The COVID-19 pandemic and its related restrictions have affected the everyday life of older people. Advanced age is a significant predisposing factor for a more severe COVID-19 infection, increasing the risk for hospitalization and mortality. Even though restrictions have been, thus, well-grounded, they may also have had detrimental effects on the social well-being of older people. Personal networks and social activity are known protective factors against the premature decline in health and functioning, and it is widely acknowledged that social isolation increases feelings of loneliness, poor quality of life, and even the risk for diseases and disabilities among older adults. This qualitative study investigated changes in personal networks among community-dwelling oldest-old individuals (persons aged 80 and over) during the first and second waves of the COVID-19 pandemic in Finland. The data is part of the Cardiovascular Risk Factors, Aging, and Dementia (CAIDE85+) study, which is an ongoing large longitudinal population-based study in Finland. In this qualitative sub-study, we analyzed fifteen in-depth telephone interviews using directed content analyses and identified five types of changes in personal social networks during the pandemic. In type 1, all social contacts were significantly reduced due to official recommendations and fear of the virus. Type 2 included modified ways of being socially active i.e., by deploying new technology, and in type 3, social contacts increased during the lockdown. In type 4, personal social networks were changed unexpectedly or dramatically due to a death of a spouse, for example. In type 5, we observed stable social networks, which had not been affected by the pandemic. At an individual level, one person could have had different types of changes during the pandemic. These results highlight the heterogeneity of the oldest olds' personal social networks and changes related to them during the exceptional times of the COVID-19 pandemic. Social activity and personal networks play an important role in the well-being of the oldest old, but individual situations, needs, and preferences toward personal social networks should be taken into account when planning social activities, policies, and interventions. For many older people, the year 2020 challenged the ability to maintain personal social networks. During the COVID-19 outbreak in Finland in March 2020, strict recommendations were put in action, and people aged 70 and above were considered as one of the significant risk groups for severe COVID-19 infection. Therefore, they were asked to stay at home and avoid all face-to-face social contacts. Finland managed to protect this high-risk group, and the total number of deaths due to the virus remained relatively low. Therefore, due to safety reasons, restrictions in social contacts were well-grounded. Even though the restrictions most likely saved lives, the effects of these restrictions on personal networks and to other aspects of the well-being of older adults are still not widely known. This qualitative study aimed to gain a deeper understanding of what kinds of changes in personal social networks the community-dwelling oldest-old persons (persons aged 80 and older) experienced during the first and second waves of the global COVID-19 pandemic in Finland. This study sheds light on the personal social networks of the oldest old persons and their lived experiences during the pandemic.The ability to gain and maintain social contacts and personal networks plays an important role in both health and well-being across the life course. Living a socially active life—meeting family and friends, attending group activities, and participating actively in society—is linked with several health benefits, including the decreased risk of chronic conditions , 2 and hAmong the oldest old, commonly referring to persons aged 80 and above, changes in personal social networks during the global pandemic have not been widely studied. Since social networks and contacts tend to decrease with increasing age also in normal situations due to losses of spouse and friends, everyday life in the shadow of the COVID-19 pandemic has likely had significant effects on the personal networks of the oldest old. Few studies reporting these changes in social activity during the pandemic have been published. For example, a review by Lebrasseur et al.  synthesiSo far, only a few studies have used qualitative methods to investigate personal networks, changes in social activities, and reactions to restrictions from the perspective of older adults. A qualitative interview study by Goethals et al.  investign = 806) were invited for the CAIDE85+ study. Invitations to take part in the CAIDE COVID-19 sub-study were sent in July 2020 for all individuals who had participated in the CAIDE85+ main assessment and given their consent for further research contact (n = 189) and individuals who had not yet participated in the CAIDE85+ main assessment (n = 90). Altogether, 103 (37%) community-dwelling CAIDE85+ participants provided answers to the COVID-19 survey. From this group, 15 persons were invited to participate in qualitative telephone interviews. The interviews were conducted from August 20, 2020 onwards, with the last interview being conducted on the December 1, 2020. The interviewed participants represented a variety of life situations and health. The current study reports data from these qualitative interviews. Each participant or their legally acceptable representative signed the informed consent to participate in the study. The ethical approvement for the CAIDE study has been granted by The Research Ethics Committee of the Northern Savo Hospital District, Finland.The data for this study is part of the Cardiovascular Risk Factors, Aging, and Dementia (CAIDE) study including older adults who live in the Eastern part of Finland. Participants come originally from five population-based cohorts who were assessed in their midlife in 1972–1992 . AltogetThe researcher with qualitative research experience (ET) conducted the interviews using a semi-structured interview sheet. The interview included a broad range of open questions related to older people's lives during the COVID-19 pandemic. The interviews lasted 45–95 min each, and they were audiotape-recorded and transcribed verbatim. In the first phase, the data were analyzed using directed content analysis  seeking The description of the interview participants is shown in We were able to identify five types of changes in personal social networks of community-dwelling oldest old. On an individual level, one person could have had different types of changes during the pandemic. We found that many interviewees had significantly reduced all their social contacts due to official restrictions laid down by the Finnish Government, and thus, the personal networks significantly diminished. Participants referred to the strong recommendations, which had instructed older adults aged 70 or over to stay at home and avoid all social contacts. Some interviewees did not meet even with the closest family members, as the following excerpts show, and sometimes their relatives had strongly asked them to stay at home or even prohibited contacting other people.We have been quite isolated during this corona time” “I didn't dare to meet even them [children] because of this corona. It's been a bit scary to meet people. I rather keep the two-meter distance to everyone” “And there's of course been the age limit [70+] so you couldn't go anymore” “We haven't really had any contacts outside of home. One of our children lives further and the other here [in the same city] but we didn't have any close contacts or meetings with them in the spring [2020]” “Let's take it calmly but seriously at the same time. Follow the guidelines we have been given and avoid unnecessary contacts. Stay out of parties.” “We have all agreed that we do not visit each other. We try to protect the small ones [newborns in the family] and us old people” “The interviewees also reported that they started to avoid all public places with a lot of people. Based on the news from the media, they identified themselves as a high-risk group for serious COVID-19 infection which for some led to fear toward the virus. However, within our interviewees, most participants described friends and acquaintances as being more scared of the virus than themselves. This has led to a decrease in the interviewees' contacts too.I have these friends who have shut themselves in their apartments. They don't let anyone in or they don't go anywhere. They have become more distant” “If someone asks for someone to come and visit people say no, let's wait for things to calm down. [...] Before we had a lot of family and friends and we always visited them, but now, everyone is afraid to visit” “Since the interviewees were aged 80 or over, physical illnesses or disabilities also acted as barriers to meeting relatives and friends outside of the home. One of the participants, an 89-year-old woman, described that she likes to go outside for walks but does not want to be a burden for others as she had to walk at a slow pace due to heart disease. Some interviewees reported having little or no contact because their friends or relatives were in poor health or taking care of others, such as a spouse and, therefore, unable to leave their homes during the pandemic.She (friend) is kind of sick and cannot be outside, so she is at home a lot, or in other words only at home. She misses company a lot, so I have been calling her every now and then. And then these other friends of mine, pretty much all of them are six feet under or they have gone into such a bad shape that it is hard to be in contact even over the phone” “Contact with my brother, well, he is so committed to be with his [sick] wife, previously we were in contact” “Even though some of the participants' family members had suggested new ways of communication via digital platforms, phones, and the internet, learning new digital communication skills were perceived as difficult and, therefore, new tools were not applied. Some interviewees felt that they did not have enough cognitive capacity to use new technology or their attitude toward it was negative.Well, we have not been using these video contacts. We tried but for some reason, it did not work, so I cannot use them” “I also have this phone, the so-called smartphone. I have it even though I've said that I'm not that smart. It's not a good combination [laughing]. Yet, I think I could learn to use it but I'm not that enthusiastic to do so.” “The interviewees also reported that their hobbies and people in these group activities had previously been an important part of personal network and social activity. The pandemic closed physical activity groups, meetings organized by different organizations, and other group activities, also in senior houses. The closing of these hobbies significantly reduced the possibility to meet other people. For some, such group activities had been the most important way to meet other people, and when these contacts were cut off, feelings of loneliness and loss increased.We used to have a lot of activities in this house. A women's club got together once a week and then we had this balance training once a week. All sorts of things together. [...] We had a lot of these coffee parties together. Always some neighbors for coffee and things. But now we don't have them so much anymore and even all of these clubs and everything have ended completely” “If you are active in several organizations you get social contacts from there. I like these kinds of contacts and now when they're completely missing it feels like a great loss and I feel lonely.” “Interviewees with this type of change appeared to cope well with the restrictions related to social contacts and applied multiple new ways of keeping in contact with relatives and friends. Especially phone contacts increased and almost all interviewees reported having regular phone contacts especially with close relatives, children, and grandchildren.I talk with my daughter over the phone almost every day and then with these boys [her children] maybe a little less, but still often” “These friends and relatives, they visited and called as often as before, but of course we needed to use telephone when it was not possible to meet” “Distinct from the change type 1, interviewees with this change type reported that they had used videos, the internet, and WhatsApp to connect, especially with children and grandchildren. Many felt that these are easy ways to get in contact and they are still capable of learning new technology. Also, some hobbies, for example, physical activity groups, were organized online.Now, we