We studied the impact of infrastructure networks on relict floodplain forest along three stretches of the Upper Rhine  and the Inn-Danube , each on the border between two countries. We analysed land use patterns within a 500 m wide buffer area along the main channel using photo-interpretation and compared the situations between the 1950s, 1980’s and 2010’s. Temporal changes were assessed with transition matrices and selected spatial metrics, including fragmentation indices. Over this period, forest area remained similar at three sites, increased slightly at two sites and decreased at one site. However, on average, 12.5% of floodplain forest had changed location (range: 7.3% (Engelhartszell-Jochenstein)– 26.5% (Kembs-Efringen-Kirchen)). The natural development of unmanaged areas and agricultural abandonment after World War II has led to the emergence of young riparian forests along rivers. In the Upper Rhine region, the results showed asymmetry in these two factors, with unmanaged natural areas most important on the French side and agricultural abandonment on the German side. Along the Inn-Danube, agricultural abandonment has led to an increase or stagnation of floodplain forest areas. In most cases, development of transport infrastructure between the 1950s and 2010s has caused fragmentation of the forest area, reducing the relict forest to a patchy green corridor with reduced functionality and interfacing. To go further and improve the management of these relict forests, we have to investigate the interdependency between practices related to infrastructure operation and the role that biodiversity plays for stakeholders. The alluvial plains of large European rivers have been heavily modified throughout the last two centuries to meet different human uses, including transport, hydropower generation, industrial production and housing. River channelization applied in the mid- and late-nineteenth century has resulted in profound landscape transformation, with multi-channel river ecosystems reduced to single-thread channel configurations. This major change has led to modifications in land use at the expense of the riparian forest that naturally surrounded large rivers and provided a smooth transition between the aquatic environment and adjacent terrestrial ecosystems –4. In maFrom the end of the Second World War (1945), regional development in floodplains encouraged the movement of people and goods within economically dynamic areas along large rivers such as the Rhine. While developments during this period are important for explaining the current situation, few studies have evaluated recent changes in large river floodplain forests, particularly in the face of developing infrastructure networks. A singular socio-ecosystem case relates to river stretches that constitute the border between two countries, where management and development may differ on each side of the river. Nowadays, the interdependency between infrastructures operation and usage and the relict alluvial forests need to be investigated in order to improve the conservation of these patrimonial areas of high biodiversity.Here, we examine temporal changes in relict floodplain forests along the Upper Rhine River and the Danube, focussing on two reaches representing the borders between (1) France and Germany (Rhine) and (2) Austria and Germany . The Rhine and Danube are the largest rivers in Western and Central Europe, and both are characterized by warm-season high waters that create favourable conditions for vegetation and important seasonal variations in discharge that result in bed instability . These tOur study was based on three sites along the Upper Rhine and three sites along the Inn-Danube rivers  using daThe sites on the Upper Rhine were situated around Kembs , Strasbourg-Kehl (kp 289) and Iffezheim (kp 334). The Kembs-Efringen-Kirchen site is located along the upper stretch of the Upper Rhine study area  and was The three sites on the Inn/Danube system are located at Mullheim-Obernberg, Passau-Ingling and Engelhartszell-Jochenstein, all within a radius of 30 km around the 2225 rkm (river kilometric from the mouth of the river)  and are All six sites comprised a 500 metre wide buffer strip of land lateral to the main channel of the river, defined from the most recent aerial photographs , our aimEvolution of land use was assessed by photo-interpretation using the ArcGIS software at three dates: 1950s, 1980s, 2010s . To achith; however, it was sometimes necessary to use a different scale when assessing the oldest photographs in order to distinguish the different types of land use. Fifteen classes were used to define land-use classes  ResiWe analysed land use and the expansion of infrastructure networks for each period and site by aerial photography analysis in land use over time with transition matrices and spatial metrics to describe the importance of the infrastructure networks . To analA large number of spatial metrics were used to describe land use changes over time related to, each date; land area, floodplain forest or agricultural area; the linear density of communication channels (km of roads per km of river line); and landscape fragmentation (i.e. the perimeter-area ratio and the number of patches). Calculation of a multiplier coefficient (Cm), a ratio between the most recent date from 2010 and the earliest date considered (1950s), made it possible to quantify the evolution of a metric over the study period. A value of 1 indicated no change, a value <1 indicated a decrease and a value >1 an increase.Overall, floodplain forest (mixed and tree vegetation) ranged between 9.3 and 55.3%, and agricultural land between 3.1 to 40.7% . The BeiThree sites  showed distinct changes over the study period related to the spread of urban, industrial and harbour zone areas. The two downstream Rhine sites  in particular show marked changes due to the installation of hydraulic and hydroelectric installations . On the Major differences were observed in transition matrices for each bank at each site . As in tWhile forest area has remained relatively stable over time at the Strasbourg-Kehl, Mulheim-Obernberg and Engelhartszell-Jochenstein sites, it has increased at the Kembs-Efringen-Kirchen and Passau-Ingling sites . As suchHabitat fragmentation was evaluated using two separate metrics, patch number and the ratio of perimeter to surface area  and Engelhartszell-Jochenstein (Inn-Danube), based on both patch number and the P/A ratio for forest patches . At StraChanges in land use and the expansion of infrastructure networks have had a clear influence on the relict floodplain forest along the six river stretches studied on the Rhine and Danube/Inn rivers. Through the use of transition matrices, it was possible to highlight transitions between land use types between the 1950s and 2010s. One striking result of this study was that the overall  surface area of relict floodplain forest at these sites has not decreased since the 1950s ; indeed, at two of the study sites, the forest surface area has actually increased. All of the study sites, however, represented border zones between two countries and there was potential for differences based on national management regimes. Along the Upper Rhine, for example, many of the habitat changes on the French side were the result of natural evolution of unmanaged areas, while agricultural abandonment was the main factor on the German side. Field inventories should make it possible to know how the plant communities of these environments with different heritages have evolved. Along the Inn/Danube region, on the other hand, the increase or stagnation of floodplain forest areas was clearly attributable to agricultural abandonment on both sides of the river.While the global forest area had not decreased, or had remained roughly of the same order of magnitude , we obseIn most cases, the fragmentation caused by development of transport infrastructure has produced a patchy green corridor whose functionality and interfaces deserve further study if there are to be improvements. Functions of the floodplain forest include support services such as breeding areas, migration corridors, but also ecological processes such as a reduced soil erosion or the improvement of water quality . While tOne way to compensate against the need for large roads related to economic development is to build them at locations where small roads already exist . Though While our results were congruent for most of the sites investigated, two things must be kept in mind: 1) while our study period was relatively recent, profound changes also took place at the sites prior to the 1940s, and 2) the spatial buffer implemented along our river sites was consistent with land use today; however, the natural floodplain was very much larger in the past . The spaWithout river flooding, the only option for maintaining relict floodplain forest in these areas is to ensure spatial planning that fulfils multiple ecosystem services , 22. RipThis work is an international and multi-disciplinary study exploring the interactions between the relict floodplain forest and land use. It assesses the influence of land use changes and expansion of infrastructure networks on the relict floodplain forest along the Upper Rhine and the Danube, the oldest and most important trade routes in Europe. Over the past 200 yrs., these fluvial stretches have been strongly shaped by structural modifications such as channelization, hydropower plants, locks, railway crossings and roads. One striking result of the study was that, though we observed major land use changes on a local scale, global forest area had not decreased but remained roughly of the same order of magnitude over the years. Parts of the 1950s forest had been transformed into other habitat types, but this was counterbalanced by the conversion of other habitats into forest, either by natural development of pioneer habitats or through the effects of agricultural abandonment. However, both ecological changes and changes in the linear infrastructure network  between the 1950s and 2010s have led to an increased forest area fragmentation. Without river flooding, the only option for maintaining relict floodplain forest in these areas is to ensure spatial planning that fulfils multiple ecosystem services. Our study provides a method for obtaining indicators reflecting changes in land use over time that allow the implementation of rational management in these relict floodplain forests at an international level. Now, we would explore more accurately the fragmentation and new borders caused by development of transport infrastructure. It has produced a patchy green corridor whose state of conservation should be verified in the field. The future of this relict floodplain forest will be also characterized depending on the evolution of uses in accordance with a regulation of habitat conservation.S1 TableThe percentages of land use (%) are available for all six sites over time.(XLSX)Click here for additional data file.


