This study sought to analyze non-PE teachers experiences in PE and how these experiences relate to the value they attribute to PE, sports and PA, and the impact of teachers’ perceptions on promoting active lifestyles in the school’s context. A mixed-method study was adopted. (2) Methods: A survey about the perceptions in PE was applied to 297 teachers . From this sample, 24 teachers were selected for three focus groups considering their experiences in PE . MaxQda was used for the inductive qualitative data analysis. (3) Results: Teachers who have had good experiences in PE value the role of PE and sports. Teachers who have had bad experiences do not value the importance of PE or sports. (4) Conclusions: The results support the importance of having good experiences in PE to generate positive attitudes. Thus, teachers who have had bad experiences in PE may constitute barriers that will hinder the promotion of an educational climate that promotes PA and active lifestyles in schools. There are well-documented health benefits associated with regular physical activity (PA) ,2,3. SchIn accordance with the socio-ecological model of school  and PE , school-In Portugal was carried out a study on teachers of all subjects, students, and parents in six of Greater Lisbon’s basic and secondary schools. Two hundred and ninety-four teachers participated in the study  [Obtaining the support and adherence of all educational agents is crucial to success in school interventions aiming to promote the practice of PA; however, little is known about the role of secondary classroom teachers. , PE is the responsibility of the classroom teacher, a generalist with a master’s degree in basic education. He or she has the autonomy to decide when and how much time dedicated to PE per week. In the second cycle of education (10–11 years), third cycle (12–14 years), and secondary level (15–17 years), PE is imparted by a teacher with a master’s degree in PE and School Sport.) In promoting PA and sports, this study sought to explore and analyze teachers’ past experiences in PE and how these experiences relate to the value they attribute to PE and PA. To understand the status that PE has in the school setting, it is important to identify what all teachers, mainly classroom teachers, think about the PA process and the promotion of PA at schools. In addition, the present study intends to shed light on attempts to understand the impact of teachers’ perceptions on promoting active lifestyles in the school context.To find in-depth descriptions of the perceptions, attitudes, and behaviours of different teachers, a mixed method was used. First, a validated survey  was applThe focus group was part of a larger study (a mixed-method study). Therefore, a prior script was made and discussed among the research team, considering the aims of the study. Then, the script was submitted to a group of research experts in PE and Portuguese language for validation or to suggest changes. Next, a pilot study with a sample with similar characteristics to the population . The goal was to train the researcher in conducting the focus group, test the script and improve it.The questions to the focus group were mainly drawn from the questionnaire data  and the gaps in knowledge identified in the literature review, considering the study’s objective and exploratory design. The final focus group script was composed of eight questions: two preliminary questions about what school they had attended in childhood and youth, and another about their past experiences in PE. A second group of five questions aimed at a deeper understanding of how these experiences influenced their current lifestyle, perceptions about the status of PE, and ranking of PE in school curricula. Further questions were about PE assessment (mandatory or not), PE aims, and, ending this set of questions, one question about the role of the school in promoting and developing active lifestyles. Focus group questions are available in All the participants gave their consent in writing prior to their participation, and the purposes of the research were laid out to them. They were told the focus group would be tape-recorded and that any information they gave would be kept confidential, that they were also free to leave each section at any time. Personal data from this study was anonymized using identification by numbers in the survey and nicknames in the focus groups. Each of the three focus groups took place in a quiet room in the school, for approximately 50 min, in June of 2015. One researcher monitored the discussions in each of the three focus groups  and took notes during interactions. A small snack was served to each focus group at the end of the session. All focus groups were audio-taped and transcribed verbatim. Ethical approval was granted by the University committee. Schools and teachers agreed to participate in the study.Focus groups were transcribed verbatim for data analysis using Microsoft Word. During the transcription, some units of recording (phrases/words), were highlighted in colour, which seemed relevant to the study purposes. After transcribing the focus groups, the protocols were again examined to confirm and check for any missing information. This was an opportunity to highlight other units or recordings through the audio records of the focus group, audio files, written transcripts, and field notes. This was an iterative process that occured simultaneously . A themaSubsequently, the documents with the focus group transcripts were imported into the MAXQDA 11  content analysis program. During the investigation process, this instrument was updated to MAXQDA 12 , allowing the treatment of data for focus groups; this facility did not exist previously, and helped in the final process analysis.Initially, only two focus groups were analysed, based on the thematic analysis procedures  comparinThroughout the process, the categories were successively compared and re-examined throughout the process, considering the aim in question. Subsequently, the categoric system that was developed was subjected to validation by two research experts. As the result of the analysis of each question, the following category system was created, composed of three dimensions of analysis: (i) dimension of psychological factors and cognitive factors; (ii) social factors; (iii) educational factors related to PE; each one with categories and subcategories .Through experience, teachers develop stable emotional characteristics, which contribute to structuring their beliefs  ,17,18, aIn this study, teachers who had good experiences with PE in elementary and secondary school value the role of PE in the promotion of PA. According to them, the factors that contributed to build good experiences were the aspects related to the planning and organization of the class, which are the responsibility of the PE teacher :And that was where I liked it even more, because I had a very active PE teacher.“FG “+” (Fem1)She (PE teacher) was very good, explained everything.“FG “+” (Fem1)(i)Dimension of psychological and cognitive factors (good or very good experiences)The first dimension identifies individual factors related to perceptions, attitudes, and knowledge .Perception of competence–refers to feelings of ability to perform some physical tasks.Well, for me it was easy, I could do everything.“FG “+” Attitudes towards PE–favorable references related to PE .(...) right, I really liked it, always, it was a subject that I always put effort on, because I liked.“FG “+” Meaningful PE can help students value their experiences in PE and understand how participation improves the quality of their lives. Moreover, it emphasizes the importance of the development of meaningful experiences in the early years of schooling for children and young people, contributing to more positive attitudes towards PE, sports, and PA, given it is a favorable period for structuring active live styles ,27,28. T(ii)Dimension of social factors (good or very good experiences)The second dimension is related to the influence of family and friends on PA participation.Family–favorable references related to family members.I started going to soccer with my father, ah... I began to like it.“FG “+” (Fem3)Friends–favorable references related to peers.I used to ride bike with my friends, and I still do it.“FG “+” Grounded in social learning theory , student(iii)Dimension of educational factors of PE (good or very good experiences)The third dimension refers to the identification of past experiences in PE classes, relating to the curriculum, the teacher, the class characteristics, and the resources.Curriculum–favorable references related to subject matter in classes .But I remember that I loved to dance.“FG “+” (Fem2)But what I really liked was the sports, soccer... And the competition … I love the competition.“FG “+” Teacher–favorable references related to ability and personality of the teacher .He had a way of motivating us and even if we did not like it, he would adapt and we would do it willingly.“FG “+” (Fem4)This highlights the role of meaningful interactions between the teacher and the curriculum learning context, identifying how teachers’ actions and class participation can lead to better experiences. Moreover, it recognizes that the encouragement received from the teacher enhanced meaningful engagements with PE and PA .For this reason, we underline the importance of clearly identifying the objectives of each task, their importance, and usefulness. Students must understand the meaning and real value of what they are learning, providing them with clear opportunities to appropriate this knowledge, reflect on their experiences and the ability to accomplish them .There is a belief that men prefer playing team invasion games, mainly the typical European sport  with friends or peers, and that includes groups of the same ability level, considering the need they have to compete . For malFor female teachers, their perceptions of PE and PA are specially related to fitness and health rather than games or competition. Female teachers’ preferences fall into individual activities . Probably this is because they have more opportunities for participation and more self-awareness of competence. Several authors ,39 argueDedicated literature suggests several approaches to improve girls’ participation in PE: considering women’s participation in future PA, reflecting girls’ voices and needs , ensurinRegarding teachers who have had bad experiences in PE, they do not value the importance of PE and PA in the global development and education of students. The factors they list for negative attitudes toward PE include: traumatic experiences, a low level of PE teacher competence, curriculum, and the use of specific equipment.(i)Dimension of psychological and cognitive factors (bad or very bad experiences)Traumatic experiences(...) For example, when I did some somersaults in the plinth, for me, it was a fright; I was terrified, scared, and I only did it because they forced me.“FG “−” (Fem4)Perception of competenceBecause I was awful in PE, I could do nothing, and the teacher sent me to be the referee.“FG “−” (Fem2)I don’t know how to swim and my teacher pushed me into the water.“FG “−” (Fem4)Adults have extraordinarily vivid negative memories of PE from their youth; reports were associated with poor perceptions of competence and relationships, two basic psychological needs assumed in the self-determination theory , which aMoreover, support activities where pleasure, mastery, well-being, and fun were established to achieve PE aims are considered essential indicators of lifelong participation in the culture of movement and are strictly linked to learning .