalities including abdominal obesity, elevated blood pressure, impaired fasting glucose levels, high values of triglycerides (TG), and low values of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) .The prevPrevious studies have indicated that MetS is associated with serum uric acid (SUA), C-reactive protein (CRP), and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) in adults and adolescents. Uric acid is the end product of endogenous purine and dietary factors. The SUA level is impacted by diets rich in meat or seafood and varies across physical activity levels. Moreover, the SUA level is affected by the degree of insulin resistance and hypertension ,7. HigheA cross-sectional analysis was carried out, and data were extracted from the Nutrition and Health Surveillance in Primary and Secondary school students of Beijing (NHSPSB) 2017 study. Multistage stratified cluster sampling was performed to select participants. First, 3 urban districts and 4 suburban districts in Beijing were selected according to economic development levels and the working capability of the investigators. Second, 4 primary schools and 4 secondary schools were selected from each district via a simple random sampling method. Third, one class was chosen from the first, third, and fifth years of each primary school, respectively; only one class from the first year of each secondary school was selected. The criteria for class selection depended on the cooperation of the chief teacher, and only the most cooperative one was chosen at the end. All students and their parents (caregivers) from the selected classes gave informed consent before the students started to answer the questionnaires. All parents and selected chief teachers were trained by the investigator for completion of the questionnaires. Only questionnaires of first-year primary school students were filled in by their parents based on their observations, which were coordinated by an experienced investigator at the parents’ meeting. The rest of the students’ questionnaires were filled in by the students themselves under the guidance of the chief teacher within one hour. This study was approved by the institutional review board of the Beijing Center for Diseases Prevention and Control (201708).Two different criteria were adopted for diagnosing MetS in children based on the Chinese criteria published in the Chinese Journal of Pediatrics . The fir2). Blood pressure was measured using an electric sphygmomanometer . Blood pressure was measured twice in the seated position after 5 min of rest by well-trained field investigators. A third blood pressure measurement was carried out if the first two blood pressure readings differed by more than 10 mmHg. The average blood pressure was calculated to determine the presence of hypertension. Waist circumference (WC) was measured at the midpoint between the iliac crest and the last rib via an inelastic tape , to the nearest 0.1 cm. Then, the waist-to-height ratio (WHtR) was calculated by dividing the WC by the height.All of the students’ heights and body weights were measured when they were barefoot and wearing light indoor clothes . Body mass index (BMI) was calculated using weight (kg) divided by the square of the height , ALT, homocysteine and CRP were measured in the CDC’s laboratory with a Hitachi (7600) automatic analyzer using Wako Diagnostics reagent, except for CRP , in accordance with the instructions of the manufacturer.t-tests were applied for the comparison of continuous variables and χ2 was used for categorical variables. Multivariable linear regression was adopted for the association analysis. As most biochemical markers were skewed to one side rather than normally distributed, we took the logarithms of SUA, CRP, HDL, LDL, and ALT. After transformation, these indicators approached a normal distribution so that the statistical significance of coefficients of covariants could be directly tested in the multivariable linear regression. In model 1, only age (continuous) and sex (girl and boy) were adjusted for. In model 2, the annual household income per capita  Yuan; >70000 Yuan), the characteristics of the guardian such as education attainment , sex , age (continuous), and place of residence (urban and suburban) were adjusted for as well. A two-sided p-value of <0.05 was considered statistically significant.All statistical analyses were carried out using Stata 14.0 software . Continuous variables were represented as the mean ± SD and categorical variables were represented as percentages. Student’s A total of 1766 students (895 girls and 871 boys) were included in the present study, of which 669 came from urban areas and the other 1097 came from suburban areas. The mean (SD) height was 154.65 (10.56) cm for boys and 153.01 (8.72) cm for girls . The avep < 0.05). The values of ALT and CRP in MetS children were almost twice as high as those in non-MetS children (ALT: 23.45(2.7) VS. 12.85(0.25); CRP: 1.78(0.34) VS.0.98 (0.06)). The SUA concentration was 385.29 (13.25) μmol/L for MetS children and 320.61(1.94) μmol/L for non-MetS children. Although a significant difference was also detected for homocysteine, the magnitude was too small to be clinically significant. Therefore, it was not included in further analyses.To further illustrate the health impacts of MetS, the concentrations of ALT, AST, cholesterol, SUA, HDL, homocysteine, LDL, and CRP were analyzed, as well . The conA simple multivariable regression analysis indicated that MetS was positively associated with ALT, SUA, LDL, and CRP . Those rMetabolic syndrome and its associations with ALT, SUA, LDL and CRP in Beijing children were depicted in the present study. Generally, the prevalence of MetS was higher in overweight and obese children and was higher in suburban areas. Metabolically, MetS was significantly associated with the ALT, SUA, LDL, and CRP concentrations. ALT was influenced by all five components and statistical significance remained with a certain decrease after adjusting with co-variables. SUA and CRP were associated with four components but not blood glucose. The statistical significance of the association with blood glucose disappeared after adjusting for age and sex, which indicates that blood glucose varied across adolescents of different ages and sexes. Interestingly, statistical associations between LDL and HDL/blood glucose were observed after adjusting for co-variables. Notably, a lower HDL concentration was not always accompanied by a higher LDL concentration since no significant association was detected between these two variables.The present study found that the prevalence of MetS was 3%, which was similar to the urban prevalence (2.8%) detected by National surveillance [Regarding the biochemical indexes, our results were in line with most research, revealing that MetS was related with SUA, ALT, and CRP. Plenty of documents have indicated the strong association between SUA and MetS. However, no paper has clearly illustrated the molecular mechanism of SUA and MetS yet . Until nPediatric nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is emerging as a comorbidity of MetS ,16. InflCRP is an acute phase plasma protein which predicts the cardiovascular outcomes and alters glucose metabolism ,27. In tSeveral limitations of the present study should be mentioned. First, it was a cross-sectional study which cannot illustrate the causal relationship between MetS and other biochemical indexes. Second, the stage of puberty was not included as a co-variable in the present study due to data availability. Puberty could affect fat distribution and insulin sensitivity in the muscle and liver. Insulin sensitivity can decline by 20–50% during puberty and can return to normal at the end of pubertal development. Third, all participants lived in Beijing, which might restrict the extrapolation ability of the data.Despite the aforementioned limitations, the present study is the first to reveal associations between MetS and SUA, ALT, LDL, and CRP in Chinese adolescent students with a moderate sample size.In conclusion, our research indicates that the prevalence of MetS is high among Beijing adolescent students, and MetS has strong connections with ALT, SUA, and CRP. To further discover the causality between these biochemical markers, longitudinal or interventional studies should be carried out. In addition, the single risk factors of obesity, NAFLD and SUA were much higher among adolescent students. Early intervention strategies, such as dietary pattern intervention and physical excise, should be designed for that population to reduce the large disease burden of CVD, Type 2 diabetes, and steatohepatitis or even cirrhosis in adulthood.