Aspergillus sp., a fungus, which can be isolated and grown in the lab would be a potential and continuous source of bioactive natural compounds without affecting the marine environment. The Red Sea is known for its biodiversity and is well-studied in terms of its marine-derived bioactive metabolites. The harsh environmental conditions lead to the development of unique metabolic pathways. This, in turn, results in enhanced synthesis and release of toxic and bioactive chemicals. Interestingly, the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman carry a variety of environmental stresses, some of which are similar to the Red Sea. When compared to the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf has been shown to be rich in marine fungi as well, and is, therefore, expected to contain elaborate and interesting bioactive compounds. Such compounds may or may not be similar to the ones isolated from the Red Sea environment. Astoundingly, there are a very limited number of studies on the bioactive portfolio of marine-derived metabolites from the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman. In this perspective, we are looking at the Red Sea as a comparator marine environment and bioactive materials repertoire to provide a futuristic perspective on the potential of the understudied and possibly overlooked bioactive metabolites derived from the marine life of the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman despite its proven biodiversity and harsher environmental stress.Marine life has provided mankind with unique and extraordinary chemical structures and scaffolds with potent biological activities. Many organisms and secondary metabolites derived from fungi and symbionts are found to be more environmentally friendly to study than the marine corals per se. Marine symbionts such as  Over the past couple of decades, the number of totally synthetic FDA approved drugs is significantly decreasing . Yet, naIn the recent couple of decades, intensive drug discovery research shed the light on the Red Sea marine invertebrates and its bioactive compositions. Several bioactive metabolites with unique chemical scaffolds were isolated, identified and showed promising pharmacological activities from the Red Sea marine life . BiologiHerein we are utilizing the Red Sea as a benchmark marine environment and bioactive materials repertoire to provide a futuristic perspective for the high potential of the understudied and overlooked bioactive metabolites derived from the marine life of the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman despite its rich biodiversity under harsh environmental stress. This review would be of special interest for researcher interested in drug discovery and in particular, those who are interested in marine derived bioactive metabolites.Aspergillus sp.”. Titles and abstracts were screened superficially for potential relevance, and once articles were deemed relevant, their full-texts were extracted and independently reviewed in depth to be considered for inclusion by the authors.The search for all relevant studies published was conducted on PubMed and Google Scholar, with the search terms being “Marine metabolites; Bioactive metabolites; Marine bioactive metabolites; Drug discovery; Secondary metabolites; The Red Sea; The Persian Gulf; The Arabian Gulf; Gulf of Oman; Fauna; Only Scopus-indexed journals were considered up to the year 2000. Eligible study designs included review articles, systematic reviews and meta-analyses. English was the sole publication language considered. Editorials, pre-prints that were not peer-reviewed, case reports, database reports were excluded.2. The maximum depth of the Persian Gulf/Gulf of Oman is approximately 110 m and its photic zone extends between 6 to 15 m. The Iranian shores have steep sloping sections while the Persian shores are sedimentary with a gradual slope. Considering the combination of high latitudinal position, high evaporation rates, relative shallowness, coastline alterations, heavy traffic volume, frequent oil spills, excessive industrial effluents and restricted freshwater flow into the Gulf; the Persian Gulf/Gulf of Oman is subject to extreme environmental conditions. Therefore, marine organisms residing in the Persian Gulf/Gulf of Oman are surviving close to their environmental tolerance limits  crosses through Bab el Mandeb strait annually . It was The Persian Gulf is reported to have the largest oil reserves in the world and subsequently, oil spills and pollution in water constitutes a permanent stress and survival challenge to its marine life. The exploration, production and transportation of oil adds to the pollution in the Persian Gulf. Various sources of oil spills were reported in the Persian Gulf such as oil tanker incidents, offshore oil wells, weathered oil and tar balls, underwater pipelines, oil terminals, illegal ballast water dumping and military activities . The PerIn addition to oil spills, the Persian Gulf is considered a hotspot for receiving intensive industrial effluents with high concentrations of hydrocarbons and heavy metals . The polDue to the environmental stress conditions in marine life, many organisms pull through by releasing secondary metabolites which might be toxic and bioactive at the same time . These bFungi are more environment friendly to study than other marine corals and organisms. They are easily isolated and grown in the lab which makes it safer for the marine environment. The extreme conditions of marine life have caused fungi to become stress-resistant by forming many useful secondary metabolites . These mAspergillus sp., Penicillium sp., Talaromyces sp. and Trichoderma sp.  but yet to be isolated and reported from the Persian Gulf , fumagillin (5) and pseurotin A (6)  . Intereseffects. .Aspergillus niger is a human pathogenic filamentous ascomycete fungi which is known to have a vital economic role in the industrial scale fermentation for the production of citric acid (A. niger is known to produce ochratoxin A (7) and fumonisins (8–13) (ric acid . In addis (8–13) . Fumoniss (8–13) .Aspergillus terreus is an important bio-processor fungus as it is useful in the production of many bioactive metabolites such as, itaconic acid (14) and metatartaric acid (15) lovastatin (16), territrem B (17) and terreulactone (18)  (A. terreus is Terrein (23) (A. terreus isolated secondary metabolites are non-surprisingly very versatile (one (18) . In addilin (19) , ochratolin (19) , citrinilin (19)  (Varga elin (19) . Amongstein (23)  that wasein (23) . Yet, thersatile .Asperigllus versicolour is a marine endophytic fungus that is isolated from the inner tissue of the green alga called Halimeda opuntia found in the Red Sea    which sh  . Yet, St  .The marine environmental stress conditions indue many faunae and symbiont microorganisms to synthesize and release secondary metabolites of unique structure and interesting biological activities. These bioactive compounds can serve as an important source for drug discovery. The Persian Gulf/Gulf of Oman have a significantly harsher environment when compared to the Red Sea due to fluctuating temperatures between summer and winter which leads to high evaporation rates. Moreover, high salinity also contributes to the harsh environment leading microorganisms to live close to their limits of environmental tolerance. The Red Sea marine symbionts derived bioactive metabolites are very well studied while very much untapped in the Persian Gulf/Gulf of Oman. In the current perspective, and due to similar fungal species isolated from both environments, we are expecting interesting and unique secondary metabolites to be found and isolated from the marine life of the Persian Gulf/Gulf of Oman. The authors believe that using the Red Sea as a reference to target similar microorganisms that have elaborated bioactive metabolites is worthwhile. With the extreme environmental conditions in the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman, it is likely that marine research will lead to the isolation and identification of novel metabolites of medicinal value.


