Moral injury is a complex trauma related syndrome involving a correlation of biological, psychological, social, and spiritual symptoms that can have substantial impact upon health and well-being. This paper argues for a holistic bio-psycho-social-spiritual approach to moral injury, by including chaplaincy in the screening and treatment of moral injury among actively serving military members and retired veterans. As part of the moral injury treatment process, and in alignment with the World Health Organization's Spiritual Intervention Codings, a new technique is proposed, “Pastoral Narrative Disclosure” (PND), as a guide for chaplains and others trained in spiritual care to assist those suffering from moral injury. Over the centuries, chaplains have been educated, commissioned, and professionally engaged to provide religious and pastoral care to military members and veterans (hereafter “personnel”) who have survived the traumatic effects of war. Across the Western World, chaplaincy as a profession remains substantive to the present day, providing ministry to a range of personnel within a variety of contexts . Moving The WHO-SPICs are useful for chaplains and other spiritual carers to formally notate their spiritual screening and treatment interventions used to assist the health and well-being of their clients. It is arguable however, that the naming of the WHO-SPICs and associated interventions were only possible given a common understanding and consensus definition of the term “spirituality”: “Spirituality is that aspect of humanity which refers to the way individuals seek and express meaning and purpose and the way they experience their connectedness, to God, to self, to others, to nature, and to the significant or sacred”  “Moral injury is a trauma related syndrome caused by the physical, psychological, social and spiritual impact of grievous moral transgressions, or violations, of an individual's deeply-held moral beliefs and/or ethical standards due to: (i) an individual perpetrating, failing to prevent, bearing witness to, or learning about inhumane acts which result in the pain, suffering or death of others, and which fundamentally challenges the moral integrity of an individual, organization or community, and/or (ii) the subsequent experience and feelings of utter betrayal of what is right caused by trusted individuals who hold legitimate authority.core and secondary symptoms that often occur concurrently. The core symptoms commonly identifiable are: (a) shame, (b) guilt, (c) a loss of trust in self, others, and/or transcendental/ultimate beings, and (d) spiritual/existential conflict including an ontological loss of meaning in life. These core symptomatic features, influence the development of secondary indicators such as (a) depression, (b) anxiety, (c) anger, (d) re-experiencing the moral conflict, (e) social problems  and (f) relationship issues , and ultimately (g) self-harm ”.The violation of deeply-held moral beliefs and ethical standards—irrespective of the actual context of trauma—can lead to considerable moral dissonance, which if unresolved, leads to the development of Some attempts have been made to distinguish moral injury from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Essentially however, this can be a difficult task, because there exists a degree of overlapping issues. Trauma-related conditions arise from exposure to a trauma event, which in the case of PTSD, results in the altered belief about safety , as distinct from moral injury which is multifaceted and involves a person's altered beliefs about meaning, purpose, faith or spirituality . That is, PTSD is essentially a fear based anxiety disorder caused “after a person is exposed to actual or threatened death, serious injury or sexual violation” ,While some suggest a non-syndromal approach to classifying moral injury As indicated by the definition (noted earlier), moral injury should be regarded as a complex phenomenon involving physiological, psychological, social, and spiritual issues, so perhaps it should not be surprising that as yet there still remains no single validated instrument ideally recommended for chaplains that can be readily utilized for the screening of moral injury and spirituality. There is however, literature which supports the involvement of chaplains undertaking screening evaluations for moral injury prior to or during their intervention of spiritual counseling. Indeed some literature indicates that chaplains can be an important and initial “port-of-call” for screening veterans who may potentially be suffering a moral injury.n = 440) and US Department of Defense chaplains  indicated that 14% of DoD chaplains and approximately 45% US Veteran Affairs, had “frequently” met with and provided support to personnel suffering from moral injury. While the majority of DoD chaplains (59.5%) acknowledged being only involved “sometimes” with military personnel whom they believed were suffering a moral injury, this nevertheless indicates that a substantial number of military chaplains were connecting (even if only “sometimes”) with personnel potentially showing symptoms and/or signs of moral injury. It seems logical that both military chaplains and veteran affair chaplains should be considered valuable front-line “reconnaissance” for identifying and helping to formally screen those with potential symptoms and signs of a moral injury.For example, Nieuwsma et al.'s research , surveyiIndeed, medical specialists involved in veteran care, such as Kopacz et al. , suggestWhile some chaplains may be open to undertaking moral injury screenings as part of their pastoral ministry/spiritual care, others may need educating about the benefits of undertaking screenings as part of a recognized WHO-SPIC spiritual assessment intervention  was initiated by chaplains to implement a preliminary screening to assess whether or not any Australian military personnel had experienced a potentially morally injurious event while on deployment. Whereas a number of previous studies regarding moral injury focused upon military personnel who were already diagnosed with post-traumatic stress disorder, the uniqueness of the M3IQ was its focus upon those personnel who had ployment . While t et al. While there is considerable international variation with regard to the nomenclature for classifying a “chaplain,” nevertheless when discussing issues in relation to health care treatment, it is important to distinguish for the purposes of this article, between “community clergy”  and a “chaplain” . The majority of chaplains have completed additional training (specific to their industry/sector) beyond the standard religious, theological, and/or parish education/experience. While there is evidence of community clergy receiving and/or providing moral injury training in collaboration with mental health and other specialists , 32, nevn = 213/250: 85.2%) either “agreed” or “strongly agreed” that their “chaplain/pastoral care service was best qualified to treat their spiritual/moral injury”. Nieuwsma et al.'s research  aParticular themes  and/or symptoms  would be identified by the chaplain which then permits a review process. Recognizing the pivotal role that narrative has in understanding personnel's operational experience, such praxis provides a conjuncture between their “war story,” their “previous stories,” “community stories,” and “faith stories”. It is important that personnel “own their story” by embracing all the anguish and hurt which it may cause, coming to an acceptance that progresses toward their cleansing and wholeness. Overall PND involves not just stories told, but stories of “one's being” or “one's self” and about the meaning of their life. Given the powerful effect of the reflective process, it is of course important that chaplains have access to additional resources and health care personnel. This is to ensure a safety barrier so as to effectively address the negative emotions from some personnel given the indepth re-telling of their morally injurious event/s. Potentially there is a real risk of producing further trauma by the re-telling of traumatic events. However the process of reflection and the essential importance of the chaplain's role with regard to moral injury, predominantly concerns the person's faith, beliefs, or framework for meaning, rather than purely traumatic events. Bussing et al's research among military personal, has indicated that “…the process of life reflection and subsequent intention to solve conflicting situations and experiences, can be considered as a process to cope with one's own failures, guilt, and mistakes” . This reFollowing a person's reflection, an in-depth critical self-review of their operational life experience should be undertaken. It would involve an examination of conscience by personnel, facilitated by the chaplain, to critique their or other's conduct on operations. Any reflective self-accusation would be noted by the chaplain who would identify particular symptoms and themes. A further concept for consideration is collective guilt, whereby personnel associate their examination of conscience with their nation state's participation in an event and its culpability. Additionally, personnel can associate their examination of conscience, whereby their behavior could be considered against particular ethical principles or sacred texts (if appropriate) that provide precise relevance and personal meaning .Reconstruction, with regard to moral injury, is the rebuilding of a person's belief system which has been fractured by their morally injurious experience. Most military chaplains have a solid academic foundation as a result of their theological training in ontology, moral theology, ethics and reflective praxis. Given their additional specialist military training and active service experience, chaplains can help personnel to explore their moral conscience and why a morally injurious event has affected them. The chaplain's role requires that he/she be conscious of the needs of the whole person, including their physical, psychological, social, and spiritual issues, which can emerge as a result of a morally injurious event. The military chaplain can help personnel explore the ethics and morality behind the event and the person's involvement. As part of the reconstruction phase, the chaplain can address with personnel the issues of grief, guilt, shame and anger, plus rebuild the values of trust, and forgiveness .To respond to moral injury issues that involve betrayal, a restorative process may be necessary if possible. Betrayal is considered a fundamental “assault on human dignity and brings with it powerful disappointment and discouragement” . The issEven though not all personnel are religious, many have had a spiritual upbringing or influence, where religion has played a fundamental or at least a serendipitous role in the development of their moral worldview. Thus, whether consciously or unconsciously, many personnel would associate their morality based on one or more narratives of a traditional faith structure  or an idiosyncratic combination of religious beliefs. Traditionally throughout the ages, military members often sought a priest/cleric/chaplain/rabbi  to conduct a ritual such as a prayer of confession . By clearing their moral conscience, a first step was taken toward reversing their potential debilitation. Whether the type of moral injury is betrayal or perpetration, particular types of rituals according to different faith/religious perspectives, can be utilized to help personnel treat and cleanse their moral injury. Following a “confession,” personnel may seek absolution from a cleric/chaplain. This may include not only a petition for forgiveness from a divine being/God but also forgiveness from others.An additional challenge for personnel is also the struggle to forgive themselves and even to forgive God (or other divine entity) for failing to intervene .One of the consequences of a moral injury is that it causes a rupture in relationships between working personnel, family members, community or religious/spiritual affiliations, and thus potentially leading to alienation. This relational-rupture may be due to a perception of self-agency  or through a loss of faith in God , or perhaps a loss of trust in the community or a damaged anthropology . Regardless, the impact of this rupture evidences the need for utilizing PND to encourage healing and renewal.Renewal involves ensuring personnel achieve effective working and supportive relationships in: (i) the workplace; (ii) with their spouse/partner, children and extended family; and (iii) in the wider text such as faith communities, thus encouraging opportunities for communication and developing relationships , 62. ForReconnection involves personnel considering and engaging support and resources to reconsider their current and future values, plans and goals relevant for themselves and their significant others. This may involve revisiting and reconsidering previous work of the initial PND process  so as to discern any