In the case of resection of gliomas involving eloquent areas, equal consideration should be given to maintain maximal extent of resection (EOR) and neurological protection, for which the intraoperative neuromonitoring (IONM) proves an effective and admirable approach. IONM techniques applied in clinical practice currently consist of somatosensory evoked potential (SSEP), direct electrical stimulation (DES), motor evoked potential (MEP), electromyography (EMG), and electrocorticography (ECoG). The combined use of DES and ECoG has been adopted widely. With the development of technology, more effective IONM tactics and programs would be proposed. The ultimate goal would be strengthening the localization of eloquent areas and epilepsy foci, reducing the incidence of postoperative dysfunction and epilepsy improving the life quality of patients. Glioma is the most common type of primary intracranial tumors and accounts for ~30% of them. It generally originates from glial or precursor cells and can be characterized by complex genetic background and dismal prognosis. Currently, an optimal management of glioma requires a multidisciplinary approach including surgery, radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and supportive care. Among these treatments, a generally accepted goal of glioma surgery is to achieve maximal safe resection, which reflects the need for both prolonging life and protecting neurological function. For gliomas involving eloquent areas, the latter may be particularly important.Gliomas involving eloquent areas present a specific subtype of gliomas, invading the cortex or subcortical structures associated with sensory, motor, language, and cognitive functions. Surgical resection of gliomas involving eloquent areas has been a real challenge in glioma treatment. As surgical operations are often accompanied by the risk of instant acute partial injuries to eloquent areas, the balance between maximal extent of resection (EOR) and neurological protection is always unmanageable. For this reason, relevant assistive technologies have been introduced.Over the past few decades, intraoperative neuronavigation using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), fluorescence imaging, and ultrasonography have been demonstrated as effective techniques in detecting tumor boundaries. In a previous study, the results showed that the combination of 5-ALA and contrast-enhanced ultrasound significantly improved the EOR compared with conventional strategy  . As a reRegarding the technologies for achieving brain mapping, intraoperative functional neuronavigations are commonly applied in glioma resection, which combine with preoperative functional MRI [blood oxygen level dependent MRI and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) MRI] , 4 to deTherefore, as a unique intuitive technique, intraoperative neuromonitoring (IONM) has become a valid tool for maintaining indispensable neurological function in glioma resection. The IONM technologies currently adopted for gliomas involving eloquent areas include somatosensory evoked potential (SSEP), direct electrical stimulation (DES), motor evoked potentials (MEP), electromyography (EMG), and electrocorticography (ECoG). Among them, DES has been regarded as the gold standard for real-time detection of the brain function in glioma resection. The brief description of intraoperative neuromonitoring techniques are shown in Since last century, SSEP has been widely used to predict brain injury in the process of spinal cord surgery, such as regional ischemia . With thAfter opening the dura mater, a strip electrode is placed vertically in the central sulcus as the recording electrode. Stimulating electrodes are deployed near the median nerve or posterior tibial nerve on the opposite side of the tumor to obtain a stable SSEP. Afterward, in order to determine the structural position according to the direction of waveform, the electrode of N20 is set representing the position of postcentral gyrus and that of P22 representing the precentral gyrus. If the waveform was inverted, the central groove sits between those two locations.Although SSEP has now been a routinely used technique with high accuracy to locate the central trench, SSEP phase reversal technology has some unresolved issues in the resection of glioma with particular structures and features. Accordingly, in the study of Romstöck et al. on the electrophysiological data of 230 patients with tumors in the cerebral sensorimotor region, the accuracy of SSEP phase reversal was low in the resection of large central and postcentral tumors .In 1886–1887, Horsley reported the first 13 cases of cortical resection by using cortical stimulation . HoweverNowadays, DES specifically referred to the application of electric current directly onto the cerebral cortex and subcortex for localizing functional regions during craniotomy under general anesthesia or awake. The stimulation modes of DES comprise single-pulse electrical stimulation and high-frequency multi-pulse electrical stimulation. For the purpose of brain mapping, intraoperative monitoring physicians prefer observing the patients' reaction to the electrical stimulation. Electromyography (EMG), direct cortical-stimulated motor-evoked potentials (dcMEPs) and subcortical-stimulated MEPs (scrtMEPs) were mainly applied as recording measures. Among them, dcMEPs and scrtMEPs prove effective for preserving motor function by predicting the edges of the corticospinal tracts (CSTs) .During the resection of glioma in function areas, the intraoperative localization of the functional structural boundary is critical for the protection of neurological function. Due to the individual discrepancy in anatomy and neurological function, relying on anatomical landmarks to locate the function areas may be unreliable. In contrast, intraoperative direct electrical stimulation technology can ensure the realization of real-time monitoring of eloquent areas in cortex and subcortical pathways, which is accurate, reliable, and safe. So far, the effectiveness of DES in preserving neurological function in the excision of low-grade glioma (LGG) via guaranteeing the maximal EOR has been confirmed –16. In 2In recent years, with the development of anesthesia technology, awake brain tumor surgery has grown as an emerging effective strategy to protect brain function. At the end of the 19th century, Cushing first introduced the term “regional anesthesia” to neurosurgery. Different from local anesthesia, regional anesthesia refers to the application of local anesthesia to the subcutaneous area for nerve blocks, in which advent has helped promote the application of awake neurosurgery. Currently, the anesthesia techniques used for awake craniotomy were asleep–awake–asleep (SAS), monitored anesthesia care (MAC) and awake–awake–awake technique (AAA). Among them, SAS and MAC techniques were commonly used in awake craniotomy and reported to be feasible and safe .Now, the combination of remifentanil and/or propofol and other short-acting opioids are commonly employed for craniotomy. Recently, dexmedetomidine (DEX), a selective agonist of α2-adrenergic receptors, proved more desirable for awake craniotomy due to its short arousal time and low probabilities of respiratory depression , 22.In the early 20th century, Sherrington et al. pioneered the study of brain mapping for motor cortex localization. At the same time, Foerster reported the application of ECoG in epilepsy surgeries. Then, Penfield developed this strategy to the research of language brain area .Nowadays, the intraoperative cortical and subcortical DES acts as a gold standard for localization of eloquent areas of the brain , 25. By At present, according to the guidelines for surgical resection of gliomas in functional regions during awake craniotomy published in 2018 by Gliomas Professional Committee of Chinese Medical Doctors Association, direct cortical and subcortical electrical stimulation is recommended to be performed under the real-time monitoring of ECoG to ensure the operational safety and effectiveness .Given the variability of optimal stimulus parameters and after-discharge threshold , the stiThe upper limbs and face on the opposite side of the stimulus point are exposed completely for the brain mapping of the motor functional area. The positive reactions of the motor functional area were appearing as the involuntary movement of the contralateral limbs or corresponding part of the face, along with the electromyography (EMG) response. However, due to the awake condition, the voluntary movement could interfere with EMG and MEP. Therefore, the activity of the muscle opposite to the surgical site is also recorded as criteria. Moreover, the constant monitoring of MEP could predict the injury of some critical vessels in insular and deep temporal regions, which has now been a useful assistive strategy for motor functional mapping , 29. TheThe monopolar stimulation is preferable for identifying corticospinal tract due to the more radiant electric field properties of monopolar probe compared with the bipolar probe and reported to be effective in insular glioma resections , 30. RecCounting and picture naming represent the language and cognitive functions, respectively, which are performed for the speech and cognition functional area mapping. As for the picture-naming task, the patients first familiarize a set of pictures 1 day before the operation. During the DES on the language functional area, a picture would be displayed for 4 s after every single electrical stimulus, and then the patient is asked to name the picture immediately. The electrical stimulation should be given after the presentation of a new picture and the naming of the picture by patients to avoid occasional conditions such as non-convulsive seizure . In this2), and the specific anatomical localization often shows great individual differences. Besides, since the response of language functional area to stimulation has always been inhibited, direct cortical and subcortical electrical stimulation techniques under awake anesthesia stand absolutely essential.The advantages of awake DES can be summarized as follows: First of all, the patient stays awake, able to describe the feelings during the whole operation. Thus, the reliability of the localization could be confirmed and recognized by both surgeons and patients. Second, the monitoring of the brain regions with suppression functions