In this study, the characteristics of different types of nanosheet membranes were reviewed in order to determine which possessed the optimum propensity for antifouling during water purification. Despite the tremendous amount of attention that nanosheets have received in recent years, their use to render membranes that are resistant to fouling has seldom been investigated. This work is the first to summarize the abilities of nanosheet membranes to alleviate the effect of organic and inorganic foulants during water treatment. In contrast to other publications, single nanosheets, or in combination with other nanomaterials, were considered to be nanostructures. Herein, a broad range of materials beyond graphene-based nanomaterials is discussed. The types of nanohybrid membranes considered in the present work include conventional mixed matrix membranes, stacked membranes, and thin-film nanocomposite membranes. These membranes combine the benefits of both inorganic and organic materials, and their respective drawbacks are addressed herein. The antifouling strategies of nanohybrid membranes were divided into passive and active categories. Nanosheets were employed in order to induce fouling resistance via increased hydrophilicity and photocatalysis. The antifouling properties that are displayed by two-dimensional (2D) nanocomposite membranes also are examined. Safe drinking water is a basic human need, but it is only available to 71% of the worldwide population. In other words, 844 million people do not have basic water services .Another rising problem is the increasing contamination of freshwater resources that people depend on for drinking water. Pollutants like organic waste, pathogens, fertilizers and pesticides, heavy metals, and Contaminants of Emerging Concern (CEC) are present in waters all around the world ,4,5. The3PO4, C6H8O7), surfactants (SDS), and disinfectants  to remove adsorbed and pore blocking foulants [Additionally, membranes can effectively remove CEC from water bodies . Howeverfoulants . Physicafoulants ,18. Althfoulants ,20,21. T2 [2 in membranes, include pore-blocking, the agglomeration of the nanoparticles, degradation of the membrane via a photocatalytic defect, and leaching of the nanoparticles. By contrast, two-dimensional (2D) nanomaterials have shown promise as building blocks or fillers for membranes, due to their mechanical strength, flexible structure, chemical inertness, and separation performance [In recent years, nanomaterials have received considerable attention for superior properties, such as antimicrobial activity, conductivity, photocatalytic effect, and light-induced hydrophilicity in the case of TiO2 . Nanocom2 . Drawbacformance . Such 2Dformance . Their fformance ,27. In gformance . Due to formance . Additioformance ,31. Howeformance ,33.In the present work, a broad range of antifouling nanosheet composite membranes were analyzed in order to better understand the role of 2D nanostructured materials for water purification applications. An analysis of the appearance of keywords related to nanosheets in “Web of Science” demonstrated increasing interest in membranes, nanosheet membranes, fouling, and nanosheet membrane fouling. This upward trend could be observed over the past 10 years, as demonstrated in In recent years, the properties of nanostructured materials have been increasingly investigated for their use in fuel cells, catalysis, energy storage, coating applications, and membrane separation. Pokropivny and Skorokhod  classifiThe blending of inorganic nanofillers with polymers allows hybrid membranes to combine the cost-effectiveness and superior permselectivity of polymers and the outstanding mechanical, thermal, and chemical stability of ceramics . HoweverGraphene-based nanomaterials (GBN) are the most popular group of nanosheets and they are subject to ongoing, intensive studies . Based oGBNs are the most prevalent group of nanomaterials concerning water purification, as previously mentioned. Graphene is the parent material of all other derivatives including fullerene, CNTs, GO, and rGO. In its 2D nanosheet structure it is a conductor, similar to metals, with zero band gap. Graphene oxide is an intensively studied material with promising attributes for several different applications and a low-cost alternative to pristine graphene . The strnded use .2 has found widespread application due to its intrinsic properties and cost effectiveness [4, MnO2, TiO2, Fe3O4, NiO, and WO3 [2, ZnO, WO3, V2O5, Nb2O5, Nb2O5 doped TiO2, SrTiO3, and NaNbO3 demonstrate an oxidative effect and/ or superhydrophilic wettability, which is induced by their photocatalytic properties [Although less prominent than GBNs, 2D transition metal oxides have become an important material for membrane modifications. Especially, TiOtiveness . The gro and WO3 . In partoperties . In contoperties .n+1AXn. In general, n is equal to 1, 2, or 3; M is an early transition metal; A is an element mostly from group 13 or 14; and, X represents either C and/or N. The A-elements are interlayers of the M-element, and X-elements fill its octahedral sites. 3AlC2 with M and A representing Ti3C2 and Al, respectively [3C2Tx. T represents the terminating groups, and with O, OH, and/or F, and x indicating the number of terminating groups [Similar to TMOs, new MXene nanosheet materials are continuously discovered and they contribute to the growth of these rather diverse groups of 2D nanomaterials. The group of MXene consists of recently discovered 2D nanomaterials. Their hydrophilic surface and laminar structures make them suitable for membrane applications. Nanosheets that belong to this group are exfoliated from the so-called MAX phase. The bulk material of MXene consists of layered ternary carbides as well as nitrides and it is described by the formula Mectively . The nang groups . The difg groups ,58.2. Here, M and X represent a transition metal of the groups 4 to 10 and a chalcogen, respectively. Metal atoms form a hexagonal layer that is embedded between two layers of chalcogenide atoms, as illustrated in 2 layers and the letters represent the trigonal, hexagonal, and rhombohedral structures, respectively [Transition Metal Dichalcogenides was the first group of nanosheets that sparked research output, after the discovery of graphene. Until today, it is one of the most investigated nanosheet materials for nanocomposite membranes . TMDs haectively .3N4 with s-heptazine and s-triazine units. This material terminology is considered misleading by Miller et al. [xNyHz structures. These are similar to Liebig’s melon, but consist of ribbon-like heptazine units and are linked via NH or 3N4 nanomaterials have only been reported by Algara-Siller et al. [Unlike TMDS, carbon nitride nanosheets are a comparably young group of materials with highly promising photocatalytic properties ,63. Their et al. . In their et al.  and Kouvr et al. . Miller r et al.  suggesteAn alternative to semiconducting graphitic carbon nitrides involves the recently discovered laminar black phosphorus. It is the layered material depicted in Stable nanosheets are paramount for their intended use as building blocks. The lack of stability concerns not only BP, but also certain metal organic frameworks (MOF) . This te2+, Zn2+, Cu2+ or Ni2+, trivalent metal ions Al3+, Fe3+, Ga3+, or Mn3+, and charge compensating anions 3−, 2+, M3+, or An−, respectively [Another group with a wide variety of crystal structures and applications are so-called layered double hydroxides. LDH nanosheets are considered to be a type of clay and they are defined with the molecular formula, ectively . LDH cryectively .In comparison to the complex structure of LDHs, boron nitride nanosheets share similarities with carbon-based materials. They form a regular mesh of nitrogen and boron honeycombs. There are three molecular structures: hexagonal h-BN, rhombohedral r-BN, and cubic c-BN. Especially, hexagonal boron nitride receives much attention in the field of membrane science . DespiteNanosheet membranes can be divided into blended, stacked, or monolayered versions. The separation of ions with single-layered nanosheets is achieved using materials with intrinsic porous structures or by forming pores. To date, large-area pore drilling and uniform pore formation are challenges that are addressed by researchers . AlthougCoating with nanosheet nanofilms is achieved while using a method from one of the following five main categories: dip- , spin- , spray- 3+ and Mn2+ and amine molecules, are employed [GO is a highly flexible material that forms nanowrinkles and hydrophobic interlayer nanochannels with hydrophilic pores. This structure causes electrostatic repulsion of substances, such as salt ions, while simultaneously enhancing the water flux . Upon hyemployed ,91. Alteemployed . The chaemployed . Removinemployed . To incremployed  in orderemployed ,97 and remployed . Despiteemployed . Hence, −1. Despite their stability in water without additional cross-linking, MoS2 functionalization with dye was reported to increase salt rejection and maintain high levels of permeance. Hirunpinyo-pas et al. [2 nanosheets membranes functionalized with dyes, that retained about 99% ions found in sea water and, thus, achieved drinking water quality. Another advantage of this group of materials is that MoS2 and WS2 membranes have demonstrated stable interlayer tuning properties by compaction upon pressure applications. In this case, the interlayer distance was retained, even after the release of pressure [2 and WS2 are free of functional groups, their entire surface is hydrophilic, because of the evenly distributed sulfur atoms on both sides of the nanosheet. Another advantage of TMDs is a chemical structure that is comprised of a three atomic monolayer molecular composition that gives them rigidity [TMDs are promising alternatives to GBN, as they form stable laminar layers in water due to strong Van der Waals forces and the absence of functional groups extruding from the surface . Althougs et al.  reportedpressure . These npressure . Althoug3C2Tx nanosheet membranes demonstrated ultrafast water flux with precise sieving performance and high selectivity for cations [MXene forms another group of nanosheets that suffers from swelling with water when a nanosheet layer is stakced on top of a substrate. However, Lu et al.  reported cations .MOF nanosheet membranes are also considered to be unstable in water and require crosslinkers in order to retain their structure in water. In the field of MOF nanosheet membranes, most attention has been given to gas separation rather than to water purification .Among TMO nanosheets, niobate membranes are reported to have a structure that differs from that of other laminar membranes . The aciOrganic membranes blended with inorganic fillers for water purification applications often employ PES, PEI, PAN, PSf, and PVDF polymers. Non-Solvent Induced Phase Separation (NIPS) is a common synthesis route for the respective membranes ,110. ThiFor conventional nanocomposite membranes, nanosheets are added to polymers to fabricate pressure-driven MF, UF, and NF membranes. These membranes are classified based on their pore size as well as their molecular weight cut off (MWCO), with a separation mechanism that is based on size exclusion. However, NF membranes can show a mix of size exclusion and diffusion . The addTFC membranes are characterized by a thin selective layer on a porous substrate that provides mechanical stability. This design renders TFC membranes popular for NF, RO, and FO applications. The governing separation mechanism for such membranes is the solution-diffusion model, where water and solutes dissolve in the dense PA film and diffuse through the membrane. The same film that permits the diffusion of water and solutes retains other molecules . Water pThis chapter provides only a brief explanation of the fouling mechanisms, because this topic has already been broadly discussed in many publications. Fouling involves several mechanisms and it s considered a bottleneck in membrane applications. Different mechanisms are predominantk, depending on the type of foulant and membrane operation. Fouling in microfiltration (MF), ultrafiltration (UF), nanofiltration (NF), and reverse osmosis (RO) can be described as the total membrane resistance (Equation .