unresolved issues and/or plan strategies to move forward. To enable future stability, personnel are encouraged by the chaplain to connect with wider support and resources. With the approval of the person concerned, additional support from general practitioners, nurses, psychologists, social workers, community clergy, chaplains, and other allied health professionals, will assist the member to maintain their progress and develop their resilience.No doubt some clinicians, for the purpose of seeking to maintain and extend their professional boundaries, will believe their unilateral conceptual frameworks of addressing moral injury are exclusively correct—they will prefer frameworks that are not truly holistic, failing to endorse a multidisciplinary approach. Some will attempt to exclude or minimize the role of chaplains or clergy down to occasional referrals or argue that the chaplaincy role can be accomplished by non-religious personnel or even replace the chaplain with an empty chair! Given the complexity of moral injury however, it is important for “medical, nursing and allied health personnel to work alongside chaplains to assist with moral injury rehabilitation. This will ensure that healthcare departments/facilities do not ‘adopt a stance that excludes the significance of spirituality,’ nor minimizes spiritual interventions due to professional demarcation at the expense of client wellbeing” per se , but rather to assist chaplains to more empirically assess the narratives of their clients and ultimately assist their client's needs. In order, however, for chaplains to progress their clients beyond screenings and assessment interventions, there is also a need for chaplains to develop and utilize a systematic method of providing spiritual counseling and education, plus incorporate ritual activities to address moral injury. The proposed PND technique is one way that chaplains may be able to encourage and achieve the appropriate spiritual care interventions, that will ultimately provide personnel with the beneficent support which they need to address their moral injury.As noted earlier however, some chaplains may be reluctant to utilize any moral injury screenings or PND. A duty of care however, may warrant the need for chaplains to be educated about the benefits of using available screening instruments—not for the purposes of reporting, This research was developed with the support of the University of Queensland Human Research Ethics Committee , the Australian Defence Force Human Research Ethics Committee (ADHREC) and the Palliative Care Unit, La Trobe University  in compliance with the  National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research, Canberra: National Health and Medical Research Council.All authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication. The PND technique forms part of the Ph.D. research of the co-author TH.The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.


The present research looked at the importance of the concept of grit in University students based on a mixed-method approach. Study 1 comprised 440 University students. All were given the Grit Scale, the Perceived Stress Scale, the short Warwick–Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale, the Office of National Statistics Well-being items and the Self-Control Scale. Levels of grit were significantly higher in female students, older students and postgraduates. Grit correlated highest with self-control. Study 2 looked at 340 University students. In addition to measuring self-control, mental well-being and grit, measures of resilience and mindsets were also added. A construct validity test of the Grit Scale showed that high grit scorers had significantly higher levels of self-control and mental well-being, were more resilient and were more likely to have a more growth oriented mindset. Grit varies with age and is most closely associated with the concept of self-control. The third study was a qualitative investigation with 10 successful graduates. Semi-structured interviews were coded using thematic analysis. Three broad themes emerged. The first, Passion and Perseverance, included themes of having short and long terms goals, resilience, dedication, and endurance. The second, Self-Control, included time management, self-awareness, prioritizing tasks and knowing strengths and weaknesses. The third theme identified was Positive Mindsets. This included having a positive attitude toward learning, the importance of feedback and constructive criticism and that success is not materialistic. The qualitative research has helped “unpack” concepts from the grit research and may enable University tutors to guide students better. Though these studies were only conducted in one English University, they have been stepping stones in our quest to discover what are the most important factors in determining student academic success? The development and piloting of our new Uni-Stride Scale, is the next step in this process. Of course further research will either lead to the consolidation of the importance of grit, or will suggest there are other more important constructs, such as the longer established concept of resilience , the region also said to be responsible for concepts such as self-regulation, planning, goal-setting, and reflection of past experiences . HoweverClearly, the presence of “grit” within an individual is a hugely beneficial characteristic, as being a “gritty” individual has been associated with several factors relating to success and personal achievement. However, reservations have been expressed regarding the reliability of using grit as a significant measure or predictor of success. Research suggests that designing and orientating interventions that are focused on fostering grit will not have the desired effect on success . With thThe aim of this research is to address and explore the construct validity of grit as a significant and contributing factor toward certain outcomes, and to examine its usefulness in determining student success. Grit scores will provide crucial information about an individual that is distinct from the information gained from the measurement of other constructs. Therefore, the present research will aim to understand the incremental validity of grit. Study 1 will also examine any correlations with important factors relating to success and achievement such as self-control, resilience, psychological well-being, mindset and perceived stress. Study 2 will further explore the construct validity of grit by breaking up the participants into groups according to their total grit score. Namely, they will be grouped into a high scoring, average scoring or low scoring group and then the relationship between high and low grit scores and other variables can be examined. A third study is a qualitative study using a semi-structured interview approach with successful graduates from an English University. This aims to explore the relationship between, and to thoroughly understand, the qualities of exceptional students in relation to retention, learning strategies, perseverance, long-term goals and future success after graduation. Therefore, this research examines the meaningfulness and construct validity of grit in relation to other constructs. It also attempts to offer grit as a valuable construct that other universities should consider in measuring and predicting students’ success.Study 1 aimed to distinguish any significant relationships between the construct of grit and other constructs such as self-control, well-being and perceived stress. By investigating the validity of grit as a meaningful construct that has positive and negative correlations with other constructs, this study will aim to validate grit as a useful construct. This study aims to explore the demographic predictors of grit by investigating the age and gender of the participants, and it was hypothesized that there would be an age-related trend shown in grit scores, with grittiness increasing with age. It was also hypothesized that gender would be a significant predictor of grit, with females scoring higher than males. With previous research in mind, it was hypothesized that grit would positively correlate with self-control and mental well-being, but that it would correlate negatively with perceived stress. It was also hypothesized that grit would positively correlate with life satisfaction, feelings of a worthwhile life and the degree of trust held in others.A total of 440 foundation, undergraduate and postgraduate students from a University in the North-West of England were recruited. Participants’ gender, age, and current level of study were reported. The sample comprised 245 female participants and 170 males. Participants fell into the following age categories, 161 participants were between 18 and 21; 112 participants were between 22 and 26; 40 participants between the age of 27 and 30; 124 participants were 31 and above. The vast majority of participants were undergraduate students (357) with only 39 postgraduate student participants. Participants were recruited from different years of study. There were 18 students in their foundation year, 144 students in their first year; 103 students in their second year and 107 students in their final year.Along with the following questionnaires, a brief outline of the task was provided, stating what would be expected of the participants, as well as a short explanation about what the study was investigating and the reasons for doing so. Participant information sheets outlined the participant’s ethical rights and identified that anonymity and confidentiality would be assured. A consent form was issued to each participant whereby they had to confirm their understanding of the study and what was required of them, and their agreement to take part in the study. The ethical rights of participants were also stated, such as the right “to withdraw at any stage up until the point that the questionnaire was handed back,” and that all participants were to be over the age of 18.Each participant was required to complete a series of questionnaires including:The 12-item Grit Scale that was developed by The Perceived Stress Scale requires participants to grade their responses to 10 statements in the form of a Likert scale. Statements include “I have confidence in handling personal problems” and “I am able to control irritations in my own life. The KMO coefficient of PSS was 0.82. A Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.72 was reported for PSS. This confirmed the strong internal consistency and stability of the scale through repeated measures tests (0.93).This measure has been widely used in surveys of student populations.To measure participant’s mental well-being, the short Warwick–Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale was used . This isThe measurement of participant’s personal well-being through a 4-item questionnaire that was adapted from the ONS Annual Population Survey required students to rate their response to four questions on a scale from 0 to 10 – with 0 being “not at all satisfied” and 10 being “completely satisfied.” Each question was focused around a particular concept: satisfaction, worth, happiness, and anxiety. For instance, the satisfaction question asked “Overall, how satisfied are you with your life nowadays?” The four items are considered to be independent of each other.A 10-item self-scoring Self-Control Scale, adapted from The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (IBM SPSS Statistics Version 23) was used to analyze the results.Once the participants had read the information sheet and signed the consent form, they were asked to complete the study questionnaires. Participants were then thanked for their participation in the study and all documents were collected from each participant.After the data was gathered, the results were collated, descriptive, and inferential statistics were conducted.Table 1). T-test analysis found that females  were significantly grittier than males , t(281) = 2.748, p < 0.01. However, the effect size for this analysis (d = 0.33) was found to exceed d = 0.20).In order to accurately determine the effect of gender on grittiness, a randomized gender sample was used, where 150 randomly selected males and 150 randomly selected females were used in further analysis  were significantly more likely to score high on grit than participants between the age of 18 and 21 , t(268) = 6.376, p < 0.001. The effect size for this analysis (d = 0.78) was found to reach d = 0.80). Finally, analysis revealed that participants who were currently studying at a postgraduate level  were significantly more likely to score higher on the grit score than participants who were currently studying at an undergraduate level , t(375) = 3.457, p < 0.001. The effect size for this analysis (d = 0.62) was found to exceed d = 0.50).Table 3 displays the results of a 2-tailed Pearson’s correlation between the total grit score and the total scores of other measures that were distributed to participants .Data analysis