(ii)Dimension of educational factors of PE (bad or very bad experiences)CurriculumThe classes always started the same … running.“FG “−” (Fem3)PE teacherSome teachers are bad leaders for students.“FG “−” (Fem1)He made us run around the court, while he sat on a bench, reading a newspaper.“FG “−” (Fem2)(as well as its transportation)Specific equipment I did not like PE days because I had to walk loaded with... with.... with track suits, right? ... and we had to walk all day with the bag, it was more weight.“FG “−” I searched my father’s drawer to find the biggest sweater to wear.“FG “−” (Fem1)These personal experiences are typically formed with social support from teachers or colleagues, which can enhance meaningful engagement with content .Teachers mentioned curriculum blocks of sports in PE classes and teacher-directed learning as the concepts used by their PE teachers they remember unfavorably. The references to ‘running’, associated with ‘being’ healthy or having better physical condition, neglects other ways of viewing PE in a more holistic way; some authors call this a narrow way of seeing PE .Also, some teachers with bad experiences mentioned that changing clothes in the locker room was uncomfortable. Others pointed out that they felt on display in classes and constantly judged by their body types. These incidents created negative past-performance experiences.Moreover, teachers who formed unfavorable reports about their experiences also highlighted the aspects related to the benefits collected:It was good for my health and it was also fun.“FG “−” (Fem3)Having fun must be considered a significant part of their experience in PE or sports, but it does not mean undisciplined or disorganized classes. Fun is generally associated with absence from learning, and students can regard PE as not serious . AlthougIn 1978, UNESCO granted the “fundamental right” status to PE and sports.In addition, it established that each education system should guarantee its practice for every student, being linked to other educational components. Moreover, it considered PE the most proficient way to provide all children and youth with the skills, attitudes, knowledge, values, and full competency for necessary lifelong involvement in society. However, for decades, PE has been seen as a subject that only emphasizes physical or practical issues, with a limited focus on cognitive or educational content . AlthougTeacher’s perceptions about PE aims.Given the meaning of lifelong learning and holistic educational outcomes , according to the Portuguese student profile at the end of secondary school , PE is oPromoting a quality PE (QPE) may encourage students to embrace a culture of movement, competitive sports, or other physically demanding activities. High quality physical education is associated with the development of physical and psycho-social well-being, peer-led learning and supporting students in developing physical, social, and emotional skills that define healthy, resilient, and socially responsible citizens. QPE grants equal opportunities for all students to become physically confident and encourages an active and healthy lifestyle; the aims and goals of PE are a guarantee .Identifying the perceptions of other subject teachers about the aims and goals of PE is determinant to knowing their beliefs about it .Teachers who had good PE experiences considered PE a way to promote good ethics as well as important for promoting healthy lifestyles.It’s important to promote good ethics and healthy lifestyles. Helps in development of good citizens.“FG “+” (Fem2)Teachers who had very bad PE experiences considered PE as a means of catharsis, as well as important for promoting healthy lifestyles.PE should be something to promote catharsis when you are tired.“FG “−” (Fem5)It would be important that all PE teachers consider explaining the goals and values of the discipline, not only because it has an educational purpose, but also because it values the profession. On the other hand, it may help to demystify the preconception associated with the standard of academic success if it focuses exclusively on academic subjects , enhancing the favourable aspects expressed in the research of the benefits of PA on students’ academic achievement. The support of all educational agents promoting the practice of PA is essential to success in school interventions .Teacher perceptions about assessment in PE.Teachers who had very bad PE experiences considered that PE should be mandatory without assessment:I think it should not be considered … (assessment), however should be mandatory.“FG “−” (Fem4)On the other hand, teachers who had very good experiences in PE, thought that PE should be mandatory with assessment:If it is a school subject, it must be mandatory and must be assessed like others…to be taken seriously.“FG “+” (Fem4)Assessment is a pedagogical tool in the learning process. It should involve goal setting and explanation, as well as formative tasks aiming to: (i) inform students and teachers about where they are in their learning process; (ii) establish where they intend to go; and (iii) help them to adjust and understand what can be done to achieve the final goal. However, the assessment of learning usually only plays a summative purpose in which students show their knowledge and are given a grade/result associated with their level of success. Moreover, the lack of explanation, goal setting, and appropriate assessment tools in PE probably makes a teacher look more focused on final skills, knowledge acquisition, and grades Literature suggests a roadmap for learning, which means offering different levels of achievement . At eachOther subject teacher perceptions about school responsibility in promoting active and healthy lifestyles.Emerging studies ,61 indicProviding opportunities and educating for active lifestyles.“FG “+” Alternatively, providing more time for activities in the school or spaces where students can play:I really think that schools should create more... more space, and when I say space, I mean more moments (…) but on the other hand, also create more opportunities, recognizing that there are plenty of spaces and activities in school, through sports in school.“FG “+” However, other participating non-PE teachers that have negative perceptions of PE and PA only mentioned that the school should provide opportunities for being active. However, they considered that this responsibility lies only with PE teachers:I think PE teachers already do this … and they have plenty of activities in annual planification.“FG “−” Representing the world through a specialized window is too reductive for each teacher and the school’s roles. The school must be seen beyond its standardized role of learning and teaching in class, and consider all aspects of school life . PromotiSchools must change; teachers are potentially the most decisive elements in the student’s education, along with families and the rest of the community, with different levels of influence . InvestiThe results of this study support the importance of having good experiences in PE to generate positive attitudes towards PE. Thus, teachers who have had bad experiences in PE may constitute barriers that will hinder the promotion of an educational climate that promotes PA and active lifestyles in schools. Unfortunately, a significant number of teachers continue to share the idea that PE and PA negatively influence student achievement. Furthermore, the results also express the need for PE teachers, in addition to their work in the classroom, to interact with other subject teachers, divulging the benefits of PA and, above all, the scientific evidence on the influence of PE and PA on academic achievement and student behaviour.In line with the socio-ecological model of school  and PE , we shar


This rapid response changed the social, spatial, and temporal arrangements of higher education and required important adaptations from educators and students alike. However, while the literature has examined the constraints students faced (e.g. availability of the internet) and the consequences of the pandemic , students’ active management of these constraints for learning remains underexplored. This paper aims to “think with” COVID-19 to explore student agency in home learning under constrained circumstances. This qualitative study used semi-structured interviews to understand the day-to-day actions of nineteen undergraduate students managing their learning during the COVID-19 lockdowns in Victoria, Australia. Emirbayer and Mische’s multiple dimensions of agency — iterative, projective, and practical-evaluative — are used to explore student experience. The findings illustrate students’ adaptability and agency in navigating life-integrated learning, with most of their actions oriented to their present circumstances. This practical evaluative form of agency was expressed through (1) organising self, space, time, and relationships; (2) self-care; and (3) seeking help. Although this study took place in the context of ERT, it has implications beyond the pandemic because higher education  Cultivating student agency is a key part of transitions to new learning environments  between 16 July and 12 August 2020, after they had completed one trimester of remote learning during the lockdown. Students were selected to maximise diversity in relation to the following characteristics. Fourteen participants identified as female and 5 as male, and their ages ranged 18–46 years old, with 15 students under 25. The students were undertaking diverse courses that included the following: business/commerce, science/health, civil engineering, arts/law/internal relations, and psychology, most of them enrolled on a full-time basis (14 of 19) and 15 were studying on campus before the pandemic, while 4 were already enrolled in remote courses before all courses transitioned to the remote format. Three of the 19 students were international.The students participated in semi-structured interviews that ranged between 28 min and 1 h and covered topics about the transition to remote learning, and the day-to-day actions associated with studying and negotiating state-wide lockdowns. We aimed to establish the particular “structuring contexts of action”  coded the remaining transcripts within the qualitative analysis software NVivo (2020), by QSR International. The team met several times to discuss the coded data for all three forms of agency and developed preliminary interpretations which were further tested against the data as team meetings progressed and through writing.Analysis of the interviews was an iterative process that started with all authors reading sample interview transcripts to become familiar with their content. We had intended to first identify the three dimensions of agency proposed by Emirbayer and Mische  — iteratEmirbayer and Mische  anticipaProjective agency was the most limited dimension of agency identified in student data. Students hoped and aspired for a better future, one in which their careers would be better aligned to their dreams. This motivated current action. For example, students expressed hopes which drove action now: “when I graduate, I'll be able to get a job, and then that will benefit my family a whole heap” (S32). Similarly, S41 invoked wanting a career change as a strong motivator for action and persistence. These