(1)RtotThe total membrane resistance (Equation . The forThe fouling behaviour for forward osmosis (FO) differs from that seen in previous membranes. In general, the fouling propensity for FO is lower when compared with other membranes, which can be explained by a lower level of hydraulic pressure. Additionally, fouling in FO is almost completely reversible . For a bThe types of foulants can be classified into three groups, depending on the foulant material: organic, inorganic, and biofouling. Furthermore, these foulants show characteristic fouling behaviors, and organic fouling can be subdivided into either spreadable or non-migratory foulants. The former is comprised of oils that form a continuous layer. By contrast, the latter includes natural organic matter (NOM) as well as biomacromolecules that adhere to the membrane surface . Non-migThe last category of foulants describes inorganic fouling, also called scaling, and it includes the precipitation of salts on the membrane surface due to concentration polarization. The accumulation of inorganic material on the membrane surface results in an increase in concentration beyond the solubility of these materials, which then precipitates. The term scaling is used when the precipitated salts form a scale on the membrane surface. Two types of scaling mechanisms have been defined. Heterogeneous scaling describes nucleation on the membrane surface. Homogeneous scaling refers to the nucleation of a bulk substance within a liquid. Although the effect of each mechanism on the total scaling of a membrane is still being investigated, it is suggested that heterogeneous scaling plays a major role, as it has a lower energy barrier to overcome . The cryAnother class of foulants is the so-called colloidal or particulate fouling that comprises inorganic and organic matter. Their characteristic fouling behavior includes pore blocking and cake layer formation. While inorganic colloids might result from homogeneous scaling and form cake layers, organic colloids can adsorb to the membrane surface. Therefore, the type of colloid material and size governs the fouling mechanism and the respective strategy to alleviate fouling .Zhang et al.  classifiMembrane modification to render surfaces fouling resistant without destructing the foulants is a bordly applied technique to improve filtration performance and prolong membrane lifetime. Functionalization with nanomaterials as fillers or surface modifiers changes the surface charge, topography, and pore size, as well as the distribution, hydrophilicity, and wetting behavior . Common Water contact angle measurements are conducted in order to determine the hydrophilicity or hydrophobicity of a membrane, and the results are applied to Young’s equation (Equation ). It desIn Equation , γ value > 145°) ,141. In  > 145°) .Although hydrophilic membrane materials are known to reduce fouling, hydrophobic polymers are predominantly employed due to their stability in aqueous solutions . Common The Wenzel  and Cass2 after the otherwise completely hydrophobic surface was turned hydrophilic by UV irradiation. Underwater superhydrophilicity of TiO2 is assumed to be the result of stronger water bonding during light irradiation [The creation of a surface that is both superhydrophilic and superoleophobic is difficult, because materials that repel oil would also repel water, which has a higher level of surface tension. The mechanism of such membranes is based on the presence of dispersive and non-dispersive forms of free surface energy such as Van der Waals and hydrogen bonding, respectively. In their work, Pan et al.  found thadiation . Surfaceadiation ,152. Hetadiation ,154. Matadiation ,156. Supadiation . Generaladiation .Different approaches are employed to increase hydrophilicity: surface charges, energy barriers, and alteration of surface roughness. These approaches are achieved by membrane modifications via zwitterions, polymer brushes and nanomaterials.As discussed in the previous chapter, a conventional MMM successfully addresses the permeability-selectivity trade off by increasing water flux without sacrificing rejection rates. Changes in pore structure and hydrophilicity are the reason for these favorable changes in membrane performance. Surface roughness can be decreased via the formation of a dense and smooth top layer in a MMM. By contrast, coated or grafted nanosheet membranes show improved hydrophilicity as compared with their pristine support due to direct exposure of the nanomaterials to the feed. An alternative to the membrane functionalization by employing nanomaterials is the application of zwitterions that are either coated, grafted onto, or blended with the matrix . Both zw2O, CO2 and inorganic acids. Malato et al. [The application of nanostructures has gained popularity, because of their intrinsic photocatalytic properties. Such semiconductor materials are characterized by a valence band (VB) (+1.0 to +3.5 V vs. NHE) filled with electrons and by an empty conduction band (CB) (+0.5 to −1.5 V vs. NHE) . Upon liquations –8) [162 [162ν) to et al.  summariz2 anatase films of 72 ± 12, ZnO, SnO2, TiNbO5, Ti2NbO7, Ti5NbO14, and Nb3O8 [3 and V2O5.In addition to the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) upon light irradiation, certain semiconductors also demonstrate an altered wettability. Wang et al.  were theaffinity . Simultand Nb3O8 ,165. Miynd Nb3O8  reported2, the band gaps for the rutile and anatase phases are 2 [2O3 [3O8 [3 [2 [More specifically, the photocatalytic activity of semiconductors also depends on their characteristic light absorption spectra and band gap width. In the case of TiOV region . TMO, TMegion [2 , ZnO [16egion [2 , Fe2O3 [ [2 [2O3 , Nb3O8 [2O3 [3O8 , WO3 [17 [3O8 [3 , and MoSO8 [3 [2 . DespiteO8 [3 [2  summarizO8 [3 [2 .2 nanosheets. Other studies demonstrated the removal of radioactive compounds via adsorption on nanocomposites [The advantage of 2D photocatalysts is an atomic thickness that exposes almost all the ions to the surface and causes the formation of strong electronic coupling with other materials. In contrast to doped semiconductors, nanohybrids show no changes in their material structure. In particular, 2D nanomaterials are widely employed as photocatalysts, either alone or as co-catalysts, in order to address the drawbacks of the semiconductors currently being used. Heterogeneous structures effectively alleviate problem (i) and (ii) by changing the band gap width and transporting electrons as well as holes to suppress their recombination. Problems (iii) and (iv) are addressed by employing the high-aspect ratio of nanosheets as building blocks for hybrid photocatalysts. That reduces the time that is required for electrons and holes to migrate to the surface where the large lateral size provides many reaction sites . The incmposites .2. The two previously mentioned examples of GBN act as building blocks for the catalyst TiO2 and are the most frequently reported nanohybrids used in integrated water treatment [2 as photocatalyst, or by forming heterostructures with other nanomaterials [2 is the most intensively studied photocatalyst that is usually employed as a NP, but some studies have reported the performance of nanosheets [Integrated photocatalytic membrane processes combine the catalytic degradation of pollutants with conventional water purification via separation. Photocatalytic membrane reactors (PMR) are recognized to improve separation in general. Nonetheless, they are known to also remove CEC and other harmful substances from water that are otherwise present in the permeate ,181. Phoreatment ,188,189.aterials ,191,192.nosheets ,194. Sevnosheets . AlthougThe vast majority of antifouling nanosheet membranes employ GO, rGO, and their functionalized derivatives. However, in this work, a selection of publications is summarized to demonstrate the diversity of antifouling nanosheet membranes. In terms of non-migratory fouling, mostly BSA, MB, HA, and SA have been employed as model foulants under dark conditions as listed in 2 stacked on a PES support. GO membranes had the lowest water contact angle at 40 ± 1.122 with a contact angle above 502 membranes had the highest level of water permeability, and both MoS2 and rGO membranes revealed a small compaction response to pressure applications. All of the membranes rejected BSA and SA molecules, even when the pore diameter was larger than the molecules. This effect is the result of the repulsion between the negative surface charges of membranes and molecules, and the formation of a hydration layer on the membrane surface. Fouling studies have revealed fouling recovery rates for MoS2/PES that were higher than those for other membranes, suggesting that washing for flux recovery is less frequently required. By comparison, MoS2, GO, and rGO experienced 43, 17, and 6% reversible fouling. The low value for rGO was the result of the hydrophobic nature of the nanosheets, which hampered the release of foulants. Whereas, the lack of functional groups on MoS2 was the reason for low levels of foulant adsorption. Despite different properties, all of the modified membranes showed improved foulant rejection and less of a fouling propensity compared with that of pristine PES membranes [Alam et al.  analyzedembranes .membranBoron nitride (BN) is another material that is receiving an increasing amount of attention in the field of water purification membranes. BN was tested by Abdikheibari et al.  to improDong et al.  conducte2 is a popular photocatalyst and is most often employed as a nanoparticle in combination with GO nanosheets, as reported in several publications [2 nanostructures exhibit improved photocatalytic properties due to a larger specific surface area. Thus, an increase in contact area that is more available for adsorption of pollutants or to form heterostructures with other nanomaterials [2-NT nanocomposite coated membranes for photocatalytic properties that could alleviate non-migratory fouling. TiO2-NTs formed porous particles encapsulated by GO when forming layered structures. Ag particles were well dispersed on the nanotubes and nanosheets, and the nanostructures were vacuum-filtered onto a flat-sheet cellulose substrate. The formation of heterostructures decreased the bandgap of TiO2 and, hence, increased its visible light absorbance. Due to the high adsorption rate for dyes on GO and TiO2, the flux decline was higher under dark conditions than under visible light irradiation. In their work, they also compared the membrane performance with that of Ag-NP/GO/P25, which showed lower adsorption photocatalytic properties [2 structures, Yu et al. [2 heterostructures. In their work, micron-sized rGO operated as a template for the immobilization of nanosized TiO2 sheets. These were stacked on a flat-sheet Al2O3 support, as illustrated in 2 in order to avoid agglomeration, and an induced charge separation for enhanced photocatalytic activity. After light irradiation, the membranes recovered flux and MB rejection levels near the initial values, hence suggesting long-term stability against dye fouling as indicated in GBN are most often applied as photocatalytic membranes, followed by gCN(H). The limited photocatalytic activity of GO and rGO compels them to act as charge separators to inhibit electron-hole recombination or as anchor sites for photocatalysts to improve their dispersion. For example, TiOications ,216,217.aterials ,218,219.aterials  tested Aoperties . In a cou et al.  reported3PO4/ZnAlCu–NLDH/PES, and NH2–Ag3PO4/gCN(H)/PES mixed matrix membranes. Blending with LDH resulted in a more porous structure, whereas gCN(H) remained mostly within the matrix and thus formed a denser membrane with lower porosity. Surface roughness was higher with a lower pore size distribution in LDH membranes. Permeability testing indicated that due to the increased migration of LDH to the surface, pore blocking occurred, and the water flux was decreased. However, the addition of nanofillers improved flux recovery compared with that of the pristine membrane. These results can be explained with the overall increase in the hydrophilicity and the formation of a hydration layer, which