revealed several significant correlations between total grit scores and the other measures. Such that, Table 3 demonstrates significant correlations between total grit score and other measures taken. Such that, a correlation between the total grit score and the total self-control score showed significance from a 2-tailed Pearson’s correlation at p < 0.001. Also, a 2-tailed Pearson’s correlation showed a significant correlation between the total grit score and the total score on the mental well-being scale at p < 0.001. Finally, a correlation between the total grit score and the total score of perceived stress showed significance from a 2-tailed Pearson’s correlation at p = 0.033. Grit correlated highest with self-control.). Following the Duckworth et al. studies, several researchers have explored the correlation between grit and age and found that there is a positive correlation between grit and age  was utilized for this study, which is a 10-item resilience scale that is scored in the form of a Likert scale – from “not true at all” to “true nearly all the time.” For instance, statements included “I am not easily discouraged by failure” and “having to cope with stress can make me stronger.”http://www.classroom20.com/forum/topics/motivating-students-with.A 20-item mindset quiz was used, that involves identifying the extent to which participants agreed or disagreed with several statements. Participants responded with “strongly agree,” “agree,” “disagree,” or “strongly disagree.” Statements included “your intelligence is something very basic about you that you can’t change very much” and “the harder you work at something, the better you will be at it.” This mindset quiz was created by Once the participants had read the participant information sheet and signed the consent form, they were asked to complete a series of short questionnaires that required them to report their feelings in response to several statements in relation to five scales that were provided. The participants were thanked for their participation in the study and all documents were collected from each participant.Table 4). Again, the gender of participants had a significant impact on the total grit scores. The age of participants and their current year of study were also significant predictors of grit scores. That is, students aged 31 and above were more likely to have higher grit than students between the ages of 16 and 21 and students in postgraduate studies were more likely to have a higher grit score than students in their foundation year.Data analysis found that students’ grit scores differed depending on certain demographic characteristics of the sample (p = 0.029 (Table 5).Much like Study 1, in order to determine the effect of gender on grit scores accurately, a randomized gender sample was generated that took 100 random male participants and 100 random female participants. Analysis revealed that, much like Study 1, females were significantly grittier (40.93) than male participants (38.81), with significance (2-tailed) at Table 6). However, according to reported effect sizes, there is a large effect on grit by current year of study where as a small effect on grit by age and gender. Unlike Study 1, effect size is reported to be small on age for Study 2 whereas year of study demonstrates a similar finding to study 1.To test the construct validity of grit, the frequencies of the total grit score were identified and the cumulative percentiles for these scores were revealed. Three groups of grit scores were developed. A low grit score was identified as a score of between 1 and 35. An average grit score was identified as a score between 36 and 45 and a high grit score was identified as a score between 46 and 60. Analysis of these results revealed that 76 students were low on grit; 183 students had an average score of grit; while 73 students were high on grit. Of the 340 students who participated in this study, eight grit scores could not be analyzed as the data were incomplete. Analysis revealed that there were four significant findings when using the grit threshold as the grouping variable, between high grit scores and low grit scores and other variables known to predict success (Findings demonstrate that students scoring high or grit had better self-control scores (38.10 vs. 26.73), and better mental well-being (28.08 vs. 20.66). Study 2 added measures of resilience and mindsets. Students high in grit scored significantly higher on resilience (31.47 vs. 22.75) and on mindsets (41.49 vs. 35.91). Effect sizes indicate that self-control, resilience, and mental well-being are having a large effect where mindsets are demonstrating a medium effect.To test whether the grit is dependent on the variables resilience, mental well-being, mindsets, self-control, and age group, a multiple regression analysis was performed. Tests for multicollinearity indicated that a very low level of multicollinearity was present .Table 7, the score on the Grit Scale was significantly predicted by the scores on the resilience, mindsets, mental well-being and self-control scales. The multiple regression model with all four predictors produced R2 = 0.494, F = 48.74, p < 0.001. As can be seen in Table 7, the Resilience, Self-Control scales at p < 0.001 level, Mindsets at p < 0.01 level and mental well-being at 0.05 level significant positive regression weights, indicating students with higher scores on these scales were expected to have higher grit scores, after controlling for the other variables in the model. The regression model formula predicting the grit score is as follows: 12.149 (constant) + resilience (0.204) + mental well-being (0.154) + mindsets score (0.142) + self-control (0.394) + age group (0.588). The standardized coefficients revealed that their combinations explained 49.4% of the variance in the Grit Scale.As shown in Much like Study 1, the total grit score of participants was significantly different depending on the gender of the participant. Similarly to Study 1 and also seen in the wider literature, there was an age trend in grit scores in Study 2 . Indeed,In the present study, resilience and mindsets were also measured along with grit, self-control, and mental well-being. Previous research into the relationship between grit and resilience is limited in the sense that they do not consider the two constructs as separate measures. However, research that does consider grit and resilience as separate measures found a negative correlation between the two constructs . Such thThe positive relationship between grit and mindset that has been identified in already published literature is seen in the findings from the present study . FurtherIn contrary to some of the literature  suggestiIn order to facilitate a qualitative perspective on grit’s relationship with success and academic outcomes, the third study was conducted. This study aimed to provide rich information about successful and gritty graduates from this University, which would allow generic themes to be identified. By applying principles of thematic analysis, this study aimed to draw conclusions surrounding the unique and influential traits that are present in successful graduate students.A solely qualitative methodology was adopted, gathering rich information about the unique qualities that are present in successful graduate students. Following the retrieval of information through semi-structured interviews, thematic analysis was carried out on the data.Through a snow-ball sampling technique, a total of 10 successful graduates from the University of Bolton were recruited. Only students who graduated with a first-class honors degree and those who scored high on Grit Scale  were considered for this study. Participants were both male (30%) and female (70%). The rationale behind this is due to the sole focus on gritty successful graduates and their qualities. In addition to graduating with a first-class degree from the University, many had extra academic awards.An initial screening was conducted to identify students graduated with first classes followed by 12-item Grit Scale was presented to identified participants to confirm whether they are also high on grit. There were 10 questions that acted as a baseline for gathering information; however, when required, prompts and follow up questions were provided. The verbal consent of each participant was required. Ten open-ended questions were presented to each participant: focusing on personality characteristics, challenges they had faced, strategies to overcome these challenges, goals, and their opinions and perception of success and their attitude toward learning. For instance, participants were asked “When you started your course, did you aim to achieve a first-class degree?” They were prompted to think about certain obstacles they overcame in the pursuit of their degree by asking “What challenges have you faced during your time studying for your degree and what were your strategies to overcome these challenges?” The interviews were recorded and then transcribed with the permission of each participant. The anonymity of the participants was ensured as no personal or identifying information was withheld from recordings or disclosed in interview transcriptions. Recordings were destroyed after the interview had been transcribed.Interviews were digitally recorded and transcribed verbatim. The qualitative data was analyzed using Table 8.The interview transcripts were examined to identify recurring patterns or themes, which were later identified as (a) passion and perseverance; (b) self-control; and (c) positive mindsets. These themes were made up of several sub-themes that appeared throughout the data, which have been highlighted in According to When I came to University I only really knew how to say “hello” and “goodbye”, very, very minimal, basic English. So I’ve done a couple of courses in English” .“So, not only did these students achieve first-class honors degrees, they also learned the English language in the process, which represents a huge level of determination and grit, for these individuals to persevere with their studies in addition to the language barriers they faced.Along with language barriers, students faced personal challenges that included overcoming difficulties with employment, finances, relationships, family, childcare, bereavement, health, and adjustment to University life. Consequently, the majority of students, at some point during their studies, encountered challenges such as these. Childcare or health problems appeared to be a common pattern among the majority of successful students. When discussing obstacles they had overcome in their journey to achieve a degree, one student revealed that:Having two children and I worked…because obviously we have to pay for a mortgage…. I lost two people while I was studying, who were very close so that was hard. Erm, but I also found that doing University stuff actually took my mind off it as well, in a way.” .“Interestingly, using University work, assignments and revision as a means of distraction from obstacles they faced, seemed to be commonly used by students. This coincides with what Duckworth coined as “passion,” as students use their studies as a distraction from their personal problems as their study tasks are aligned with their personal interests and make bouncing back from adversity an easier task . Health I have had four surgeries in the three years at University, been in hospital a lot and dealt with it. Just didn’t have the time to think about the illness.” .“Overcoming physical and mental health difficulties through adopting a positive attitude and focusing on the long-term goal was beneficial and helpful to some of the students. Challenges surrounding personal relationships surfaced a few times, with one student revealing that:I had a break-up with the guy I was seeing – a raging alcoholic so that all went very badly wrong, so I wasn’t in the best place.”.“With this in mind, all students faced challenges in their studies that they overcame in order to achieve their degree and become successful graduates. The students’ academic resilience in persisting in the face of adversity suggests a strong personality that provides the determination to strive for their goals no matter what comes their way. The recurring theme among all students was their ability to manage their time effectively, ultimately succeeding in achieving the long-term goals they set themselves. Indeed, nine of the 10 students clearly identified their short and long-term goals. This gains further support from previous research that indicates gritty people are more likely to have their long-term goals and future plans identified . One stuI’ve got a long-term goal and a long-term vision in my mind… I have got one and I am moving towards that.” .