hopes were cited as motivation to study in the present. S29 projected that learning how to work and study from home would be valuable in the future. While some wanted to pause their study to avoid the online units, their future aspirations drove them to continue with their studies.I had done an online unit before. That's why I know I'm not the best at online. [chuckles] I just did one unit online, my previous degree, and I found myself getting quite lost. I was a little bit “I don't know if this is going to be a good idea but what's the alternative?” The alternative would be withdrawing and then I wouldn't be able to follow the path that I want to go down. Not really an option. (S32)Action in the present was spurred with hopes “to do well” (S6). Unsurprisingly there was “fear associated with the unknown” (S53), “an added layer of stress” (S6) and fear that practicals going online would “reduce the value of the degree” (S9). Some were anxious that the lack of face-to-face study would diminish their chance of being able to ask for a reference from the teachers. Emotional language imbued their future projections.Iterative agency was also only lightly reported. ERT disrupted previous routines, necessitating students to establish new ones — which was not as straightforward as expected. S26 “struggled” to establish one and S36 reported:I had a routine set up for my on-campus classes. When it transitioned to online, I had to change the routine completely, while also maintaining university and all the things that I had already committed myself to. I found it really difficult. I think my judgment of my capabilities was wrong because I thought that I would be able to cope quite well with it, but when it actually came to it, I didn't cope as well as I thought. (S36)I had known how to research all of my assignments and articles beforehand, and in the transition to online I didn't see any guides or anything on how to do that, and so a lot of people were struggling. But I could just take the skills that I had already learned and apply them. (S24) Students described having particular routines that remained the same — replication — for accessing discussion boards or group assignments or online quizzes, taking notes, and sending emails, particularly for those who had studied online before.Others drew from their established work routines (outside of university) around online meetings and utilised these in their study: “You get comfortable with sitting in meetings just with heads or even no faces” (S7). S29 notes: “The knowing of how and where everything is. In terms of assessments, it did get easier”.I suppose it’s easier if you’d gotten to know some people, opposed to if you’d been in first year where you hadn’t got to know anyone yet. That was certainly made a bit easier, being able to at least contact them and see if they had any idea if you were confused on something as well (S47).Being in first year posed more problems with iterative agency. For example, continuing students spoke of existing social connection:Others spoke of pre-established routines: “I've been to uni before, so it's not like I didn't know where to find resources and stuff” (S3).practical-evaluative agency was extensively described and exercised by participants with patterns of actions within, and around, the new constraints imposed by COVID-19 and ERT. We interpreted three intersecting and overlapping categories: (1) organising self, space, time, relationships; (2) self-care; and (3) seeking help.Students’ One of the challenges of ERT was that students who had previously studied on campus were missing the social and spatial cues that organised their daily routines. S24 explained how it was “hard to get in the mood to study when you can just attend your lectures in your pyjamas” melding together study and relaxing time, when in the past they saw the library and the campus as “a much better studying environment”. S32 seemed to enjoy the flexibility of studying on their own terms, but also reflected that while “[one] can just chill out”, it may not be the best way to study. Under these circumstances, most students found new ways to organise themselves, their time, and their personal space for responding to their study and work obligations. This included establishing new routines for studying at home such as setting a time for waking up and getting ready before dedicating given amounts of time to each subject and assignment. This structuring also allowed time for breaks and exercise. Moreover, many students created physical schedules to help them stay on top of tasks and deadlines, which could take the form of spreadsheets (S7), notes and timetables pinned to a wall (S9), or the printable Deakin planner (S32) which students accessed online. This manipulation of the physical space worked as a constant reminder for organising their own time, and on occasions, as a reminder to other people in the household that the student required study time and/or space.This organisational work also involved setting up study spaces, which for some involved more challenges than for others. S47, for example, already had a desk since their school days and an additional screen to extend the laptop’s screen, while S32 required buying a new computer that could facilitate video conferences and ensure a stable internet connection, as well as changing the kitchen chair for a gym ball to be more comfortable during long classes. S41 was able to organise a studio in a spare bedroom, but it was one without natural light and reduced airflow — “I have all the doors open and try to get airflow because otherwise, it gets quite stuffy”. In contrast, S43 alternated between studying at the kitchen table or on their bed, “depending on the noise levels”, showing how the study space was rather improvised action in the immediate present to be renegotiated regularly.Students negotiated with other people at home to create their study spaces, which did not always result in optimal conditions for study. S47, for example, intended to use the family studio for remote learning but ended up using the bedroom when their mother started working from home. This same student had moved back to the family’s farm during the lockdown and negotiated with their father that they needed to focus on studying and could only help in farm work during breaks. Meanwhile, S43 had to share their laptop with a sibling who was also studying at the same year level, which ended up in a less-than-ideal system: “We made a program, I guess, or whoever got to it first or whoever woke up first got to use it”. S32 used the physical timetable and a headset to signal “Mum’s study times” so her children would know when they should not interrupt, while S24 had to resort to wearing earplugs or listening to loud music as their two siblings would play guitar loudly, even during lectures.The drive to work, I've now replaced with doing my physio exercises that prior to COVID, I actually was really struggling to fit in and wasn't doing them consistently and on my drive home, I now go for a walk. I still needed to replace those aspects of what I was doing before COVID just to give my day some structure and some anchor points as well. (S41)Students also wrangled themselves, their space, and their time for self-care and wellbeing purposes. When establishing new routines, some students explicitly allowed time for study breaks, exercise, and meditation before or after study, and often changing scenery by studying at a different place of the house or going for a walk. Dogs played an important role for some students as they encouraged getting out of the house periodically — S53 had four dogs and walked them one at a time. S7 was very explicit in structuring the day to avoid burning out and wasting time, while being kind to themselves: “I suppose, be productive where you can. Then also not beat yourself up for not being productive”. These strategies directly focused on managing affect, motivation in their study, and maintaining physical health. For some students, this involved buying/using equipment like an exercise bike (S49), treadmill (S42), or a rowing machine (S53), using mobile apps for meditation (S29), or adapting their diet (S12). Working out how to take care of themselves took time to figure out, as exemplified by S12, who initially resorted to increasing their alcohol intake before switching to healthier diet and exercise habits. Another student noted:Over time, some students’ self-care and wellbeing also resulted in seeking help, but mostly within their existing networks. After missing some exams and failing a couple of units, S7 “went and got help” and recognised the importance of downtime, while S37 said they called a helpline “but that was really no help”, arguing that counselling would bring up a lot of negative emotions. S29 explained that during stressful times, they reached out to friends they met before the lockdown.To reduce their sense of isolation, some students also made efforts to maintain their social lives through phone or video calls with classmates and friends from outside the university, and S19 reported joining a debate group, which has helped them to become more social: “that loneliness thing made me have to force myself out and it made me realise that I could be more confident in aspects and if anything it encouraged me to join a club activity”.I've never asked for extensions before, but I think I did, a couple of times even, during my last semester and previous semesters. I asked for an extension. Some that I never needed, but it was nice to know I had time to do it. I still submitted on time though. (S37)Some students also reached out for help when they faced study challenges or simply had doubts about content and assessment tasks. This involved actively asking questions on discussion forums or sending emails to their lecturers, often after consulting their peers, attending peer-assisted study sessions organised by the university or asking for help in their own study groups. Others reached out by requesting assignment extensions when they needed, which seemed to be directly related to the ERT conditions. S49, for example, developed migraines from excessive screen time, which led to requesting an extension for taking “a few days off”, whereas S36’s extensions were due to their reduced confidence and motivation during ERT. For S37, requesting an extension was a new and challenging experience, although they reached a positive outcome:Finally, some students also reached out when facing technical issues, particularly during remote exams. For instance, S47 had problems with scanning exam responses when their printer stopped working, but they were able to contact IT support who recommended “to take photos as evidence of completing the exam” and guided them through the process for a supplementary exam.life-integrated learning to describe the coming together of living and learning virtually from home. This term reminds us that learning is always anchored in specific practice arrangements and social and material conditions. We cannot fully understand our students’ engagement in their studies without a sense of these temporal dimensions of agency, as illustrated by their situated and bounded actions. Our data show new projections of being an online learner alongside complex negotiations and attempts to re-establish spatial and material cues for studying and overcoming distractions in the absence of dedicated spaces for study such as libraries. While there might be “patterns” of actions, these