could be completed in awake craniotomy. Finally, the method could be applied for language brain area. The range of important language functional areas in the cerebral cortex was generally small (<2 cmCurrently, a combination of a single stimulus or a short train by a strip electrode and intraoperative MEP or SSEP monitoring has been recommended for applying DES under general anesthesia. In the last century, the Penfield technique as a standard for direct cortical stimulation adopted the single-pulse stimulus with the current frequency of 50–60 Hz. Since 1993, the multi-pulse short-train stimulation technology with one to five pulses was introduced as a more efficient and safe method, which caused a lower incidence of seizure –35. As fFunctional remodeling has been recognized in recent years. For patients with diffuse low-grade glioma, due to the relatively slow growth of tumor, the brain functions tend to be modified . DES refThe first invasive EEG monitoring was performed by Penfield  for locaWith the development of IONM equipment and technology, ECoG could monitor spontaneous and stimulus-elicited epileptiform waves at the same time . In thisNowadays, the most commonly used equipment for ECoG monitoring involves intracranial strip and grid electrodes , 46. YetIn conclusion, the resection of glioma involving eloquent areas aims to both protect the neurological function and ensure the maximal EOR. In the last few decades, the effectiveness of intraoperative monitoring to protect nerve function has been demonstrated. In recent years, awake craniotomy with simultaneous monitoring of multiple electrophysiological indicators has become a tendency. DES and ECoG monitoring are carried out at the same time by most neurosurgeons and electrophysiologists. With the development of further research, more complete and effective intraoperative monitoring approaches would be proposed to propel localizing the eloquent areas and epilepsy foci, reduce postoperative dysfunction, or postoperative epilepsy, through which the life quality of patients would be improved substantially.HY carried out the collection of publications and drafted the manuscript. HQ carried out the review and proofreading of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.


The COVID-19 pandemic has challenged the world for a year, where a study in China showed that the disease increased psychological distress among adolescents and college students, such as anxiety about the academic setback, economic effects, and impact on their daily life. However, a further study examining the impact of the disease on the mental health of students is required. Social support is the most vital psychosocial protective resource, where effective coping can reduce stress levels and prevent individuals from experiencing more severe psychological distress. Therefore, this study investigated the coping strategy, social support, and psychological distress among university students in Jakarta who are also the epicenter of COVID-19 in Indonesia. The psychological distress and coping strategy variable were measured through the Hopkins Symptoms Checklist-25 (HSCL-25) and the COPE Brief instrument, respectively. Meanwhile, the Multidimensional Perceived Social Support-12 instrument was used to measure the social support variable. The study was disseminated via an online form and the number of research subjects included 250 students who matched the research criteria, including DKI Jakarta domicile and active students registered in the area that were confirmed to be COVID-19 positive. According to the results, coping strategies and increased social support were significantly correlated with decreased psychological distress and may serve as the basis for interventions. Pneumonia Coronavirus Disease 2019, also known as COVID-19 is an inflammatory lung disease caused by Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Moreover, elderly people and those with a history of disease were known to be more susceptible to the infection due to weak immunity. The World Health Organization (WHO) needed to establish a pandemic status related to COVID-19 due to the continuous increase in the disease cases of more than 118,000 in 114 countries, which originated from Wuhan with the death of 4,291 people .In general, the pandemic is associated with several psychosocial stressors, such as health threats of oneself and loved ones, severe disruption to routines, separation from family and friends, lack of food and medicine, disturbance on economic condition, social isolation due to quarantine or other social distancing programs, and school closings . The rolPsychological distress in adolescents, can arise due to accumulated anxiety and worry about their health and that of their relatives or friends, changes in sleep and eating patterns, difficulty in thinking or concentrating, worsening chronic health problems, increased alcohol and tobacco use, as well as other drugs . One gloThe consideration of psychological distress and mental health symptoms was essential during the COVID-19 pandemic. Also, the unprecedented consequences of the disease, including widespread unemployment and lost income, health-related concerns, and mandatory social isolation are the likely risk factors for increases in forms of psychological distress among the general population. By design, population-based approaches to virus control have imposed significant environmental and contextual constraints for large portions of the population, hence resulting in extensive changes to daily routines and social interactions. Moreover, behavioral theories of psychological distress suggest that reductions in access to environmental or social rewards, and increases in reward-limiting stimuli  predict risk for mental health. By way of constraining daily routines and reducing access to typical sources of social or environmental reinforcement, strict social distancing measures may increase the risk for individuals’ psychological distress .Approximately 25% of the college student samples were reported to experience symptoms of anxiety, which positively correlated with increased concern about the academic setback, economic effects of the pandemic, and impact on daily life . TherefoRegarding the role of social support during a pandemic, people often feel fear and anxiety, not only about the disease but also the uncertainty of its duration, social restriction, and financial problem that arise consequently. Individuals react to psychosocial stresses, such as threats, or actual events (pandemic) in various ways , 2015. HCoping is something that exceeds one’s ability, a cognitive effort, and a constantly changing behavior used to manage external and internal demands considered as a burden . The perThe Pandemic Management Theory (PMT) is a psychological concept based on the bio-centric health management approach, which includes the definition of six phases of coping with the lockdown burden and the further load process of the COVID-19 pandemic. Bio-centric education teaches the inner basics of how to live as a relationship-oriented and ecological human within a natural and cosmical network. Coping to protect the connection between humans and themselves, others, and the complex of living beings support options (nature) are shown in six bio-centric fields of action during and after pandemics, including (1) maintaining effective communication, (2) maintenance of lively corporeality, (3) contact with one’s own identity and inner oriented self-reflection together with others, (4) construction of life sense and expression of life potentials, (5) expansion of consciousness and perception of the wholeness, and (6) development of ecological awareness and sustainable bio-centric lifestyles and attitudes .Also, the consideration of protective factors, including social support and coping strategies is essential as a priority in dealing with COVID-19, especially when psychological distress exists in the adolescent and student community. Reflecting on the psychological evaluation of the pandemic that occurred in May 2020, approximately 69% of the total of 2,364 respondents in Indonesia experienced psychological problems, such as anxiety, depression, and psychological trauma . FurtherThe purposive sampling technique was used in this study and the number of subjects included 250 students who matched the research criteria, namely Jakarta domicile, those registered in the area, and were confirmed to be COVID-19 positive. Also, the snowball sampling method was used by the investigators to invite a potential study participant group consisting of 10 individuals through the social media platform. Subsequently, the first set of invitees forwarded the invitations to 10 of their contacts whom they considered suitable, and the second set proceeded in the same manner. Participants filled the anonymous basic information online, provided a history of unreported serious mental illness and informed consent, then the participants continued to the three questionnaires.Eligible participants were asked to complete the questionnaires that contained three distinct sets of items between 20 and 30 min. The first set of items queried demographic characteristics and experience attributed to COVID-19 and included psychological distress questionnaires. Subsequently, participants proceeded to the second set that assessed coping strategy and then the third, which included social support questionnaires. Additionally, two questions appeared at the end of the survey asking the participant to confirm that (1) questions were honestly answered and (2) attention was paid to the survey. Participant data were excluded if they incorrectly responded to > 1 attention checks to control for random responding. The study was disseminated via an online form.This study used the quantitative research method and the variables included psychological distress, coping strategy, and perceived social support.The Hopkins Symptom Checklist-25 (HSCL-25) explores the symptoms of depression and anxiety and is a validated tool for measuring the level of psychological distress Moreover, the coping strategy variable was measured by the COPE Brief instrument designed by The Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support Scale (MSPSS), is a 12-item and self-report instrument, which is easy to administer and was developed by A total of 250 participants consisting of university students suspected of having