will have possibility to do physical activity when we got this big new television and from there, we will get exercise programs, morning workout and balance training, or that kind of training that you do while sitting on a chair” “WhatsApp, WhatsApp is used by these younger ones and I have also learned how to use it.” “I have received videos as well, video calls. I have had this computer, how should I say it” “Interviewees with this change type reported that they did not completely stop seeing other people but tried to carefully follow the safety instruction by using face masks and avoiding shaking hands. In Finland, 2 m of safety distance when meeting other people was suggested, and the interviewees described how they tried to keep this in all social events. The meetings were held outside or at balconies instead of inside the houses or apartments. Due to the virus, many had found new ways of meeting and greeting each other so that contacts were still possible.Yes, they [children] came. They had face masks on, but they came” “Here in our neighborhood we know each other as we have lived here for so long. We met outside at the yard and kept a longer distance but could talk there for a half an hour even.” “And sometimes we did not care, we just hugged, And then when there was someone with whom we had not met for a while, we should have greeted each other with our elbows [laughing] but I said that let's rather touch each other on the shoulder or something”. “Not shaking hands anymore, It's like a new custom you have learned and now it comes naturally”. “We went to the sauna together, but in sauna, we were not sitting close to each other, it was like a bigger sauna where you could keep the two meters distance” “Outside and with safety distances” “We use the mask and hand sanitizer, we follow the recommendations and use these protective things where we go, that is how life is now” “Well, at least, how do I say it, we keep distance to others and use masks and these protective matters (hand sanitizer), wash hands and everything” “The third change type included an increase in social contacts. Participants reported how the unexpected situation of the COVID-19 pandemic encouraged people to contact friends who they had not seen for a long time. In addition, some interviewees reported that their relationship with their spouse had become even more important and time spent with one's spouse had increased, which was seen as a positive change. Pets, especially dogs, were mentioned as one important source of social activity by many of the interviewees.This corona time, it has kind of highlighted the contacts with grandchildren, they always call, I have no complaints” “I have this one friend and we've been in contact less but when they said in the television that you have to remember old people I called her, even though she is a lot younger than me. I said that I remember you and I will surprise you and call”. “Well, yes, over the phone, but the phone bills are higher [laughing], but of course over the phone we connected more and had long talks” “I have of course my wife who takes so good care of me” “I have more time with my spouse” “I live alone with my dog, who is a big comfort and joy especially now during this corona time” “Some of the participants reported that they had faced an unexpected loss of a spouse or a close friend during the pandemic and this naturally had a dominating effect on their personal network. They described how the death of a spouse had caused both psychological and physical symptoms which had affected everyday life, even though the death of an old person did not usually happen totally unexpectedly. On the other hand, new family members were born and the interviewees described how the birth of a new great-grandchild has brought joy to their lives and expanded their personal network.My life situation changed in the summer very dramatically when my husband died. He left while sleeping by my side in early morning” “A friend and close one who has left this life during this year, like my husband. Now just a month ago left one friend with whom we always used to call” “This little girl, she has been a big joy for us during this autumn. She is five months old now and since she was ten days old, she has been visiting here at her great grandmother's place” “The last type represents stability in personal networks. For some of the participants, the pandemic did not have a significant effect on personal networks. Many interviewees described how telephone contacts with relatives and friends remained as common as previously. Also, in many cases, closest relatives and friends visited older persons as often as previously, and it was considered relatively safe to meet in small groups.This type of thing cannot revolutionize an old man's life” “We have had [with the daughters] the same connection and contact as previously” “Well, corona does not affect my life, at least now. Of course, if you visit the southern parts of Finland where people live more densely, like in Helsinki, where I have relatives. I always ask whether they have stayed healthy, and I have heard that anyone has not been affected” “All my friends have called me like before and when they were allowed to visit again, they visited. I cannot say that anything has changed because my life has been really good anyway” “Some interviewees told how they had never had a very large personal network and how they are now even happier with a smaller number of social contacts. Restrictions related to social connections were also seen in some cases as a relief because of not having any obligations to leave home.I kind of enjoy being alone, I must say, and I have never cared so much about visitors” “I am satisfied, I do not need anything more” “This qualitative study with fifteen in-depth interviews among the oldest old community-dwelling persons living in Finland showed that older adults are heterogeneous in terms of their personal social networks and the effects of the global pandemic on their social relationships are diverse. We found that many interviewees took official recommendations seriously and tried to avoid all unnecessary social contacts. This, in most cases, led to a significant decrease in personal networks. This was commonly associated with fear of the virus. The results showed that all older people were not willing to use technology to compensate for the decrease in personal contacts. However, many interviewees felt that the personal networks remained relatively stable during the pandemic, but the forms of social contacts changed, for example, from physical meetings to phone and video contacts. Meetings also took place outside and only with a smaller amount of people at the same time.In March 2020, the Finnish government recommended that all older people aged 70 and over should avoid all physical contact. Although many of our interviewees tried to follow this recommendation, other people were also met in person, mostly outside. It was also not uncommon that personal network in some forms increased during the pandemic, contacts with friends were activated and time spent with a spouse increased. For some interviewees, dramatic or unexpected change, for example, the death of a spouse or a friend was identified as a dominating factor that affected in many ways life during the pandemic. Finally, we also found that for some older adults, the global pandemic and its restrictions were not seen as a factor that modified their personal social networks. For some interviewees, life during the pandemic remained relatively stable and friends and family were visiting as often as previously. Especially for those who felt that they do not need a large personal network, the restrictions relating to the pandemic felt even relieving.Existing research has widely shown that personal social networks are an important factor in well-being among older people but with increasing age, the quality of social contacts becomes more relevant than the quantity . A previSome of the interviewees described how diminished personal network had increased feelings of loneliness. Also, other studies have found that older adults who have been socially isolated have especially reported increased rates of loneliness during the pandemic. A large population-based study from the US reported that one-third of the population aged 55 and older experienced feelings of loneliness during Spring 2020. Especially persons who were not married or in a relationship commonly reported loneliness . SimilarToward the use of digital technology to compensate for the decline in a personal network, the interviewees had differing perspectives and opinions. Although our study population consisted of people aged 80 and over, we found that adopting new technology in order to maintain personal networks during the time of restrictions was relatively common, and the attitudes toward using digital tools were positive. Other studies are in line with our results by showing that during the pandemic, especially oldest old women and persons with high cognitive abilities have been able to actively use the internet . The stuThe importance of having connections with neighbors was mentioned by many of our interviewees and many older persons also received help from the neighbors. Similar findings were reported by Brown et al. , who fouHaving social contacts and being socially active are known to protect from several adverse health events. However, it should be remembered that like younger people, also oldest old people are heterogeneous in terms of their preferences and wishes for personal networks and social contacts. For some people, a socially active lifestyle feels tiring and extensive social contact may even have a negative effect on their perceived well-being. It has been hypothesized that extroverts who are used to having an active social life would suffer more from changes related to personal networks during the pandemic and it is possible that personality modifies the feelings related to the pandemic and also a degree of suffering from isolation. A study by Gubler et al.  found thOur results on the heterogeneity of changes in social relationships during the pandemic are in line with the earlier findings from our research group. Among the Finnish older population, 55% reported a decrease in contacts with friends and relatives during the first wave of the pandemic, for 34% the contacts remained the same, and 11% reported an increase in contacts . When loper se. Second, the interview participants represent a fairly homogenous group based on their background factors, such as socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and living environment. But still, as the results show, the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic have been highly diverse even in this group. The strengths of this study also include shedding light on the experiences of the oldest old, which are often left out of research and public discussion.This study has some limitations. First, it should be noted that the COVID-19 pandemic has shown to have different psychological responses based on culture , and alsAlong with the present study, emerging evidence has shown that the pandemic influences the oldest old individuals in numerous ways. The current situation has increased the risk for decline in physical and mental health , 30 and mariagnese.barbera@uef.fi.The datasets presented in this article are not readily available because access to the data is maintained by the CAIDE research team. Requests to access these datasets should be directed to Mariagnese Barbera, The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the Northern Savo Hospital District. The patients/participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.JK: conceptualization, methodology, data analyses, resources, writing—original draft, writing—review and editing, funding acquisition, and project administration. ET: conceptualization, methodology, data analyses, data curation, writing—original draft, and writing—review and editing. IL: conceptualization, writing—original draft, writing—review and editing, and funding acquisition. TN: resources, data curation, project administration, and writing—review and editing. MK: resources, project administration, funding acquisition, and writing—review and editing. AS: resources, data curation, project administration, funding acquisition, and writing—review and editing. All the authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.This study was financially supported by the Juho Vainio Foundation (Finland), Finnish Cultural Foundation, Yrjö Jahnsson Foundation (Finland), Ministry of Culture and Education (Finland), and Academy of Finland .The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.