Site productivity remains a fundamental concern in forestry as a significant driver of resource availability for tree growth. The site index (SI) reflects the overall impact of all environmental factors that determine tree height growth and is the most commonly used indirect proxy for forest site productivity estimated using stand age and height. The SI concept challenges are local variations in climate, soil, and genotype-environmental interactions that lead to variable height growth patterns among ecoregions and cause inappropriate estimation of site productivity. Developing regional models allow us to determine forest growth and SI more appropriately. This study aimed to develop height growth models for the Scots pine in Poland, considering the natural forest region effect. For height growth modelling, we used the growth trajectory data of 855 sample trees, representing the Scots pine entire range of geographic locations and site conditions in Poland. We compared the development of regional height growth models using nonlinear-fixed-effects (NFE) and nonlinear-mixed-effects (NME) modelling approaches. Our results indicate a slightly better fit to the data of the model built using NFE approach. The results showed significant differences between Scots pine growth in natural forest regions I, II, and III located in northern Poland and natural forest regions IV, V, and VI in southern Poland. We compared the development of regional height growth models using NFE and NME modelling approaches. Our results indicate a slightly better fit to the data of the model built using the NFE approach. The developed models show differences in height growth patterns of Scots pines in Poland and revealed that acknowledgement of region as the independent variable could improve the growth prediction and quality of the SI estimation. Differences in climate and soil conditions that distinguish natural forest regions affect Scots pine height growth patterns. Therefore, extending this research to models that directly describe height growth interactions with site variables, such as climate, soil properties, and topography, can provide valuable forest management information. Appropriate estimation of site productivity is critical for forest management decisions2. Additionally, information on site productivity helps monitor and assess climate change impact on forest ecosystems and provide information to support forest management to take effective adaptation measures3. The site index (SI) reflects the overall impact of all environmental factors that determine tree height growth4 and is the most commonly used indirect proxy for forest site productivity estimated using stand age and height9. An appropriate height growth model is needed to determine the SI accurately.Site productivity remains a fundamental concern in forestry as a significant driver of resource availability11. Species variability caused by sensitivity to environmental factors is the primary reason why a more flexible approach to developing height growth models is recommended to include the impact of local conditions and to accurately reflect height growth variation on a regional scale12.One of the most critical challenges in the SI concept is a local variation of height growth patterns that result from a variety of factors and could cause the under- or over-estimation of the growth potential and productivity of a site11. In a study conducted in Sweden, Johansson13 found significant variation in forest height growth curves due to mineral soil type and geographical location. The effect of genetic variability on the height development of trees was reported by Adams et al.14. Genetic variability has also been identified as the primary factor modifying the trajectory of height growth by Buford and Burkhart15, who found that the height growth models developed for different provenances differed in their parameters describing the asymptote. Significant differences in height growth patterns can also occur for the same species, even within a given SI class16. García17 reported that three sources of height growth development variability could be identified: (a) between sites, (b) within sites, and (c) observation error. Because of the inter-regional variability of growth patterns, regional height growth models (RMs) are derived to improve the model's predictive ability20. Studies on Pinus pinaster in Spain indicated significant differences in growth patterns observed in different areas because of the effect of genotype-environment interaction11. Research describing regional height growth differences highlights the regional application of the SI concept24. The role of regional models may be crucial for sustainable forest management, particularly in solving problems that require accurate information on local growing conditions, where climate and soil type lead to inter-regional variation20.Climate, soil, and genotype-environmental interactions can favour species adaptation to local ecological conditions, causing variable height growth patterns for the same species among ecoregions25. The Scots pine grows under very variable ecological conditions26, which could affect the difference in the shape of the growth curves among ecoregions13. The effective management of such a considerable forest resource requires a thorough assessment of the productivity of stands at a regional level27. Growth modelling is crucial in assessing the consequences of forest management activities in long term planning in forestry28. The use of inappropriate height growth models may result in erroneous estimation of site productivity. This problem could be solved by the development of models, which reflect the difference in growth trajectories resulting from specific growth conditions in a given area. Regional models reflect the impact of regional variability on height growth dynamics resulting from specific climate conditions, soil properties, and differences in local forest management.The Scots pine is one of the most important species in Europe and ranges from the boreal region in Northern and Eastern Europe to the mountains of the Mediterranean in Southeastern Europe Fig. . It is a31. The forestry practice reports the incorrect determination of site productivity and incremented volume using yield tables, probably because of the inadequacy of Schwappach's tables from differences in growth conditions, which have changed considerably during the 100 years since the yield tables were developed. Pretzsch et al.32 estimated that in Central Europe, site productivity increased by approximately 30–70%. Additionally, the height growth of observed stands differs significantly from that observed 100 years ago34 and included in the original tables. Moreover, the tables produce errors by not considering regional growth variability on a countrywide scale.In Poland, yield tables with discrete scales are still used in forest management for forest growth and site productivity estimationThe research adopted the hypothesis that height growth is regionally differentiated. We assumed that height growth patterns are influenced by the variability in site conditions, which can be acknowledged by considering the specific effect of natural forest regions (NFE), distinguished by environmental conditions. Therefore, the research objective was to analyse the variability of height growth patterns between natural forest regions in Poland and develop height growth models for the Scots pine in Poland taking into account the specific effect of the region.The research material consists of the height growth trajectories of 855 dominant and codominant Scots pines Table . The mos37 were adopted as the regionalisation unit in Poland. Natural forest regions were distinguished by the natural diversity of the country, in particular: variability of climatic and geological conditions, naturally occurring ranges of principal forest-forming tree species, presence and distribution of natural landscapes classes, and distribution of the primary units of potential natural vegetation37.Natural forest regions38. The collected growth series for six natural forest regions were used to develop regional height growth models for Scots pine.Stem analysis was used to reconstruct the past height growth of the trees. The trees for stem analysis were selected in the direct neighbourhood of the permanent sample plots established in Scots pine stands. For each plot, tree diameter and height close to the top height (TH)—defined as the average height of the 100 thickest trees per 1 ha—were selected and cut for stem analysis (SA). Only trees with typically developed crowns and no visible damage or growth anomalies were selected for SA. After cutting, the total lengths of the trees were measured, and discs were collected for SA. Discs were taken from the base of the felled tree at the height of 0.5 m, and the breast height diameter (DBH) was measured; for trees over 15 m high, subsequent discs were collected at heights of 2.0, 4.0, and successive 2-m intervals to the top of the tree. For trees shorter than 15 m, subsequent discs were collected at heights of 1.5, 2.5, 3.5, and at 1-m intervals further up the tree. The course of growth of the individual trees was reconstructed based on the height of the discs and the number of annual discs. The growth trajectories of all collected trees were visually examined for suppression and release patterns and growth anomalies. As cross-section lengths do not coincide with periodic height growth, the height-age data from the SA were corrected using Carmean's methodTo develop regional height growth models: nonlinear fixed-effects and nonlinear mixed-effects modelling approaches were used.42. To develop the height growth model using a mixed-effects modelling approach, we tested three functions well known in forest growth modelling: Chapman–Richards, Schumacher and Hossfeld:H is the top height (m), t is an age, and a1-a3 are estimated parameters.The growth series are characterised by a hierarchical structure, which contains information about individual trees and natural forest regions. The mixed-effects modelling approach is a possible solution to handle such data43. Furthermore, given within-tree autocorrelation, the autoregressive correlation structure of order 1—AR(1)44 and autoregressive–moving average models for the within-group errors was analysed using corAR1 and corARMA function from nlme R package respectively41 with RStudio software45.Given the value of the mean absolute error (MAE), adjusted coefficient of determination  developed by Cieszewski and Bailey47 allows the use of multiple site parameters and models characterised by polymorphism and variable asymptotes for different sites. Height growth models should also show equality of the SI and height at base age and use the same function as the height growth and SI models.The algebraic difference approach (ADA) formulated by Bailey and ClutterAfter initial preselection, three ADA models  and two GADA models  were chosen for further analysis , b is a vector for global parameters, Tj is any age, T0 is an initial condition, and εij is the error term. As a result of parameter estimation, an expression containing simulated variables and a site-specific parameter allows the calculation of a unique site parameter for each tree. Due to the longitudinal nature of growth series data, subsequent height observations from the same growth trajectory are significantly correlated, and the assumption of independent errors may be violated. Therefore, the error structured modelling approach with a linear k-order autoregressive error was used in parameter estimation  parameters of individual growth series and global parameters of SI models M1-M5) were simultaneously fitted using the dummy variable approach (DVA), also known as the varying parameter method were simThe quality of the fit was evaluated using MAE, ith model parameters (bi) was expanded by the expansion term (δiRj), which is specific for the given jth region (Rj) and ith global parameter (i). Six dummy variables (Rj) representing regions were used to simultaneous fitting the expansion terms specific for each ith parameter (bi) and jth region.The potential improvement of height growth prediction was analysed by expanding the height growth model parameters as a function of regions. For the calculation of the full model, taking into account the specific effect of region, the vector of global bi and the regional parameter values. Regional parameter values are the sum of the global parameters bi and expansion term (δiRj). Moreover, to compare the fits of the full  and reduced  model, we used the anova function with the regression objects as two separate arguments41. The anova function takes model objects as arguments and returns an ANOVA to check that a more complex model is much better at capturing data than a simpler model.The significance of the expansion terms was tested using t-statistics and was assumed as a statistical test for the difference between a given global parameter 45.The full model trajectories were directly compared by plotting the differences between observed and model trajectories. Parameter estimation was carried out in R using the procedures and suitably defined model forma and b, which refer respectively to the asymptote and the growth