COVID-19, residing in communities where cases of the disease had been reported, 72% female and 28% male, with 58% between ages 20–21 received the invitation to the online survey and finished all the questionnaires. In this study, of the 250 respondents suspected of COVID, 76 and 24% had high and low psychological distress, respectively. The suspected participants had demographic characteristics of mostly female (72%) between the ages of 20–21 years. p < 0.05), support from friend (p < 0.05), and significant others (p < 0.05). Furthermore, the binary logistic regression also identified that predicted high psychological distress among respondents included emotion-focused coping  invitation rather than face-to-face random sampling, and requirements of participants to use the Internet. Therefore, it is unclear whether the results can be generalized to individuals who cannot use the Internet. Secondly, respondents’ engagement in the prevention process was not assessed as preventive self-behaviors can also mediate stress levels. Thirdly, the study design was cross-sectional; hence the changes in psychological distress and its predictors throughout the COVID-19 outbreak could not be captured. Therefore, the long-term psychological process and implications of infectious disease outbreaks should not be ignored. Finally, approximately 72% of the respondents were women, which may reduce the generalizability of the findings to the university students in Jakarta population.The study results can be used as scientific evidence of the coping strategies effects on psychological distress in students affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. Also, an understanding can be provided on these strategies, psychological distress and their relation to the disease, as well as the enrich results related to coping strategies, and psychological distress. This study can be used as a reference for students in choosing coping strategies as an option in overcoming any pressure that arises due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Psycho-education programs through webinars can be conducted to provide an overview for these individuals on the selection of coping strategies and the right way in dealing with pressure. Therefore, psychological distress was experienced by the students during and after the COVID-19 pandemic.The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author/s.The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by the Ethics Committee of Faculty of Education Psychology Universitas Negeri Jakarta. The participants in this research also received a complete description of this survey and provided online written informed consent that already reviewed by ethics committee. The patients/participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.ZA had full access to all the data, the idea for and designed the study, took responsibility for the integrity of the data, and the accuracy of its analysis. MA did the analysis and edited the manuscript and ZA collected the data while both drafted the manuscript. Both authors agreed to be accountable for all aspects of the work in ensuring that questions related to the accuracy and integrity of any part are appropriately investigated and resolved. Both authors carefully revised the manuscript for important intellectual content and gave final approval for the version to be published.The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.


Despite numerous challenges in relation to being a recently established school, the University of California, Irvine (UCI) School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences (SPPS), similar to many schools of pharmacy in the United States, was highly committed to supporting the rollout of COVID-19 vaccines. UCI SPPS and our affiliated UCI Medical Center (UCIMC) Pharmacy Department partnered to spearhead the pharmacy element of a large-scale COVID-19 vaccination clinic on campus for both employees and the community. Three key initiatives were established in order to overcome the obstacles we faced in the large-scale roll out of COVID-19 vaccines: (1) forging new collaborations within the pharmacy team, (2) leveraging interprofessional education and practice, and (3) raising awareness of the pharmacists’ role. Our response to the COVID-19 vaccines at UCI was a tangible, visible model that demonstrated that, while we continue to embrace our role in team-based, patient-centered care, it is also important for us to step up and lead the profession. Additionally, this vaccine rollout experience is a teachable moment for our communities and our health professional partners as we continue to march forward as one voice to serve the American public. Since late December 2020, our nation has been racing against time to roll out coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) vaccines to the community. Similar to many schools of pharmacy in the United States, the University of California, Irvine (UCI) School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences (SPPS) was highly committed to supporting the rollout of COVID-19 vaccines. However, as a recently established school, we had a limited number of faculty, and as important, the urgency of the rollout of vaccines necessitated that we began before we enrolled our first cohort of pharmacy students, who have proven to be pivotal to the success of COVID-19 vaccination clinics at other schools of pharmacy [Despite these challenges, the SPPS and UCIMC Pharmacy Department partnered to spearhead the pharmacy element of a COVID-19 vaccination clinic on campus for the community and employees. In the end, between 15th January 2021 and 12th June 2021, over 76,000 vaccine doses were prepared and administered to over 45,000 people. Cascades of teachable moments, often building on knowledge just recently gained from another, occurred during the course of three key initiatives established to overcome the obstacles we faced to support the large-scale roll out of COVID-19 vaccines during such a pressing time.Marshalling our peers (pharmacists and pharmacy technicians) from many practice settings to collaborate was essential to creating a sustainable yet short term team to prepare and administer vaccines. To start, both SPPS and UCIMC Pharmacy Department staff, almost all previously unknown to each other, worked closely together to emulate the successful vaccine preparation and administration services previously established at the UCIMC for the campus-based vaccine clinic. SPPS performed additional outreach to recruit volunteers from a developing network of affiliated pharmacists and alumni network (Anteaters in Pharmacy) to help at the clinic. Since SPPS had not yet enrolled pharmacy students, we worked with the experiential education offices at the other two University of California schools of pharmacy (San Diego and San Francisco) to include over 30 student pharmacists administering vaccines under SPPS faculty and UCIMC pharmacist/pharmacy residents’ supervision. To ensure a full workforce to rollout the vaccines, we organized interprofessional education activities with nursing and medical faculty, who were also largely unknown to each other prior to the clinic. Physicians, nurses, and nursing students were formally trained on-site by pharmacists and technicians with teach-back verification and continuous oversight of aseptic technique. Additionally, we trained over 35 medical and nursing students to prepare vaccines through interprofessional education sessions, providing vaccine-specific instructions and hands-on application and validation of technique. Through these interprofessional activities, we introduced team-based care involving pharmacy as a new player on the UCI campus and effectively established a model of interprofessional education for incoming pharmacy students in the fall of 2021. Notably, interprofessional practice amongst medicine, nursing, and pharmacy was the default mode in the clinic despite there being no initially established structures and processes in the setting. Pharmacists administering vaccines alongside nurses in addition to preparing vaccines was an element of interprofessional practice that evolved very soon after the clinic opened. Shortly afterward, the nurses and physicians who had been trained by pharmacists and technicians began helping to prepare vaccines to accommodate the ever-increasing patient volume. The team players worked out their roles and interactions as they went along to achieve the common and urgent goal of serving patients.The essential role of the pharmacist was on obvious display at the campus vaccine clinic to health professionals, students, community members, and our own UCI employees. Pharmacists and technicians preparing vaccines were not hidden away in a back room of the venue. Instead, all vaccine preparation activity was clearly visible, though secure, as a distinct station of the clinic with overhead signage indicating the new SPPS at work to serve all 45,000 people who came to the clinic. Pharmacists were also highly visible when performing direct patient care activities such as administering vaccines and answering patient questions while staffing vaccine administration tables as well as checking on patients in the after-vaccine observation area. The clinic provided an ideal demonstration of the pharmacist as an expert in all aspects of vaccine acquisition, storage, handling, preparation, and administration and in evolving the clinical patient care team base. Beyond the clinic, we also presented two public webinars attended by 400 community members . The goaWe are not alone in our vaccine rollout experience here at UCI. Additionally, we understand that each pharmacist and pharmacy organization had their own series of teachable moments that they and their partners learned from as the COVID-19 testing and vaccines rolled out. As a profession, we have long acknowledged our role in team-based, patient-centered care as well as the lack of societal awareness of our essential role. Our response to the COVID-19 vaccines was a tangible, visible model that demonstrated that, while we continue to embrace these ideas , it is also important for us to step up and lead the profession  and to not be easily derailed by any real or perceived barriers during this pandemic. This is a teachable moment for our communities and our health professional partners as we continue to march forward as one voice to serve the American public.