Health services organizations must understand how best to lower nursing professionals’ turnover intentions, and increase their job satisfaction and the quality of care provided to patients. This study aims to examine whether work engagement (WE) is a significant predictor of the achievement of these preferred organizational goals. The study also aims to examine whether organizational culture and organizational climate can manage the WE of nursing professionals and indirectly contribute to the accomplishment of the preferred organizational goals.N = 164 nurses, from four Norwegian public hospitals. Structural equation modeling was employed in testing the hypothesis in the conceptual model, using Stata software. Furthermore, mediation analyses were achieved through use of the “medsem” package in the Stata software, in testing whether the proposed direct and indirect effects were statistically significant, and the type of mediation found.In detail, a cross-sectional questionnaire survey study was conducted through a convenience sampling of a total of R2 = 0.59) of turnover intention; ii) nursing professionals’ perception of organizational culture (β = 0.278) and collaboration climate (β = 0.331) were both directly related to their WE; and iii) WE fully mediates the relationship between organizational culture/climate and service quality of care and job satisfaction. Moreover, WE partially mediates the relationship between collaborative climate and job satisfaction.The three key findings from this study are: i) WE of nursing professionals was found to be positively related to service quality of care (β = 0.551) and job satisfaction (β = 0.883). Job satisfaction fully mediates the relationship between WE and turnover intention and in itself explains almost 60%  mediated by job satisfaction. Employers should therefore focus on improving the job satisfaction of nursing professionals. The WE of nursing professionals is a common key factor for such improvement. Consequently, leaders and managers should continuously manage nursing professionals’ WE, focusing on such areas as organizational culture and climate, because WE is an effective means of enabling multiple desirable outcomes for hospital organizations.The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12913-021-07405-0. Research has shown that a sustainable human resource base in healthcare organizations is a major challenge. For instance, issues such as motivation, retention and moral have created significant concern for healthcare organizations as well as for policy makers .The difficulty in handling this major challenge of having a sustainable human resource base is especially relevant when considering nurses, who are characterized as an important foundation of human resource capital in healthcare organizations . It has This study aims to examine whether the WE of nursing professionals has the potential to function as a core factor in the achievement of multiple desirable outcomes for hospital organizations. WE relates to nursing professionals’ perception of experiencing a positive response to the work they are performing  and has Previous research on WE among nurses has linked WE to several issues, such as, but not limited to, affective commitment  and orgaFirst, Keyko et al. argued for research focusing on nurses’ WE in relation to hospital patients . This stConsidering the abovementioned four aims, this paper contributes to extending and deepening previous research on nurses’ WE and thus contributes theoretically as well as suggesting practical implications to “enable development of initiatives that enhance work engagement and its outcomes within the current health care context” Appraisal, Response and Outcome. These categories are connected in a specific directional manner as shown by the arrows. As seen in Fig. Appraisal IMOC and CC are proposed to be related to the Response variable WE. Furthermore, the conceptual model proposes three types of Outcomes: SQC, JS and TI. The Response construct WE is proposed to be related to SQC, JS and TI. In the following sections, each of the six constructs and their hypothesized relationships, as shown in Fig. Based on the discussion above and the forthcoming discussion on the study’s theoretical framework, this study proposes a conceptual model Fig. . In Fig.The concept of WE originated from positive psychology, which focuses on the positive resources and strengths of humans, rather than their limits . SpecifiIn this study, as indicated in the previous discussion and visualized in Fig. The individual-level resource WE is suggested to be linked to three different types of outcomes, namely, (i) turnover intention (TI), (ii) job satisfaction (JS) and (iii) service quality of care (SQC). All outcomes of WE represent desirable organizational goals that healthcare organizations want to achieve.In this study, turnover intentions (TI) embrace nurses’ psychological responses to conditions in organizations  and consHypothesis 1:WE is significantly and negatively related to TIPrevious research has suggested that WE is negatively related to TI. When employees experience a positive state of mind characterized by vigor, dedication and absorption, referring to those elements embraced by the concept of WE, this should lead to more favorable evaluations and thoughts about their workplace and thus be associated with decisions or intentions not to leave the organization in which they are employed. Previous research on nurses supports the existence of a negative relationship between WE and TI. For example, in their study, Moloney et al. , using 2According to Tomietto et al., healthcare organizations are requesting strategies for how they can best cultivate a challenging factor such as JS . In thisHypothesis 2a:WE is significantly and positively related to JSAlthough JS has generally been included in several previous studies on nurses, it seems that relatively few of these have examined the specific link between WE and JS. For example, in their extensive review of antecedents and effects of nurses’ WE, Keyko et al.  only repHypothesis 2b:The relationship between WE and TI is mediated by JSPrevious research has found that the JS of nurses is directly linked to TI among nurses . HoweverHypothesis 3:WE is positively related to service SQCIn this study, SQC is studied as an organizational objective, because the best level of SQC to patients is a highly desirable organizational goal for hospital organizations to achieve . Nurses In Fig. An organizational climate is about employees’ shared perceptions of their organization. These shared perceptions of climate vary from strongly negative to strongly positive. The literature emphasizes the significance and value for organizations in focusing on organizational climate. For example, Kieft et al. found that “it is important to develop and maintain collaborative working relationships with professionals, including those in their own field” . Hypothesis 4:CC is positively related to WEAccording to the job-demands–resources (JD–R) model, WE is fostered by job resources . In thisIn this study, and as mentioned above, IMOC is studied as an organizational-level resource. Organizational culture is, according to Banaszak-Holl, said to “pervade all aspects of organizational life” Hypothesis 5a:IMOC is positively related to WEOrganizational culture “strongly influences employee behaviors”  aHypothesis 5b:The relationship between IMOC and WE is mediated by CC.Although IMOC is expected to be directly associated with WE, it is also assumed that this relationship is mediated through the concept of organizational climate, represented as CC in this study. Accordingly, it is proposed that two “routes” exist from IMOC to WE. In the literature, the concepts of climate and culture are often suggested to be closely related. Regarding conceptual closeness, Carlucci noted that “culture and climate are similar concepts” As visualized in Fig. As noted in the previous discussion, IMOC and CC are closely related concepts. Because of their close relationship and association, it is reasonable to assume that the two concepts should work in the same direction depending on how employees appraise or perceive them. As Trus et al. noted, “culture and climate represent a social context … that constrains and promotes certain behaviors and interactions” .Hypothesis 6:WE functions as a mediator between IMOC and a) SQC, b) TI and JSHypothesis 7:WE functions as a mediator between CC and a) SQC, b) TI and JSThe assumption of the mediating role of WE is summarized in these two final hypotheses:Given the prevailing theoretical framework and its discussion of the conceptual model Fig. , along wThis study is part of a larger research project, and as such, the data for this study were collected from four public hospitals located in South East Norway. Initially, six public hospitals in the South East Norway region were invited to participate in the research project. Four of the six agreed to participate. Initial contact and all subsequent contact with the public hospitals was through hospital management. The management personnel of the public hospitals were presented a pitch on the research project, along with its aim, estimated time and required resources. With the help of hospital management, motivational letters that included information about the research project were sent to the employees of the four public hospitals. Information provided to the participants included knowledge about the aim of the research project, participants’ rights, length of the questionnaire, information on where to find the online questionnaire, and contact details of the research project leader(s). It is important to note that all information provided to the participants was approved by hospital management personnel, who then forwarded the information to their employees.A total of 1104 nursing staff members received the questionnaire and 164 questionnaires were completed, giving a response rate of 14.8%. Previous research that focused on WE and used nursing staff as a sample encountered the challenge of increasing response rates when using convenience sampling and online surveys as data-gathering methods . For exaBy combining capabilities and knowledge from academic experts and select hospital employees, several pretests were completed to ensure that the questionnaire was high quality. The reason for this is two-fold. First, the survey was completed in Norwegian, and as such, several workshops were required to ensure the quality of back-to-back translation. Second, to ensure the overall quality of the questionnaire, pretests were completed. The results of the various pretests helped us address the challenges pertaining to readability, redundancy or ambiguity. Consequently, the final questionnaire was modified and changed accordingly.This study focuses on a total of six main instruments from the current literature that were used in this study: IMOC, CC, WE, SQC, TI and JS. All participants responded to the validated constructs using a seven-point Likert scale ranging from 1) strongly disagree to (7) strongly agree. In addition to the six main instruments, the study includes a section on demographic characteristics. It is important to note the all the survey instruments in this study are not under license. A supplementary file ; step two tested the structural model. The estimation used the “sem” package in Stata . TestingThe measurement model was assessed by examining several criteria: goodness-of-fit indices ; indicator reliability (item loading); latent construct reliability (Raykov’s reliability coefficient); convergence validity ); and discriminant validity. Convergent and discriminant validity make up the construct validity. The “rules of thumb” used in Tables The structural model was assessed with the same goodness-of-fit measures as the measurement model. The structural model’s reported path coefficients are standardized values, which range between − 1 and 1. The closer a path coefficient is to ±1, the stronger is the relationship.The final questionnaire was submitted for approval to Norwegian Social Science Data Services (NSD), project number 42091, to ensure compliance