rate, defined as random effects, was characterised by the best fit . Whereas ARMA solution allows to reach the best goodness-of-fit measures  of the height growth variation (Table All preselected functions showed a good fit to the data and explained (in most cases) close to 99%  than the reduced  model and thus favour the regional model.The extended full  model explains 0.47% more residual variance, while all expansion terms are statistically significant  differs for younger and older trees. In these natural forest regions, the stands also reach higher absolute heights than those of southern regions. Our results show that the use of the regional model Poland reduces errors in the height growth prediction.15.Regional variation in growth patterns was previously reported; these variations have usually been interpreted as the result of variability in climate, geology, soil type, geographical location, and genotype57. Additionally, the availability of water is strongly correlated with the growth of stands and impacts the productivity of sites58. A linear increase in net primary production with increased water availability was observed at dry sites59. The amount of annual precipitation in Poland changes from south to north and, with soil fertility and depth, can explain the difference in height growth variability between the northern and southern regions.We found significant differences between the height growth patterns from NRF located in lowlands of northern- northwestern and northeastern Poland and highlands of southern- southeastern Poland. This may be because natural forest regions in northern Poland are under the influence of Atlantic climate and have deep podsolic, brown podsolic, and brown glacial soils, whereas natural forest regions VI and IV are under the influence of continental climate and grow on upland soils with less depth. The depth and physical properties of soil and the sand and clay contents lead to varying soil fertility and productivityWe found that growth trajectories for individual regions vary with age. The growth of stands in southern and southeastern Poland is slowing rapidly, whereas northern and northeastern stands have more continuous rapid height growth. The difference in growth pattern in regions IV, V, and VI observed in older age can be explained as the impact of soil depth. When soil depth is not a limiting factor in the youngest age classes, the impacts of climate and other factors are more important for growth dynamics, but with the transition to older age classes and increased interspecific competition, soil depth likely begins to limit the growth dynamic. An evident slowdown of growth dynamics in oldest age classes in natural forest regions IV and VI may be the result of a combination of shallower and less fertile podsolic and brown podsolic soils and low annual rainfall. In regions, I, II, and III, geological and climatic conditions are more favourable for Scots pines and likely result in a larger height increment in the older stands.60. The obtained results concerning the spatial variability of Scots pines' height growth dynamics should be considered when making forest management decisions concerning the rotation age or intensity of silvicultural treatments.The significant height growth differences in different regions indicate that the use of one generalised height growth model for the entire country may result in the inappropriate estimation of site productivity and have direct forest management consequences. The importance of regional models may increase because the projections of climate change in Poland predict accentuated differences in site conditions between the northwest and southeast regions61, and tree growth data play a significant role in carbon sequestration and biomass production calculations62. Several conversion methods have been developed for different types of forest to obtain reliable estimates65. However, our results show that not considering specific regional growth conditions and the resulting differentiated growth patterns by using only global models for these calculations may result in an over- or under-estimation of regional height growth, biomass production, and carbon sequestration. Many studies on the estimation of biomass production and carbon sequestration emphasise that the regional approach is promising67; therefore, the use of models developed on a regional scale shows particular importance for effective forest management.The amount of carbon stored in forests is more significant than in any other terrestrial ecosystem68. Many problems regarding the stability of forest stands and disturbance of forests in Europe concern relatively small areas. Numerous studies found that SI mapping and analyses,  provide information for a more dynamic forest growth assessment and should be an essential component of regional planning and management70. Therefore the use of advanced forestry solutions focused on smaller areas, regional growth models, and the analysis of local trends have great potential for the fast detection of problems and the precise formulation of answers to stand instability and forest disturbances.With the development of geographical information systems and technologies, tools such as the mapping SI are increasingly common18. A given species growth patterns in different ecological or geographical conditions are significant and should be determined before developing local models for small areas. The differences in local model predictions may not be large enough in small geographical regions to justify the development costs18. In this situation, smaller regions with low climatic and geomorphological variability should be grouped to develop a single model for larger areas.We used the height growth trajectories of dominant Scots pines collected using the unified methodology to develop a regional model; however, collection methods and data processing in different regions should be carefully executed. Differences in methodology or data sources can lead to significant inconsistencies between growth models that are not based on ecological or biological causesWe compared the development of regional height growth models using nonlinear-fixed-effects and nonlinear-mixed-effects modelling approaches. Our results indicate a slightly better fit to the data of the model using the nonlinear fixed-effects approach. The developed models show differences in height growth patterns of Scots pines in Poland and revealed that acknowledgement of region as the independent variable could improve the growth prediction and quality of the SI estimation. The presented study showed regional differences in height growth patterns of Scots pines in Poland. Differences in climate and soil conditions that distinguish natural forest regions affect Scots pine height growth patterns. Therefore, extending this research to models that directly describe height growth interactions with site variables, such as climate, soil properties, and topography, can provide valuable forest management information.


This study compares the effect of the 2008 recession and subsequent recovery across generational cohorts by evaluating age-cohort trajectories of income inequality. Using data from the 2007 to 2016 waves of the Survey of Consumer Finances, we examine the trajectory of inequality for the overall population and by cohort in years spanning the Great Recession and subsequent recovery. We find that increases in per-capita income and wealth observed at the population-level during the recovery were not reflected among households below the median, leading to increasing inequality. Within cohorts, we observe growing inequality within cohorts in their primary working years. Findings are consistent with a model of integrative cumulative dis/ advantage, which predicts increasing within-cohort inequality over the life course influenced both by persistent micro- and macro-level processes of increasing heterogeneity. Our analyses highlight the potential role of extreme business cycle fluctuations, booms and busts, to exacerbate this underlying process.


The input–output properties of spinal motoneurons and muscle fibers comprising motor units are highly non-linear. The goal of this study was to investigate the stimulation type (continuous versus discrete) and waveform (linear versus non-linear) controlling force production at the motor unit level under intraspinal microstimulation. We constructed a physiological model of the motor unit with computer software enabling virtual experiments on single motor units under a wide range of input conditions, including intracellular and synaptic stimulation of the motoneuron and variation in the muscle length under neuromodulatory inputs originating from the brainstem. Continuous current intensity and impulse current frequency waveforms were inversely estimated such that the motor unit could linearly develop and relax the muscle force within a broad range of contraction speeds and levels during isometric contraction at various muscle lengths. Under both continuous and discrete stimulation, the stimulation waveform non-linearity increased with increasing speed and level of force production and with decreasing muscle length. Only discrete stimulation could control force relaxation at all muscle lengths. In contrast, continuous stimulation could not control force relaxation at high contraction levels in shorter-than-optimal muscles due to persistent inward current saturation on the motoneuron dendrites. These results indicate that non-linear adjustment of the stimulation waveform is more effective in regard to varying the force profile and muscle length and that the discrete stimulation protocol is a more robust approach for designing stimulation patterns aimed at neural interfaces for precise movement control under pathological conditions. Recent advances in neural interface technology have allowed the direct modulation of nervous system functions by injecting currents into specific compartments of individual neurons . In regav1.3 channels) are actively involved through monoaminergic neuromodulation due to the brainstem regarding normal motor behavior and through endogenous monoamines in regard to spinal cord injury  current stimulation protocols, during isometric muscle contraction within a full physiological range of the muscle length and force level. The present study focused on the direct activation of a spinal motoneuron with a microelectrode in close proximity to its initial segment and cell body. Extracellular microstimulation of other components, such as axons or dendrites, was not involved in the current analysis. We hypothesize (1) that non-linear stimulation waveforms are needed to elicit linear force generation at the motor unit level and (2) that the discrete current stimulation protocol more effectively prevents the non-linearities induced by the active channels in motoneuron dendrites, including muscle afferent inputs due to muscle length variation. Simulation analysis demonstrated the systematic stimulation waveform non-linearity depending on the stimulation type, muscle length, and force profile. These simulation results provide a basis for the design of stimulation patterns for neural interfaces to enhance motor precision control under pathological conditions.Stimulation waveforms were investigated in regard to extracellular microstimulation with a sharp-tipped electrode near the initial segment and cell body of a spinal motoneuron . A motorvia the coupling conductance, representing the electrical distance between the soma and dendritic regions. Five passive parameters, including the specific membrane conductance and capacitance , were analytically determined to capture five electrotonical properties, including the somatic input resistance , system time constant , and three voltage attenuation factors between the soma and all dendritic sites separated by a similar path length  , and GCan, with dynamic changes in the calcium reversal potential of the soma, and GCal, with a constant calcium reversal potential of the dendrites]. The passive parameter values were first determined to capture the passive properties  measured at the soma and dendrites as previously reported in via a comparison to those of an anatomically reconstructed motoneuron model that reproduces non-linear behaviors observed from in vivo cat α-motoneurons with low thresholds during voltage- and current-clamping at the cell body  represents the soma and axonal hillock/initial segment, and the other compartment (denoted as the dendritic compartment) represents the dendritic regions, including persistent inward current-generating voltage-gated channels . These tell body  (please SP) in the sarcoplasm, including calcium release and uptake of the sarcoplasmic reticulum, calcium-buffering proteins, and calcium-bound troponin complex. Module 2 then transforms the concentration dynamics of calcium-bound troponin  into the degree of cross-bridge formation, representing muscle activation dynamics . Finally, module 3 transforms the above muscle activation dynamics into force based on Hill-type muscle–tendon mechanics, reflecting length–and velocity–tension relationships. Model parameter values were determined for each module to reproduce the force generation process. These values reflect sarcoplasmic