remain fundamentally situated, specific to student circumstances and lives.We coined the term It was very stressful at the start because obviously everyone was transitioning, teachers, lecturers, everyone, and assessments were due quite soon. We really had to like, just completely change where we were getting the information and how, and when it was due. Yes, it was just very full-on at the start but once we understood that these are the places you have to go to find the information. This is when you submit it, this is how to get help for it. Then it was a bit easier to process but before that was just very, very stressful. (S29). Early in any change, when iterative agency (routines) is no longer suitable, students are oriented to the new arrangements through complex adaptations, negotiations, and actions in the present, which can be emotionally charged as illustrated by S29:It's been many, many weeks since we transitioned to online learning so I think I'm at a stage now where I'm comfortable with online learning as well as entering a new trimester. Entering the second trimester, I actually knew I was being online. I'm going to do online learning right from the word go. So, I was able to set my routines around that and my expectations around that as opposed to last trimester where we were on campus, and then we transitioned into online. I think now I've got a better expectation, and I think I'm coping a lot better with the online learning.However, these practical-evaluative acts can become part of iterative agency over time, and as the emotional burden dropped, students expressed hope through imagining a better future supported by current practical-evaluative acts and routines. For example, S36 noted that:These students illustrate the interlocking nature of the dimensions of agency. As circumstances changed and students needed to adapt, they drew from old routines, to the here-and-now, to translate into a short-term projected future. It also underlines the entangled nature of the various aspects of practical-evaluative agency: the student is having to simultaneously reorganise their study routines, manage stress, and learn where to find help.Our findings show the multiple actions and dimensions associated with student agency during ERT. Given the uncertainty of ERT, students described limited projective agency. They took a narrow view: invoking strong vocational hopes of the future to overcome current motivational slumps and to act in the present. Iterative agency was also limited due to changed circumstances; however, we saw some routines from the past carry over for students who had studied and/or worked online previously. This was particularly true for those who had studied online, and for students who were familiar with online meeting technology from work settings. Both illustrate the challenges faced by students who may not have familiarity with projected futures following graduation or university routines to support their agency. Students’ practical-evaluative responses were complex adaptations that required figuring out alternatives of action, often resulting in new forms of iterative agency by establishing new routines. They illustrate the way that students can actively and inventively respond to challenges and seek to adapt (and negotiate) their study to the broader challenges of their life circumstances.For the majority of students, routines of campus and study were significantly disrupted. This necessitated new ways of structuring self, time, space, and relationships. The uncertainty and strongly negative emotional impact associated with the pandemic during 2020 may have driven students’ capacity to keep focussed on the present. This may be particularly true in Melbourne where lockdowns were long by international standards ), the nature of the study and questions elicited their agentic acts in and around these periods. Certainly, many of our students showed they had agentic opportunities (such as the means to buy equipment or arrange space), despite the added layer of the constraint of the pandemic. Wanting to anchor our approach in stories of rich experience to understand the environment may have prompted more of the here-and-now type data rather than future projections. This study was undertaken at a single university, which already had a strong online and flexible learning presence , so the differences may have been less obvious in this cohort and may limit transferability to other contexts. Future research may seek to identify what agentic activity is retained post-pandemic as hybrid learning takes hold. In addition, research may investigate how forms of projective agency, quite limited in our study, change in post-pandemic times across diverse populations.The pandemic ERT response changed the social, spatial, and temporal arrangements of higher education. Our findings speak to students’ adaptability and agency. The majority of student actions were oriented to the here-and-now, that is, the practical-evaluative dimension of agency through the following: (1) organising self, space, time, and relationships; (2) self-care; and (3) seeking help. While this might be because of the initial COVID-19 lockdowns, when people tended to live “in the moment” and future projections and past experiences were rendered less salient, it may also be reflective of living in emotionally, socially, and materially difficult times. These acts though can become parts of rituals and future repertoires of life-integrated learning.


Background: Despite the well-known health benefits of adopting a healthy lifestyle, older adults’ self-determination, goals, and motivation, as well as other personality factors, are known to influence their healthy lifestyle behaviors, yet these interactions have rarely been discussed. Method: The literature that investigated and discussed the interaction of personality, goals, and healthy lifestyle behaviors among older adults was reviewed. In addition, interview responses from older adults regarding their experiences in participating in a real-life physical activity intervention and its relationship with their personality traits and goal setting were synthesized using content analysis. Results: The current review highlights the relationship between healthy living practices, goal setting, and personalities, and it is backed up and expanded upon by interviews with participants. People with different personality types are likely to have diverse views on HLBs. Individuals who are more conscientiousness or extraverted are more likely to adopt HLBs than those who are not. Discussion: It is suggested that a meta-analysis should be conducted on the relationship between personality, goal setting, and physical exercise or other specific HLBs. In addition, future research should focus on various types of HLB therapies that take into account personality and goal setting. The current review highlights the relationship between healthy living practices, goal setting, and personality.Conscientiousness, neuroticism, and extraversion were shown to have significant effects on health-related behaviors as well as actual healthy lifestyle behaviors.Future research should focus on various types of HLB therapies that take into account personality and goal-setting processes.Despite the well-known benefits of engaging in a healthy lifestyle ,2,3, oldAccording to the literature, life goals are considered as an internal mental conception of desired outcomes or activities that a person aims to pursue in their daily life . Based oAlthough the relationship between goals and personality has been investigated in previous studies, to the best of our best knowledge, the relationship between personality and particular health goals among older adults has been less discussed. With regard to the importance of healthy and active aging, pursuing health-related goals is essential for older adults. Meanwhile, the interaction between personality and appropriate health goals among older adults is not yet known. Therefore, a discussion on the interaction of personality, goals, and healthy lifestyle behaviors among older adults should be presented. The purpose of this review is to emphasize the importance of personality and goal setting in older adults’ participation in healthy lifestyle behaviors. The body of research on this topic has been limited; therefore, as part of this study, we reviewed the prior literature to examine the interactions between personality, goals, and healthy lifestyle behaviors among older adults. We synthesized the literature review to address the first research question (RQ1): How does the interaction between personality, goals, and healthy lifestyle behaviors  manifest among adults? Second, we analyzed interviews with older adults who participated in the authors’ previous physical activity intervention program to determine how their participation was associated with their personality traits and goals. To achieve this objective, we formulated the second research question (RQ2): How do interviewees describe their most satisfying goals for facilitating participation in healthy lifestyle behaviors? The two authors, a post-doctoral research fellow and a PhD student, each with extensive knowledge on physical health and developmental psychology, conducted a literature search on the body of research that investigates the relationship between personality and health-related goals. The Scopus and Web of Science databases were searched using the keywords  AND . The extracted research articles were imported to EndNote for management. After removing duplicates, the authors screened the titles and abstracts of the retrieved studies independently to identify relevant research articles. Disagreements were settled through discussions. Considering the generalizability of the literature synthesis covering adults to young, old, and older adults, the only inclusion/exclusion criterion for screening relevant papers was to exclude studies that targeted the samples of subjects aged 18 or below. Studies that mentioned older adults were also included. Appropriate papers were then identified and processed for a full-text review. The literature synthesis mainly targeted the following information: (1) types of personality traits, (2) types of goals, (3) content of goals, (4) types of healthy lifestyle behaviors, and (5) how they interact. 