with the research ethics set by NSD. In addition, participants had to consent to the voluntary participation prior to the commencement of the survey. As already mentioned, all contact with the participants occurred through the hospital management. To ensure participants’ anonymity, information that could identify the participants, such as IP addresses, was deleted upon the completion of the survey.Table Table 5a and H4. WE had a large and statistically significant effect on both SQC and JS, and thus supports H3 and H2a. The relationship between WE and TI was not significant and H1 was not supported. The model explains 32% of the variance in WE, 30% of the variance in SOC, 59% of the variance in TI and 69% of the variance in JS.Table 2b. CC has a significant indirect effect (β = 0.207) and a partial mediation effect between IMOC and WE, and thus H5b is supported.Using mediation analysis, Table 6a. WE does not mediate the relationship between IMOC and TI, and thus does not support H6b. However, WE intervenes between IMOC and JS (with an indirect effect of β = 0.178), supporting H6c. WE fully mediates between CC and SQC (with an indirect effect of β = 0.145), supporting H7a. The relationship between CC and TI has no significant indirect effect and thus is not mediated by WE, indicating no support for H7b. Lastly, WE partially mediates the relationship between CC and JS, with an indirect effect of β = 0.183, supporting H7b.We tested a total of six mediator effects of WE, and our findings Table  show in To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to undertake a comprehensive examination of nursing professionals’ WE using several direct and indirect effects associated with WE, in the same study. By doing so, it contributes to both extending and deepening research on this topic in healthcare services research. Specifically, it responds directly to Keyko et al.’s call for further research focused on “the importance … of … work engagement” The contributions in this study can be divided into three sub-contributions. First, this study embraces several different types of organizational outcomes associated with nursing professionals’ WE. Specifically, it includes both patient-related outcomes (represented by SQC), job-related outcomes (represented by JS) and employer-related outcomes (represented by TI). In doing so, this study provides new insight into how nursing professionals’ WE is associated with a variety of desired goals in healthcare organizations. Second, it contributes to revealing how nursing professionals’ perceptions of organizational culture (represented by IMOC) and organizational climate (represented by CC) act as a precursor to their WE. Thus, it enhances our understanding of how potential strategies related to the individual-level resource of WE can be cultivated and managed by the two organizational-level resources (referring to IMOC and CC). Third, consistent with our overall aim and focus, the study has undertaken an extensive test of the centrality or role of healthcare professionals’ WE in healthcare organizations. Specifically, using complex statistical tests and analysis, it examines whether WE operates as a full or partial mediator between organizational-level resources (IMOC and CC) and the three organizational goals  included in the study. As such, the study provides a comprehensive contribution regarding the true “value of … work engagement” In line with much of the previous research, the individual-level resource of nursing professionals’ WE is defined as “a positive, fulfilling, work-related state of mind” .R2 = 0.69) of the variance in nursing professionals’ JS, which is substantial. Consequently, this implies that when leaders in health organizations know the levels of WE of their nursing professionals, it indicates whether they are satisfied with their job. Thus, WE can function as an organizational “thermometer” that leaders of healthcare organizations can actively use to identify (negative or positive) trends in healthcare professionals’ experience with their work-related conditions.This study also reveals that the value of the WE of nursing professionals is not restricted only to having an impact on the patients’ perception of SQC of the healthcare organizations. The results show that WE among nursing professionals also has a positive impact on their internal values, referring to their JS, which in this study is defined as to what “extent employees like their jobs” .R2 = 0.59) of the variance in TI. Specifically, JS was found to act as a mediator between WE and TI. No significant direct effect of WE on TI was identified. Most often, WE is linked individually to both TI [The results from this study show that JS is also linked to the TI of nursing professionals (β = − 0.843) explaining almost 60% . To the both TI , p. 23).R2 = 0.32) of the variance in WE. Although the concepts of organizational culture and organizational climate, in general, have been linked to WE in previous research [all the suggested relationships in the proposed model, with the exception of TI. This finding is a significant contribution to both research on WE in health services and specifically to identifying the role that the WE of nursing professionals seems to play for the achievement of desirable organizational goals in health organizations. Consequently, leaders and managers of healthcare services organizations should continuously have the WE of their nursing professionals on their meeting agendas because it seems to be a core variable and strategic key tool to enable multiple desirable organizational outcomes. In summary, this study has important implications for how to handle one of the biggest challenges facing organizations today, as described in Kaye and Jordan-Evans: “The challenge today is not just retaining talented people, but fully engaging them, capturing their minds and hearts at each stage of their work lives” [As noted previously in this paper, WE as an individual-level resource is considered and described as something that is not static but dynamic. This dynamic aspect implies that the WE of nursing professionals is potentially changeable or manageable. This study contributes to empirically demonstrating that this assumption seems to be correct. Both IMOC and CC, representing two types of organizational-level resources, can positively change or “manage” the WE of nursing professionals. The findings also contribute to revealing a close association between organizational culture (refer to IMOC) and organizational climate (refer to CC). Simultaneously, it also reveals how IMOC has an impact on WE through CC. IMOC and CC explain more than 30% . k lives” .Although this study contributes to health services research by examining several interesting and important precursors and outcomes associated with WE, more research on WE is required in the future.First, this study employed cross-sectional survey data with convenience sampling from 164 nursing staff in four public hospitals in South East Norway. Although this study followed the recommendations of Levine  in conduSecond, this study limited its focus on the WE of health professionals from the perspective of individuals. While this has been the most conventional way to analyze WE, other levels could be included. One such approach would be to focus on WE from an organizational perspective and what the literature refers to as collective work engagement. This implies a shift in focus from “I” or individual engagement to “We” or organizational climate engagement. In general, limited research has been undertaken on collective engagement . To the Third, according to Mesfin et al., “a good hospital culture leads to better individual performance” . Fourth, this study only includes the concepts of culture (referring to IMOC) and climate (referring to CC) as drivers of WE. Consequently, we do not examine the impact of leadership, which is a limitation of the study. Although one could argue that both IMOC and CC are affected by leadership, future research should clearly include leadership as a precursor to WE. The literature provides a range of potential leadership perspectives and styles that could be included, such as transformational leadership, ambidextrous leadership, transactional leadership, empowering leadership and leadership autonomy support. However, one concrete suggestion would be to include the four leadership styles mentioned in the Path–Goal Theory Conceptual Framework, that is, 1) directive, 2) achievement-oriented, 3) participative and 4) supportive . SimilarIn conclusion, this study examines whether the WE of nursing professionals is a core factor in the achievement of the preferred organizational goals of healthcare organizations. WE was found to be correlated both to nursing professionals’ level of SQC and their JS. WE and TI are mediated by JS. Based on these findings, leaders and managers of hospital organizations should manage nursing professionals’ WE, focusing on organizational culture and climate. In conclusion, the WE of nursing professionals is important because it enables hospitals to achieve multiple desirable outcomes.Additional file 1.


Kritik der Urteilskraft (Critique of the power of judgment) (1790), is a combination of Newtonian non-reductionist mechanism in explanation, and a concept of natural end comparable to Stahl’s formal conception of organic bodies. It consists of two claims: a) in biology only mechanical explanation is explanatory, and b) living entities contain some original organisation, which is mechanically unexplainable. In the nineteenth century this approach influenced naturalists as Müller, Virchow, and Von Baer, in their physiological research. Dissatisfied with a sheer mechanistic or, on the other hand, a sheer teleological approach, they appreciated the Kantian account of mechanical explanation of natural ends. In Germany, in the second halve of the nineteenth century, Ernst Haeckel reopened the debate about abiogenesis, which still continuous.The rise of the mechanistic worldview in the seventeenth century had a major impact on views of biological generation. Many seventeenth century naturalists rejected the old animist thesis. However, the alternative view of gradual mechanistic formation in embryology didn’t convince either. How to articulate the peculiarity of life? Researchers in the seventeenth century proposed both “animist” and mechanistic theories of life. In the eighteenth century again a controversy in biology arose regarding the explanation of generation. Some adhered to the view that life is a physical property of matter (e.g. Buffon), others saw living entities as the result of the development of pre-existing germs (e.g. Bonnet). Naturalists, lacked a convincing account that could guide their research. In interaction with leading naturalists of his time Immanuel Kant articulated an approach to explaining generation. Kant’s account, delineated in his  This paper roots its interest in the question which characteristics are typical for living entities. We approach this issue from a historical perspective. In eighteenth and nineteenth century Europe, both mechanisticbiological generation. With biology we refer to all theorizing regarding living entities as living entities Kritik der Urteilskraft (KdU) has inspired many naturalists and is still a subject of some discussion among biologists today  examine the influence of the Kantian account of life on biological research in Europe in the nineteenth century, especially among German scholars. A Sect. (10) with discussion and conclusions completes this paper.The next Sect. (2) delineates the background of a controversy about biological generation. The subsequent Sect. (3) presents the scientific context of the controversy in the eighteenth century. Section mechanistic epigenesis. However, in the seventeenth and eighteenth century, mechanistic epigenesis did not convince most embryologists, and—as a result—mechanistic solutions to the problem of generation typically involved some version of preformation of the embryo . Subsequently, Malebranche in 1674 formulated another version of preformation theory, called emboîtement (nesting). In Malbranche’s