“) which relates to successful graduates overcoming emotional challenges in response to others doubting their ability to succeed. Furthermore, one student revealed that:As well as the students’ being goal driven, it was clearly evident that their motivational factors appeared to be similar throughout. Such that, seven of the students reported that they faced negative feedback or criticism from others about their abilities to accomplish their goals. The negative attitude of another person toward their studies showed students endurance to overcome the negative experiences and to continue in their goal pursuit. This resonates with previous research that illustrates the importance of self-efficacy and self-esteem in individuals with high levels of grit . Also, gBlalock et al., 2015If my mum and ex-husband hadn’t been so down on me doing it, I might not have felt fired up enough to do it…” .“From the data analysis it was evident that the vast majority of successful graduates had excellent time-management and had a strong ability to dedicate specific times to University tasks (HOW MANY?). Instead of leaving assignments to the last minute, or attempting to complete essays the day before submission, students planned their time and set specific times when they would sit down to study. I always set deadlines, personal deadlines…always be ready at least 4 days before the actual deadline so I was left time of 3 or 4 days to double check, to proof read…”.“Table 8.As well as the successful graduates utilizing their time-management abilities as a means for overcoming challenges; their ability to prioritize their tasks is apparent – as shown in A high degree of self-awareness and reflection is indicated through the analysis. Being aware of their current situation and drawing on past experience, the students were able to use this awareness as an advantage and incorporate it into their studies. This coincides with an earlier model that was proposed by I can’t work in the evening, I get too tired.” .“By having an understanding of themselves and incorporating this awareness into their University life, they were able to successfully complete assignments and exams to a high standard. An aspect of self-awareness involves being aware of your own strengths and weaknesses and using them to your advantage. This, too, was evident from the data analysis. Half of the students identified an awareness of their strengths and weaknesses and how their understanding of them has benefited their success as a student. Again, this is reinforced by the notion that gritty individuals have a better knowledge and understanding about how they can evaluate their strengths and weaknesses, and further apply them in new ways to increase their likelihood of success in the future . Indeed,“I work a lot better under pressure…I work a lot better under stress so that’s why I like exams so much. Although I think exams are not a good way of measuring intelligence, I’ve become very good at doing them.” .Table 8 for an example. Additionally, when discussing strategies to overcome challenges that are faced when studying at university, one student explained that:The students’ attitude toward learning, and life in general was quite positive. Instead of focusing on the negatives, or stressing about the challenges they have faced, they persevere and adopt a positive outlook. These findings relate to the concept of positivity and the possession of a positive outlook on life and how this can foster a more suitable candidate for success . SubsequI don’t like the word expert – because I don’t think you will ever fully be one. I think you always have your weaknesses and I think if you’re in a job that allows you to see those weaknesses then that’s going to help you develop professionally and personally. So, I think the best thing about overcoming challenges is that you see it in your own reflection process, and then you’re like oh yeah I couldn’t do that a year ago but now I can.” .“With the majority of successful graduates sharing a positive attitude to learning, their ideas about what success is, were also similar. Analysis revealed that over half of the respondents did not believe that success was materialistic. Rather, they stressed the importance of happiness, independence, comfort and a stress-free life. Martin Seligman stressed the importance of learned optimism and how people can change their mind and ways of thinking in order to facilitate a better attitude toward life, with a more positive approach . SuccessThere is a financial element to success, but it’s not that important to me, quality of life is important;” .“The importance of receiving feedback on assignments and the crucial element of constructive criticism was stressed by the majority of students. Using the opportunity to understand where they went wrong so students could improve next time, and so they could expand on their skills and abilities was deemed important. This directly represents the theory proposed by When I got a low mark I went for feedback, definitely, it’s important to know where you’re going wrong.” .“Even when students received high marks, they still believed feedback sessions were important. For instance, one student revealed that:I used to always go for feedback on things, so even if I had got a first, a good grade, I’d still go and be like what else can I do? I don’t want to be complacent. How else can I push to get from the 70’s to the 80’s?” .“Thus, rather than focusing on the negative aspects of assignments and disregarding them once they were submitted, successful graduates appreciate the importance of feedback on their work and used this opportunity to further build on their work. Again, this is reflective of Dweck’s concept of a growth mindset – as successful students were eager to build on their existing skills in order to express personal development and growth .It is also important to note that successful students noticed the responsibility they held over their own success. While considering the support that other people and services have offered them, ultimately their success is down to their own actions. Indeed, one student represents this idea by stating:Yeah I think to a point you can say it’s the individual who is to blame for the success and the achievement, because they are the ones who have accumulated it all, you put it all together, but it’s definitely not all me.” .“While some of the graduates were not quick to mention themselves in their own success and mentioned peers, tutors, family and friends as influencers of their success, the majority of students noticed that they played a huge role in their success as a student. For instance, one graduate expressed this directly when stating that:I’m the one who put the work in. I know X [referred to one of the lecturers] encouraged me to put some work in and I strived to be like my brother, but at the end of the day I’m the one who is writing the essays…”.“Ultimately, successful graduates from this University showed passion and persevered toward achieving their degree despite setbacks. They demonstrated high levels of self-control and they embraced a growth mindset. These principle findings and core characteristics molded the graduates into the perfect candidates for success, as the vast majority of the successful students shared similar challenges, strategies, awareness, and perspectives throughout their studies at University. Furthermore, high achieving students showed the following attributes, an increased level of determination and grit; overcame personal and academic challenges; strongly identified their long-term goals and future plans; were trying to prove a point to someone else; possessed excellent time management and prioritizing abilities; expressed a high degree of self-awareness in their own strengths and weaknesses; occupied a positive attitude toward learning and a growth mindset; revealed the importance of happiness, independence, comfort and a stress free life; stressed the importance of receiving feedback and constructive criticism; and noticed the responsibility they held over their own success.Across all three studies, grittier students were more likely to demonstrate an increased level of self-control, mental well-being, life satisfaction, feelings of worth, resilience and growth mindset. Gritty students were more likely to illustrate a decreased level of perceived stress (Study 1). In addition, mature students were more likely to self-report higher levels of grit (Studies 1 and 2). High achieving, successful students were consistently more likely to have overcome personal challenges and obstacles and persevere despite facing obstacles and barriers (Studies 2 and 3). These students were able to strongly identify their long-term goals and strived toward the achievement of these goals with the intention to prove a point (Study 3). Excellent time-management and prioritizing skills were evident in successful students, along with their ability to express self-awareness (Study 3). These high-achieving students held a positive attitude toward learning and life in general and stressed the importance of feedback and constructive criticism in their personal development and growth (Study 3). Finally, these students did not believe success was materialistic. They stressed the importance of happiness, independence, comfort and a stress free life while recognizing the responsibility they held over their own success (Study 3). These principal findings demonstrate the core characteristics of high-achieving, successful students and illustrate what traits and characteristics are fundamental to academic success.Measuring and monitoring certain traits and characteristics of students is evidently a worthwhile task. The current study reinforces the usefulness of measuring constructs such as grit and mental well-being, and reinstates the strong relationship they have with student success and academic performance. The knowledge that arises out of measuring students’ grit, resilience, mental well-being, mindsets, self-control, and other factors that have shown to be associated with academic success, provides institutions and organizations with valuable information about their student population. Furthermore, this provides Universities and other institutions the opportunity to monitor and regulate these hugely influential traits, ultimately enhancing their students overall mental well-being, which in turn, increases the likelihood of success and academic and personal achievement. With this in mind, the need for an academic resilience scale that can be used in any university or institution is very apparent. Indeed, the development of a concise scale that incorporates and measures all of these hugely influential factors is essential.Previous research by author 1 that focused on languishing and thriving dyslexics included the development of a framework for dyslexia to work within positive psychology . This frAlthough the current study generated several significant findings in relation to the meaningfulness of grit and its strong correlations with other constructs related to student success, the studies are not without their limitations. Firstly the current study only took part in one institution, a University in the North-West of England, which may also limit generalization. Thus, in order to truly represent the population and generate more reliable findings, future research should recruit students from different institutions, with a diverse sample of cultures, ages, genders, and backgrounds. This would yield a more conclusive and accurate relationship between grit, demographic differences, and success related factors, therefore providing crucial information about the construct of grit and which groups of the population should focus on their development of grit. Second, two of the studies used self-report measures of grit, self-control, mental well-being, resilience, mindset, and perceived stress, with all the objections that accrue from self-report, such as social desirability effects. It is a widely known fact that within psychological and educational research, self-report methodology dominates the study of student motivation. A review conducted by However, the third qualitative study revealed some of the factors that may underlie grit in University students and merit further investigation. While all that glitters is not grit, the current studies suggest that Duckworth’s research requires additional validation. We are currently working on the development of a short 12 item measure, the Bolton Uni-Stride Scale (BUSS), to tap into many of the attributes identified in these studies to try and determine what factors lead to academic success at University.Approval for three studies were given by the University of Bolton Research Ethics Committee in 2016, United Kingdom.CK, JC, and GW were involved in the conception and design of the studies. CK and RA organized the database of the three studies. NN, SK, and SR collected the data for Study 1, Study 2, and Study 3. CK, RA, and JC were involved in performing statistical analysis and thematic analysis. RA and CK wrote the first draft of the manuscript and all authors contributed to manuscript revision, read and approved the submitted version.The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.