hampered the adhesion of BSA. Further experiments that analyzed the leaching of Ag and Zn, demonstrated how the presence of gCN(H) stabilized Ag. In addition, high rates of Zn release were observed, which can be explained by the increased migration towards the surface during membrane fabrication. The results from the photocatalytic degradation of dye pollutants indicate a synergistic effect of the heterostructures. As a result, heterjunctions render Ag3PO4 and NH2Ag3PO4, as stronger photocatalysts due to the presence of the nanosheets.Besides coating with nanosized photocatalysts, self-cleaning conventional MMM and TFN were reported to also employ LDH and BP in contrast to the more frequently reported gCN(H) ,222,223.re SPEEK . In ordere SPEEK  compared12O17Cl2, LDH, MXene, and CuO were employed. Additionally, the majority of the reported literature describes either stacked or grafted membranes rather than MMM. For the blended nanocomposite membranes, nanosheets were, in most cases, embedded in a PDA layer on the membrane surface. Two approaches were found in the literature to alleviate oil fouling. One used the design of superhydrophilic and superoleophobic membrane surfaces. The other involved creating photocatalytic membranes that would destroy pollutants and increase hydrophilicity. Nanosheets were employed as photocatalysts [The majority of nanosheets employed to mitigate oil fouling have been either GO or rGO, as shown in atalysts , heterosatalysts , bindingatalysts , or modi−2h−1, which was retained for 80 2-decorated rGO nanosheets onto a support, and coating it with a layer of hydrophilic PDA. The nanoparticles created nanochannels that increased the permeability, while the surface charge retained the rejection rate. Additionally, the water contact angle was near 0 The use of nanosheets as antifouling membranes has advantages that extend beyond their photocatalytic activity . There amembrane . Anotheradhesion .For MMM, Qin et al.  reportedformance .2-NP as a photocatalyst on gCN(H) nanosheets that were further intercalated between layers of GO to improve stability [12O17Cl2−TiO2NW and rGO coated by PDA also enhanced the photocatalytic performance of the membranes [2-coated surfaces showed significant self-cleaning properties when irradiated with UV light under a continuous water flow. Yu et al. [12O17Cl2−TiO2NW sheet-like nanohybrids that were vacuum filtered on a CA support. These membranes demonstrated constant flux and efficient separation of dye-oil mixtures under visible light irradiation. The membrane surface intercepted oil particles from the feed solution, thus improving oil separation, and showed self-cleaning properties upon light irradiation. By contrast, the same membrane operated in dark exhibited a steady decline in pollutant rejection and flux. Upon light irradiation, eletrons transfer from Bi12O17Cl2 to TiO2 and further to rGO, where they form superoxide free radicals in the presence of free oxygen molecules. Holes formed on the catalyst produce hydroxyl radicals with water. In addition, rGO adsorbs dye molecules that are degraded by the generated radicals. Therefore, the good photocatalytic performance of the RGO/PDA/Bi12O17Cl2−TiO2−CA membrane is attributed to the fast electron transfer and molecule adsorption [The antifouling photocatalytic membranes employed heterostructures with gCN(H) as a photocatalyst and GO as a co-catalyst for hampering electron-hole pair recombination . Other gtability . Heterosembranes . Nishimoembranes  demonstru et al.  agreed wsorption .2 nanowire or nanoparticle intercalation of GO nanosheets. Due to the increase in surface area, the adsorption and resultant photocatalytic removal of pollutants was better for NW than for NP. Additionally, the hydrophilicity and flux were enhanced with intercalated 1D nanostructures [2-NP. In contrast to the prepared membrane of Shi et al. [2-NP were added to increase the interlayer distance between the stacked nanosheets, rendering the membrane surface rough and improving hydrophilicity. As a result, water was trapped within the structure and increased the underwater oil contact angle to 1702 photocatalyst, oil contact angle measurements were conducted for GO and GO/gCN(H)@TiO2 membranes. The antifouling and membrane separation performances of nanocomposite membranes were compared in terms of TiOructures . Shi et ructures  reportedructures  developei et al. , TiO2-NPFewer studies have focused on the modification of membranes for scaling mitigation when compared with organic or biofouling. Nonetheless, the available literature indicates that a combination of membrane integration and conventional scaling strategies can effectively alleviate scaling. The literature references to 2D nanocomposite membranes are very limited and mostly focuses on GO nanosheet membranes.2+ ions [Ray et al.  prepared2+ ions .2+ ions. The effect of the membrane modified by this group is illustrated in In contrast to the work of Ray et al. , Cao et Ashfaq et al.  reportedAs established in previous sections, nanosheets are promising building blocks for membranes to render them resistant to fouling. However, nanosheet membranes, especially fouling resistant membranes, are a comparably new research field. Therefore, several challenges remain unsolved. Generally, surface-exposure of nanosheets is key to obtain antifouling membranes. Nevertheless, large-area stacked nanosheet membranes were seldom reported. Thus far, the majority of publications focus on lab-scale experiments. The large-scale production of TFN and conventional MMM would be easier due to incorporation of exisiting fabrication lines. However, stacked TFC and stacked nanosheet membranes are more difficult to up-scale. Additionally, most reports feature flat-sheet membranes, whereas tubular or hollow-fibre membranes also find wide application in the real world. The synthesis of nanosheet membranes is also challenged by the complex and multiple fabrication steps. In many reports, the 2D nanomaterials required further functionalization. These additional modifications are necessary to improve their stability in solution or on the membrane. Moreover, nanosheet membranes often have complex designs involving several nanomaterials. It is recognized that 2D nanomaterials can effectively address biofouling due to their bactericidal properties. Nonetheless, the effect of such materials on the human body might be different and it is subject to ongoing studies. Before nanosheet membranes are used to treat water for human consumption, their toxicity must be fully elucidated. Additionally, long-term testing is paramount in determining the membrane and nanosheet stability.In this review, the development of nanosheet membranes is summarized based on the classification of conventional MMM, stacked, stacked TFC, and TFN membranes. It is apparent that 2D nanosheets play an important role in promoting antifouling during water purification by improving hydrophilicity, surface roughness, zeta potential, and photocatalytic destruction of foulants via photocatalysis. The present work demonstrated improved fouling alleviation for non-migratory, spreadable, and inorganic foulants due to the presence of nanosheets. Although their bactericidal properties have been widely investigated, biofouling was not covered in this work.Systematic research via the "Web of Science" indicated an ongoing upward trend for nanosheet membranes and recent interest in their propensity for promoting antifouling. Research activity has increased over the years and it shows the growing awareness of scientists for the promising properties of nanosheets. A combination of this upward trend of nanosheet-related research output and the versatile applications of these materials suggest rapid developments and further discoveries. Interest in these nanostructures is fueled by continuous discoveries of new materials and modifications of synthesis routes. Nonetheless, it is expected that GBN-modified membranes will continue to dominate the field. Additionally, new materials will receive more attention, because GBN materials suffer from shortcomings. Recent developments show that nanohybrids clearly outperform single nanomaterials and tend to dominate current research efforts. However, thus far, most nanosheet-related reviews feature nanoparticles or graphene-based materials, as they dominate the research output in this field.As the present work shows, many nanosheet materials are suitable for use in the improvement of membrane performance and for imparting antifouling activities. In particular, TMDs, MXene, and BN are promising alternatives in terms of permselectivity. Clearly, most researchers focus on passive antifouling strategies by employing hydrophilic materials, whereas photocatalytic membranes are less studied. Photocatalytic properties of certain nanomaterials are well documented and they are being intensively studied by many groups. However, integrated separation and photocatalytic testing of membranes for water purification have been limited. The photocatalytic activity of 2D nanomaterials and separation using nanosheet membranes are tested separately. The intrinsic properties of 2D nanomaterials, make them advantageous for application to integrated membrane operations. The 2D nanomaterials that show promise for the fabrication of photocatalytic membranes for water treatment include gCN(H), metal oxides, and GBN. In addition to increasing separation and permeation, 2D nanomaterials also improve rejection, membrane longevity, washing intervals, and the destruction of CEC. As established in other publications, there is an infinite number of combinations of nanomaterials for photocatalytic nanohybrid heterostructures. That gives membrane researchers many possibilities for the development of photocatalytic membranes. Despite promising results, more work is required in order to address difficulties in operations and in up-scaling production. Another finding indicates that most studies have focused on the mitigation of organic fouling, particularly non-migratory fouling. In contrast, spreadable fouling has received less investigation as it requires the formation of amphiphilic surfaces, which are achieved mostly via photocatalytic testing with nanosheets. However, the alleviation of inorganic fouling by employing 2D nanomaterials has been documented by few studies, but has been limited to GO. These studies show that nanomaterials can effectively create an energy barrier that hampers inorganic fouling. Additionally, they indicate the suitability of nanosheets to overcome the drawbacks of GO-modified membranes. Overall, nanosheet membranes have versatile structures and properties as a result of the different types of nanomaterials employed.The improvement of conventional membranes by employing 2D nanomaterials effectively tackles the permeability-selectivity bottleneck while providing mechanical stability and alleviating fouling. Different types of nanosheets are recommended for different applications. It is preferable to stack photocatalytic membranes in order to maximize surface exposure. In addition, high levels of nanosheet exposure are also recommended to produce membranes that are resistant to spreadable foulants. During RO and FO, stacked TFC and TFN show promising results in resisting damage by chlorine and alleviating scaling. Conventional MMM are suitable for MF and UF when no top layer is present, and for passive strategies in general. Stacked nanosheet membranes are suggested for UF and NF, for photocatalytic applications in general, and for biofouling mitigation.Taking all of these new developments, discoveries, and improvements into consideration, an infinite amount of different nanosheet membranes is possible. As can be seen, the field of nanosheet membranes is highly innovative and subject to rapid development. That makes it difficult for scientists to keep track of all the relevant breakthroughs. Taking the recent developments into consideration, it is to believe that nanosheet membranes, especially antifouling membranes, are merely in their infancy. In the future, the key for efficient antifouling nanosheet membranes is interdisciplinary research. This will yield outstanding membranes with a wide range of applications.