1. Did you set any goals for yourself before this program? What were they?2. Think about your overall health and fitness and ability to get around and do the things you want to do. What are your wishes and hopes for that in the future?2a. Do you think this program/participating in physical activity has facilitated you to do so, or at least achieve a certain extent of that?3. Again, think about your health and fitness and ability to get around and do the things you want to do. What are your fears and worries about the future?3a. Do you think this program/participating in physical activity could eliminate these fears or worries?4. What kinds of goals do you tend to set for yourself, in terms of physical activity/health-related factors ?5. What kind of personality do you think you have?5a. Do you think your personality affects your goals for physical activity and overall health? How?6. Do you prefer having standardized static goals or personalized goals when participating in an exercise program with coach supervision?7. Do you prefer having a single ultimate goal or integrated smaller goals  before achieving the ultimate goal?8. To what extent could rewards prompt you to achieve your goals?A total of 20 participants from the authors’ previous intervention program  were invThe literature review was synthesized and interview responses were analyzed by first creating an open-coding label to identify relevant information and factors, individual differences, types of goals, and types of healthy lifestyle behaviors, as well as potential interactions between factors. The above-mentioned study objectives provided the basis for the initial categorization. Then, the relevant open codes were refined and combined by labelling with an “analytical” theme. After this process, the second coder went through the same process together, expressing agreement with the first coder’s labels, indicating inter-rater reliability. The audio recordings of the interviews were transcribed verbatim and translated from Chinese to English. The verbatim transcripts were screened by another author to eliminate translation variations, strengthening the qualitative research’s credibility. The data were managed by using NVivo 12  using memo writing, coding, and categorizing until data saturation was reached. A similar inter-rater reliability process was used for analyzing the interview’s transcripts. A total of 22 research articles were identified during the database search. Most of the 22 research articles mentioned the types of healthy lifestyle behavior that may be affected by personality traits and goal achievement. They include exercising, participating in sports, eating a healthy diet, participating in physical activity using electronic devices ,20, partAmong the 22 research articles, personality traits were mostly represented by the “Big Five” traits ,29,30,31Other than the Big Five personality traits, the relationship between conscientiousness and HLB was shown using the effect of perfectionism ,36 and mThere are multiple types of goals, including achievement, maintenance, disengagement, engagement, and compensation goals , and theEngagement goals involve more inflexible pursuits, and research has shown that disengagement goals with more flexibility  for adjustment were also important for achieving a healthy life ,50. AparPersistent and perceived goal progress can also be influenced by individual personality traits ; for insIn general, the retrieved studies demonstrated the inter-relationships between personality, goals, and HLBs. Some of the studies also mentioned the lack of a discussion on the role of personality in health-related goal settings and HLBs, which has been shown to have implications in terms of affecting the motivation and perception of HLB among older adults ,47,50. The studies indicated that personality plays a role in health-related goal setting and HLBs. Only people with a high level of conscientiousness are significantly affected by the product judgments and health-relevant information that they receive, which affects their decision making with respect to dietary choices and physical activity related to their overall goal of a healthy lifestyle . As mentIntervention studies  showed tThere was a trend of increasing research investigating the self-determination effect of using electronic health devices, such as smart watches, on goal monitoring and physical activity levels. Studies indicated that even though the functions of these electronic devices could trigger the self-monitoring and self-regulation of HLBs by individuals, including older adults, the research results showed that personality also plays a role in people’s levels of regulation and HLBs. Hence, it is recommended that smart devices provide personalized goal setting systems in which big data can be used to provide goals or HLB plans that are tailored to users’ individual differences and personalities . BischofAfter the interview, all participants were asked to fill in a 16-item personality test based on a framework that evolved from the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) . It indiTo be more consistent with the literature synthesis, the relationship between MBTI and the Big Five personality traits was determined. A previous study found that the T-F dimension was correlated with agreeableness and the J-P dimension correlated with conscientiousness; the E-I dimension was strongly correlated with extraversion, and neuroticism was not correlated with any MBTI dimensions . HoweverThe results showed that the participants were mainly divided into four types: ESFJ (12), ISFJ (6), INFP (1), and ESTJ (1). According to the findings and combining them with the Big Five personality types, we can clarify that the personality types of these participants are as follows: ESFJ—extroversion, based on information perception, agreeableness, and conscientiousness; ISFJ—introversion (or neuroticism), which relies on information perception, agreeableness, and conscientiousness; INFP—introversion (or neuroticism), openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness; and ESTJ—extroversion, based on information perception, logical thinking, and conscientiousness. Hoped-for possible selfParticipants recalled that before they joined the intervention program, their expectations  for the program were mainly to maintain their physical activity level, improve their physical health, expand their social networks, learn knowledge, and feel a sense of persistence. Only three participants said that they did not set any goals. “My goal in retirement is to do more exercises, stay healthy and have fewer doctor visits" . “Reducing fatty liver” . “Improve balance and body cold” . “Flexibility in arms and legs and good health” . They want to use what they have learned to educate others: “My aim is not only to help myself but also others, as well as teach my friends Tai Chi together” . Another participant agreed: “I can also teach my family, I will be happy and initiate other older adults” . Some participants wanted to learn about exercise theory to help them maintain their physical activity levels for their entire lives: “I hope that the intervention can open up the path to understanding sports and learn some sports that I can do at home so that I can do them regularly without the help of others” ; “I hope the knowledge of Tai Chi taught by my teacher can be my lifelong asset” ; “I usually do exercise, but I don’t have enough theoretical knowledge, so I sometimes overexert myself and hurt my knee” . One participant noted that perseverance was the goal of program participation: “Try not to miss a single day of training” .Those with no goals were mainly inactive and had no sports experience: “I haven’t tried resistance training, I don’t have any goal in doing sports” ; “I don’t have special goals, I usually do stretching at home, I haven’t participated in any other sports activity” . Fear of possible selfThe worries expressed by participants were mainly having limited physical fitness, becoming injured, and a lack of determination: “I was worried that my muscles were not strong enough or that I was not able to do the movements in the class” ; “I was afraid of Tai Chi standing might hurt my knee” ; “I was afraid I wouldn’t be able to do it [resistance] as I was almost 70 years old and I was afraid it would be too drastic” ; “I was worried that I would give up halfway because I don’t know if the exercise is too difficult” . However, all participants said that the intervention eventually eliminated their concerns. Because some participants believed in the professionalism of the instructors, their stereotypes regarding physical activity changed after learning from the intervention: “Because the instructor is very experienced and knows what age we are, they won’t force us to do it if we can’t” . A female participant , after practicing tai chi, said the following: “Standing on one leg in Tai Chi helps me to maintain my balance and I know how to adjust when I fall”.Long term health-related goalsParticipants said that they set long-term health-related goals after the intervention and they reported being more conscious of healthy eating habits after participating: “I will pay attention to health information, such as the ingredients of food, to avoid food allergies” ; “I will maintain my weight and take foods that maintain muscle, such as protein” ; “Eat less fried and sweet foods” ; “Eat lighter, less diet out, make breakfast cooked at home” ; “Eat more vegetables, grains and cereals” .Regarding physical health, participants stated that the recovering function was their long-term health goal: “I hope my lower limb function can be improved, stronger feet and bones” ; “reducing muscle loss” . Meanwhile, participants had a clearer vision of further goal setting for physical activity. A male participant was determined to use technology to monitor his health: “I will be more aware of different activities. … I use a pedometer to set goals for myself and recently I have been using another function to lift myself up to drink” . In addition, the majority emphasized cultivating the habit of engaging in physical activity, having perseverance when performing exercises, and reducing physical deterioration as their long-term aims: “The long-term goal is to exercise two to three days a week for one to one and a half hours each time” ; “My new goal is how to remain motivated to exercise” ; “I hope I can practice Tai Chi every day, I am satisfied if my body deterioration is slowed down” . Moreover, one participant  believed that achieving long-term health-related goals needed time for learning and building up: “It needs time to build up. I want to further learn Tai Chi stances, change the eating pattern and focus on improving healthy lifestyles”. Importantly, a female participant  mentioned that health is not the same as longevity and that being able to live independently is critical: “The goal is not to live a long life, but to be able to walk even at an advanced age, without the need for assistance or difficulty in walking”.Finally, a participant said that a further goal was not only to promote health for herself but also to encourage others: “The goal is now to encourage other people to do exercise together, not just myself” .Goal preference for intervention/program: generalized vs. personalized aimsParticipants’ opinions were mixed, with 10 preferring generalized aims, 9 preferring personalized aims, and 1 saying both were important. Participants believe generalized aims make them more motivated, encourage them, make them happy, and make teaching easier: “It is motivating to work together as a team towards a goal” ; “Generalized aims are more encouraging” ; “We are happier to have generalized aims because they can last for a longer time” ; “The course was too short with only 4 months. It would be too difficult for the instructor to get to know everyone in a short period of time if there was another opportunity to set up personalized aims for each person in the future” ; “Prefer generalized aims, because the instructor doesn’t know everyone’s abilities and physique” . One participant said that generalized goals can protect their self-esteem: "Personalized goals disguised as one-to-one can be inferior or embarrassing. It’s embarrassing to see that others can but you can’t, so it’s better to have the same goal but give modifications at the same time” . On the other hand, one participant preferred personalized aims since they were more in line with individual needs: “There was a big difference in the physical ability of the group for this program, so it would have been boring if I had to do the movements of the less fit