Drawing is a comprehensive skill that primarily involves visuospatial processing, eye-hand coordination, and other higher-order cognitive functions. Various drawing tasks are widely used to assess brain function. The neuropsychological basis of drawing is extremely sophisticated. Previous work has addressed the critical role of the posterior parietal cortex (PPC) in drawing, but the specific functions of the PPC in drawing remain unclear. Functional magnetic resonance imaging and electrophysiological studies found that drawing activates the PPC. Lesion-symptom mapping studies have shown an association between PPC injury and drawing deficits in patients with global and focal cerebral pathology. These findings depicted a core framework of the fronto-parietal network in drawing tasks. Here, we review neuroimaging and electrophysiological studies applying drawing paradigms and discuss the specific functions of the PPC in visuospatial and sensorimotor aspects. Ultimately, we proposed a hypothetical model based on the dorsal stream. It demonstrates the organization of a PPC-centered network for drawing and provides systematic insights into drawing for future neuropsychological research. Drawing is a unique high-order human ability that transforms mental representations into fine hand movements  and internally-cued drawings  according to the stimuli , inferior parietal lobule (IPL), and intraparietal sulcus (IPS). This anatomical region can be approximately equal to the Brodmann Area 5 (BA5), BA7, BA39, and BA40  and electrophysiological studies have shown that drawing tasks activate the PPC see . ActivatThe intended drawing starts with the encoding of mental representations from either externally or internally-cued stimuli McCrea, . ExternaFor most internally-cued drawing tasks, the drawer usually obtains the stimuli by reading or listening to a text instruction instead of viewing graphical stimuli  showed that the parietal and occipital regions were associated with event-related desynchronization (ERD) activity in the low-frequency theta/alpha range  is usually adopted for such analysis  space to an egocentric (body-centered) space (Buneo and Andersen, The PPC plays an important role in egocentric coordinate transformation. In nonhuman primates, the lateral and ventral intraparietal areas are important for egocentric-allocentric transformation (Cohen and Andersen, Spatial remapping refers to the operation that updates and integrates the selected visual information and spatial changes of objects into stable, successive visual representations during saccades or shifts of attention (Melcher and Colby, PPC is vital for spatial remapping operations (Melcher and Colby, Intrinsically, drawing can be decomposed into a series of sensory-guided reaching movements. The shape and position of the figure are essentially determined by the location where the hand or pen reaches (Battaglia-Mayer et al., The PPC coordinates the eyes and hands to modulate reaching movement (Jackson and Husain, Besides, damage to other parts of the parieto-frontal network can also affect the PPC’s connection, resulting in visuomotor incoordination (Caminiti et al., According to the classic dual-stream theory, drawing is a typical task of the dorsal or “action” stream (Goodale and Milner, With the anatomic-functional corrections, we propose a plausible model of cortical neural circuitry based on the dorsal visual pathway . First, Second, the PPC collects perceptual information, constructs the mental representation, and transforms it into an egocentric coordinate , which iThird, the PPC encodes the drawing plan and directs the downstream motor cortex to produce and execute the intended movements . MultiplDrawing tasks are powerful neuropsychological assessment tools. The strategic anatomical location of the PPC and its extensive connections make it a bridge between sensory inputs and motor output. Evidence from fMRI and EEG studies has shown that PPC is activated in different drawing tests, and damage in the PPC is associated with various drawing errors, according to LSM research. These findings suggest that the PPC contributes to both visuospatial and sensorimotor processing in drawing.As the neural mechanism involved in drawing activity is elusive and multifaceted, many unsolved questions remain. Although the PPC is highlighted in drawing activities, its functions are based on the comprehensive degree of association with other parts of the brain. The functional network for drawing may involve a large scale of networks such as the dorsal stream, execution network, attention network, and memory network (Yuan and Brown, Recent studies have focused on the value of visuospatial assessment in the early prediction of dementia (Coughlan et al., SB and WL are major contributors in designing the review and writing the manuscript. YG revised the manuscript. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.


Ischemic stroke is one of the main central nervous system diseases and is associated with high disability and mortality rates. Recombinant tissue plasminogen activator (rt-PA) and mechanical thrombectomy are the optimal therapies available currently to restore blood flow in patients with stroke; however, their limitations are well recognized. Therefore, new treatments are urgently required to overcome these shortcomings. Recently, stem cell transplantation technology, involving the transplantation of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), has drawn the interest of neuroscientists and is considered to be a promising alternative for ischemic stroke treatment. iPSCs are a class of cells produced by introducing specific transcription factors into somatic cells, and are similar to embryonic stem cells in biological function. Here, we have reviewed the current applications of stem cells with a focus on iPSC therapy in ischemic stroke, including the neuroprotective mechanisms, development constraints, major challenges to overcome, and clinical prospects. Based on the current state of research, we believe that stem cells, especially iPSCs, will pave the way for future stroke treatment. Stroke is one of the major central nervous system diseases associated with high disability and mortality rates, approximately 80% of the cases being ischemic stroke . AlthougStem cell transplantation technology is attractive as a novel option for the treatment of ischemic stroke, and utilizes different cell sources, including embryonic stem cells (ESCs), neural stem cells (NSCs), mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), umbilical cord-derived blood cells, adipose-derived MSCs, dental stem cells, iPSCs, and some immortalized cell lines; the most recent studies in this field have primarily focused on the first three stem cell types. Here, we have discussed the current applications of different stem cell types in ischemic stroke, especially the iPSC therapy.ESCs, a type of pluripotent cells, are derived from the inner mass of preimplantation embryo and have differentiation ability . They arNeurogenesis was not possible until the discovery of NSCs, which have the ability to renew themselves and originate neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes . Many stMSCs are non-hematopoietic stem cells, which widely exist in various organs and tissues, and have a high degree of proliferation, along with self-renewal and multi-directional differentiation properties. MSCs can be obtained from several tissues, including the bone marrow, placenta, amniotic fluid, adipose tissue, umbilical cord, and dental pulp . At the iPSCs form a class of cloned cells with characteristics similar to those of ESCs, and were first discovered by Takahashi and Yamanaka using retroviruses to integrate four factors  into both mouse and adult human fibroblasts through corresponding vectors . Till daA variety of animal experiments have shown that the application of iPSCs plays an important role in ischemic stroke treatment, including improving sensorimotor function , reducinNeurological deficit caused by ischemic stroke mainly occurs due to the loss of various nerve cells, including neurons and different types of glial cells. Implantation of iPSCs in animal models of ischemic stroke can effectively promote the recovery of nerve function. Multiple mechanisms have been proposed to account for these beneficial effects of iPSCs in treating ischemic stroke, including cell replacement, neuroprotection, modulation of inflammatory and immune responses, and stimulation of angiogenesis, synaptogenesis and endogenous neurogenesis .iPSC-derived NSCs (iNSCs), including iPSCs generated by an episomal plasmid-based reprogramming technique, can differentiate into the three major neural lineages, namely neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes . The micVascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) expression was detected in astrocytes and in the blood vessel wall of the damaged brain. The immune reactivity of VEGF was upregulated as early as 1 week after transplantation. Although the reactivity was relatively weak at 8 weeks after transplantation in aged rats, the result suggested that VEGF secretion has a certain effect on plasticity and inflammation in early recovery . Direct in vivo but also grew axons and extended to the cerebral ischemic area of the mice. iPSCs promoted synapse formation between host neurons, as demonstrated by fluorogold and synaptophysin staining of the host brain, and regulated the activity of transplanted neurons  or optochemogenetic stimulation of iPSC-NPCs may be an effective strategy