In practice, unfamiliar pigs are frequently mixed prior to loading in order to obtain groups of uniform weight and to adjust the group size to the dimensions of the trailer compartments. Regrouping pigs is associated with establishing a new social rank via aggressive interactions. Fighting results in skin lesions and pre-slaughter stress, which leads to reduced meat quality. In this study, four grouping strategies, namely, non-regrouping and regrouping at fattening (regrouped at 80 kg and kept till slaughter), loading and lairage, were compared by determining skin lesions and meat quality at slaughter. The non-regrouped pigs showed, at slaughter, fewer skin lesions and better meat quality than the pigs regrouped at loading or in lairage. Pigs mixed at 80 kg at the farm have, in general, a comparable amount of skin lesions and comparable meat quality as the non-mixed group. If mixing is unavoidable, due to large within-group weight variations, mixing at 80 kg can be an alternative to reduce skin lesions at slaughter and to optimise meat quality. However, mixing at 80 kg is still associated with aggressive interactions after regrouping and with weight variations at slaughter.In practice, unfamiliar pigs are frequently mixed prior to loading in order to obtain groups of uniform weight and to adjust the group size to the dimensions of the trailer compartments. Mixing pigs induces aggressive interactions to establish a new social rank. Fighting results in skin lesions and pre-slaughter stress and, in turn, reduced meat quality. A study was performed to compare the effect of non-regrouping and regrouping at fattening (at 80 kg and kept till slaughter), loading and lairage. A total of 1332 pigs were included over 30 transports from one pig farm to one slaughterhouse (110 km). Skin lesions were determined on 1314 carcasses. Meat quality was measured on 620 pigs. The non-regrouped pigs had fewer skin lesions and better meat quality than the pigs regrouped at loading or in lairage. Pigs mixed at 80 kg at the farm had, in general, a comparable amount of skin lesions and comparable meat quality as the non-mixed group. If mixing is unavoidable, due to large within-group weight variations, mixing at 80 kg can be an alternative to reduce skin lesions at slaughter and to optimise meat quality. Concerning welfare, no regrouping of pigs is preferred. Regrouping of unfamiliar pigs is, however, a common management practice, which usually occurs not only at the transport procedure to the slaughterhouse, but at several stages of the pig’s life. In practice, it is also carried out at weaning, at the beginning of the growing-finishing period and within the groups of gestating sows. Aggressive encounters often result in skin lesions, altered behaviour, physiological effects, immunosuppressive effects  and reduThe level of aggressive behaviour depends on several circumstances such as differences in age, gender, body weight, pen density, group size, the degree of familiarity, the behavioural composition of the group (active and passive copers), the circadian rhythm, the novelty of the environment, enrichment, whether food is provided ad libitum or restricted and genetics ,5,6,7,8.In Belgium, 10.7 million pigs were slaughtered in 2019, correlating with the number of transported finisher pigs. The pig sector remains the most important supplier of carcasses, with 59% by weight. Annually, this amounts to 1.04 billion kg of carcass weight .In practice, unfamiliar pigs are frequently mixed prior transport to a slaughterhouse in order to obtain groups of uniform weight and to adjust the group size to the dimensions of the trailer compartments. Aggressive pig behaviour as a result of regrouping just before or after transport to the slaughterhouse induces pre-slaughter stress ,12. WhenIt is well known that in addition to skin lesions, stress caused by pre-slaughter regrouping also affects meat quality ,15. RegrAggression is a serious animal welfare concern which has led to many studies of methods to reduce the regrouping-associated aggression. Some examples have not been successful, like masking odours, sedatives and hide areas . The purA total of 1332 hybrid pigs (Piétrain × Hypor), being heterozygous for the halothane gene, were used in this study. Both females and castrated males were raised at the Zootechnical Centre  per 12 pigs in mixed-sex groups. Pigs were housed in pens (9.53 m² per pen) with fully slatted floors and with a chain as point-source enrichment. After weaning, all pigs were individually marked with an ear tag number. All pigs had ad libitum access to water and received a commercial diet. The day before slaughter, all pigs were weighed individually using an electronic weighing scale and marked with an individual tattoo number on each side of the body. This number allows individual identification of carcasses in the slaughter line. Throughout this study, the same technicians took care of the pigs to exclude the effect of handling method on meat quality . AnimalsUniform weight group formed at the start (22 kg) of the fattening. The unmixed strategy consisted of keepings pigs in the same social group during fattening, transport and lairage, called Mix 0;Uniform weight group formed at the start (22 kg) of the fattening and regrouped at loading the trailer at the farm, but without regrouping in the lairage (Mix 1);Uniform weight group formed at the start (22 kg) of the fattening, and regrouped at loading the trailer at the farm, and again at the lairage (Mix 2);Uniform weight group formed at the start (22 kg) of the fattening, regrouped at 80 kg at the farm, fattened till slaughter weight and transported to the slaughterhouse (without regrouping during the transport procedure) (Mix 80).The experiment focused on the transport of fattening pigs to the slaughterhouse. Therefore, pigs were assigned in mixed-gender groups of the following four grouping strategies:Pigs of grouping strategies Mix 0, Mix 2 and Mix 80 were never transported during the same transport. Each of these three grouping strategies was transported simultaneously with Mix 1. When the pigs weighed approximately 105 kg, they were transported by road from the Zootechnical Centre  to the slaughterhouse . The distance from the Zootechnical Centre to the commercial slaughterhouse was 110 km. Pigs were driven from the pens to the trailer by the ZTC-technicians using lightweight driving boards. All pigs were loaded on the trailer by the truck driver using a tailgate lift. The pigs were transported in the upper four pens of a two-tiered trailer (with four pens per tier). Pigs were always transported before noon and per 12 in a trailer compartment (6.63 m² per compartment). The loading density did not exceed the maximum loading density (235 kg/m²) as determined in the EC Regulation  so that 2. The time between unloading and the moment pigs were driven to the stunning area is defined as lairage time, and was recorded. Head-to-back electrical stunning , which induces cardiac arrest, was applied. All pigs were transported to the same slaughterhouse over the same route. Each group of pigs was unloaded as soon as possible after the arrival at the slaughterhouse. The duration of unloading, defined as the time between the arrival at the slaughterhouse and the unloading, was always recorded. The lairage was equipped with a showering system (which was used) and drinking nipples. The pen surface was 6.14 mThe skin lesion score is associated with aggressive behaviour and, therefore, useful to analyse the fighting behaviour of pigs . The skim. longissimus dorsi, at a depth of approximately 7 cm between the fourth and the fifth back rib, pH (pH1) and temperature were determined 45-min post-mortem. A pH-meter equipped with an insertion glass electrode and a temperature probe  was used. Calibration uses standard buffers at pH 4 and 7 [In each lairage compartment, six pigs were selected at random to evaluate meat quality after slaughter, but, during some evaluation moments, one pig was missed and only five pigs per lairage compartment were effectively measured. The left carcass side was used for all measurements. Thirty-five minutes post-mortem, carcasses were graded with an SKGII-device , which combines four physical measurements  to estimate the lean meat content . The car 4 and 7 . The pH m. longissimus dorsi) was measured 48 h post-mortem. Electrical conductivity (EC) with the PQM  and pHu (PH / PT-STAR) were measured in the loin between the fourth and the fifth back ribs of the m. longissimus dorsi before cutting. The colour of the loin in the transverse cut between the fourth and fifth (back) rib was measured using the Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage (1976) (CIE) values  with a chromameter . The L* value represents lightness where L* = 0 is completely black, and L* = 100 is completely white. The a* value represents red-green colours: positive a* values mean red colours and negative a* values mean green colours. The b* value represents yellow-blue colours: positive b* values mean yellow colours and negative b* values mean blue colours [After chilling at 2 °C, carcasses were commercially cut and transported to a grocery store where the meat quality of the loin . Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated between carcass conformation variables and meat quality variables. Ham angle had the highest correlation with the meat quality parameters, and hence, ham angle as carcass conformation parameter is included in the used model. Pigs were considered as the experimental units because data on skin lesions and meat quality were collected for each individual pig. Statistical significance was accepted at p < 0.05. Furthermore, frequencies of skin lesions per grouping strategy were calculated.Skin lesion data were analysed with the GLIMMIX procedure of SAS 9.4 . The app1, pHu, EC, DRIP, JCS, L, a, b) with transport number as a random factor and the independent variables .Meat quality data were analysed with the Mixed procedure of SAS 9.4. A model was built per meat quality parameter , middle (p < 0.001) and ham (p = 0.006). Mix 0 and Mix 80 showed less damage, both at the level of the shoulder, the middle and the ham, than Mix 1 and Mix 2 (The grouping strategy influenced the incidence of skin lesions on shoulder (nd Mix 2 . As shown in p < 0.1) that DRIP (p = 0.058) is influenced by grouping strategy. It seems that carcasses of Mix 1 has a higher drip loss than carcasses from Mix 0 and Mix 80. The grouping strategies did not influence pH1 (p = 0.803) 45 min post-mortem, nor pHu (p = 0.682), a* value (p = 0.188) and b* value (p = 0.615). There was also a tendency , middle (19.1%) and ham (6.4%), caused by the transport procedure. Looking at the shoulder damage, it can be concluded that, although pigs are not regrouped, transporting pigs is still accompanied by a certain level of aggression by one-way bites ,34. DuriThe carcass temperature, EC and DRIP were shown to be better for non-regrouped pigs (Mix 0), and the pigs regrouped at 80 kg at the farm (Mix 80). On the other hand, the colour of Mix 80, determined by the JCS, seemed to be paler. However, the colour of Mix 80 was still within the range of acceptable colour characteristics ,41. On tIt is well known that short term stress in lairage influences pork quality. The quality of handling pigs in lairage influences meat quality ,43. FurtOur findings confirm earlier research , pointinThe results of our study suggest that there are benefits of forming uniform weight groups at the start of the finishing period and excluding regrouping in the transport procedure in terms of reducing skin lesions at slaughter and optimising meat quality. In addition, regrouping at the last fattening stage has no long-term adverse effects on these skin and meat parameters. However, aggressive behaviour was significantly elevated at regrouping . While pNon-regrouping of pigs is the best option concerning animal welfare and meat quality. However, regrouping of finisher pigs is just done in order to transport pig batches, uniform in weight, to the slaughterhouse. In fact, the focus should be more on limiting weight differences during rearing. However, this is not self-evident as many parameters, e.g., genetics, weaning age, housing, animal health, and hierarchal order, can affect growth and final weight ,50,51,52Often, in general pig husbandry, unfamiliar pigs are mixed just before transport to the slaughterhouse, due to unequal growth rate in a pen. No regrouping of pigs during the fattening, transport and slaughterhouse stages results in a lower incidence of skin lesions at slaughter and better meat quality. If mixing is unavoidable, due to the large within-group variations in weight, mixing at 80 kg (and kept together till slaughter) can be an alternative to reduce skin lesions at slaughter and to optimise meat quality. Concerning carcass damage and meat quality, mixing pigs one (before transport) or two times (before transport and in lairage) does not differ.