From recreational to elite levels, sport has many benefits for disabled people. At the same time, it is acknowledged that there is a trickle-down problem from para-elite sport to sport participation of disabled people, in general. Newspapers are one form of media that sets agendas and influences public opinion. Many studies have highlighted problematic aspects of parasport and para-athlete coverage in newspapers. Paratriathlon was one of two new events added to the Paralympics in Rio 2016, which increased its visibility in the public domain. We investigated the coverage of paratriathlon and paratriathletes in 300 Canadian newspapers using the ProQuest database Canadian Newsstream as a source, and utilizing a descriptive quantitative and a qualitative thematic content analysis. The main themes evident in the reporting on paratriathlon and paratriathletes, in the three hundred Canadian newspapers we covered, were the supercrip imagery of the para-athlete, personal stories mostly linked to the supercrip imagery, and the theme of able-bodied athletes in juxtaposition to the para-athletes. Using the lens of the four legacy goals of the International Paralympic Committee, we conclude that our findings are detrimental to the fulfillment of the four legacy goals. Sport, from the recreational to the elite level, has an effect on many humans, whether in their role as spectators or participants ,2,3, incGiven the new responsibility that comes with the new status of being a Paralympic sport and given the influence of newspapers, the objective of our study was to investigate the extent and nature of the coverage of paratriathlon and paratriathletes in Canadian newspapers present in the ProQuest database Canadian Newsstream, whereby we interpret our findings through the lens of the four legacy goals of the International Paralympic Committee, and what the International Paralympic Committee sees as the role of para-athletes.The Olympics and Paralympics are increasingly concerned about their long-lasting legacy effect. The “International Olympic Committee (IOC) now requires long-term usage plans for new facilities as part of the bid process and a preliminary statement regarding the broader social, cultural, economic, and sports legacies that will result from hosting the games” . Since 2However, the question is whether a legacy was also achieved, and whether it was and is durable. The International Paralympic Committee expects the organizing committee to allocate money to measure “the impact of the Paralympic games, as part of an overall project of measuring games impact for the host city, region and country” , which sAs to legacy and the role of media, one study concluded that there was no lasting legacy in relation to a change in the bias towards reporting on men versus women’s sports in the British print media with the London 2012 Olympics and Paralympics . A book Social and civic responsibility is a concept increasingly applied to sport and its athletes ,40,41,42Paratriathlon consists of a sprint distance of 750 m swim, 20 km bike (handcycle/tandem) and 5 km run (wheelchair) . ParatriGiven that paratriathlon is now part of the same narrative around legacy and social responsibility of parasport, and given the reported negative aspect of the media coverage of parasport and para-athletes, we searched two academic databases, namely EBSCO-host—an umbrella database that consists of over 70 other databases, including sport-related ones such as SPORTDiscus, and Scopus, which contains all Medline articles for the keywords “paratriathlon” “para-triathlon”, “paratriathlete” and “para-triathlete”, limiting our searches to the “all fields” (Scopus) and “all text” (EBSCO) search categories, to investigate whether a media analysis has been performed around paratriathlon. After elimination of duplicates within and between the academic databases, we only found 27 academic articles. As to media, no article engaged with the newspaper coverage of paratriathlon. One article investigating the visibility of Paralympic sports on twitter during the Rio Paralympics 2016 stated that paratriathlon was one of the most visible subjects on Twitter on the 11 September 2016 , but theThe remaining articles contained non-media-related content covering the Triathlon Australia Selection Policy , physiolFraming is one way to perform a newspaper analysis ,68. We wCanadian Newsstream, a database consisting of 300 English language Canadian newspapers, which includes the two Canadian newspapers with national reach, The Globe and Mail and the National Post, and wire feeds (Canadian news wire and Canadian Press) as sources, for its complete time range from 1980 to December 2017. Articles from the Canadian Newsstream database were collected using the University of Calgary’s ProQuest online database. We accessed the ProQuest Canadian Newsstream database on December 1st 2017, limiting our searches to the presence of the key words “paratriathlon”, “para-triathlon”, “paratriathlete” or “para-triathlete” in the full text of newspaper articles present in the Canadian Newsstream. The obtained 167 articles (127 newspaper articles and 40 wire feed articles) were downloaded as one pdf file, and imported into ATLASti–8® , a qualitative data analysis software application. We did not set any other inclusion or exclusion criteria, besides that the articles had to contain at least one of the keywords in the full text.To answer the research question, we used the n = 167 articles, and which newspapers published how many articles. We employed a qualitative thematic content analysis of the 167 articles collected to answer the research question. There are many themes in a given newspaper article, whereby the themes do not have to relate to the subject investigated. The qualitative analysis was deductive in the sense that the themes had to relate to paratriathlon or paratriathletes. However, what themes emerged was not pre-set and, as such, could be seen as an inductive approach [We provide some descriptive quantitative data on the publication timeline of the approach ,75. We d®. Regarding transferability, our method description provides all the necessary information for others to use if they decide to apply our keyword search to other English language media sources, or translate our keywords into other languages to search non-English sources. Credibility/dependability and confirmability are three trustworthiness measures ,77,78. BCanadian Newsstream database. Therefore our results can not be generalized towards Canadian newspapers in general.The database searches were limited to the English language Canadian newspapers present in the In the first step of our analysis we recorded the yearly hitcounts of articles we found for our search terms .Of the 167 articles obtained from the Canadian Newsstream that contained one of the terms: “para-triathlon”, “paratriathlon”, “paratriathlete”, or “para-triathlete”, 6 articles were reprinted in two newspapers, three were reprinted in four newspapers, and one was reprinted in five newspapers. Of the 167 articles, 127 of them were from a newspaper, and 40 from wire feeds. As to newspapers, the Edmonton Journal had 23 articles; Calgary Herald 12; Ottawa Citizen 10; The Province 6; and Star Phoenix 5. Forty newspapers had less than five articles each. As to the two newspapers with national reach, both the National Post and The Globe and Mail had two articles each. 40 articles had no relevant content. Many articles did not provide content beyond mentioning that paratriathlon is or will be part of the 2016 Rio Paralympics; 23 articles mentioned triathlon/paratriathlon events without further content. The following were major themes, whereby we labeled a theme as major if present in more than 10% of the articles. Personal stories of paratriathletes, such as John Young, Leona Emberson, and Stefan Daniel, was the number one theme; for example, 50 of the 167 articles mentioned the Canadian triathlete “Stefan Daniel”. 48 articles contained 104 times terms with the root “inspir*”, covering words such as “inspiring”, “inspire”, “inspires”, and “inspiration”. To be inspired was, for example, linked to people doing more, and engaging themselves in recreational activities ,80, and “We’re more about being out there and visible, giving people something to think about,” Cowie said, adding that words like, “inspiring, awesome” and “you guys rock” often come up in the conversation. “It’s humbling and overwhelming that people would stop and tell you what a difference you are making. You don’t expect it,” he said. However, on a deeper level, Cowie and Jones understood how their actions inspire and influence those around them. “It’s beginning to make a difference,” Cowie said, adding the reason the two strive to give back goes to the core of what is fundamentally good in life. “It’s like that hug you got when you were a little kid, and how it made you feel better,” he said. “It’s corny, but it’s really what the bottom line is. We do inspire people, we do motivate people, and if we do this two or three times, it gets people to think what they’ve done is a success.” Getting an email from a someone in reply to how he had helped him through a rough time is the motivation that keeps him going, Cowie said”.To give one quote:The supercrip theme highlights the achievement of person against large odds, and was the second biggest theme ,103,104,“Mom, I’m a paraplegic.” Those were the first words Julian Nahachewsky uttered to his mother when she entered the hospital room after his accident. Before resting her head on his chest to pray, she calmly said: “Son, well, all the deep resources that you have within you—like strength and courage—that have been latent inside you, they are going to have to come alive now.” To give one more quote:And they did. Four years later, Julian is a high-level athlete. Just five months after his injury, he participated in the Canada Games. He’s competed across North America and Europe. He keeps beating his personal bests. He’s the first paraplegic to complete a triathlon in the province and he’s ranked 15th in the world for Para-triathlons. And he did it all without using his legs” .Motivation was present as follows: “motivated to try and maximize his abilities”, motivatAbility was another major theme whereby the term “able-bodied” was present in 24 articles. Often para- and able-bodies were mentioned in juxtaposition “para- and able-bodied athletes” , “as mucFifteen articles mentioned the performance in Rio.n = 17 times.www.paralympic.ca”.