to enhance endogenous neurovascular regeneration and functional recovery after ischemic stroke . A studyThe explosion of research on stem cell therapy and its characteristics has ushered in a new era for the treatment of ischemic stroke. At the same time, iPSC technology has also become increasingly mature for the treatment of ischemic stroke, achieving considerable results in preclinical models, thereby bypassing the ethical and immune rejection concerns related to the use of ESCs. At present, iPSCs are considered a promising tool for clinical treatment, and are expected to be practically applicable in the near future. To realize this therapy, we should strive to overcome the remaining obstacles, and conduct wider and more in-depth clinical trials. Importantly, a consensus is required for optimizing the methods for cultivation and differentiation of iPSCs. In addition, different iPSC lines may vary in their ability to differentiate into different cell lines, a process that warrants further attention. The development and evaluation of various strategies may offer a promising solution to overcome the tumorigenicity and low efficiency of iPSC induction. Appropriate transplantation methods can improve the survival rate of transplanted cells and further strengthen the therapeutic effect. When choosing transplantation methods, in addition to determining the transplantation time and route, it would be necessary to determine the differentiation state, transplantation administration, dose, and auxiliary status before transplantation.In summary, with rapid progress and improvement in the technology of iPSCs, and gaining better understanding of the reprogramming and therapeutic mechanisms, the ultimate goal of providing iPSCs safely and with relatively high efficiency to patients with ischemic stroke may become a reality in near future.RD, YG, and RH searched for relevant literature and drafted the manuscript together. LJ and YL searched for relevant literature. YY and ZG revised the manuscript critically. TL and CZ were involved in preparing the figures and tables. LL and YJ provided professional guidance for this review and performed a final check of the manuscript. All authors contributed to the review of this manuscript and approved the submitted version.The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.


Vigna unguiculata (L) Walp) is a multi-purpose legume. It consists of high-quality protein for human consumption, and it is rich in protein for livestock fodder. It enriches the soil in that it recycles nutrients through the fixation of nitrogen in association with nodulating bacteria. However, the productivity of this multi-functional, indigenous legume that is of great value to African smallholder farmers and the rural populace, and also to urban consumers and entrepreneurs, is limited. Because cowpea is of strategic importance in Africa, there is a need to improve on its productivity. Such endeavors in Africa are wrought with challenges that include drought, salinity, the excessive demand among farmers for synthetic chemicals, the repercussions of climate change, declining soil nutrients, microbial infestations, pest issues, and so forth. Nevertheless, giant strides have already been made and there have already been improvements in adopting sustainable and smart biotechnological approaches that are favorably influencing the production costs of cowpea and its availability. As such, the prospects for a leap in cowpea productivity in Africa and in the enhancement of its genetic gain are good. Potential and viable means for overcoming some of the above-mentioned production constraints would be to focus on the key cowpea producer nations in Africa and to encourage them to embrace biotechnological techniques in an integrated approach to enhance for sustainable productivity. This review highlights the spectrum of constraints that limit the cowpea yield, but looks ahead of the constraints and seeks a way forward to improve cowpea productivity in Africa. More importantly, this review investigates applications and insights concerning mechanisms of action for implementing eco-friendly biotechnological techniques, such as the deployment of bio inoculants, applying climate-smart agricultural (CSA) practices, agricultural conservation techniques, and multi-omics smart technology in the spheres of genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics, for improving cowpea yields and productivity to achieve sustainable agro-ecosystems, and ensuring their stability.Providing safe and secure food for an increasing number of people globally is challenging. Coping with such a human population by merely applying the conventional agricultural production system has not proved to be agro-ecologically friendly; nor is it sustainable. Cowpea ( With the world population expected to increase by up to 70% by 2050, the global community is faced with the constraint of providing safe and secure food supplies to an increasing number of people. The human population is projected to reach the 9.8 billion mark by 2030, bringing immense challenges in feeding the global populace . This wiVigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.] is an annual leguminous crop that is grown throughout the world, but it is grown mainly in semiarid regions. Cowpea is a diploid, having 2n=2x=22, with the size of its genome consisting of approximately 620 million base pairs  analysis]. In addition, mutation breeding, tissue culture, reverse genetics, clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) technologies are being apply for genetic gain in cowpea. In spite of this progress, major efforts are still needed for cowpea productivity improvement because cowpea plant is a diploid with a very narrow genetic makeup and also, it reproduces through means of self-pollination. Therefore, to overcome this gap, innovative research efforts that transverse different continents are still required toward breeding cowpea for enhanced productivity. For Africa to leverage its position as the foremost producer of this vital indigenous legume, the continent must look ahead at ways of improving productivity by closing the gaps in yield and by limiting the constraints to cowpea productivity in an agro-ecologically sustainable way. Therefore, this review highlights the constraints of cowpea production in Africa, and also gives an overview into the way these challenges can be circumvented through the deployment of smart biotechnological techniques/applications and insights concerning mechanisms of action for implementing eco-friendly biotechnological techniques, such as the deployment of bio inoculants, applying climate-smart agricultural (CSA) practices, agricultural conservation techniques, and multi-omics smart technology in the spheres of genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics, for improving cowpea yields and productivity to achieve sustainable agro-ecosystems, and ensuring their stability.The production of cowpea in Africa, the epicenter of this foremost indigenous legume, is carried out mainly by subsistence farmers. The production output of these smallholder farmers is limited by diverse constraints that lead to low agronomic yields/productivity. The average yield of cowpea in Africa is about 600kg/ha, which is still below its estimated optimum potential yield of 1,500–2,500kg/ha . NumerouDrought is a major challenge/constraint to achieving worldwide food security and production enhancement. Drought adversely affects plant growth at all developmental stages, impairing the morphology of the plant and the biochemical and physiological processes operating in the planted crops. These aspects subsequently affects, among others, the uptake of vital nutrients for plant growth and the ability of the seeds to germinate and of the plant to photosynthesize . DroughtDrought stress can adversely affect the functioning of vital enzymes. Among other influences, the flowering stage of the plant could be negatively affected, as also the photosynthetic rate and the assimilate partitioning process. All these conditions eventually reduce the planted crop yields .Drought also impairs the proper functioning of the plant cell by producing oxidative damaging reactive species (ROS), which destroy plant lipids and proteins . DroughtNumerous studies have been done and are also on-going due to the enormity of drought stress challenges on cowpea productivity enhancement. In a study by VuHsp17.7 and VuCPRD14.More so, in a comprehensive study of drought tolerance response in cowpea plant  used fouSoil salinity is a major abiotic constraint to plant productivity. Salinity adversely impacts the metabolic and physiological processes in plants. Statistical report stipulated that upward of over 45 million hectares of agricultural soil are affected by this problem and that climatic change, as well as current irrigation practices, will exacerbate this situation .In addition, salinity stress negatively influences the rate of plant growth. The adverse influence of salinity reduces the fresh and dry weight of plants, while other vegetative growth traits are also adversely impacted .Salinity stress leads to extensive damage in the adductive capacity of planted crops. It reduces lipid peroxidation and leads to the production of destructive oxidation species (ROS), that in turn causes damage to the key plant biomolecules .Salinity stress ultimately reduces yields and the productivity of planted cowpea crops, thereby affecting the goal of achieving enhanced global food security .Research into the impact of salinity on cowpea