calcium dynamics  required for the transmission of action potentials from the motoneuron to the muscle unit, assuming perfect action potential transmission from the motoneuron to the muscle unit  at the soma is determined by the current  passing through the microelectrode, whereas the extracellular potential  across the dendritic area  distal to the soma tends to not depend on Iext (VS) at the soma due to Iext was simulated via intracellular injection of the equivalent current  at the soma, as proposed in a previous study  and extracellular sides  of the somatic compartment in the two-compartment neuron model.Where Ieq) in the somatic compartment of the motoneuron model over 10 s. The shape and amplitude of continuous current stimulation were first determined with a linear function in a piecewise manner so that the force linearly increased and decreased at the various speeds over 10 s. Then, piecewise linear functions were fitted with a continuous function ensuring linear force production by the motor unit (please refer to 0) actively produced by the model motor unit during isometric contraction at the optimal muscle length. In the present study, the simulation data are not shown when the model motor unit could not produce the desired peak force .Linear force production of the motor unit was induced considering two types (continuous and discrete) of current stimulation , optimal (Xm = −8 mm), and maximal (Xm = 0 mm) muscle lengths. The physiological range of the variation in muscle length was determined based on the locomotor data of adult cats reported in a previous study  over both the soma and dendrite  experimentally measured during voltage clamping over the soma under a 10-mV hyperpolarized potential below the resting potential while slowly varying the muscle length from the physiologically minimum length to the maximum length  was applied to the motoneuron, and the Livermore Solver for Ordinary Differential Equations (LSODE) was applied to the muscle unit) at a fixed time step (0.1 ms) on a desktop computer operated by 64-bit Microsoft Windows 10. Default values of the model parameters and simulation conditions were implemented unless noted otherwise in the text. The computer codes of the models and simulations in this study are presented in the supplementary information  ormation  and are material .We first evaluated whether the model motor unit captures the non-linearity of the input–output function of the motoneuron and muscle unit. 0) generated at the optimal muscle length . However, the amplitude of the current impulses increased to compensate for the absence of an intrinsic PIC current in the motoneuron. The amplitude increment increased with increasing force level at all muscle lengths  at shorter-than-optimal muscle lengths  and waveform  of current stimulation for spinal motoneurons that may lead to the precise control of force production at the motor unit level.via in vivo mouse preparation (via the skin on the back (Spinal cord stimulation has been applied to effectively restore complex motor functions through the modulation of neuronal networks in the spinal cord . Intraspparation . In addiparation  and nervparation  could althe back  or the ethe back  of the sThe fundamental limitations of the reduced modeling approach of spinal motoneurons and muscle fibers have been fully addressed in previous studies , 2015. Tvia a neural interface.In principle, the waveform obtained with a microelectrode near the motoneuron cell body to realize isometric force control of the motor unit strongly depends on the stimulation type, neuromodulatory input, and muscle length. Compared to continuous current stimulation, discrete current stimulation more suitably prevents the non-linearities induced by the full activation of PIC-generating channels over the motoneuron dendrites, including muscle spindle feedback. Thus, motor unit function modulation may be more effectively achieved by stimulating spinal motoneurons with short-width current pulses. The model-based approach and waveform equations developed in the present study may provide a basis for the design of stimulation patterns applicable to spinal motoneurons to better understand neuromuscular physiology and neuromodulation of movement disorders The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/HK conceived and designed the study and wrote the manuscript. YJ and HK performed the simulations and analyzed the data. Both authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.


Results show that the spatial accessibility of medical facilities is quite different in different residential areas of Changning District, Shanghai. Among them, the spatial accessibility of medical facilities is relatively high in Hongqiao subdistrict, Xinjing Town, and part of Xinhua Road subdistrict. In addition, residents have overall better access to secondary hospitals than to primary and tertiary hospitals in the study area. This study provides a spatial decision support system for urban planners and policymakers regarding improving the accessibility of healthcare facilities. It extends the literature on spatial planning of public facilities and could facilitate scientific decision making.Medical facilities help to ensure a higher quality of life and improve social welfare. The spatial accessibility determines the allocation fairness and efficiency of medical facilities. It also provides information about medical services that residents can share. Although critical, scholars often overlooked the level of medical facilities, the composition of integrated transportation networks, and the size of service catchment in the literature on accessibility. This study aims to fill this research gap by considering the integrated transportation network, population scale, travel impedance between medical facilities and residential areas, and the impact of medical facilities’ levels on residents’ medical choices. An improved potential model was constructed to analyze the spatial accessibility of medical facilities in Changning District of Shanghai, China. Interpolation analysis was conducted to reveal the spatial accessibility pattern. Cluster and outlier analysis and Getis-Ord  Medical services are fundamentally significant to the public and closely related to people’s health and survival. As the basis of peoples’ health and life safety, medical facilities provide necessary medical services and resources for the public. Poor accessibility to medical facilities can affect individuals in many ways and lead to health problems not being addressed in time. A prior study proved that space barriers between patients and providers reduce healthcare utilization and decrease the use of preventive services . The ratAccessibility is a measure of the public healthcare service effectiveness and the medical resource allocation fairness . AccessiPotential accessibility considers the possible use of public facilities for a given population and revealed that accessibility focuses on the actual utilization of public facilities. Spatial accessibility explores the significance of spatial separation between supply and demand as an obstacle or promoters, and non-spatial accessibility concerns the non-geographic barriers or promoters. In sum, accessibility has four types, i.e., potential spatial accessibility, potential non-spatial accessibility, revealed spatial accessibility, and revealed non-spatial accessibility. This study focuses on potential spatial accessibility, which depicts how easy it is to access medical facilities by overcoming travel impedance, depending on the location and distribution of medical facilities and traffic conditions.To allocate medical resources rationally, planners should identify the areas and communities where service provision is inadequate. Scientifically measuring the accessibility of medical facilities helps to decide whether the layout is reasonable and provides crucial information for optimizing the configuration and public policy formulation. Scholars proposed several methods to evaluate the spatial accessibility to medical facilities. The most commonly used measurement includes population-to-provider ratio, distance to the nearest provider , kernel The population-to-provider ratio is the ratio of healthcare capacity to the population within an administrative area and is thereby easy to calculate and interpret. However, this method only reflects the ratio itself and neglects other factors, such as distances, which leads to inaccurate measurements. It also has received criticisms for its two assumptions: (1) the measurement limits residents into one administrative area and does not consider boundary-crossing. (2) The measurement does not incorporate distance or travel impedance. Residents can bypass the nearest medical facilities when multiple services are available.As to the distance to the nearest provider method, it ignores the availability of supply. The kernel density method takes cross-border seeking for healthcare services and distance decay effect into account, and thus it is superior to the population-to-provider ratio method . HoweverCompared with other accessibility methods, the potential model (or gravity model) reflects spatial competitions between facility suppliers and demanders, including the competition between facility suppliers for demanders and the competition between demanders for limited resources ,9. The pThe traditional potential model could date back to Hansen , who defDespite the above improvement, the improved potential model fails to consider the influence of facility levels. For medical facilities, the different levels of facilities  will affect the residents’ medical choice behavior. Thus, this study aims to fill this research gap.Studies often use geographic information systems (GIS) to perform complex geospatial computing tasks, e.g., conduct space planning for public service facilities . One canFirstly, most of the existing studies assumed that people travel to medical facilities in a single transportation mode, in most cases, by car. Only a few studies compared the accessibility of different ways of travel. For example, Higgs et al. explored the effect of different travel methods on the correlation between different measures of general practitioner supply and area-level deprivation and the percentage of elderly patients . The stuSecondly, when using GIS for accessibility evaluation, studies usually employ counties (districts) or streets (towns) as the study units ,23. For To sum up, the objectives of this study are three-folded, including: (1) to assess and delineate the accessibility of medical facilities at the community level; (2) to identify areas with good/lousy accessibility to medical facilities, especially in dense population areas; and (3) to put forward suggestions for the government to optimize the configuration of medical facilities. The innovations of this study are also three-folded. First, it considers the comprehensive transportation network composed of ground transportation and rail transit. Second, it conducts community-scale analysis. Third, it improves the potential model by considering the influence of different levels of medical facilities on residents’ medical choices.iG* analysis. The remainder of this study is organized as follows. Given the advantages over other accessibility methods, the potential model was employed to calculate the spatial accessibility of residential areas to medical facilities of different levels. Improvements were made to the traditional potential model. Based on the output of improved potential model, spatial interpolation analysis was used to examine the spatial accessibility of medical facilities surrounding the measurement points.iG* analysis were used to examine the spatial disparity of accessibility to medical facilities in the study area. The results of these two analyses were compared. Specifically, cluster and outlier analysis was conducted to identify spatial clusters with similar high or low values or spatial outliers with high/low values surrounded by low/high values. Getis-Ord iG* analysis was used to identify spatial clusters of statistically significant hot spots (clusters with high accessibility) and cold spots (clusters with low accessibility). In this way, areas with good/lousy accessibility to medical facilities of different levels can be identified. An overview of the methods employed in this study is illustrated in Further, cluster and outlier analysis and Getis-Ord jA denotes the gravity of facility j to residential area i when the travel friction coefficient is β, which describes travel impedance; ijA is the total potential generated by all facilities; Mj is the scale of j; and ijD denotes the travel time, distance or generalized cost between i and j.The potential model is a model that studies the interaction of economic and social space based on the physical law of gravity. It has been widely employed to measure the spatial accessibility of facilities with considering the spatial scale and distance decay. The traditional potential model is written as:jV and proposed an Improved Potential Model that considers demand competition as follows [Pk is the population of the residential area k.The basic potential model has failed to consider the effect of the size of the population