In murine cancer models, B cells are unnecessary for efficacy of PD-1 inhibitor. However, we do not know whether this applies to clinical settings, especially in patients with non-small-cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC).We report on the case of an advanced lung adenocarcinoma patient without oncogenic driver mutations whose disease progressed on second-line bevacizumab-containing chemotherapy regimens. These previous treatments resulted in profound thrombocytopenia and increased number of B cells; both effects were hard to alleviate. The patient was diagnosed with marginal zone B-cell lymphoma by flow cytometry immunophenotyping. After five cycles of rituximab in combination with lenalidomide treatment, the percentage of B cells rapidly declined to undetectable levels and the lymphoma regressed completely. However, because masses in the lung gradually increased, this patient was subsequently treated with a PD-1 inhibitor. The patient’s condition stabilized, and the mass shrank to reach partial response, with progression free survival exceeding 15 months and no serious adverse events.The present case proves the efficacy of PD-1 inhibitor in metastatic lung adenocarcinoma in the absence of B cells. Immune checkpoint inhibitions are thus a choice for patients with B cell deficiencies, such as X-linked agammaglobulinemia, immunoglobulin deficiencies, and common variable immunodeficiency, diseases that have historically been excluded from clinical trials for oncologic drugs. Clinical trial and real-world data have revealed that PD-1 inhibitor monotherapy is effective in NSCLC patients as second-line treatment and beyond, but only for a small proportion of patients . Since BHere, we describe a unique case of a metastatic NSCLC patient treated with rituximab to deplete B cells, followed by PD-1 inhibitor. We discuss the efficacy and adverse effects of PD-1 inhibitor in the absence of B cells.th, 2017, a 67-year-old man was hospitalized because of wheezing and chest tightness. His personal history included 40-years of smoking 20 cigarettes per day. No notable medical history was present.On October 20During admission as an inpatient to hospital, chest computed tomography (CT) showed a 37 × 25 mm soft tissue mass shadow in the lower lobe of the left lung, an 11 × 8 mm nodule in the lower lobe of the right lung, and lymph node metastases in the right supraclavicular region, 2L and 7 regions of mediastinum, and left hilum. No abnormalities were found in the head and bone. A biopsy of a supraclavicular lymph node was performed, and its findings confirmed metastasis of lung adenocarcinoma without EGFR, ALK, ROS1, RET, or MET mutations.th, 2018 . After extensive discussion at the multidisciplinary team (MDT) meeting, a bone marrow aspiration was done to examine the reason for thrombocytopenia. The results of the bone marrow smears showed that the ratio of granulocyte and erythroid series was 22.5:1, granulocytes accounted for 25%–50% of the bone marrow cells, with non-hematopoietic cells predominant, and the proportion of mature lymphocytes was 73.2%. Flow cytometry analysis of the bone marrow aspirate showed an abnormal mature B cell lymphoid subset, accounting for 30.3% of nuclear cells and expressing CD19, HLA-DR, CD20, FMC7, CD79b, and surface immunoglobulin Kappa. Marginal zone lymphoma was diagnosed. This patient received 5 cycles of rituximab in combination with lenalidomide treatment. At the end of the treatment, lymphoma was in complete remission. The platelet number resumed to normal level, the B cell number decreased to zero level, while the T cell number was unaffected  for the publication of any potentially identifiable images or data included in this article.SY wrote the paper. XH and YZ provided technical or material support. ZW has designed the paper. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China .The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.


Lean participants with magnesium intake < 200 mg/d vs. >200 mg/d also had a higher risk of incident hypertension. Adherence to the Mediterranean diet did not modify these associations. In conclusion, dietary magnesium intake < 200 mg/d was independently associated with a higher risk of developing hypertension in a Mediterranean cohort, stronger for overweight/obese participants. Our results emphasize the importance of encouraging the consumption of magnesium-rich foods  in order to prevent hypertension.Hypertension is the strongest independent modifiable risk factor for cardiovascular disease. We aimed to investigate the association of magnesium intake with incident hypertension in a Mediterranean population, and the potential modification of this association by body mass index (BMI). We assessed 14,057 participants of the SUN (Seguimiento Universidad de Navarra) prospective cohort (67.0% women) initially free of hypertension. At baseline, a validated 136-item food frequency questionnaire was administered. We used Cox models adjusted for multiple socio-demographic, anthropometric, and lifestyle factors, and prevalent conditions present at baseline. Among a mean 9.6 years of follow-up we observed 1406 incident cases of medically diagnosed hypertension. An inverse association in multivariable-adjusted models was observed for progressively higher magnesium intake up to 500 mg/d vs. intake < 200 mg/d, which was greater among those with a BMI > 27 kg/m Hypertension is the strongest independent and modifiable risk factor for heart failure, stroke, myocardial infarction, chronic kidney disease, and cognitive decline . In 2015Magnesium is involved in fundamental cellular processes comprising adenosine triphophosphate-dependent biochemical reactions, deoxyribonucleic acid synthesis, ribonucleic acid expression, muscular and neural cell signaling, glucose metabolism, and blood pressure control ,6. MagneMagnesium is abundant in nuts, in green leafy vegetables, in legumes, and in whole cereals, whereas it is practically absent in processed foods . DietaryMagnesium has to be consumed regularly to prevent deficiency, which is associated with oxidative stress and low-grade inflammation ,21,22, aPrevious large long-term prospective studies evaluating the relationship of dietary magnesium with hypertension have been conducted mainly in the United States , but nonThe SUN Project is a prospective, longitudinal, multipurpose, and permanently open cohort study of university graduates started in 1999, updated every 2 years with information on lifestyle, diet, risk factors, and medical conditions during follow-up, as previously described in detail ,42. For Participants received written information on their specific data to be requested by future questionnaires, the future feedback from the research team, and the protection to safeguard their privacy. We also informed all potential candidates of their right to refuse to participate in the SUN study or to withdraw their consent to participate at any time without retaliation, according to the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. The voluntary completion of the baseline questionnaire was considered to imply informed consent. The Research Ethics Committee of the University of Navarra approved this method to request the informed consent of participants (Project identification code 2001_30).p < 0.001). The reproducibility study showed similarly high ICCs, with corresponding values of 0.86 and 0.88, respectively [The details of the dietary assessment with a validated semi-quantitative 136-item food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) in the SUN Project at baseline has been previously described . The conectively . Dietaryectively . Nutrienectively ,48. A suectively . Adherenectively . One poiThe main outcome was defined by a medical diagnosis or self-report of hypertension in any follow-up questionnaire, which has been formerly repeatedly validated ,51,52. IFor the present study, participants with self-reported hypertension but missing information on the date of diagnosis, the mid-point between the date of completion of the follow-up questionnaire with the self-reported medical diagnosis of hypertension and the previous follow-up questionnaire were used to impute the date of diagnosis.p < 0.001) [We considered the following additional covariates in the statistical models: socio-demographic characteristics , anthropometric parameters ), lifestyle risk factors , and other confounding risk factors . We assessed physical activity with a questionnaire formerly validated with objective measurements using a triaxial accelerometer  as reference  . The mag< 0.001) . Weight < 0.001) .For the description of the baseline characteristics of the sample, we computed means and SDs for continuous variables and proportions for categorical variables across categories of daily dietary magnesium intake . We chose to use these exact boundaries instead of quantiles because the groups thus built were more meaningful per se and could be more easily used for future comparisons with similar studies. This is in line with current recommendations given in epidemiology about procedures to categorize continuous variables . After ap values were 2-tailed and significance was set at p < 0.05. Values in the text are means ± SDs unless otherwise indicated.We calculated the follow-up time for each participant from the date of returning the baseline questionnaire to the date of the diagnosis of incident hypertension or to the date of returning the last follow-up questionnaire. We computed incident hypertension rates across baseline categories of daily dietary magnesium intake, and calculated HRs and 95% CI by means of Cox proportional hazards models using the lowest category of magnesium intake as the reference. To test the proportional-hazards assumption we used the test based on Schoenfeld residuals after fitting the model. Age was the underlying time variable, and we performed various adjustments as follows: First, hazard ratios (HRs) were adjusted for age  and sex; second, HRs were additionally adjusted for BMI (in 5 categories), total energy intake (continuous), following special diets at baseline, physical activity (METs-h/week), alcohol , and smoking (3 categories); third, HRs were additionally adjusted for marital status (2 categories), body weight changes, years of university education, borderline hypertension at baseline, family history of hypertension, and year of entrance to the cohort; fourth, HRs were additionally adjusted for sodium intake, potassium intake, calcium intake, fiber intake, hours per day spent watching television (continuous), analgesic consumption, diuretic use, and sugar-sweetened beverage consumption. We used dietary magnesium intake as a continuous variable to calculate the significance of the linear trend tests. We used multivariable-adjusted HR estimates to calculate dose–response associations between total dietary magnesium intake and incident hypertension. We performed various sensitivity analyses estimating the fully adjusted HRs for total dietary magnesium and incident hypertension after changing several assumptions: (1) including only men or only women, (2) adopting allowed limits for total energy intake from percentile 1 to 99, (3) censoring the follow-up time of participants at 6 or 8 years, (4) excluding participants with early incident hypertension (during the first 2 years), (5) adjusting for the Mediterranean diet (MeDiet) score , (6) adjAmong 135,361 person—years of follow-up  during the 1999–2016 period we observed 1406 cases of incident hypertension in the SUN cohort. 