has indicated that it impairs cowpea seed germination, its vigor, and growth .In order to evaluate salinity stress impact on cowpea cultivars , investivia the food chain  is also impaired. Plants are adversely affected by heavy metals, as in the case of various physiological and biochemical processes such as the rate of photosynthesis, the uptake of nutrients, vital enzymatic reactions, as well as in the case of emergence of ROS .2+ ATPase activity was assessed. The results indicated toxic impact of this heavy metal on cowpea seedling agronomic and biochemical parameters.Research reported by 2 to reduced oxidative stress and bioaccumulation of Cd in cowpea, it was reported that the total chlorophyll of the cowpea plant, as well as different reactive oxygen species enzymes were impacted negatively due to Cd induced toxicity.Also, in a study by As an abiotic stress factor, temperature in the case of low temperatures (chill stress) and high temperatures (heating stress) is a potential constraint in limiting the productivity and yield of planted crops globally. Temperature is a key abiotic parameter that influences the growth and development of plants .High temperatures limit the photosynthetic rate of the plant. The vegetative growth parameters and the metabolic activities of the plant are also adversely affected. Also, emergence, maturity/ripening, harvesting time (length of period/stage), and plant yield are affected . LikewisIn a study on the impact of elevated temperature on the agronomic growth parameters and the nutritional status of cowpea at different growth phase,  reportedWaterlogging stress affects the gaseous exchange in agricultural soil and negatively impacts crop productivity globally. It leads to an insufficient supply of oxygen to the plant roots and this in turn reduces the growth and development of the plant roots. It also leads to the inability of the plant to take up the necessary nutrients and nitrogen. Waterlogging affects the photosynthetic rate, reduces the vegetative agronomic growth rate of plants, leads to the senescence of leaves, and ultimately, negatively affects crop yield and productivity .Higher or excessive soil water availability do not always favor cowpea growth. In a field study done in the Sudan Savanna zone taking genotype environment interaction into focus,  reportedClimatic changes in weather, as denoted by among others variability or fluctuations in the prevailing temperatures, rainfall, and the volume of greenhouse gases, are potentially limiting factors on various agro-input variables and ultimately affect the productivity of planted crops on a global scale .Climatic changes also adversely threaten the agri-food system at all scales: globally, nationally, regionally, and locally .Climatic change negatively impacts agri-food input and output production systems because it influences the biotic and abiotic parameters of agricultural production. Hence, it affects planted crop yields .2, and a reduction in enzyme reactions; flowering may be affected, which could also lead to senescence  in large numbers lead to low productivity and low-quality agricultural products. Destructive pests and pathogens result in food insecurity on every scale – from the smallest to the largest thus leading to massive monetary losses on a global scale in terms of crop yield .The main production constraints concerning biotic stress factors limiting cowpea productivity are exemplified by a wide range of organisms, including destructive pests; parasitic weeds, viral pathogens, bacterial pathogens, as well as fungal pathogens .via the seed  to serve as an alternative to synthetic chemicalsThe sustainable deployment of biological antagonists in the form of biopesticides to tackle pests in the field and during the post-harvest storage stageThe deployment of CSA practices as an adaptive technology option to mitigate the effects of climate change on the vulnerabilities of crop productionThe deployment of smart and advanced biotechnological applications, such as metabolomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and genomic-breeding tools for the improvement of cowpea varieties, which would possess the desired traits, such as drought tolerance, favorable salinity stress-tolerant levels, high yields, resistance to high temperatures and thermotolerance, resistance to disease, and a high potential for nodulation.The application of conservation practices in agricultureHowever, there are also multiple smart, and sustainable agro-biotechnological techniques that could be deployed in a sustainable manner to achieve improvements in cowpea productivity and production outputs. Elements of this technology, which is geared towards maximizing eco-friendliness and guaranteeing an improvement in safer agro-biotechnological productivity, are briefly listed, and their associated mechanisms of action are also explained.Microbial-based formulations have proved to be an effective alternative to the use of synthetic agrochemicals in crop production. These natural, eco-friendly and sustainable bioformulants are categorized as biopesticides, biostimulants, and biofertilizers.To minimize crop losses and improve productivity, natural microbial-based formulations have been successfully deployed in agro-ecological crop production. The salient features of these resources are that they are cheaper, renewable, easy to handle, and more importantly, safe for human beings and the living environment .To meet up with the challenge of feeding the rapidly increasing global population, there is a need to increase crop productivity. One popular means of solving the problem of global food insecurity is by boosting agricultural outputs/productivity through the application of synthetic agro-fertilizers.Conventionally, synthetic agrochemicals are applied as inputs to intensify agricultural production systems. Various fertilizers, fungicides, herbicides, and pesticides are thus used in large-scale crop production systems. Initially, the advent of the chemical fertilizer was widely accepted because it helps to increase agricultural productivity and to solve global food consumption issues . HoweverTherefore, the increasing concern of consumers and governments for food safety issues, has led stakeholders to explore newer ecologically and environmentally-friendly methods to replace or supplement the current chemical-based practices in agriculture. In fact, the use of bio-pesticides, bio-herbicides, and bio-insecticides has emerged as a promising alternative to chemical pesticidal products .Also,  reportedHowever, the search for environmentally and agro-ecologically sustainable alternatives to these synthetic agrochemicals has led to the deployment of quite an array of diverse forms of microorganisms being applied to function as biofertilizers, biostimulants, biopesticides, and plant growth promoters. Hence, they are being used to enhance a diversity of crop growth in numerous countries around the world, especially in the developing and emerging world .Different groups of microorganisms constitute different types of association with different host plants in the form of endophytic, epiphytic, and rhizospheric associations . Thus, bDiverse terminologies have been used to qualify these metabolically and physiologically important microbial forms. They are known under terms such as biocontrol agents (BCAs), and are referred to as agriculturally beneficial microorganisms, e.g., arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMFs), which are sometimes referred to as, among others, plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria, plant growth-promoting fungi (PGPFs), and plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPBs). A lot of research in the field of applying microbial inoculants to different planted crops has been conducted by scientists and is still ongoing . These bTo solve the problem of food safety and the increasing concerns in respect of the environment in an eco-friendly manner, the use of biofertilizers, biopesticides, and biostimulants is gaining the necessary attention in the agricultural sector . Based oMore importantly, with the advent of next generation sequencing technological availability and cheaper cost, research efforts in the field of metagenomics, metabolomics, proteomics, transcriptomics and genomics have revolutionize the prospects of applying plant growth-promoting microbiota as bioinoculants that are deployed as biofertilizer, biopesticides and biostimulants for the improvement of planted crops. With the advent of these advanced biotechnological techniques, researchers have elucidated studies on the root microbiome as the hidden treasure that possesses immense potential to revolutionize the strategies for improving plant growth, as well as abating biotic and abiotic constraints in plants .These root-associated microbiomes are known as prolific producers of phytohormones, mainly auxins, cytokinin, and ethylene as well as enzymes like the 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate deaminase (ACC deaminase) and exopolysaccharides that help plants in inducing systemic resistance to both biotic and abiotic stressors. Newer and effective techniques have been deployed in isolating and characterizing root associated microbiome, and applying them as bioinoculants in improving the growth and development of planted crops .The root microbiome consists of an enormous number of beneficial microbes such as plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPRs), fungal and bacterial endophytes and mycorrhizal fungi .Metabolites that are secreted