radiated by the facility on accessibility. Joseph and Bantock introduced the population size factor  follows :(2)Ai=∑jijS is the influence coefficient of facility’s level; kjS represents the influence of the level of medical facility j on the medical choice of residents in residential area k; jD is the limit travel time (or distance) to facility j. When the travel impedance (travel time or distance) between residential area I and medical facility j is greater than the time or distance threshold , Sij ≤ 0. In this case, the residents at the residential area I will be reluctant to seek medical treatment at medical facility j.The above expression explicitly considers the population distribution in the vicinity of various medical facilities. However, it does not consider the effect of different levels of medical facilities on residents’ medical choices. As mentioned before, hospitals are hierarchical. Since hospitals of different levels have different scales, technical levels, and service capabilities, their attractiveness to residents also varies. We set different limit travel times to reflect the influence of medical facilities level on the residents’ medical choices. Thus, the potential model can be further modified as follows:To examine the spatial accessibility of medical facilities surrounding the measurement points, one can employ interpolation analysis. Interpolation analysis is a commonly used method for accessibility analysis. Interpolation predicts cell values in the raster on the basis of finite sample data points. Interpolation assumes that the spatially distributed objects are all spatially related. Points close to the sample points are more likely to be similar to the sample points than those farther away. GIS provides various interpolation analysis methods.Ii is the Local Moran’s I statistic; ix is the spatial accessibility for the residential area i; n is the total number of residential areas; and wi,j is the spatial weight between residential area i and j. With a small enough p-value , a positive value of I indicates that the residential area is surrounded by residential areas with similarly high or low spatial accessibility and thus is part of a cluster. Otherwise, the residential area is an outlier.Cluster and outlier analysis can identify spatial clusters with similarly high or low values or spatial outliers with high/low values surrounded by low/high values. Anselin Local Moran’s I statistic  was calculated to investigate local spatial autocorrelation in the study area. The formula is as follows .(4)Ii=xiG* analysis  can also identify the spatial differentiation of the overall accessibility of medical facilities within the study area [iG* statistics for each element in the dataset to identify spatial clusters of statistically significant hot spots  and cold spots . It also presents the locations where hot and cold spot elements cluster in space. An element should have a high (low) value and be surrounded by other elements that also have high (low) values to be a hot (cold) spot. The formula is as follows:iG* is the Getis-Ord local statistic that is a z-score; jx is the spatial accessibility for residential area j; n is the total number of residential areas; and wi,j is the spatial weight between residential area i and j.Getis-Ord udy area , the resudy area . CompariAs a megacity, Shanghai is one of the fastest-growing cities in China . The district comprises 218,800 elderly (60 years old and above), accounting for 38% of the local population. Overall, the population of Changning District is mainly in the north and east . The number of residents is also quite different among the 180 communities, varying from 180 to 9078  and Code for Design of Urban Road Engineering (CJJ37-2012) ,30. Howehttp://service.shmetro.com/ accessed on 15 April 2021).Unlike private cars and other modes of personal transport, public transport has predefined routes and schedules and is subject to frequent alteration. For rail transit, the design speed of the subway is usually 120–180 km/h. However, the operating speed of the subway is generally no more than 80 km/h given the constraining factors, such as line conditions (curves and ramps), station settings (station spacing), and dwell time (affected by the volume of passenger flow) . We calcjD in the Improved Potential Model) when traveling to a medical facility. We followed the vision of the “1560 medical circle”  proposed by the Shanghai Municipal Bureau of Health and the “15 min community-life circle”  in 15 min on foot) proposed by Shanghai Planning Guidelines of 15-Minute Community-Life Circle and Shanghai City Master Plan (2016–2040). We set the threshold time to reach primary hospitals  as 15 min.In general, residents are willing to spend a threshold time , average standard error (ASE), mean standard error (MSE), and root mean square standard error (RMSSE) are widely used indicators in evaluating prediction accuracy in geostatistics. The optimal model should meet the following criteria: (1) the absolute value of MEAN is close to 0, (2) the RMSE is the smallest, (3) the ASE is closest to RMSE, and (4) the RMSSE is close to 1. The results of the generalized cross-validation showed that Bayeskrim interpolation was relatively good .The interpolation analysis results showed that the allocation of medical resources was imbalanced within the district . The cenFive lines  pass through Changning District and form a “C” shape, linking all three-tier hospitals within the area. The interpolation analysis results showed that the residential areas along the subway had better access to medical facilities than those farther away. It is because the combination of rail transportation and ground transportation can save travel time, and residents along the subway can reach medical facilities more conveniently than residents far away.For Xinjing Town subdistrict and Chengjiaqiao subdistrict in the west of Changning District, and Huayang Road subdistrict in the northeast, there are few medical facilities and no subway lines that pass through. Residents can only rely on ground transportation to go to medical facilities far away for medical treatment, making this area less accessible to the medical facility. Supplementing medical resources and improving the transportation network will be an important way to improve the accessibility of medical treatment in this region.(1) Cluster and outlier analysisTo identify disparities of spatial accessibility in the study area, cluster and outlier analysis was employed. Anselin Moran’s I statistic (LISA) was calculated. Significant spatial clusters and outliers were obtained, as shown in As shown in iG* analysis(2) Getis-Ord iG* analysis to depict the spatial differentiation of the medical facilities in Changning District  considering the comprehensive transportation network composed of ground transportation and rail transit due to complex transportation routes, (2) calculating the spatial accessibility of small research units  to more accurately reflect the rationality of allocating medical resources, and (3) considering the influence of facility levels on the residents’ medical choice behavior.iG* analysis, several findings are worth noting. Suggestions are put forward accordingly. First, the allocation of medical resources was imbalanced within the study area. To achieve the overall supply and demand balance of medical services, medical services in areas with high accessibility should be channeled and extended to areas with low accessibility. The development of public transportation should be accelerated in underserved areas. In China, it has become a consensus to give priority to the development of public transportation. It could significantly increase the accessibility of medical facilities by optimizing public transportation transfer, strengthening the system connection of different public transportation modes, and eliminating blind areas of medical facilities through public transportation.After conducting interpolation analysis, cluster and outlier analysis, and Getis-Ord Second, it was found that the accessibility of primary hospitals was poor in almost all subdistricts, except for the Chengjiaqiao subdistrict. The spatial accessibility of secondary and tertiary hospitals was more balanced than in primary hospitals. The spatial accessibility of secondary hospitals was generally better than that of tertiary and primary hospitals in the region. Constructing new branches of tertiary hospitals could improve the spatial accessibility of tertiary hospitals. However, it is difficult to set up tertiary hospitals due to the strict standards and complex procedures. Hence, policymakers should increase the number of secondary and primary hospitals and form a medical complex composed of tertiary hospitals, secondary hospitals, and primary hospitals in the region. By integrating medical resources and promoting the extension of high-quality resources of tertiary hospitals to secondary and primary hospitals, the convenience of residents’ medical treatment can be improved.Third, to achieve the overall supply and demand balance of medical services, the efficiency of the referral system should be improved. Hospitals of different levels have different scales, technical levels, and service capabilities. Their attractiveness to residents varies. Patients usually have higher preferences for high-level hospitals. An efficient referral system could guide the hospital preferences of patients, thus affecting the spatial accessibility of medical facilities . Since pThis study focused on physical accessibility derived from the locations of residences and facilities. It did not investigate the driving factors underlying the spatial accessibility of different-grade hospitals, which would be looked into in future studies. Factors affecting spatial accessibility of public facilities include socio-demographic characteristics , economic factors , transport infrastructure, and challenges imposed by physical conditions , etc. For instance, education, marital status, and health insurance were found to significantly affect healthcare accessibility . CertainThe rational layout of medical facilities plays an indispensable role in promoting social equity and protecting people’s lives. The accessibility of medical facilities affects access to medical services and reflects the fairness of medical facilities. This study used Changning District in Shanghai as the case study to examine the spatial accessibility of medical facilities. We introduced population scales and grades of medical facilities to the potential model. We employed community-level data and considered the travel modes of rail transit and ground traffic. The findings could facilitate identifying underserved areas with poor access to medical facilities of different levels and provide suggestions on optimizing the distribution of relevant medical facilities.The results showed that the central area of Changning District has relatively good access to medical facilities. By contrast, the accessibility to medical facilities in the western and northeastern parts was rather weak. Regarding the accessibility of different-grade medical facilities in the region, secondary hospitals generally had better spatial accessibility than tertiary and primary hospitals. Residential areas in Xinjing Town, Hongqiao subdistrict, Xianxia Xincun subdistrict, and Xinhua Road subdistrict had the best accessibility to secondary hospitals. Xinhua Road subdistrict had relatively good accessibility to the tertiary hospital.Changning District is in the central area of Shanghai with a dense and aging population. The rational distribution of medical facilities is critical. The proposed methodology can guide future works focusing on accessibility-related issues in other cities in China and other regions in the world. The results can facilitate local governments’ decision-making in planning public facilities . To ensure that residents have equitable access to medical services, policymakers and urban planners should pay special attention to the (1) equitable distribution of medical facilities, (2) efficient referral system, and (3) improvement of transport infrastructures.As has been elaborated in


This study evaluated the role of the built environment on residents’ wayfinding behaviours at Louis Brier Home in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. The goal of this study was to explore baseline mobility challenges for the residents traveling between their bedrooms and social spaces. In response to this, low-cost environmental interventions were proposed and implemented to support safe and independent wayfinding for the residents. The project consisted of three phases. First phase involved a mixed methods approach using behavior mapping and spatial observations of the residents interacting with their physical environment, combined with one focus group with the staff members. In the second phase, researchers presented actionable environmental interventions for the care home administration to consider and implement. The final phase involved post-implementation behaviour mapping, spatial observations and a focus group session. The implemented environmental interventions influenced in improved resident wayfinding and orientation in the long-term care home.