2 and even greater for those with a BMI > 27 kg/m2 vs. participants with a BMI < 23 kg/m2  with low magnesium intake (<200 mg/d) had a similar risk as those who were overweight or obese with high magnesium intake (>200 mg/d) (p = 0.12) with a four-degree of freedom likelihood ratio test using magnesium in three categories  and BMI in three categories .Taking into consideration participants with a magnesium intake less or greater than 200 mg/d and BMI less or greater than 25 kg/mm intake . Lean pa00 mg/d) . When wep < 0.0001). However, low magnesium intake was similarly associated with ~50% relative increase in the risk of incident hypertension across categories of MeDiet adherence. Within strata of low (<4) and high (≥4) scores of adherence to the MeDiet, the HRs for the association between low magnesium and incident hypertension were similar, with values of HR = 1.45 and HR = 1.38, respectively  was independent of adherence to the MeDiet. Participants who were overweight and obese with magnesium intakes below 200 mg/d had a further significantly excess risk compared to lean and overweight or obese participants with higher magnesium intake.Previous studies assessing the relationship of dietary and supplemental magnesium with the incidence of hypertension and diverse meta-analyses on cohort studies and RCTs have reported protective effects ,36,37,39Several mechanisms can explain the protective effects of a diet rich in magnesium against hypertension, including its calcium antagonist actions and its effects on endothelial function, vascular tone, reactivity, and vascular cell growth ,13,14,592) or obese (>30 kg/m2) are related to an increased risk of incident hypertension. However, these categories include several levels of BMI and do not allow us to perceive in detail the linear association of overweight/obesity and incident hypertension. There is evidence in several studies and populations of a significant and linear increase in blood pressure and incident hypertension for BMI values greater than 22 kg/m2 [2), those persons with a BMI greater than 22–23 kg/m2 have a significantly higher risk of incident hypertension compared to those with lower BMI values. In the present study, we observed that in persons with a BMI 23–27 kg/m2 and more so in those with a BMI > 27 kg/m2, the risk of hypertension was multiplied if they had a magnesium-deficient diet, which might add another pathophysiological key mediator linked to a magnesium deficit.We observed that the deleterious effects of a magnesium intake below 200 mg/d on incident hypertension were dramatically worse in overweight and obese participants. Obesity is a well-recognized risk factor for hypertension ,3,4. In 22 kg/m2 ,61,62. E2 and magnesium intake < 200 mg/d had a similar risk of developing hypertension as those with a BMI > 25 kg/m2 with an adequate magnesium intake  [Interestingly, participants with a BMI < 25 kg/mm intake . This coe index)  and genee index)  have beee index) , and impe index) .2 and adequate magnesium intake had lower risk of incident hypertension vs. overweight or obese participants with low magnesium intake, reinforcing the protective effect of dietary magnesium intake against hypertension even in obese persons. This may suggest the protective effect of dietary magnesium intake against obesity-associated hypertension, and that insufficient dietary magnesium intake is associated with increased risk of hypertension in all, regardless of weight.Furthermore, participants with a BMI > 25 kg/mp < 0.0001) may lead one to think that the overall dietary quality may account for the protection apparently afforded by magnesium in our results. However, we observed that the inverse association of dietary magnesium with incident hypertension was similar regardless of adherence to the MeDiet. Most, but not all, MeDiet components contain magnesium; our results might indicate that those components rich in magnesium content  were particularly protective even when other points of the MeDiet adherence score were not met. Participants with low conformity to this dietary pattern with an adequate magnesium intake were protected, as were obese participants with an adequate magnesium intake. Of note, nearly all magnesium intake in our cohort was from dietary sources, and the use of magnesium supplements was marginal and at low doses.The positive relationship of dietary magnesium intake with the MeDiet adherence score in our cohort . This has been reported in previous studies [We observed a strong correlation between dietary magnesium and fiber intakes  and the MeDiet . InteresAmong the strengths of the present study we include the large sample size, the prospective design, the extensive follow-up, the high retention rate, and the possibility to adjust for numerous confounding factors. Potential limitations include that, regardless of the SUN cohort characteristic, the application of our results in other contexts must be based on common biological mechanisms and not on simple statistical “representativeness.” Thus, we used restriction to reduce potential confounding factors, such as socioeconomic status, education, disease, and expected access to health care. Future studies are needed in order to test our findings in other populations. Another limitation could be the use of self-reported information; however, self-reported parameters such as hypertension, weight and BMI have been previously validated ,51,52,56Based on our present results in a Mediterranean cohort and those of previous studies from other regions cited above, the populations that currently tend towards a diet poor in magnesium can benefit from correcting this deficit through the introduction and sufficient use of magnesium-rich foods in their usual diets. Furthermore, the benefit is multiplied by the fact that these same foods contain other substances that are beneficial to health.It is clear that people with a higher cardiovascular risk, including those with a higher risk for hypertension, would benefit the most. Nevertheless, more evidence is needed from other populations, e.g., from Asia, South America, Africa, and other European countries, which may help in further developing healthy dietary recommendations and interventions.A dietary pattern with magnesium intake below 200 mg/d was strongly and independently associated with a higher risk of developing hypertension in a relatively young Mediterranean cohort. This association was worse for overweight and obese participants and independent of the conformity with the Mediterranean dietary pattern. These results emphasize the importance of controlling overweight and to broadly encourage the consumption of foods such as vegetables, nuts, whole cereals, and legumes, optimal dietary sources of magnesium, in order to prevent hypertension, the main risk factor for cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events in all populations.


The research on the quality of traditional pork can not only provide a reference for the thorough breeding and food development of pigs, but also make a reference for understanding the local history and social culture. The Liangshan pig is a traditional Chinese miniature pig breed. It is mainly raised in the Liangshan Yi area and is closely related to the dietary culture of the local people. The characteristics of, and changes in, the meat quality, amino acid composition and fatty acid composition of Liangshan pigs of different weights were revealed for the first time in this paper. It was found that as the weight of Liangshan pigs increased, the contents of marbling score, intramuscular fat, shear force, Met, Asp, Asn, C18: 0 and C20: 2 increased, and drip loss, Trp and C22: 6 decreased. Taken together, our findings serve as a reference for the development of the local Liangshan pig industry.Indigenous pig breeds are important biological resources and their diversity has been severely damaged. The Liangshan pig is a typical mountain-type local pig breed in southwest China. Here, the meat quality, amino acid, and fatty acid composition of Liangshan pigs were compared at seven stages within the weight range of 50–90 kg. A score for comprehensive factors of meat quality was maintained after rising and kept in a plateau within 74.9–91.5 kg of body weight. The total amount of amino acids in the longissimus dorsi muscle remained stable, and the total fatty acids showed an upward trend. Amino acid composition analysis revealed that as the body weight of Liangshan pigs increased, umami, basic, and acidic amino acid contents decreased, while the essential amino acids (EAA) content and the ratio of basic amino acids to acidic amino acids increased. Fatty acid composition analysis revealed that as body weight increased, the content of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) exhibited a downward trend, while the content of saturated fatty acids (SFA) exhibited an upward trend. This study is a primary step towards the development and utilization of Liangshan pigs and provides useful information for local pork processing and genetic improvement. Local pigs are important biological resources for new breeds and strains, the protection of animal diversity, and the realization of sustainable animal husbandry . Pig proThe formation of local pig breeds is closely related to the local environment and people’s consuming habits . Pigs arThe Liangshan pig is a traditional small-sized Chinese indigenous pig breed, mainly reared in the Yi minority region of Liangshan, China. It has a strong resistance to cold and thrives on coarse feed. Like most local pigs, Liangshan pigs have strong adaptability and good meat quality. However, Liangshan pigs have a slow growth rate and low feed conversion rate; therefore, the population of Liangshan pigs has decreased rapidly in recent years . LimitedIn the present study, the quality, and amino acid and fatty acid composition of meat from 140 slaughtered Liangshan pigs was measured. The analysis of these data will help towards understanding meat quality characteristics and change rules of Liangshan pigs, and to formulate optimal slaughter times and suitable food development strategies. The results of this study are also of reference value for the genetic improvement of other local pigs and the development of specialty foods.The experimental protocol was approved by the Animal Care and Ethics Committee of Sichuan Agricultural University, Sichuan, China, under permit No. DKY-S20123030 and No. DKY-S20123138.The experiment was organized and performed at the Liangshan pig conservation farm of Mabian Gold Liangshan Agriculture Development Co. Ltd. . A total of 140 pigs with a similar birth date and birth weight  were randomly selected from the farm. Based on the methods of previous reports, 140 pigs were slaughtered at 7 different weight stages (the difference between each stage was approximately 6 kg) between 160 and 260 days of age, with 20 pigs from each stage . The ingAll pigs were fed the same commercial feedstuff. The pigs had ad libitum access to diet and water. All pigs were slaughtered following the method of Xiao et al. . After t1), and the second at 24 h (pH2). Make 3 repetitions for each sample, take 3 readings for each repetition, and then calculate the average. Color parameters were measured using a Minolta CR-300 colorimeter . Drip loss was calculated from the weight loss of a sample (approximately 30 g) wrapped in foil and placed on a flat plastic grid after storage for 24 h at 4 °C. Cooking loss was determined by cooking meat samples for 30 min, then, after cooling, measuring the weight loss relative to the uncooked weight. Marbling scores (MS) were determined using longissimus dorsi muscle 24 h after slaughter . Shear force (SF) was determined using a Texture Analyzer  equipped with a Warner-Bratzler shearing device.The determination of meat quality traits mainly refers to those used in our previous study . The lonFree amino acid (FAA) and fatty acid compositions were determined according to a previous article . FAA comIntramuscular fat (IMF), crude protein (CP) and ash contents were measured by the Nutrition Institute of Sichuan Agricultural University. CP was determined by the Kjeldahl method, and IMF content was determined by Soxhlet extraction .p < 0.05. A comprehensive evaluation of Liangshan pigs at different