by this microbiota are associated with marked influences on plant growth promotion, response and mitigation to biotic and abiotic stressors. These bioactive metabolites include ACC deaminase, gibberellic acid (GAs), indole acetic acid (IAA), exopolysaccharides, melatonin, volatiles, and cytokinins .It is anticipated that root exudates influence the rhizospheric microbial community and that analysis of the root microbiome signifies ecosystem functioning . TherefoPlant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) strains are able to produce IAA, solubilize phosphate, induce ACC deaminase, and chelate iron by producing siderophore. Therefore, their application is an effective means of alleviating stress in planted crops . The PGPSorghum bicolor that was primed with PGPR isolates (Bacillus and Pseudomonas) and exposed to drought stress, induced systemic tolerance in the plants  emissions and the ultimate disruption of the agro-ecological balance . To meetAccording to Other CSA mitigation practices include low-input sustainable agriculture (LISA) practices, which focus on safe farming and that incorporate local knowledge of the farming system, and in so doing, produce abundant, nutritious, profitable food products without causing negative effects to both the natural agro-ecosystem and human health . AccordiAlso, simulation model studies are vital tools that can be used to conduct studies of different agro-ecological regions in order to implement sustainable agricultural measures, to achieve effective and maximum production levels . OrganicImportantly,  used theIn this modern era, where there is a notion of smart biotechnological techniques that can turn around the immense challenges of optimizing agricultural system outputs productivity, the multi-omics biotechnological tools are usually the game-changer. These multifaceted biotechnological techniques encompassing genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics offer great prospects for improving crop protection, crop yields/productivity, and for ensuring nutritional food sources that are safe and secured for human consumption.Through the application of the techniques of genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics and metabolomics, plant breeding has improved, and biotic and abiotic stress-resistant and resilient crop cultivars have been developed, thus leading to the production of better-quality crops.Multi-omics biotechnological tools encompass a knowledge of analytical chemistry, computational biology, and bioinformatics analysis, as well as other thematic areas of biology, to facilitate a systematic approach to research studies, which would then lead to crop production and productivity enhancement.Metabolites, proteins, and genes are specific components that are targeted and researched to improve crop cultivars and to better understand their growth characteristics.These smart biotechnological techniques are advanced, concise, precise, and valuable tools that can be specifically targeted for improving crops. In fact, they are vital tools for sparking the latest green revolution in agricultural productivity. They can be used to introduce genes, proteins, or metabolites of interest with good traits to improve and intensify the productivity of planted crops. Thus, fewer agro-resource inputs would then be necessary in agricultural systems to attain better agro-product outputs.Multi-omics biotechnological tools can be deployed to reveal key information on (plants and microbes). Furthermore, these tools could be applied to orchestrate metabolic and physiological changes, and also in genetic engineering for crop improvement . Multi-oThe multi-omics biotechnological tools, namely genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics, are inter-woven techniques, that are closely linked and that can be applied to overcome the daunting challenges of feeding the burgeoning global population in this era of climatic vulnerabilities. They can also be deployed to consolidate the foremost producer status of the African continent in that they are able to enhance cowpea productivity and production.Genomics is the foremost pioneer omics that is presented as an advanced biotechnological technique and that uses genes and the genome transformation of plants and microbes for molecular breeding in order to establish improved crop cultivars. Genomics techniques are fast and precise, and can be selectively used to highlight the functional genes of desired traits for the improvement of a plant. Specifically, genomics techniques can be applied in the modification of genes in that they add genes to a plant, or by using RNAi, they knock down genes from a plant, in so doing, accomplish phenotypic traits of interest faster than the conventional plant-breeding method does. In the quest to enhance cowpea productivity, genomics-based smart biotechnology techniques have been deployed to breed improved cowpea cultivars. In such cases, the focus is on looking at the whole genome in terms of genotypic diversity and fingerprinting for cultivar improvement traits .Molecular-based approach has been deployed towards improving cowpea cultivars using molecular markers and genomic-breeding techniques. An authenticated cowpea genetic resource is the foundation for efficient breeding and conservation. Genotypic diversity assessment is done by using both phenotypic and molecular traits characterization.Research efforts at genetic breeding of cowpea cultivars using these DNA markers have been investigated by SNPs are the preferred markers in genotypic assessment studies due to their wide distribution in the genome and they are highly efficient .Following advancement in plants genome resources, molecular markers are now widely deployed in genetic variability assessment, molecular breeding, and DNA fingerprinting .Among the genomic-breeding research effort, the Illumina Cowpea iSelect Consortium Array  was an iThis array contained 51,128 SNPs derived from whole genome sequences (WGS) of 37 diverse cowpea accessions. Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNPs) is distributed uniformly in cowpea genome and indicates variation in genes of cowpea. Thus, they provide an ideal resource for cowpea molecular breeding and new variety protection. SNPs are vital genomics techniques for assessment of key traits in cowpea like constructing genomic linkage map, for QTL, for the detection as well as assessing germplasm genetic diversity .Also, the majority of the international institute of tropical agriculture (IITA) minicore collection (298 accessions) was genotyped using genotypic base sequencing (GBS) with 2,276 SNPs, this identified three major subpopulations , but shoAnother giant stride in the progress of cowpea genomics study was achieved by using next generation sequencing advancement  to autheBuilding on this developments and report of full SNP data release for the UCR Minicore, numerous follow up studies has been investigated for more focus cowpea research, that include studies on pattern of seed coat , color oWith better comprehension of genomic basis of variation, genome-wide association studies (GWAS) studies have been highlighted in cowpea for pod length , root arTranscriptomics is a vital biotechnological technique that makes for a comprehensive understanding of genomics functionality . TranscrWith the advancement of functional genomics, the identification of novel genes having vital functions in plant growth/development and adaptation to stressful conditions have been characterized for crop cultivars . Also, RTranscriptomics as a part of multi-omics biotechnological techniques have led to the detection of novel genes useful in response to both biotic and abiotic stresses in plants.Transcriptomics approaches utilizes high-throughput sequencing platforms to generate enormous useful transcript data through techniques such as RNA sequencing, microarray and serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE) to elucidate non-coding and coding RNAs expression profiles to plant biotic and abiotic stresses .Several factors like the duration and extent of stress conditions, determines the adaptability and tolerance of a plant to stresses. However, experimental design, handling of tissue samples, isolation of RNA and stability of RNA also play major role in any transcriptomic analysis .The characterization of different parts of the cowpea plant through transcriptomics has been carried out in studies that express the diverse genes essential for cowpea growth and development. The stress-resilient genes have also been characterized and their role in the overall improvement of cowpea has also been highlighted .Proteins are a vital constituent of plants. Large quantities of protein are responsible for the key functional roles that plants perform. As a smart biotechnological technique, proteomics entails the expression of functional characteristics, structural features, and the translation/manifestation of beneficial traits in plants. Another important attribute of the proteomics technique is that it can be used to better elucidate a pesticide’s mode of action, its mechanisms, and its biodegradation. The outputs/benefits that can be derived by applying proteomics include the authenticity of the food product, the assurance of food security that it represents and the sustainability of energy that the food product offers to consumer, as well as the maintenance of an environmental balance .Proteomics as a key branch of “omics” technology aims at investigating protein’s structure, function, as well as their interactions