The outbreak of COVID-19 is a major challenge for health care systems all over the world. Older residents of long-term-care facilities (LTCF) such as nursing homes (NH) are among those at highest risk for COVID-19 and comprise a population with dramatically higher rates of morbidity and mortality than the general community. NH staff are also affected by the pandemic as they are challenged by increased workloads, emotional burden caused by the loss of resident life, and the fear of becoming infecting themselves or infecting family members. Finally, the pandemic places emotional and practical demands upon informal carers who are involved in the life of the NH resident. Therefore, research should investigate different perspectives on LTCF during the pandemic and discuss major challenges and possible support structures and strategies. Such an understanding is necessary to optimize care, support post-pandemic recovery, and prepare for future public health challenges. This international symposium will therefore provide four presentations to address these issues. The first presentation will report on global mortality data associated with COVID-19 in LTCF. The second presentation reports on the situation in German NHs addressing the complex situation of morbidity, care dependency, and social isolation. The third presentation will describe the effects of the pandemic upon NH staff in Poland. The final presentation examines the impact and guidelines of allowing visitors in NHs in the Netherlands for residents, family caregivers and staff. Our discussant, Marie Boltz, will synthesize the research findings and lead a discussion of future directions for policy and practice.


New-generation migrant workers in Chinese cities are struggling with a lack of urban resources, such as capital, skills, and relationships. To cope with the pressure of these resource constraints, new-generation migrant workers obtain urban development opportunities through resource bricolage. Based on a questionnaire survey of 365 new-generation migrant workers, we used a multiple regression analysis to study the mechanism underlying the effects of resource bricolage on the city integration of new-generation migrant workers. There were four findings: (1) resource bricolage had a significant positive effect on career growth and city integration; (2) career growth had a mediation effect on the relationship between resource bricolage and city integration; (3) environmental dynamism had a positive moderating effect on the relationship between resource bricolage and city integration for new-generation migrant workers; and (4) resource bricolage and environmental dynamism had a moderating effect on city integration through the mediation effect of career growth. The results suggest that resource bricolage promotes the career growth of new-generation migrant workers and further promotes their city integration, and that the environmental dynamism faced by workers is the external condition for promoting integration through resource bricolage. The study emphasizes the importance of resource bricolage in new-generation migrant workers’ city integration. Migrant workers are a unique group in contemporary Chinese economic and social development. They work in cities when farm work is scarce and return to their hometowns to engage in agricultural production when needed. According to statistics from the National Bureau of Statistics of China, there are currently 287 million domestic migrant workers in China. Among this group, migrant workers born in 1980 and later are called new-generation migrant workers, of which the total population has reached 145 million .The issue of how to continuously promote the urban integration and citizenship of new-generation migrant workers is a major concern in Chinese academic circles and among all levels of government. Logically, increasing the urban resources held by new-generation migrant workers is a key step towards ensuring and promoting their urban integration.At present, however, many new-generation migrant workers face a lack of urban resources, such as capital, skills, and relationships. Due to this lack of resources, the challenges faced by new-generation migrant workers in cities are much greater than those of other urban populations. Therefore, resource issues can be considered one of the main obstacles to the flourishing of new-generation migrant workers in urban areas.Resource bricolage theory opens a theoretical window on this issue. Resource bricolage refers to how entrepreneurs seek and combine the resources they have at hand under the condition of resource constraints. The theory predicts that the seeking, “making do,” and combining of the resources at hand through resource bricolage will facilitate the discovery of new opportunities and realization of new values .In terms of entrepreneurs, new-generation migrant workers have the attributes of quasi-startups. They are thus characterized by “weakness” in two respects ,6. FirstConsidering that the circumstances and purposes of new-generation migrant workers in urban settings are highly compatible with those of the entrepreneurs theorized as engaging in resource bricolage, this article applies resource bricolage theory to an examination of the mechanisms of city integration among new-generation migrant workers. This will not only help to further explore ways to promote city integration of new-generation migrant workers, but can also expand the scope of the application of resource bricolage theory. The study therefore has theoretical and practical significance for exploring the urban integration of new-generation migrant workers in China.A substantive sign of citizenization is the degree of urban integration of the agricultural migrant population with respect to occupation, income and psychology . New-genIn recent years, some scholars have begun to shift to a micro perspective on the new-generation migrant workers’ personal factors. Zhang  and ZhaoResource bricolage theory is mainly focused on entrepreneurship. Shane and Cable  and BakeIn recent years, some Chinese domestic scholars have applied resource bricolage theory to research on agricultural workers. Gao and Zhang found that selective resource bricolage strategies helped farmers to realize their entrepreneurial value . Zhang eNew-generation migrant workers have indeed applied the strategy of resource bricolage in their daily work and lives. However, little is known about the effects of the resource bricolage of new-generation migrant workers on their citizenization and urban integration. This paper expands the theoretical application of resource bricolage theory to the effects of resource bricolage on the integration of new-generation migrant workers in cities.Compared with the local urban labor force, new-generation migrant workers have long been in a weaker position due not only to lower levels of education but also to a severe lack of urban resources, such as interpersonal networks, housing, and financial support from family ,23. To cIn the pre-citizenization stage, resource bricolage among new-generation migrant workers mainly involves the use of their original rural resources. Deng  and WangAfter new-generation migrant workers achieve employment, gaps in their individual career growth and urban integration gradually open up between them . The indIn terms of the specific types of resources involved in bricolage, in addition to their traditional rural relationships and physical resources, the experience resources and technical resources formed before and after entering the city form part of the combining resources of new-generation migrant workers ,27. Li aRen et al.  and Xu  stated tHypothesis 1: Resource bricolage has a significant positive effect on the urban integration of new-generation migrant workers.Hypothesis 2: Resource bricolage has a significant positive effect on the career growth of new-generation migrant workers.Career growth refers to the career progress of an individual at a specific point in time ,31, inclFrom the perspective of the logical relationship between career growth and urban integration, career growth has a fundamental role in the process of citizenization and is an important prerequisite for the substantive promotion of material and psychological integration . FurtherHypothesis 3: Career growth has a significant positive effect on the urban integration of new-generation migrant workers.Career growth is not automatic, being the combined effect of an individual’s innate endowments and acquired investments . Zuo andSome new-generation migrant workers perform resource making do and combination on the basis of seeking resources and maximize the efficiency of resources at hand through the structural and functional reorganization of resources. According to a case from Luo , one newIn summary, the resource bricolage of new-generation migrant workers can provide resources and capabilities for their career growth, which in turn promotes their urban integration. Career growth has certain connecting and transformational functions in the relationship between resource bricolage and city integration, and it is the key hub and node in this mechanism. The citizenization of new-generation migrant workers is an important part of the new urbanization in China. In the process of China’s new urbanization, career growth is the foundation and process goal of the flourishing of new-generation migrant workers in the cities. With the help of continuous career growth, the integration of these workers into the city is achievable as the fundamental goal of urban development. In view of this, the following hypothesis is proposed:Hypothesis 4: Career growth has a mediation effect on the relationship between resource bricolage and urban integration among new-generation migrant workers.Environmental dynamism reflects the speed and degree of changes in the external environment . It is aCompared with the rural environment, the urban environment is more competitive and the pace of change is more rapid. How to adapt to such a dynamic environment is the primary challenge faced by new-generation migrant workers in their urban lives . More imEnvironmental dynamism is closely related to resource bricolage, as individuals make do and combine the resources at hand in response to environmental changes . Indeed,Hypothesis 5: Environmental dynamism has a positive moderating effect on the relationship between resource bricolage and new-generation migrant workers’ urban integration.The impact of environmental dynamism on new-generation migrant workers is first directly reflected in the impact on their career ,43. One This is an example of how the dynamics of the external environment encourage new-generation migrant workers to make do and combine technology and network resources. The impact of environmental dynamism on urban integration of new-generation migrant workers is in fact influenced through their career growth. That