“The Canadian Paralympic Committee is a non-profit, private organization with 46 member sports organizations dedicated to strengthening the Paralympic Movement. The Canadian Paralympic Committee’s vision is to be the world’s leading Paralympic nation. Its mission is to lead the development of a sustainable Paralympic sport system in Canada to enable athletes to reach the podium at the Paralympic Games. By supporting Canadian Paralympic athletes and promoting their success, the Canadian Paralympic Committee inspires all Canadians with a disability to get involved in sport through programs delivered by its member organizations. For more information, visit Nine articles mentioned the Canadian Paralympic Committee Access issues were mentioned in five articles as follows: access to paratriathlon training and programs, as well as partnership opportunities with the university , see alsTrickle down as an issue was evident in that it was noted that there was the need to attract more Canadians to the sport ,119,121;As to minor themes present in two articles, we found the demonization of wheelchairs, evident by the use of the term confinement , and indOnly one article described the paratriathlon: “Para-triathlon is practiced in 37 different countries: Athletes race in three disciplines: 750 m of swimming, followed by 20 km of cycling and 5 km of running. Competition categories are based on specific physical impairments. Athletes may use a hand cycle, tandem bicycle or bicycle in the cycling portion, and wheelchairs are permitted on the running portion of the course. Para-triathlon is unique in that it fully integrates athletes with physical and visual impairments alongside their able-bodied counterparts at the same event” .Our findings suggest that the paratriathlon and paratriathlete coverage in the Canadian newspapers covered employed mostly the overcoming personal challenges—the supercrip—theme using predominantly personal stories to anchor this theme. Another main theme was to compare para-athletes with able-bodied athletes. Some articles simply reported the results of events. Very few articles mentioned problems related to sport. No article linked paratriathlon and its athletes to broader societal aspects of sport, or mentioned the legacy goals of the Paralympics as an issue. The lack of mentioning of the legacy goals was also noted by a study that looked at the Canadian media coverage of the 2010 Winter Paralympics that took place in Vancouver, Canada . The pro(1) Accessible infrastructure in sport facilities and in the overall urban development; (2) Development of sport structures/organizations for people with a disability, from grass-roots to elite level.Content mentioned in the newspapers that could further legacy goal 1 was, for example, the report that there is a need to give aspiring athletes access to paratriathlon training and programs ; see alsAs to legacy goal 2, not one article had content that related to the development of sport structures/organizations beyond that various articles suggested that paratriathlon will get a boost from now, being a Paralympic sport, and that including paratriathlon in the Paralympics will play “a significant role in attracting more Canadians to the sport regardless of age or disability” , withoutTo sum up: the newspapers covered had no real content that would give the reader an idea that there are problems related to legacy goal 1 and 2, and that changes are needed. (3) Attitudinal changes in the perception of the position and the capabilities of persons with a disability, as well as in the self-esteem of the people with a disability, and (4) Opportunities for people with a disability to become fully integrated in social living and to reach their full potential in aspects of life beyond sports . Our findings suggest that goal 3 and 4 are not only not advanced through the newspaper coverage, but actually hindered in two main ways. One negative impact on legacy goal 3 and 4 is linked to the excessive use of the supercrip theme ,103,104,As to the presence of the supercrip theme in the articles we investigated ,103,104 The term “able-bodied” was used over 24 times, in juxtaposition to the para-athlete, indicating the para-athlete to be the lesser-abled counterpart. If one group is able-bodied, then the other group has to be the non-able-bodied. Indeed, some academic and grey literature questions the use of the term able-bodied, “We refer to ‘non-disabled people’ rather than ‘able-bodied people’ as the latter term can have pejorative implications for disabled people” . Themes that one does not see oneself as disabled , a themeAnother ability theme was that the para-athlete wants to compete, is competing, against the able athlete ,113,115.Media, including newspapers, influence discourses ,140,141.Looking at the strategic plan 2017–2020 of Triathlon Canada  through The strategic plan has as a goal to “develop and deliver a comprehensive communications plan for 2017–2020 which identifies key stakeholders, ensures consistent messaging, builds trust and enhances accessibility” . What isIt is stated that “Triathlon Canada fosters a culture of excellence and achieves gold medal performances in every event and every endeavour” . If a goAnother goal is to “complete a communications audit of internal and external stakeholders to understand existing perceptions and identify gaps” . What isAnother goal is to “leverage current national events to enhance the sport’s reputation and build corporate awareness and partnerships” . What isAnother goal is to “build Triathlon Canada’s reputation as a leader amongst NSOs” . Does thReading the strategic plan reveals that no wording is present to suggest an alignment of Triathlon Canada beyond its own sport and how to enable the four legacy goals of the Paralympics. The question is, if individual Paralympic sports do not write the Paralympic legacies into their goals, how successful will Paralympic sport be in fulfilling the legacy goals on a country level?Our findings suggest that Triathlon Canada has to fine-tune its communication strategy in relation to its para-section, and train paratriathletes and other athletes involved in paratriathlon to understand what the consequences of certain statements are. Triathlon Canada also has to find ways to fulfill more actions linked to the four legacy goals. Although the IPC legacy goals are for cities that host the Paralympics, it seems to be logical that the para-related sport organizations work at least on local, regional, and national levels, to further the same goals. We could not find anything about training paratriathletes in how to deal with the media in the strategic plan. Given the findings of our study this might be a worthwhile addition to the strategic plan. Triathlon Canada has a social media policy . But theTo move beyond Canada, the strategic plan 2018–2021 of the International Triathlon Union  states “In the report “Sporting Success, Role Models and Participation: A Policy Related Review” , it is sA “sporting hero” is a person whom one admires. The hero is defined by a visible personification of certain traits. For example, they may be interpreted by the observer (and/or portrayed by the media) to demonstrate perseverance, to be self-effacing and modest, with social responsibility. The hero may have succeeded “against the odds”. Most of the time, the hero will display mastery in her/his sport, but can achieve at a range of local and national levels. Our findings indicate that the theme of perseverance and succeeding against the odds were present in many articles ,103,104.According to the International Paralympic Committee, some of the responsibilities of para-athletes are to inspire others, so others feel empowered and excited to participate in sport, and to further equity by challenging stereotypes and by transforming attitudes and breaking down social barriers and discrimination towards people with disabilities , responsGiven that paratriathlon is now a Paralympic sport, the interest in reporting on paratriathlon, and the impact of such reporting on disabled people, increases. We submit that the coverage of paratriathlon we found has a negative impact on the fulfillment of the four legacy goals. Furthermore, the reader will not have become literate on any problems indicated by the four legacy goals . A 2010 “As an athlete and sports administrator, Elisabeth Walker-Young is thrilled by the increase in participation at the Paralympics and the awareness the Games generate for people with a disability. What still frustrates her is how this growth at the elite level has not “trickled down” into more people with disabilities becoming active. Statistics Canada estimates only three per cent of people who say they have a physical disability consider themselves physically active. Some disabled people may feel uncomfortable at a gym or pool because of the looks they receive”. The quote highlights the failure of legacy goals, so far, and the need for actions.Although tools are developed to aid managing athletes’ levels of personal and social responsibility , our fin


Moreover, the interest in quiet areas in municipalities does not seem to be directly related to the END, but is instead inspired by previous regional initiatives in Sweden. The study highlights a number of considerations and examples of how quiet areas are approached in Sweden today. In general, Sweden has come a long way in terms of identifying and mapping quiet areas, but more progress is needed in developing strategies to protect, maintain, and publicize quiet areas.The notion of quiet areas has received increasing attention within the EU in recent years. The EU Environmental Noise Directive (END) of 2002 stipulates that member states should map existing quiet areas and formulate strategies to keep these quiet. Quiet areas could play an important role in balancing densified urban development by ensuring access to relative quietness and associated health benefits. This paper reports on a recent study investigating how the notion of quiet areas has been implemented in Sweden. The study, initiated by the Sound Environment Center in 2017, was carried out in two phases. In phase one, an overview of the current situation was obtained by scrutinizing regional and municipal mapping initiatives, aided by a short digital questionnaire sent out to all 290 municipalities in Sweden. This provided a general understanding and highlighted initiatives for further study in phase two. The results revealed that 41% ( In the EU’s Environmental Noise Directive (END) of 2002 (2002/49/EC) , member Sweden is known as one of the countries in Europe working more actively with quiet areas, including several initiatives on regional and municipal level. This could be related to Sweden’s early implementation of the soundscape perspective in research on environmental noise, not least through the Mistra project “Soundscape for better health” , carriedRecent exposure data from the European Environment Agency (EEA) demonstrate that more than 100 million European citizens are negatively affected by high noise levels, impacting human health . The WorThe situation in Sweden concerning exposure to traffic noise, and to airborne particles, in the immediate vicinity of permanent dwellings has become increasingly problematic since the introduction of more relaxed noise regulations by the Swedish government in 2015 , in respThe recently published Environmental Noise Guidelines for the European Region  define tUrban areas around the world are currently facing new challenges, as there is increasing demand for densification related to sustainability. In order to safeguard the quality of parks and other recreational spaces in the future, quiet areas are likely to become even more important, not only in cities, but also in the vicinity of cities and in open country. There are good reasons to build on the notion of quiet areas, as postulated in the END . The preThe study comprised two phases: a quantitative phase providing an overview of the situation in Sweden and a qualitative phase in which chosen examples were studied further.In phase one, an overview was made and background information on quiet areas in Sweden was obtained by studying government documents and reports dealing with quiet areas. The internet was searched extensively and key individuals were contacted. The outcomes are described in Is there any area in your municipality that has been designated a quiet area, a noise-free area or anything corresponding to this?1a) Yes, in an urban setting. 