with other proteins and other components, including the modifications arising from these interactions through the use of analytical techniques.Proteomics approach involves analysis and the elucidation of functional expression of proteins in order to understand biological processes .Proteins are vital components of all biological process. To fully comprehend the response of plants to biotic and abiotic stresses, proteomics studies must be assessed, along with other multi-omics technology . ChangesProteomics studies are assessed using spectroscopic method usually by mass spectroscopy (MS)-based technology. This is done by MALDI-TOF MS or with liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LC–MS) techniques. Proteomics studies have led to the characterization of different stress response proteins in planted crops under stress conditions .Metabolomics is an advanced and powerful smart biotechnique that identifies functionally active metabolites, their roles, and the diverse biochemical processes that the metabolites play in plant genotypes and phenotypic expressions . MetabolIn a study on drought response of three cowpea landraces using leaf physiological and metabolites profiling assessment, , used gaV. unguiculata sprouts by V. unguiculata.Also, in a study on metabolites (polyphenols and carotenoids) in Metabolomics as a powerful omics-based approach can be applied as a tool to explore different aspects in plant breeding, the regulatory mechanisms related to plant growth and development (including those related to crop productivity and performance), adaptation to biotic and abiotic stresses, nutritional improvement, and selection of cultivars for agriculture. Metabolomes are simply metabolites (both secondary and primary) having low molecular weight , including their precursors and intermediates of the corresponding biosynthetic pathways. Such compounds are considered the end products of gene expression and protein activity, modulating processes between the genome and environment and indicating the functional status of the organism. Moreover, they are an indispensable part of the plant metabolism, influencing all biological processes, such as plant biomass and architecture, and those involved in plant defense or adaptation to biotic and abiotic stresses .In a comprehensive study on cowpea osmoregulation response under drought stress,  investigIn a study aimed at identifying metabolic responses and key factors associated with Mn tolerance using Mn-tolerant and Mn-sensitive genotypic cultivars;  reportedAgricultural conservation practices are simple and cost-effective techniques for achieving sustainable productivity enhancement in planted crops. This technique is based on the use of a limited number of natural resources as inputs. Crop rotation, mixed farming methods, intercropping, the manual tillage of the soil, and the use of crop residues to reduce soil moisture loss through mulching are some of the methods employed. These simple, cost-effective techniques, using a limited number of resources as inputs, ultimately lead to crop productivity enhancement.However, in order to effectively enhance crop productivity, it is necessary to find effective ways of adapting to climate change and the vulnerability it imposes on crops and farmers. The objective should always be to mitigate the adverse impacts of climate change on the environment .Conservation agriculture improves the quality of the soil – biologically, physically, and chemically, and thus ultimately makes an impact on the crop production outputs, with both positive and sustainable effects . In addiConservation agriculture is increasingly being promoted as an adaptive climate-smart agricultural technique that can minimize the adverse effects of synthetic agrochemical usage in agricultural systems that generally lead to poor and depleted soil fertility .As an agroecological system tool, conservation agriculture can lead to enhanced crop productivity, the diminished use of agro-resource inputs, environmental sustainability, and advance the income generation potential of farmers .Conservation agriculture helps in enhancing soil fertility and in reducing the cost of the associated inputs. The application of conservation practices improves soil water conservation and soil moisture, minimizes runoff, reduces moisture losses through evaporation, boosts the biological properties of the soil, and enhances crop productivity .Conservation agriculture provides agronomic growth benefits and enhances soil health.The sustainability of the environment and the soil and the sociological benefits of the agricultural production system are enshrined.Conservation agriculture can lead to enhanced economic benefits and also improve efficiency in the agricultural sphere.The beneficial effects of conservation agriculture on crop productivity can be classified into three main categories:In a nutshell, conservation agricultural practices enhance the quality of planted crops, improve the fertility of the soil, and ultimately provide both socioeconomic and environmental benefits in a sustainable manner .The applications of bio-based, renewable, agro-ecologically balanced, and advanced smart biotechnological techniques in achieving improvements in the productivity of cowpea and a few selected crops of economic importance are presented in Owing to the application of smart biotechnological techniques, diverse physiological and metabolic modes of activities are involved in improving the productivity outputs of cowpea. This can be achieved through direct and indirect modes of action such as those involved in, among others, directly supplying nutrients to plants, suppressing phytopathogens through the production of plant growth effectors, regulating the hormonal balance of plants, triggering various immune responses, and through the secretion of vital proteins . An overYes! Daunting and herculean are the constraints that almost all African nations face in terms of improving their crop yields and productivity in the light of the current global challenges. These are aggravated by the global pandemic, climatic change, and a burgeoning population growth rate. However, a concerted effort directed at achieving the sustainable development goals of reducing poverty and eliminating hunger and malnutrition is what is called for. The first priority is to strive for an improvement in the agricultural system. The use of agro-ecologically balanced improvement techniques remains the surest way to achieve this. The constraints of low yields and the limited productivity of the cowpea, a valuable indigenous African legume at the forefront on the continent in terms of its potential as a food product, were highlighted in this review. The prospect of circumventing and overcoming these constraints is in fact a very real possibility. An essential requirement would be the use of viable tools. These would include the deployment of sustainable, ecosystem-friendly smart biotechnological tools: the application of bioinoculants, climate-smart agricultural practices, agricultural conservation techniques, as well as advanced multi-omics biotechnological tools for the improvement in cowpea yields and productivity enhancement. However, there are research gaps that still need to be worked upon to ensure success. Several collaborative efforts should be directed at building the capacity of plant breeders, agronomists, biotechnologists, and other allied stakeholders in the agri-food value chain in Africa to embrace these sustainable biotechnological techniques. Further research efforts should be directed at attaining specific functional traits in cowpea plants, in order to develop locality adaptive and climate-specific traits – the latter in response to climatic vulnerabilities and other external stressors – all for the benefit of the planted cowpea crop. Furthermore, efforts should also be directed at exploring an integrative and holistic approach to systematic biology that would combine systemic knowledge in the field of multi-omics biotechniques, genetic engineering tools, precision agricultural practices, techniques in genome editing technology (CRISPR/Cas), synthetic biology, bio-computational technology, as well as the emerging field of agro-nanobiotechnology for the improvement of the cowpea crop. The use of a synthetic microbial consortium, (SYNCOMs) should be deployed to the field to vigorously phenotype cowpea cultivars that are trait-specific and can be grown as a crop adapted to a niche environment, and favored by most cowpea producing marginal communities in Africa .There is, however, a need to integrate socioeconomic policy into this sound biotechnological know-how system in order, to reach a balance, as well as a guaranteed and steady flow of the necessary financial support for the associated research efforts. Attention should also be directed to developing a policy of backward integration to achieve positive and sustainable results in the context of improving and enhancing the productivity and yields of cowpea, a key leguminous crop that is considered to be of great importance in Africa.OOB conceptualized the topic. OIO conducted the literature search and undertook the drafting and writing of the manuscript, while the final editing was carried out by OOB. The authors made substantial intellectual contributions to the work and agree to be accountable for the content of the work.This work was supported by a grant from the National Research Foundation of South Africa (grant ref: UID123634 and UID132595 OOB).The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.