version, generation is the unfolding of pre-existent embryo’s (germs), which were enclosed by successive generations (as nested boxes) in the ovum (ovist emboîtement) or in the sperm .In Western philosophical tradition for many centuries, a certain formative force in living entities was held responsible for the development, maintenance, and healing of biological individuals. This living or animating principle that guided living nature had its own existence, independent of and superior to matter : “all animals whatsoever are produced from ova”3 ex ovo progigni). He observed the gradual formation of the chick, part by part. Harvey called it epigenesis: “the generation of the chick from the egg is the result of epigenesis, rather than of metamorphosis, and (…) all its parts are not fashioned simultaneously but emerge in their due succession and order” .In his nimalium , the EngDirigens microcosmicum—in animated bodies. This soul (anima), in Stahl’s view, is the empirical observable agent, immanent to the organic body, causing its motions. Stahl also distinguished between the material and the formal conception of living bodies . The material conception of concrete bodies is mechanical and the formal conception of organic bodies is operational or instrumental  as a principle of order. He used the word in opposition to mechanism (mechanismus), the more or less confused order of aggregates  self-organization, operating purposefully , a rationalist, adopted a conception of the hierarchy of sciences according to which ontology and theology ground natural science. As a consequence, Wolff assigned an explanatory function in natural science to teleology  do not explain living entities as products of nature (AA 5: 422–425).Albrecht von Haller (1708–1777), a Swiss physician, is one of the founders of modern physiology. He changed his mind several times regarding the nature of generation. Haller was an empiricist in the Newtonian tradition of Zammito, . This meZammito, . Haller’s Sloan, . In 1758g Sloan, . In publHistoire naturelle (1749–1767). In it, Buffon challenged some of the basic assumptions of mechanical explanation of life by suggesting additional forces  as contradictory and not even conceivable (AA 5: 394). Kant adhered to a historical species concept (AA 5: 422), although a far more restrictive concept than Buffon’s  started his impressive cf. Roe, . Buffon d Reill, . A penetnon-Küss  calls ite Sloan, . Kant dis Sloan, . More imemboîtement in 1759 in his thesis Theoria generationis. Wolff, one of the founders of embryology, defended an epigenetic theory of development in which he introduced a formative force, which he called vis essentialis  (1785–1786) also distanced himself from mechanism. According to Herder, mechanical laws deal with inanimate matter, vital laws with living matter. He conceived of a new way to perceive the relations between contraries. The history of nature and of humanity demonstrates the interaction between contraries as for example regular development and revolutionary eruption. Contraries are linked by a mysterious connection, which he named harmony  spontaneous generation (generatio equivoca) (AA 5: 419). The assumption that unorganized matter can organize itself (Hylozoism) does not give a convincingly explanation of generation, according to him (AA 5: 394f). Kant agreed that the embryological observation and description of epigenesis, was well attested and studied, among others by C.F. Wolff  contested y Reill, . Herder Huneman, . AccordiTheoretical biology was a divided field. It contained vitalist and mechanistic theories. Vitalists pursued and expanded Stahl’s ideas. Mechanists like Haller fiercely rebelled against these theories. How to create an evincive unity in this field?Über den Bildungstrieb (On the formative drive), which he thoroughly revised and extended in 1789. Blumenbach  becomes active. This drive bestows on the germ the power to take on its particular form initially, then preserves it, and, if it is mutilated, to heal when possible , Göttingen's professor of anatomy and comparative zoology, wrote (organisirte Körper) derive the primary cause of all generation, reproduction, and nutrition from a special inborn formative drive . As an example, Blumenbach mentioned crystallizations, which in their outer form have such a striking resemblance to certain organic bodies, that they give a very appropriate representation, which can somewhat facilitate the imagination of the formation from unformed substances (p. 73).Organized bodies formative drive , like words such as attraction (Attraction) and weight (Schwere), denotes a force whose constant effects have been recognized from experience. Although these are generally recognized forces of nature, their cause remains unknown. The purpose of Blumenbach’s study of these forces is merely to determine their workings more precisely and to trace them back to more general laws . The view Blumenbach articulated is usually called vitalism , Kant tried to connect with the then current state of affairs in biology.the inscrutable principle of an original organization.Blumenbach stated that the cause of the formative drive cannot be explained in scientific terms. “Scientific” meaning for Blumenbach Newtonian mechanism. He also stated that the formative drive is an original power. It is a ch AA 5: 24, Kant Kritik der Urteilskraft, Kant was in intimate connection with and frequently in strong opposition to leading naturalists and natural philosophers of his time (cf. AA 5: 391ff). The concept of natural purpose with original predispositions, as presented in KdU, concerns two capacities of living entities: 1. Preserving the internal purposive organization of the species, 2. modification to external changes. Kant’s approach in KdU is an example of combining elements of organism and mechanism. In this way Kant tried to uphold both the peculiarity of life and characteristics of scientific explanation.While writing his Kritik der teleologischen Urteilskraft .Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) had a restrictive conception of proper science, as a natural consequence of his adherence to a classical ideal of science. Scientific explanations for Kant are, firstly, demonstrations of the proposed facts, giving an account of why something happens De Jong, . And secnatural end (Naturzweck). (AA 5: 369ff). Natural ends have, in addition to a moving power, a self-propagating formative power (AA 5: 374). Natural ends are organized products of nature (AA 5: 376). In a natural end, the parts (as far as their existence and their form are concerned) are possible only through their relation to the whole, and the idea of the whole determines the form and combination of all the parts (AA 5: 373). A natural end is an organized and self-organizing being (AA 5: 374). In natural ends, the connection of efficient causes—i.e., mechanical causality—could at the same time be judged as an effect through final causes (AA 5: 373). By organizing itself, nature is more than merely an analogue of art (AA 5: 374). Kant called the kind of purposiveness, observed in organized beings, internal purposiveness. He defined an organized product of nature as that in which everything is an end and reciprocally a means. Nothing in it is in vain, purposeless, or to be ascribed to a blind mechanism of nature (AA 5: 376). The word “Naturzweck” has a double meaning in the KdU. It indicates a principle of order—even as Stahl used the word “organismus”, but it also is a generic name of individuals. Kant did not make use of anything as Stahl’s concept of a regulating soul.Kant distanced himself from the distinction Descartes makes between humans and animals. Animals, in Kant’s view, are not machines but like humans, they can form representations of their environment. Despite their specific difference, humans belong to the same genus as animals (AA 5: 464). Kant called movement the characteristic of machines. For living entities Kant used the concept of  or hyperphysically, as a fatality . Then, two systems wherein the purposiveness of nature is conceived as intentional: the forming of natural ends is either physically explained as matter acting in accordance with an intention   (AA 5: 391f). Kant rejected them all for not being explanatory. He concluded that the generation of natural ends can only be interpreted as being established through a supreme understanding (einem obersten Verstande) as the cause of the world. But this conclusion is merely a heuristic teleological principle. It does not explain anything (AA 5: 395).Kant wanted to demarcate biology from metaphysical belief. He discerned among philosophers four attempts to explain natural ends by objective metaphysical principles. First, two systems wherein the purposiveness of nature is conceived as unintentional: the forming of natural ends is either physically explained as an accident (Wirkungsart) to it (AA 5: 360). By regarding living entities as organized Kant rejected reductionist mechanistic theories as e.g. Cartesian mechanism  out of the maternal womb (Mutterschoss) of the earth and from each other in an ascending degree of complexity. He wrote in a note that a hypothesis of this sort can be called “a daring adventure of reason.” Moreover, according to Kant, whoever proposes the production of organized beings by the earth, must attribute to this universal mother an organization purposively aimed at all these creatures, for otherwise the possibility of the purposive forma of the products of the animal and vegetable kingdoms cannot be conceived at all (AA 5: 419).Kant has considered the hypothesis of the generation of organized beings . In the concept product, Kant proposed an alternative model to growth by aggregation. All generation that we know is generatio homonyma—in its organization itself the product is homogeneous with that which generated it (AA 5: 419f). The forming of entities by a formative power, i.e., epigenetic formation, means the generation of offspring by a progenitor in accordance with its internally purposive predispositions (inneren zweckmäßigen Anlagen) (AA 5: 423).According to Kant, natural ends are not formed as repeated instantaneous miracles , for then the concept of the natural is entirely lost AA 5: 422). Natural ends are also not formed as educts,: 422. Nanatural end has no metaphysical implications . It is merely a regulative principle (AA 5: 405)—that is, an heuristic principle. Treating it as constitutive would be affirming the reality of causation by intelligence in nature (AA 5: 383). Science should limit itself to mechanical explanations and not make statements about metaphysical questions. The question of the origin of the inner purposiveness of living entities, is such a metaphysical question (AA 5: 383). In answering the question of the relationship between mechanical causality and ideal causality, Kant refers to an unknowable supersensible ground of nature (AA 5: 422) and to the inscrutable principle of an original organization (AA 5: 424). Kant’s teleological concept is not meant as an explanation, it only has a heuristic value to identify the object of biological research (AA 5: 411). To be in accordance with his Critical philosophy, Kant could in the KdU not use dogmatic assertions, i.e., objective metaphysical principles (AA 5: 395), so his concept of natural end must be a principle as if. We should treat natural ends as if they were the product of an idea, a plan that governed their operations, a plan generated by an Intellectus archetypus, a divine understanding (AA 5: 408). According to Kant, this is a helpful heuristic that enables us to push mechanical explanation as far as we can. By regarding the concept of a purposiveness of nature as a merely regulative principle (AA 5: 197) Kant excluded rationalist (theistic) theories.Kant posed that his teleological concept of explanans but to the explanandum, they have no explanatory value (AA 5: 360). Teleology only has a place in a description of nature, explanations always have to be mechanical (AA 5: 417). In this statement Kant differs clearly from Stahl. In explaining living nature, the investigator has to pursue mechanical explanation as far as possible. But there will never arise a Newton who could make comprehensible even the generation of a blade of grass according to natural laws that no intention has ordered (AA 5: 400).Generation and also the functioning of living entities, must be explained mechanically, according to Kant. In the natural sciences, teleological concepts do not belong to the We conclude: 1. The account Kant articulated in KdU for explaining generation combined (a.) the concept of natural end which is—as being a principle of order—comparable to Stahl’s formal conception of living bodies (see Sect. 2), and (b.) the view that scientific explanation is to be perceived as Newtonian non-reductionist mechanism. 