students” .Goal preference for intervention/program: ultimate aim vs. progressive small aimsThere were 14 participants who supported progressive small goals, whereas only 5 preferred ultimate goals, and 1 person chose both.Progressive smaller goals will give participants a sense of success and satisfaction: "Smaller goals are more likely to have a sense of success and will be more intentional, large goals take a long time to see results. I am worried that something else is going on in the meantime that will affect the results, therefore less motivation and commitment” . Some participants believe that small aims can make it easier for them to control their progress and are more suitable for their age: “For example, if I can’t achieve it today, I will try the next day and it will be easy to know if I have done it” ; “I can know the progress in each class and if go in the right direction” ; “It is better to take a gradual approach as you are getting older” . Other participants believe that ultimate aims are more flexible: “Because we may not master the movements she [the instructor] taught us in each class, I hope that we will be given a target in the end, because if we have a target in every class, we will be under pressure and we will be afraid of being compared to others. I would rather have a long-term goal so that we can go home and practice even if we don’t do well in that class, and a small goal like asking us to hand in our homework”.Personality, goals, and healthy lifestyle behaviorIn addition to filling out personality questionnaires, participants were also asked to describe their personalities. Those categorized as ESFJ, who comprised the majority, described themselves as positive, extroverted, agreeable, open, and conscientious. They like taking the initiative and trying new things, are open-minded about life, and enjoy team activities.“I am open-minded, and always find activities and sports to participate in” . “I like to interact and share with others, so I want to find activities and meet other people” . “I learn spontaneously, and if it is a sport I am interested in, I will participate in it” . “In the sports program, I was responsible for creating a WhatsApp group to keep my group members in communication” . Those categorized as ISFJ described themselves as introverted, curious, anxious, and impatient as well as open-minded to changing themselves to maintain a healthy lifestyle.“I am a person who likes to get to the bottom of things. I want to find theories to prove, to accept different opinions and then synthesize” . “After participating in the program, I made new friends, contact with people makes me happier, let the introverted self become extroverted” . “Actively looking for activities/groups sports can make myself cheerful … avoid overthinking” . “Originally, I am a person who is in a hurry, but by participating in Tai Chi, I can slow myself down” .Only two participants fell into the INFP and ESTJ categories. The participant assessed as INFP described herself as passive and overthinking, which hindered her from connecting with others. The participant assessed as ESTJ believed she was an active, positive, self-disciplined person, which has a positive effect on maintaining a healthy lifestyle. Theory-based programThe participants reported that being given regular health information was helpful, including the introductory definitions of physical and mental health, how to exercise, how to prevent injuries and reduce the risk of falling, how to eat healthily, etc.: “Giving participants advice on what level of physical or mental health they have, then explaining the means to them, and increasing their awareness of their own health” ; “Distributing exercise practices in the group, such as the movements, let us review, otherwise we will forget” ; “Holding health seminars on how to prevent injuries rather than only sport, provide us with knowledge such as fall prevention, injury triggers, diet and so on” .Exercise encouragementParticipants reported that verbal encouragement, coupons, coach supervision, and social support inspire them to maintain exercise. “Verbal compliments with a few material rewards” . “Having coaches who can correct movement mistakes and encourage them to keep doing it” . “Group sports can encourage and help each other” .Perceived constraints on exerciseParticipants report that due to the COVID-19 pandemic, they had to stop all exercise programs. When the interviewer asked whether they used Zoom as a platform to participate in online exercise programs, some of them said that they did not because of privacy, limited space at home, or family issues. They also said that social interactions in face-to-face programs cannot be replaced by Zoom. Moreover, a few participants said that they could not adhere to exercise without a regular exercise program due to family, social matters, lack of discipline, and inertia. “Because of the pandemic, my exercise classes were stopped, and I’m lazy so I don’t do any exercise anymore” .“Using Zoom is not good enough, because of the different housing environment” . “Zoom class is actually fine, but it’s a little more scattered because at home you’re thinking about other things and it’s hard to concentrate” . “Because Zoom classes can only be conducted at home, there are no sports facilities at my home, especially full body mirror, I cannot see whether my movements are correct, however in the face-to-face program, I can do exercises with familiar classmates, and we can rectify each other’s mistakes in performing exercises, which cannot replaceable by Zoom” ; she added, “I am afraid I am not able to use the recording function in Zoom”.“I am not very disciplined. Without an exercise program my exercises become irregular, some time watching TV, some time talking on the phone, sometimes shopping for food and cooking” .The current review summarizes the interaction between healthy lifestyle behaviors, goal setting, and personality, and the results are supported and extended by interviews with participants. The study results demonstrate that healthy lifestyle behaviors mainly consist of participating in physical activity, adopting healthy eating habits, and engaging in social activities. There is a tendency for people with different personality traits to have different attitudes toward engaging in HLB. In addition to progress in achieving goals, both the literature review and interviews provide evidence for the use of different types of goal setting plans, including personalized goals, short-term and long-term goals, generalized goals, and progressive goals. Based on the review of the literature and interviews with participants, conscientiousness and neuroticism are the two personality traits that showed a significant interaction with personality, goals, and HLBs. Among those studies that focused on it, conscientiousness was shown to have a significant effect on the intention to protect one’s health, as well as the self-reported practice of health-protecting activities , according to the theory of planned behavior . FurtherIt is shown that extroverts and conscientious people are more capable of achieving goals, adjusting their goals, and re-engaging with goals compared to people with neuroticism; however, the effect of personalities on the types of goals preferred by older adults has been scarcely discussed. While the reviewed literature pointed out that the use of an electronic device during exercise, such as a Fitbit, can cultivate personalized goal setting by using the device’s planning, regulation, and monitoring functions, the effect of personalized goals showed a greater effect among people who were conscientious and introverted ,48. ThisBased on the interview content, it is suggested that for physical activity or other HLB interventions in the future, the personality should be considered as a covariant and be controlled, or its possible effects on intervention outcomes should be examined during data analyses. Interventions that highlight individual differences could be offered, for instance, by recruiting participants with a particular personality type to improve their goal-setting skills and HLBs. Furthermore, different types of goals should be included in HLB inventions to investigate their effects on different personality traits when cultivating HLB. These suggestions are not exclusive to older adults but are also applicable to different populations and age groups. In addition, with an understanding of the importance of goal setting for healthy lifestyle behaviors, coaches and other health professionals can be given practical suggestions to enhance older adults’ self-understanding and literacy regarding healthy lifestyle behaviors  before participating in exercise classes or undergoing medical treatments.In the current study, we reviewed and summarized the interaction between goal setting, personality, and HLBs in the literature, further supported by qualitative interviews. Based on this review, it was found that conscientiousness, neuroticism, and extraversion had a significant effect on health-related behaviors as well as actual healthy lifestyle behaviors. Although personality traits such as agreeableness and openness were less likely to be examined or showed no significant outcomes, from the qualitative interviews, we are able to further conclude that older adults with all types of personalities, except neuroticism, tended to take the initiative to try new things, participate in physical activity interventions, and learn new knowledge. They were more open-minded toward unknown life and health-related knowledge, which facilitated their development and maintenance of a healthy lifestyle. On the other hand, older adults with neuroticism tended to overthink the unknown in the form of, for example, fear over their possible self or anxiety about the outcomes of new physical activities, thus holding them off from engaging in healthy behaviors. Given that the literature review was not a systematic review and might have neglected the quality of retrieved studies, it also could not indicate and quantify the interaction effects between personalities, goal setting, and healthy lifestyle behaviors. Moreover, the interviewees were recruited by using convenience sampling from a previous physical activity intervention; hence, it could be assumed that they have already engaged in regular HLBs. This represents a limitation in that we were not able to distinguish potential differences between older adults who do not engage in regular HLBs and those who are not willing to engage in group-based physical activity interventions. Additionally, in the current study, we adopted the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) instead of the Big Five Inventory, because we considered the difficulty of distinguishing the participants’ personalities based on the latter. This indicates the interaction effect between two or more strong traits within an individual. The interaction effect between personality traits can make it difficult to identify the specific effect of personality traits on HLBs and goal setting. Therefore, we adopted the MBTI, with the understanding that the Big Five Inventory would be more suitable for quantitative analyses. Therefore, a meta-analysis of the interaction between personalities, goal setting, and physical activities or other specific HLBs is suggested. In addition, examining different types of HLB interventions that consider personality and goal setting strategies in future research is highly encouraged.


