XXXX in @entity179 .

@entity1 @entity5568 @entity66 @entity26 @entity3787 @entity273 @entity13791 @entity179 @entity3612 @entity224 @entity2145
Reactive @entity26 species are constantly produced in aerobic organisms as by-products of normal @entity26 metabolism and include free radicals such as @entity224 anion ( @entity3612 ) and @entity3787 radical ( @entity2145 ), and non-radical @entity273 ( @entity5568 ). The mitochondrial respiratory chain and enzymatic reactions by various enzymes are endogenous sources of reactive @entity26 species. Exogenous reactive @entity26 species -inducing stressors include ionizing radiation, ultraviolet light, and divergent oxidizing chemicals. At low concentrations, reactive @entity26 species serve as an important second messenger in cell signaling; however, at higher concentrations and long-term exposure, reactive @entity26 species can damage cellular macromolecules such as DNA, proteins, and lipids, which leads to necrotic and apoptotic cell death. @entity66 is a condition of imbalance between reactive @entity26 species formation and cellular antioxidant capacity due to enhanced ROS generation and/or dysfunction of the antioxidant system. Biochemical alterations in these macromolecular components can lead to various pathological conditions and @entity1 diseases, especially @entity179 . @entity179 are morphologically featured by progressive cell loss in specific vulnerable neuronal cells, often associated with cytoskeletal protein aggregates forming inclusions in neurons and/or glial cells. Deposition of abnormal aggregated proteins and disruption of metal ions homeostasis are highly associated with oxidative stress. The main aim of this review is to present as much detailed information as possible that is available on various @entity179 and their connection with oxidative stress. A variety of therapeutic strategies designed to address these pathological processes are also described. For the future therapeutic direction, one specific pathway that involves the transcription factor @entity13791 is receiving considerable attention.