2. Kant’s approach can be properly summarized as “mechanical explanation of natural ends.” His approach consists of two claims: a) in biology only mechanical explanation is explanatory, and b) living entities contain some original organisation, which is mechanically unexplainable. We hypothesize that this approach was used by some leading researchers in physiology—physiology taken in a wide sense—during the nineteenth century.KdU has been the main influence for them using this approach. An important example of Kant’s influence on outstanding researchers is Johannes Müller, to whom we now turn.Though more explicit in its articulation, Kant’s approach has closely related precursors—cf. Wolfe and Terada , and WolHandbuch der Physiologie des Menschen (Handbook of human physiology) (2 volumes) was printed in the 30 s and 40 s in many editions and was also translated into English: Elements of physiology . After a London edition, in 1843, an American abbreviated edition, also titled Elements of Physiology  was one of the prominent physiologists of his time. His famous  Müller, , p. 1:Phvital force , the final cause (Endursache) of organic bodies, argued Müller. It is a creative force which changes matter in a purposeful way. An organic being is the factual unit of organic creative force and organic matter The manner in which their elements are combined, is not the only difference between organic and inorganic bodies; there is in living organic matter a principle constantly in action, the operations of which are in accordance with a rational plan, so that the individual parts which it creates in the body, are adapted to the design of the whole; and this it is which distinguishes organism. Kant says: “the cause of the particular mode of existence of each part of a living body resides in the whole, while in dead masses each part contains this cause within itself.”10Trivializing the in vitro production of urea from inorganic ingredients—realized in 1828 by Friedrich Wöhler , spoken of by Stahl (see Sect. (der mechanischen Richtung) in physiology, Müller has done more than any other physiologist before him . How could this happen? Müller’s “animism” means he did not regard living entities to be merely an aggregate of mechanisms   for this theory . Schwann himself did not regard it a part of his cell theory.theory of the cells, the fundamental organic processes take place at the level of the cell and not at the level of the entire organism. Every elementary part (every cell) has an autonomous life (p. 228). The question of the fundamental force of organized bodies is reduced to the question of the fundamental force of individual cells (p. 229). Schwann further stated (p. 222):The adaptation to a purpose which is characteristic of organized bodies differs only in degree from what is apparent also in the inorganic part of nature; and the explanation that organized bodies are developed, like all the phenomena of inorganic nature, by the operation of blind laws framed with the matter, cannot be rejected as impossible. Reason certainly requires some ground for such adaptation, but for her it is sufficient to assume that matter with the powers inherent in it owes its existence to a rational Being.13Organized bodies (organisms) are formed by merely physicochemical regularity (p. 226). Schwann summarized (p. 257):The view then that organisms are nothing but the form under which substances capable of imbibition crystallize, appears to be compatible with the most important phenomena of organic life, and may be so far admitted, that it is a possible hypothesis, or attempt towards an explanation of these phenomena. It involves very much that is uncertain and paradoxical, but I have developed it in detail, because it may serve as a guide for new investigations.14Müller in his Handbuch commented on a consequence Schwann inferred in the treatise. Does every cell contain the power to generate a whole organism? Müller agreed with him as far as the lower biological beings are concerned but saw major problems regarding the higher animals. The theory of the cells places too much emphasis on the potentiality and equality of the body cells, ignoring the influences of the organism as a whole on individual cells and differences between cells, according to Müller , Schwann speculated about the consequences of his theory of free cell formation (Theorie der freien Zellenbildung) .”Around the middle of the nineteenth century a profound change occurred in the beliefs of biologists about the way in which cells multiply Baker, . In the Virchow, , p. 9 toOn the mechanistic interpretation of life, Virchow discriminated between his “mechanistic interpretation of life” and materialism . Virchow tried to avoid transcendent questions. In his opinion the “biologist first seeks for the plan, or, as we may otherwise say, for the law. The next question, then, after the law has been found, is how the law or plan has been carried out, not who made it” (p. 114). Considering organic and inorganic creation both, Virchow stated: “Everywhere there is mechanistic process only, with the unbreakable necessity of cause and effect. The plan is in the body, the ideal in the real, the power in the material.” (p. 115).In an 1858 essay, translated as unusual phenomena, Virchow remarked: “we comprehend it only in a mechanistic sequence of cause and effect. For the human spirit is incapable of any other kind of comprehension” (p. 111f). Here we note the influence of Kant. It was Virchow’s approach of biological research as aiming at mechanical explanation of purposive entities that brought cell theory to its prime. The cell plasm became another important topic in nineteenth century discussion on generation. It provoked new theorizing about the origin of living organisms.Cell theory signified an important step for biological theorizing. The intracellular organization, especially the role of the nucleus, gradually obtained more clarification. Virchow discussed biological regularity: “Life is cell activity; its uniqueness is the uniqueness of the cell. The cell is a concrete structure composed of definite chemical substances and built up according to a definite law” (p. 106). Mechanical explanation is required: “As particular, as peculiar, and as much interiorized as life is, (…), so little is it withdrawn from the rule of chemical and physical law” (p. 107). When, regarding our comprehension of spontaneous generation can refer to both heterogenesis and abiogenesis. Heterogenesis can mean that micro-organisms originate from dead organic material or that parasitic worms arise from other living organisms . Abiogenesis, also called generatio aequivoca, refers to the generation of living entities from inanimate (“raw”) matter. Books like Cellularpathologie  noted under the lemma equivocal generation: “this kind of generation is now quite exploded by the learned”  and Blumenbach wrote in his Handbuch der Naturgeschichte  about generatio aequivoca that he deemed it to be thoroughly refuted (gründlich widerlegt zu seyn) . Darwin explained the diversity perceived in living nature through natural selection of heritable variation in striving organic beings. This raised the question whether a natural explanation is possible for the origin of living entities. Ernst Haeckel picked up this gauntlet, developing an idea from Schwann’s theory of the cells. In England and Germany in the 1860s and 1870s a heated discussion took place about protoplasm  of protoplasm between lower animals and plants , made, among other things, a careful study of the protozoa phylum Radiolaria ”. In his introduction of this subject, he combined two quotes, from Müllers’s Handbuch , student of Müller and for some time assistant to Virchow  wrote:unconsciously, and in obedience to determinate laws. For the purposefully producing cause of the organic body has no choice, and the realization of a single plan is its necessity; rather, for this producing cause applies: producing for adaptation and producing in accordance to determinate law are one and the same thing. Therefore, the organising principle cannot be compared with mental consciousness; one should not compare its blind necessary activity with the forming of a concept. Organism is the result of the union of the organic creative power and organic matter.15A piece of mechanism is formed in accordance with an idea held in view by the artificer, this idea being the purpose for which it is intended. An “idea” also regulates the structure of every organism, and of each of its component organs. In the former case, however, the ruling idea exists external to the artificial mechanism, namely, in the mind of the artificer; while the idea, which is the cause of the harmony of organic bodies, is in action in the organism itself, exerting in it a formative power Haeckel a, p. 94 less than mental consciousness. But did Haeckel do justice to the view of Müller, who had died in 1858, by presenting Müller’s words in this way? In the second quotation, Haeckel omits some lines and words present in Müller’s Handbuch, shown below in italics. Müller .The first quote (“A piece of mechanism…” until “…one and the same thing”) focuses our attention on the formative power, shaping by necessity. The second quote, the remaining lines—added with the conjunction “therefore,” focuses our attention on the difference between this organizing principle and mental consciousness (or mind). The blindness of the formative power, its activity according to determinate laws, receives emphasis. This power is . Müller , p. 23 hvitalism. While opposing vitalism, Haeckel simultaneously rejected a teleological approach. According to Haeckel, Müller and many other researchers of nature were entangled in a dualistic conflict. Haeckel pointed a way out :causa finalis coincides with the mechanical causa efficiens, then the former abolishes itself to submit to the latter, then it is acknowledged that the mechanical concept of the organisms is the only correct one.If, as Müller says, goal-oriented causation and necessary causation in the active cause in the organism is one and the same, then the goal-oriented Haeckel praised Müller as a researcher who had done a great deal for the breakthrough of the mechanical approach in physiology (cf. Section 6), but regretted his supposed Haeckel, a, p. 95:Urzeugung, i.e. :…a first formation of living bodies through the primal, inherent forces of matter, which act with absolute necessity according to determinate law.In volume two of his Generelle Morphologie Haeckel wrote under the heading “Different ways of Generation” :(generatio spontanea) or parental generation .All generation, i.e., all origination of organic individuals, is either spontaneous generation Within generatio spontanea, Haeckel distinguished between autogeny (Autogonie) and plasmgeny (Plasmogonie). Monera (Moneres) , i.e., prokaryotes, could arise from a formation fluid (Bildungsflüssigkeit) with only inorganic compounds (Autogonie). They can also arise from a formation fluid with organic compounds (Plasmogonie). Haeckel wrote  must have originated directly through the coming together of simple (inorganic) compounds to form complexes (protein-like carbon compounds).17The parentless generation in an “inorganic” formation fluid, the Haeckel opposed dualism with monism: the knowable world forms a unity (a monon), subject to one and the same mechanical law. Living bodies have ever been generated by Haeckel, a, p. 170Haeckel, b, p. 33:el wrote , p. 33:Tb, p. xxii):completely structureless and homogeneous organisms, which consist only of a piece of plasma (a mucilaginous protein compound) that simply feeds through endosmosis and propagates through schizogony or sporogony.18We name Monera all Haeckel characterized Monera  discerned in any natural body (Naturkörper), i.e., an organic or inorganic individual (p. 149), two forming forces (formbildende Kräfte): the internal formative drive (inner Bildungstrieb), i.e., the material composition, and the external formative drive (äussere Bildungstrieb), i.e., the sum of the forces which affect the natural body from the environment, resulting in adaptation. The internal formative drive is the sum of the forces in the atomic composition of a natural body. The external formative drive induces modification of the internal material composition  , professor at Königsberg and later at St Petersburg, is accredited with achieving important advances in the field of embryology. Von Baer was a scientist active in scientific disciplines like zoology and anatomy, and also in anthropology and geography , he did not use concepts like formative force  or vital force (Lebenskraft) in his Entwicklungsgeschichte . A clearly Kantian approach of explanation.Although in his 1827 treatise Von Baer 2, p. 187predispositions (Anlagen)  was published. In an introductory word, in which he also refers to the pioneering work of Caspar Friedrich Wolff, he wrote . Natural laws are the constant factor . The individual parts of organisms are built according to the type and rhythm of the corresponding life process and by its effectiveness, so that they cannot serve another life process .Von Baer supposed an inner connection between all natural phenomena. His entomological investigations taught him that the perception of distance and time will vary greatly between organisms that differ vastly in size and lifespan  . By harmonious Von Baer meaned a regulated reciprocal relationship between organisms. . The organization in time matters. Von Baer tried to clarify that mechanical law alone does not explain nature. The individual tones don’t form the melody, he stated, rather the individual tones are being produced in the sequence necessary to make the melody perceptible. A melody, in a sense, consists of a sequence of tones, i.e., vibrations of the air, but not merely of a sequence of tones. The melody does not just arise from these individual physical events, for another constellation of these tones would not result in this music, but only in a jumble of sounds .Von Baer saw in nature a harmonious artwork ein ewiges Werden) . Every organism demonstrates goal-directedness (Zielstrebigkeit). For nature as a whole, Von Baer sometimes used the term purposefulness (Zweckmässigkeit) (p. 224). Von Baer left the choice to the reader, and formulated: “the whole of nature operates rationally” or “the whole of nature is rational” (p. 229). Von Baer viewed nature as directed toward an end. This concerns the whole of nature, animate and inanimate, and also individual living entities. He concluded that all organic development is thoroughly purposive, because the descendants should reach the organization of the producing entities. The result of the development is, therefore, determined beforehand (p. 234). Von Baer viewed in nature a unity which is impenetrable (p. 181). Earlier he had stated “that life (…) does not have to be explained from something else, but has to be understood and comprehended by itself” . He regarded questions regarding the origin of this force “not a subject of experimental physiology, but of philosophy,” and concluded: “We must be content to know that the forces which give life to organic bodies are peculiar, and then examine more closely their properties.” In this way he could make use of Kant’s approach in the KdU. We furthermore contend that Müller was not a vitalist, for he did not conceive of life as a property of matter, but differentiated between organic creative power and organic matter (see Sect. Using the same explanatory approach does not necessarily imply to have an identical view on the question ‘What is life?’. In distinction to Kant in the theory of the cells: “The adaptation to a purpose which is characteristic of organized bodies differs only in degree from what is apparent also in the inorganic part of nature; and the explanation that organized bodies are developed, like all the phenomena of inorganic nature, by the operation of blind laws framed with the matter, cannot be rejected as impossible” (Schwann, Natural ends display—besides mechanical regularity—biological regularity. Ginsborg (governed by normative rules. Mechanical causality explains life phenomena, but it does this to a certain extent—not exhaustively. Virchow deduced all explanation of life phenomena to mechanical explanation of functioning cells. Virchow and Müller both regarded mechanical explanation to be the explanation of the functioning of an organised entity. Von Baer sided with them. For Haeckel mechanical explanation included the emergence of the original, adapted organisation. This view poses a challenge for origin of life research.How mechanical phenomena can result in biological phenomena, is a fundamental question in origin of life research. Haeckel took an essential step. He elaborated the above-mentioned statement from Schwann’s Schwann, , p. 222.Ginsborg  makes pl


The reason for this is that inter- and multidisciplinary research are still bound by disciplinary convention — often leading sport science researchers to study about a phenomenon based on pre-determined disciplinary ways of conceptualising, measuring, and doing. In contrast, transdisciplinary research promotes contextualised study with a phenomenon, like sport, unbound by disciplinary confines. It includes a more narrative and abductive way of performing research, with this abduction likely opening new lines of inquiry for attentive researchers to follow. It is in the weaving of these lines where researchers can encounter new information, growing knowledge in-between, through, and beyond the disciplines to progressively entangle novel and innovative insights related to a phenomenon or topic of interest. To guide innovation and the development of such research programmes in sport science, we lean on the four cornerstones of transdisciplinarity proposed by Alfonso Montuori, exemplifying what they could mean for such research programmes in sport science.The promotion of inter- and multidisciplinarity — broadly drawing on other disciplines to help collaboratively answer important questions to the field — has been an important goal for many professional development organisations, universities, and research institutes in sport science. While welcoming collaboration, this opinion piece discusses the value of  This current opinion promotes transdisciplinarity as a distinctive way of conceptualising and engaging with empirical inquiry in sport science.in-between, through, and beyond disciplinary boundaries when seeking to explain complex phenomena.We argue for a view of transdisciplinarity which would take sport science researchers To guide sport science researchers adopting such an approach to empirical inquiry, we elaborate on the four cornerstones of transdisciplinary research proposed by Alfonso Montuori, threading through examples as to what they could look like for such research programmes within sport science.is their own reason" Tim Ingold . Additionally, in a special issue of Quest, published over 30 years ago, Newell and Rovegno [and physical educators if the knowledge base in this area is to advance’ . To us, what these authors were suggesting was not necessarily multi- or inter-, but an approach to scientific inquiry better reflective of transdisciplinarity. That is, contextualised research that horizontally  weaves empirical  and experiential  knowledge into an entanglement of threads to explain a phenomenon, in context. This approach would take applied scientists and practitioners beyond where they could go by preferencing one source of knowledge alone [step out, and engage directly with the phenomenon, opening unique lines of inquiry that could transcend current ways of doing [In sport and physical education, at least, this integrative theme to research is not overly contemporary. For many years, the vision of the European College of Sport Science — primarily focused on professional development of sport and exercise scientists — has referred to the promotion and application of inter- and multidisciplinary approaches to the discipline , 15in-behomeless [relatedness to each and anthropology . SimplyI propose that we consider humans as indistinguishable organisms and persons, participating not in two worlds but in one, consisting of the entire field of their environmental relations. (p. 48)While not explicitly referencing himself as transdisciplinary, Ingold does emphasise being ‘anti-disciplinary interdisciplinary’ ,about a phenomenon removed from its ecology of relations [Such a holistic perspective regarding scientific inquiry encourages researchers to explore beyond disciplinary walls to blend seemingly disparate sources of knowledge ‘to create something new that is irreducible to the disciplinary components that were initially brought to bear’ .elations . These ielations , p. xxivthe promise of transdisciplinarity — an embedded, contextualised systems orientation to scientific inquiry that foregrounds the reciprocity of the inquirer (researcher) and inquiry (research) [This perspective, importantly, leads us to esearch) .in-between, through, and beyond disciplinary boundaries [transitory way, meaning researchers move with the inquiry as it opens up, zooming in  and out  as they zigzag through what are traditionally considered disciplinary landscape boundaries to enrich their understanding of a particular topic. To ‘know’, in this sense, is then to move.Indeed, the homeless scholar portrayed here is that of the transdisciplinary researcher — an academic wayfinder who follows lines of inquiry that often takes them undaries , 26, weaundaries . From a undaries . Given tToward Transdisciplinary Inquiry in the Humane Sciences, he emphasised that the interaction between increasingly specialised research would need more than multi- or interdisciplinary approachesblurring of disciplinary lines:transcend and supplement traditional boundaries of academic domain  to inquiry and knowledge , 28. Theormative .This disciplinary transcendence is important for a few reasons. First, it encourages researchers to eschew dominating, intra-paradigmatic assumptions often engrained, or hidden, within disciplinary ways of doing . Sport sanalysis  at the expense of synthesis  [organismic asymmetries, in that the internal processes of an organism  are positioned as hierarchical to, and studied detached from, the environments  which they inhabit (see Davids and Araújo [This common fixation within sport science on erstand)  is refleerstand)  arguing erstand) . Furtherd Araújo  for a decontext [with athletes, coaches, support practitioners, and other stakeholders, collaboratively working together to pose and respond to questions that open new lines of inquiry to be followed [abductive [deductive or inductive, leading groups of researchers into knowledge regions they may not have initially planned to go to, individually [onto a topic or phenomenon, but actively follow pertinent sources of information that emerge to understand ‘it’ as it really is. Indeed, this approach makes it difficult to map out in advance a specific route intended to solve a problem — manifest in doctoral research programmes that demand pre-planned proposals within, for example, six months of enrolment to ‘confirm candidature’. Indeed, as eloquently stated by Ingold  Ingold  adopting a complex systems perspective, (3) studying with, not about — situating the inquirer within the inquiry, and (4) meta-paradigmatic, not intra-paradigmatic. These cornerstones are intended to offer researchers in sport science with a basis in which to approach transdisciplinary inquiry. To support this aim, we thread through examples of what they could mean for