Research on international faculty development programs (IFDPs) has demonstrated many positive outcomes; however, participants’ cultural backgrounds, beliefs, and behaviors have often been overlooked in these investigations. The goal of this study was to explore the influences of culture on teaching and learning in an IFDP.Using interpretive description as the qualitative methodology, the authors conducted semi-structured interviews with 15 Fellows and 5 Faculty of a US-based IFDP. The authors iteratively performed a constant comparative analysis to identify similar patterns and themes. Transformative Learning Theory informed the analysis and interpretation of the results.This research identified three themes related to the influences of culture on teaching and learning. First, cultural differences were not seen as a barrier to learning; instead, they tended to act as a bridge to cultural awareness and network building. Second, some cultural differences produced a sense of unease and uncertainty, which led to adaptations, modifications, or mediation. Third, context mattered, as participants’ perspectives were also influenced by the program culture and their professional backgrounds and experiences.The cultural diversity of health professions educators in an IFDP did not impede learning. A commitment to future action, together with the ability to reflect critically and engage in dialectical discourse, enabled participants to find constructive solutions to subtle challenges. Implications for faculty development included the value of enhanced cultural awareness and respect, explicit communication about norms and expectations, and building on shared professional goals and experiences. The number of international faculty development programs (IFDPs), designed to promote capacity-building among health professions educators across different countries, is growing 2. Progra134568IFDPs refer to two types of programs: those that bring together participants from different countries around the world 467 and t465111213143456712131415The goal of this study was to explore how different cultural values and beliefs were perceived and experienced in an IFDP. Our research questions addressed the following: (1) How was culture perceived in an IFDP? (2) What were the influences of culture on teaching and learning?For this study, we chose the following definition of culture: “An integrated pattern of learned beliefs and behaviours that can be shared among groups and include thoughts, styles of communicating, ways of interacting, views of roles and relationships, values, practices and customs” . The lat1820We conducted a qualitative study using interpretive description 23. InterThe study setting was the FAIMER  Institute Fellowship, a US-based faculty development program established in 2001 that aims to improve the teaching performance and leadership skills of international health professions educators . At the We recruited participants from five cohorts of FAIMER Fellows (2014–2019) and from FAIMER Faculty who were actively involved in the program. Criteria for active involvement included Faculty who were considered “lead faculty” in at least one session during the onsite program and Faculty who had taught in FAIMER within the last 3–5 years and were, therefore, familiar with the current program content and culture. While FAIMER offers several Regional Institutes in different countries, we selected study participants from the Philadelphia site because it represents an international cohort. To introduce the study and research team, WB and RV sent e-mails to the eligible population (72 Fellows and 10 Faculty); this was followed by a detailed e-mail invitation from SMH and YS to the same list. Altogether, 40 Fellows and 5 Faculty agreed to participate, from which we purposefully sampled participants to ensure heterogeneity in gender, nationality, disciplinary background, and cohort year. We enrolled study participants until we reached informational sufficiency, which occurred when new data did not lead to new themes or modifications of data interpretation .SMH, who was not connected to the FAIMER Institute nor previously known to Fellows, conducted semi-structured interviews in the fall and winter of 2019 using Zoom or Skype to elicit Fellows’ experiences and perceptions. We pilot-tested an interview guide (Online Appendix 1), which was adjusted following the first two interviews and the investigators’ evolving conceptualizations that arose from data analysis. These changes included the order of questions asked and a shorter introduction so that we could dive into the main questions more quickly and accommodate the interview timeframe. We also modified the interview guide for FAIMER Faculty by using different wording, as needed. For example, for Faculty, we used “your teaching;” for Fellows, we used “your learning”. We also probed if FAIMER Faculty had ever changed their teaching content or process to take cultural differences into account. We deliberately avoided interview questions that could suggest discrimination, judgment, or stereotyping. Interviews lasted from 43 to 74 minutes, were audio-recorded, and were transcribed verbatim by an external professional. SMH reviewed all transcripts for accuracy.Data analysis was iterative and started alongside data collection. We began with an inductive technique to identify preliminary patterns and common threads which were later merged to best represent the data. By using constant comparative analysis, we conducted a holistic and cross-case analysis of similar codes and themes. We also actively sought out exemplar quotations, illustrating each theme. To make sense of the findings, we gradually progressed to interpretation; this allowed us to focus on meaningful themes and elaborate on the practical application of findings. Moreover, though our data analysis was “bottom-up” as we did not generate codes using a pre-existing theoretical framework , we drewTwo authors (SMH and YS) independently read and coded the first two interviews, after which they discussed key observations and preliminary findings. SMH continued analyzing the remaining transcripts with input from YS, which led to consensus on patterns and themes. When all 15 interviews with Fellows had been coded, SMH started coding the remaining five interviews with FAIMER Faculty. SMH and YS met regularly to refine and agree on identified codes, thematic groupings, and interpretations of the findings. RV and WB reviewed the themes and gave feedback on themes, exemplar quotations, and applications of the findings.The authors differed in their disciplinary backgrounds, educational responsibilities, and involvement in the FAIMER Institute. Two of the authors are from the US and have been involved in the FAIMER Fellowship. The two other authors are from Canada (from a French-speaking province with multiple cultures). All authors have been involved in international faculty development. Since we were asking about culture, it was important for us to discuss how we experienced and perceived cultural similarities and differences ourselves. We reflected individually and together, and we discussed how our experiences could influence the interview questions and data analysis. We were aware that our previous experiences not only shaped the questions and design of the research but might have also impacted data collection and analysis. Meeting regularly and becoming deeply engaged in the process of continuous discussion and reflection further helped us balance diverse perspectives on the interpretation of participants’ narratives.Fifteen FAIMER Fellows and five FAIMER Faculty from 12 countries participated in the study . Below, FAIMER Fellows and Faculty commented that they perceived cultural similarities and differences in terms of specific behaviors and practices  as well as values and beliefs related to hierarchy, collaboration, documentation, and spontaneity.They in [X] don’t actually look at you when they talk to you. They look down, or they look over your shoulder. You are facing each other, and you are looking at them, but they are not looking at your face. (F-9)One characteristic in the culture in my country, one policy they use, is top-down, from the superior to the subordinate. That’s related to the interaction between people, with junior, with senior, with the younger, with the older ones. There is a certain pattern in this country. (F-6)While some cultural differences were deemed “visible” in the early FAIMER encounters, some were only evident after Fellows and Faculty had spent time together. Also, several cultural differences  were evident when Fellows started the online sessions, whereas others  were apparent when Fellows began working on their individual projects in their own countries.When I went back to my institution, there the culture of how to teach is quite different. People teach in isolation; they don’t want any other person to be there, so the kind of mutual collaboration between teachers was a unique aspect of FAIMER, which I am still struggling with in trying to implement it in my home institution. (F-2)Participants approached the notion of culture with caution, trying to avoid generalizations or oversimplification. For example, participants highlighted that another participant from their country might not share their beliefs, as people within a single country could have distinct cultural values. Participants also noted that what was perceived as a “cultural habit” might not necessarily be related to culture; instead, it could be attributed to personality, individual choice, organizational structure, or professional values.If you are warm and outgoing and you like to talk to people, if you are a stiff-necked person who doesn’t want to engage with people, you behave differently. But that’s in every culture. That’s personality. I don’t think I can connect it to culture. (F-9)My university is about sixty-five-years old […] the resistance to change is enormous, but I’m not going to attribute culture to this.” (F-14)“We identified three themes related to the influences of cultural differences on teaching and learning in an IFDP.Fellows believed that the cultural differences they experienced during the Institute program did not, for the most part, impede learning. They were highly motivated and passionate about making the most out of the Fellowship, and they came to the program with a fresh “mindset” that helped them understand, respect, and embrace new rules and experiences. They also valued the opportunity to question their thinking and assess some of their beliefs and assumptions.You can see there are some small things, but I don’t think that they would drastically affect our learning. These are just small cultural things that we have to be careful about… and I wanted to learn whatever the culture was. (F-10)We also noted that cultural differences enabled Fellows to achieve outcomes beyond the program objectives, including “learning about diversity” and “network building.” Many participants appreciated the existence of cultural diversity, which one Fellow described as the “beauty of life.” In addition to learning about other cultures, participants reported having an opportunity to correct false assumptions, an important aspect of critical reflection and dialectical discourse. Diversity helped participants understand that they did “not represent the world” and that what they practiced was not necessarily “the only thing or the best thing.” Additionally, exposure to different cultures helped participants with their professional development, as they felt that they had become more competent working in culturally diverse settings. One Fellow called this new insight an “eye-opener,” as before the Fellowship, she was “confined to a certain environment with a certain population sharing similar characteristics” that prevented her from “seeing other aspects of stories.”As I encounter different cultures and learn these rules, I feel that I’m able to be more effective each time because I remember what happened last time. So, I don’t immediately jump to my set of rules. Instead, I try to stay back, just observe, and not judge. (FF-3)Several participants stated that they developed strong relationships with other Fellows that continued after completing