1b) Yes, in a rural setting. 1c) No, not at all. 1d) Other (comment box).Is “quiet areas” included as a question to be dealt with in your municipality’s general plan?2a) Yes, elaborated. 2b) Yes, briefly. 2c) No, our municipality does not have a need for quiet areas. 2d) No, but we have discussed implementation in our future plan. 2e) No, and it has not been up for discussion. 2f) Other (comment box).Is there anyone at the municipality we can contact for follow-up questions? (please supply email address/es).Based on the findings, a subdivision was made into regional and municipal initiatives when selecting examples for further studies. The regional initiatives were studied manually, by going through reports and other documents describing these. A total of 10 initiatives were identified and are described in Within one month, during which two reminders were sent out, 208 of the municipalities had answered (response rate 71.7%).In order to provide a full overview for question 2, the remaining 82 municipalities were investigated manually by means of a digital search in their respective general plans. The search words used were “quiet” (Swedish: tyst) and “noise-free” (bullerfri). In this way, it was determined whether each of these municipalities deals with quiet areas or not. Moreover, if it was found that the municipality mentioned quiet areas, it was determined whether this mention was brief or comprehensive . Any other trends or noteworthy issues were entered in an Excel spreadsheet. A total of 47 municipalities were identified in phase one as interesting for further study. This selection was based on answers given to the questions and information obtained in the manual search of general plans. Moreover, some initiatives were added to this group based on searches on the internet and tips from the public (the project generated media attention that encouraged some people to make contact).In phase two of the study, the 47 chosen initiatives were investigated further to obtain more information about how quiet areas are treated in Sweden. Furthermore, efforts were made to identify municipalities that had taken action and to explain why others had not taken any action at all. We also sought to identify and discuss general tendencies, challenges, and future possibilities.Data were collected in phase two through different methods. Initially, a more detailed questionnaire was sent out to municipalities selected for further study. This questionnaire was sent out digitally to email addresses obtained in response to Question 3 in the first digital questionnaire. The detailed questionnaire consisted of 23 questions that dealt with how the municipality had gained inspiration for its work on quiet areas, if there were any measures to protect the quiet areas, and if these areas were used in marketing and tourism, as well as general questions about the level of knowledge and potential for improvement. After one month and one reminder, 25 out of 47 questionnaires were returned (53.2% response rate). Further correspondence followed in some cases.Results from both research phases are reported below, starting with an overview of how the notion of quiet areas has developed in Sweden and the EU, and important initiatives and definitions . We thenIn Sweden, the notion of quiet areas can be traced to the late 1990s, when the Swedish Road Administration initiated a pilot project in which two municipalities in Jönköping County were mapped for relative quietness . Within The method used in the collaborative project was based on the assumption that disturbances vary depending on context, and it considers areas divided into five different noise classes (A–E). Noise class A has the highest demands; it corresponds to areas completely free from community noise, such as remote areas in the mountains, forests, and national parks. The benchmark for noise class A is set at 25 dBA (A-weighted instantaneous sound pressure level), whereas the class with the next-highest demand, noise-class B, has a benchmark of 35 dBA. Noise classes C and D are intended for forests and recreation areas in proximity to urban developments and are both based on a benchmark of 45 dBA (instantaneous), but what is called the “exceeding time” differs. The lowest demands are found in noise class E, where the benchmark is set to 45–50 dBA , or 10–20 dBA lower than the surrounding sound pressure level. Noise class E is intended to be applied in urban areas such as parks.In the EU, the development of quiet areas can be traced back to 1996 and the document “Green Paper on Future Noise Policy” , where iIn 2014, “The Good Practice Guide on Quiet Areas”  followedIn 2016, the report “Quiet Areas in Europe: The Environment Unaffected by Noise Pollution”  introducThe END  distingu“A quiet area in open country’ shall mean an area, delimited by the competent authority, that is undisturbed by noise from traffic, industry or recreational activities.”“A quiet area in an agglomeration’ shall mean an area, delimited by the competent authority, for instance which is not exposed to a value of Lden or of another appropriate noise indicator greater than a certain value set by the Member State, from any noise source.”In both definitions, the END refers to the “competent authority” of the member state. In Sweden, the competent authority can be said to correspond to the collaboration group mentioned above and the noise classes it proposed . Thus inThe collaboration group’s noise classes have been influential for assessing and mapping quiet areas in Sweden. Many of the municipalities in Sweden refer to the benchmarks suggested in the method. However, there are other values that do not relate to this framework. For instance, two benchmarks, 30 dBA and 40dBA, which are still used relatively frequently, derive from early regional initiatives in Sweden undertaken by the Road Administration ,17 and aMoreover, it is common for the benchmarks to be adjusted, depending on the context in which the noise classes are applied and the data available. In most of the initiatives studied here, only one or two of the classes were used. Non-acoustic factors were influential when quiet areas were defined, including accessibility, natural qualities, and cultural qualities.More recently, two new methods have been proposed in Sweden ,27, as wOn regional level, a total of 10 initiatives, together covering 121 municipalities, were recorded see a. As canA short summary of the regional initiatives is presented below, following the chronological order of introduction within the respective region  . The outIn the Stockholm area, a number of mappings have been conducted on various regional levels since the turn of the millennium ,27,30,31In the Stockholm area, a number of mappings have been conducted on various regional levels since the turn of the millennium ,27,30,31The following presentation of municipal initiatives is divided into three parts. The first part provides a quantitative overview of how the notion of quiet areas has been dealt with in Swedish municipalities’ general plans. In the second part, experiences from six municipalities that have progressed further in this work are described. The third part deals with municipalities that have not been working with the concept of quiet areas and looks at the different reasons for this.It was found that 118 of Sweden’s 290 municipalities (41%) mention the concept as part of their strategies in their general plans. Based on how extensive the initiatives were, the municipalities were divided into three categories; brief, unclear, and elaborate descriptions see . These cn = 70; 24%) generally contained a short description and a positive attitude to the notion of quiet areas. Reference was sometimes made to a regional initiative and it was sometimes stated that this issue will be dealt with in future work. Brief descriptions sometimes lacked a definition of how to classify quiet areas and, in most cases, no particular areas were set aside or mapped.“Brief descriptions”  were categorized as “unclear”. In these cases, the term ‘quiet areas’ was confused with other established planning concepts, such as “large unaffected areas” (stora opåverkade områden), “nature reserves” (naturreservat), and “radiation-free areas” (strålningsfria områden).n = 30) and 31% (n = 10) respectively  in their general plans were categorized as “elaborate”. These descriptions generally included definitions of what a quiet area is, as well as maps of designated areas. In some cases, designated areas were protected and descriptions were provided of how they should be maintained. The 16 municipalities with elaborate descriptions were: Botkyrka, Habo, Helsingborg, Huddinge, Hässleholm, Hörby, Malmö, Munkedal, Nybro, Skövde, Sollentuna, Stockholm, Sundbyberg, Tanum, Tibro, and Östra Göinge. As previously mentioned, 15 of these 16 initiatives (94%) were preceded by a regional initiative see b. In conectively .n = 7), while inspiration from neighboring municipalities accounted for 12% (n = 3). Local motiving forces emerged as the most important source of inspiration, for 60% (n = 15) of the initiatives. Interestingly, only 4% of responding municipalities (n = 1) said that the END had been an important factor, suggesting that there is scope for further promotion and/or enforcement of the directive.This suggests that the regional initiatives were important in inspiring initiatives on municipal level. This was confirmed to some extent by responses to the more detailed questionnaire, where municipalities that had progressed in their work were asked to explain their sources of inspiration. The responses revealed that inspiration from regional mappings accounted for 28%  was ticked by 22 municipalities. These