such research programmes.To elaborate, we next discuss four cornerstones of transdisciplinary research as proposed by Alfonso Montuori , 14, 15:topical questions emerge from the interests and concerns of researchers, often guided by their own experiences developed from being embedded in the subject context. This is different from traditional approaches to research, which tend to be pre-determined and framed by disciplinary ‘norms’, ‘agenda’, or ‘conventions’, or in the case of postgraduate students, perhaps even by the beliefs and interests of an advisor, established before a phenomenon is studied. The problem with disciplinary-based research, though, is not that it is not informative, but that it risks reductionism, offering multiple, partial, or worse, non-representative views of a phenomenon, which could then be conflated as being a perspective of ‘the whole’ [physiological responses measured relative to those observed in competition. Those labelled ‘biomechanists’ may study the same topic, recording the specificity of biomechanical variables relative to values observed from athletes in competition. Undoubtedly, both disciplines may uncover interesting facts about the efficacy of the practice task design, but viewed in isolation and removed from context. In other words, they clearly only provide a partial view about the phenomena. The challenge for transdisciplinary researchers, then, is to identify and engage with the pertinent sources of knowledge that guide the inquiry, weaving them together as they explore the vast regions in-between, through, and beyond the disciplinary landscape.The first cornerstone of transdisciplinarity, as suggested by Montuori , 14, 15,e whole’ . For exarelatedness to form a more holistic — entangled — understanding of the phenomenon. Discussion and joint reflection among researchers can be an important component of this first cornerstone, encouraging researchers to routinely pose questions, like:‘What is the phenomenon we are trying to better understand and what appears to be important in understanding it?’‘How does this newly encountered information relate to the phenomenon?’‘How does this newly encountered information relate to or correspond with other lines of inquiry we have uncovered?’‘Using this newly encountered information, where should we explore next?’To assist with this challenging task, Montuori  proposespitching tents in various regions as they attend to the inquiry in its unfolding. This reflection, therefore, can help the researchers continually (re)orient themselves when following up lines of inquiry that emerge — viewed somewhat like a northern or southern constellation that guides their exploratory journey. However, a critical point should be made here, which is that such a narrative approach is not the end of the transdisciplinary scientific inquiry. Rather, this is an initial approach that intends to help researchers ‘set the scene’, supporting them in the development of key eco-physical variables that can be mathematically modelled to describe and explain system behaviour in a contextualised way. For an extensive overview on the development and modelling of such variables  within sport science, we nudge readers toward the work of Araújo and Davids [Note that there are no restricted areas roped off by disciplinary ways of doing in this inquiry-based approach. This is why researchers are likely to be zooming in and out, zigzagging across different disciplines and sources of knowledge, developing an overview on how newly encountered information may relate to the phenomenon of interest. This approach does not mean that researchers need to become content ‘experts’ in each knowledge region encountered in the landscape, but rather team-based ‘comprehensivists’ , growingd Davids .disjunctive and reductive thinking. These chunks of information are then progressively put together, in an additive way, which are intended to help an individual ‘know about the whole’ [According to Montuori , individe whole’ . Indeed,e whole’ . Progrese whole’ .We need a kind of thinking that relinks that which is disjointed and compartmentalised, that respects diversity as it recognises unity, and that tries to discern interdependencies.In contrast to this traditional way of structuring and organising knowledge, transdisciplinarity encourages researchers to think differently about a phenomenon, guided by theories of complexity and non-linearity, as opposed to reductivity and linearity . This peThis type of thinking, exemplified by Poincaré’s  dynamicaIts roots in complexity sciences , 44 encoGiven the influence of complexity sciences, behaviour is viewed in a non-linear phenomenon , meaningorganismic asymmetries in research and practice, as behaviour is viewed separate from its ecology of relations [The most insightful unit of analysis is at the level of individual-environment interactions , meaningelations .Given this unit of analysis, emergent system behaviour is predicated on interacting  constraints . The typTo help guide this complexity-embracing and holistic perspective for sport science researchers, they could root their inquiry — their observations — in a theoretical framework which is powerful and rich enough to frame understanding and methods from numerous sub-disciplines. This could provide support ranging from practical applications to theoretical modelling and empirically investigating relevant phenomena. Following the ideas of Rothwell et al. , we suggIndeed, complexity thinking and organising one’s knowledge in a way that enables them to identify the pertinent interactions between the various lines of inquiry that emerge can be most challenging. This difficulty can be compounded if researchers are removed from the context in which the research is taking place, leading us to the third cornerstone of transdisciplinary research.in the research [engage with the pertinent sources of information that emerge as the inquiry unfolds [in practice as about the answering of them by way of practice, and the former continually overflows the latter’ .pondence .Such an approach recognizes the lived experience and subjectivity of the inquirer, the person reading the book who then hopes to put some of this material into practice. The lived experience occurs in a context, in a network of relationships, in an ecology.Transdisciplinarity calls for this deeper engagement between the inquirer and inquiry because it is rooted in daily activities, meaning that knowledge is not abstracted, but is continually contextualised within a broader entanglement of relations, inclusive of the researchers’ own perspectives when engaging with the inquiry . This isabout it. Comparatively, a transdisciplinary approach encourages transparency, where the researchers’ perspective is constantly brought to the front through self-inquiry and self-assessment, routinely challenging them to question their own paradigmatic assumptions [with it, attending to its rhythms with clear eyes, tuned ears, and a receptive touch.This more ecological (embedded) perspective differs from traditional approaches to scientific inquiry, which seek to remove researchers from the research (heightening ‘objectivity’), positioning them ‘above’ a phenomenon to simply observe (through disciplinised lenses) — thereby, studying and documenting umptions . By doinwith the community of athletes, coaches, support staff, and other stakeholders. Gradually, they would develop a rich narrative of ice climbing to progress their inquiry. Such an ethnographic approach could help them uncover many interacting and entangled parts that shape why practice tasks are designed the way they are — perhaps even noted by actually engaging in the activity of ice climbing. This constant interaction would allow them the opportunity to consider pertinent eco-physical variables to be modelled in the explanation of complex, interacting features of the ice climber-environment relation. For example, a practice task may be designed based on the entanglement of the relationships formed between athletes and coaches, as well as by the traditional socio cultural constraints that shape ‘how’ the sport is played or activity is ‘done’ within a particular country, perhaps preferencing creativity and flair, or control and physicality . This ample see , blendine Moeran ). It doeMost disciplinary approaches to research are intra-paradigmatic, with researchers embedded in disciplinary paradigms — (un)willingly taking them as ‘the’ way of undertaking research . The spometa-paradigmatic as opposed to intra-paradigmatic.As mentioned throughout, disciplinary approaches rooted in intra-paradigmatic assumptions do have a role to play in applied science. But it is important to highlight their insularity when contrasted with transdisciplinarity, which draws on a plurality of disciplines and understanding of multiple ways of being to explain complex phenomena . In othescape that may not yet exist, but which can progressively offer a richer, more holistic view of a complex phenomenon.Consequently, transdisciplinary researchers weave together seemingly disparate disciplines, perspectives, or societal ways of being to guide their inquiry. For example, our transdisciplinary research on sports innovation has led us through seemingly disparate paradigms within social anthropology, ecological psychology, and sport science. This meta-paradigmatic approach allowed us to weave together multiple lines of inquiry relating to hunter-gatherer ways of being and sports organisational functioning to propose a model of knowledge growth that would take individuals beyond the confines of sport science, encouraging them to dwell in vastly different regions of the knowledge landscape in the continued search for innovative ways of doing . Accordcontext is everything. As contended throughout this paper, contextualisation is a responsive way of undertaking research. It requires the researcher to submit to the phenomenon, yet maintain attentiveness to diverse and pertinent sources of information that emerge as they seek to understand a topic in context.Transdisciplinarity is an approach to scientific inquiry that encourages researchers to step outside of their ‘roped off’ disciplinary boundaries, and set sail in-between, through, and beyond the disciplines to weave together seemingly disparate sources of knowledge, skills, and experiences. Through the entanglements of such, deeper and significantly richer insights into a complex phenomenon can be sought. After all, in sport science, people to collaboratively work together based on what they may bring, venturing off the beaten track to find new sources of pertinent information that progresses understanding of a topic. So, while promoting transdisciplinarity as a different way of undertaking research in sport science, we appreciate that this challenging approach needs further, continuous development, and organisational and structural change, for it to be taken up more widely by researchers.To support such research programmes in sport science, we leant on the seminal work of Alfonso Montuori , 14, 15,perpetual traveller, an individual who does not necessarily follow paths laid out in advance, but one who studies for the love of the topic. These are individuals who do not divide ‘professional’ from ‘personal’ life, but embody what it is that holds their attention. They embrace an uncertainty about the world as they constantly wayfind through various knowledge landscapes, weaving interesting and relevant lines of inquiry together as they dwell within the places encountered along their journey. These places, though, are not destinations — preconceived ends — but are rather waystations, punctuating an unceasing journey, each growing the traveller’s knowledge of the complex landscape as they find their way through it.To conclude, we return to the proposition of the homeless scholar — pursuing blurred lines of inquiry — that we introduced earlier in this paper. While we find the sentiment appropriate for the portrayal of the transdisciplinary researcher, in true transdisciplinary style, we would like to add our own, creative perspectives to it. To us, the transdisciplinary researcher is akin to a