the Fellowship, and that cultural dissimilarities were not experienced as barriers to network building; rather, their description of a network of individuals with common interests and shared goals was consistent with the definition of a community of practice , offerinWe came from different environments, different levels of advancement, [different] education fields. So, we had the chance to learn from each other, to share our experiences, to collaborate. If I have some challenges at work, I just write a message asking, “Guys, I have this issue. What do you advise me?” (F-1)The interviews revealed that certain cultural differences were experienced as subtle challenges which, at times, created uneasiness or uncertainty.Examples of cultural behaviors that were challenging during the program, as highlighted above, included: a flat facial expression, a lack of eye contact, and holding back opinions in class, which was especially challenging for instructors who valued learners’ reactions; body gestures that might be interpreted incorrectly and lead to an “inner talk” to figure out what was happening; physical distance that might be perceived as “too intimate” or “a little frightening”; different attitudes towards time that could interrupt class function or group work; and certain religious rituals that would require program rescheduling.I asked her a question, and she just grabbed me and started talking in my ear. […] At that moment, I was more interested in getting away from her, instead of learning and talking. [X’s] culture is quite open, very intimate… And, I am not into hugging, especially with the opposite gender (laughs), because it’s more of a religious thing. So, probably she didn’t realize, and it was her gesture of love, but that gesture of love did not work for me. (F-10)Fellows also indicated some challenging cultural differences once they returned to their home countries. While almost all Fellows intended to use FAIMER’s interactive teaching methods in their own institutions, some were not able to successfully implement new initiatives. One Fellow specified that he was not sure he had “the courage to take a risk” and design an activity like “learning circles,” in which protected time was devoted to reflection and talking about non-academic personal issues to promote critical thinking and social interactions. Participants also believed that cultural practices, such as respecting hierarchy, collaboration, and documentation, could influence their projects’ success and sustainability in their home settings.We are very spontaneous. We have just the idea, and we are like: “let’s do it. It’s great!” (laughs). And programs are abandoned or not developed at all. Because people started in the wrong way without preparing and thinking. (F-7)Fellows and Faculty reported using three different approaches to address cultural dissimilarities:Adaptation: Several participants observed that it was a “bit tough in the beginning” to deal with certain cultural variations, including different accents or addressing each other by first names. However, they quickly became accustomed to the new situation and found ways to adapt without much trouble.The fact that we had to speak to our professors or whoever they were by their first name itself was a shock for me on the first day. It took some time to adjust to that. (F-11)A FAIMER Faculty shared a story of the time when he started his Fellowship in FAIMER. He had decided to quit the program on the first day, because of a “little bit humiliating” experience that he described as a “cultural shock” when the Fellows were taken outside for a team-building exercise. But then, he “stayed for a few days, started to pick up the nice things in the program, and finally, was convinced about the program’s value”.Modification: In most cases, participants modified their usual practices and found solutions in response to unease or uncertainty. For instance, when Fellows found it difficult to volunteer or express their opinions, FAIMER Faculty used alternative approaches, such as addressing the Fellow directly or using “parking lots”, a format in which Fellows noted their questions on a board for teachers to address anonymously later. Other examples included speaking more slowly, shifting program schedules to accommodate religious practices, and modifying educational content.I changed the leadership curriculum based on feedback in the first year. We were teaching fairly traditional Harvard Business School leadership, and it was not resonating with some from [X]… We adjusted, put together an international group, and redid the leadership curriculum. (FF-4)Mediation: Mediation was a less common but nonetheless effective approach in which another person acted as an advocate to bring about mutual understanding and agreement. In one situation, while two individuals involved in a conversation were not aware of the existence of a cultural disparity, a third person realized that there was a misunderstanding and stepped forward to help. In other situations, Fellows did not want to hide a perceived difference but preferred to ask someone else to advocate for them instead of getting involved directly.In their culture, when you are asking a question that might look like you’re questioning authority, you tell a personal story around the question to soften it. So, he told a whole story, and I didn’t understand why he was telling the story, and I didn’t understand that he was asking me a question. But there were some faculty members there who knew the culture and were able to come over to me and say,” He is worried about confronting his boss,” and I said, “Oh, yes, yes!” Then, I was able to address the question. (FF-4)FAIMER Faculty and Fellows noted the importance of context and observed that the influences of cultural differences on teaching and learning were mitigated by the program’s culture  and participants’ common professional backgrounds and experiences as health professions educators.Program culture: Fellows affirmed that they had entered a culturally sensitive program where organizers showed awareness to cultural differences by setting ground rules about respectful communications, encouraging Fellows to talk explicitly about culture, and scheduling protected time for sharing personal stories. Faculty also took advantage of forming heterogeneous groups for teamwork. Providing special places for religious rituals and making different meals available were other examples of how cultural diversity was supported. Fellows believed that their cultures were “amazingly acknowledged” and “represented” in FAIMER. Two Faculty added that FAIMER created a safe, non-judgmental environment by undertaking a continuous process of identifying and addressing cultural differences.One of the first things that we have is this ground rules session to agree that here we are trying to learn. These are the first things that we agree on: respect, listen, diversity is good, titles outside, and confidentiality. (FF-1)Professional culture: All FAIMER Fellows and Faculty were members of the broader community of health professions educators and shared similar interests and values as well as familiar experiences and practices. One Fellow said that it was “the most satisfying moment during the Fellowship” when he realized that the “resistance of faculty members toward change” was not a cultural problem specific to his country but could happen anywhere around the world. In diverse ways, participants identified a “common ground” related to health professions education that enabled them to minimize differences and focus on similarities reflected in their professional culture.Health science education is the same everywhere you go, we share the same problems: lack of faculty, lack of resources, too many students, a traditional way of teaching and learning, high interest in research. Those were shared by almost everyone. (F-14)This study explored a frequently overlooked aspect of faculty development in the health professions – the influence of culture on IFDPs – from the lens of program participants and faculty. Exploring the influences of cultural diversity on teaching and learning, we found that cultural differences were not a barrier to learning; rather, they acted as an opportunity to learn about culture and build networks. At the same time, certain cultural dissimilarities produced a sense of unease and uncertainty, which led to three constructive responses: adaptation, modification, or mediation. Context also mattered, as participants’ perspectives were affected by the program culture as well as their professional culture.Our first theme showed that cultural differences did not impede learning. Fellows were very appreciative of the FAIMER content and variety of learner-centered approaches. They actively participated in small group discussions, completed their projects, and were inspired to apply similar methods in their home countries. This finding highlighted participants’ willingness to change perspectives and become change agents, important components of TLT . It also3031333435As noted in our second theme, some FAIMER Fellows experienced unease and uncertainty due to certain cultural differences, primarily those emanating from different interpersonal communication styles. A similar finding was reported when a US-based program, transferred to another country, encountered challenges resulting from participants’ emotional self-control, silence, and avoidance of direct eye contact . Our stuWe also noted that our findings were situated in a specific program and professional culture. FAIMER is informed by principles of TLT and characterized by a carefully designed curriculum, a culturally sensitive environment, responsive Faculty, and highly motivated learners. It is likely that these (and other) efforts contributed to some of our findings, enabling transformative learning as well as network building and solution-oriented responses toward cultural differences. Furthermore, since our participants were all health professions educators, their professional culture might have influenced how they perceived and addressed cultural differences. We found, and other studies have also reported, commonalities among health professions educators in terms of disciplinary backgrounds, experiences, values, beliefs, and needs 3335. As 331616We chose the FAIMER Fellowship because it offered a multicultural environment with Fellows and Faculty from different countries and was composed of onsite and online training within a longitudinal program, thus enabling the exploration of diverse instructional methods. As we interviewed FAIMER Faculty, current Fellows, and Fellows who had previously completed their Fellowship, we were able to triangulate our data sources and enhance trustworthiness. However, this study investigated only one IFDP, and participation was voluntary; hence, findings might not be transferable to other settings. Recall bias was another challenge, since we asked participants to recall experiences that had occurred in the past. Lastly, some aspects of teaching and learning might have been better understood by observing interactions during the Fellowship.The findings of this study advance our understanding of the influence of culture on IFDPs and enable us to make suggestions for enhancing faculty development activities and recommending future research directions.We have summarized the educational implications for faculty developers and participants in IFDPs in The cultural diversity of health professions educators in an IFDP does not seem to be a barrier to learning. Certain perceived cultural differences may cause subtle challenges, but they are often managed constructively to avoid tension. Program culture and professional culture may, at times, override cultural beliefs, values and norms.We have that same human nature, but then we adapt according to the culture. We wrap it around ourselves, and then we try to act accordingly what is most suitable in that specific culture. There are so many similarities, the concept of human nature, the concept of healer, the concept of teacher. These are some of the universal things. (F-10)The additional file for this article can be found as follows:10.5334/pme.31.s1Online Appendix.Sample questions in the interview guide.