is, the more dynamic the environment, the greater the impact of resource bricolage on the career growth of new-generation migrant workers, and the correspondingly greater the impact on the urban integration.It is clear that the impact of environmental dynamism complicates the mechanism through which resource bricolage affects urban integration. The moderating effect of environmental dynamism on the relationship between resource bricolage and urban integration works through the transformational mechanism of career growth. In view of this, the following hypothesis are proposed:Hypothesis 6: The moderating effect of resource bricolage and environmental dynamism affects urban integration through the mediation effect of career growth.In summary, the theoretical model constructed in this paper is shown in strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).The scale for the survey used in this study was mainly adapted from domestic and foreign sources. A 5-point Likert scale was used for all items, ranging from 1  and AMOS (version 18) to measure the reliability and validity of the model, and on this basis, tested the relationships between the variables in the model to verify the hypotheses. Research conclusions were then drawn from the statistical results.National Migrant Workers Monitoring Survey Report of the National Bureau of Statistics and the definitions of domestic scholars [The survey was conducted in November 2020. A stratified random sampling method was adopted, with most participants working in Jiangsu, Zhejiang, and Shanghai in the Yangtze River Delta region of China. In setting the criteria for new-generation migrant workers, we drew on the scholars , who genRegarding the number of questionnaires issued, Hair suggested that to ensure quality, this number should be 5–20 times the total number of items on the scale . With reNational Migrant Workers Monitoring Survey Report 2019, which shows that the selected sample was strongly representative.Hair et al. believed that a large number of highly correlated variables is an initial indicator of potential common method bias . HoweverConsidering that all of the questionnaire items in this study were answered by new-generation migrant workers themselves, there is still the possibility of common method bias. Therefore, to test more thoroughly for common method bias, this study adopted the suggestion of Podsakoff et al. in using Harman’s single factor test . The basA reliability analysis is used to measure the stability and credibility of measurement tools. As shown in A validity analysis is used to verify that the measurement tool can accurately measure the correctness of the required variables. It is generally measured by the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) test and Bartlett’s test. As shown in p < 0.001). These findings support Hypothesis 1.This study followed the steps proposed by Baron and Kenny to conduct the main effect and mediation effect tests in sequence . First, p < 0.001), thus supporting Hypothesis 2. Third, we tested the relationship between career growth and urban integration. Model 4 shows that the β value of career growth in urban integration was 0.453 and significant at the level of p < 0.001, indicating support for Hypothesis 3.Second, we tested the relationship between the independent variable (resource bricolage) and the mediation variable (career growth). Model 3 shows that resource bricolage had a positive effect on career growth  and urban integration  were significant. The latter result was lower than the coefficient in Model 2, which shows that career growth had a partial mediation effect on the relationship between resource bricolage and urban integration. Hypothesis 4 was therefore supported.Fourth, we tested the mediating effect of career growth on resource bricolage and urban integration. Model 5 shows that the effects of resource bricolage on career growth .We conducted the mediated moderation effect test according to the steps proposed by Wen and Hou . Model 6p = 0.008), supporting Hypothesis 5.On this basis, Model 7 tested the effects on urban integration of resource bricolage, environmental dynamism, and the interaction term of environmental dynamism and resource bricolage. The results show that the interaction term of resource bricolage and environmental dynamism had a significant effect on urban integration , thus warranting the further Model 9.We subsequently tested the effects on career growth of resource bricolage, environmental dynamism, and the interaction term of environmental dynamism and resource bricolage in Model 8. The interaction term of resource bricolage and environmental dynamism had a significant effect on career growth , and that the moderating effect of resource bricolage and environmental dynamism  was significant. This indicates a moderating effect of resource bricolage and environmental dynamism on urban integration through career growth, thus supporting Hypothesis 6.On the basis of Model 8, Model 9 adds potential moderators to career growth. The results show that career growth had a significant effect on urban integration  Resource bricolage was found to have had a significant positive impact on the career growth and urban integration of new-generation migrant workers. This finding suggests that resource bricolage is more than the ability of new-generation migrant workers to obtain urban employment and survive in the city, as it also represents the individual’s developmental capabilities in the process of citizenization. Although the urban resources of new-generation migrant workers are limited, they can promote their career growth and urban integration through resource bricolage.Early studies have found that resource bricolage had an impact on the career success and performance of entrepreneurs, such as farmers and family farms ,20,22. TIn addition, this quantitative finding to some extent validates previous qualitative research in this field . It appe(2) Career growth was found to play a partial mediating role in the relationship between resource bricolage and urban integration. This suggests that the transformation effect of resource bricolage on urban integration is not achieved overnight but requires a certain transformation process. Specifically, the effect of resource bricolage on urban integration is gradually realized through continuous career growth. Therefore, we need to pay attention not only to the urban migration of new-generation migrant workers but also to their survival in the city and, more importantly, their career growth. For new-generation migrant workers, entering cities for work is a prerequisite for citizenization, and career growth is the key factor in their urban integration and citizenization.This result shows that career growth is an important condition that promotes the urban integration of new-generation migrant workers, which is in line with early research findings that employment promotes citizenization . The proAnother way to understand this mechanism is that in the process of citizenization, new-generation migrant workers have two goals: career growth and urban integration. The career growth of new-generation migrant workers is the stage goal of their urban development , but the(3) Environmental dynamism was found to have positively moderated the relationship between resource bricolage and urban integration. This means that as the external environment becomes more dynamic, new-generation migrant workers’ need to integrate resources becomes more extensive and powerful, as this is one of the conditions needed to ensure their integration into the city.Environmental dynamism is closely related to resource bricolage. When facing the pressures of a dynamic external environment, new-generation migrant workers will self-intervene and promote their own development through the optimization of resources and capabilities ,35. In tThis study also found that the external environment presents both challenges and opportunities to new-generation migrant workers. Although environmental dynamism may not always be desirable, it creates certain environmental opportunities for the resource bricolage of new-generation migrant workers. Specifically, environmental dynamism promotes the combination of resources, thus presenting external incentives for resource bricolage.(4) This study found a moderating effect of the resource bricolage of new-generation migrant workers and environmental dynamism on urban integration through the mediation effect of career growth. This suggests that in a dynamic environment, whether resource bricolage has a practical impact on urban integration depends on the transformational role of career growth. Given the conditions of environmental dynamism, if new-generation migrant workers lack support for career growth, realizing the effects of resource bricolage on urban integration will be difficult. This finding further verifies the role of career growth in the citizenization of new-generation migrant workers .There are some limitations to this study. First, only new-generation migrant workers working in the Yangtze River Delta region were selected to participate. Although the Yangtze River Delta is a major region for the inward migration of workers in China, regional characteristics may reduce the universality of the research results to a certain extent. In view of this, future studies could expand the geographic scope of the sample to the Pearl River Delta and to some inland provinces of China to verify the results. Second, in-depth interviews might help to increase the understanding of typical cases of resource bricolage among new-generation migrant workers, and the types and processes of this bricolage could be expanded upon and categorized using qualitative research methods; such an approach would deepen the theory and understanding of the resource bricolage of new-generation migrant workers.The results of this study show that resource bricolage can promote the career growth of new-generation migrant workers and further promote their city integration, and that environmental dynamism represents the external conditions that can promote the resource bricolage of new-generation migrant workers. In summary, resource bricolage plays a key role in this mechanism. For new-generation migrant workers, resource bricolage represents not only a resource integration ability but also a means for better adapting to an unfair urban competitive environment and achieving growth. Returning to the realization of the basic values of fairness and justice in urbanization in China, new-generation migrant workers need to be assisted materially and psychologically by the government, society, enterprises, and communities. In particular, supplementing the lack of resources in terms of skills and knowledge can promote the realization of urban integration and citizenization among new-generation migrant workers.S1 Data(XLSX)Click here for additional data file.