bodyweight stages was performed using a factor analysis test.The ANOVA procedure was performed in SAS for Windows Release 8.0  and was used to analyze the data collected. Duncan’s test was used for comparing the mean values of the results. Mean values and standard errors are shown in the tables, with differences considered significant if 2 and drip loss values, while the marbling score, shear force, crude protein, and intramuscular fat content were the lowest. At the seventh stage, meat samples’ pH1, shear force, and intramuscular fat content were the highest, while drip loss and ash value were the lowest.The meat quality and crude chemical composition of Liangshan pig meat samples exhibited significant differences at different stages . The fir1, pH2, cooking loss, and crude protein increased slowly and fluctuated, while marbling score, shear force and intramuscular fat content rapidly and continuously increased  in the longissimus dorsi muscle of Liangshan pigs in the seventh stage was the highest, reaching 28.13% A. FurtheA total of 24 fatty acids were measured in the longissimus dorsi muscle of Liangshan pigs in the seven stages tested . C16:0, Correlation analysis was performed on meat quality indicators that changed by >50% of their values at the first stage. Mar bling score was significantly positively correlated with shear force, intramuscular fat, and C18:0 content. Shear force was significantly positively correlated with intramuscular fat and C18:0 content. Intramuscular fat content was significantly positively correlated with Asp and C18:0 content, and significantly negatively correlated with C22:6 content .Through factor analysis, three characteristic values greater than 1 were obtained, and the cumulative contribution rate of the components reached 91.18% A. The coThe Liangshan pig is a typical small-sized mountain-type pig breed, which is mainly distri buted in the Yi Autonomous Prefecture of Liangshan. Like most of the world’s local pig breeds, Liangshan pigs are endangered ,11. The Studies on the development of animal tissues and organs have shown that fat deposition occurs later than muscle deposition, and fat deposition is rapid after the turning point in animal growth . Our preAmino acids are basic units that make up proteins required by animals . EAAs muAmino acids are also divided into neutral amino acids, basic amino acids, and acidic amino acids . The aciAs bodyweight increased, the total fatty acid content of Liangshan pig meat samples showed an upward trend, which was consistent with intramuscular fat content and mar bling score. Dietary fatty acids are closely related to cardiovascular health, and higher SFA content in meat products has been shown to affect cholesterol metabolism . PUFAs pAmong the 54 indicators measured in this study, 10 indicators changed by more than 50%. Among these indicators, three were of meat quality traits, four were amino acids, and three were fatty acids. Correlation analysis showed that as intramuscular fat was deposited, C18:0 and Asp content increased rapidly, while C22:6 content decreased rapidly. Although saturated fatty acids are associated with a higher risk of cardiovascular disease, C18:0 does not lead to an increase in blood cholesterol . Asp is The current results show that differences in meat quality, amino acid composition, and fatty acid composition are present in Liangshan pigs at different slaughter weights. As bodyweight increased, mar bling score, intramuscular fat, shear force, Met, Asp, Asn, C18:0, and C20:2 content increased, and drip loss, Trp and C22:6 content decreased. The comprehensive factor score first increased and then decrease with weight gain within 74.9–91.5 kg of bodyweight. When slaughtering between 74.9 and 80.4 kg, the meat quality of Liangshan pigs is the best. Slaughtering between 74.5 and 80.4 kg provides the best meat quality in Liangshan pigs. In addition, when slaughtered at 80.4 kg, pork had the highest sweet amino acid content and the lowest n6:n3 ratio. Therefore, considering the meat quality, amino acid composition and fatty acid composition, the suitable slaughter weight of Liangshan pigs is 74.9–80.4 kg. This study provides effective data for the genetic improvement and specialty food processing of Liangshan pigs and provides new insights and references for research into local high incidences of disease.


Within this context, knowledge of the mechanisms involved in the response and acclimation of photosynthetic CO2 assimilation to multiple changing environmental conditions  is a matter of great concern for the understanding of plant behavior under stress conditions, and for the development of new strategies and tools for enhancing plant growth in the future. The current review aims to analyze, from a multi-perspective approach  the impact of changing environmental conditions on the performance of the photosynthetic apparatus and, consequently, plant growth.Increased periods of water shortage and higher temperatures, together with a reduction in nutrient availability, have been proposed as major factors that negatively impact plant development. Photosynthetic CO The global population is forecast to increase by 2 billion and reach 9.8 billion people in 2050 . This meAbiotic environmental stresses are considered as major limitations threatening worldwide food security and have a great impact on global crop production. It has been proven that the impact of these changes on natural systems and human health has already been harmful. It is reported that the global mean land and ocean surface temperatures have increased by 0.8 °C during the period 1888 to 2012 ,4. FurthConcurrent with the elevation of ambient temperatures, increases in evaporation and reductions in precipitation rates are expected, while a growing inequality in the distribution of precipitation around the world will make water reserves increasingly scarce . Uncerta2 concentration is studied as a single factor, crop production tends to increase, but under field conditions, various stress factors can occur simultaneously, such as water scarcity and high temperature, which could mitigate the positive effect of high CO2 on plant yields. Obviously, crop yields are constrained by the environment during the crop growth period. Therefore, climate models could be helpful tools to predict trends in crop productivity under future climate scenarios [Elevated temperature has been described to cause faster crop development and thus to reduce crop duration, which is mainly associated with lower yields . It has cenarios .In this review, we first address the photosynthetic metabolism under stress conditions, especially high temperature, water, and nutrients scarcity. We then describe major methods that have been used for photosynthesis-based breeding under the scenario of climate change. Finally, we discuss perspectives for crop breeding programs.Exposure to environmental stress induces numerous physiological reactions in plants. Among the key physiological changes are alterations in photosynthetic rates and assimilate translocation , changes2 diffusion factors and/or (ii) metabolic factors , which produces a fall in the assimilation of CO2. On the other hand, when water stress is more severe, metabolic limitations occur [In general terms, stress-derived inhibitory effects on photosynthesis may be due to (i) limitations on CO factors . There ins occur . Among tns occur ,34.2 availability to plants can vary depending on the environmental conditions, and its assimilation is dependent on numerous factors; stomatal closure, changes in the activity of the Calvin cycle, or alterations in the thylakoid structure, among others [Plant development and growth processes are predicted to be negatively affected by high temperatures in a climate change scenario. Faced with such an extreme global warming situation, carbon uptake by vegetation is clearly a major pathway for mitigating climate change ,36. Neveg others ,38. Expog others .The effects of extreme high temperatures on crops have been widely analyzed in several species; wheat , cowpea 2 assimilation at the stomatal level, i.e., closure of stomata under heat stress conditions, and impaired photosynthesis is a consequence. In fact, by controlling water vapor and CO2 diffusion, stomata largely contribute to both the rate and the temperature dependence of photosynthesis [In the first instance, extreme temperatures affect COynthesis . Severalynthesis ,52,53,54ynthesis  also sug2 diffusion pathway from the atmosphere to the site of carboxylation in chloroplasts is when CO2 molecules pass through leaf mesophyll, with mesophyll conductance (gm) being an important component that limits this diffusion [2 concentration among atmosphere and carboxylation sites [2 assimilation and respiration rates as both processes are temperature sensitive, although respiration is typically more sensitive than net photosynthesis to rising temperatures [2 fixation, and CO2 release by photorespiration and mitochondrial respiration [2, which competes with CO2 for enzyme binding sites. As substrates of Rubisco, both O2 and CO2 play a key role in regulating the response of photosynthesis to heat stress [2 fixation rate of plants being affected by the CO2/O2 ratio. The increase in CO2 translates into an increase in the CO2/O2 ratio, which causes a decrease in photorespiration. However, elevated temperatures stimulate photorespiration due to greater solubility of O2 relative to CO2 [2 [Another step in the COiffusion . These aiffusion ,58 and iiffusion  and in riffusion . Some auon sites . The daton sites . In the on sites ,62,63,64on sites  confirmson sites ,66, an ion sites ,60,67,68eratures . Temperaeratures . As leafpiration . In C3 pt stress , with the to CO2 , and deco CO2 [2 ,75,76. Ao CO2 [2 ,78. Someo CO2 [2 ,77. Howeo CO2 [2 . Some sto CO2 [2 , and it o CO2 [2 ,81. Thiso CO2 [2 . PSII iso CO2 [2 . There is also a need that contributes to our understanding of the mechanisms by which plants adapt to heat stress. Because heat stress is considered an abiotic stress, several studies have focused on biochemical reactions, principally those related to hormones and primary and secondary metabolites, such as antioxidants . At the Finally, not all plant species are able to cope with heat stress at the same level; plant sensitivity to high temperature varies according to the severity, duration, and developmental timing of the stress. However, all of them are forced to modulate their metabolism to prevent irreversible damage by reprogramming biological processes for stress adaptation . For thaAn early initial response of plants, when faced with water deficit, is the alteration of plant water relations with decreases in leaf water potential of leaf, turgor pressure, relative water content (RWC), and transpiration rate (E) . Due to 2 diffusion from the atmosphere to the sub-stomatal cavity is reduced, which results in a lower stomatal conductance (gs), and which in turn is the main cause of the decreases in the photosynthetic rate (A) under water stress [s in important crops under water deficit, such as wheat [s [s and E, as shown in wheat [+ from guard cells, which results in stomatal closure [In this sense, the response of plants to maintaining the cell water content is to limit water loss through fast stomatal closure ,88,94,95as wheat , rice [9as wheat , and grawheat [s  and undein wheat ,99 and bin wheat . Neverthin wheat . In gene closure . 