municipalities were typically located in remote areas with relatively little human activity and hence good access to quiet areas already. Another 59 municipalities ticked the option “No, and it has not been up for discussion” (option 2e). It was found that the reasons varied, as some municipalities stated that their knowledge was insufficient or that it was an ambiguous term. There were also examples of municipalities, like Salem, which thought that it was useless to work with quiet areas due to the high noise exposure in the region. Another 36 municipalities stated that they had started working on the concept, ticking the option “No, but we have discussed implementation in our future plan” (option 2d), but added that it was not yet implemented in the general plan or that they were about to start work on it soon.The final part of the study focused on tendencies and challenges, especially in light of future development, legislation, and implementation.There is some confusion about the concept of quiet areas as such, as a few different terms are used interchangeably in the Swedish planning community. The terms “quiet areas” (tysta områden) and “noise-free areas” (bullerfria områden) are the most well-established, but there are also other terms, such as “undisturbed areas” (ostörda områden), “carefulness areas” (varsamhetsområden), and “tranquil areas” (lugna områden), that are used more or less synonymously. There are several other closely related terms in the planning discourse, including ”large unaffected areas” (stora opåverkade områden), “radiation-free areas” (strålningsfria områden), “consideration areas” (hänsynsområden), ”nature reserves” (naturreservat), “green structure” (grönstruktur) and “areas for recreation” (rekreationsområden). As described previously see , some ofAssumptions such as these could be problematic and confirm the need for a term like “quiet areas” or “noise-free areas” that focuses specifically on the sonic aspects. Some of the other terms, such as “undisturbed areas” and “tranquil areas”, do not specifically focus on sound and the use of such concepts may increase the confusion further.It was found that the notion of “quiet areas” can be overlapped with other planning concepts to provide a more nuanced understanding, as illustrated by the municipality Munkedal  and its Definitions of quiet areas vary widely in Sweden. Most definitions include a reference to a benchmarked sound pressure level, which is derived either from a regional initiative and/or from five different classes of noise exposure developed by a number of influential stakeholders . In SwedThe END distinguishes between two main types of quiet areas, i.e., in “open country” and in “agglomerations”. This division was used as a starting point in the present study. It was found that it was significantly more common for Swedish municipalities to work with the concept in open country, suggesting that there is scope to further develop strategies for agglomerations. Such focused initiatives have been undertaken in other parts of Europe ,42,43,44This study confirms what has already been noted in Europe , i.e., tThe overview on EU level  describeWhile there are many approaches for identifying and mapping quiet areas, there are fewer examples in Sweden of active maintenance and enforcement of quiet areas. In many cases where mapping of quiet areas had been performed, it has been used mainly as an inventory, possibly with a recommendation to avoid further exploitation in the areas identified, if possible. For instance, the municipality of Växjö reported that it had been 15 years since it performed its inventory and that it had not made any follow-up since then. Sävsjö reported similar experiences, stating that “quiet areas have been mapped, but other than that, it is not something that has come to concrete usage when we make our detailed planning”. There were some examples in which quiet areas are explicitly protected in the municipality’s general plans, sometimes with clear instructions on the types of activities and exploitation that should be avoided. One such municipality is Nybro , which rThe conflict between economic interests, on the one hand, and quietness, on the other, was a recurring theme. In particular, wind power was a question that seemed to upset people, as several such conflicts were noted in the study. The conflicts sometimes extended across regional borders, e.g., the municipality of Grums reported that it had designated an area as quiet, yet experienced disturbance from the neighboring municipality: “One area has been designated (as quiet), but on the other side of the municipal border, that municipality and the county have decided to locate a wind power park (12 mills), because it is in the outskirts and few people are disturbed there.”Another recurring theme, particularly in Northern Sweden, was regulation of snow scooter traffic. Such enforcements were noted in three northern municipalities: Arjeplog, Dorotea, and Kiruna. The municipality of Umeå reported that it had a ban on motor boats but, apart from this, there were few reports of these kinds of restrictions for private citizens in the study.A related concept to quiet areas, called “consideration areas”, was developed rather recently in a collaboration between three Swedish counties . ConsideAnother related initiative should be mentioned in this context; quiet sections in trains. Originally introduced in the early 2000s, quiet sections are now established and used extensively in public transportation around Sweden. A quiet section is usually a separate compartment, secluded from the rest of the train. Potentially disturbing activities such as conversations and mobile phones are prohibited inside the compartment, which allows travelers to work, read, or relax.To conclude, even though there are some interesting examples in Sweden in terms of maintenance and enforcement of quiet areas in Sweden, there is much scope for further improvement as most of the examples are from other contexts. Maintenance was noted in the questionnaire by 20% of the municipalities as being one of the greatest future challenges. Some related ideas and concepts from other contexts that are described here could possibly be used to promote future development.This section is related to the There was a demand for good examples as inspiration in the municipalities’ own work. Relatively few such good examples were identified in the study, with the exception of the “Guide to Silence” in the Stockholm region see . A relatThe internet can be an effective way to reach residents, via channels already established by the municipalities and via marketing on independent websites. No dedicated apps for smartphones were reported to have been developed in Sweden, but an application, Hush City, in the EU allows users to measure sound pressure levels, document favorite places, and inform other users about their favorite quiet areas . It is aSigns are another way to raise awareness about quiet areas. This is used in the “Guide to Silence” , where eThe spatial distribution of quiet areas is an important factor for accessibility and one that can be controlled in planning. In Sweden, it is generally suggested that urban dwellers should be at most 300 m  from the nearest green area or park . This reDesignation of quiet areas is sometimes associated with economic conflicts, as activities like wind power and other industries cannot exist in the proximity of quiet areas. However, there is also the possibility of positive repercussions for the economy if quiet areas are used in marketing. For instance, in the City of Malmö it is clear that the income levels of residents in different neighborhoods correlate with freedom from noise disturbance . QuietneA survey conducted at EU level  using thAlthough quiet areas are becoming rare in some urban regions in Sweden, it can be concluded that there is growing interest in preserving existing quiet areas. It was found that the concept is well-known in the Swedish planning community, but that few municipalities have been dealing with it in a comprehensive manner. This seems to be due to ambiguities surrounding the concept and lack of good examples. Continuous revision and development of strategies for working with quiet areas is suggested. The study identified a total of 16 municipalities in Sweden that have come further in their work than others and experiences from some of these are described.The results do not indicate that the EU’s Environmental Noise Directive (END) has had a significant impact on the development of quiet areas on municipal level. A more important factor in Sweden seems to be various regional initiatives undertaken in recent decades. The municipality’s own driving force and inspiration from neighboring municipalities also appear to be important factors.A number of challenges to future work on quiet areas, in Sweden and at EU level, were identified. In Sweden, many initiatives have focused on mapping and identification of quiet areas, but less has been done regarding maintenance and enforcement. If the principles stated in the recent World Health Organization guidelines on reducing noise while conserving quiet areas are to be followed, more attention definitely needs to be given to such aspects. Some activities are more problematic than others as regards noise emissions, such as snow scooter use in open country, motorsports, and wind farms. In a few cases, activities like these were specifically described in the environmental strategies of some Swedish municipalities as unwanted and undesirable. However, examples of limitations such as these affecting individual activities were fairly rare in the survey data.There were significant differences in how municipalities work with quiet areas. Such differences are not necessarily problematic per se, as the prerequisites for quiet areas vary depending on context, but it was found that further clarification and guidelines could benefit applicability. In particular, there is a need for an independent evaluation of the methods and definitions available. In the END, a distinction between two types of quiet areas is proposed (agglomerations and open country), but our results indicate that this could be extended to three types: urban areas (agglomerations), areas in urban proximity, and rural areas (open country).There were very few examples of public communications and marketing of quiet areas by Swedish municipalities, although quiet areas can be beneficial for residents and for tourism, i.e., they are beneficial for health, quality of life, and the local economy. Many parts of Northern Europe, including Sweden, provide rich access to quiet areas and this could play a more prominent role in marketing the country. In addition to economic benefits from tourism, this could also be a way to raise the value and awareness of quiet recreational areas so that they are protected and maintained in the future.