2 diffusion through the stomata under water stress conditions is accompanied by a reduction in mesophyll conductance (mg) [mg is defined as the CO2 diffusion to the site of carboxylation in the chloroplast through the leaf mesophyll. In addition, mg is considered an important factor in the regulation of photosynthesis under different environmental situations [sg. It exhibits a wide variability among species, functional groups, leaf forms, and developmental stages [mg under water stress can be due to physical alterations in the intercellular spaces, biochemical changes, and/or membrane permeability [mg and photosynthesis [2 concentration within the chloroplast (cC) is lower than in the sub-stomatal cavity (Ci), and this difference increases under water stress conditions [The reduced COnce (gm) ,88. As atuations  due to al stages . The redeability . Studiesynthesis . Obvious2 availability in the mesophyll [Plants have developed interlinked strategies to overcome stress, and the biochemical responses are detected after a reduction in COesophyll ; among tesophyll . Osmoticesophyll . It consesophyll . Compounesophyll . For insesophyll .2O2), superoxide (O2−), and singlet oxygen (1O2), that cause membrane rupture and thereby affect photosynthesis [Water stress conditions also stimulate the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as peroxide ), ROS, and second messengers (sugars) ,88. SomeFinally, as yield losses become more common under increasingly frequent and intense drought periods, the search is on for effective adaptation strategies to the effects of climate change on agriculture. It is, therefore, important to understand the responses and mechanisms by which plants can increase their adaptability to these adverse conditions. The approach should integrate photosynthesis responses, stomatal closure, osmotic adjustment, plant water relations, ROS scavenging and defense, and signaling and gene expression.3− and NH4+) is one of the elements that plants need to absorb from the soil. N-unstressed plants have between 2% and 5% dry weight (DW) range of concentrations found in different plant tissues, crop developments, and species [2PO4− and HPO4−2 are used by roots. Growth is not limited by P when the range in the plant tissues is between 0.3 and 0.5% DW [−10 M, while plant requirements are ca. 10−7 M [−1 DW [+2 redox state is readily available to plants for root uptake. For different species and environmental variables, the threshold values for Mn deficiency are 10–20 μg g−1 DW [+2 in well-oxygenated soils, or as Cu+ under flooding or in poorly oxygenated soils. Leaf Cu deficiency usually appears below 3–5 μg g−1 DW [2+, although the chemical form ZnOH+ is possibly also absorbed in high pH soils [Soil conditions determine leaf metabolism, and particularly photosynthetic metabolism . Among t species . Soils c 0.5% DW ,109. Soi 0.5% DW , making  0.5% DW . However. 10−7 M , causingM [−1 DW . Soils ag g−1 DW . In soilg g−1 DW . Soils npH soils . The thrpH soils .In agricultural areas, plants require favorable soil compaction, optimal soil water content, and nutrients, because crops control growth and yield as a function of the edaphic conditions and the environment. Commonly, photosynthesis responds to those stresses slower than does growth. In compacted soils, under drought or in soils poor in nutrients, photosynthesis is impaired because of different factors . In P-de2 levels within the leaf mesophyll close to the sub-stomatal chamber, which will cause partial stomatal closure. In any of the two situations mentioned above, stomata close, but the stomata are only a part of the resistance that the leaf poses to the diffusion of CO2 from the atmosphere to the carboxylation sites in the chloroplast. Once the CO2 molecules cross the sub-stomatal cavity, they need to travel across the different layers of leaf cells, encountering different barriers, to reach the chloroplast Rubisco enzyme. Under drought and limiting N and Mn, the mesophyll conductance to CO2 limits the photosynthetic rates [2 fixation in leaves affected by Fe deficiency. Furthermore, this was documented from time to time with K deficiency [A low stomatal aperture limits photosynthesis under a variety of stress factors. Thus, it is commonly reported in response to drought and widely documented in compacted soil-grown plants or in those soils inducing the deficiencies of the macronutrients K and P, and the micronutrients Zn and Cu . When dric rates . An impaficiency . In N- aficiency . In planficiency ,114. Und2 fixation in non-inoculated plants, whereas in symbiosis with ectomycorrhizal fungi, physiology, and, in consequence, growth was hardly affected [Populus cathayana improved electron transport and CO2 fixation rates, more markedly under low than under high water availability [Plants in the field interact with many microorganisms that reach the leaves via the atmosphere and the roots via the soil. At the soil level, microbes  are able to promote plant growth. Microbes act, moreover, as sinks for a part of the carbohydrates synthesized by the plant, enhancing, as a result, photosynthesis in the plants with which they interact. Soil compaction has been shown to impair American elm COaffected . Thus, saffected . In linelability .As mentioned before, the production of sufficient food to meet increasing population demands while maintaining environmental sustainability is one of the biggest challenges of the twenty-first century ,2. This 2 assimilation rate during the growing season [Crop biomass production and yield are mainly derived from the cumulative COg season . There ig season . Reynoldg season  highlighThere is also evidence that historic gains in wheat yield potential have been associated with increased photosynthesis. Furthermore, basic research in photosynthesis has confirmed that substantial improvements are theoretically possible . According to Passioura’s identity , grain ybiomass) . Since tRUE is largely determined in cereal crops by the interception of light necessary for photosynthesis  and the phenological stage. Thus, the angle adjustment of the leaf and canopy architecture has an important role in the photosynthesis and productivity of these crops ,123,124.2 throughout the season, and higher yields [The process of senescence in plants is genetically controlled and determined by environmental conditions. During senescence, the concentration of leaf chlorophyll decreases, and thus, as these decreases reach a given threshold, the leaf photosynthetic capacity decreases. Plants with delayed senescence or stay-green usually have a longer period of grain filling, greater accumulation of assimilated COr yields ,137. Somr yields ,142,143.r yields ,145,146.2 assimilation in crops, either through traditional breeding or using modern techniques of synthetic biology and genetic engineering [Photosynthesis is a quantitative trait that involves multiple genes, regulatory mechanisms, and different metabolic pathways and plant structures working together . Severalineering ,152,153 Photosynthesis, and traits related to plant performance in general under abiotic stress, is complex and quantitative in nature ,155. Qua2 assimilation and WUE. Several studies of QTL mapping of traits associated with CO2 assimilation have been conducted in major crops. As was previously discussed, gs, canopy structure, and functional stay-green are among the most addressed traits studied to improve plant photosynthesis in crops. The relationship between QTLs and gs has been established in rice [2 has been reported, and QTLs for chlorophyll content and photosynthesis have been identified in rice [s, canopy structure, and stay-green due the nature of the CO2 assimilation process, QTLs associated with stress tolerance, such as productivity traits (grain yield and yield components) and physiological traits , are to some extent, also associated with photosynthesis. An excellent introduction to QTL mapping and marker-assisted selection (MAS) for plant breeding has already been provided by Singh and Singh . Indeed, in rice ,161,162, in rice ,165,166, in rice ,168, and in rice , althoug in rice ,171. Sev in rice  and refe in rice ,174,175, in rice , as well in rice . On the  in rice ,177,178, in rice ,181,182, in rice , sorghum in rice ,185,186, in rice . In the  in rice , wheat [ in rice ,189, and in rice ,190. Thehttp://www.gramene.org/; http://www.plantgdb.org/), and there are NGS-based platforms for genome-wide high-throughput genotyping for crop species [In spite of the many studies and QTLs mapped in major crops, only a few have been used in practice for selection purposes in crop breeding programs, and those have been mostly restricted to traits with simple inheritance, such as monogenic or oligogenic inheritance including resistance to diseases and pests ,192,193. species ,197. Com species . Although GS is a promising approach to select parents in the early stages of the breeding process , the slo4 traits into rice funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, which is intended to increase photosynthetic efficiency by 50%, improve nitrogen use efficiency, and double water use efficiency in rice (https://c4rice.com/). Some recent reviews highlight the basis of this work and its advances [Advances in genetic engineering and synthetic biology make it possible to manipulate genes associated with photosynthesis with the aim of improving primary plant production. Several genes of interest for the improvement of photosynthesis and crop yield have been identified and manipulated to modify stomatal conductance, generate better ideotypes, reduce losses from photorespiration and respiration, enhance Rubisco efficiency, and increase sink strength and photoassimilate partitioning into the sink. These studies have been the subject of several reviews ,204,205.advances ,207,208.Despite the broad possibilities of modern molecular and synthetic biology tools for engineering crop photosynthesis, mining of the natural variation in existing germplasm through NGS, QTL, and SNP analyses, together with deeper and more practical phenotype screening, are currently the most feasible approaches for improving plant photosynthesis ,204.2 on plant net photosynthesis and productivity, predictions of climate change also involve rises in average temperatures of 2.6 °C and 4.8 °C by 2065 and 2100, respectively, and greater climate variability with more frequent periods of drought and heatwaves [2 concentration alone, plant responses are generally increased in photosynthesis, growth, and yield. However, growth and production may decrease under the future higher atmospheric CO2 concentrations when plants are also subjected to elevated temperature or insufficient water. In fact, significant decreases in yields of rice and wheat have been reported under elevated CO2 (500 ppm) due to an increase in canopy temperature of 1.5–2.0 °C [Regardless of the enhancer effect of high COeatwaves . It is weatwaves . When si5–2.0 °C . 2 assimilation  and at the same time on the enhancement of the water (WUE) and nutrient use efficiency in preparation for the environmental conditions predicted for the future. Further research is also recommended on plants with delayed senescence (stay-green) since this situation usually maintains the plant photosynthetically active for a longer time leading to an extended period of grain filling.Crop production must double by 2050 to meet the predicted production demands of the global population, however, achieving this goal will be a significant challenge for plant breeders. Traditional plant breeding is based on phenotypic selection and subsequent progeny testing, commonly followed by re-selection, which can be a very slow process and often requires time-consuming and costly phenotyping. The understanding of physiologic and molecular mechanisms involved in the response of photosynthetic machinery and plant development under changing environmental conditions could lead to the development of new strategies and tools for enhancing stress tolerance. There is increasing evidence that to achieve a quantum boost to crop yield potential, a major improvement in photosynthetic capacity and/or efficiency will be required. There is also evidence that historic gains in wheat yield potential have been associated with increased photosynthesis. Thus, it is recommended for crop breeding programs to continue working on the improvement of the efficiency of plant CO